Since decades, solar cells based on crystalline silicon (cSi) have been dominating the photovoltaic market. Enhancing the power conversion efficiency of this type of solar cell, while, at the same time, decreasing fabrication costs is an important short-term strategy to increase the competiveness of photovoltaic energy generation with respect to conventional energy sources. As the silicon material itself represents an important contribution to the cSi solar cells fabrication costs, the thickness of the cells is one of the issues to tackle. It is necessary to thin down the solar cells as much as possible without compromising their efficiency, and even enhancing it. As cSi has a relatively low absorption coefficient on a broad spectrum, keeping a high efficiency means tackling the losses in absorption, and therefore also in current. In present commercial cSi solar cells, this is commonly done by texturing the front surface of the solar cell with randomly distributed pyramids. These typically have a height of a few microns and a broad size distribution. As this texturing is obtained by anisotropic hydroxide solution etching, the pyramids feature sidewalls with a slope of 54.7 [1] . Record efficiencies for single-junction silicon solar cells were obtained by solar cells textured with periodic inverted pyramids using a multi-step method involving photolithography, which is not compatible with industrial solar cell manufacturing. These inverted pyramids also have a typical scale of several microns, thus much larger than the wavelength of the absorbed visible and near infrared light [2] . Both these types of textures rely on refraction and reflection of light to enhance the absorption, and as a result, also the photocurrent generated by the solar cell. The commonly accepted absorption enhancement limit for these types of textures is that of a randomly nanotextured surface, with a lambertian scattering pattern, i.e. that scatters all incident light with a cosine angular profile. Another common feature of both these textures is a cSi material consumption of 10-15 µm thickness from each wafer sides, which means that they can only be applied to silicon wafers that are much thicker than that.

As this texturing is obtained by anisotropic hydroxide solution etching, the pyramids feature sidewalls with a slope of 54.7.

These inverted pyramids also have a typical scale of several microns, thus much larger than the wavelength of the absorbed visible and near infrared light.


Forgiveness has been hypothesized to be facilitated by positive emotions associated with love and altruism (McCullough et al., 1998) . Mothers can assist their children in their character development by teaching them to be understanding and forgiving when angry. Forgiveness is a highly effective virtue in diminishing the excessive anger and sadness that is associated in most childhood depression. Forgiveness can reduce excessive anger in children and in teenagers and may prevent the later development of psychiatric disorders by giving children and teenager a proven method for resolving anger.

Forgiveness has been hypothesized to be facilitated by positive emotions associated with love and altruism.


Given the prevalence of depression and the problems it creates, investigators have spent a great deal of effort to identify factors that may be useful for improving its detection and diagnosis. Factors affecting development and predisposition to depression are numerous (Hankin, 2006) . Biomedical and psychosocial risk factors include a family history of depression, female sex, childhood abuse or neglect, stressful life events, and chronic illness.

Factors affecting development and predisposition to depression are numerous.


Over the past years, more and more evidence has shown that depression is a serious mental health issue that can affect even very young children (Shugart & Lopez, 2002) . The pre-pubertal age depression rates for boys and girls are similar, and doubled in females after puberty (Costello, Mustillo, Erkanli, Keeler, & Angold, 2003; Dopheide, 2006) . Depression may adversely affect an individual's academic achievement, social and familial relationships, contribute to health problems, and increase his or her risk for suicide and substance abuse.

Over the past years, more and more evidence has shown that depression is a serious mental health issue that can affect even very young children.

The pre-pubertal age depression rates for boys and girls are similar, and doubled in females after puberty.


Prior work showed that anesthesiologists perceive OR management to be an integral part of their professional work (Marjamaa and Kirvela, 2007; Larsson et al., 2003) . As reviewed in the Introduction, statistical methods are needed for good OR management decisions, and misconceptions that good decisions can be made absent statistical methods are due to psychological biases. Our course in operations research for surgical services teaches OR management, including when to apply different statistical methods, enabling anesthesiologists and other managers to make evidence-based decisions.

Prior work showed that anesthesiologists perceive OR management to be an integral part of their professional work.


Understand normal distribution, area under normal distribution, differences among normal distributions, and standard normal distribution (Chapter 6) Calculate appropriate hours of staffing for each specialty by day of the week based on mean and standard deviation of actual workload (McIntosh et al., 2006) . Methods that rely on the total durations of workdays in ORs often follow normal distributions (McIntosh et al., 2006) . The total hours for which staffing has been planned but no cases need to be done represents time available for other activities (e.g., meetings) and is estimated by using areas under the normal distribution curve (McIntosh et al., 2006) .

Understand normal distribution, area under normal distribution, differences among normal distributions, and standard normal distribution (Chapter 6) Calculate appropriate hours of staffing for each specialty by day of the week based on mean and standard deviation of actual workload.

Methods that rely on the total durations of workdays in ORs often follow normal distributions.

The total hours for which staffing has been planned but no cases need to be done represents time available for other activities (e.g., meetings) and is estimated by using areas under the normal distribution curve.


The petroleum refinery and petrochemical industries are two of the largest industries in Iran [8] . Wastewater generated by petroleum industries is very complex, and includes several inorganic and organic components, such as emulsified oil, sulfides, ammonia, cyanides and especially phenol and phenolic derivatives [41] . Due to the nature of the pollutants included in petrochemical and oil refinery wastewater, its treatment is a challenging issue and several different physical-chemical, mechanical and even biological conventional treatment processes have been tested for its restoration in the past.

The petroleum refinery and petrochemical industries are two of the largest industries in Iran.

Wastewater generated by petroleum industries is very complex, and includes several inorganic and organic components, such as emulsified oil, sulfides, ammonia, cyanides and especially phenol and phenolic derivatives.


An ANN attempts to learn the relationships between the input and output data sets in the following way: during the training phase, input/output data pairs, called training data, are introduced into the neural network. The difference between the actual output values of the network and the training output values is then calculated. The difference is an error value which is decreased during the training by modifying the weight values of the connections. Training is continued iteratively until the error value has reached the predetermined training goal [22] .

Training is continued iteratively until the error value has reached the predetermined training goal.


With the interdisciplinary development of modern computational technologies, artificial neural networks (ANNs), as typical artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms, have become an attractive approach for modeling highly complicated and nonlinear system [12, 38, 43] . The ANN can be described as a group of simple processing elements called neurons arranged in parallel layers that are fully interconnected by weighted connections. One of the most important characteristics of neural networks is learning. Artificial neural networks have two operation modes, training mode and normal mode [30] . In training mode, adjustable parameters of the networks are modified. In normal mode, the trained networks are applied for simulating the outputs [30] .

With the interdisciplinary development of modern computational technologies, artificial neural networks (ANNs), as typical artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms, have become an attractive approach for modeling highly complicated and nonlinear system.

Artificial neural networks have two operation modes, training mode and normal mode.

In normal mode, the trained networks are applied for simulating the outputs.


Response surface methodology is a series of experimental design, analysis, and optimization techniques that originated in the work by Box and Wilson in 1951 [6] . The main idea of response surface methodology is to optimize an unknown and noisy function by means of simpler approximating functions that are valid over a small region using designed experiments. By moving the operating conditions of a process using a sequence of experimental designs, process improvement is achieved. Response surface methodology has important applications in industrial designing, developing, and improving existing product. It also can be useful for the formulation of new products. It defines the effect of the controlling or independent variables, alone and in combination on the response, in the processes [3, 7, 20, 21, 23, 27, 33, 40] .

Response surface methodology is a series of experimental design, analysis, and optimization techniques that originated in the work by Box and Wilson in 1951.

It defines the effect of the controlling or independent variables, alone and in combination on the response, in the processes.


It is believed that ANN would require much more number of experiments (number of patterns) than RSM to build an efficient model. But in fact, the ANN can also work well even with relatively less data, if the data are statistically well distributed in the input domain, which is the case with DOE. This experimental data of RSM should be sufficient to build effective ANN model. There are few case studies available in the literature where models were developed by RSM and ANN using same DOE; and ANN models have consistently worked better than RSM [5, 12, 17] .

There are few case studies available in the literature where models were developed by RSM and ANN using same DOE; and ANN models have consistently worked better than RSM.


Recruiting medically skilled manpower remains a constant challenge faced by many health care systems in developing countries due to increased competition from industrialized countries and changing global economic scene [11] . Hospitals in the Arab Middle Eastern countries provide standard care during regular working hours of weekdays. On weekends, evening and night hours, only emergency medical services are provided. Presently, there are no studies published from this part of the world regarding weekend and weekday admission disparity among acute coronary syndrome (ACS) patients. Therefore, we investigated whether there is a discrepancy in the management and care of patients admitted with ACS on weekdays and during morning hours compared with patients admitted on weekends and night hours. We also assessed the possible impact of such a difference on cumulative mortality (30-day and 1-year post admission) in a large cohort from 6 Middle Eastern countries.

Recruiting medically skilled manpower remains a constant challenge faced by many health care systems in developing countries due to increased competition from industrialized countries and changing global economic scene.


There has been a growing interest in recent years in taking a game-theoretic approach to modeling patrol problems. With an intelligent attacker who seeks to minimize his probability of getting caught, the objective of the patrol force is to determine a patrol policy-possibly randomized-to maximize the minimum detection probability regardless of where the attacker chooses to attack. A common model framework is to embed the patrol area in a graph, with nodes representing potential targets for attack, and edges connecting targets next to each other. For instance, a museum can be divided into exhibit rooms as nodes and connecting doors as edges; an open area can be divided into hexagon cells as nodes and adjacent cells connected by edges. A patroller then has to decide how to traverse the graph through edges to detect potential attacks at nodes [3, 4, 5, 15, 22] . There is also a stream of works that study patrol problems with multiple agents. These works typically use distributed methods that rely on local objective functions and myopic policies to produce scalable patrol strategies [1, 2, 6, 17, 18, 19, 24] .

