The design of functionally active cells with composites to promote bone or cartilage formation is a character of bone tissue engineering [16] . Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) draw considerable attention because they can be easily isolated from a small aspirate of bone marrow and readily generate single-cell-derived colonies. MSCs have great potential in bone tissue engineering field. It has already been proved that MSCs improve the biocompatibility of CS/nHAC composites and enhance orthotopic bone formation in vivo [17] .

The design of functionally active cells with composites to promote bone or cartilage formation is a character of bone tissue engineering.

It has already been proved that MSCs improve the biocompatibility of CS/nHAC composites and enhance orthotopic bone formation in vivo.


It is universally acknowledged that an ideal biomaterial should be as close as possible to the natural ECM, which requires special care to the biocompatibility, biodegradability, and three-dimensional structure suitable for cell ingrowth and osteoinduction of the biomaterials [7] [8] [9] . Due to these limitations, very few composites turn out to meet these requirements. As a natural polymer obtained from chitin, chitosan has become a key component in bone tissue engineering in the last two decades [10] . Chitosan/nanohydroxyapatite composites have been shown to exhibit excellent biodegradability, biocompatibility, osteoconductivity, and even osteoinductivity [11, 12] . Renowned as a major organic matter of bone, collagen was combined with chitosan/nanohydroxyapatite to obtain a composite in our preliminary study. The feasibility of developing an injectable chitosan solution with excellent thermosensitivity in the presence of nHAC has been demonstrated. CS/nHAC makes the sol-gel transition when the solution is heated to 37 ∘ C, which makes it form an aqueous solution with low viscosity to complete the injection, but it forms a gel at body temperature [13] [14] [15] . Our previous studies have shown that an injectable chitosan/nanohydroxyapatite/collagen composite exhibits features of natural bone in both main composition and microstructure, which can be expected as a candidate for systemic minimally invasive composites with osteogenic properties [13, 15] .

It is universally acknowledged that an ideal biomaterial should be as close as possible to the natural ECM, which requires special care to the biocompatibility, biodegradability, and three-dimensional structure suitable for cell ingrowth and osteoinduction of the biomaterials.

As a natural polymer obtained from chitin, chitosan has become a key component in bone tissue engineering in the last two decades.

Chitosan/nanohydroxyapatite composites have been shown to exhibit excellent biodegradability, biocompatibility, osteoconductivity, and even osteoinductivity.

CS/nHAC makes the sol-gel transition when the solution is heated to 37 ∘ C, which makes it form an aqueous solution with low viscosity to complete the injection, but it forms a gel at body temperature.

Our previous studies have shown that an injectable chitosan/nanohydroxyapatite/collagen composite exhibits features of natural bone in both main composition and microstructure, which can be expected as a candidate for systemic minimally invasive composites with osteogenic properties.


The physiological role of sodium is less thoroughly recognised than that of the other macronutrients. Based on the response to fertilisation with this element, the plants are divided into natriophytes and non-natriophytes. The content of sodium in plants usually varies from 0.1 to 5 g kg -1 but in natriophytes it reaches from 15 to 25 g kg -1 (ZARÊBA, B£ONIARZ 2008) . As seen from the above, the Woolly Foxglove does not belong to natriophytes and the content of sodium in its leaves may be modified by mineral fertilisation (Table 1) . In comparison to the control, a significant decrease in the content of sodium in leaves of the Woolly Foxglove was observed after applying the experimental fertilisation doses. The lowest amounts of sodium were in leaves gathered from the plot fertilised with the highest NPK dose (A 3 ), where the decrease was 15.2%. The lowest sodium concentrations were typical of leaves gathered in 2007 (2.16 g kg -1 ). Compared to 2006 and 2008, the differences were significant and equalled to 2.47 g kg -1 and 1.97 g kg -1 , respectively.

The content of sodium in plants usually varies from 0.1 to 5 g kg -1 but in natriophytes it reaches from 15 to 25 g kg -1.


Landuse change and climate change are the two main factors that will affect the future development of bioenergy from cassava. The results showed that with the intensification of urbanization, fewer land resources were available. On the other hand, climate change had a direct impact on cassava yield. In the case of stable precipitation, a slight increase in temperature would increase cassava yield, which would in turn increase the production of bioenergy. However, increased temperature will cause a series of ecological and environmental issues [45, 46] . The stated aim of the 2015 UNFCCC Paris Agreement is to limit the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 • C above preindustrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit temperature increases to 1.5 • C [47, 48] . Therefore, the increase in production caused by the increase in temperature was not a very significant phenomenon. In addition, precipitation had a greater impact on cassava bioenergy production, and extreme rainfall can cause a sudden decline in production. In general, changes in landuse and climate will result in less potential for bioenergy development. Thus, it is necessary to develop new technologies that increase the production of bioenergy.

However, increased temperature will cause a series of ecological and environmental issues.

The stated aim of the 2015 UNFCCC Paris Agreement is to limit the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 • C above preindustrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit temperature increases to 1.5 • C.


Crop yields and their temporal variances are influenced by management factors, especially crop rotations [4, 11] . However, cropping systems can have larger influence on the temporal variability and stability of crop yields [12] . Therefore, it is more appropriate to compare the performance of cropping systems and not just to quantify the effect of single factors in a cropping systems experiment [2, 4] . The objectives of this long-term study were to (1) quantify multifactor and multivariate impact on the statistical determinants of the cumulative density function of total yield in conventional, organic cropping systems and their subsystems and (2) model the impact of cumulative yield on temporal yield variance as influenced by management practices that can be easily implemented on the farm.

Crop yields and their temporal variances are influenced by management factors, especially crop rotations.

However, cropping systems can have larger influence on the temporal variability and stability of crop yields.

Therefore, it is more appropriate to compare the performance of cropping systems and not just to quantify the effect of single factors in a cropping systems experiment.


A principal component analysis of standardized ratio variables revealed no clearly separated groups within the 82 localities in the vicinity of the SCFB. However, discriminant function analyses of genetically identified reference populations (n ¼ 19 castanops, n ¼ 44 goldmani; Fig. 3D ) easily discriminated between the 2 groups (P ¼ 0.0000), correctly identifying 98% of the reference specimens to the appropriate group (Fig. 7) . The single misidentified specimen (P ¼ 0.73) was from locality 88 (near the type locality of Cañitas; Fig. 2 ), 1 of 5 karyotyped specimens collected from the vicinity of Cañitas in the 1970s (Berry and Baker 1972) . Of 10 total specimens (6 reference and 4 unassigned) from near the type locality (localities 82 and 86-89; Fig. 2 ), 9 were correctly identified as goldmani. These include the holotype and 2 other female specimens in the type series. The skull of 1 of the latter was broken, and a separate discriminant function analysis run without rostral length identified it as goldmani (P ¼ 1.000). Assignment of nonreference populations was concordant with genetic patterns (i.e., north and south of the SCFB; 92% of the specimens ''correctly'' identified) with the exception of locality 88 (above), 3 localities represented by only a single specimen (localities 20, 80, and 85), and 3 localities in the vicinity of Tepeyac, San Luis Potosí (localities 95-97; Fig. 2) .

The single misidentified specimen (P ¼ 0.73) was from locality 88 (near the type locality of Cañitas; Fig. 2 ), 1 of 5 karyotyped specimens collected from the vicinity of Cañitas in the 1970s.


The introduction of HAART has decreased morbidity and mortality in HIV patients due to viral load (VL) suppression and immunological recovery [1] . Still, the immunological reconstitution after HAART initiation varies depending on the pre-HAART level of immunodeficiency [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] . Several studies have shown that patients with successful virological response to HAART and incomplete initial CD4 recovery have increased mortality [5, 8, 9] . However, the outcome is poorly documented for patients with pesistent low CD4 count despite several years of HAART with sustained VL suppression.

The introduction of HAART has decreased morbidity and mortality in HIV patients due to viral load (VL) suppression and immunological recovery.

Still, the immunological reconstitution after HAART initiation varies depending on the pre-HAART level of immunodeficiency.

Several studies have shown that patients with successful virological response to HAART and incomplete initial CD4 recovery have increased mortality.


The Open Grid Forum is currently standardizing the next generation grid programming toolkit: the Simple API for Grid Applications (SAGA) [4] . The goal is to provide a "grid counterpart to MPI" (at least in impact), that would supply developers with a simple, uniform, and standard programming interface for distributed applications. SAGA will support several programming languages and will provide consistent semantics and style for different grid functionality. Notably, the Java Reference Implementation of SAGA is implemented directly on top of Ibis JavaGAT.

The Open Grid Forum is currently standardizing the next generation grid programming toolkit: the Simple API for Grid Applications (SAGA).


In 2001, grid experts Foster, Kesselman, and Tuecke published one of the most influential and defining papers in the field of grid computing [3] . The authors indicate that the fundamental problem that underlies the grid concept is "flexible, secure, coordinated resource sharing and problem solving in dynamic collections of individuals, institutions, and resources". Also, the field is "distinguished from conventional distributed computing by its focus on largescale resource sharing, innovative applications, and, in some cases, high-performance orientation". With "grid-enabled programming systems" available that "enable familiar programming models to be used", this definition holds a promise, i.e. the promise of efficient and easy-to-use wall-socket computing over a distributed set of resources [11] .

In 2001, grid experts Foster, Kesselman, and Tuecke published one of the most influential and defining papers in the field of grid computing.

With "grid-enabled programming systems" available that "enable familiar programming models to be used", this definition holds a promise, i.e. the promise of efficient and easy-to-use wall-socket computing over a distributed set of resources.


