Schizophrenia is a severe form of mental illness that is associated with a wide variety of psychotic symptoms and other deficits that typically emerges between the late teenage years and mid-30s [1] . The onset before adolescence is relatively rare. The age of onset is unimodal for men (between ages 18 and 25) but bimodal in women with one peak between the ages of 25 to mid-30s and a second peak occurring later in life, with 3-10% of women developing the illness after the age of 40. The differences in the age of onset of schizophrenia between men and women could be explained by potential antipsychotic action of estrogen [2] . In support of the notion that estrogen has protective effects, it has been found that young women with early onset psychosis have lower estrogen compared to controls [3] . Additionally, earlier puberty in schizophrenic women, which is associated with higher estrogen levels, predicts later onset of psychosis [4] . Interestingly, the reverse was found in male individuals with schizophrenia [4] . The protective effects of estrogen decrease with age, in menopause and thereafter.

Schizophrenia is a severe form of mental illness that is associated with a wide variety of psychotic symptoms and other deficits that typically emerges between the late teenage years and mid-30s.

The differences in the age of onset of schizophrenia between men and women could be explained by potential antipsychotic action of estrogen.

In support of the notion that estrogen has protective effects, it has been found that young women with early onset psychosis have lower estrogen compared to controls.

Additionally, earlier puberty in schizophrenic women, which is associated with higher estrogen levels, predicts later onset of psychosis.

Interestingly, the reverse was found in male individuals with schizophrenia.


FA is more than counting numbers; it involves solving complex financial puzzles, particularly in fraud, insurance, disputes, and providing legal evidence for presentation in a legal forum [17] . Activities include investigations of business information and data. These investigations can be to establish employee fraud, provide litigation support such as substantiation of insurance claims, analysis of facts, formulation of questions and examination of accounting systems and also business valuations. Wolosky adds accounting malpractice, legal malpractice, arson investigations and the tracing of assets to this list [9] . Techniques can include data reconstruction, data mining, horizontal analysis, vertical analysis, variance analysis, ratio analysis, cash flow analysis and comparison to other operating information including industry standards [18] . The accountant is already trained in many of the skills required for such tasks but needs some additional specialized skills to the skills of a traditionally trained accountant.

FA is more than counting numbers; it involves solving complex financial puzzles, particularly in fraud, insurance, disputes, and providing legal evidence for presentation in a legal forum.

Wolosky adds accounting malpractice, legal malpractice, arson investigations and the tracing of assets to this list.

Techniques can include data reconstruction, data mining, horizontal analysis, vertical analysis, variance analysis, ratio analysis, cash flow analysis and comparison to other operating information including industry standards.


In the USA, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOA) of 2002 has forced top management to certify that financial statements are free of "fraud and material misstatement" [10] . This may mean that using an auditor may not be enough and the inclusion of a forensic accountant on the audit team may be required in the future. Increased fraud and illegal activity within corporations in the USA means increased pressure has been put on the auditor to meet the requirements of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. Many accounting firms in the USA have expanded their services to include forensics and fraud. Recent corporate accounting scandals and the resultant outcry for transparency and honesty in reporting have given rise to two disparate yet logical outcomes. First, FA skills have become very crucial in untangling the complicated accounting maneuvers' that have obfuscated financial statements. Second, public demand for change and subsequent regulatory action has transformed CG scenario. Therefore, more and more company officers and directors are under ethical and legal scrutiny. In fact, both these trends have the common goal of addressing the investors' concerns about the transparent financial reporting system. The failure of the corporate communication structure has made the financial community realize that there is a great need for skilled professionals that can identify, expose, and prevent structural weaknesses in three key areas: poor CG, flawed internal controls, and fraudulent financial statements. FA skills, therefore, are becoming increasingly relied upon with a corporate reporting system that emphasizes its accountability and responsibility to stakeholders.

In the USA, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOA) of 2002 has forced top management to certify that financial statements are free of "fraud and material misstatement".


In the 21st century, the corporate sector, all over the world, is facing rapidly increasing levels of regulatory and reporting requirements. They are forced to spend millions of dollars annually examining their existing systems and adopting/improving their CG and internal control systems to meet the standards set by the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. It is, therefore, necessary for the professionals (viz., the chartered accountants, company secretaries, auditors, legal and IT professionals) and companies to shift their focus from mere compliance approach to study and investigate the behavior of board of directors, CG practices, and financial reporting systems. There is no doubt that a qualified, trained and mature Chartered Accountants, possessing forensic accounting (FA) skills, can prove to be a valuable asset to the corporate-sector, and gradually help to improve their CG system [4] . Moves are afoot globally, both at the national and international levels, to promote convergence of CG practices. Let us hope, these moves could ensure in the long-term two important qualities of CG and reporting: transparency and honesty.

There is no doubt that a qualified, trained and mature Chartered Accountants, possessing forensic accounting (FA) skills, can prove to be a valuable asset to the corporate-sector, and gradually help to improve their CG system.


Based on our limited knowledge of their population dynamics, the bamboo lemur species at the different sites do not seem to differ in their reproductive output or population dynamics (Eppley et al. 2015b (Eppley et al. , 2016b Nievergelt et al. 2002; Tan 2006) . Therefore, the surplus of protein ingested from bamboo in Ranomafana is not reflected in higher reproductive rates. In contrast to the nitrogen content, there is no indication that energy (measured as total nonstructural carbohydrates, though proteins can certainly also be converted to energy) plays a role in detoxification or food selection.

Based on our limited knowledge of their population dynamics, the bamboo lemur species at the different sites do not seem to differ in their reproductive output or population dynamics.


Foods having high levels of protein (e.g., soya beans, groundnuts, sunflower seeds) and other feed supplements for poultry production are expensive to purchase while energy foods (e.g., cereal such as maize, sorghum, millets, wheat, rice, maize bran, wheat bran and rice bran by-products) are often plentiful and relatively cheap. Thishas obligated most poultry farmers to move away from this industry leading to low production of poultry meat and eggs and raised the price of poultry products due to high cost of importation. The energy in the dietnecessary for production of poultry meat and eggs and for the maintenance of vital functions and body temperature, are largely in the form of carbohydrates, fats and amino acids which can be found in the leaves of Moringa oleifera. The production of protein in the body tissues entails an adequate supply of about 20 different amino acids, 10 of which cannot be synthesized by poultry, and must therefore be provided in their diets. These essential amino acids are distributed in the leaves of Moringa oleifera all year round [21] [22] [23] .

These essential amino acids are distributed in the leaves of Moringa oleifera all year round.


In addition to the primary pit connections, florideophytes also form secondary pit connections between adjacent nondaughter cells. These secondary pit connections are known to occur in a wide range of Florideophyceae and form between two genetically similar red algal cells [8, 16] . Red algal parasite spores utilize secondary pit connections as a way to enter the cells of the host [8, 17, 18] . As evidence for the importance of secondary pit connections in parasitic infections, parasites are not known from red algal orders where secondary pit connections do not occur [19] . An advantage of this strategy is that the similarity between host and parasite at the genetic level allows parasite spores to simply deposit their organelles into the host cell and take over, spreading through primary or secondary connections [8, 20] . The widespread existence of secondary pit connections among red algae is undoubtedly a primary factor in the promiscuous nature of parasitism as a life history strategy in the lineage.