A patroller then has to decide how to traverse the graph through edges to detect potential attacks at nodes.

These works typically use distributed methods that rely on local objective functions and myopic policies to produce scalable patrol strategies.


Despite the wide range of doses of isradipine received by the patients in this study, and despite the fact that many children received proportionately higher doses than those recommended for adults, we were unable to demonstrate a dose-response relationship between the dose of isradipine and the magnitude of BP reduction. This is most likely a function of the retrospective study design and also of the relatively small number of patients included compared with clinical trials of other antihypertensives. This question, as well as the pharmacokinetic issues, could be answered by a multi-center prospective trial similar to those that have been conducted for other antihypertensives under the auspices of the Food and Drug Modernization Act of 1997 [17] .

This question, as well as the pharmacokinetic issues, could be answered by a multi-center prospective trial similar to those that have been conducted for other antihypertensives under the auspices of the Food and Drug Modernization Act of 1997.


In our previous study, the given sensorial data by most panelists confirmed that chickpea could be the best protein source for preparing OVDs when compared statistically with soy and faba bean [49] . Thus, the chickpea was used as main protein source in formulated ovo-vegetarian diet in present study. Regarding to the organoleptic properties, the panelists provided high scores for all prepared diets especially for TOVD and ZOVD. This may be due to the reflected organoleptic characteristics of those diets which might be the most preferred. In contrary, low score has been obtained in SOVD which might be due to the effect of thermal processing on green color of spinach and its disproportionate structure [57] . Reducing the water content with a corresponding denaturation of proteins and browning reactions are reasons for a good texture [30] [58] . Therefore, formulation of chickpea and different vegetables in combination with rich bioactive ingredients is hereby recommended as edible ovo-vegetarian diet, particularly during off-seasons when other conventional vegetables are scarce, expensive or not available.

In our previous study, the given sensorial data by most panelists confirmed that chickpea could be the best protein source for preparing OVDs when compared statistically with soy and faba bean.

In contrary, low score has been obtained in SOVD which might be due to the effect of thermal processing on green color of spinach and its disproportionate structure.

Reducing the water content with a corresponding denaturation of proteins and browning reactions are reasons for a good texture.


TNF␣ treatment reduced levels of IB-␣ in luteal cells as early as 10 min after treatment. In contrast, IB-␣ levels remained constant in response to IFN␥ treatment; however, costimulation with TNF␣ and IFN␥ resulted in decreased levels of IB-␣ similar to those observed in response to TNF␣ treatment alone. The inability of IFN␥ alone to decrease the levels of IB-␣ alone suggests that IFN␥ does not signal directly through the NFB signaling pathway within cultured bovine luteal cells. These results contradict those of previous studies, in which IFN␥ treatment resulted in the activation of NFB [14] . The findings in the present study, however, do not negate the potential involvement of NFB with regard to alternative cell signaling mechanisms as a result of the synergistic actions of TNF␣ and IFN␥. The combined effect of TNF␣ and IFN␥ treatment frequently may contain both NFB binding sites and ISREs [13] . Thus, the effects observed in luteal cells in response to IFN␥ and TNF␣ may be the sum of multiple signaling pathways and therefore multiple protein-DNA interactions. Additional studies will be necessary to further verify the activation and subsequent interaction of NFB and STAT dimers with their respective binding sites as a function of TNF␣ and IFN␥ stimulation in luteal cells.

These results contradict those of previous studies, in which IFN␥ treatment resulted in the activation of NFB.

The combined effect of TNF␣ and IFN␥ treatment frequently may contain both NFB binding sites and ISREs.


Having reviewed the literature on resilience and established a profile of Kosovo, the first phase of the research involved reviewing policy documents and reports relating to economic development. The review focused on those documents relating to economic development, and identified those themes relating to economic resilience and competitiveness. The review also captured secondary data to provide a comprehensive portrait of the economic structure of Kosovo. The themes identified from the literature and policy review served as the basis of the interview schedule for the twenty-two semistructured interviews that were conducted with key stakeholders in Kosovo, and allowed us to develop an in-depth, comprehensive approach to the research and which enables us to refine interrelated concepts and theories (Dana and Dumez, 2015) . The stakeholders included representatives from a range of public institutions and are listed in Table 2 .

The themes identified from the literature and policy review served as the basis of the interview schedule for the twenty-two semistructured interviews that were conducted with key stakeholders in Kosovo, and allowed us to develop an in-depth, comprehensive approach to the research and which enables us to refine interrelated concepts and theories.


PID control is used as the most widely control algorithm in practice. From the point of view of control system technology,fuzzy control is a universal nonlinear characterization domain controller [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] . In recent years,the fuzzy PID control algorithms which combine the merits of fuzzy control and PID control attract more and more attention.

From the point of view of control system technology,fuzzy control is a universal nonlinear characterization domain controller.


SEM images of PANI4, PANI5, and PANI6 show granular and macroporous structure (Figure 6 ). This porous morphology might provide gas adsorption functionality. Characteristic structure such as fiber structure, is often observed for PANIs [18] . However, the PANIs prepared in this study show no such fibril structure, but rather porous structure. This may be due to the fact that trehalose interrupts aggregation of PANI chains for formation of fibril structure. Figure 7 shows compressed pellet of PANI6 and its thermography under irradiation of IR light. This result demonstrated that the polymer have good processability to form the pellet and infrared absorption nature derived from -conjugation of the main chain.

Characteristic structure such as fiber structure, is often observed for PANIs.


Chemical structure of trehalose is illustrated in Figure  1 . A number of organisms such as plants, insects, and microbes have trehalose [11] . It has been considered that trehalose plays important roles for life activity, especially in hibernation. Recently, a mass production technique of trehalose has been developed by the Hayashibara Co. (Okayama, Japan) by a biotechnology process [12] . To date, studies on trehalose are being conducted in several areas, such as food science, medical sciences, and pharmaceutical sciences [13, 14] .

A number of organisms such as plants, insects, and microbes have trehalose.

Recently, a mass production technique of trehalose has been developed by the Hayashibara Co. (Okayama, Japan) by a biotechnology process.

To date, studies on trehalose are being conducted in several areas, such as food science, medical sciences, and pharmaceutical sciences.


Visual inspection of the samples color implies that these PANIs can be an emeraldine salt. FTIR measurements were examined for PANI4-PANI7, PC, and PN to confirm the chemical structure (Figure 2) . Typical absorption bands of PANI are observed at 1558 cm 1 (quinoid (Q) CC stretching), 1472 cm 1 (benzenoid CC stretching), 1297 cm 1 (CN stretching), and 1119 cm 1 (NQN) [17] . Furthermore, PANI4, PANI5, PANI6, and trehalose have absorption band at 1100 cm 1 . On the other hand, PANI7, PN, and PC have no absorption band in this region. This result implies that a small amount of trehalose was coated by PANI during polymerization for PANI4, PANI5, and PANI6. Here, hydrogen bonding interactions may exist between trehalose and PANI. As for PC, characteristic bands at 1150 cm 1 derived from a CSO 3 vibration of ()-CSA appeared. This result confirms formation of the PANI/()-CSA.

Typical absorption bands of PANI are observed at 1558 cm 1 (quinoid (Q) CC stretching), 1472 cm 1 (benzenoid CC stretching), 1297 cm 1 (CN stretching), and 1119 cm 1 (NQN).


A large variety of conjugated organic compounds has been prepared and studied because of their unique optical, electrical, and electronic properties [1] [2] [3] . Polyaniline (PANI) is one of the most promising conducting polymers because of its environmental stability, protonationadjustable electro-optical properties, and high conductivity [4] [5] [6] . Furthermore, preparation of PANI offers an advantage in environmental affinity because PANI can be synthesized in aqueous solution [7] . Recently, conductive polymer composites have attracted much attention because of their variety of properties and functionalities, such as mechanical strength, processibility [8-10. In this research, we focused on employment of trehalose for the production of PANI.

A large variety of conjugated organic compounds has been prepared and studied because of their unique optical, electrical, and electronic properties.

Polyaniline (PANI) is one of the most promising conducting polymers because of its environmental stability, protonationadjustable electro-optical properties, and high conductivity.

Furthermore, preparation of PANI offers an advantage in environmental affinity because PANI can be synthesized in aqueous solution.


The organization of this paper is as follows. First of all, we establish the global existence and uniqueness of weak solutions of problem (1) . The proof is based on the Galerkin method associated with a priori estimates and the weak compact method. Finally, here we prove that this solution is stable in the sense of continuous dependence on the given data ( , , ℎ, , ). This paper is a relative generalization of the works [4, 6, 11, 12] .

First of all, we establish the global existence and uniqueness of weak solutions of problem.

This paper is a relative generalization of the works.


Second indicator: local community satisfaction that is related to communication or interaction within the community. Good involvement among the community creates communication and information sharing. A continuous community involvement will create trust which directly bears satisfaction of living in a neighborhood (McMillan & George, 1986) . Throughout the relationship process, members of the (McMillan & George, 1986) .

A continuous community involvement will create trust which directly bears satisfaction of living in a neighborhood.

Throughout the relationship process, members of the.