Technologies for supporting stakeholders in the decision-making process have evolved over the decades from sketching tools to interactive technologies such as web-based, augmented, and tangible interfaces. Intuitive interactive tools can create collaborative interaction spaces where users can efficiently work with each other, and see the result of their interaction immediately which makes the planning process more efficient. The objectives of this study are twofold, to examine user interactions with tangible user interfaces in the context of urban planning, and to investigate stakeholders' engagement and decision-making. In this study, we examined user engagement and decision-making in the context of regulation based, tangible planning tools, and investigated the utility of different usability approaches for assessing the user experience with tangible collaborative systems [4] .

In this study, we examined user engagement and decision-making in the context of regulation based, tangible planning tools, and investigated the utility of different usability approaches for assessing the user experience with tangible collaborative systems.


In complex systems, stakeholders interact with each other for the planning and decision-making process. In the context of urban planning, stakeholders are involved from different backgrounds and with varying levels of subject matter expertise and domain knowledge. The complexity in the decision-making process for urban planning contexts is often coupled with inadequate understanding of interdependencies between decisions scenarios made by stakeholders from different sectors. Furthermore, the existing urban modeling and planning tools are often designed for specific professional audiences (e.g., architects) and are not accessible to a wider scope of users [1] . It is often difficult to anticipate usability problems from users with varied backgrounds and expertise. This is especially so for tangible interactive systems (e.g., urban modeling systems), where user interactions usually consist of sequences of actions on tangible objects and perception of the system feedback from the digital information embedded in the physical objects [2] . During the design of TUI systems, usability tests are usually conducted to examine the user experience. A collaborative interactive system would effectively facilitate stakeholder dialogues and interactions, and consequently help them make more informative decisions [3] .

Furthermore, the existing urban modeling and planning tools are often designed for specific professional audiences (e.g., architects) and are not accessible to a wider scope of users.

This is especially so for tangible interactive systems (e.g., urban modeling systems), where user interactions usually consist of sequences of actions on tangible objects and perception of the system feedback from the digital information embedded in the physical objects.

A collaborative interactive system would effectively facilitate stakeholder dialogues and interactions, and consequently help them make more informative decisions.


In responding to a drastic change, a team must potentially overcome a variety of obstacles. One possible obstacle is design fixation, defined as premature adherence to a design concept that impairs conceptual design efforts [2] . Bias towards past solutions could be detrimental if the problem is changed in such a way that drastically different solutions are required. Another barrier is simply becoming acquainted with the new problem representation. Still another is the selection of an adequate representation of the new problem, which must be done on-the-fly in a dynamic problem. Selection of a new representation impacts the extent to which knowledge can be transferred from the initial problem [3] .

One possible obstacle is design fixation, defined as premature adherence to a design concept that impairs conceptual design efforts.

Selection of a new representation impacts the extent to which knowledge can be transferred from the initial problem.


Through producing simple designs, the high-performing teams placed little extraneous cognitive load on themselves. This allowed remaining working memory to be devoted to schema construction, which allowed members of these teams to learn how to reason within the design space. Their ability to learn quickly and effectively assisted them in responding to changes delivered during the course of solving. Members in low-performing teams tended towards more complex designs, which imposed a far greater extraneous load. Therefore, these individuals had less working memory to apply towards schema formation, which inhibited their ability to learn and reason within the design space. This impacted their ability to respond quickly and precisely to changes. Similar results regarding the interaction between problem representation, cognitive load and problem-solving difficulty have been demonstrated in other domains [24, 25] .

Similar results regarding the interaction between problem representation, cognitive load and problem-solving difficulty have been demonstrated in other domains.


Goal orientation theory offers a possible interpretation for some of the observed differences. Work by LePine has indicated that goal orientation plays a crucial role in how teams adapt to change [5] . Goal orientation describes how individuals respond when placed in an achievement setting [19] . Performance goal orientation indicates a desire to avoid failure and receive favorable judgment, while learning goal orientation places an emphasis on achieving mastery of the task [20] . Individuals displaying learning goal orientation tend to respond to negative feedback constructively, while those with a performance goal orientation are unlikely to learn from negative feedback [20] . Teams in which individuals display learning goal orientation adapt more easily to change [5] .

Work by LePine has indicated that goal orientation plays a crucial role in how teams adapt to change.

Goal orientation describes how individuals respond when placed in an achievement setting.

Performance goal orientation indicates a desire to avoid failure and receive favorable judgment, while learning goal orientation places an emphasis on achieving mastery of the task.

Individuals displaying learning goal orientation tend to respond to negative feedback constructively, while those with a performance goal orientation are unlikely to learn from negative feedback.

Teams in which individuals display learning goal orientation adapt more easily to change.


The problem-solving literature suggests that early divergence can be beneficial for problem-solving [13, 31, 32] . However, results from this work indicate that high-performing teams display low divergence throughout the solving process. While the problem explored in this work constrained teams to design a truss to span the river (as opposed to beam structures, or other potential solutions), many problems studied in the literature have more open-ended design spaces. Another difference is that many design problems used in the literature tend to be novel for the participants, while truss design is ubiquitous in mechanical engineering education, thus making it more familiar to the participants. These differences indicate that there may exist a range of problem types that correspond to a range of optimal solution strategies.

The problem-solving literature suggests that early divergence can be beneficial for problem-solving.


Developing a greater understanding of the underlying cognitive processes involved in engineering design could lead to improved design methodologies, design tools, and engineering education. Although much cognitive research in engineering design has focused on individuals, most engineering design is actually performed by teams [1] . As such, the focus of this work was to uncover aspects of team problem solving and design.

Although much cognitive research in engineering design has focused on individuals, most engineering design is actually performed by teams.


Recent advances in technology is driving the current silicon die to accommodate billions of transistor in the near future leading to design of very complex Systems-on-Chip (SoCs) [1] . However, a study of current SoC infrastructure reveals that buses -existing interconnect medium for SoCs -are posing a serious threat toward achieving the era of billion transistors because of their poor scalability beyond a certain number of partners [1] , [2] . To counter such a situation, researchers from the chip design area have explored not only large-scale multiprocessors systems but also traditional computer networks which has already dealt with issues such as scalability (e.g, Internet technology scales very well). This research has yielded a novel interconnect architecture -Network on Chip (NoC) [1] , [3] , [4] , [5] .

Recent advances in technology is driving the current silicon die to accommodate billions of transistor in the near future leading to design of very complex Systems-on-Chip (SoCs).

However, a study of current SoC infrastructure reveals that buses -existing interconnect medium for SoCs -are posing a serious threat toward achieving the era of billion transistors because of their poor scalability beyond a certain number of partners.

This research has yielded a novel interconnect architecture -Network on Chip (NoC).


It is a convenient and practical method to identify dangerous driving status based on vehicle motion information. Because the driver in dangerous driving state, the reaction speed and attention will be reduced, resulting in abnormal movement of vehicles, such as lane deviation. Therefore, many scholars have established a way to identify the driver's dangerous driving conditions by means of vehicle speed variation, lateral deviation, acceleration, and deceleration [13] [14] [15] . The United States AssistWare Technology company developed the SafeTrace system; the system uses the front camera to detect the front lane line, according to the deviation of the vehicle to identify the driver's dangerous driving status. United States Ellison Research Lab developed DAS2000 road warning system; its principle is the use of lane deviation to identify the driver's dangerous driving state.

Therefore, many scholars have established a way to identify the driver's dangerous driving conditions by means of vehicle speed variation, lateral deviation, acceleration, and deceleration.


The strategy that we adopt here builds on [4] . There we used multiplicative characters to deal with the first equation and additive characters (the circle method) to detect the second equation. A vital 'trick' was to use the modulus of the multiplicative character to reduce the size of the modulus in the circle method. This idea can also be used while applying the circle method to detect both the equations. Say we use modulus 1 ≤ q 1 ≤ B to detect the first equation Q 1 (m) = 0, which has 'size' B 2 . Then we split the second equation Q 2 (m) = 0 into a congruence Q 2 (m) ≡ 0 mod q 1 and an (integral) equation Q 2 (m)/q 1 = 0. Now to detect the last equation by the circle method we need modulus of size B/ √ q 1 . Hence the total modulus q 1 q 2 has size B 3/2 , instead of B 2 which should be the size if one used the circle method independently for both the equations. Since the size of the modulus is much smaller than the square of the length of the variables m i , we save by applying Poisson summation formula to each variable. This is already sufficient to give us an asymptotic for sufficiently many variables n ≥ 15. But the method allows us to have a Kloosterman refinement in the first application of the circle method and a double Kloosterman refinement in the second application. This together with subconvexity for Dirichlet L-function reduces the number of variables to n ≥ 11.

The strategy that we adopt here builds on.


Major employers were mainly the Bureau of Land Management (26%) and the U.S. Forest Service (28%), which corresponds quite closely with an employment survey of 628 range science graduates from various universities who obtained permanent positions of which 55% were in federal agencies (Powell 1975) . A number of additional employers were represented, but for comparison purposes, the remaining groups were simply categorized into "Other, Range Related"(33%), and "Other, Non-Range Related"( 13%). In contrast to Powell's survey, relatively few USU graduates are employed by the Soil Conservation Service. Statistical comparisons were made for responses by year of graduation and by type of employer. For the most part, the statistical analyses did not reveal significant differences; exceptions are noted below.

