copenlu/druid huggingface dataset:
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2020-02-20): All viruses are ultimately parasites. They require a host for replication. They cannot generate their own energy like cells can. [...] Viruses that have been in a host for a long time are less likely to cause disease. For example, HIV jumped into humans from wild primates, in whose bodies it wasn’t causing any disease. Every virus-host relationship is different. In most cases, viruses do not cause any disease, and many are beneficial. For example, in mice a herpes virus prevents infection from the plague bacteria.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2023-04-21): Viruses are biological entities that can only thrive and multiply in a host, which is a living organism such as a human, an animal, or a plant. Some viruses cause disease. For example, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, or SARS-CoV-2, causes the disease COVID-19. A virus may also affect one organism in one way but a different one in another. This explains why a virus that causes illness in a cat may not affect a human. [...] Viruses are biological entities that are present in all living beings. Some are harmless, while others can cause a range of diseases, from the common cold to Ebola.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2023-08-09): People over age 60 and those with existing medical conditions have a higher risk of getting seriously ill. These conditions include high blood pressure, diabetes, obesity, immunosuppression including HIV, cancer and pregnancy. Unvaccinated people also have a higher risk of severe symptoms. [...] - muscle aches and heavy arms or legs - severe fatigue or tiredness - runny or blocked nose, or sneezing - headache - sore eyes - dizziness - new and persistent cough - tight chest or chest pain - shortness of breath - hoarse voice - numbness or tingling - appetite loss, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain or diarrhoea - loss or change of sense of taste or smell - difficulty sleeping. [...] People who have pre-existing health problems are at higher risk when they have COVID-19; they should seek medical help early if worried about their condition. These include people taking immunosuppressive medication; those with chronic heart, lung, liver or rheumatological problems; those with HIV, diabetes, cancer. obesity or dementia.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (1998-04-17): Just like other infectious agents, viruses cause disease by disrupting normal cell function. They do this in a variety of ways. Some viruses make repressor proteins that stop the synthesis of the host cell's proteins, RNA, and DNA. Viral activity may weaken cell membranes and lysosomal membranes, leading to cell autolysis. Some viral proteins are toxic to cells, and the body's immune defenses also may kill virus-infected cells. Viruses are classified using a variety of criteria, including shape, size, and type of genome. Among the DNA viruses are the herpes viruses that cause chicken pox, cold sores, and painful genital lesions, and the poxvirus that causes smallpox. Significant RNA viruses that cause human disease include rhinoviruses that cause most common colds; myxoviruses and paramyxoviruses that cause influenza, measles, and mumps; rotaviruses that cause gastroenteritis; and the retroviruses that cause AIDS and several types of cancer.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2024-03-07): Diarrhoea is usually a symptom of an infection in the intestinal tract, which can be caused by a variety of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms. Infection is spread through contaminated food or drinking-water, or from person-to-person as a result of poor hygiene. [...] Infection: Diarrhoea is a symptom of infections caused by a host of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms, most of which are spread by faeces-contaminated water. Infection is more common when there is a shortage of adequate sanitation and hygiene and safe water for drinking, cooking and cleaning. Among children under 5 years of age, the most common viral pathogens are rotavirus, norovirus, adenovirus and astrovirus. Bacterial pathogens include Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., and Campylobacter spp., while parasitic pathogens include Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and Entamoeba spp. Rotavirus and E. coli are the most common pathogens among children across all age groups, while parasitic pathogens, are prevalent in children aged 3–5 years. Bacterial pathogens, including E. coli, Salmonella, and Shigella, were common in the children age 6 to 10-year age group, as were rotavirus, norovirus, and sapovirus. Location-specific etiologic patterns also need to be considered. [...] Other causes: Diarrhoeal disease can also spread from person-to-person, aggravated by poor personal hygiene. Food is another major cause of diarrhoea when it is prepared or stored in unhygienic conditions. Unsafe domestic water storage and handling is also an important risk factor. Fish and seafood from polluted water may also contribute to the disease.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2024-06-20): Yale experts answer commonly asked questions about the oral antiviral medication. [...] "Once you’ve been ill with the virus for more than a week, the damage done to the body in a severe case can’t be undone by the antiviral," he says. [...] Some people are thought to be at higher risk because of where they live or work, or because they can’t get health care. This includes many racial and ethnic minorities, and those with disabilities, according to the CDC.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2023-08-17): Because the agent-host-environment model did not work well for many non-infectious diseases, several other models that attempt to account for the multifactorial nature of causation have been proposed. One such model was proposed by Rothman in 1976, and has come to be known as the Causal Pies.