The Impact of Affect on Resource Development: Support for the Broaden-and-Build Model

Traditional theories of emotion have posited that emotions generate distinct physiological reactions (e.g., increased heart rate and respiration) that prepare an individual for specific action tendencies (e.g., the fight-or-flight response) increasing chances of survival (Bradley, Codispoti, Cuthbert, & Lang, 2001). Frederickson (1998) has argued that positive emotions do not fit well within these general theories of emotion because they do not have distinct physiological markers that result in specific action tendencies. However, there must be a similar evolutionary benefit of positive emotions that ensured their continued existence, which Frederickson (1998) outlined in the broaden-and-build model. Fredrickson (1998) proposed that positive emotions lead to broadened thought-action tendencies, rather than narrowing responses to specific action tendencies (e.g., fight-or-flight). People experiencing positive emotions have a wider range of thoughts and see a greater number of potential actions to pursue compared to those who are not. Positive emotions have a broadening effect on the way individuals perceive, attend to, and process information (Basso, Schefft, Ris, & Dember, 1996; Brandt, Derryberry, & Reed, 1992; Gasper & Clore, 2002; Kimchi, 1992), as well as the amount and type of activities they pursue (Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005). Participants induced into a positive mood were more likely to report wanting to socialize, exercise, and participate in outdoor activities than those in a neutral mood. The broadened thinking and actions that accompany positive emotions allow an individual to build cognitive, social, physical, and psychological resources that can be drawn on in times of need (Fredrickson, 1998; 2001; Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek, & Finkel, 2008). Cognitive Resources Positive emotions have also been found to increase creative and efficient cognitive processes. Individuals induced into a positive mood were found to perform better at tasks that required creative problem-solving than those in a negative mood (Isen, Daubman, & Norwicki, 1987; Rowe, Hirsch, & Anderson, 2007). Similarly, individuals experiencing positive emotions are more likely than those in a negative mood to include atypical exemplars of a category (e.g., a wheelchair is a type of vehicle) in a categorization task indicating a broadened view of the connection between semantically distant words (Isen & Daubman, 1984). Positive emotions have also been found to lead to better performance on questions from the Graduate Record Exam (GRE) and on an anagram task when compared to individuals in a negative mood (Lyubomirsky, Boehm, Kasri, & Zehm, 2011). Social Resources Extraversion and sociability have consistently been associated with positive affect as evidenced by a meta-analysis of correlational, longitudinal, and experimental studies (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005). Additionally, positive emotions have been found to increase affiliation with others as well as quality of social interactions (Berry & Hansen, 1996; DeNeve & Cooper, 1998; Gable, Gonzaga, & Strachman, 2006; Harker & Keltner, 2001; Lucas, Diener, Grob, Suh, & Shao, 2000; Waugh & Fredrickson, 2006). Finally, individuals induced into a positive mood indicated that they would like to participate in more activities (i.e., increased thought-action tendencies) compared to those in a neutral state (Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005). Fredrickson (1998) has argued that these interactions build social resources that can be accessed in times of crisis to enhance survival. Physical Resources In addition, Fredrickson (1998) has proposed that positive emotions generate playfulness, which builds physical resources. Playing proactively develops motor coordination, strength, and physical skills that may be beneficial for survival (Fredrickson, 1998; 2001). Fredrickson and Levenson (1998) found that positive emotions also have a restorative effect that may be beneficial for survival; they undo the physiological effects of negative emotions (e. …