Identifying Student Perceptions: The Effect of Parent-Child Relationships on Attitudes Towards Academic Abilities

Almost forty percent of African American students are in special education programs, though they constitute only 17% of the general education population (Kunjufu, 2005). A conclusive explanation has yet to be reached as to why this disproportion exists, but multiple suggestions have been made. The ideas that will be presented in this literature review focus on factors such as race, teacher perception and preparation, cultural differences, biases in norm-referenced testing and culturally unresponsive curricula. The purpose of this research review is to gain an understanding of why these issues continue to occur, and what professionals can do to rectify this phenomenon. INTRODUCTION Children come into the educational spotlight once they are born, when professionals who attend their births have reason to believe that they present symptoms warranting special services. For example, the phenotypical baby born with Down’s syndrome is easily recognized, no matter the baby’s race. Thus, the purpose of early intervention and early childhood special education programs is to provide services to children who are suspected of being at risk for developmental delays and disabilities. Arguably, this notion enjoys sound educational footing. As children participate in early intervention services, they are provided experiences that 1 Molett: Academic And Cultural Bias In The Classroom Published by DigitalCommons@EMU, 2013 72 are fundamental to their overall development (Farkas, Hillemeir, Maczuga & Morgan, 2012, p. 339), yet the underlying premise is that with professional services delivered as soon as possible, these children will achieve success in the general education system as it exists. According to research done by Farkas et al. (2012), their chances of obtaining a high school diploma and acquiring health insurance are increased; additionally, the possibility of their engaging in substance abuse or developing depressive disorders in comparison to their peers who do not receive special services is mitigated (Farkas et al., p. 339). Although early intervention and early childhood special education programs are known to be effective in equalizing educational and societal opportunities for children with both high and low incidence disabilities (Farkas et al., p. 339), there are major concerns regarding the disproportionate representation of African American children in special education. Many plausible explanations have been suggested as causes of this disparity. One argument considers Critical Race Theory (CRT). The origins of CRT lie in jurisprudence, particularly in the scholarship of Anita Hill, Lani Guinier and Patricia Williams. Each argues from the perspective that the American legal system is steeped in both race and gender inequalities; therefore, any system (such as education) that relies on laws (as does education) will have implications for members of non-dominant cultures. While such ramifications exist in any system in which a racial power differential exists, according to CRT, it should be assumed that racism is both common and deeply engrained in US society. In her seminal text, “Just what is critical race theory and what’s it doing in a nice field like education?,” Gloria Ladson-Billings (1998) specifically examines racism in relation to education. Other scholars have followed her line of reasoning. For example, Eitle (2002) proposes that special education may be an expensive and modern form of segregation within the school system (p. 576). While a strong proposition, she questions the assumption that education creates equal opportunity for everyone. Another suspected cause of the overrepresentation of African American children in special education is related to the cultural differences that exist between European American culture Marcia Molett 2 McNair Scholars Research Journal, Vol. 6 [2013], Iss. 1, Art. 8 http://commons.emich.edu/mcnair/vol6/iss1/8 73 and the culture of the African diaspora. Related to this idea, yet equally important is the notion of culturally unresponsive curricula, and educators’ lacking adequate knowledge to effectively teach African American children (Blanchett, 2006). Currently, public school instruction is geared towards students who think analytically, discouraging the thoughts of Black children who identify with other ways of exhibiting intelligence (Kunjufu, 2002). Even in this century, in spite of evidence to the contrary, Delpit (2012) stresses the prevalence of the continuing myth that Black children do not excel in school because they are innately less capable of learning, and are therefore deemed “inferior”(p. 1). Research suggests that educators, no matter their race (Ferguson, 2003) may unconsciously hold this stereotype, which may determine the level of proficiency expected of children, and influences whether they should or should not be referred to special education programs (Blanchett, 2006). In addition, biases are also evident in assessment instruments (Arnold, Lassman, 2003), specifically the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-4 (CLEF-4), an important tool used to diagnose language disorders. Thus, multiple variables are associated with the overrepresentation of African American children in special education; some are racial in tone, others result from teacher bias, and some are the result of cultural incongruities evident in assessment instruments. The purpose of this review of literature is, therefore, to explore these ideas and suggest possible remedies to better serve children in the most appropriate educational setting.