Major employers were mainly the Bureau of Land Management (26%) and the U.S. Forest Service (28%), which corresponds quite closely with an employment survey of 628 range science graduates from various universities who obtained permanent positions of which 55% were in federal agencies.


As such, the procedure has found many applications in black hole perturbation theory [5] [6] [7] [8] . In recent years it has been shown that the CCK procedure -as it is sometimes called -can be used to reconstruct the metric perturbation caused by a point particle moving on a geodesic around a Kerr black hole from the Weyl scalars ψ 0 or ψ 4 sourced by the particle [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] . This perturbation can then be used to obtain the correction to equations of motion of the particle due to its own gravitational field in the form of the gravitational self force [16, 17] . In turn, these self-force corrections play a crucial role in a faithful modelling of the dynamics of extreme mass-ratio inspirals (EMRIs), and their waveforms [18] .

As such, the procedure has found many applications in black hole perturbation theory.

In recent years it has been shown that the CCK procedure -as it is sometimes called -can be used to reconstruct the metric perturbation caused by a point particle moving on a geodesic around a Kerr black hole from the Weyl scalars ψ 0 or ψ 4 sourced by the particle.

This perturbation can then be used to obtain the correction to equations of motion of the particle due to its own gravitational field in the form of the gravitational self force.

In turn, these self-force corrections play a crucial role in a faithful modelling of the dynamics of extreme mass-ratio inspirals (EMRIs), and their waveforms.


The growth analysis provides a more informative comparison of a plant's relative performance because it can decrease the influence of the initial size and mass of the experimental plants [18] . Although the growth analysis is generally applied to the dry weight of the plant, we focused on the carbon content of the plant and calculated RGR c (relative plant C-sequestration rate per whole-plant C-content), NAR c (net assimilation rate), and LAR c (leaf area ratio per wholeplant C-content). We used RGR c to represent the plant's ability to sequester carbon in the plant body.

The growth analysis provides a more informative comparison of a plant's relative performance because it can decrease the influence of the initial size and mass of the experimental plants.


Motor neuroprostheses control external devices such as prosthetic limbs with signals from the central or peripheral nervous systems. The ones that interface with the central nervous system are called brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) [2] . The most critical component in this function restoration is a microelectrode array (MEA) implanted in neural tissue, which acts as an electrode-neural tissues interface. In addition to injecting a charge during stimulation, the ultimate role of MEAs is to provide precise measurements of neural activity [3] .

The ones that interface with the central nervous system are called brain-machine interfaces (BMIs).

In addition to injecting a charge during stimulation, the ultimate role of MEAs is to provide precise measurements of neural activity.


The field of implantable BMI based on MEAs is an emerging research activity. Remarkable progress has been reported at most bioelectronic levels, but the electrode-tissue contacts (ETCs) remain one of the major obstacles. Contacts achieved using MEAs do not comply with the remaining parts of these BMIs due to the biological response to chronic implantation and to the electronic properties of MEAs. The success of these BMIs relies on electrodes which are in contact with the neural tissue. However, design and fabrication of a convenient interface with selectivity, good electric characteristics, sensitivity, biocompatibility, and long-term chemical and recording stability remain a tough challenge [4] . For electrical stimulation and recording, we need electrodes with high selectivity, low impedance, high-density, and multi-dimensional geometry. Electrodes with high selectivity and low impedance are preferred to stimulate specific nerve cells and to achieve a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). For higher selectivity, however, a smaller electrode size is required; this results in higher impedance and a lower SNR [5] . To address this issues, we should consider the entire combination of main aspects-design, materials, and fabrication techniques.

However, design and fabrication of a convenient interface with selectivity, good electric characteristics, sensitivity, biocompatibility, and long-term chemical and recording stability remain a tough challenge.

For higher selectivity, however, a smaller electrode size is required; this results in higher impedance and a lower SNR.


In recent years, MEA techniques have been developed to have a long-term and stable interface with the brain. Different research projects are conducted to obtain consistent recording signals from small groups of neurons without losing microstimulation capabilities, while maintaining low-impedance pathways for charge injection, high-charge transfer, and high-spatial resolution by altering the material compositions and geometries of the arrays [13] . So far, none of these attempts have led to a major breakthrough. One of the main challenges in fabricating MEAs is finding appropriate coating materials which will be biocompatible and improve neural recordings. Conducting polymers and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have attracted much interest as suitable materials for coating the electrodes. They ameliorate neural recordings by decreasing electrode impedance and increasing charge transfer but they cannot eliminate glial encapsulation [4] . The molecular/cellular biology approach attempts to minimize the immune response to implanted electrodes by using bioactive molecules. Such an approach is focused on coating electrodes with bioactive molecules [14] . To achieve these goals, we propose 3D, high-density, silicon-based MEAs using micromachining techniques. The geometries that will be used include arrays of penetrating variable-height probes. These arrays can selectively communicate with large numbers of individual neurons. To this purpose, the tips of sharpened silicon needles will be coated with conducting polymers using electrochemical techniques to enhance both recording and electrical stimulation by decreasing the electrode impedance and increasing charge transfer. In this review, we describe the technology and design of different types of microelectrode arrays with their advantages and drawbacks in Section 2. In Section 3 we focus on about electrode-tissue interface, tissue reaction to implantable electrodes which is referred to the biocompatibility of the implant, and some of the potential strategies to improve the biocompatibility of implanted cortical electrodes. Then, we propose our MEAs using micromachining method.

Different research projects are conducted to obtain consistent recording signals from small groups of neurons without losing microstimulation capabilities, while maintaining low-impedance pathways for charge injection, high-charge transfer, and high-spatial resolution by altering the material compositions and geometries of the arrays.

They ameliorate neural recordings by decreasing electrode impedance and increasing charge transfer but they cannot eliminate glial encapsulation.

Such an approach is focused on coating electrodes with bioactive molecules.


Nervous system disorders reduce the quality of life of afflicted persons-and are the most difficult to treat of all parts of the human body. Most of these impairments result from lost localized sensory or motor dysfunction. The evolving field of neuroprosthetics focuses on design and implementation of neural prostheses such as visual and cochlear implants to restore lost neural function by recording signals from active neurons and subsequent selective electrical stimulation of a population of neurons [1] . Images or sounds taken from cameras or microphones are coded to electrical impulses to stimulate retinal tissues for the blind or auditory nerves for the deaf. In another type of neuroprosthesis, electrical signals are sent to a targeted portion of a patient's brain suffering from epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, or depression to decrease the effects of the condition.

The evolving field of neuroprosthetics focuses on design and implementation of neural prostheses such as visual and cochlear implants to restore lost neural function by recording signals from active neurons and subsequent selective electrical stimulation of a population of neurons.


General convex functions combined with regression models have been considered earlier in the literature, cf [1] . However, by not using correction (17) one may obtain results significantly departing from any sensible modelling of conditional quantiles. Correction (17), based on the novel interpretation of M-functionals is the new contribution of the present paper.

General convex functions combined with regression models have been considered earlier in the literature, cf.


Heat transfer processes in the food, chemical and pharmaceutical industries frequently deal with highly viscous products. The performance of heat exchangers working under these conditions is usually bad, as a result of the encountered laminar regime [1] . Moreover, the heat transfer surfaces may become coated with a deposit of solid material after a period of operation. This phenomenon, known as fouling, causes a reduced overall heat transfer coefficient [2] . Some applications affected by these characteristics involve the heating or cooling of food products (e.g. margarine, syrup or tomato paste). The preheating and reheating of polymers in the chemical industry (e.g. Sulzer process) are also examples of heat transfer phenomena with low tube-side coefficients [3] . In the petrochemical industry, low heat transfer coefficients and fouling tendency are found, for example, in crude oil pre-heat trains and in heat exchangers for the treatment of coal tar oil [4] .

The performance of heat exchangers working under these conditions is usually bad, as a result of the encountered laminar regime.

This phenomenon, known as fouling, causes a reduced overall heat transfer coefficient.

The preheating and reheating of polymers in the chemical industry (e.g. Sulzer process) are also examples of heat transfer phenomena with low tube-side coefficients.

In the petrochemical industry, low heat transfer coefficients and fouling tendency are found, for example, in crude oil pre-heat trains and in heat exchangers for the treatment of coal tar oil.


Up to date, considerable advances have been made in targeted imaging and therapy of prostate cancer. For example, functional ultrasound, MRI and PET/computed tomography have been used for imaging organ-confined prostate cancer [37] [38] [39] . However, the ultrasound suffers from poor accuracy despite significant technical improvements. Most of the recent PET/computed tomography imaging studies rely on choline derivatives (C-11-choline and F-18-fluorocholine), their results are promising but insufficient to be currently recommended in routine practice because of expensive cost and radioactivity. Therefore, MRI has marked advantages over functional ultrasound and PET/computed tomography.

For example, functional ultrasound, MRI and PET/computed tomography have been used for imaging organ-confined prostate cancer.


Wind tunnel experiments have become an increasingly valuable tool to elucidate the performance of wind turbines and their wake characteristics [1] . A deep understanding of the wind turbine interaction with the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) is essential as wind turbines operate in the ABL flow. Due to the unsteady nature of the ABL flow, wind turbines are subject to different incoming flow conditions (e.g., different wind direction and magnitude). Different scenarios of the ABL interaction with wind turbines can be simulated in a wind tunnel under fully controlled conditions. Additionally, as many wind turbines in wind farms have to operate in the wakes of upwind turbines, the study of the cumulative effects of turbine wakes in wind farms is of great importance. This goal can be achieved by performing wind tunnel simulations of the flow field in wind farms consisting of miniature wind turbines. Moreover, the usefulness of techniques to optimize the power production of the whole wind farm (e.g., yaw and pitch angle controls) can be first examined experimentally in wind tunnels.

