The roots of ash flow calderas in western North America: Windows into the tops of granitic batholiths

Large-volume ash flow eruptions and associated caldera collapses provide a direct link with subvolcanic granitic plutons of batholithic dimensions. The eruptive history, structural features, and petrologic evolution of ash flow calderas provide data on early stages of the evolution of an associated subvolcanic magmatic system. Broadly cogenetic, erosionally unroofed granitic plutons provide a record mainly of the late stages of emplacement and crystallization of silicic magmas. This review summarizes features of well-studied calderas and ash flow volcanic fields in western North America, exposed at advantageous levels where both remnants of a Volcanic sequence and upper parts of the cogenetic intrusion are preserved, in comparison with similar rocks elsewhere in the worjd. Primary examples include San Juan, Mogollon-Datil, Marysvale, Latir-Questa, Chiricahua-Turkey Creek, Challis, and Boulder Batholith-Elkhorn Mountains. Most ash flows have erupted from sites of preceding volcanism that records shallow accumulation of caldera-related magma. Structural boundaries of calderas are single ring faults or composite ring fault zones that dip vertically to steeply inward; outward dipping boundary faults favored by some models have not been identified in North American calderas. The area and volume of caldera collapse are roughly proportional to the amount of erupted material. Pyroclastic eruptions of relatively small volume (less than 50–100 km3) may cause incomplete hinged caldera subsidences or structural sags; larger systems are bounded by complete ring faults. Few ash flow vent structures have been related to major calderas; vent geometry, as determined by size analyses of pyroclastic materials, may shift complexly during caldera collapse. Scalloped topographic walls beyond the structural boundaries of most calderas are due to secondary gravitational slumping during subsidence. Most exposed floors are a structurally coherent plate or cylinder bounded by a ring fault or dike, indicating pistonlike caldera collapse; chaotically brecciated floors predicted by models of piecemeal collapse have not been identified. Deviations from circular shape commonly reflect influence of regional structures; some calderas in extensional terranes are elongate in the direction of extension. Large calderas (greater than 100 km3 of erupted material) collapse concurrently with eruption, as indicated by thick intracaldera ash flow fill and interleaved collapse slide breccias. Volumes of intracaldera and outflow tuff tend to be subequal; correlation between them is commonly complicated by contrasts in abundance and size of phenocrysts and lithic fragments, degree of welding, devitrification, alteration, and even chemical composition of magmatie material. Postcollapse volcanism may occur from varied vent geometries within ash flow calderas; ring vent eruptions are most common in resurgent calderas, reflecting renewed magmatic pressure. Large intrusions related to resurgence are exposed centrally within some calderas; ring dikes and other intrusions along bounding ring fractures are especially common in alkalic igneous systems in extensional environments. Subvolcanic magma chambers of calc-alkaline affinities associated with plate-convergent tectonic settings may rise to such high levels that deep cauldron subsidence structures are obliterated. Resurgence within calderas may result in a symmetrical dome or more geometrically complex forms; resurgence is most common in large calderas (greater than 10-km diameter) in cratonic crust and is associated with large silicic intrusions. In addition to resurgence within single calderas, broader magmatic uplift occurs widely within silicic volcanic fields, reflecting isostatic adjustment to emplacement of associated subvolcanic batholiths. Much additional space for shallow batholith emplacement is probably accommodated by gravitationally driven down warping of wall rocks at lower structural levels. Hydrothermal activity and mineralization accompany all stages of ash flow magmatism, becoming dominant late during caldera evolution. Much rich mineralization is millions of years later than caldera collapse, where the caldera served primarily as a structural control for genetically unrelated intrusions and associated hydrothermal systems.