These secondary pit connections are known to occur in a wide range of Florideophyceae and form between two genetically similar red algal cells.

Red algal parasite spores utilize secondary pit connections as a way to enter the cells of the host.

As evidence for the importance of secondary pit connections in parasitic infections, parasites are not known from red algal orders where secondary pit connections do not occur.

An advantage of this strategy is that the similarity between host and parasite at the genetic level allows parasite spores to simply deposit their organelles into the host cell and take over, spreading through primary or secondary connections.


In this paper we consider a class of heterotic string vacua which are very non-classical, involving compactifications on "spaces" that cannot be globally described as geometries, while remaining accessible thanks to duality with F-theory [1] . In this way we can probe many of the properties of the heterotic string away from the classical regime where it is usually studied. More concretely, we will focus on cases where the compactification space for the heterotic string at a generic point is locally geometric, and described by a T 2 fibration. The non-classical nature of the background arises from the patching between local descriptions, which entails non-trivial elements of the T-duality group acting on the T 2 . Such fibrations will in general have defects where a local description in terms of the heterotic string on a smooth background is no longer possible.

In this paper we consider a class of heterotic string vacua which are very non-classical, involving compactifications on "spaces" that cannot be globally described as geometries, while remaining accessible thanks to duality with F-theory.


Mating disruption, based on the use of sex pheromones, is widely used in many countries to control codling and grapevine moths [4, 5] . However, its application requires some specific field characteristics in order to succeed [6] [7] [8] . Other techniques based on the use of sex pheromones (mass-trapping and, attract and kill) are also available, but less used [9] . All these techniques focus in male moth control, but is also described an effect in female behavior by exposure to its own sex pheromone [10, 11] .

Mating disruption, based on the use of sex pheromones, is widely used in many countries to control codling and grapevine moths.

However, its application requires some specific field characteristics in order to succeed.

Other techniques based on the use of sex pheromones (mass-trapping and, attract and kill) are also available, but less used.

All these techniques focus in male moth control, but is also described an effect in female behavior by exposure to its own sex pheromone.


The as-built microstructure of alloy 718 fabricated by LPBF is composed of overlapping melt-pools. The solidification of the melt pools results in the formation of dendrites oriented along the thermal gradient, with widths ranging from 200 nm to 1 µm. Moreover, small inter-dendritic Laves phases and primary carbides were observed by most of the researchers [16] [17] [18] . Each group of dendrites forms grains that are elongated along the building direction.

Moreover, small inter-dendritic Laves phases and primary carbides were observed by most of the researchers.


In the literature, the mechanical properties of alloy 718 were mainly reported for the as-built state and heat-treated condition at room temperature. Nevertheless, few authors evaluated the mechanical be havior under service conditions, namely, at high temperatures such as 650 °C. With respect to the behavior at room temperature, heat-treated alloy 718 produced by LPBF exhibits tensile and low cycle fatigue (LCF) properties similar to that of the wrought alloy [17, 21, 22] . However, discrepancies in the properties were observed, and they can be ex plained by their high relation with the processing parameters, defects, and heat-treatments. For example, after the improvement of the LPBF alloy ductility by HIP, microstructural evolutions induced by HIP were found to reduce the LCF life of alloy 718, although an increase in the ductility was expected due to the decrease in the amount of defects [20, 21] . In addition, most of the researchers reported anisotropie ten sile properties, characterized by different yield strengths and elonga tions to failure, which were dependent on the loading direction [19, [22] [23] [24] [25] .

With respect to the behavior at room temperature, heat-treated alloy 718 produced by LPBF exhibits tensile and low cycle fatigue (LCF) properties similar to that of the wrought alloy.

For example, after the improvement of the LPBF alloy ductility by HIP, microstructural evolutions induced by HIP were found to reduce the LCF life of alloy 718, although an increase in the ductility was expected due to the decrease in the amount of defects.

In addition, most of the researchers reported anisotropie ten sile properties, characterized by different yield strengths and elonga tions to failure, which were dependent on the loading direction.


The most frequent treatment modality for patients diagnosed with a maxillary malignancy is surgical removal of the tumour. This very often leaves an oronasal and/or oroantral defect, resulting in severe functional problems concerning mastication, deglutition, and speech. Therefore, an appropriate substitute for the tissue lost is inevitably necessary to restore function and regain quality of life (QoL) [3, 4] . Maxillofacial defects are usually complex, involving skin, bone, muscle, cartilage, and multiple layers of mucosa, so reconstruction of such defects is often challenging. A multidisciplinary approach is needed to rehabilitate such patients [5] . The maxillofacial prosthodontist has two primary objectives in the total rehabilitation of the maxillectomy patient, i.e., to restore the functions of mastication, deglutition, and speech and to achieve a normal orofacial appearance [6] [7] [8] .

Therefore, an appropriate substitute for the tissue lost is inevitably necessary to restore function and regain quality of life (QoL).

A multidisciplinary approach is needed to rehabilitate such patients.

The maxillofacial prosthodontist has two primary objectives in the total rehabilitation of the maxillectomy patient, i.e., to restore the functions of mastication, deglutition, and speech and to achieve a normal orofacial appearance.


With the intensification of research on global change, increasing attention has been paid to the interaction mechanism between human activities and the environment [1] . As the largest developing country, China has undergone a period of rapid development in the last thirty years. During this period, the relationships between human activities (including expansion of urban areas, economies, and populations) and environmental change have gradually intensified, and an increasing number of studies have focused on this problem [2, 3] . GDP data is an important index of human economic activities that is utilized in many studies related to regional planning and development, resources and environmental protection, and sustainable development [4] . However, GDP data and natural elements datasets (e.g., climate, soil, and elevation) have been collected separately based on different spatial units. The first type of data is usually provided on the basis of administrative units, and the second type of data is usually available in grid or raster formats. This causes a spatial mismatch between these datasets [5, 6] . Thus, rasterizing GDP data has become a core issue in the related literature.

With the intensification of research on global change, increasing attention has been paid to the interaction mechanism between human activities and the environment.

During this period, the relationships between human activities (including expansion of urban areas, economies, and populations) and environmental change have gradually intensified, and an increasing number of studies have focused on this problem.

GDP data is an important index of human economic activities that is utilized in many studies related to regional planning and development, resources and environmental protection, and sustainable development.

This causes a spatial mismatch between these datasets.


Several types of defects are related to the drilling operations, both on entry and exit of the hole and also dimensional defects, surface roughness and surface integrity issues of the hole wall. Flaws that may be caused by machining process conditions are e.g. matrix cracking, fibre fracture, de-bonding, delamination and fibre pull-out. To decrease the damages caused by drilling is not only a life issue but also economical. Poor hole quality is the cause of nearly 60 per cent of all components that is discarded [1] . Since drilling is often one of the final machining operations, and a damage occurring at that stage causes huge economic losses when almost finished parts need to be rejected.

Poor hole quality is the cause of nearly 60 per cent of all components that is discarded.