Wind tunnel experiments have become an increasingly valuable tool to elucidate the performance of wind turbines and their wake characteristics.


Our data show that local communities in the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountain region are important forest-dependent stakeholders in conservation projects and require strong social safeguards. This is similar to the situation in developing economies, and indicates that lessons learned from projects in those regions can be informative to project development in Ukraine and possibly to other post-socialist, transitioning economies in Central and Eastern Europe. Using a social and environmental standard in combination with a carbon accounting standard during project design will increase the likelihood of fair cost and benefit distribution and credible carbon mitigation. Following these guidelines will help meet the expectations of community participation and benefit sharing expressed by our interview participants. Oversight of a robust carbon accounting standard with on-the-ground assessments carried out by international auditors is likely to not only ensure carbon goals, but also increase project transparency. Although conforming to two standards may be less cost-effective, such a combination could increase a project's competitiveness on the market (Diaz et al. 2011) .

Although conforming to two standards may be less cost-effective, such a combination could increase a project's competitiveness on the market.


There is no place for fossil fuels in a fully sustainable energy system, due to their emissions [52] . On the other hand, a full substitution of hydrocarbons by renewable electricity is not possible, as electricity cannot be directly used in some sectors such as aviation or heavy vehicles in all cases. Thus, renewable electricity based fuels are essential to fulfill this demand. PtL plants can convert RE to RE-diesel and other fuels in a liquid phase. Modelling an energy system without fossil fuels, the carbon source of this process cannot be from the flue gas of power plants fired by fossil fuels. Moreover, on a global scale, the carbon source should be accessible wherever the renewable power is available. To have a carbon neutral product, CO 2 needed for this process should be captured from ambient air, since biomass-based CCU options may be too limited, and water desalination should be applied whenever there is a certain level of water stress in the region. Using AEC, all the technologies for this energy system, except RWGS, already exist on a commercial scale and it can become operational whenever investors decide to go for it [53] . However, the system cannot run if the final product is not cost competitive.

There is no place for fossil fuels in a fully sustainable energy system, due to their emissions.

Using AEC, all the technologies for this energy system, except RWGS, already exist on a commercial scale and it can become operational whenever investors decide to go for it.


The Annual Basis Model represents a hybrid PV-Wind power plant with 5 GW capacity for both PV single-axis tracking and Wind onshore energy. The cost assumptions are based on expected 2030 values and that highly cost competitive components can be sourced for such very large-scale investments. No fixed tilted PV or battery is considered to be part of the plant and the produced electricity and respective calculations are based on annual full load hours (FLh) of the hybrid PV-Wind plant, which can be seen in Table 1 . The estimate on an annual FLh basis can be surprisingly accurate if applied carefully [12, 13] . An important piece of information is the level of curtailment, or so-called overlap FLh, i.e. an equivalent of energy which cannot be used. For the special case of a hybrid PV-Wind plant, a conservative estimate is 5% [14] . This model will give a rough estimation of a system working with equal PV and wind power capacity. The Hourly Basis Model uses the optimised combination of PV (fixed-tilted or single-axis tracking), wind power and battery capacity based on an hourly availability of the solar and wind resources to minimize the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) and RE-diesel. Hydrogen and CO 2 storage systems will guarantee the feedstock for operation of the reverse water gas shift (RWGS) plant and subsequently the Fischer-Tropsch (FT) plant on a base load. In addition, low cost batteries are added to harvest the excess electricity during overlap times to increase the FLh whenever it is beneficial. SNG is produced in a methanation plant which will be burnt to produce electricity via a gas turbine.

The estimate on an annual FLh basis can be surprisingly accurate if applied carefully.

For the special case of a hybrid PV-Wind plant, a conservative estimate is 5%.


Masonry is a historical construction material and has served as the first choice of people for many centuries. Pleasing aesthetics with good sound and heat insulation properties are some of the inherent advantages of masonry. Local availability of masonry raw materials and having lower cost of manufacturing has made it a popular construction material. Even in the recent times masonry structures are higher in number than concrete, steel and wooden structures [1] . However, historically unreinforced masonry (URM) structures have suffered extensive damage during earthquakes. Therefore, to increase the seismic capacity of low earthquake-resistant masonry structures is one of the key issues for earthquake disaster mitigation and for reduction of casualties. Seismic retrofitting reduces not only casualties and damage to buildings during earthquakes, but also the costs of first aid activities, rescue, rubble removal and permanent residential reconstruction to help and support re-establishment of daily life [2] . URM buildings can fail due to deficient strength of walls when loaded in in-plane and out-of-plane directions [3] . Seismic capacity of URM buildings depends on the ability of in-plane walls to effectively transfer lateral forces to the foundations [4, 5] .

Even in the recent times masonry structures are higher in number than concrete, steel and wooden structures.

Seismic retrofitting reduces not only casualties and damage to buildings during earthquakes, but also the costs of first aid activities, rescue, rubble removal and permanent residential reconstruction to help and support re-establishment of daily life.

URM buildings can fail due to deficient strength of walls when loaded in in-plane and out-of-plane directions.

Seismic capacity of URM buildings depends on the ability of in-plane walls to effectively transfer lateral forces to the foundations.


In order to avoid diagonal shear failure and out-of-plane failure of URM walls, different retrofitting procedures have been adopted by different researchers [8] . Some of the retrofitting methods include the seismic retrofit of URM walls using externally-bonded or near surface mounted Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) laminates, bars and fabrics. Experiments on various patterns and layouts of FRP have validated that FRP can significantly increase in-plane and out-of-plane strength of URM walls [7, [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] . Higher strength to weight ratio, ease of application and corrosion resistance are some of well-known advantages of FRP retrofitting technique over conventional retrofitting methods. On the other side, FRP is a costly material and exhibits a brittle failure [11, 14, 23] .

In order to avoid diagonal shear failure and out-of-plane failure of URM walls, different retrofitting procedures have been adopted by different researchers.

Experiments on various patterns and layouts of FRP have validated that FRP can significantly increase in-plane and out-of-plane strength of URM walls.

On the other side, FRP is a costly material and exhibits a brittle failure.


Nitrogn metabolism, protein synthesis, and antioxidant metabolism are important plant growth indicators which related to crop yield formation, which have been reported on drought and waterlogging in the cotton root at the flowering and boll-forming stage [24] . However, information of the effect of N on physiological changesunder water stressin cotton seedlings is not documented yet. It is still unclear whether N plays a positive role in alleviating the adverse effects of water-stress on the growth of cotton seedlings. Therefore, the objective of this investigation was to study the effects of N on water-stress tolerance in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) seedlings.

Nitrogn metabolism, protein synthesis, and antioxidant metabolism are important plant growth indicators which related to crop yield formation, which have been reported on drought and waterlogging in the cotton root at the flowering and boll-forming stage.


On the other hand, in our study no OX-A neither OX-B injected ICV appear activate antinociception using tail-flick test. OX-A (10 nM, 5L) injected into the right ventricle failed to elicit significant changes in formalin-induced nociceptive behaviors [24] . However, OX-A was shown to be analgesic when given intravenous (IV) but not subcutaneous (SC) in mouse and rat models with similar efficacy to that of morphine in 50 • C hot plate test and the carrageenan-induced thermal hyperalgesia test [14] . Intrathecally injection of OX-A, but not OX-B, depressed the phase 1 and phase 2 flinching behavior in the rat formalin test and increased the hot plate latency to hind-paw lick or jump in rats. These effects are mediated by OXR1 in spinal cord [25] . OX-A-induced antinociception in both formalin and hot plate test mainly mediated through OXR1 in paragigantocellularis lateralis nuclei [26] . Other study performed in mice, OX-A and B showed antinociceptive effects in all four types of assays for thermal, mechanical, chemical nociceptions and nociceptin-induced behavioral responses when administered ICV or IT, whereas the SC administration was ineffective [27] . According evidence, orexins participate in antinociception but differences among species, schedule and nociceptive models seem veil their effects. Radiant heat constitutes a relatively selective stimulus for nociceptors and has an advantage over the other models of thermal stimulation in that it produces no tactile stimulus [13] . OX-A had no effect on tail-flick test as thermal and acute pain model injected unilaterally into the PAG (including dorsal, lateral and ventrolateral columns) at the concentrations up to 10 nM in Sprague Dawley rats [24] . Our results reveal similar effects since the intra-vl-PAG injection of OX-A in concentration ranging 0.1-1 nmol did not affect nociception assessed by the tail-flick test.

OX-A (10 nM, 5L) injected into the right ventricle failed to elicit significant changes in formalin-induced nociceptive behaviors.

However, OX-A was shown to be analgesic when given intravenous (IV) but not subcutaneous (SC) in mouse and rat models with similar efficacy to that of morphine in 50 • C hot plate test and the carrageenan-induced thermal hyperalgesia test.

These effects are mediated by OXR1 in spinal cord.

OX-A-induced antinociception in both formalin and hot plate test mainly mediated through OXR1 in paragigantocellularis lateralis nuclei.

Other study performed in mice, OX-A and B showed antinociceptive effects in all four types of assays for thermal, mechanical, chemical nociceptions and nociceptin-induced behavioral responses when administered ICV or IT, whereas the SC administration was ineffective.

Radiant heat constitutes a relatively selective stimulus for nociceptors and has an advantage over the other models of thermal stimulation in that it produces no tactile stimulus.

