Logical Foundations of Artificial Intelligence

Typographical Conventions 1 Introduction 1.1 Bibliographical and Historical Remarks Exercises 2 Declarative Knowledge 2.1 Conceptualization 2.2 Predicate Calculus 2.3 Semantics 2.4 Blocks World Example 2.5 Circuits Example 2.6 Algebraic Examples 2.7 List Examples 2.8 Natural-Language Examples 2.9 Specialized Languages 2.10 Bibliographical and Historical Remarks Exercises 3 Inference 3.1 Derivability 3.2 Inference Procedures 3.3 Logical Implication 3.4 Provability 3.5 Proving Provability 3.6 Bibliographical and Historical Remarks Exercises 4 Resolution 4.1 Clausal Form 4.2 Unification 4.3 Resolution Principle 4.4 Resolution 4.5 Unsatisfiability 4.6 True-or-False Questions 4.7 Fill-in-the-Blank Questions 4.8 Circuits Example 4.9 Mathematics Example 4.10 Soundness and Completeness 4.11 Resolution and Equality 4.12 Bibliographical and Historical Remarks Exercises 5 Resolution Strategies 5.1 Deletion Strategies 5.2 Unit Resolution 5.3 Input Resolution 5.4 Linear Resolution 5.5 Set of Support Resolution 5.6 Ordered Resolution 5.7 Directed Resolution 5.8 Sequential Constraint Satisfaction 5.9 Bibliographical and Historical Remarks Exercises 6 Nonmonotonic Reasoning 6.1 The Closed-World Assumption 6.2 Predicate Completion 6.3 Taxonomic Hierarchies and Default Reasoning 6.4 Circumscription 6.5 More General Forms of Circumscription 6.6 Default Theories 6.7 Bibliographical and Historical Remarks Exercises 7 Induction 7.1 Induction 7.2 Concept Formation 7.3 Experiment Generation 7.4 Bibliographical and Historical Remarks Exercises 8 Reasoning with Uncertain Beliefs 8.1 Probabilities of Sentences 8.2 Using Bayes' Rule in Uncertain Reasoning 8.3 Uncertain Reasoning in Expert Systems 8.4 Probabilistic Logic 8.5 Probabilistic Entailment 8.6 Computations Appropriate for Small Matrices 8.7 Dealing with Large Matrices 8.8 Probabilities Conditioned on Specific Information 8.9 Bibliographical and Historical Remarks Exercises 9 Knowledge and Belief 9.1 Preliminaries 9.2 Sentential Logics of Belief 9.3 Proof Methods 9.4 Nested Beliefs 9.5 Quantifying-In 9.6 Proof Methods for Quantified Beliefs 9.7 Knowing What Something Is 9.8 Possible-Worlds Logics 9.9 Properties of Knowledge 9.10 Properties of Belief 9.11 Group Knowledge 9.12 Equality, Quantification, and Knowledge 9.13 Bibliographical and Historical Remarks Exercises 10 Metaknowledge and Metareasoning 10.1 Metalanguage 10.2 Clausal Form 10.3 Resolution Principle 10.4 Inference Procedures 10.5 Derivability and Belief 10.6 Metalevel Reasoning 10.7 Bilevel Reasoning 10.8 Reflection 10.9 Bibliographical and Historical Remarks Exercises 11 State and Change 11.1 States 11.2 Actions 11.3 The Frame Problem 11.4 Action Ordering 11.5 Conditionality 11.6 Bibliographical and Historical Remarks Exercises 12 Planning 12.1 Initial State 12.2 Goals 12.3 Actions 12.4 Plans 12.5 Green's Method 12.6 Action Blocks 12.7 Conditional Plans 12.8 Planning Direction 12.9 Unachievability Pruning 12.10 State Alignment 12.11 Frame-Axiom Suppression 12.12 Goal Regression 12.13 State Differences 12.14 Bibliographical and Historical Remarks Exercises 13 Intelligent-Agent Architecture 13.1 Tropistic Agents 13.2 Hysteretic Agents 13.3 Knowledge-Level Agents 13.4 Stepped Knowledge-Level Agents 13.5 Fidelity 13.6 Deliberate Agents 13.7 Bibliographical and Historical Remarks Exercises Answers to Exercises A.1 Introduction A.2 Declarative Knowledge A.3 Inference A.4 Resolution A.5 Resolution Strategies A.6 Nonmonotonic Reasoning A.7 Induction A.8 Reasoning with Uncertain Beliefs A.9 Knowledge and Belief A.10 Metaknowledge and Metareasoning A.11 State and Change A.12 Planning A.13 Intelligent-Agent Architecture References Index