Step-lengths and waiting-times distributions were fitted with two alternative statistical models ( . Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) was used for evaluating model parameters and log-likehood values using the entire timeseries. A Model Selection approach involving an Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) was conducted in order to identify which of the two statistical models better explained the data (Burnham and Anderson 2002) . The AIC of model i is defined as AIC i 0−2L i +2D i , where L is the log-likehood of the fit and D is the number of parameters of the model. The model with minimal value of AIC is regarded as the most parsimonious and is normally considered the most likely to best explain the data (Burnham and Anderson 2002) .

A Model Selection approach involving an Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) was conducted in order to identify which of the two statistical models better explained the data.

The model with minimal value of AIC is regarded as the most parsimonious and is normally considered the most likely to best explain the data.


Step-lengths distribution was fitted with two alternative statistical models using Maximum Likelihood Estimation, a power-law and the exponential. The parameter values found are presented in Table 1 (see Fig. 3 ). A Model Selection approach points to the exponential model as the most parsimonious, having the lower AIC value. On this basis, we conclude that the Me'Phaa searching displacements are essentially a Brownian-like motion. On the other hand, the waiting times, i.e., the time intervals with no displacements, were analyzed with the same procedure as above (Fig. 4 and Table 1 ). In this case the lower AIC value suggests that the most likely model explaining the data is the power-law model (μ02.6), meaning that the resource is scattered in patches with amounts of fuel wood following a scale-free probability distribution, a result that is in agreement with the known fact that the size distribution of forest trees and their associated biomass is scale-invariant (Enquist and Niklas 2001) .

In this case the lower AIC value suggests that the most likely model explaining the data is the power-law model (μ02.6), meaning that the resource is scattered in patches with amounts of fuel wood following a scale-free probability distribution, a result that is in agreement with the known fact that the size distribution of forest trees and their associated biomass is scale-invariant.


Conventional optimal foraging theory states that animals and humans search for resources guided by decisions made in order to maximize a given quantity, usually the net energy gain (Charnov 1976; Stephens and Krebs 1986) . The efficiency of the search is then in proportion to the behavioral repertoire of the foragers who may employ, to varying degrees, cognitive tools such as memory and information processing when facing the searching space. Most searching models fall in two main groups: (1) random searching where the forager does not have previous information of the prey field such as the spatial distribution or density, and (2) deterministic searching where the forager is able to use memory maps of the territory and therefore has relatively good previous information about the prey field richness and location.

Conventional optimal foraging theory states that animals and humans search for resources guided by decisions made in order to maximize a given quantity, usually the net energy gain.


What makes this case relevant beyond the specific Dutch context is that influential scholars have argued that proportional representation enhances ideological congruence between elites and masses (Lijphart, 1999; Iversen and Soskice, 2006; Powell, 2009) . That is to say, the more proportional the electoral system of a country, the more its governments and voters overlap on the left-right axis. The same applies to congruence between the legislature and the electorate. Elections based on proportional representation are also more likely to yield legislatures that bear closer ideological resemblance to that country's citizens (Golder and Stramski, 2010) . The Dutch electoral system, which counts as among the most proportional democracies in the world, ought to prevent, or at the very least minimize, representational distortions of the type reported above. In this sense, the Netherlands provides a least likely context for unequal representation to arise (Flyvbjerg, 2006) .

What makes this case relevant beyond the specific Dutch context is that influential scholars have argued that proportional representation enhances ideological congruence between elites and masses.

Elections based on proportional representation are also more likely to yield legislatures that bear closer ideological resemblance to that country's citizens.

In this sense, the Netherlands provides a least likely context for unequal representation to arise.


Definitions and practice of brief intervention varies between studies (Heather, 1995; Jönson et al., 1995) . However, in general brief intervention refers to any therapeutic or preventive consultation of short duration undertaken by a health care professional. In previous studies, brief interventions have included one to five sessions. In contrast to conventional alcoholism treatment, brief intervention is often performed by a health care worker who is not a specialist in addiction treatment. Generally, it takes place elsewhere than in an addiction treatment setting and the usual treatment goal is moderate drinking rather than total abstinence. In spite of evidence that brief intervention can be effective, there are problems in applying research findings into practice in routine primary health care (Heather, 1995; Richmond et al., 1995) .

Definitions and practice of brief intervention varies between studies.

In spite of evidence that brief intervention can be effective, there are problems in applying research findings into practice in routine primary health care.


Indeed, this study evidenced that clinicians appeared to offer choices to children, thus providing them with a measure of empowerment over the activities of therapy. This provision of choice by the clinician is relevant to children who naturally occupy the more vulnerable position and who may be more susceptible to a sense of powerlessness because of the presence of a communication disorder (Ferguson & Armstrong, 2004) . In addition, some of the potentially deleterious consequences of power differences seemed to be mitigated when children viewed their therapists as confidants and friends. These characterizations of the clinician as a friend are of interest, particularly when considering the reported difficulties of children with communication disorders in forming and maintaining friendships (Markham et al., 2009) .

This provision of choice by the clinician is relevant to children who naturally occupy the more vulnerable position and who may be more susceptible to a sense of powerlessness because of the presence of a communication disorder.

These characterizations of the clinician as a friend are of interest, particularly when considering the reported difficulties of children with communication disorders in forming and maintaining friendships.


Children and parents need to agree on the purpose of treatments (Shirk & Saiz, 1992) . However, in this study, some children did not understand the purpose of speech-language therapy, and consequently did not understand their own role, or that of the therapist. For example, in the data given previously, Richard indicated that he was not satisfied with his speech-language pathologist, as she did not focus on his curricular goals. In this case, the clinician focused on the client's speech development, as opposed to his curricular needs. This highlights the role conflicts clinicians might need to clarify with clients and their parents.

Children and parents need to agree on the purpose of treatments.


Not all the children in the current study trusted their clinicians. For example, Peter lost trust in his clinician when she failed to follow up on a promise. Unfortunately, without this trust, children's willingness to cooperate could suffer, thereby undermining the bonds that create the context for achieving therapy goals. When children trust their clinician, they will take risks in therapy (Weiss, 2004) . In fact, Weiss reported that risk taking increased children's level of participation in phonology therapy sessions. This, in turn, improved their production of target responses and generalization.

When children trust their clinician, they will take risks in therapy.


With regard to power differentials, speechlanguage pathologists inevitably inhabit the powerful role of adult in relation to their child clients. However, relationships that reinforce powerlessness can result in restricted engagement in the therapeutic process (Ferguson & Armstrong, 2004) . It is, therefore, relevant to avoid such situations, and to promote the empowerment of the client (Fourie, 2009) .

However, relationships that reinforce powerlessness can result in restricted engagement in the therapeutic process.

It is, therefore, relevant to avoid such situations, and to promote the empowerment of the client.


Most of the children were clearly aware of the routines and rituals of therapy. With regard to the rituals of therapy, our results were consistent with prior research that showed that therapists develop routines so that children are able to accurately demarcate boundaries at the beginnings and ends of the therapy sessions, and thus feel more comfortable (Carroll, 2002) . Similarly, the consistency of attitude and behavior on the part of the therapist helps children feel secure (Landreth, 2002) . Our results from the children's perspectives supported the effectiveness of such procedures.

With regard to the rituals of therapy, our results were consistent with prior research that showed that therapists develop routines so that children are able to accurately demarcate boundaries at the beginnings and ends of the therapy sessions, and thus feel more comfortable.

