Correspondence training: A review of the literature.

Correspondence training involves modification of nonverbal behavior via changes in verbal behavior. The procedure has a long history of effectiveness with a wide range of learners, but its potential for use with young children with disabilities remains largely unrealized. In an effort to identify the most appropriate applications of correspondence training procedures for this population, the authors conducted a comprehensive review of the existing literature base. The purpose of this article is to provide an in-depth, critical analysis of empirical research on the effectiveness of correspondence training. Thirty-three data-based articles are included in the review, which is organized into 4 categories, including: (1) early correspondence training research; (2) the role of the verbalization/content condition in correspondence training; (3) issues related to reinforcement; and (4) procedures to promote generalization. ********** Over the course of the past 30 years, correspondence training procedures have been used to modify the behavior of individuals with and without disabilities. Researchers have evaluated the impact of correspondence training on children's use of specific play materials (e.g., Baer, Williams, Osnes, & Stokes, 1985; deFreitas Ribeiro, 1989; Israel & O'Leary, 1977; Risley & Hart, 1968), engagement (Bevill, Gast, Maguire, & Vail, 2001), appropriate social behaviors (e.g., Odom & Watts, 1991; Osnes, Guevremont, & Stokes, 1986; Rogers-Warren & Baer, 1976), domestic and work-related skills (e.g., Crouch, Rusch, & Karlan, 1984; Paniagua, 1985), academic behaviors (e.g., Weninger & Baer, 1990; Keogh, Burgo, Whitman, & Johnson, 1983), health and safety behaviors (Baer, Blount, Detrich, & Stokes, 1987; Olsen-Woods, Miltenberger, & Foreman, 1998), leisure/recreational skills (Wilson, Rusch, & Lee, 1992), and self-control (Karoly & Dirks, 1977). While the general format of correspondence training has remained the same over time, theory and practice related to the procedure have evolved and changed in response to research outcomes. The purpose of this article is to provide a critical analysis of the empirical research on the effectiveness of correspondence training with learners with and without disabilities. This review expands on the work of Baer (1990) by providing in-depth analysis of critical investigations, as well as an overview of studies completed since publication of that review. Because the literature base on correspondence training is relatively large and varied, review of individual studies is organized into 4 categories, including: (1) early correspondence training research (2) the role of the verbalization/content condition in correspondence training; (3) issues related to reinforcement; and (4) procedures to promote generalization. METHOD Research studies related to use of correspondence training procedures were identified through electronic and archival searches of refereed professional journals. The archival search was conducted by reviewing the abstracts of journals listed in Table 1 to identify studies related to the topic. The electronic search was conducted using ERIC and PsychInfo databases at the University of Georgia. Key words used in the electronic search were: Correspondence training, reinforcement of correspondence, verbal behavior, nonverbal behavior, rule-governed behavior, behavior regulation, generalized verbal control, mental retardation, intellectual disability, and developmental delay. Reference sections of articles found through the electronic and archival searches were reviewed to identify additional studies. RESULTS Thirty-three empirical studies, 2 literature reviews, and 5 articles addressing specific issues related to correspondence training were identified via electronic, archival, and reference searches. Summaries of research on use of correspondence training procedures with and without disabilities are provided in Table 2. …