OX-A had no effect on tail-flick test as thermal and acute pain model injected unilaterally into the PAG (including dorsal, lateral and ventrolateral columns) at the concentrations up to 10 nM in Sprague Dawley rats.


Different forms of immobility response could be modulated differentially by orexins. Cataleptic immobility and a form of tonic immobility performed by clamping the neck can be elicited in naive adult rats, and these reactions can be selectively modified by several chemical mediators either systemic or locally in certain nuclei in the CNS. Although experimental differences to develop CAT and TI are obvious, both share some features among which the most important is the inhibition of voluntary movement. Moreover cataplexy (otherwise specific immobility accompanying to narcolepsy disorder in nature and thought to be the intrusion of short REM-sleep into the waking state, usually triggered by an emotional experience) has been proposed as an atavistic expression of TI [19] . The hypocretin neurons may directly suppress brain areas involved in the initiation of TI, or act as a stabilizing system on brainstem areas responsible for motor inhibition. The hypocretin system is an alluring candidate for regulation of TI [19] .

Moreover cataplexy (otherwise specific immobility accompanying to narcolepsy disorder in nature and thought to be the intrusion of short REM-sleep into the waking state, usually triggered by an emotional experience) has been proposed as an atavistic expression of TI.

The hypocretin system is an alluring candidate for regulation of TI.


At present prevailing reports show that activation of orexinergic system leads to increase locomotion and reduce any kind of immobility, which may include certainly CAT and TI. Many of the non-ingestive effects of orexin administration are identical to the cluster of active defensive responses mediated via the lateral and dorsolateral columns of the midbrain PAG, i.e., somatomotor activation, vigilance, tachycardia, hypertension and non-opioid analgesia [10] . On the other hand, activation of ventrolateral PAG (vl-PAG) neurons produces immobility and antinociception [11] . Stimulation of the ventrolateral column of the caudal region of PAG causes powerful antinociceptive effects accompanied by many vegetative phenomena which may include: hypotension, bradycardia, vasodilatation in the muscles of the extremities and a type of immobility known as "hyporeactive" (because there is a noticeable lack of reactions by the animal to any stimulus-be it physical or in its vicinity) [12, 13] . Such elicited-immobility is indistinguishable from TI.

Many of the non-ingestive effects of orexin administration are identical to the cluster of active defensive responses mediated via the lateral and dorsolateral columns of the midbrain PAG, i.e., somatomotor activation, vigilance, tachycardia, hypertension and non-opioid analgesia.

On the other hand, activation of ventrolateral PAG (vl-PAG) neurons produces immobility and antinociception.

Stimulation of the ventrolateral column of the caudal region of PAG causes powerful antinociceptive effects accompanied by many vegetative phenomena which may include: hypotension, bradycardia, vasodilatation in the muscles of the extremities and a type of immobility known as "hyporeactive" (because there is a noticeable lack of reactions by the animal to any stimulus-be it physical or in its vicinity).


Although the usage of EPCs is promising in brain therapy, the shortage of autologous EPCs limits its clinical application. We previously demonstrate the induction of endothelial differentiation by synergistic biochemical and biomechanical stimulations in human placenta-derived multipotential cells (PDMCs) [19] . The application of endothelial growth medium for 3 days promotes the expression of early endothelial markers, such as VEGFR1 and VEGFR2, in PDMCs. Then, the mechanical shear stress further induces the mature EC markers and functions. Adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs), having similar characteristic with mesenchymal stem cells, are a potential source of autologous stem cell. ASCs are one of the multipotent stem cells which can be differentiated into endothelial, neural, osteogenic, chondrogenic, myogenic, and adipogenic cells under specific induction [20] [21] [22] . In current study, we are interested in whether the environmental cues, including both chemical and mechanical, can promote endothelial differentiation in human ASCs and their therapeutic potential in prevention of brain from HI injury. Although the endothelial differentiation is induced using synergistic stimulations in human PDMCs, the population of early and late EPCs is not fully separated as the circulating EPCs isolated from blood or bone marrow. We use the term of endothelial lineage cells (ELCs) to indicate the mixture endothelial population for direct cell transplantation after synergistic stimulation without sorting. Here, we reported that the neuropilin1 (NRP1) and VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2) signals mediated cell migration under hypoxic condition, which can reduce infarction size and preserve the neurovascular structure after HI injury in neonatal brain.

We previously demonstrate the induction of endothelial differentiation by synergistic biochemical and biomechanical stimulations in human placenta-derived multipotential cells (PDMCs).

ASCs are one of the multipotent stem cells which can be differentiated into endothelial, neural, osteogenic, chondrogenic, myogenic, and adipogenic cells under specific induction.


African countries are found to be highly vulnerable to climate change (Niang et al., 2014) . This is compounded by the continent's limited capacity for both climate mitigation and adaptation (Doig and Adow, 2011; Shackleton et al., 2015) . Combined with the pressures of a rapidly growing and increasingly demanding population, it might be tempting for African countries to pursue a strategy aimed at fueling growth, while relegating environmental concerns for later consideration (Schwerhoff and Sy, 2017) . This was the essence of development strategies pursued by both Western industrialized countries and their followers in East Asia and elsewhere (Jakob et al., 2012; Mutanga et al., 2013) . If countries on the African continent adopt a similar approach, the achievement of both the Agenda 2030 (the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)) as well as the Paris Agreement becomes very unlikely. In particular, SDGs 7 and 13, which focus on sustainable energy and climate action, respectively, would be at risk. At the core of the challenge will be how African countries provide energy in the future, given the multifold interlinkages of energy and other SDGs (McCollum et al., 2018) .

African countries are found to be highly vulnerable to climate change.

This is compounded by the continent's limited capacity for both climate mitigation and adaptation.

Combined with the pressures of a rapidly growing and increasingly demanding population, it might be tempting for African countries to pursue a strategy aimed at fueling growth, while relegating environmental concerns for later consideration.

This was the essence of development strategies pursued by both Western industrialized countries and their followers in East Asia and elsewhere.

At the core of the challenge will be how African countries provide energy in the future, given the multifold interlinkages of energy and other SDGs.


By neither deliberately identifying new business opportunities nor introducing new types of work, ENG2, INJECT1 and SYSINT continued their established behaviours and practices. INJECT1 and SYSINT did not have sufficiently close involvement with clients to allow individual staff to apply their knowledge. This was highlighted by INJECT1 and SYSINT working with customer-developed tooling and customer-defined project specifications, respectively. In contrast, ENG1, INJECT2 and BUILD proactively made changes to customerdefined designs, drawing from employee understanding in addition to capabilities of their suppliers to augment internal resources. New types of work required these firms to adapt internal processes through PI activities, resulting in a requirement to generate new insights, which could then be captured in new organisational processes necessary for consistently delivering new business. In contrast, for ENG2 that did not systematically introduce new business, the over-refinement of operational processes led to individuals resisting change, creating problems when it was necessary to introduce new equipment. While there is a requirement to maintain existing business, ENG2, INJECT1 and SYSINT illustrate the risks associated with the over-exploitation of existing processes that limit strategic development, reflecting OL theory (Levinthal and March 1993) .

While there is a requirement to maintain existing business, ENG2, INJECT1 and SYSINT illustrate the risks associated with the over-exploitation of existing processes that limit strategic development, reflecting OL theory.


The production of IL-12 strongly promotes the development of IFN-c producing helper T (TH)-cells. IL-12 may not only be essential for macrophage-mediated allograft rejection via induction of TH1 responses, but IL-12 may be involved in delaying rejection via induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and indolamine 2,3 dioxygenase (IDO) [28] . This positive effect was shown in several skin or heart allograft models, as well as in the course of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) [29] [30] [31] .

IL-12 may not only be essential for macrophage-mediated allograft rejection via induction of TH1 responses, but IL-12 may be involved in delaying rejection via induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and indolamine 2,3 dioxygenase (IDO).

This positive effect was shown in several skin or heart allograft models, as well as in the course of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD).


At the heart of the LK algorithm is the notion that an approximate linear relationship between pixel appearance and geometric displacement can be reliably established. Pixel intensities are not deterministically differentiable with respect to geometric displacement. Instead, the linear relationship is established stochastically through spatial finite differences whose outputs we refer to as image gradients. The notion of estimating stochastic gradients on image intensities has a long and rich history dating back to some of the most seminal works of computer vision [29] . Further, it has been well documented that pixel intensities within natural images are strongly correlated over small spatial areas further validating the assumed approximate linear relationship between pixel intensities and geometric displacement [34] . Pixel intensities, however, have a problem when applied to most practical image alignment tasks. Specifically, they violate the brightness constancy assumption, which states that pixel intensities describing a scene shall remain constant under geometric distortion. Our proposed dense bit-planes descriptor offers a solution to this shortcoming using a computationally efficient strategy.

The notion of estimating stochastic gradients on image intensities has a long and rich history dating back to some of the most seminal works of computer vision.

Further, it has been well documented that pixel intensities within natural images are strongly correlated over small spatial areas further validating the assumed approximate linear relationship between pixel intensities and geometric displacement.


A classical way of speeding up the task of image alignment is to linearize pixel intensities of an image with respect to geometric displacement. The most notable example of this strategy can be found in the seminal work of Lucas & Kanade [27] . The Lucas & Kanade (LK) algorithm attempts to establish an approximate linear relationship between appearance and geometric displacement. Efficient linear solvers can then be employed for finding the best geometric alignment of the image with respect to a known template. The relationship between appearance and geometric displacement is seldom linear, so the linearization process is typically repeated until convergence. Due to its importance, numerous extensions and variations upon the LK algorithm have subsequently been explored in literature [2] .