Similarly, the consistency of attitude and behavior on the part of the therapist helps children feel secure.


This article presented a method to automatically generate phonetic transcriptions of proper nouns. We proposed ways of combining a rule-based automatic phonetic transcription generator (LIA PHON) and an acoustic-phonetic decoding system. On the ESTER corpus, we observed that the combined systems obtain better results than our reference system (LIA PHON). With the proposed combination, the WER decreased by 0.5 point on segments of speech containing proper nouns, without affecting negatively the results on the rest of the corpus. An interesting field where the proposed method could be applied is the task of named identification. This task consists in extracting the speaker identities (firstname and lastname) from the transcription (Estève et al., 2007) . The new phonetic transcriptions yielded by the proposed method should contribute to make the detection easier by improving the decoding of proper nouns. Preliminary experiments carried out recently at LIUM for a yet unpublished work tend to confirm this hyptohesis. Pushing further the principle backing the method described in this article, future developments could focus on generalizing the method to other classes of words beyond just proper nouns.

This task consists in extracting the speaker identities (firstname and lastname) from the transcription.


To date, Nafion is still the most performing cationexchange membrane due to its high chemical and mechanical stability as well as its good proton conductivity. The modification of Nafion membranes using inorganic fillers such as SiO2, mordenite, inorganic acids, a polymer coating and/or filler such as poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(1-vinylimidazole), and poly(vinylidene fluoride) have been studied earlier. It is thought that the modification of an ion selective polymer with a second polymer characterized by a rigid structure may help to increase the selectivity of the membrane to the required ions, while at the same time maintaininG REASONABLY HIGH PERMEABILITY. A small group of studies has declared its interest in the production of a new type of separation membrane [12] .

A small group of studies has declared its interest in the production of a new type of separation membrane.


In recent years there has been much interest in the study of the health benefits involved with regular consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables. Lettuce is one of the most economically important leafy vegetable crops in the world and is widely consumed in Western diets [1] . It is therefore an important source of dietary vitamin C and antioxidants, primarily in the form of phenolic compounds such as caffeic acid derivatives and flavonols [2] .

Lettuce is one of the most economically important leafy vegetable crops in the world and is widely consumed in Western diets.

It is therefore an important source of dietary vitamin C and antioxidants, primarily in the form of phenolic compounds such as caffeic acid derivatives and flavonols.


Interpersonal stress seems to be more acute for girls whether it is from coping with daily stressors at home and at school. All-girl schools have an effect on girls' sense of belonging, thereby reducing their stress levels. Boys experience less stress than girls do regarding their bodily self-esteem, self-image and health. Girls remain more stress than boys in adolescence period. Society expects different behaviour from boys and girls. The girls are supposed to be submissive, well mannered, docile, while the boys are supposed to be aggressive and independent. For this reason, girls do not express their emotion and it leads to the emotional problem including stress, anger, depression and anxiety. In adolescence, girls and boys remain in romantic and emotional mood. Sometimes, they engage in romantic relation. But the girls suffer more stress than boys in respect of maintaining relationship. Sometimes this relationship may cause unexpected pregnancy (Roberts et al., 2005) . These findings were supported the findings of the present study relating to gender differences in stress.

Sometimes this relationship may cause unexpected pregnancy.


Adolescence is the period of storm and stress in which adolescents suffer from more stress. Stress typically describes a negative concept that can have an impact on one's mental and physical well-being. Difficulties occur however, when stress becomes excessive. Then the person experiences disrupted emotional, cognitive and physiological functioning. Stress can be defined as feeling overwhelmed and/or unable to cope effectively with people or events in one's life. Researchers have found developmental differences in coping with stress. Older adolescents tend to use a greater array of coping strategies, especially cognitive-oriented strategies, to reduce the impact of the stressor compared to younger adolescents (Williams & McGillicuddy-De, 1999) . However, even early adolescence period, people use a variety of coping strategies, such as seeking support and using social relationships, ruminating, venting, distracting, problem-solving, as well as using humor (Broderick & Korteland, 2002) . Research findings are mixed regarding gender differences in coping during adolescence (Broderick & Korteland, 2002; Williams & McGillicuddy-De, 1999) .

Older adolescents tend to use a greater array of coping strategies, especially cognitive-oriented strategies, to reduce the impact of the stressor compared to younger adolescents.

However, even early adolescence period, people use a variety of coping strategies, such as seeking support and using social relationships, ruminating, venting, distracting, problem-solving, as well as using humor.

Research findings are mixed regarding gender differences in coping during adolescence.


And finally, the main objective of the present study was to find out relation between anger and stress of adolescents in rural and urban areas in Chittagong district. The finding of the present study was that positive correlation was found between stress and anger of adolescents in rural and urban areas. The results revel that if the stress is high than the anger of those adolescents will be high. Adolescents face many stress which comes from puberty, changing relationships with peers, new demands of school, safety issues on their neighborhoods, romantic relationships and responsibilities to their families. The way in which they cope with this stress can have significant short and long-term consequences on their physical and emotional health. Difficulties in handling stress may engage in behaviors such as fighting or inappropriate risk-taking, negativism, and displaced anger (Adler, 1956; Corsini & Manatees, 1982) .

Difficulties in handling stress may engage in behaviors such as fighting or inappropriate risk-taking, negativism, and displaced anger.


The second objective of the present study was to observe whether there is any difference between rural and urban adolescents according to anger. The findings of the present study were that urban adolescents show more anger than rural. Life in inner city is characteristic by numerous factors such as violence, physical aggression, poor housing, drug using that can affect the safety, psychological development of the adolescents that are exposed to those factor on a daily basis. Additional knowledge and understanding of the influence of day-to-day stressors or daily hassles can enhance the assessment of the contributing factors of psychosocial distress among urban adolescents. And these factors (violence, physical aggression, poor housing, drug using) are common among people of low socio-economic status and which create anger among urban adolescents. Therefore, emotional rejection, lack of involvement by the object of loss; or physical absence, including separation, and divorce are common among in urban people (especially people of low socio-economic status) and children in urban areas often respond to these absences by withdrawing, becoming hopeless, feeling depressed, and/or getting angry (Garmezy, 1986) . These findings are supported the findings of the present study relating to urban and rural differences in anger.

Therefore, emotional rejection, lack of involvement by the object of loss; or physical absence, including separation, and divorce are common among in urban people (especially people of low socio-economic status) and children in urban areas often respond to these absences by withdrawing, becoming hopeless, feeling depressed, and/or getting angry.


Adolescence is the period of life from late childhood until physical growth is relatively complete and also marks the beginning of early adulthood. Age 13 through 16 is considered early adolescence and 17 through 21 is late adolescence (Wolman, 1989) . The term adolescence is commonly used to describe the transitional stage of physical and psychological development between childhood and adulthood. There is no one scientific definition of adolescence or set age boundary. There is a key development change that nearly all adolescents experience during their transition from childhood to adulthood. This time frame, however, not only describes a very diverse reality, but adolescence varies considerably across cultures, over time, and within individuals (Kaplan, 2004) .

Age 13 through 16 is considered early adolescence and 17 through 21 is late adolescence.

