copenlu/druid huggingface dataset:
Claim: Masks do nothing to prevent the spread of pathogens (Facebook users, 2020-05-17)
Evidence (2023-10-03): A face mask is a product that covers the wearer's nose and mouth. Face masks are for use as source control by the general public and health care personnel (HCP) in accordance with CDC recommendations, and are not personal protective equipment. Face masks may or may not meet any fluid barrier or filtration efficiency levels; therefore, they are not a substitute for N95 respirators or other Filtering Facepiece Respirators (FFRs), which provide respiratory protection to the wearer, or for surgical masks, which provide fluid barrier protection to the wearer. [...] If worn properly, a surgical mask is meant to help block large-particle droplets, splashes, sprays, or splatter that may contain germs (viruses and bacteria), keeping it from reaching your mouth and nose. Surgical masks may also help reduce exposure of your saliva and respiratory secretions to others. While a surgical mask may be effective in blocking splashes and large-particle droplets, a face mask, by design, it does not filter or block very small particles in the air that may be transmitted by coughs, sneezes, or certain medical procedures. Surgical masks also do not provide complete protection from germs and other contaminants because of the loose fit between the surface of the mask and your face.
Claim: Masks do nothing to prevent the spread of pathogens (Facebook users, 2020-05-17)
Evidence (2021-03-09): Prior to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, the efficacy of community mask wearing to reduce the spread of respiratory infections was controversial because there were no solid relevant data to support their use. During the pandemic, the scientific evidence has increased. Compelling data now demonstrate that community mask wearing is an effective nonpharmacologic intervention to reduce the spread of this infection, especially as source control to prevent spread from infected persons, but also as protection to reduce wearers’ exposure to infection. [...] Epidemiological investigations have helped quantify the benefit of mask wearing to prevent the spread of SARS-CoV-2 (Table; Supplement). At a hair salon in which all staff and clients were required to wear a mask under local ordinance and company policy, 2 symptomatic, infected stylists attended to 139 clients and no infections were observed in the 67 clients who were reached for interviewing and testing. During a COVID-19 outbreak on the USS Theodore Roosevelt, persons who wore masks experienced a 70% lower risk of testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection.4 Similar reductions have been reported in case contact investigations when contacts were masked5 and in household clusters in which household members were masked.6
Claim: Masks do nothing to prevent the spread of pathogens (Facebook users, 2020-05-17)
Evidence (2020-08-10): "You can really see the mask is doing something," said one of the study’s co-authors, Warren S. Warren, a professor of physics, chemistry, radiology and biomedical engineering at Duke. "There’s a lot of controversy and people say, ‘Well, masks don’t do anything.’ Well, the answer is some don’t, but most do." [...] "Buff performance head and neckwear are not intended to be used as medical-grade face masks or as a replacement for N95 respirators as effective measures to prevent disease, illness, or the spread of viruses," the statement said. [...] The CDC recently updated its guidelines on masks, noting that the agency does not recommend the use of coverings that have valves or vents. "This type of mask does not prevent the person wearing the mask from transmitting COVID-19 to others," the CDC wrote.
Claim: Masks do nothing to prevent the spread of pathogens (Facebook users, 2020-05-17)
Evidence (2023-05-12): - Face Masks and COVID-19 Prevention: - Overview: face masks help reduce the spread of COVID-19 (and influenza). Reason: people with COVID-19 can have no symptoms, but still spread the virus. - Sick people should always wear a face mask, if you are around other people or need to leave the home. Example: for medical visits. Exception: patients with trouble breathing in a mask (CDC). Consider a loose face covering, such as a bandana.