The most notable example of this strategy can be found in the seminal work of Lucas & Kanade.

Due to its importance, numerous extensions and variations upon the LK algorithm have subsequently been explored in literature.


The past two decades has witnessed the popularity of the online electronic channels. Now more and more customers are accustomed to purchasing products online, which induces an increasing number of retailers or manufacturers to introduce the online channels into their traditional marketing channels. It is reported that on November 11th, 2014, the trade volume of Tmall.com, a platform for local Chinese and international businesses to sell brand name goods to consumers, is up to 35 billion Yuan. The convenience of online payment and prompt logistics distribution jointly contribute to the popularity online channels. Through online channels, firms can process customers' orders, control the distribution and pricing of goods, have a greater understanding of customers' preference (Mukhopadhyay, Zhu & Yue, 2008) . It is reported that about 42% of the top suppliers such as IBM, Nike, Pioneer Electronics, Estee Lauder, and Dell, are selling to customers through online channels (Chiang, Chhajed & Hess, 2003; Tsay & Agrawal, 2004) .

Through online channels, firms can process customers' orders, control the distribution and pricing of goods, have a greater understanding of customers' preference.

It is reported that about 42% of the top suppliers such as IBM, Nike, Pioneer Electronics, Estee Lauder, and Dell, are selling to customers through online channels.


Currently, many researchers have accepted the challenge of moving beyond the traditional border of two-dimensionality (2D). This emerging research interest in 3D (x, y and z) and even 4D (3D + time) is located in various domains, from geography over transport studies to biology (Breunig and Zlatanova, 2011) . Handling the additional dimensions (depth and/or time) could facilitate gaining insight and better analyses. Although 3D space and time are both implicitly present in our daily lives, their integration in geo-information science and especially in GIS have seemed slightly problematic (Peuquet, 2001; Breunig and Zlatanova, 2011) .

This emerging research interest in 3D (x, y and z) and even 4D (3D + time) is located in various domains, from geography over transport studies to biology.

Although 3D space and time are both implicitly present in our daily lives, their integration in geo-information science and especially in GIS have seemed slightly problematic.


Using varying electric field intensities, different film morphologies were observed. As the electric field was increased, the film morphology became much denser. This is in agreement with previously published data [18] . A rise in the electric field is met with an increase in the packing density of the film and a decrease in the EPD current, but the packing density is actually dependent on the EPD current as there is electrolysis of water at the cathode. A higher current results in more hydrolysis of water resulting in more evolution of hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas evolution interrupts the deposition of the nanocrystalline titanium oxide particle and creates pores in the film. It was important to find a balance between internal surface area of the film and the ability of the dye to penetrate deep into the films pores. Too porous of a film results in low surface area and poor light absorption, while too dense of a film results in low penetration of the dye. From the SEM images in Figure 1 , it was found 20 V/cm gave the desired film morphology. Cross-sectional views of the nanocrystalline titanium oxide particle films revealed the desired deposition time to be 15 minutes, leading to a film thickness of 16 μm as shown in Figure 2 .

This is in agreement with previously published data.


The ideas explored in this paper are based upon the work undertaken during a three-year teaching and learning advancement initiative in one faculty in a UK university. The focus being on enhancing teaching and learning practice through both a programme of staff development activities and opportunities for individuals to come together to share practice and discuss issues. A group of teaching and learning co-ordinators had the responsibility for driving this agenda forward and they are the authors of this paper (called respondents throughout). The group set out, over a three-year period, to support the development of their colleagues in what was branded as "developing inspiring teaching". The focus in this paper is on staff development; it is not the intention to explore links to the student experience. The paper aims to share reflections at the end of the initiative in relation to the overarching research questions which are to explore both the facets of inspiring teaching and the role a faculty-based initiative can play in the development of inspiring teaching. Insights into these areas will add to a body of knowledge around understanding and developing teaching which is an area that has had little research focused on it at a faculty level (De Courcy, 2015) . The number of voices in this paper is acknowledged as a limitation; however, the authors spent significant time working with staff from across the faculty which means their reflections are an accumulation of experiences from others and therefore can add a perspective to this field of enquiry.

Insights into these areas will add to a body of knowledge around understanding and developing teaching which is an area that has had little research focused on it at a faculty level.


So the following scenario is at least plausible and will be pursued here: The parameters of nature are highly natural on average, perhaps in some landscape framework [20] [21] [22] . In the visible sector, parameters may appear fine-tuned, but this is due to selection effects or some other dynamical reason, while in the dark sector the parameters really are highly natural (and environmental selection effects are only relevant in extreme corners of parameter space). This leads to the model building exercise of constructing entirely natural models of dark matter that achieve the correct relic abundance and fit with observations. We will in fact build models where the relic abundance varies with the fundamental couplings on a logarithmic scale due to the renormalization group flow of couplings, and hence only requiring O(1) inputs. If the parameters of nature are unique, this seems much more palatable with ideas on unification. Moreover, in a landscape scenario, this would be exponentially preferred over any other models where the parameters need to be fine-tuned.

So the following scenario is at least plausible and will be pursued here: The parameters of nature are highly natural on average, perhaps in some landscape framework.


In the literature, often the idea associated with "natural" models involves the concept of "technical naturalness", in which it is said to be technically natural for a parameter to be small if the theory acquires a symmetry in the limit in which the parameter is taken to zero [23] . This is associated with parameters being stable against large radiative corrections. While this is an interesting model building idea, there is little evidence that this is any kind of principle in nature; modern physics is built only on Poincaré symmetry and the rules of quantum mechanics. The only other symmetries observed are those that are dictated by these underlying principles. For example, CPT invariance is a property of any local Lorentz invariant theory. Furthermore, the Standard Model gauge group SU (3) × SU (2) × U (1) is comprised of two aspects: (i) a pure "gauge symmetry" part which is in fact a mere redundancy and can be removed from the theory by gauge fixing, and (ii) a global symmetry sub-group, which is a real symmetry, but is not optional, it is required as the only consistent way to have interacting massless spin 1 particles that obey the underlying principles [24] .

In the literature, often the idea associated with "natural" models involves the concept of "technical naturalness", in which it is said to be technically natural for a parameter to be small if the theory acquires a symmetry in the limit in which the parameter is taken to zero.

Furthermore, the Standard Model gauge group SU (3) × SU (2) × U (1) is comprised of two aspects: (i) a pure "gauge symmetry" part which is in fact a mere redundancy and can be removed from the theory by gauge fixing, and (ii) a global symmetry sub-group, which is a real symmetry, but is not optional, it is required as the only consistent way to have interacting massless spin 1 particles that obey the underlying principles.


In the early stages of development, leaf area largely determines the rate of crop growth (Goudriaan and Van Laar, 1994) . Therefore, an accurate simulation of leaf area is a prerequisite for the modelling of dry matter production. In a companion paper, the leaf number dynamics of spaced wheat (Triticum aesti um L.) plants subjected to various temperature and light conditions were presented (Bos and Neuteboom, 1998) . The current paper considers data, from the same experiment, on area expansion of individual leaves at different leaf positions.

In the early stages of development, leaf area largely determines the rate of crop growth.

In a companion paper, the leaf number dynamics of spaced wheat (Triticum aesti um L.) plants subjected to various temperature and light conditions were presented.


In general, N = (2, 2) gauge theories admit two kinds of topological twist. One is the A-twist which uses the vector R-symmetry U(1) V , and the other is the B-twist which uses the axial R-symmetry U(1) A . We can see which twist is induced on the 5d theory by considering the case Σ = R 2 . It has been observed that 5d MSYM theory on R 2 ×M without the Ω-deformation, viewed as an N = (2, 2) gauge theory on R 2 , has a superpotential given by the Chern-Simons functional for a complex gauge field A on M [8] . For nonabelian gauge group, the superpotential is not homogeneous in A, and this leads to breaking of U(1) V . So the twisting must be done with U(1) A . To summarize, the dimensional reduction of the Ω-deformed twisted 5d MSYM theory on M is an Ω-deformed B-twisted gauge theory. Conversely, we can construct this 5d theory by "lifting" an Ω-deformed B-twisted gauge theory from two to five dimensions.

It has been observed that 5d MSYM theory on R 2 ×M without the Ω-deformation, viewed as an N = (2, 2) gauge theory on R 2 , has a superpotential given by the Chern-Simons functional for a complex gauge field A on M.


The main ideas presented here would apply to other sequential designs having convergence properties. For instance, when dealing with non-life-threatening diseases or transient toxicities it may be appropriate to reformulate the problem in a classical decision theoretic framework. In this context the designs could be driven by different criteria such as D-optimality or variance minimisation. Since there may be a connection between the continual reassessment method and bandit problems with a high rate of discount, an experimenter could also consider the possibility of intermediate designs (Berry & Eick, 1995) .

Since there may be a connection between the continual reassessment method and bandit problems with a high rate of discount, an experimenter could also consider the possibility of intermediate designs.


In addition to macrophages, adipose tissue contains other inflammatory cells, and several recent studies have identified mast cells in adipose tissue of both mice and humans [15, 16] . When adipose mast cells were reduced through genetic or drug manipulation, the metabolic profiles of mice were improved [16] . In another study of humans, mast cell number was no different between obese and lean humans, however the degree of mast cell activation was higher with obesity, and the overall number of mast cells was higher in patients with T2DM [17] .