Examining the genomic architecture of SCA allows us not only to examine genomic risk markers for SCA, but also to assess causal relationships of clinical and subclinical risk factors with SCA. Mendelian randomization methods exploit the fact that genetic variants are largely determined at conception and randomly distributed in populations, to determine whether an exposure may be causally associated with the outcome, and to estimate the effect size of that causal association [9] [10] [11] . Here we use a multi-SNP genetic risk score association (GRSA) model to compare genetic associations of known SCA risk factors to genetic associations with SCA as an effective way to understand the potential underlying causal pathways and processes that modulate SCA risk.

Mendelian randomization methods exploit the fact that genetic variants are largely determined at conception and randomly distributed in populations, to determine whether an exposure may be causally associated with the outcome, and to estimate the effect size of that causal association.


The most important problem of keypoint based methods is their weakness if forged region does not accommodate any keypoint. One realizes "Object removal with uniform Background" type forgery if the operation aims to hide an object in the image. Zhu and others emphasized "Object removal with uniform Background" problem and claim that Scaled ORB (sORB) can detect tampered regions [22] . But keypoint based methods in the literature exhibit weakness if forged region used for removal has smooth characteristic.

Zhu and others emphasized "Object removal with uniform Background" problem and claim that Scaled ORB (sORB) can detect tampered regions.


Microreactors have characteristic properties, like a high surface to volume ratio, small amounts of chemicals, laminar flow, high heat and mass transfer rates, and short residence times, that make these devices a research topic of high interest. Microstructured chemical reactors are proposed for various applications, such as smallscale production of hydrogen for fuel cells, intrinsic kinetic studies, catalyst screening, and fine-chemicals synthesis [1] [2] [3] . The work reported in this paper is part of a project in which a silicon-based microreactor for catalytic partial oxidation of methane to hydrogen and carbon monoxide is developed. This exothermic reaction requires contact times in the order of milliseconds, and therefore a microreactor is very suitable as it typically has short residence times. The microreactor used ( Fig. 1 ) is made in silicon at the MESA þ Research Institute. The reactor has a square reaction channel with a hydraulic diameter of 500 lm and a length of 3 cm. The top wall of the channel is formed by a thin silicon sheet (thickness approximately 1-2 lm). This thin top layer will allow a good thermal contact between the catalyst beneath it, and the five heating wires and 12 temperature sensors on top of the sheet. The other three channel walls also consist of silicon. Due to the very high heat conductivity of silicon (148 W m À1 K À1 at 300 K), these three walls will have an equal temperature. As they ensure rapid transfer of heat out of the reaction channel, their temperature will be lower than the mean temperature of the heated top side during steady state operation. The high rate of heat transfer will allow a good control of the reaction conditions inside the channel over a wide range of temperatures [1, 4] . The temperature sensors on top of the channel allow to measure the catalyst temperature accurately, as the distance between the sensors and the catalyst (approximately 1-2 lm) is much shorter than the distance between the sensor and the heating wires (45 lm). The heat and mass transport phenomena in the microchannel must be accurately known, to be able to determine the intrinsic kinetics of the catalytic reaction.

Microstructured chemical reactors are proposed for various applications, such as smallscale production of hydrogen for fuel cells, intrinsic kinetic studies, catalyst screening, and fine-chemicals synthesis.

The high rate of heat transfer will allow a good control of the reaction conditions inside the channel over a wide range of temperatures.


In fact, compact gas sensors for health care have been developed. These sensors often read a change in electrical resistance of a semiconductor film by gas adsorption and have features to enable repeated measuremens with high sensitivity. The semiconductor-based detection principle, however, tends to provide a false result due to a poor selectivity, and have an adverse effect on detection accuracy because of repeated measurements [4] [5] [6] [7] .

The semiconductor-based detection principle, however, tends to provide a false result due to a poor selectivity, and have an adverse effect on detection accuracy because of repeated measurements.


Lifestyle diseases linked to lifestyle choices such as diabetes, obesity, hypertension and so forth has raised a common issue for all humanity. Most of cases are reached a fairly advanced stage without any subjective symptoms, therefore the early and regularly diagnosis is really vital for preventing the progression. Nowadays, preventive medicine referred to as personal health care by serial self-checkup using small inspections has been gradually expanding. In the personal health care, the needs of a breath analysis have drawn noteworthy attention. It has been confirmed the existence of various biomarkers which indicate the presence or progress of diseases in exhaled breath [1] [2] [3] . This method is non-invasive and not limited in a place or a time when sampling the medical specimen, so can realize as a secure and flexible medical evaluation.

It has been confirmed the existence of various biomarkers which indicate the presence or progress of diseases in exhaled breath.


Thanks to their high power density, fault tolerant permanent magnet brushless drives have shown promise in critical applications, such as in the electric vehicles (EV), aerospace, and automotive sectors [1] . Multiphase modular permanent magnet machines comprise m magnetically and physically isolated phases, each having one-per-unit inductance which limits the short circuit current to its rated value under fault conditions. Hence, a fault in any phase will not affect others. Many papers address the design and the operating principle of fault-tolerant permanent magnet (PM) machines [2, 3] .

Thanks to their high power density, fault tolerant permanent magnet brushless drives have shown promise in critical applications, such as in the electric vehicles (EV), aerospace, and automotive sectors.

Many papers address the design and the operating principle of fault-tolerant permanent magnet (PM) machines.


Membrane bioreactor (MBR) utilizing membrane filtration and activated sludge process into one compact unit is the most promising technology for wastewater reclamation and reuse. The outstanding merits of MBR over the conventional activated sludge systems include small footprints, complete solids removal, high effluent quality, high biomass concentration and improved sludge ages in the bioreactor [3] . However, MBR technology is currently facing some research and development challenges such as membrane fouling, high membrane cost and pretreatment. Membrane fouling is the most difficult challenge, which increases operational cost and shortens membrane life [4] . Three approaches have been used to control membrane fouling: (i) fouling control by operating membrane system below critical flux, (ii) pretreatment of the feedwater, and (iii) membrane backwashing and cleaning [5] .

The outstanding merits of MBR over the conventional activated sludge systems include small footprints, complete solids removal, high effluent quality, high biomass concentration and improved sludge ages in the bioreactor.

Membrane fouling is the most difficult challenge, which increases operational cost and shortens membrane life.

Three approaches have been used to control membrane fouling: (i) fouling control by operating membrane system below critical flux, (ii) pretreatment of the feedwater, and (iii) membrane backwashing and cleaning.


The accumulation of nitrogen and phosphorus compounds by discharge of wastewater is one of the main causes for eutrophication in water bodies. Thus, these substances have to be removed from wastewater for reducing their harmful impact on environment [1] . Biological processes based on suspended growth (i.e. activated sludge processes) are effective for organic and nutrient removal from municipal wastewater. However, the removal efficiency mainly depends on sludge characteristics, hydraulic retention time (HRT) of the reactor and sludge retention time (SRT). Especially the first one could give rise to serious operating problems such as increase of suspended solids, nitrogen and phosphorus in the effluent and decrease of biomass activity in the system [2] .

Thus, these substances have to be removed from wastewater for reducing their harmful impact on environment.

Especially the first one could give rise to serious operating problems such as increase of suspended solids, nitrogen and phosphorus in the effluent and decrease of biomass activity in the system.


When using TLEs and the SGP4/SGP4 analytical propagator, it has to be taken into account that the time of closest approach (TCA) can vary up to tens of seconds and the distance of closest approach (DCA) up to a few kilometers if more recent TLEs are considered for conjunction detection. Propagation accuracy of SGP4/SDP4 is indeed object dependent, and after a few days of propagation the errors can easily exceed tens of kilometres. In addition, potentially significant biases exist in TLE data (Kelso, 2007) .

In addition, potentially significant biases exist in TLE data.


Nevertheless, when precise ephemeris of the chasers are not available, TLEs can represent a significant source of information. It is possible to estimate covariance information for TLEs by comparing states derived directly from the TLE data with states resulting from an orbit determination using pseudo-observations derived from TLE data (Alarcon-Rodriguez et al., 2004) . Alternatively, it is possible to derive a covariance matrix differencing a set of TLEs propagated up to a common time (La Porte and Sasot, 2008; Vallado and Cefola, 2012) .

It is possible to estimate covariance information for TLEs by comparing states derived directly from the TLE data with states resulting from an orbit determination using pseudo-observations derived from TLE data.

Alternatively, it is possible to derive a covariance matrix differencing a set of TLEs propagated up to a common time.


The operational service for the assessment of collision risks of ESA satellites is based on the collision risk assessment software CRASS and the orbit determination software ODIN (Flohrer et al., 2009a) . A daily automated screening is performed to identify close approached between covered missions and TLE from USSTRATCOM. When the estimated collision probability for an encounter exceeds a given threshold further data are acquired by the operator and processed by ODIN to improve orbit and covariance information. Methods were developed to estimate uncertainties associated with TLEs (Flohrer et al., 2009b) . The process was adapted to take into account the CSM and analysis were performed to verify CSM against conjunction event analysis based on radar measurements (Flohrer et al., 2013) .

The operational service for the assessment of collision risks of ESA satellites is based on the collision risk assessment software CRASS and the orbit determination software ODIN.

Methods were developed to estimate uncertainties associated with TLEs.

The process was adapted to take into account the CSM and analysis were performed to verify CSM against conjunction event analysis based on radar measurements.


In this work, a method for the computation of the DCA and TCA for all the objects compatible with the initial orbital uncertainties (referred to as virtual debris in the remainder of the paper) with a single numerical integration is presented. The method is based on the high order Taylor expansion of the flow of the dynamics enabled by differential algebraic (DA) techniques. In particular, a DA-based integrator and a polynomial inversion algorithm are used to express the dependence of TCA and DCA on orbital uncertainties in terms of high order Taylor polynomials (Armellin et al., 2010) . As a result, the multiple integrations required by a Monte Carlo based approach for the computation of TCA and DCA for all the virtual debris are substituted by fast polynomial evaluations. The computation of these polynomials and the study of their accuracy is the main focus of the paper.