Claim: Masks do nothing to prevent the spread of pathogens (Facebook users, 2020-05-17)
Evidence (2024-07-14): What to know - Wearing a mask is an additional prevention strategy that you can choose to further protect yourself and others. [...] Generally, masks can help act as a filter to reduce the number of germs you breathe in or out. Their effectiveness can vary against different viruses, for example, based on the size of the virus. When worn by a person who has a virus, masks can reduce the chances they spread it to others. Masks can also protect wearers from inhaling germs; this type of protection typically comes from better fitting masks (for example, N95 or KN95 respirators). There are many different types of masks that have varying abilities to block viruses depending on their design and how well they fit against your face. Cloth masks generally offer lower levels of protection to wearers, surgical/disposable masks usually offer more protection, international filtering facepiece respirators (like KN95 respirators) offer even more, and the most protective respirators are NIOSH Approved® filtering facepiece respirators (like N95® respirators).
Claim: Masks do nothing to prevent the spread of pathogens (Facebook users, 2020-05-17)
Evidence (2020-06-26): But health experts say the evidence is clear that masks can help prevent the spread of COVID-19 and that the more people wearing masks, the better. [...] Two compelling case reports also suggest that masks can prevent transmission in high-risk scenarios, said Chin-Hong and Rutherford. In one case, a man flew from China to Toronto and subsequently tested positive for COVID-19. He had a dry cough and wore a mask on the flight, and all 25 people closest to him on the flight tested negative for COVID-19. In another case, in late May, two hair stylists in Missouri had close contact with 140 clients while sick with COVID-19. Everyone wore a mask and none of the clients tested positive. [...] Another factor to remember, noted Rutherford, is that you could still catch the virus through the membranes in your eyes, a risk that masking does not eliminate.
Claim: Masks do nothing to prevent the spread of pathogens (Facebook users, 2020-05-17)
Evidence (2023-01-30): The evidence summarised in this review on the use of masks is largely based on studies conducted during traditional peak respiratory virus infection seasons up until 2016. Two relevant randomised trials conducted during the COVID‐19 pandemic have been published, but their addition had minimal impact on the overall pooled estimate of effect. The observed lack of effect of mask wearing in interrupting the spread of influenza‐like illness (ILI) or influenza/COVID‐19 in our review has many potential reasons, including: poor study design; insufficiently powered studies arising from low viral circulation in some studies; lower adherence with mask wearing, especially amongst children; quality of the masks used; self‐contamination of the mask by hands; lack of protection from eye exposure from respiratory droplets (allowing a route of entry of respiratory viruses into the nose via the lacrimal duct); saturation of masks with saliva from extended use (promoting virus survival in proteinaceous material); and possible risk compensation behaviour leading to an exaggerated sense of security (Ammann 2022; Brosseau 2020; Byambasuren 2021; Canini 2010; Cassell 2006; Coroiu 2021; MacIntyre 2015; Rengasamy 2010; Zamora 2006).
Claim: Masks do nothing to prevent the spread of pathogens (Facebook users, 2020-05-17)
Evidence (2024-01-23): Another issue relevant to preventing transmission through air is to make sure that a draft set of recommendations cannot be misread to suggest equivalency between facemasks and NIOSH Approved respirators, which is not scientifically correct nor the intent of the draft language. Although masks can provide some level of filtration, the level of filtration is not comparable to NIOSH Approved respirators. Respiratory protection remains an important part of personal protective equipment to keep healthcare personnel safe.
Claim: Masks do nothing to prevent the spread of pathogens (Facebook users, 2020-05-17)
Evidence (2024-01-12): Face masks provide protection against transmission of respiratory viruses. Additional steps to help the spread of respiratory viruses include hand washing, respiratory etiquette, and avoiding others when you are sick. [...] None of these three types of face coverings works as well as a proper face mask. A good mask has a double layer of washable, breathable fabric that helps keep the wearer from spreading potentially infected droplets into the air. A bandanna tied around the face does not work as well as a mask because it is open at the bottom. A gaiter (a tube of thin, stretchy knit fabric that can be worn around the neck and pulled up to cover the nose and mouth) is usually too thin to provide adequate protection. Likewise, masks with exhalation valves can allow droplets to escape into the air. [...] Although being fully vaccinated and/or boosted reduces your chance of catching or spreading the coronavirus, it does not eliminate it entirely. If you are infected with the coronavirus and do not know it, a mask keeps your respiratory droplets and particles from infecting others. Check the mask recommendations in your area to help decide whether you need to mask.