In addition to macrophages, adipose tissue contains other inflammatory cells, and several recent studies have identified mast cells in adipose tissue of both mice and humans.

When adipose mast cells were reduced through genetic or drug manipulation, the metabolic profiles of mice were improved.

In another study of humans, mast cell number was no different between obese and lean humans, however the degree of mast cell activation was higher with obesity, and the overall number of mast cells was higher in patients with T2DM.


There are two ways for nanoparticle targeting. The first is the passive targeting of nanoparticles to tumor, the cluster of nanoparticles into the microenvironment tumor due to increased permeation effect caused by increased endocytic transport, vascular exudate, and decreased lymphatic drainage [29] . However, this process does not ensure the passive intake of nanoparticles into tumor cells. Another target or driving method with nanoparticles is functional coating with specific ligand to active target in tumor cells [30] . SPION functionalization has been improved in recent years, but optimization in kinetics and biodistribution of nanoparticles are not well established for cancer treatment [30] .

The first is the passive targeting of nanoparticles to tumor, the cluster of nanoparticles into the microenvironment tumor due to increased permeation effect caused by increased endocytic transport, vascular exudate, and decreased lymphatic drainage.

Another target or driving method with nanoparticles is functional coating with specific ligand to active target in tumor cells.

SPION functionalization has been improved in recent years, but optimization in kinetics and biodistribution of nanoparticles are not well established for cancer treatment.


Therefore, considering the importance of understanding of new approaches for the diagnosis and/or treatment of glioma, we conducted a systematic review of magnetic targeting technique. This technique is presented as a possible alternative to enhance the treatment of brain tumors using nanobiotechnology resources. This systematic review was conducted in preclinical studies as well as mimic key features of human disease, such as tumor progression kinetics and anti-tumor responses of the immune system in the presence of GBM [35, 36] . It allows the observation of the advantages and disadvantages of magnetic targeting technique.

This systematic review was conducted in preclinical studies as well as mimic key features of human disease, such as tumor progression kinetics and anti-tumor responses of the immune system in the presence of GBM.


Brain tumors, especially malignant gliomas, are among the most aggressive human cancers. Despite conventional treatment, which involves surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, the prognosis is poor, with only 3-5% of patients surviving more than 3 years [64] [65] [66] . Furthermore, conventional chemotherapy has several disadvantages, such as low therapeutic efficacy and severe systemic toxicity due to low selectivity for neoplastic cells [67] .

Despite conventional treatment, which involves surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, the prognosis is poor, with only 3-5% of patients surviving more than 3 years.

Furthermore, conventional chemotherapy has several disadvantages, such as low therapeutic efficacy and severe systemic toxicity due to low selectivity for neoplastic cells.


Unlike conventional shear based machining processes, electrochemical machining (ECM) removes material through the process of anodic dissolution. ECM methods are attractive to manufacturers since no residual stress is created at the machined surface and therefore the material properties and the microstructure are unaffected [1] . Invoking location specific microstructural changes, then exposing them through selective anodic dissolution can therefore be used to create an alternative topography closely related to the underlying microstructure.

ECM methods are attractive to manufacturers since no residual stress is created at the machined surface and therefore the material properties and the microstructure are unaffected.


Laser surface treatment is a well-established method for invoking localised microstructural changes via laser heating of a surface layer and subsequent quenching due to thermal conduction into the work piece [10] . This process is often employed as a substitute for induction hardening with advantages in terms of flexibility, ease of implementation and more localised application. Hardened layer depth is typically in the order of 0.05-1 mm where surface melting is to be avoided. The necessary laser power is a function of the focused beam spot size, scanning speed, target material composition (determining thermal and absorption response) and surface roughness. At low to moderate laser fluence, residual stresses are compressive leading to improved fatigue life, a characteristic that is potentially of great importance for highly stressed textured surfaces where shot peening is presently employed to improve fatigue life [11] . Local microstructural modification using laser processes is now feasible in most manufacturing settings with predictable results as a consequence of significant research, which used in this study [12, 13, 14] .

Laser surface treatment is a well-established method for invoking localised microstructural changes via laser heating of a surface layer and subsequent quenching due to thermal conduction into the work piece.

At low to moderate laser fluence, residual stresses are compressive leading to improved fatigue life, a characteristic that is potentially of great importance for highly stressed textured surfaces where shot peening is presently employed to improve fatigue life.

Local microstructural modification using laser processes is now feasible in most manufacturing settings with predictable results as a consequence of significant research, which used in this study.


Low cost generation of controlled surface textures remains a challenge for manufacturers. Generation of deterministic surfaces requires repeatable and precise control of the process. Limitations for these techniques usually relate to the precision of the translation apparatus and the smallest interaction volume that can be affected. The latter is characteristic of the process physics. In an attempt to create equally functional but stochastic surfaces this study investigates controlling and exploiting material microstructures for complex surface creation on the microscale. Herein, material pre-treatments have been investigated to alter the surface topography and resulting roughness of an EJM processed surface, while retaining pre-treatment induced hardening. Laser pre-treatments of steels can be used to modify the response of the materials to the electrochemical jet process for the purpose of creating variable microstructure, hardened surfaces for industrial applications. Characterisation of the resulting surfaces has been undertaken to assess the phases present at the exposed surfaces illustrating different chemical effects dependent on both the laser and EJM parameters used in the study. The findings of this study could have potential applications in fields where performance characteristics, topological differences, and increases in material hardness across the same component at the microscale are desired, such as micro-injection moulds where robust microtextured surfaces that are highly resistant to wear are desired [17] . To this end, the material hardness was appraised after pre-treatment and subsequent electrochemical processing. Microscale surface texture control by EJM has also been explored to control surface super-hydrophobicity [18] .

The findings of this study could have potential applications in fields where performance characteristics, topological differences, and increases in material hardness across the same component at the microscale are desired, such as micro-injection moulds where robust microtextured surfaces that are highly resistant to wear are desired.

Microscale surface texture control by EJM has also been explored to control surface super-hydrophobicity.


It is possible to use pulsed laser processing to control surface roughness at different scales, and pico-and femtosecond regime laser machining processes also allow for high resolution deterministic surface creation [15, 16] . Material response is known to be a function of thermal and mechanical properties however, these processes do not allow for the exposure of the preinstalled microstructural features. Also, since ablation is rapid the hardening profile is distinct from continuous wave laser surface treatment. Furthermore, the capital cost of these systems is an order of magnitude higher than the cost for the simple apparatus used in this study.

It is possible to use pulsed laser processing to control surface roughness at different scales, and pico-and femtosecond regime laser machining processes also allow for high resolution deterministic surface creation.


These authors imply that the MDGs should not be used as performance measures and do not consider alternative measurement methods that would avoid the unintended and counter-productive consequences of a biased metric. Abandoning performance measurement would undermine a major objective of the MDGs which is not only to create incentives but also to strengthen accountability. The special value of MDGs is that they set quantitative and time bound targets which makes possible rigorous performance monitoring of commitments made by world leaders to end absolute poverty. That was the main reason why the MDGs were welcomed by the international community when they were introduced; they went beyond stating general objectives, making possible more evidence based debates about international development policies and efforts. The MDGs have no doubt come to dominate international development debates because they respond to the greater demand from the public and politicians for "results based management" in development aid ( Hulme, 2010) . They are particularly important in an international aid environment where ex-ante policy conditionality of the 1980s has been replaced with ex-post reward for good policy. Thus, IMF and World Bank country economic development reports consistently include data on MDG performance. Thus performance monitoring then is a central function of MDGs, not just an accidental, unintended use. But if the MDGs are to be effective in this role, the method of determining progress, or a lack thereof, must be the correct one. It is then important to have the right concept of the goals, the criteria of success and failure, and methodology for measuring performance.

The MDGs have no doubt come to dominate international development debates because they respond to the greater demand from the public and politicians for "results based management" in development aid.


Recently, the interest in the synthesis of 3,4-dihydropyrimidin-2(1H)-ones and their derivatives is increasing tremendously because of their pharmacological and therapeutic properties such as calcium channel blockers, antihypertensive agents, a 1a -antagonists and neuropeptide Y(NPY) antagonists (Atwal et al., 1991) . They are also known to possess interesting biological activities such as antiallergic, antibacterial, antifungal, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and anticancer activities (Kamaljit et al., 2011) . The first synthetic method for the preparation of 3,4-dihydropyrimidine-2(1H)-ones (DHPMs) was reported by Biginelli. It involves the one-pot three component condensation of b-dicarbonyl compounds, aldehydes, and urea or thiourea in ethanol under strongly acidic conditions. This reaction often requires harsh conditions, long reaction times and affords low yields in the case of substituted aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes (Atwal et al., 1989) .

Recently, the interest in the synthesis of 3,4-dihydropyrimidin-2(1H)-ones and their derivatives is increasing tremendously because of their pharmacological and therapeutic properties such as calcium channel blockers, antihypertensive agents, a 1a -antagonists and neuropeptide Y(NPY) antagonists.

They are also known to possess interesting biological activities such as antiallergic, antibacterial, antifungal, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and anticancer activities.

This reaction often requires harsh conditions, long reaction times and affords low yields in the case of substituted aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes.


In our central nervous system, neurons seem to form some small specific graphs presenting biologically relevant structures and behaviors [2] . These graphs, to which we refer as archetypes, can be coupled to constitute the elementary bricks of bigger neuronal networks. In this work, we formally study the dynamical behavior of some representative archetypes and their couplings. Archetypes can be seen as the syllables on a given alphabet. The composition of two (or more) syllables can give rise to either existent or nonexistent words. In this similitude, archetype coupling can give way to observed biological behaviors or unknown ones. Again, two different syllable compositions may generate two words having the same meaning. At the same way, several archetype couplings can display the same behavior.