In particular, a DA-based integrator and a polynomial inversion algorithm are used to express the dependence of TCA and DCA on orbital uncertainties in terms of high order Taylor polynomials.


Although aromatic resins play a vital role in rural livelihood security in the Horn of Africa, the Boswellia and Commiphora species populations are threatened by inappropriate harvesting techniques and continued ecosystem degradation. It has been emphasized that the development of indigenous forest management has two equally important components: a strategy for enhancing rural livelihoods and improved management interventions for forest resources [49] . Insecure land rights are also a major challenge to all dryland development. For instance, a study in Sudan has shown that for any tree-based farming system, security of land tenure is extremely important, owing to the long-term production cycles of trees and to the general tendency of classifying natural forests as government property [88] [89] [90] . Such results also suggest that farmers who have secure land rights are engaged not only in managing natural trees but also in planting trees, especially those offering multiple products.

It has been emphasized that the development of indigenous forest management has two equally important components: a strategy for enhancing rural livelihoods and improved management interventions for forest resources.

For instance, a study in Sudan has shown that for any tree-based farming system, security of land tenure is extremely important, owing to the long-term production cycles of trees and to the general tendency of classifying natural forests as government property.


There exist results on extreme eigenvalues of XX T which include dependence within the rows or columns of X, but most of them are only valid if X has complex-valued entries such that its real as well as its complex part have a non-zero variance. A notable exception, where the real-valued case is considered, is [10] . They assume that the rows of X are normally distributed with a covariance matrix which has exactly one eigenvalue not equal to one.

A notable exception, where the real-valued case is considered, is.


The paper is organized as follows. The main results will be presented in Section 2 while the proofs will be given in Section 3. Results from the theory of point processes and regular variation are required through most of this paper. A detailed account on both topics can be found in a number of texts. We mainly adopt the setting, including notation and terminology, of Resnick [29] .

The paper is organized as follows.

We mainly adopt the setting, including notation and terminology, of Resnick.


Our study represents the largest cohort investigating the safety and efficacy of sitagliptin for the treatment of NODAT in kidney transplant recipients. Though our study was retrospective, through meticulous review of the medical records of patients followed up primarily in our transplant endocrine clinic we were able to closely follow medication prescribing changes, laboratory values, and reports of potential side effects and transplant-related comorbid events. In our cohort, sitagliptin was efficacious with a majority of patients meeting a goal HbA1c <7%. Specifically, sitagliptin alone was adequate to improve and maintain glycemic control in a majority of patients (19/22) for 12 months after sitagliptin initiation, International Journal of Endocrinology 7 consistent with its efficacy in the nontransplant population [21, 22] .

Specifically, sitagliptin alone was adequate to improve and maintain glycemic control in a majority of patients (19/22) for 12 months after sitagliptin initiation, International Journal of Endocrinology 7 consistent with its efficacy in the nontransplant population.


Metformin is the first-line agent of choice for the treatment of type 2 diabetes in the general population. Though some data suggests metformin is safe in the setting of chronic kidney disease, the use of metformin in kidney transplant patients is still quite controversial due to the concern about lactic acidosis and lack of data regarding metformin use in this patient population [9] [10] [11] . Therefore, it is important to identify an alternative first-line oral agent for the treatment of NODAT in kidney transplant recipients. Short-term studies have shown some oral antihyperglycemic agents to be effective in patients with NODAT [12] [13] [14] . However, use of these agents is limited by adverse effects including fluid retention and bone loss with pioglitazone and hypoglycemia and weight gain with insulin secretagogues [12, 15, 16] .

Though some data suggests metformin is safe in the setting of chronic kidney disease, the use of metformin in kidney transplant patients is still quite controversial due to the concern about lactic acidosis and lack of data regarding metformin use in this patient population.

Short-term studies have shown some oral antihyperglycemic agents to be effective in patients with NODAT.

However, use of these agents is limited by adverse effects including fluid retention and bone loss with pioglitazone and hypoglycemia and weight gain with insulin secretagogues.


Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) displays improved flexural strength, toughness, ductility, and crack resistance. The mechanical properties of FRC can be affected when exposed to heat. Heat can come from many sources such as fire and prolonged high temperature on the exposed surface. It remains one of the most serious risks for tunnels, buildings and other concrete structures. Explosive spalling has been observed by many researchers often resulting in serious deterioration of the concrete [1] [2] [3] [4] . High temperature causes dramatic physical and chemical changes, resulting in the deterioration of the concrete [5, 6] . The absence of voids, which could relieve the continuous pressure build-up as a consequence of vaporization of evaporable water, may cause serious damage or even spalling to the concrete.

Explosive spalling has been observed by many researchers often resulting in serious deterioration of the concrete.

High temperature causes dramatic physical and chemical changes, resulting in the deterioration of the concrete.


To reduce the risk of deterioration and spalling, previous literatures claimed that the use of fibre such as polypropylene and steel can have sufficient fire protection on the concrete structures [7, 8] . But minimal or even negative effects of polypropylene fibres on the residual performance of the heated concrete may also occur [9] . The initial moisture state of the concrete and the rate of heating may be the main parameters determining the effect of polypropylene fibres [10] . Therefore, there is necessity to quantify this claim in terms of the fibre dosage, the strength of the concrete and most important is to know the residual mechanical properties of FRC under exceptional actions such as high temperature from fire.

To reduce the risk of deterioration and spalling, previous literatures claimed that the use of fibre such as polypropylene and steel can have sufficient fire protection on the concrete structures.

But minimal or even negative effects of polypropylene fibres on the residual performance of the heated concrete may also occur.

The initial moisture state of the concrete and the rate of heating may be the main parameters determining the effect of polypropylene fibres.


The massive test results on the multipath propagation characteristics of radio signal at indoor and outdoor show that if a transmission terminal transmits a pulse signal through multipath channel, its reception terminal may receive several pulse signals [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] . The delay-spread of each pulse and the number of pulses are all different; the delay-spread causes the narrowing down of the relevant bandwidth of a channel. The time dissipation property of the channel is extremely harmful to the signal thus transmitted. It causes not only the severe waveform distortion of the transmitted signal but also the mutual interference among adjacent signals; in particular, it has a great influence on the effectiveness with reliability of the wideband wireless communication.

The massive test results on the multipath propagation characteristics of radio signal at indoor and outdoor show that if a transmission terminal transmits a pulse signal through multipath channel, its reception terminal may receive several pulse signals.


In summary, our in vivo experiments support anti-fibrotic actions of olodaterol both, in the bleomycin model, as well as in a model of TGFß-induced fibrosis. In both models, the most prominent effects were seen with a preventive dosing regimen compared to the therapeutic approach. As fibrosis in IPF is often described as being 'patchy' in its distribution with intervening areas of unaffected lung, a preventive approach confining disease progression by inhibiting fibroblast activation at early stages might attenuate spreading of fibrotic regions (King et al., 2011) .

As fibrosis in IPF is often described as being 'patchy' in its distribution with intervening areas of unaffected lung, a preventive approach confining disease progression by inhibiting fibroblast activation at early stages might attenuate spreading of fibrotic regions.


Investigations on the development of sensors involving analytical methodologies that enable faster, more sensitive, less expensive, and simpler determinations to facilitate the trace identification of explosives in different fields of interest for national defense have increased in recent years [5] . Modern detection systems are routinely used to prevent these events. These are based on ionization techniques accompanied by separation schemes, pyrolysis, gas phase reactions, interaction with radiation, color tests, immunochemical reactions between HEMs and their specific antibodies, and so forth. These techniques have proven to be useful for explosive detection in different phases (solid, liquid, and gas) on various substrates or complex matrixes (such as soil, air, and water) [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] . However, in most cases, they require some type of sample preparation for subsequent chemical analysis.

Investigations on the development of sensors involving analytical methodologies that enable faster, more sensitive, less expensive, and simpler determinations to facilitate the trace identification of explosives in different fields of interest for national defense have increased in recent years.

These techniques have proven to be useful for explosive detection in different phases (solid, liquid, and gas) on various substrates or complex matrixes (such as soil, air, and water).


In this work, a coupled Bonded Particle and Lattice Boltzmann Method (BPLBM) is proposed for the investigation of hydraulic fracturing. This novel technique, combining the Bonded Particle Method and the Lattice Boltzmann Method, is an extension of the Discrete Element-Lattice Boltzmann Method (DEM-LBM) [12, 15, 41] . Not only can it better simulate the mechanical response of geomaterials where cohesion forces exist between the bonded particles, but also tackle interactions between the granular particles and the fluid with high accuracy. It addresses fluid-particle issues at the grain-level commonly ranging from hundreds of microns to several centimetres.

This novel technique, combining the Bonded Particle Method and the Lattice Boltzmann Method, is an extension of the Discrete Element-Lattice Boltzmann Method (DEM-LBM).


Previous studies of P. euphratica have failed to demonstrate the change of plant hydraulic capacity during the growing season. There is also no evidence for the coordination of water transport capacity among plant organs in P. euphratica. However, research on hydraulic conductance has been generally conducted on sections of specific plant parts (e.g., stems, leaves, shoots) in isolation from each other [16, 17] . We know that water supply from roots to leaves depends on the integrity of flow in the xylem [18] . Accordingly, changes in hydraulic conductance measured in sections of specific parts cannot explain those observed in intact parts. Hydraulic conductance of the roots can undergo changes independently of shoots due to the lower vulnerability and stronger water absorption in roots than in shoots [19, 20] . Moreover, available water moving from roots to the top branches must overcome greater gravity resistance than the lower parts, so leafy twigs, as the most peripheral plant parts, are vulnerable to negative water potentials experienced as hydraulic bottlenecks [21] . Therefore, both hydraulic characteristics of the whole plant and of leafy twigs at the terminal need to be examined simultaneously to explain the presence of canopy mortality branches caused by water deficiency.