(42) This model is illustrated in Figure 1.17. An individual factor that contributes to cause disease is shown as a piece of a pie. After all the pieces of a pie fall into place, the pie is complete — and disease occurs. The individual factors are called component causes. The complete pie, which might be considered a causal pathway, is called a sufficient cause. A disease may have more than one sufficient cause, with each sufficient cause being composed of several component causes that may or may not overlap. A component that appears in every pie or pathway is called a necessary cause, because without it, disease does not occur. Note in Figure 1.17 that component cause A is a necessary cause because it appears in every pie. [...] At the other extreme, an agent that is usually harmless in healthy persons may cause devastating disease under different conditions. Pneumocystis carinii is an organism that harmlessly colonizes the respiratory tract of some healthy persons, but can cause potentially lethal pneumonia in persons whose immune systems have been weakened by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Presence of Pneumocystis carinii organisms is therefore a necessary but not sufficient cause of pneumocystis pneumonia. In Figure 1.17, it would be represented by component cause A.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2022-02-28): Genetic material or gene-editing tools that are inserted directly into a cell usually do not function. Instead, a carrier called a vector is genetically engineered to carry and deliver the material. Certain viruses are used as vectors because they can deliver the material by infecting the cell. The viruses are modified so they can't cause disease when used in people. Some types of virus, such as retroviruses, integrate their genetic material (including the new gene) into a chromosome in the human cell. Other viruses, such as adenoviruses, introduce their DNA into the nucleus of the cell, but the DNA is not integrated into a chromosome. Viruses can also deliver the gene-editing tools to the nucleus of the cell. [...] Bulcha JT, Wang Y, Ma H, Tai PWL, Gao G. Viral vector platforms within the gene therapy landscape. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2021 Feb 8;6(1):53. doi: 10.1038/s41392-021-00487-6. PMID: 33558455. Free full-text article from PubMed Central: PMC7868676.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2015-12-09): - Biological hazards include bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Bacteria and viruses are responsible for most foodborne illnesses. Biological hazards are the biggest threat to food safety. They can be inherent in the product or due to mishandling (e.g., time/temperature abuse). [...] Viruses are the smallest known organisms. They cannot multiply in food—they need a human host. Viruses are transmitted to food from infected people. [...] Pathogens can cause different types of foodborne illness. Once a contaminated food is eaten, illness can be caused by the pathogens themselves (foodborne infection); caused by toxins produced in the food by pathogens (foodborne intoxication); and caused by toxins produced in the body by pathogens (foodborne toxin-mediated infection).
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2024-02-02): There’s no cure or vaccine for hand, foot, and mouth disease. Because a virus causes it, antibiotics won’t help. It usually goes away on its own after 7-10 days. In the meantime, you can ease symptoms with: [...] HFMD can be mistaken for other viruses and illnesses, including chickenpox, mpox (monkeypox), and even insect bites or herpes. [...] You are most contagious during the first week of illness, but people can still spread the virus to others for days or weeks after symptoms go away, or even if they have no symptoms at all.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2022-06-21): In a study published June 20, 2022 in Clinical Infectious Diseases, researchers at University of California San Diego School of Medicine evaluated one such patient and found their symptom relapse was not caused by the development of resistance to the drug or impaired immunity against the virus. Rather, the COVID-19 rebound appears to have been the result of insufficient exposure to the drug. [...] The team next sampled the patient’s plasma to test their immunity against SARS-CoV-2. The patient’s antibodies were still effective at blocking the virus from entering and infecting new cells, suggesting that a lack of antibody-mediated immunity was also not the cause of the patient’s recurring symptoms. [...] This study was funded by the National Institutes of Health (grants AI036214, AI131385, CA177322, DA039562, DA046171, AI125103, K08 AI130381, DA049644, AI145555, MH128153, AI106039 and DP2 CA051915), the San Diego Center for AIDS Research (grant AI100665), the Department of Veterans Affairs, the John and Mary Tu Foundation, the James B. Pendleton Charitable Trust and the Burroughs Wellcome Fund.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2014-11-07): These bacteria are spread by direct contact with nose and throat discharges of an infected individual or with infected skin lesions. The risk of spread is greatest when an individual is ill, such as when people have strep throat or an infected wound. Individuals who carry the bacteria but have no symptoms are much less contagious. Treatment of an infected person with an appropriate antibiotic for 24 hours or longer eliminates contagiousness. However, it is important to complete the entire course of antibiotics as prescribed. Household items like plates, cups and toys do not play a major role in disease transmission. [...] Few people who come in contact with a virulent strain of GAS will develop invasive GAS disease; most will have a routine throat or skin infection and some may have no symptoms whatsoever. Although healthy people can get invasive GAS disease, people with chronic illnesses like cancer, diabetes and kidney dialysis, and those who use medications such as steroids, are at higher risk. In addition, breaks in the skin, like cuts, surgical wounds or chickenpox, may provide an opportunity for the bacteria to enter the body.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2024-05-01): Superbugs are bacteria, viruses or other germs that have adapted to the medicines that typically kill them. They grow wise to the drugs. Instead of going away, they continue multiplying and causing infections despite treatment. There’s a chance that no antibiotic will work. [...] Healthcare providers and policymakers must do a good amount of the heavy lifting to change things on a global scale. But that doesn’t mean you’re powerless. There’s a lot you can do, too. Here are a few tips:
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2014-11-01): Human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: correlation but not causation - PMID: 2644642 - PMCID: PMC286556 - DOI: 10.1073/pnas.86.3.755 [...] Further, HIV violates classical conditions of viral pathology. (i) Epidemiological surveys indicate that the annual incidence of AIDS among antibody-positive persons varies from nearly 0 to over 10%, depending critically on nonviral risk factors. (ii) HIV is expressed in less than or equal to 1 of every 10(4) T cells it supposedly kills in AIDS, whereas about 5% of all T cells are regenerated during the 2 days it takes the virus to infect a cell. (iii) If HIV were the cause of AIDS, it would be the first virus to cause a disease only after the onset of antiviral immunity, as detected by a positive "AIDS test." (iv) AIDS follows the onset of antiviral immunity only after long and unpredictable asymptomatic intervals averaging 8 years, although HIV replicates within 1 to 2 days and induces immunity within 1 to 2 months. (v) HIV supposedly causes AIDS by killing T cells, although retroviruses can only replicate in viable cells.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2022-02-08): The team also measured blood levels of neurofilament light chain (NfL), a biomarker for nerve degeneration. NfL levels increased in people who developed MS compared to those who did not. The increase occurred only after EBV infection and usually before MS diagnosis. This finding shows that the nerve degeneration that accompanied MS did not start before infection with EBV. The researchers say that the association between EBV and MS risk was too strong to be explained by any other known MS risk factors. The findings strongly suggest that EBV is part of the chain of events that leads to most cases of MS. However, EBV in itself is not sufficient to trigger MS. Other unknown factors certainly play a role. "The hypothesis that EBV causes MS has been investigated by our group and others for several years, but this is the first study providing compelling evidence of causality," Ascherio says. "This is a big step because it suggests that most MS cases could be prevented by stopping EBV infection."
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2023-04-26): Foreign substances (e.g., bacteria or viruses) in the body that are capable of causing disease. The presence of antigens in the body triggers an immune response, usually the production of antibodies. [...] Pathogens: Organisms (such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi) that cause disease in human beings. [...] Virus: A tiny organism that multiplies within cells and causes diseases such as chickenpox, measles, mumps, rubella, and hepatitis. Viruses are not affected by antibiotics, the drugs used to kill bacteria.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2024-09-10): There are 2 main types of germs that cause most infections. These are viruses and bacteria. [...] Some viruses cause symptoms that resemble bacterial infections, and some bacteria can cause symptoms that resemble viral infections. Your healthcare provider can determine what type of illness you have and recommend the proper type of treatment. [...] Talk with your healthcare provider about antibiotics and find out about the differences between viruses and bacteria, and when antibiotics should and should not be used.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2024-04-09): Antibiotics treat infections caused by bacteria. But they don't treat infections caused by viruses (viral infections). For example, an antibiotic is the correct treatment for strep throat, which is caused by bacteria. But it's not the right treatment for most sore throats, which are caused by viruses. [...] Taking an antibiotic for a viral infection: [...] If you take an antibiotic when you have a viral infection, the antibiotic attacks bacteria in your body. These are bacteria that are helpful or are not causing disease. This incorrect treatment can then promote antibiotic-resistant properties in harmless bacteria that can be shared with other bacteria. Or it can create an opportunity for potentially harmful bacteria to replace the harmless ones.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2024-07-22): (g) See reference: Grohskopf LA, Alyanak E, Ferdinands JM, et al. Prevention and Control of Seasonal Influenza with Vaccines: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, United States, 2021-2022 Influenza Season. MMWR Recomm Rep 2021;70(No. RR-5):1-30. [...] - Grohskopf LA, Sokolow LZ, Olsen SJ, et al. Prevention and Control of Seasonal Influenza with Vaccines Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices — United States, 2016–17 Influenza Season. MMWR Recomm Rep 2016;65(No. RR-5):1-54. [...] - Grohskopf LA, Olsen SJ, Sokolow LZ, et al. Prevention and control of seasonal influenza with vaccines: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)—United States, 2014-15 influenza season. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63(32):691-697.
