School Discipline Problems in Rural African American Early Adolescents: Characteristics of Students with Major, Minor, and No Offenses

In recent years, considerable attention has been placed on school discipline problems both in the United States and internationally. Much of the literature in this area has centered on broad theoretical discussions of the causes and consequences of school discipline problems (e.g., Adams, 2000; Clark, 1998; Fields, 2000), policy and practice issues related to school discipline (e.g., Morrison & Skiba, 2001; Pastor, 2002; Putnam, Luiselli, Handler, & Jefferson, 2003; Ruck & Wortley, 2002), and reviews that combine these two perspectives (e.g., Bear, 1998; Townsend, 2000). Relatively less work has been done examining the general characteristics that distinguish youths who are referred for school discipline problems from their classmates who are not. Research along these lines is needed to help clarify factors that contribute to school discipline problems, to develop prevention and intervention programs that address such factors, and to promote the development of proactive assessment strategies that can be used to identify and support youths who are at greatest risk of major discipline problems (Tobin, Sugai, & Colvin, 1996).School discipline problems tend to be linked with disruptive behavior disorders (e.g., conduct disorder, delinquency) in childhood and adolescence (Cairns & Cairns, 1994; Coie & Dodge, 1998; Sprague et al., 2001). Therefore, it follows that factors associated with the development of disruptive behavior disorders would also distinguish between youths who are and those who are not referred for serious school discipline violations. Several factors that are evident in the school context have been linked to the development of disruptive behavior disorders in early adolescence. These include academic difficulties, behavior problems, social skills difficulties, peer relation problems, and associating with aggressive and deviant peers (Babinski, Hartsough, & Lambert, 1999; Bullis, Walker, & Stieber, 1998; Dishion, French, & Patterson, 1995; Farmer, Estell, Leung, et al., 2003; Hinshaw, 1992; O'Donnell, Hawkins, & Abbott, 1995). In addition, the various factors that contribute to disruptive behavior disorders tend not to operate in isolation; rather, they reflect packages of multiple problems or correlated constraints (Bergman & Magnusson, 1997; Cairns & Cairns, 1994; Farmer, Quinn, Hussey, & Holahan, 2001; Kazdin, 2000). Conversely, multiple competencies (i.e., positive correlated constraints) appear to be protective for youths from high-risk backgrounds (Price, 2002).Prevention-related research is typically conducted in suburban and inner-city areas. Little work has focused on rural low-income multiethnic communities (Cadwallader et al., 2002; Spoth, 1997). Yet, one quarter of all public schools in the United States serve students from rural settings (U.S. Department of Education, 1999). Many of these schools, particularly in the Southeast and West, serve lowincome youths who may be at increased risk for antisocial behavior and who may need interventions to support their development of prosocial behavior and skills. Relative to other regions, antisocial behavior and youth violence is particularly high in the South (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1999). Also, youths who live in rural low-income communities have risk profiles that are similar to those of youths in inner cities (Price, 2002). In addition, youths from minority backgrounds tend to have a disproportionately higher number of referrals for school discipline problems than their peers from the majority culture (Townsend, 2000). Consequently, there is a need for investigations that focus on the behavioral adjustment and school discipline problems of minority youths from low-income backgrounds in rural areas.The overarching goal of this study was to identify factors that distinguish among youths who are not referred for discipline problems, those who are referred for only minor discipline problems, and those who are referred for major discipline problems in middle school. …