Facing death from a safe distance: saṃvega and moral psychology

Samvega is a morally motivating state of shock that according to Buddhaghosa--should be evoked by meditating on death. What kind of mental state it is exactly, and how it is morally motivating is unclear, however. This article presents a theory of samvega--what it is and how it works-based on recent insights in psychology. According to dual process theories there are two kinds of mental processes organized in two "systems": the experiential, automatic system 1, and the rational, controlled system 2. In normal circumstances, system 1 does not believe in its own mortality. Samvega occurs when system 1 suddenly realizes that the "subjective self" will inevitably die (while system 2 is already disposed to affirm the subject's mortality). This results in a state of shock that is morally motivating under certain conditions. Samvega increases mortality salience and produces insight in suffering, and in combination with a strengthened sense of loving-kindness or empathic concern both mortality salience and insight in suffering produce moral motivation. Introduction The Pali/Sanskrit term "samvega"--literally meaning (fearful) trembling--is used in Buddhist writings to denote a religiously and morally motivating state of shock or agitation. (2) For example, Anguttaranikaya 4.113 describes four kinds of persons being shocked (samvijjati) into a state of samvega by stories or experiences of suffering; Santideva writes that "the virtue of suffering has no rival, since, from the shock [samvega] it causes, intoxication falls away and there arises compassion for those in cyclic existence, fear of evil, and a longing for the Conqueror [i.e., the Buddha]" (Bodhicaryavatara 6.21); and Buddhaghosa suggests that the (repeated) experience of samvega decreases attachments (Visuddhimagga III.58), and increases loving-kindness (XIII.35) and vigor (XIV.137). Samvega is (obviously) a disturbing experience--disturbing enough to result in a profound change in the attitudes, beliefs, and/or values of the person experiencing it--but its beneficial effects are reason to seek rather than to avoid it. Towards this end, Buddhaghosa recommends meditating on the subject of death. One may accidentally experience samvega in the course of ordinary life (in encountering death and suffering particularly), but meditation is the primary means to intentionally achieve samvega. In the section on death as a meditation subject (VIII.1-41), Buddhaghosa describes a number of meditation exercises focusing on the absolute unavoidability, finality and irreversibility of death. Samvega is the aim and purpose of these exercises: as VIII.5-6 makes clear, meditation on death is successful only if it results in samvega. (3) (See also III.58.) Death is one of two general meditation subjects--the other is a gradually extending loving-kindness--which "are needed generally and desirable owing to their great helpfulness" (III.57-59). Hence, meditating on death is not some kind of curiosity or extravagance, but is one of the most basic and most important exercises. And by implication, the experience of samvega is--at least for Buddhaghosa--among the most basic and most important goals of meditation. This, of course, conflicts with the image of (Buddhist) meditation as stress-reduction spread by the mindfulness industry, but as pointed out by Donald Lopez (108) and others, that image is very wrong. The goal of (at least some forms of) Buddhist meditation is stress induction, rather than stress reduction. Or, as Paul Williams remarks, "the spiritual path is not one of comfortable feelings and acceptance. It is deeply uncomfortable" (xxv). There are very many different types of Buddhist meditation, (4) but traditionally, two main kinds are distinguished. Tranquility (Pali: samatha/Sanskrit: samatha) meditation aims at achieving states of concentration called jhanas/dhyanas in which all attention is focused on its object. Tranquility meditation is associated with mindfulness (sati/smrti) and is primarily a collection of techniques for improving the ability to concentrate, which is necessary for the second kind of meditation. …