Claim: Masks do nothing to prevent the spread of pathogens (Facebook users, 2020-05-17)
Evidence (2020-08-03): Wearing gloves risks transferring germs from one surface to another and contaminating your hands when removing them. Wearing gloves does not replace cleaning hands. Health workers wear gloves only for specific tasks. [...] Avoid crowds and maintain at least a 1-metre distance from others, even when you are swimming or at swimming areas. Wear a mask when you’re not in the water and you can’t stay distant. Clean your hands frequently, cover a cough or sneeze with a tissue or bent elbow, and stay home if you’re unwell.
Claim: Masks do nothing to prevent the spread of pathogens (Facebook users, 2020-05-17)
Evidence (2024-01-01): - Avoid crowded indoor spaces. Wear a mask anytime you are indoors around other people - Wash your hands often with soap and warm water. If soap and water are not available, use hand sanitizer containing at least 60% alcohol. [...] Be aware that some people around you may have risk factors for more severe disease. Masking, physical distancing, hand hygiene, and covering your coughs and sneezes helps protect them. [...] Schools and childcare settings should follow the recommendations for the general population. Recognize that young children may not always be able to wear a mask effectively. Children under 2 years are not asked to mask when they return to normal activities.
Claim: Sea-level rise does not seem to depend on ocean temperature, and certainly not on CO2 (Fred Singer, 2018-07-19)
Evidence (2018-07-19): Global sea level has risen significantly over the last century, and at an accelerating rate. Multiple lines of evidence clearly demonstrate that this is largely due to the expansion of warming seawater (an inescapable consequence of the laws of physics) and the melting of glacial ice on land.
Claim: Sea-level rise does not seem to depend on ocean temperature, and certainly not on CO2 (Fred Singer, 2018-07-19)
Evidence (2024-09-25): Rising sea levels are the result of ocean warming and the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, phenomena which are the direct consequences of climate change. [...] As global temperatures increase due to climate change, the oceans absorb much of this excess heat. Warmer water grows in volume, a process known as thermal expansion, which is a significant contributor to sea level rise. [...] For example, mangrove forests, which protect coastal habitats and store damaging carbon gases that contribute to climate change, can quickly become overwhelmed losing their protective qualities. Fewer mangroves means more harmful gases in the environment, which drives climate change, and with increased temperatures, sea levels will rise even further.
Claim: Sea-level rise does not seem to depend on ocean temperature, and certainly not on CO2 (Fred Singer, 2018-07-19)
Evidence (2020-08-20): Whereas our CMIP5 analysis supports the hypothesis that seasonal-to-interannual sea level variability will increase relative to changes in ocean temperature variability due to nonlinearity of the EOS, the EOS alone does not constrain future sea level variability to increase in a warming ocean. From this perspective, future sea level variability could also remain constant with reduced temperature variability. Indeed, CMIP5 models diverge substantially in the projected amount of sea level variability increase because of the uncertainty in ocean temperature variability changes (respectively, stippling in Figs. 1c, d and 4c, d; see also shading in Fig. 6). Certainly also contributing to future sea level and temperature variability changes in CMIP5 are changes in the variability of atmospheric forcing. Because such forcing impacts variability in the oceans locally as well as globally, the effects of atmospheric changes are difficult to separate from those of increased oceanic thermal expansion and stratification in coupled climate model simulations. For this reason, we consider how thermal expansion and stratification impact sea level and thermocline variability (a proxy for temperature variability) in an analytic, reduced-gravity ocean model prescribed with future warming but otherwise unchanged atmospheric forcing.