However, research on hydraulic conductance has been generally conducted on sections of specific plant parts (e.g., stems, leaves, shoots) in isolation from each other.

We know that water supply from roots to leaves depends on the integrity of flow in the xylem.

Hydraulic conductance of the roots can undergo changes independently of shoots due to the lower vulnerability and stronger water absorption in roots than in shoots.

Moreover, available water moving from roots to the top branches must overcome greater gravity resistance than the lower parts, so leafy twigs, as the most peripheral plant parts, are vulnerable to negative water potentials experienced as hydraulic bottlenecks.


On the other hand, a study performed in adults in Russia demonstrated that SBP and DBP increased significantly in males and females living at 2540 m altitude in comparison to those living at sea level in all age groups [7] . As such, in a study performed in Arabia, it was found that BP of the people living at high altitudes was higher, and this was attributed to higher BMI and polycythemia of those people [8] . Likewise, hypertension has been reported to be frequent in Tibetans [9] . This was attributed to over-consumption of salt and yak butter, since obesity and smoking were uncommon among Tibetans [2, 9] . In our study, BMIs of the two groups were not different.

On the other hand, a study performed in adults in Russia demonstrated that SBP and DBP increased significantly in males and females living at 2540 m altitude in comparison to those living at sea level in all age groups.

As such, in a study performed in Arabia, it was found that BP of the people living at high altitudes was higher, and this was attributed to higher BMI and polycythemia of those people.

Likewise, hypertension has been reported to be frequent in Tibetans.

This was attributed to over-consumption of salt and yak butter, since obesity and smoking were uncommon among Tibetans.


Positive marital sorting may contribute to inequality across couple households by reducing the potential for income equalization within families. The observation of increasing correlation of spouses' earnings is typically interpreted as an indication of couples becoming more similar in terms of earnings-related characteristics such as ability or education (Mare, 1991) . Assortative mating is considered as an important driver of growing inequality in many societies (Lam, 1997) .

The observation of increasing correlation of spouses' earnings is typically interpreted as an indication of couples becoming more similar in terms of earnings-related characteristics such as ability or education.

Assortative mating is considered as an important driver of growing inequality in many societies.


Observing the guesses and numerical simulations one finds several typical patterns of wave structures. The basic ones include the planar rarefaction waves, shocks, subsonic domains, etc. We notice that some solutions have a type of regions which are not elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic in the classical sense. These regions are identified by the existence of a family of characteristics that start on sonic curves and end on transonic shock curves. We call these regions semi-hyperbolic. They have been called "partially hyperbolic" in Zheng [14] . An example of the semi-hyperbolic regions, marked by the short and light curves, is given in Figure 1 . The figure is for the interaction of four planar rarefaction waves with two axes of symmetry for the Euler system. Semi-hyperbolic patches of solutions appear in many cases of the Riemann problems for the Euler system. In addition, similar waves appear in the steady Euler system, as in the steady flow of air accelerating in a tunnel over a bump on the wall (boundary) to Figure 2 : A patch of semi-hyperbolic wave. The inward bending of the lower boundary causes the air to flow faster than the speed of sound near the bend, producing a region of supersonic flow with shock formation. Some characteristics (the dotted curves) start on sonic points (the dashed curve) and end on the shock (bold curve).

We call these regions semi-hyperbolic.

They have been called "partially hyperbolic" in Zheng.


Many studies have been carried out to develop efficient HUIM algorithms [9, 14, 15, 27, 28, [38] [39] [40] 46] . However, most of them assume that the profits/weights of items are positive, while items having negative unit profits often occur in real-life transaction databases. For example, it is common that a retail store will sell items at a loss to increase the sale of related items, or simply to attract customers. Thus, transactions in a retail store may contain itemsets having negative unit profits. Traditional HUIM algorithms cannot handle databases where items have negative unit profits/weights. If they are applied on such database, they can generate an incomplete set of HUIs [8, 12] . Besides, most HUIM algorithms assume that all items are always on sale. However, in real-life some products are only on shelf during specific time periods (e.g., the summer or important holidays). Since traditional HUIM algorithms do not consider shelf time, they are biased toward finding itemsets with longer shelf time [23, 24] .

Many studies have been carried out to develop efficient HUIM algorithms 46].

If they are applied on such database, they can generate an incomplete set of HUIs.

Since traditional HUIM algorithms do not consider shelf time, they are biased toward finding itemsets with longer shelf time.


Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is often conceived of as one of these alternative mechanisms. From a governmental perspective CSR is closely linked to transparency. A transparent organization provides information in such a way that the stakeholders involved can obtain a proper insight into the issues that are relevant for them (Kaptein, 2003) . Transparency is a necessary condition for CSR. CSR will remain marginal as a mechanism of governance as long as stakeholders cannot closely keep their eye on them. This is not to deny that some managers will be inherently motivated for CSR. But for it to become a significant mechanism of governance, stakeholders must be able to see the difference between CSR and window-dressing.

A transparent organization provides information in such a way that the stakeholders involved can obtain a proper insight into the issues that are relevant for them.


Equation (5) gives the temperature distribution in the xy plane (radial and circumferential direction) for different axial positions, such as the central plane and at the edges planes of the bearing. Although no heat conduction is considered through the axial coordinate, the temperature varies in this direction of the bearing due to the pressure distribution variation in the axial direction and, consequently, the velocities field and thermal dissipation as well. In fact, the temperature variation in the axial direction is very low, in compliance with the assumptions that the heat transfer is also very low, leading to neglecting it in this direction, so that the temperature is practically regular. Regarding the boundary conditions, the heat conduction between the fluid and the journal was taken into account, in which the journal was isothermal, and there was no heat transfer between the fluid and the bearing wall (adiabatic condition). These assumptions were adopted from previous studies [2, 21, 22] . Furthermore, the boundary conditions in the inlet and the outlet of the pad were considered as prescribed temperature and adiabatic, respectively. The regarded temperature in the inlet of the pad is the mixing temperature obtained between the flow of International Journal of Rotating Machinery the previous pad and the flow of oil supply (cool oil). Due to the rotation of the journal, the oil velocity in the outlet of each pad is high, causing a mixing region in the inlet boundary of next pad. For this reason, no heat transfer occurs in the outlet boundary of the pads, leading to an adiabatic boundary condition.

These assumptions were adopted from previous studies.


There are several ways to assemble micro-objects (micro-assembly). First, batch assembly with flipchip processes is commonly used in MEMS production. It allows to build planar MEMS by the assembly of several planar components. It is especially used when microfabrication processes of two different micro-parts cannot be realized on the same substrate. Secondly some research teams improve methods to assemble microproducts by selfassembly methods. In this case, micro-objects are driven by non-contact forces or capillary forces in the required position. This parallel assembly principle allows to position a large number of objects simultaneously but the efficiency is mainly low and several objects do not reach their final position at all [1] . Serial assembly is a third approach which is used for more complex out-of-plane structures or prototyping. In this case, innovative robots have to be able to manipulate micro-objects with a high accuracy. The study of new micromanipulation methods continues to be a big issue for the development of serial assembly nowadays.

This parallel assembly principle allows to position a large number of objects simultaneously but the efficiency is mainly low and several objects do not reach their final position at all.


It is worth noting that most research on ownership structure and firm performance has been dominated by studies conducted in developed countries. However, there is an increasing awareness that theories originating from developed countries such as the USA and the UK may have limited applicability to emerging markets. Emerging markets have different characteristics such as different political, economic and institutional conditions, which limit the application of developed markets' empirical models. Recent studies of corporate governance suggest that geographical position, the tax system, industrial development and cultural characteristics along with other factors affect ownership structure which in turn have impacts on a firm's performance and its default risk (Pedersen and Thompson 1997) . There is a significant lack of applied studies dealing with financial distress in Middle Eastern countries, especially in Jordan.

Recent studies of corporate governance suggest that geographical position, the tax system, industrial development and cultural characteristics along with other factors affect ownership structure which in turn have impacts on a firm's performance and its default risk.


The effect of ownership structure and concentration on a firm's performance is an important issue in the literature of finance theory. Ownership concentration may improve performance by decreasing monitoring costs (Shleifer and Vishny 1986) . However, it may also work in the opposite direction. There is a possibility that large shareholders use their control rights to achieve private benefits. Ownership structure and concentration are considered as important factors that affect a firm's health. If the ownership structure and concentration affects a firm's health, it is possible then to use the ownership concentration and structure to predict the probability of default (PD).

Ownership concentration may improve performance by decreasing monitoring costs.


Although an acceptable automated cough monitoring system is not yet available this area continues to progress [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] . With the availability of digital recording devices and the advances in digital storage media, battery powered mp3 player/recorders can be used to make high quality ambulatory sound recordings. These enable cough to be recorded in a patient's home environment. Data can be transferred to personal computer and the recordings used to develop algorithms to identify cough sounds. The question still remains as to the best method to validate any new system. Previous studies have used video recordings with realtime manual counting of cough as the gold standard [12, 13] . The advantage of using video for cough detection is the visualisation of the subjects' movements as well as hearing the characteristic sound can be used to verify cough events. The two main disadvantages are the lengthy process of reviewing the recorded material and the limited field of vision of the camera, restricting the subjects' activities.

