Jest in Time: The Problems and Promises of the Holy Fool in Francesco, giullare di Dio, Ordet, and Ikiru

"If you remain at the surface, a thing may appear absurd; but if you pierce through to the spiritual meaning, you will adore the divine wisdom."Erasmus, The Sileni Alcibiades1I. IntroductionRoberto Rossellini's Francesco, giullare di Dio (The Flowers of St. Francis, 1950), Akira Kurosawa's Ikiru (1952), and Carl Dreyer's Ordet (1955) appeared within five years of each other. While there are obvious differences between the films-they are from three different global regions, portray three different historical periods, and have different narrative structures and visual styles-the films share significant points in common. First, each film employs problematic narrative and stylistic elements that challenge our normal, "easy" ways of consuming films. Next, there is a main character who is foolish, acting against accepted social conventions. Third, there is, to varying degrees, some reference to Jesus Christ. Finally, compared to many so-called "religious" films, these three films leave the viewer with a sense of having been given a special revelation and being challenged toward some kind of response, yet they avoid being preachy or appearing as propaganda in any way.In this paper I suggest that the nexus of these four elements can be better understood through the religious figure of the holy fool. I argue two related points. First, I assert that each film employs a foolish character in order to critique the contemporary culture, particularly resisting modern attempts to soften or ignore the extreme elements of Christian teaching such as sacrificial self-giving for others or the hope of bodily resurrection. Second, I argue that the content of a fool character affects the film's form, creating a subversive style which in turn aims to produce a "conversion" or change in the viewer, making the film itself an instantiation of holy folly. In these ways the films can be seen as extensions of the holy fool tradition and this constitutes both the problem and promise of the holy fool in film. There is the promise of enlightenment if one can "pierce through to the divine meaning" behind the veil of folly, both in the character and in the film itself. But the foolish character and the subversive style are also problematic because they may be misinterpreted as folly plain and simple, leaving the viewer unchanged.First, I will briefly lay out a typology of the holy fool within the Christian tradition, discussing its major features and functions. The holy fool is not unique to Christianity but I use this tradition because of the explicit Christian references in the three films. At the same time I am not arguing that each film attempts to apply the typology of the Christian holy fool directly or totally. Rather, I suggest that the Christian fool type provides a clear and convenient guide for thinking of these characters as holy fools. This holy fool typology not only allows us to identify the characters in the films as holy fools but more importantly helps us see how the films themselves function as holy fools through their subversion of typical narrative and stylistic elements, confronting the viewer with the need for decision. Finally, I should note that I discuss these three films together because on one hand they share the common features mentioned above, but on the other hand they each manifest three distinct and complimentary subversive styles. This has the benefit of showing that the subversive style elicited by the holy fool is not monolithic but can take many forms and tends towards diversity.II. The Christian holy fool: its features and functionsThe Christian basis for the holy fool or "the fool for Christ's sake" as it is often called, can initially be found in the Hebrew Bible, particularly in the prophetic literature. Here the prophet, often at the command of God, engages in foolish, mad behavior as a sign of judgment on the disobedient Israelite people who think themselves wise. In such a situation, as Hosea says, the prophet becomes a fool, the spiritual person a madman (Hosea 9:7). …