Claim: “…a virus is not the cause of an illness. It’s a necessary cause […] but it is not the cause.” (Lisa Feldman Barrett, 2021-04-16)
Evidence (2024-06-01): Herd immunity can't be reached for every disease, but measles is one example of the idea. Measles is a disease caused by a virus that spreads quickly among people who've never had the disease or the measles vaccine. [...] People who are at high risk of serious illness, or who are regularly around people at high risk, may choose to wear a mask. If you came in contact with a germ, are sick or are getting over sickness, wearing a mask can help protect the people around you. [...] - Preventing spread of respiratory viruses when you're sick. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/respiratory-viruses/prevention/precautions-when-sick.html. Accessed May 14, 2024.
Claim: Each of these ingredients [thimerosal, ovalbumin, formaldehyde, sodium deoxycholate] is a known neurotoxin (Erin Elizabeth, 2019-07-31)
Evidence (2019-07-31): This article incorrectly claims that the flu vaccine contains ingredients that are neurotoxic. The claim that the flu vaccine “contains 25,000 times more mercury than is legally allowed in drinking water” is based on an unreliable source.
Claim: Each of these ingredients [thimerosal, ovalbumin, formaldehyde, sodium deoxycholate] is a known neurotoxin (Erin Elizabeth, 2019-07-31)
Evidence (2020-02-19): This article published in Health Nut News, shared more than 120,000 times, was originally published on the website Complete Health and Happiness. The article discusses the purported dangers of ingredients in the flu vaccine. It claims that the flu vaccine contains several "contaminants", specifically thimerosal, ovalbumin, formaldehyde and sodium deoxycholate, which it labels as known neurotoxins. [...] The other ingredients mentioned in this article, ovalbumin and sodium deoxycholate, are also not known neurotoxins. Ovalbumin is the main protein found in egg white, which is consumed daily by many people in much greater quantities than is found in the flu vaccine, without any ill effects. It can, in rare cases, trigger an allergic reaction, not unlike other food allergies (e.g. peanuts, shellfish). Sodium deoxycholate is a bile salt and a form of deoxycholic acid, which has been used in cosmetic surgery in an injectable form, and at higher levels than in the flu vaccine, to reduce subcutaneous fat. Neurotoxicity is not a known side effect of such treatment.
Claim: Each of these ingredients [thimerosal, ovalbumin, formaldehyde, sodium deoxycholate] is a known neurotoxin (Erin Elizabeth, 2019-07-31)
Evidence (2023-10-30): Some vaccines may also contain adjuvants, preservatives, stabilizers and residual byproducts from the manufacturing process. All of these components are safe in the concentrations used in vaccines. Many of them are common and can be found in our bodies, drinking water, food or other products we ingest or use regularly. [...] Preservatives are typically added to multidose vaccine vials to prevent contamination once a vial is opened. Although anti-vaccine groups falsely claim the tiny amounts of thimerosal, a preservative that contains ethylmercury, in vaccines is dangerous, it has been shown not to be harmful. Ethylmercury is not the same as methylmercury, a kind of mercury found in some fish and animals that can be toxic at high levels. Ethylmercury is safer because it’s broken down and excreted faster from the body. There is no link between thimerosal in vaccines and autism. Since 2001, thimerosal has not been used in any childhood vaccines in the U.S. other than multidose flu shots.