Although an acceptable automated cough monitoring system is not yet available this area continues to progress.

Previous studies have used video recordings with realtime manual counting of cough as the gold standard.


In this paper, time-domain iterative physical optics (TDIPO) is proposed to consider the multiple scattering effects, which is common in scattering analysis of combinative target and could not modeled easily with time-domain physical optics (TDPO) [25] . The presented TDIPO improves the accuracy of TDPO by employing iteration scheme to get more accurate time-domain currents. The comparison between the transient response of a dihedral structure calculated by TDIPO and that by FDTD and TDPO shows that TDIPO gives acceptable results demonstrating that it is capable of modeling transient response of target with presence of complex interactions between different regions, such as object embedded in rough surface. To consider the diffraction, TDIPO is implemented with an enhancement by using time-domain equivalent edge currents (TDEEC). Also wide-band radar cross section (RCS) is obtained by making Fourier transformation (FT) on timedomain far-field, whose result is verified by comparing with that using sweep-frequency MLFMA. To study wide-band EM scattering of combinative object-rough surface target, an approach building geometry and meshing model of combinative target from generated rough surface is presented. Note that both the rough surface and the target embedded are conducting, and the buried part doesn't need to be meshed in this composite model presented later in this paper. Then TDIPO with TDEEC is applied to the analysis of transient and wideband scattering of target above or embedded by rough surface, which hasn't been reported in previous literatures, to authors' knowledge.

In this paper, time-domain iterative physical optics (TDIPO) is proposed to consider the multiple scattering effects, which is common in scattering analysis of combinative target and could not modeled easily with time-domain physical optics (TDPO).


In addition, because the scanners were applied to dry, powdered models, different measurements were expected when the scanners were used directly with patients. For the purpose of this study, patient-related factors (such as patient movement, limited intraoral space, oral humidity, and saliva flow) were disregarded [19] . Therefore, the drawbacks of this study included: (1) patient-related factors when the scanners are directly applied to patients; (2) using only four types of models to represent various orthodontic cases; and (3) slight differences in the overall arch length in each model because the study concentrated on the interdental space while keeping the size of the teeth uniform throughout all models.

For the purpose of this study, patient-related factors (such as patient movement, limited intraoral space, oral humidity, and saliva flow) were disregarded.


However, as well as the other kinds of MCM systems, since the resulting OFDM/OQAM signal is the summation over all the statistically independent subcarriers, it has the intrinsic characteristic of high peak-to-ratio (PAPR). For a given power amplifier, it always has a certain linear amplification range and distortion will be created when working at the nonlinear range. Furthermore, the power amplification of signals having a large dynamic range may introduce inter-modulation between subcarriers and cause interferences [5] . These distortion and interference lead to performance degradations, which are in close relation with the PAPR of the signal.

Furthermore, the power amplification of signals having a large dynamic range may introduce inter-modulation between subcarriers and cause interferences.


Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is an efficient and popular multi-carrier modulation (MCM) scheme that it has been some practical applications such as the 3rd generation mobile communication system, digital subscriber lines (xDSL) and digital video broadcasting (DVB). However, OFDM has some intrinsic drawbacks. Firstly, the rectangular pulse shape leads to high sensitivity to the inter-carrier interference (ICI). Secondly, its robustness to multi-path propagation effects comes from the insertion of a cyclic prefix (CP), i.e., obtained at the price of a reduced spectral efficiency. Furthermore, it has high out-of-band radiations, leading to severe adjacent channel interference. In order to alleviate these drawbacks, OFDM/offset QAM (OFDM/ OQAM) is another MCM scheme which may be the appropriate alternative [1] [2] [3] . Compared to traditional CP-OFDM, OFDM/OQAM may provide a higher useful bit rate since it operates without CP. The introduced pulse shapes with good time-frequency localization (TFL) characteristic lead to more immunity to inter-symbol interference (ISI), ICI and out-of-band radiation [4] . Therefore, it is an efficient transmission technique and has attracted increasing attention.

In order to alleviate these drawbacks, OFDM/offset QAM (OFDM/ OQAM) is another MCM scheme which may be the appropriate alternative.

The introduced pulse shapes with good time-frequency localization (TFL) characteristic lead to more immunity to inter-symbol interference (ISI), ICI and out-of-band radiation.


Traditionally, dynamic security analysis in large disturbances, i.e., the transient stability analysis, has been performed by using nonlinear time-domain simulation [2] [3] [4] [5] . In this method, the dynamic behavior of the generators and other components together with their interconnection through the electric power grid is modeled by a set of nonlinear differential/algebraic equations. These nonlinear equations are solved in time domain using some integration algorithm. Consequently, the dynamic behavior of the system relative to a given disturbance can be studied to determine whether stability has been maintained or lost. If instability is detected, the exact mode of instability can be identified. The time-domain simulation method has a few shortcomings. First, it requires intensive time-consuming numerical integration and, therefore, is not suitable for on-line applications. Second, it does not provide information regarding the degree of stability when the system is stable and the degree of instability when the system is unstable.

Traditionally, dynamic security analysis in large disturbances, i.e., the transient stability analysis, has been performed by using nonlinear time-domain simulation.


The concrete surface was the site of highest albedo (25%), but it was not albedo that decreased temperature. Low temperature was measured at the Wet Meadow and other vegetated sites. The fish pond, which was the site of lowest albedo c. 10% (see Figures 3  and 4) , had the lowest temperature reading 0.3 m above water level ( Figure 5 ). Dense concrete has a relatively high thermal conductivity (1.5 W m -1 K -1 ) and high heat capacity: 2.11 J m −3 K −1 × 10 6 (Oke, 1987) . The heat capacity of water is twice as high as dense concrete (4.18 J m −3 K −1 × 10 6 ). Despite a high albedo, the concrete surface had highest temperature maxima and highest daily temperature amplitude. The latent heat of vaporisation of water is three orders of magnitude higher than the heat capacity of dense concrete (2.5 J m −3 K −1 × 10 9 ). Thus, surfaces are cooled during vaporisation and warmed during condensation of water. Water bodies and forests have the lowest surface temperature in a landscape on a sunny day (both thermovision and satellite thermal pictures confirm this (Figures 9-11) ).

Dense concrete has a relatively high thermal conductivity (1.5 W m -1 K -1 ) and high heat capacity: 2.11 J m −3 K −1 × 10 6.


With M. melanotarsa, we found no evidence contrary to the consensus view that the ant-like salticids in this genus are generally Batesian mimics of ants (Edmunds 1974 (Edmunds , 1993 McIver & Stonedahl 1993; Foelix 1996; Jackson & Pollard 1996; Cushing 1997; Ceccarelli & Crozier 2007; Ceccarelli 2008) . The predators in our experiments (three large salticid species) rarely attacked the ant (Crematogaster) or its mimic (M. melanotarsa). That these predators are averse to attacking the ant and the mimic is consistent with extensive other research showing that salticids tend to be innately averse to attacking ants and also averse to the ant-like salticids from the genus Myrmarachne (Harland & Jackson 2001; Nelson & Jackson 2006; Nelson et al. 2006a) .

With M. melanotarsa, we found no evidence contrary to the consensus view that the ant-like salticids in this genus are generally Batesian mimics of ants.

That these predators are averse to attacking the ant and the mimic is consistent with extensive other research showing that salticids tend to be innately averse to attacking ants and also averse to the ant-like salticids from the genus Myrmarachne.


C. lusitanica cultured cells produce a characteristically large amount of β-thujaplicin, over 10% in weight of ethyl acetate extracts. As previously reported from our isotope feeding experiments, it is expected that β-thujaplicin is produced via a menthane-type intermediate [9] . Namely, EMO and 4(8)-p-mentene-1,2-diol were produced only when the cells were exposed to elicitor stress, suggesting that these substances were related to a direct defensive response or to the biosynthesis of defensive compounds. Considering the relationship between the timecourse profile of terpinolene synthase activity and that of β-thujaplicin concentration, terpinolene is expected to be an intermediate of β-thujaplicin biosynthesis [10] . From the present results, IME and EMO, enzyme reaction products from terpinolene and IME, are expected to be intermediates, too. Therefore, the pathway shown here was expected to be the most possible cascade to produce β-thujaplicin; the metabolism after EMO production will become our next target in our efforts to reveal the biosynthetic pathway of β-thujaplicin.

As previously reported from our isotope feeding experiments, it is expected that β-thujaplicin is produced via a menthane-type intermediate.

Considering the relationship between the timecourse profile of terpinolene synthase activity and that of β-thujaplicin concentration, terpinolene is expected to be an intermediate of β-thujaplicin biosynthesis.


Kundu and Gupta studied in continuous fixed bed to evaluate the efficiency of iron oxide-coated cement (IOCC) as an adsorbent for the removal of As(III) from aqueous solution under the effect of various process parameters like bed depth, flow rate, and initial As(III) concentrations. The dynamics of the adsorption process was modeled by bed depth service time (BDST), mass transfer, Thomas, and Yoon-Nelson models. The Thomas and Yoon-Nelson model predictions were in very good agreement with the experimental results at all the process parameters studied, indicating that they were very suitable for IOCC column design [23] .

The Thomas and Yoon-Nelson model predictions were in very good agreement with the experimental results at all the process parameters studied, indicating that they were very suitable for IOCC column design.


Lastly, Yang and Zhang developed a planar three-DOF cabledriven force-feedback device for use in virtual applications such as video games [14] . Though the applications are distinct, our fourcable planar system is very similar to the system they built, especially the forward and inverse kinematics. While Yang and Zhang were primarily interested in calculating the maximum force and torque their device could output at various positions, we are focused on using such a system for the practical application of teaching users how to putt a golf ball correctly.