Claim: Sea-level rise does not seem to depend on ocean temperature, and certainly not on CO2 (Fred Singer, 2018-07-19)
Evidence (2019-09-26): Even if we stop all greenhouse emissions today – which is not exactly realistic – sea levels will continue to rise. That’s not to say that what we do doesn’t matter. In fact, it matters a great deal. But the sea level rise we see today is the consequence of global warming that started from emissions released decades ago. Large bodies of water like the oceans have a great heat capacity – they warm up slowly and keep that temperature for a long time. This means that changes in sea level lag behind warming of the atmosphere. [...] How far the oceans rise will depend a great deal on what we do in the next few decades. Whether emissions can be restrained and sharply reduced will mean the difference between manageable disruption and catastrophic inundation. If we take action now, we’ll save and improve the lives of those 680m people who live in coastal areas just 10 metres above sea level. [...] How much sea level rise the world can expect by 2050 is quite well known. Everything after that depends on further emissions. To plan for the worst, structures built by humans should be adapted to accommodate for potentially significant sea level rise in future. In Northern Germany, so-called "climate dikes" have already been built. They have a wide foundation that means they can be built higher depending on the extent of sea level rise in the next few decades. Designing and building infrastructure with future change in mind demands investment today, but it will save lives and money in the long run.
Claim: Sea-level rise does not seem to depend on ocean temperature, and certainly not on CO2 (Fred Singer, 2018-07-19)
Evidence (2021-01-27): The warming of Earth is primarily due to accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, and more than 90 percent of this trapped heat is absorbed by the oceans. As this heat is absorbed, ocean temperatures rise and water expands. This thermal expansion contributes to an increase in global sea level. Temperature measurements of the sea surface, taken by ships, satellites and drifting sensors, along with subsurface measurements and observations of global sea-level rise, have shown that the warming of the upper ocean caused sea level to rise due to thermal expansion in the 20th century. Using measurements from Argo profiling floats, we know this warming has continued, causing roughly one-third of the global sea-level rise observed by satellite altimeters since 2004.
Claim: Sea-level rise does not seem to depend on ocean temperature, and certainly not on CO2 (Fred Singer, 2018-07-19)
Evidence (2023-08-22): Global warming is causing global mean sea level to rise in two ways. First, glaciers and ice sheets worldwide are melting and adding water to the ocean. Second, the volume of the ocean is expanding as the water warms. A third, much smaller contributor to sea level rise is a decline in the amount of liquid water on land—aquifers, lakes and reservoirs, rivers, soil moisture. This shift of liquid water from land to ocean is largely due to people depleting ground water. [...] As global temperatures continue to warm, additional sea level rise is inevitable. How much and by when depends mostly on the future rate of greenhouse gas emissions. But another source of uncertainty is whether big ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland will melt in a steady, predictable way as the Earth gets warmer, or whether they will reach a tipping point and rapidly collapse. [...] Projections for U.S. sea level rise for the end of the century and beyond depend on which greenhouse gas pathway we follow and how the major ice sheets respond to this ocean and atmospheric warming. If we are able to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, U.S. sea level in 2100 is projected to be around 0.6 meters (2 feet) higher on average than it was in 2000. But on a pathway with high greenhouse gas emissions and rapid ice sheet collapse, models project that average sea level rise for the contiguous United States could be 2.2 meters (7.2 feet) by 2100 and 3.9 meters (13 feet) by 2150.