This time frame, however, not only describes a very diverse reality, but adolescence varies considerably across cultures, over time, and within individuals.


Reports on peach rust development in the field are scarce. In California, United States, the analysis of peach rust epidemics over several have shown that the first symptoms of the disease were observed either early or late in the season, depending on the environmental conditions in spring and summer, and that this had a direct influence on the temporal patterns of the progression of the disease (SOTO-ESTRADA; ADASKAVEG, 2004) . To our knowledge, there are no literature data on the temporal progression of peach rust in commercial cultivars under subtropical climate conditions. The objectives of this study were a) to monitor and analyze rust development in eleven peach cultivars during two consecutive growing seasons and b) to compare and classify the cultivars with regard to the levels of susceptibility to the disease, based on the phenotypical responses.

In California, United States, the analysis of peach rust epidemics over several have shown that the first symptoms of the disease were observed either early or late in the season, depending on the environmental conditions in spring and summer, and that this had a direct influence on the temporal patterns of the progression of the disease.


Many recent experiments have shown that users' privacy decision-making often cannot be well explained by assuming that a tradeoff between perceived benefits and risks is made in an entirely rational manner. Rather, their disclosure intentions and actual disclosures of personal information are impacted by various heuristics, which mainly include two aspects. First, research from a variety of literature has suggested that users' privacy decision-making can be affected by others' willingness, which is called the herding effect. In its most general form, herding can be defined as behavioral patterns that are correlated across users that share opinions towards the same items. In this circumstance, some users would probably release the item of information if their close friends do. In the crowdsourcing literature, personalization providers and website managers use personal information to tailor messages to individual users, but most users can elicit reactance when information techniques are deemed too intrusive, which counters the benefits while amplifying the cons of these tools. Users were more likely to disclose their information when they were warmed up with introductory questions, relative to other users that had answered the same questions without first answering the introductory questions. Applied to self-disclosure, research about herding suggests that if a large group of users are revealing several kinds of information, probably there is not great risk in doing so oneself. These findings imply that if users are surrounded by others who are revealing intimate details of their lives, they more easily conform to the prevailing norms of divulgence. Observing other users' willingness to disclose intrusive information, especially to admit to sensitive behaviors, may lead the users to be less concerned about request disapproval, which, in turn, increases disclosure. As a result, users' decision-making and judgment are inherently comparative in the herding effect, and sometimes they follow others' decisions without conscious awareness. Second, the order of sensitivity or type in which items are being asked influences users' privacy concern; for example, users from whom items of low sensitivity are requested first disclose more than users from whom highly sensitive items are requested first. On social media websites that are equipped with recommender systems, the so-called ordering effect could potentially be universal. It was found in the literature that based on the sequence of question intrusiveness, the disclosure is indeed affected by comparisons to previous disclosures. A user's likelihood of answering an intrusive question is affected by the contrast between the current and the previous questions in the information-requesting sequences [47] . The admission rates in a sensitivity-decreasing survey could be lower than those of a randomly ordered survey, although both are requesting same content from users [48] . From the perspective of personalization providers and website managers, a well-designed order may help them collect more useful knowledge of their users without raising too much privacy concern and thereby predict users' favorite products with higher accuracy. According to the above literature, we shall argue that users' disclosure behaviors are indeed affected by a variety of heuristics. It is very important to predict and make sense of users' reactions to website information-requesting strategies and determine how they respond to the continual stream of requests for personal information, which is an unavoidable feature of the personalization providers for the next-generation web.

A user's likelihood of answering an intrusive question is affected by the contrast between the current and the previous questions in the information-requesting sequences.

The admission rates in a sensitivity-decreasing survey could be lower than those of a randomly ordered survey, although both are requesting same content from users.


In sharp contrast, Ti 2 AlC showed good resistance to lattice distortions and/or dissociation. It is unclear at this time why Ti 2 AlC is so much more stable vis-à-vis dissociation than Ti 3 AlC 2 . While XRD results confirmed the phase content for the samples tested, the question remains as to the fate of the Al and Si content in the cases where TiC and TiN formed. Also of note is the resiliency of TiC after irradiation at these conditions. While Ti 3 AlC 2 and Ti 2 AlC samples showed significant lattice distortion after LT irradiation, the a-LP of the TiC phase remained largely unperturbed, at most increasing by 0.19% in the Ti 3 AlC 2 samples. It is plausible then that the TiC which forms via dissociation of Ti 3 AlC 2 relieves the lattice strains. Note that the removal of the Al-layer would result in the de-twinning of the Ti 6 C octahedra layers, forming bulk TiC [41] . While the large scale dissociation of Ti 3 AlC 2 into TiC may be detrimental to its future in nuclear applications, it is unclear if the presence of small volume fractions will be problematic for other MAX phases, since commercially available Ti 2 AlC and Ti 3 SiC 2 often contain $10 wt.% TiC. More work is needed to ascertain the extent of influence the TiC impurity has on the irradiated properties of the MAX phases.

Note that the removal of the Al-layer would result in the de-twinning of the Ti 6 C octahedra layers, forming bulk TiC.


The collision of high-energy neutrons with lattice atoms is known to create point defects, increase the dangling bond density and result in an increase in resistivity [42] . Post-irradiation RT q values of samples irradiated at LT conditions were found to be almost an order of magnitude higher than those for the pristine samples ( Table 2) , confirming that LT neutron irradiation generated a significant amount of point defects. After irradiation, Ti 3 AlC 2 possessed the highest RT q at 2.84(2) lX m. TEM was used to confirm the increase in defect density as a result of neutron irradiation of Ti 2 AlC (Fig. 8) and Ti 3 AlC 2 (Fig. 9 ). The majority of the disloca-tion loops were seen to form in the basal planes of the MAX phases (Figs. 8c, d and 9 ).

The collision of high-energy neutrons with lattice atoms is known to create point defects, increase the dangling bond density and result in an increase in resistivity.


With increasing temperatures, if the defect mobility is high enough, they can start to agglomerate and/or annihilate. Dislocation loops are also known to interact and coalesce into fewer but larger defect structures with increasing temperatures [38] . Annihilation of the point defects reduces the dangling bond density, resulting in a decrease in resistivity. This was confirmed herein for all HT samples; all showed only a slight increase in RT q ( Table 2) compared to their q values prior to irradiation. HT irradiation resulted in the agglomeration of the small defect clusters seen in the Ti 2 AlC-LT sample (Fig. 8a) into larger dislocation loop structures ( Fig. 8c and d) . The dislocation loops seen in the Ti 3 AlC 2 sample at LT ( Fig. 9a and b) were not observed at HT, where instead, triangular defects were identified ( Fig. 9c and d) . Further TEM of all samples is ongoing and is the focus of a future study.

Dislocation loops are also known to interact and coalesce into fewer but larger defect structures with increasing temperatures.


Reactive power is known to be the root cause of several problems associated with the power system network. It is attributed to the reactive nature of the power system loads as well as the transmission lines. Reactive power flow leads to increase in transmission losses, decrease in system efficiency and the potential for voltage instability if it is not suitably supported. It has a deteriorating effect on voltage control and stability of the power system network. It also limits the maximum real power transfer capability of the transmission lines. Thus, in view of resolving the mentioned reliability issues and economic concerns, reactive power must be provided at appropriate points in the system, leading to the concept of reactive power (VAR) compensation or reactive power support [1] .