Lastly, Yang and Zhang developed a planar three-DOF cabledriven force-feedback device for use in virtual applications such as video games.


Any bacterium can be considered as a rhizospheric diazotroph if: (i) it can be isolated from rhizosphere of the plant, and (ii) it does fix nitrogen, as demonstrated by acetylene reduction and/or 15 N-enrichment. Since the first report of N 2 fixation by Clostridium sp., the list of N 2 -fixing microbes has increased tremendously (Ladha and Reddy, 2000) . In general the well authenticated N 2 -fixing organisms are all prokaryotes and can, for convenience, be divided into 3 main groups; (1) the free-living forms: these include heterotrophs, chemoautotrophs and phototrophs; (2) the symbiotic forms such as Rhizobium and Frankia where the presence of the host is usually essential for nitrogenase activity to occur; and (3) the associative symbiosis-those between cyanobacteria and eukaryotes, and between bacteria and tropical grasses where the symbiotic prokaryotes can also fix N 2 in the free-living state (Baldani et al., 1997) . Notably much information has been gathered from all three groups, International Journal of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology ISSN: 2091 ISSN: -2609 nevertheless, emphasis has always been focused on legume-Rhizobia symbiosis, the reason being agriculturally important crops. Several attempts have been made to transfer N 2 -fixing ability from Rhizobia to other non-leguminous plants but little, if any, success has been attained so far (Ladha and Reddy, 2000) . The present study focus on the diazotrophic bacteria isolated from rice rhizosphere of fields of Indo-Nepal border for the study of nitrogenase activity under various conditions including carbon and nitrogen sources and their genetic diversity based on nifH gene.

Since the first report of N 2 fixation by Clostridium sp., the list of N 2 -fixing microbes has increased tremendously.

In general the well authenticated N 2 -fixing organisms are all prokaryotes and can, for convenience, be divided into 3 main groups; (1) the free-living forms: these include heterotrophs, chemoautotrophs and phototrophs; (2) the symbiotic forms such as Rhizobium and Frankia where the presence of the host is usually essential for nitrogenase activity to occur; and (3) the associative symbiosis-those between cyanobacteria and eukaryotes, and between bacteria and tropical grasses where the symbiotic prokaryotes can also fix N 2 in the free-living state.

Several attempts have been made to transfer N 2 -fixing ability from Rhizobia to other non-leguminous plants but little, if any, success has been attained so far.


In weak to moderately stratified flows (∞ > F r > 2), in which the time scale of buoyancy is greater than that of the flow instability, the observed instability is fundamentally similar to that in unstratified flow. Although stratification effects are present, they do not affect the qualitative characteristics of the instability. The principal effect is to reduce the separation distance which enhances the induced strain thereby increasing the growth rate of the instability. Consequently, the instability exhibits an earlier onset and higher growth rate with increasing stratification. The behavior is essentially described by linear stability theory for unstratified flow if the varying separation distance is taken into account. Our analysis suggests the growth rate scaling as Γ/2πb 2 = W o /b where b = b(t) is given by two-dimensional theory (Saffman 1972; Crow 1974) .

Our analysis suggests the growth rate scaling as Γ/2πb 2 = W o /b where b = b(t) is given by two-dimensional theory.


The interaction of the Crow and short-wavelength instabilities has also been considered (Leweke & Williamson 1998a; Laporte & Corjon 2000) . The behavior of the flow is found to depend on the relative significance of the initial energy of each instability mode (Laporte & Corjon 2000) . When the Crow instability dominates, the short-wave instability is locally enhanced where the deformation of the Crow instability brings the vortices close together. This is due to the increase in mutually induced strain as the separation distance decreases (Leweke & Williamson 1998a) . Long term evolution is sensitive to both instabilities (Laporte & Corjon 2000) .

The interaction of the Crow and short-wavelength instabilities has also been considered.

The behavior of the flow is found to depend on the relative significance of the initial energy of each instability mode.

This is due to the increase in mutually induced strain as the separation distance decreases.

Long term evolution is sensitive to both instabilities.


These previous studies indicate that a short-wavelength instability occurs in stably stratified flows and that it can dominate with significant stratification. There is also an enhancement of the instability with increasing levels of stratification. However, quantitative assessment of the instability is limited. Growth rates have not been evaluated and the variation in wavelength has not been verified. In general, it has not been clearly established whether the observed instability in the stratified flows is the cooperative elliptic instability occuring in unstratified flow (Delisi & Robins 2000) . At present, there are no corresponding three-dimensional linear stability analyses for the stratified flow. The objective of the present study is to further investigate the short-wavelength instability and subsequent decay of a vortex pair in a stably stratified fluid using direct numerical simulation. Here, we consider only the short-wave instability by restricting the development of the Crow instability in the simulations. The Reynolds number Re Γ is fixed at a value comparable to the experiments of LW98 and we consider a greater range of stratification levels (1 F r 10, F r = ∞) than in previous studies. A more thorough and quantitative assessment of the instability and influence of stratification is performed. Details of the instability, not provided in previous studies, are examined and compared with those of unstratified flow. Growth rates are evaluated. Energy spectra are computed and show the evolution of the primary instability, development of harmonics, and late time behavior. Detailed analysis is carried out to understand the development of structural features and the physical mechanisms involved in the decay of the vortex pair.

In general, it has not been clearly established whether the observed instability in the stratified flows is the cooperative elliptic instability occuring in unstratified flow.

Growth rates are evaluated.


A difference in the style length of the two parents can also result in a stylar barrier (Gopinathan et al., 1986; Potts et al., 1987) . The inability of pollentubes of the shortstyled parent to reach the ovary of the long-styled parent appears to be due to the intrinsic inability of pollen tubes to grow beyond the length of their own pistils. In this study, this phenomenon was illustrated by T1 with a significantly shorter style than the other species (0.6 cm for T1 in comparison to 4.3 cm for V1, 4.7 cm for V2, 5.7 cm for V3, 4.5 cm for G1, 4.7 cm for G2 and 4.0 cm for G3). T1 pollentubes stopped growing in the upper half of most styles, while the barrier in the other crosses was mostly present in the lower half. This behavior was not present in Aechmea styles, although they also have a short style (1.4 cm for A1 and 3.0 cm for A2). It is possible that only large differences between style lengths resulted in early pollentube arrest in the style.

A difference in the style length of the two parents can also result in a stylar barrier.


Mechanical properties. The breaking strength and fracturing distance of the edible films prepared from Figure 1F ) and ruptured at low strain (Shi et al. 2011) . The breaking strength and fracturing distance of the blended edible films were all much higher than the zein-only film, and the values increased with the increasing content of SPI. When the ratio of SPI to zein was 3 : 1, the maximum breaking strength was 2624.88 g, which was 12 times higher than that of the native zein-only film and nearly 10 times more than that of the 1 : 3 SPI-zein blended film. Additionally, the value of the fracturing distance decreased from 13.30 mm for the 3 : 1 SPI-zein blended film to 2.65 mm for the native zein-only film. The microwave-modified films revealed higher hardness and toughness ( Figure 1A ) than the native blended films. Compared to the native blended films, the breaking strength of the microwave-modified blended edible films was increased by 5～25%, and the fracturing distance was also slightly increased after modification. The maximum breaking strength of the modified edible film was 2900 g, and the fracturing distance was 16.08 mm, when the ratio of SPI/zein was 3 : 1. The increases in the breaking strength and fracturing distance values might be attributed to the interactions of protein molecules . The microwave modification might change the structure of the blended protein, which might be the reason for the increased mechanical properties of the microwave-modified blended protein films.

Mechanical properties.

The breaking strength and fracturing distance of the edible films prepared from Figure 1F ) and ruptured at low strain.


A Bayesian network is an annotated directed graph that encodes the probabilistic relationships among variables of interest (Pearl 1988) . The explicit representation of probabilistic relations can exploit the structure of the problem domain, making it easier to incorporate domain knowledge in the model design. In addition, a Bayesian network has a modular and intuitive graphical representation which is very beneficial in decomposing a large and complex problem representation into several smaller, self-contained models for tractability and efficiency. Furthermore, the probabilistic representation combines naturally with the EM algorithm to address problems with missing data. These advantages of Bayesian networks and generative models as a whole make them an attractive modeling choice.

A Bayesian network is an annotated directed graph that encodes the probabilistic relationships among variables of interest.


The method we use is a generalization of one given for the Painlevé equations (six classical nonlinear second-order ODEs) by Joshi and Kruskal [7] . They showed that each Painlevé equation could be recast as an integral equation suitable for iteration near movable singularities. Furthermore, the iteration of this equation has a fixed point which gives a meromorphic solution in a neighbourhood of each movable singularity.

The method we use is a generalization of one given for the Painlevé equations (six classical nonlinear second-order ODEs) by Joshi and Kruskal.


However, there is another point of view on the issue of depletion of nonrenewable natural resources: economic depletion (Tilton, 2009) . In this case, the focus is not as much in the stock of the resource but in the opportunity cost of extracting it. In other words, the amount of other resources (e.g. capital and labor) required to extract a unit of the nonrenewable resource. In this setting, economic depletion would mean the increasing difficulty and eventual unfeasibility of extracting the natural resource due to mining costs.

However, there is another point of view on the issue of depletion of nonrenewable natural resources: economic depletion.


