Successes and challenges of PARP inhibitors in cancer therapy

Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) are a family of enzymes involved in cellular homeostasis, including DNA transcription, cell-cycle regulation, and DNA repair (1, 2). PARPs can detect DNA damage and bind to DNA single strand breaks (SSBs) through their N-terminal zinc finger domains. DNA binding activates the C-terminal catalytic domain, which hydrolyzes NAD+ to attach poly ADP-ribose (PAR) polymers covalently to nuclear proteins, including PARP itself. Negatively charged PAR polymers promote recruitment of DNA repair proteins, and auto-PARylation causes dissociation of PARPs from DNA, allowing completion of DNA repair. In the absence of PARP activity, unrepaired SSBs can lead to more deleterious double strand breaks (DSBs), which require high fidelity, homologous recombination (HR) or low fidelity, non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) for repair. In vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated that tumor cells harboring defects in DNA repair are highly sensitive to PARP inhibitors, leading to genomic instability and cell death. Two publications demonstrated the concept of synthetic lethality in BRCA-deficient cells treated with PARP inhibitors (3, 4). Cells lacking functional alleles of BRCA are defective in HR repair and have an increased susceptibility to cause tumor development. Loss of BRCA or inhibition of PARP alone has little effect on in vitro and in vivo tumor growth; however, loss of function of both proteins enhances anti-tumor activity. Restoring BRCA expression blocks the cytotoxic effects of PARP inhibitor treatment. Several clinical PARP inhibitors are under investigation in Phase 2 and Phase 3 clinical trials as monotherapy in cancers with DNA repair defects or in combination with radiation, chemotherapy, or other targeted agents (Table ​(Table1).1). Progress in PARP inhibitor development has led to the recent accelerated approval of Lynparza (olaparib) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (5). Lynparza is currently indicated as monotherapy for patients with advanced germline BRCA-mutated ovarian cancer who have received three or more prior lines of chemotherapy. Lynparza was approved with a companion diagnostic test to select patients with deleterious or suspected deleterious BRCA mutations. PARP inhibitors are anticipated to have a much broader clinical application in additional tumor types, particularly those with DNA repair defects and in combination with chemotherapy and other targeted agents. In light of renewed interest in PARP inhibitors and the recent approval of Lynparza, this review will highlight data of PARP inhibitors in in vitro and in vivo cancer models and explore some of the clinical applications and challenges of PARP inhibitor therapy. Table 1 PARP inhibitors in Phase 2 and Phase 3 clinical developmenta. Mechanisms of Anti-Tumor Effect of Parp Inhibitors Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors are structurally similar in that they contain a nicotinamide moiety and mimic the NAD+ substrate. PARP inhibitors competitively bind to the catalytic domain of PARPs and inhibit PAR synthesis with half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values in the low nanomolar range (6–8). PARP inhibitors were developed to block the enzymatic activity of PARPs and prevent SSB repair by inhibiting the base excision repair (BER) pathway, and initial clinical development focused on potentiating the effects of chemotherapy and radiation (6, 9, 10). Subsequent studies demonstrated that PARP inhibitors alone were cytotoxic in HR-deficient cells (3, 4, 11). Based on these findings, a model was proposed in which PARP inhibition causes unrepaired SSBs, which are subsequently converted to DSBs, leading to synthetic lethality in HR-deficient cells (4). However, knockdown of XRCC1, the protein immediately downstream of PARP in the BER pathway did not lead to synthetic lethality (12), suggesting that loss of PARP activity is critical for synthetic lethality, but the loss of BER is not. Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerases function in other aspects of DNA repair, and emerging data suggest other mechanisms of action for the anti-tumor activity of PARP inhibitors in HR-deficient cells (13, 14). One potential mechanism proposes that PARP inhibition activates NHEJ in HR-deficient cells, leading to genomic instability and cell death (12). In vitro studies have demonstrated that PARPs can regulate components of the NHEJ machinery, including DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK), Ku70, and Ku80 (15–18). In HR-deficient cells, PARP inhibitor treatment induced the activation of DNA-PK and phosphorylation of downstream substrates and increased NHEJ of a reporter plasmid containing a DSB (12). Pharmacological blockade or loss of NHEJ proteins reduced chromosomal aberrations and the cytotoxic effects of PARP inhibition, indicating a role for NHEJ in PARP inhibitor activity. In vitro studies have demonstrated that the activity of PARP inhibitors may also involve formation of deleterious PARP–DNA complexes, which hinder DNA replication and repair (19–21). Avian cells lacking PARP1 and PARP2 were resistant to olaparib treatment and remained viable at concentrations greater than 10 μM (19). In contrast, olaparib caused significant cytotoxicity in wild type cells and increased levels of γ-H2AX, a marker of DNA damage. PAR polymers were undetectable by ELISA in both olaparib-treated wild type cells and PARP-deficient cells, suggesting that PARP inhibition is distinct from genetic deletion of PARP. A comparison of PARP inhibitors demonstrated comparable inhibition of PAR synthesis by Western blot and ELISA (19, 20). In contrast, each PARP inhibitor showed varying ability to induce PARP–DNA complexes in the presence of alkylating agent. In the absence of PARP inhibitor, PARP1 was detected in the nuclear soluble fraction by Western blot and accumulated in the chromatin-bound fraction following PARP inhibitor treatment. In tumor cells, BMN 673 (talazoparib) induced greater accumulation of PARP1 and PARP2 in the chromatin-bound fraction compared to olaparib and rucaparib. Niraparib induced greater PARP–DNA binding than olaparib, and veliparib was the least effective enhancer of PARP–DNA binding at concentrations that maximally inhibited PARP enzymatic activity. PARP–DNA binding was detected at pharmacologically relevant concentrations and correlated with the cytotoxicity of each agent in vitro. In vivo, enhanced PARP–DNA binding did not correlate with better anti-tumor activity but resulted in increased toxicity (22). The significance of differential PARP–DNA binding on efficacy and tolerability requires further investigation in the context of different tumor types and different PARP inhibitor and chemotherapy regimens. The complex role of PARPs in cellular homeostasis, including DNA repair, highlights the need to evaluate PARP inhibitors for modulating other biological functions of PARPs.