Thus, in view of resolving the mentioned reliability issues and economic concerns, reactive power must be provided at appropriate points in the system, leading to the concept of reactive power (VAR) compensation or reactive power support.


Maize production has been growing rapidly in SA over the last decades with an annual harvested area reaching 12 million ha recently (FAOSTAT 2013) . The growth is in response to a surge in regional maize demand, driven by economic growth, changing diets, and the rapidly growing poultry sector, where maize constitutes about 65 % of the poultry ration (Shiferaw et al. 2011; Hellin et al. 2015) . Maize is now grown by millions of smallholder farmers in the region almost all year round mostly under sub-tropical rainfed lowland conditions.

Maize production has been growing rapidly in SA over the last decades with an annual harvested area reaching 12 million ha recently.

The growth is in response to a surge in regional maize demand, driven by economic growth, changing diets, and the rapidly growing poultry sector, where maize constitutes about 65 % of the poultry ration.


Crop simulation models have been used to forecast crop growth and yield advantages due to new technologies in different target environments. The models provide a means to modify cultivar traits within the observed limits of their genetic variability and to assess the potential benefit of incorporating such traits singly or in multiple combinations for the target environment (Boote et al. 2001; Singh et al. 2012) . However, models need to be calibrated and evaluated for the target environment before they are applied. The efforts made to calibrate and evaluate the CERES-Maize model in the current study indicate that the benchmark varieties were accurately represented by the calibrated genetic coefficients and that the CERES-Maize model has captured the response of the maize varieties across environments.

The models provide a means to modify cultivar traits within the observed limits of their genetic variability and to assess the potential benefit of incorporating such traits singly or in multiple combinations for the target environment.


Development and effective targeting of heat-tolerant maize varieties is needed to improve the resilience of maize production under heat-stressed conditions. Currently, there is little quantitative information to illustrate the potential benefits of heat-tolerant maize varieties across SA to inform research and investment decisions. This is partly due to a lack of ex-ante analytical tools that allow for exploration under future climatic conditions. Recently, however, crop models have been used for the comparison of various scenarios and strategies, such as quantifying the potential benefits of incorporating drought tolerance, heat tolerance, and other yield-enhancing traits into commonly grown cultivars of different crops under climate change (Rinaldi et al. 2007; Singh et al. 2014a; Singh et al. 2014b; Singh et al. 2014c; Kadiyala et al. 2015) . The present paper contributes to the literature with the case of heat-tolerant maize in SA. The objectives of this study were to assess the effects of current and future heat stress on maize in SA in order to (a) estimate the impacts of climate change on maize yield and (b) quantify the benefits of heat-tolerant maize varieties at different spatial and temporal scales in the region using cropmodeling approaches.

Recently, however, crop models have been used for the comparison of various scenarios and strategies, such as quantifying the potential benefits of incorporating drought tolerance, heat tolerance, and other yield-enhancing traits into commonly grown cultivars of different crops under climate change.


Our study involved some important assumptions and uncertainties. Firstly, CERES-Maize does not include crop pest and disease losses, and hence these factors are assumed to be well controlled. Secondly, our study focused only on heat stress tolerance during the reproductive stage of maize and does not consider other breeding or agronomic adaptation options, for the sake of focusing on the unequivocal component of climate change-temperature increase. Thirdly, the study assumed that water remains available in irrigated cropland which may not be realistic under future climate conditions. Fourthly, the effect of CO 2 fertilization on maize yield is not included mainly because maize is a C4 plant where the potential for CO 2 fertilization effects remain unclear and uncertainties related to model sensitivity to CO 2 fertilization (Challinor et al. 2009; Ruane et al. 2011) . Finally, our study used two GCMs and one crop model and therefore may have omitted a source of model uncertainties. This indicates scope for future studies on the response of maize to climate change in SA.

Fourthly, the effect of CO 2 fertilization on maize yield is not included mainly because maize is a C4 plant where the potential for CO 2 fertilization effects remain unclear and uncertainties related to model sensitivity to CO 2 fertilization.


When we started studying methods of reflections more than three years ago, we thought immediately that the methods must be intimately related to the Schwarz domain decomposition methods. This intuition was confirmed when we studied the literature and found that analysis techniques based on projections were already used to study methods of reflections like for Schwarz methods, and such a possible relation was even mentioned in the literature ("This paper considers a reflection method in the spirit of Schwarz's alternating procedure" [38] ). We will show here that the methods of reflections can be indeed identified with Schwarz domain decomposition methods in the case of two particles/subdomains, which leads to a new convergence proof with sharp convergence estimates using maximum principle techniques. In the case of many particles/subdomains however the methods of reflections are fundamentally different from Schwarz domain decomposition methods. The main difference is that in domain decomposition, the interface data is to be determined by the subdomain iteration, whereas in the method of reflections, the interface data is given on the boundary of the particles by the problem. Substructuring techniques from domain decomposition allow us however to reformulate the methods of reflections in the form of standard block Gauss-Seidel and block Jacobi iterations in the traces for integral formulations. This reformulation leads to a new understanding of the method of reflections also for many particles, and reveals shortcomings, especially in the parallel variant. It also allows us to develop new coarse space corrections, again using domain decomposition techniques, in order to obtain scalable methods of reflections when the number of particles grows.

This intuition was confirmed when we studied the literature and found that analysis techniques based on projections were already used to study methods of reflections like for Schwarz methods, and such a possible relation was even mentioned in the literature ("This paper considers a reflection method in the spirit of Schwarz's alternating procedure").


Many studies from developing countries have shown that animal foods have a growth-stimulating effect in populations with a marginal nutritional status (Ruel, 2003) . Among these studies, it seems like milk has a stronger effect than meat. However, the effect of milk appears stronger in populations with a marginal or poor nutritional status than in well-nourished populations with adequate intakes of both energy and protein (Hoppe et al., 2006) .

Many studies from developing countries have shown that animal foods have a growth-stimulating effect in populations with a marginal nutritional status.

However, the effect of milk appears stronger in populations with a marginal or poor nutritional status than in well-nourished populations with adequate intakes of both energy and protein.


Cementitious materials exhibit poor or no electrical conductivity and incorporation of welldispersed nanomaterials in a concrete matrix enable to form an extensive conductive network inside the concrete. Amount of required nanomaterial to be incorporated depends on the type of nanomaterial and its properties. In general, the minimum dosage of admixture that creates conductive pathways is known as percolation threshold [7] . Briefly, it can be defined as the critical fraction of lattice points that must be filled to form a continuous electrical path along the cement matrix [8] . However it is not entirely necessary to reach the percolation threshold (high conductivity is not needed for strain sensing applications). Studies have shown that incorporation of nanomaterials above the percolation threshold is beneficial for the sensing sensitivity under tension, and incorporation of nanomaterials below the percolation threshold is beneficial for the sensing sensitivity under compression [9] . Besides, self-sensing properties application of nanomaterials contributes to strength and microstructural improvements [10, 11, 12] . In addition, due to the fact that the sensor and concrete are both homogeneous material it will show good compatibility and same service life as the structure [4] .