The increase in greenhouse gas abundance is leading to increased radiative forcing and therefore to warming of the troposphere and cooling of the stratosphere (Field et al., 2014) . A strengthened BDC under climate change in the middle and lower stratosphere is robustly predicted by various chemistry-climate models (Butchart et al., 2006; Butchart, 2014; Garcia and Randel, 2008; Li et al., 2008; Stiller et al., 2012; Garfinkel et al., 2017) . However, this is not in agreement with over 30 years of observations of the age of stratospheric air (Engel et al., 2009; Hegglin et al., 2014; Ray et al., 2014) .

The increase in greenhouse gas abundance is leading to increased radiative forcing and therefore to warming of the troposphere and cooling of the stratosphere.

A strengthened BDC under climate change in the middle and lower stratosphere is robustly predicted by various chemistry-climate models.

However, this is not in agreement with over 30 years of observations of the age of stratospheric air.


In the present study, we phosphorylated EWP by dryheating in the presence of pyrophosphate after glycation with MP, and the functional properties of glycated and subsequently phosphorylated EWP were compared with those of native EWP and phosphorylated EWP by dryheating in the presence of pyrophosphate. Ovalbumin (OVA) and ovomucoid (OVM) are shown to be major allergens in EWP (Mine and Rupa, 2004) . In particular, OVM is the dominant allergen in EWP and is the cause of most allergic reactions in children (Mine and Rupa, 2004) . Thus, the effect of both phosphorylation methods on the antigenicity of OVA and OVM in EWP are also examined.

Ovalbumin (OVA) and ovomucoid (OVM) are shown to be major allergens in EWP.

In particular, OVM is the dominant allergen in EWP and is the cause of most allergic reactions in children.


In modern society, 24 h a day, 7 days a week, a host of information is available. Numerous messages of all kinds are distributed through telephones, computers, televisions, radios, for instance about travel opportunities. Transport companies and related business are starting to realize the feasibility and the financial benefits of providing travelers with information to make adequate choices while traveling. With the right resources and an adequate synchrony, it is technically possible to create a dynamic travel information provision system for travellers [7] .

With the right resources and an adequate synchrony, it is technically possible to create a dynamic travel information provision system for travellers.


In relativistic theories with spinful matter there are two possible definitions of the stressenergy tensor [1] . One can vary the matter action considering the coframes e A ≡ e and we have used the Lorentzian coframes and frames to convert the internal frame indices to spacetime indices. In the relativistic case, (1.2) is equivalent to considering the coframes and the torsion T A ≡ Note, that the "new" spin current S A µν = η AB e B λ S λµν is algebraically related (and thus, equivalent) to s µAB . But even on torsionless background spacetimes, the "new" stress-energy tensor T µν gets additional contributions from the derivatives of the spin current and is thus, not equivalent toT µν when the matter fields carry spin.

In relativistic theories with spinful matter there are two possible definitions of the stressenergy tensor.


There is a relatively long history of bicycle ownership and use in China which means it is a logical focus for policy makers seeking alternatives to motor car use in the congested urban conurbations. This history shows three distinct stages of bicycle use in China, as follows: c. From the start of the 21 st century to the present day saw a period of relative decline, with motorized vehicles taking the place of bicycles. Despite this trend the serious concerns relating to transportation, energy consumption and environmental pollution saw concerted efforts to encourage Chinese citizens to opt to ravel by bicycle as a green and sustainable form of transportation (Zhao, 2013) .

Despite this trend the serious concerns relating to transportation, energy consumption and environmental pollution saw concerted efforts to encourage Chinese citizens to opt to ravel by bicycle as a green and sustainable form of transportation.


In the move towards sustainable consumption and production patterns, mobility is one of the priority areas (together with food and energy). Sustainable mobility suggests seeking an effective way to integrate both product innovation and innovation on the level of the production & consumption system within which the product is placed and which satisfies a particular demand for transportation (Vezzoli and Ceschin, 2008) . A move towards sustainable mobility necessitates a reduction in the inefficient use of private vehicles and an increase in access to environmentally sustainable transport, especially for communities with a high percentage of low-income households.

Sustainable mobility suggests seeking an effective way to integrate both product innovation and innovation on the level of the production & consumption system within which the product is placed and which satisfies a particular demand for transportation.


Nevertheless, it is important to consider the potential limitations of the present study. Since the specificity of all chemical and genetic inhibitors may be questioned, we cannot rule out the possibility that other PKC isoforms besides PKC d may be involved in the allergic airway response to OVA inhalation. For instance, a previous report has shown that rottlerin has no effect on PKC d activity, but instead inhibits a number of other kinases [59] . However, in our study, rottlerin substantially attenuates PKC d activity in OVA-challenged lungs. Moreover, in each set of in vivo and in vitro experiments, we have obtained similar results with rottlerin and siRNA-PKC d. Even though the roles of other related PKC isozymes have not been sufficiently clarified in the present study, these data suggest that PKC d indeed regulates allergic airway inflammation in our system.

For instance, a previous report has shown that rottlerin has no effect on PKC d activity, but instead inhibits a number of other kinases.


Populations in different regions are often demographically and genetically independent, even in continuously distributed species, and the term "stock" has been used to describe such populations in a fisheries context (Carvalho & Hauser 1995) . Separate management of stocks is desirable for maintenance of genetic variation and avoidance of regional over-exploitation, and central to this objective is knowledge of stock boundaries (Carvalho & Hauser 1995; Hauser & Ward 1998) . A variety of approaches have been employed in an effort to identify stock boundaries, examining molecular, morphological, or ecological characters.

Populations in different regions are often demographically and genetically independent, even in continuously distributed species, and the term "stock" has been used to describe such populations in a fisheries context.

Separate management of stocks is desirable for maintenance of genetic variation and avoidance of regional over-exploitation, and central to this objective is knowledge of stock boundaries.


Oaks (Quercus) make up the most numerous genus of the Fagaceae family. They have a wide range of distribution in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere. Pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) is the most common oak species in Europe. Global climate change and the resulting changes in site conditions have contributed to a significant reduction in the surface area covered by pedunculate oak [1] [2] [3] .

Global climate change and the resulting changes in site conditions have contributed to a significant reduction in the surface area covered by pedunculate oak.


We may posit a plausible explanation for this universal behavior. During the second half of the twentieth century, scientific and technical education around the world came to rely more and more heavily upon a phase of postdoctoral training. To the scientists and policymakers who advocated for and designed the postdoctoral stage, the main point was to generate circulation of young scientists between various schools and groups. Backed by powerful institutions in the United States and Western Europe, the postdoctoral system quickly spread to become the norm worldwide [25] . With a growing fraction of all scientific authorship undertaken by postdocs, and with postdocs moving every few years to new institutions, postdocs in effect knit together distant authors and institutions; little wonder that we should see significant overlaps in co-authorship among practitioners of most scientific and technical fields. This general circulatory-co-authorship mechanism, common across virtually all fields of science and technology today, helps explain (or at least motivate) the universality-class phenomenon emerging from our coauthorship network analyses, especially since all of our examples come from the last decades of the twentieth century, well downstream from the major institutional innovation of introducing and standardizing postdoctoral training across fields and around the world.

Backed by powerful institutions in the United States and Western Europe, the postdoctoral system quickly spread to become the norm worldwide.


This same shared feature -widespread circulation of postdocs -may also help explain the hierarchy of densification exponents, α, among the various fields surveyed here. The three areas of theoretical physics that we investigated (cosmological inflation, cosmic strings, and superstring theory) all showed values of α significantly greater -by as much as one-quarter to one-third -than the values of α for the biomedical fields (scrapie and prions, and H5N1 influenza research). This range is well correlated with the increased duration per postdoctoral appointment in biomedical fields, which have grown to be roughly one-third longer, on average, than those in physics and astronomy [43] . This leads to a proportionally smaller rate of circulation during any fixed time period for young researchers in biomedicine than in physics, and hence presumably a smaller rate of co-authorship with people at new institutions. While obviously preliminary and in need of further analysis, this hypothesis might account for both the universal structure and differential rates of densification in co-authorship networks across the recent sciences.

This range is well correlated with the increased duration per postdoctoral appointment in biomedical fields, which have grown to be roughly one-third longer, on average, than those in physics and astronomy.


Before we do so, however, we must take a short detour to discuss what is known about the processes whereby new fields arise. At the qualitative level the process was described most famously by Thomas Kuhn in his seminal work, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions [1] . Kuhn analyzed several historical examples of discovery, especially from the history of physics and chemistry. He contended that new (and eventually) fruitful fields arise from two special and closely related processes: discovery and invention, see Figure 1 . Discoveries are often fortuitous, and involve small numbers of scientists. They may initially not reveal their full conceptual and experimental implications. Kuhn used the example of the discovery of oxygen in the 1770s, probably independently by C. W. Scheele in Sweden, Joseph Priestley in Great Britain, and Antoine Lavoisier in France. In this initial period, fields are small and efforts are independent; there are typically incommensurate interpretations of the discovery. Its ultimate theoretical explanation and practical applications remain largely unclear or may even be plain wrong (as judged from hindsight). During the process of invention, the explanatory or practical potential of the idea becomes clear; this stage is associated with the beginning of large-scale adoption and ensuing widespread collaboration. This is typically the time when a new theoretical framework or technological design emerges (what Kuhn called a paradigm), which allows a large community of researchers to share a common language, collaborate, exchange junior scientists, and so on. The process of invention in the case of oxygen stemmed from Lavoisier's quantitative experiments, which elucidated the chemical nature of combustion as oxidation. This conceptual advance opened the doors to the understanding of the fundamental role of oxygen in many common reactions, from inorganic to organic chemistry, including respiration and metabolism.

At the qualitative level the process was described most famously by Thomas Kuhn in his seminal work, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.