Long-term consequences of childhood physical and psychological maltreatment

This study assessed whether some of the correlates of learned helplessness-depression, low self-esteem, and a maladaptive attributional style-are long-term consequences of child abuse. In this study, 260 subjects were identified as physically abused, psychologically abused, both physically and psychologically abused, or nonabused, based on responses to the Child Abuse Questionnaire (CAQ). Subjects were tested for levels of nonclinical depression via the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), for levels of self-esteem via the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE), and for the adaptiveness of attributional style via the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ). It was hypothesized that each of the three abuse groups would differ from the control group on the three dependent measures; differences among the three abuse groups were also explored. Three one-way analyses of variance indicated that (1) BDI scores reflected a greater tendency toward depression in subjects reporting both types of abuse than in nonabused subjects or in subjects reporting either psychological or physical abuse, (2) subjects reporting psychological abuse only or both psychological and physical abuse showed lower self-esteem than did nonabused subjects, and (3) abused subjects did not seem to exhibit a more maladaptive attributional style than that of nonabused subjects. In addition, multiple linear regression analyses pointed to psychological abuse as a critical variable in predicting levels of depression, self-esteem, and attributional style, when physical abuse effects were controlled. Controlling for the effects of psychological abuse, however, indicated that physical abuse did not significantly contribute to the variance in these variables. Implications for the learned helplessness model and for future research are discussed. VioLit summary: OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this research by Gross and Keller was to determine if a number of the psychological problems associated with learned helplessness--depression, low self-esteem and maladaptive attributional style--were related to psychological and/or physical abuse as a child. METHODOLOGY: The researchers in this investigation employed a quasi-experimental cross-sectional design with a non-probability sample of 260 students in an introductory psychology course at Syracuse University, who had agreed to participate in return for course credit. Subjects were aged 18 to 22 years, and were similar with respect to number of siblings and family income levels. Measures were completed in large groups, in order to promote honest answers and to foster confidence in assurances of anonymity. The Child Abuse Questionnaire, measuring frequencies of actions ranging from spanking and showing disinterest in the child to intentional burning and threatening to kill the child, was administered to the subjects, who were subsequently divided into four groups - a Physical abuse group, a Psychological abuse group, a Combined group and a Control group. The Questionnaire pertained to events during childhood and adolescence, and was found to have satisfactory reliability. Attributional style was measured via use of the 12-item Attributional Style Questionnaire, which has previously established acceptable reliability and modest validity. Depression was examined with the Beck Depression Inventory - a self-report inventory of depression which has acceptable reliability and validity. The 10-item Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was also involved in data collection, and has acceptable levels of reliability and validity. Analyses included ANOVA and the Tukey-Kramer procedure, as well as multiple linear regressions. FINDINGS/DISCUSSION: The researchers found that the Combined group exhibited higher levels of depression than the other three groups, which did not differ from each other. Both psychological and physical abuse combined accounted for 13% of the variance in depression, with psychological abuse accounting for most of this predictive power. Members of the Control group scored significantly higher than those of the Psychological or Combined groups on measures of self-esteem, although the Physical group did not show significantly lower levels of self-esteem than the Control group. Psychological and physical abuse combined was able to account for 16% of the variance in self-esteem, with psychological abuse again being the most powerful predictor. Attributional styles were not particularly maladaptive in this sample, and the Control group exhibited only slightly higher scores than the other three groups, with the ANOVA finding no significant difference between the four groups. Psychological and physical abuse combined could account for only 6% of the variance in attributional style, again with psychological abuse accounting for most of that prediction. For all measures, the Control group had fewest problems, with the Combined group exhibiting highest levels of maladjustment. The learned helplessness model was supported, in that people exhibiting high levels of depression also suffered from low self-esteem and displayed more maladaptive attributional style. The authors concluded that their results did not fully support the learned helplessness model as a useful way of understanding long-term consequences of child abuse. The findings did, however, suggest a tendency for abuse to be manifested in later years in depression and low self-esteem. Whilst psychologically abused subjects seemed to suffer from higher levels of depression and lower self-esteem than did physically abused individuals, the authors cited small sample sizes in the four groups, the self-report nature of the data and the need for long recall as possible alternative explanations of these findings. Also, the fact that the sample consisted of subjects who were functioning well enough to attend college might also have led to an attenuation of the relationships between abuse and the dependent variables. AUTHORS' RECOMMENDATIONS: The authors suggested that future research might address the issue of definition of key variables, as well as differentiating between those subjects who have been physically abused and those who have suffered psychological abuse. EVALUATION: This research represents an important step in understanding the consequences of child physical and emotional abuse. The study seemed to have good internal and external validity and good methodologies, and the authors provided important alternative explanations for their findings. More attention to the issue of problems of definition would have been interesting, and a more thorough discussion of implications of the findings would have been helpful. Nonetheless, the study is a valuable addition to research in the field of child abuse. (CSPV Abstract - Copyright © 1992-2007 by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, Regents of the University of Colorado) N1 - Call Number: F-22, AB-22 KW - New York KW - Long-Term Effects KW - Child Abuse Victim KW - Child Abuse Effects KW - Psychological Victimization Effects KW - Child Emotional Abuse Effects KW - Child Emotional Abuse Victim KW - Child Physical Abuse Effects KW - Child Physical Abuse Victim KW - Child Victim KW - Childhood Experience KW - Childhood Victimization KW - Domestic Violence Effects KW - Domestic Violence Victim KW - College Student Research KW - Adult Survivor KW - Adult Depression KW - Adult Self-Esteem KW - Victim Depression KW - Victim Self-Esteem KW - Depression Effects KW - Victim Adjustment KW - Adult Adjustment KW - Juvenile Victim