In general, the minimum dosage of admixture that creates conductive pathways is known as percolation threshold.

Briefly, it can be defined as the critical fraction of lattice points that must be filled to form a continuous electrical path along the cement matrix.

Studies have shown that incorporation of nanomaterials above the percolation threshold is beneficial for the sensing sensitivity under tension, and incorporation of nanomaterials below the percolation threshold is beneficial for the sensing sensitivity under compression.

Besides, self-sensing properties application of nanomaterials contributes to strength and microstructural improvements.

In addition, due to the fact that the sensor and concrete are both homogeneous material it will show good compatibility and same service life as the structure.


In order to find a suitable insulation system for the ITER toroidal field coils, which would withstand high radiation levels, extensive research was carried out over the past years [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] . It turned out that innovative resin mixtures containing cyanate ester (CE) showed excellent properties after exposure to the ITER design fluence of 1x10 22 m -2 (E>0.1 MeV) compared to traditional epoxy resins. Even with a CE content of only 20 %, no degradation of the mechanical properties was found [7, 8] . However, the costs of the CE resins are higher by a factor of about 10 compared to the epoxies and the industrial handling experience is less developed. Based on the improved radiation resistance, a CE/epoxy blend containing 40 % or 30 % CE is foreseen for the ITER TF coil insulation. Depending on the shielding concepts of upcoming fusion devices, the radiation dose, to which the magnet insulation will be exposed to, will be higher than for ITER. Therefore, it is important to investigate the mechanical properties of these blends at higher radiation level in order to establish, whether they can be used in future devices or alternatives have to be found.

In order to find a suitable insulation system for the ITER toroidal field coils, which would withstand high radiation levels, extensive research was carried out over the past years.

Even with a CE content of only 20 %, no degradation of the mechanical properties was found.


The increase in performance (permeability and selectivity of a preferred gas) of the membrane cuts the capital cost, as less area is required to treat the same volume of gas. Numerous methods are being used to enhance the performance of carbon membranes and most of them involve changing precursor, precursor geometry, and pyrolysis conditions. Variations in these factors offer desirable carbon membrane morphology and tailored microstructure resulting in desired permeation properties [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] . A recent study has reported CO2/CH4 pure gas selectivity of 204 (CO2 permeability of 83.1 Barrer) using PBI/Kapton as precursor [13] . Very limited data is available about the pore tailoring method after the pyrolysis. The CO2 permeance of 0.021 (m 3 (STP)/m 2 .bar.h) and CO2/CH4 selectivity of 246, improved by pore tailoring technique of previously pyrolyzed hollow fibers has been reported [10] .

Variations in these factors offer desirable carbon membrane morphology and tailored microstructure resulting in desired permeation properties.

A recent study has reported CO2/CH4 pure gas selectivity of 204 (CO2 permeability of 83.1 Barrer) using PBI/Kapton as precursor.

The CO2 permeance of 0.021 (m 3 (STP)/m 2 .bar.h) and CO2/CH4 selectivity of 246, improved by pore tailoring technique of previously pyrolyzed hollow fibers has been reported.


Inorganic membranes with excellent thermal and chemical stabilities have been reported by many researchers. Particularly, carbon membranes have shown higher permeability and selectivities than commercially available polymeric membranes and have advantages in high pressure and temperature applications [8, [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] . Permeation through carbon membranes is accomplished by the adsorption of gas molecules and activated transport through selective pore openings.

Particularly, carbon membranes have shown higher permeability and selectivities than commercially available polymeric membranes and have advantages in high pressure and temperature applications.


Methane is the main component of natural gas which also contains undesired components, such as CO2, H2O, N2 and H2S. The removal of these impurities is vital to meet the pipeline specification, and for this application the membranes fit well to selectively separate out CO2 from the high-pressure gas mixture. This separation is the focus of this work. The demand for natural gas demand has increased by around 2.7% per year over the last decade with a total consumption of 3.47 trillion cubic meters in 2015, and this consumption drives a worldwide market of over $5 billion per year for new natural gas separation equipments. The market for The CO2 needs to be separated to meet pipeline specifications (<2%) as it is corrosive, reduces the calorific value of natural gas and increases compression cost for transport of the gas [4] .

The market for The CO2 needs to be separated to meet pipeline specifications (<2%) as it is corrosive, reduces the calorific value of natural gas and increases compression cost for transport of the gas.


Oxygen is essential to proper wound healing of tissues, including skin, muscle and bone. Current techniques to optimize oxygen delivery to tissues include hyperbaric oxygen administered within a pressurized chamber (systemic) or via local devices placed directly over the wound (topical) [18] . While both of these techniques have demonstrated improved wound healing, cellular toxicities due to extended treatments of oxygen have been recorded [18] . The major challenge in oxygen delivery-induced wound healing is finding a conduit that optimally delivers oxygen to tissues under physiological conditions. A biological oxygen-delivering protein would be an ideal conduit, as its delivery characteristics may follow the oxygen dissociation curve at various physiological partial pressures. Both hemoglobin and myoglobin accomplish this aim.

Current techniques to optimize oxygen delivery to tissues include hyperbaric oxygen administered within a pressurized chamber (systemic) or via local devices placed directly over the wound (topical).

While both of these techniques have demonstrated improved wound healing, cellular toxicities due to extended treatments of oxygen have been recorded.


Though acute hypoxia may chemotactically stimulate the inflammatory response and cell arrival at a site of injury, sustained wound hypoxia may be a limiting factor in the normal healing process. Chronic hypoxia slows cell proliferation, collagen synthesis and the bactericidal action of leukocytes [19] . Wound dressings supplemented with hemoglobin or myoglobin that are saturated with oxygen could potentially release that oxygen (over a finite period of time) at the time of application of the dressing to the wound, thereby satisfying the increased local oxygen demand (created by the increased metabolic rate) and possibly enhancing resistance to infection. The concentration of hemoglobin/myoglobin in the scaffolds can be modified to account for the varying demands of oxygen by individual tissues and rates of cellular metabolism. This combination of natural materials has the potential to improve wound healing via faster cell proliferation and collagen production.

Chronic hypoxia slows cell proliferation, collagen synthesis and the bactericidal action of leukocytes.


Hemoglobin and myoglobin are proteins responsible for binding and releasing oxygen in the blood and muscles, respectively. The hemoglobin protein consists of four polypeptide chains, and the myoglobin protein is a single polypeptide. Each polypeptide chain (of both macromolecules) contains one heme group that holds an iron ion; thus, hemoglobin contains four iron ions and myoglobin contains only one iron ion. Each iron ion binds reversibly with one oxygen molecule. Maintenance of this heme iron in the reduced state (Fe 2+ ) is imperative for oxygenation to occur; oxidation of the iron into Fe 3+ can result in the formation of methemoglobin or metmyoglobin and, subsequently, inhibit the oxygen-binding capabilities of the proteins [1] . Hemoglobin exhibits two major conformations: the R state in which oxygen has a higher affinity for binding to hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin), and the T state which is more stable in the absence of oxygen (deoxyhemoglobin). When oxygen binds to hemoglobin in the R state, this state is stabilized. When oxygen binds to hemoglobin in the T state, a change in conformation to the R state occurs, and the αβ dimers of hemoglobin slide past each other and rotate. Having both more than one ligand-binding site and a difference in affinities between oxygen and hemoglobin in the different conformational states results in cooperative binding [2, 3] . Current research into blood substitutes, and specifically red blood cell substitutes, focuses on increasing the oxygen carrying capacity of therapeutics used in the delivery of oxygen to tissues; hemoglobin has been extensively investigated for this use [4] [5] [6] .