In our central nervous system, neurons seem to form some small specific graphs presenting biologically relevant structures and behaviors.


It has been estimated that the annual number of snakebite accidents in the world is around 5 million, among which, 20,000 to 94,000 result in the death of the patient [1] [2] [3] . In general, accidents caused by species within the Viperidae family (Bothrops spp., Crotalus spp.) are characterized by local damage to the tissues, including myonecrosis, dermonecrosis, hemorrhage, and edema [4] . Myonecrosis is one of the most prominent effects induced by these venoms, causing the loss of tissue and permanent disability. This effect is produced mainly by the enzyme phospholipase A 2 (PLA 2 ; EC 3.1.1.4.), which hydrolyzes membrane phospholipids generating fatty acids which participate in the inflammatory process [5] . The current main treatment for snakebite accidents is intravenous administration of equine immunoglobulins [6] . However, the antivenoms available for bothropic accidents exhibit a limited neutralization of local and rapid installation effects [7] .

It has been estimated that the annual number of snakebite accidents in the world is around 5 million, among which, 20,000 to 94,000 result in the death of the patient.

In general, accidents caused by species within the Viperidae family (Bothrops spp., Crotalus spp.) are characterized by local damage to the tissues, including myonecrosis, dermonecrosis, hemorrhage, and edema.

This effect is produced mainly by the enzyme phospholipase A 2 (PLA 2 ; EC 3.1.1.4.), which hydrolyzes membrane phospholipids generating fatty acids which participate in the inflammatory process.

The current main treatment for snakebite accidents is intravenous administration of equine immunoglobulins.

However, the antivenoms available for bothropic accidents exhibit a limited neutralization of local and rapid installation effects.


The literature review has shown that most of the existing studies are concerned with the determination of which variable or group of variables has caused the signal through single step modeling. However, there is a difficulty that may not have been addressed yet. When the number of quality characteristics is large, the existing decomposition methods and/or machine learning methods may lack the capability to handle such a situation. In addition, because process faults are typically attributed to mean shifts and the multivariate normal process is one of the most widely used applications, the present study is motivated by addressing mean shift faults for a multivariate normal process with a large number of quality variables. A review of relevant literature also indicates that the application of ANN for process fault determination is promising; however, it suffers from the requirement of a large number of controlling parameters and the risk of model overfitting [23] [24] [25] . Consequently, contrary to the existing approaches, the present study proposes two-stage hybrid schemes to identify which quality variable or group of variables is responsible for process mean shift faults. The proposed schemes integrate multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS), logistic regression (LR), and artificial neural networks, which are referred to as the MARS-ANN and LR-ANN schemes, respectively. The performance of the proposed approaches was examined by a series of computer simulations.

A review of relevant literature also indicates that the application of ANN for process fault determination is promising; however, it suffers from the requirement of a large number of controlling parameters and the risk of model overfitting.


PMSE are by now fairly well understood, being caused by the presence of large (a few nanometers or more) particles, probably created by condensation of supersaturated water vapour at the extremely cold summer mesopause. Such large particles quickly become electrically charged by the plasma. In order to preserve charge neutrality in the plasma, free electrons are essentially "frozen" to the ice particles, with density fluctuations that mirror the ice particle density fluctuations. Once small-scale ice-particle density fluctuations have been created, for instance through turbulence, their low diffusivity then implies that the corresponding small-scale electron density fluctuations may last for a long time, up to hours, even in the absence of active turbulence. The time constant for destruction of fluctuations depends on particle size (r 2 ), i.e. on altitude (Lie-Svendsen et al., 2003; Rapp and Lübken, 2004) .

The time constant for destruction of fluctuations depends on particle size (r 2 ), i.e. on altitude.


In both rocket flights we see a distinct difference between the ion density fluctuation spectra inside and outside of altitude ranges with PMWE. Inside the PMWE the spectra display a k −5/3 wavenumber dependence over about two decades, indicating the inertial subrange of a turbulent cascade. Outside the PMWE altitude ranges we see little or no signs of a turbulent cascade, with a ∼k −3 spectrum at small wavenumbers and a ∼k −7 spectrum at higher wavenumbers. Other observations (spectral broadening of radar signals consistent with turbulent velocity fluctuations, adiabatic lapse rates caused by turbulent mixing, etc.) from the same rocket campaign support this conclusion (Lübken et al., 2006) . At the boundaries of the PMWE regions the small scale fluctuations, at k 10 −1 m −1 , quickly disappear as we move away from the PMWE. Interpreting this as an increase in the inner scale, it means that the energy dissipation rate is quickly reduced as we move up/down at the upper/lower boundaries of the PMWE. Inside the PMWE layers the smallscale fluctuations are located in several narrow sublayers.

Other observations (spectral broadening of radar signals consistent with turbulent velocity fluctuations, adiabatic lapse rates caused by turbulent mixing, etc.) from the same rocket campaign support this conclusion.


Energy, fat, saturated fat, and MUFA intakes of runners in this study were within guidelines established for Americans [9, 18, 26] . Dietary cholesterol consumption was higher during the egg treatment periods (311 ± 37.3 mg · day −1 during the n-3 PUFA-enriched egg treatment and 331 ± 35.5 mg · day −1 during the conventional egg treatment) than during the baseline period (209 ± 37 mg · day −1 ; P> 0.05). The American Heart Association currently has no limitation on the number of eggs that a healthy person can eat; however, the recommendation for cholesterol intake is 300 mg · day −1 [9] . The addition of one egg per day resulted in an increase in cholesterol intakes above baseline levels, although this did not affect serum cholesterol levels.

Energy, fat, saturated fat, and MUFA intakes of runners in this study were within guidelines established for Americans.

The American Heart Association currently has no limitation on the number of eggs that a healthy person can eat; however, the recommendation for cholesterol intake is 300 mg · day −1.


To contrast the two approaches to creation of an annotated corpus, we present a case study of word sense annotation. The items that were annotated are occurrences of words in their sentence contexts, and each label is a WordNet sense (Miller, 1995) . Each item has sense labels from up to twenty-five different annotators, collected through crowdsourcing. Application of an annotation model does not require this many labels per item, and crowdsourced annotation data does not require a probabilistic model. The case study, however, shows how the two benefit each other.

The items that were annotated are occurrences of words in their sentence contexts, and each label is a WordNet sense.


Second, the timing of LS administration appears to be critical: In our practice, LS was started after induction of anesthesia, when LVEF was determined using transoesophageal echocardiography. Without initial bolus, a steadystate is achieved after 4h [25] . As median operation time in our study population was 157 min., the full effect of LS might not have been reached at the critical time points, namely weaning from cardiopulmonary bypass and immediate postoperative phase.

Without initial bolus, a steadystate is achieved after 4h.


According to our results beet leafhopper populations in the Columbia Basin are highly variable. While at many of the sites beet leafhoppers might be relatively low, a few sites each year have larger populations. These Þndings suggest that beet leafhopper populations may be relatively localized within the Columbia Basin. This is in agreement with previous observations for the Columbia Basin but contrasts with the populations of beet leafhoppers in California, which are documented to be highly migratory and widely dispersed (Cook 1967) .

This is in agreement with previous observations for the Columbia Basin but contrasts with the populations of beet leafhoppers in California, which are documented to be highly migratory and widely dispersed.


What we don't know yet is how the three orders, nucleosome, gene and chromosome levels, interact and influence each other. Chromatin looping and folding into particular shapes such as the so-called fractal globule are currently the most advanced explanations on how chromatin can be organised inside the cell nucleus [44] [45] [46] . Nonetheless, how a 10-30 nm chromatin fibre transits to commonly observed X-shaped metaphase chromosomes is still an open question.

Chromatin looping and folding into particular shapes such as the so-called fractal globule are currently the most advanced explanations on how chromatin can be organised inside the cell nucleus.


Dandelion is a biennial herbaceous plant native to temperate areas, and it contains large amounts of inulin (12% -15%) and oligofructans in its tap roots [20, 21] . Dandelion was found to have several medicinal benefits [22] [23] [24] . Dandelion compounds increase bile production and flow. The increased bile flow might improve cholesterol metabolism [24] . The leaves are used to help digestion, and as diuretic. Dandelion is promoted as a blood purifier. Dandelion root has been used to detoxify the liver and gallbladder, while its leaves used to support Photo 1. A cross section in a lamb testis given dandelion extract (prebiotic) showing testes histo-architecture disturbance seminiferous tubules (thin arrows), interstitial tissue edema and vaculation (thick arrows) (×200).

Dandelion is a biennial herbaceous plant native to temperate areas, and it contains large amounts of inulin (12% -15%) and oligofructans in its tap roots.

Dandelion was found to have several medicinal benefits.

The increased bile flow might improve cholesterol metabolism.


Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) leaves and roots have been used for hundreds of years to treat liver, gallbladder, kidney, and joint problems. Dandelion is traditionally considered as an alternative and is used for conditions as varied as eczema and cancer [1] . In North America, the Iroquois people prepared infusions and decoctions of the root and whole herb to treat kidney disease, dropsy, and dermatological conditions. As is the case today, dandelion leaves have also been used historically as a diuretic.

Dandelion is traditionally considered as an alternative and is used for conditions as varied as eczema and cancer.