Claim: Sea-level rise does not seem to depend on ocean temperature, and certainly not on CO2 (Fred Singer, 2018-07-19)
Evidence (2020-05-08): Variability of global mean sea-level (GMSL) projections among studies, even when using the same emissions scenarios, has led to confusion among decision-making communities and the public1,2. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) projected GMSL by summing the contributions from physical processes to provide a likely (i.e., central 66% probability; see exegesis by ref. 3) estimate of GMSL rise of 0.52–0.98 m in the case of unmitigated growth of emissions (Representative Concentration Pathway [RCP] 8.5) by 2100, relative to 1986–20054. However, substantial uncertainties surrounding the response of the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets to dynamic processes such as marine ice sheet instability (MISI) and marine ice cliff instability (MICI)5,6 indicate that the physical models used in process-based predictions of GMSL rise are incomplete7. Indeed, AR5 noted that additional GMSL rise up to several decimeters was possible due to MISI, but it was not included in the estimate of Antarctic Ice Sheet rapid dynamics due to likelihood of such a contribution being unquantified4. The recent IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC)8 included MISI (but not MICI). [...] Vermeer, M. & Rahmstorf, S. Global sea level linked to global temperature. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci.106, 21527–21532 (2009).
Claim: Sea-level rise does not seem to depend on ocean temperature, and certainly not on CO2 (Fred Singer, 2018-07-19)
Evidence (2020-05-07): No. Sea level rise is uneven, the two main reasons being ocean dynamics and Earth’s uneven gravity field.
Claim: Sea-level rise does not seem to depend on ocean temperature, and certainly not on CO2 (Fred Singer, 2018-07-19)
Evidence (2024-06-12): "Early-stage [sea level rise] was driven primarily by warming of the atmosphere due to increased CO2," he says. "But more and more, we see sea level rise being driven by different kinds of feedbacks within the system. Nowadays, the majority of sea level rise that we get both in Greenland and Antarctica is primarily driven by heat within the ocean—and that's not necessarily the ocean warming up directly because of ongoing climate change. It's more about shifting patterns of winds that are moving deep warm water around and causing it to come into contact with the glaciers." [...] Farther in the future, the differences between the best- and worst-case scenarios grow even starker. Unlike world temperatures, sea level rise responds slowly to climate change, and we can confidently expect that the oceans will keep rising long after we stop all our climate pollution. By the year 2300, even with strong action to control climate change this century, we could plausibly see a meter or more of sea level rise; in the worst case, the seas could rise a staggering 10 meters (33 feet) or more. Over the centuries, the chances of Antarctic ice sheets collapsing also rise. "On a long enough timeline, we lose virtually all ice on Earth," Minchew says. "Over geological timescales, it’s rare to have ice sheets at the poles."
Claim: Sea-level rise does not seem to depend on ocean temperature, and certainly not on CO2 (Fred Singer, 2018-07-19)
Evidence (2024-09-20): Global mean sea level is the average height of the world’s oceans. It has been steadily increasing over the past century, primarily due to two major factors: the thermal expansion of ocean water as it warms and the addition of water from melting ice sheets and glaciers. This long-term rise is a clear indicator of ongoing climate change, driven by human activities that add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. [...] At time periods slightly longer than seasons, naturally occurring climate variations can also cause changes in global mean sea level. For instance, El Niño and La Niña events can temporarily elevate or lower sea levels by affecting ocean temperatures and currents. During an El Niño event, the ocean temporarily warms on average and there is a net transfer of water from land and into the ocean due to shifting precipitation patterns. This leads to higher global mean sea level. The opposite happens during a La Niña and global mean sea level can actually drop.
Claim: Sea-level rise does not seem to depend on ocean temperature, and certainly not on CO2 (Fred Singer, 2018-07-19)
Evidence (2013-06-01): Sea level can rise by two different mechanisms with respect to climate change. First, as the oceans warm due to an increasing global temperature, seawater expands—taking up more space in the ocean basin and causing a rise in water level. The second mechanism is the melting of ice over land, which then adds water to the ocean. Global sea level trends and relative sea level trends are different measurements. Just as the surface of the Earth is not flat, the surface of the ocean is also not flat—in other words, the sea surface is not changing at the same rate globally. Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average due to many local factors: subsidence, upstream flood control, erosion, regional ocean currents, variations in land height, and whether the land is still rebounding from the compressive weight of Ice Age glaciers.