Maintenance of this heme iron in the reduced state (Fe 2+ ) is imperative for oxygenation to occur; oxidation of the iron into Fe 3+ can result in the formation of methemoglobin or metmyoglobin and, subsequently, inhibit the oxygen-binding capabilities of the proteins.

Having both more than one ligand-binding site and a difference in affinities between oxygen and hemoglobin in the different conformational states results in cooperative binding.

Current research into blood substitutes, and specifically red blood cell substitutes, focuses on increasing the oxygen carrying capacity of therapeutics used in the delivery of oxygen to tissues; hemoglobin has been extensively investigated for this use.


Shotcrete application in recent times is mainly through remotely controlled spraying machinery, thereby negating the safety concerns of labourers working under potentially unsafe, unsupported rock. However, machinery and labourers must still be able to continue the drive progression before the shotcrete has reached full strength. Therefore, the need to determine when the shotcrete has gained adequate strength for drive progression to recommence is of paramount importance. This illustrates the need for and importance of accurate shotcrete strength testing methods. Authorising reentry is not, however, purely based on safety and is largely driven by the demand and goal of efficient and expedited drive progression. For this reason, it is common that shotcrete is at a very early age when reentry occurs. It is also common that adequate shotcrete strength needs to be determined in order to authorise effective rock-bolt installation without degradation of the shotcrete lining [5] . Currently, there is no widely preferred method or technique for measuring the early-age strength of shotcrete lining, which is largely due to the limitations of the available testing methods. This presents an issue in which measurements may suffer with accuracy and could result in workers entering potentially unsafe zones, or, alternatively, if measurements underestimate strength, the projects could then suffer from diminished efficiency and drive progression. The aim of this paper is to critically review the dominant testing methods and techniques currently 2 Journal of Materials being used and report on their operation, limitations, and advantages to ultimately provide a recommendation on their use. Through this review, recommendations for advancement in testing techniques may be presented. In assessing the testing methods, it has also been deemed important to determine the failure modes that are most prevalent in earlyage shotcrete linings. This is important as it signifies what strength parameters would be most beneficial for testing. This paper's criterion for what constitutes a successful testing method is one that is accurate, has a suitable testing range, is reliable, and is easy and practical to use.

It is also common that adequate shotcrete strength needs to be determined in order to authorise effective rock-bolt installation without degradation of the shotcrete lining.


In the Rapid Fringe-toed Lizard (Eremias velox), two samples collected from the Karakum Desert in Turkmenistan and one sample from Golestan in Northern Iran were genetically similar (GUO et al. 2011) . Molecular clock estimates suggest that these three samples diverged from samples from northwestern China sometime between the Late Miocene (5.9 Ma) and late Pleistocene (0.5 Ma), a timeframe that encompasses the uplift of the northwestern Tibetan Plateau (ZHENG et al. 2000) . Similar patterns were found within Asian Rock Agamas, the Laudakia caucasia species group, where a north-south split was attributed to uplifting of the Zagros Mountains in the Late Miocene or early Pliocene (MACEY et al. 1998) . What neither group of authors proposed, however, is the additional possibility that northsouth divergences could also be attributed to the Amu Darya River, which nicely bisects the genetically differentiated samples in both studies.

In the Rapid Fringe-toed Lizard (Eremias velox), two samples collected from the Karakum Desert in Turkmenistan and one sample from Golestan in Northern Iran were genetically similar.

Molecular clock estimates suggest that these three samples diverged from samples from northwestern China sometime between the Late Miocene (5.9 Ma) and late Pleistocene (0.5 Ma), a timeframe that encompasses the uplift of the northwestern Tibetan Plateau.

Similar patterns were found within Asian Rock Agamas, the Laudakia caucasia species group, where a north-south split was attributed to uplifting of the Zagros Mountains in the Late Miocene or early Pliocene.


At the middle of the stem (Fig. 1D) , the secondary wood is well developed (with thick-walled lignified fibres). The epidermis has isodiametric cells, with the external walls covered by a thick striate cuticle; small, unicellular tector hairs, also with walls, could be observed. The presence of a thick cuticle is interpreted as an adaptation to drought with regard to the formation of an efficient transpiration barrier (Burghardt et al. 2008) .

The presence of a thick cuticle is interpreted as an adaptation to drought with regard to the formation of an efficient transpiration barrier.


The root was found a secondary structure; the primary structure was found to be diarch. The secondary xylems occupy the central part of the root while primary xylems are still visible (Fig.  1A) . It consists of vessels, scarce fibres and numerous parenchyma cells. The parenchymatic tissue form two wide lateral rays. The secondary phloem has visibly thickened cell walls. At the root periphery, a well developed periderm was observed. Anatomical measurements related to xylem vessels are presented in Table 1 . The dimensions and density of the vessels, as well as the quantity of the parenchyma cells are directly linked with the available amount of water (Olson and Carlquist 2001) . The dimensions of the vessels from the secondary xylem (with minimum diameters of 5.34 ± 1.05 µm and maximum 11.63 ± 1.72 µm) are not likely to show a great deficiency of water in the vegetative period. However, as can be seen in Fig. 1A , narrow vessels are located in the external area of the secondary xylem, being formed right at the beginning of the dry season.

The dimensions and density of the vessels, as well as the quantity of the parenchyma cells are directly linked with the available amount of water.


The applicability of results obtained by the exposure of branches to elevated [CO 2 ], to the understanding of the influence of [CO 2 ] on the physiology of trees depends upon the physiological autonomy of the branches under study (Sprugel, Hinckley & Schaap 1991) . Branch autonomy is influenced by source-sink relationships (Sprugel et al. 1991) . Branches are likely not to be autonomous when the sinks or sources of carbohydrates outside the branch are strong; that is when there is a high level of apical dominance or carbon is translocated from the trunk wood to the developing leaves or roots. Branches are probably relatively autonomous during the growing season, when they largely fuel their own growth (Sprugel et al. 1991) . Models of branch development in trees have indicated that as trees mature, the branches probably become more autonomous because the proportion of carbon required to provide structural support declines relative to the amount of foliage (Ford, Avery & Ford 1990) . Therefore, studies of branch response to elevated [CO 2 ] are more likely to be representative of the whole tree during the middle part of the growing season and in trees with many orders of branching.

The applicability of results obtained by the exposure of branches to elevated [CO 2 ], to the understanding of the influence of [CO 2 ] on the physiology of trees depends upon the physiological autonomy of the branches under study.

Branch autonomy is influenced by source-sink relationships.

Branches are probably relatively autonomous during the growing season, when they largely fuel their own growth.

Models of branch development in trees have indicated that as trees mature, the branches probably become more autonomous because the proportion of carbon required to provide structural support declines relative to the amount of foliage.