To begin, this research is the first to consider empirically the proposition that attributes of the person doing the "thinking" may influence differently the outcomes associated with counterfactual thoughts. Our findings suggest that the dispositional attributes of the individual may have important implications for the relationship between counterfactual thinking and behaviors and outcomes. This research opens the door for entrepreneurship scholars to further tease apart the complex relationship between behavior, action, and outcomes given past events and experiences. Consider that the importance of experience and prior knowledge as an antecedent to future entrepreneurship is a theme represented throughout the literature (Shane, 2000) . To that end, our research suggests a danger in broad generalizations in terms of how past events are reflected in entrepreneurial outcomes, and the lens adopted in this study focuses future research toward a careful consideration of the attributes of the individual as a conduit through which those past experiences are interpreted and acted upon. While we hypothesized a significant moderation of the negative relationship between counterfactual thinking and entrepreneurial self-efficacy as a function of levels of affect and selfesteem, our results painted a picture beyond our original theorizing; that is, it appears from our findings that in the face of high levels of affect and self-esteem, the hypothesized negative relationship between counterfactual thinking and entrepreneurial selfefficacy actually turns positive. These findings highlight some counterintuitive insights worthy of additional consideration.

Consider that the importance of experience and prior knowledge as an antecedent to future entrepreneurship is a theme represented throughout the literature.


Graphene oxide (GO), precursor of graphene is crowded with vulnerable oxygen functionalities, which bestow it easy processability and dispersibility in the aqueous media. However, to make graphene compatible with organic solvents, functionlization of its surface by anchoring some organic moiety is crucial. As functionlization not only assist fine dispersion and distribution of graphene in organic polymer, but it also acts as the shield or barrier that restrain single graphene layer from being restacked. Thus, prior to employ in polymer matrix, surface functionlization of graphene is necessary either by covalent or non-covalent technique. Non-covalent functionlization technique preserves the structural integrity of the graphene. The interaction that involved in non-covalent functionlization is π-π interaction, hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic attraction and this technique also preserves the intrinsic chemical structure of graphene [14] . Range of moiety such as surfactants, conjugate aromatic molecule with suitable groups, conjugated polymers have been employed for subtly functionalized the graphene surfaces [15] . Conjugated aromatic molecule with suitable function groups stabilized the graphene through π-π interaction and the pendent group assists to disperse the graphene efficiently in the polymer matrix. Thus, non-covalent modification of GO surface and its subsequent reduction to restore the conjugated π system enable to achieve conducting reduced GO (rGO), which upon subsequent addition in polymer matrices endow the conductivity to the otherwise insulator polymer.

The interaction that involved in non-covalent functionlization is π-π interaction, hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic attraction and this technique also preserves the intrinsic chemical structure of graphene.

Range of moiety such as surfactants, conjugate aromatic molecule with suitable groups, conjugated polymers have been employed for subtly functionalized the graphene surfaces.


Our work deals with the reverse schema process by making a step further from logical schema to the lower level of database instances. We apply the machine learning technique, association rule mining in particular, to induce dependency relationships among data attributes. The major problem of applying association mining to reallife databases is that it always generates tremendous amount of association rules [11, 12] . We thus include the rule-filtering component in our design to select only promising association rules.

The major problem of applying association mining to reallife databases is that it always generates tremendous amount of association rules.


We assessed the prevalence of antibodies against 19 different mucosal and cutaneous HPV types in the adult population in Germany before the introduction of routine female HPV vaccination. Therefore, these data provide an estimate of naturally acquired and cumulative type-specific HPV exposure (Robbins et al., 2014) . Being positive for any HPV type included in the recently licensed 9-valent HPV vaccine was common with 26.9% among females and 22.8% among males. Being seropositive for any other tested STI and having a higher lifetime number of sexual partners were the strongest factors associated with HPV-16 seropositivity.

Therefore, these data provide an estimate of naturally acquired and cumulative type-specific HPV exposure.


The literature includes several reports of fludarabineassociated interstitial pulmonary toxicity. Pulmonary toxicity due to fludarabine responds well to steroid therapy [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] . In some reported cases other drugs were administered concurrently with or prior to fludarabine, and pathological confirmation of pneumonitis was not available [4, 5, 8] . Herein we describe a case of pulmonary toxicity following fludarabine therapy that responded to steroid treatment.

Pulmonary toxicity due to fludarabine responds well to steroid therapy.

In some reported cases other drugs were administered concurrently with or prior to fludarabine, and pathological confirmation of pneumonitis was not available.


APTB is an emulator to perform reproducible tests with static and dynamic attenuation between the participating wireless nodes as real laboratory set up. The nodes are connected over their antenna outputs to RFwaveguides. It is also possible to cut or switch the connections of the network, in this way many different topologies can be set up. APTB promises to achieve much of the flexibility of wireless emulators while maintaining great realism of real wireless networks [4] .

APTB promises to achieve much of the flexibility of wireless emulators while maintaining great realism of real wireless networks.


The consideredR 4 −setup was assumed as highly simplified toy model analogue of the loop corrected gravity sector of M −theory [46] . The stability analysis of the higher dimensional model was reduced to a set of algebraic compatibility tests for the extremum condition (in the present case a quartic equation in the scalar curvatureR) and inequalities which ensure the existence of a minimum of the effective potential (non-tachyonic mass terms of the corresponding field excitations). For simplicity, we restricted the investigation to parameter regions f ′ = 1 + 4γR 3 > 0 which are smoothly connected with the curvature-linear model at f ′ = 1 without passing a conformal singularity. In Brans-Dicke (Jordan) frame the latter requirement ensures an effective gravitational constant which is positive definite and smoothly connected with that of a given BD frame model with a fixed (frozen) gravitational constant.

The consideredR 4 −setup was assumed as highly simplified toy model analogue of the loop corrected gravity sector of M −theory.


Four-dimensional purely gravitational models withR −1 curvature contributions have been proposed recently as possible explanation of the observed late-time acceleration (dark energy) of the Universe [14] . In section 4 of the present paper, we showed that higher dimensional models with the sameR −1 scalar curvature nonlinearity reproduce (after dimensional reduction) the two solution branches of the four-dimensional models. But due to their oversimplified structure these models cannot simultaneously provide a late-time acceleration of the external four-dimensional spacetime and a stabilization of the internal space. A late-time acceleration is only possible for one of the solution branches -for that which yields a positive maximum of the potential U (φ) of the nonlinearity field. A stabilization of the internal spaces requires a negative minimum of U (φ) as it can be induced by the other solution branch. The question of whether this incompatibility could be resolved by different scalar curvature nonlinearities over the factor spaces (for each factor space M i it might hold its own curvature nonlinearity f i (R i )) is still open and deserves a separate analysis. We left this issue to future investigations.

Four-dimensional purely gravitational models withR −1 curvature contributions have been proposed recently as possible explanation of the observed late-time acceleration (dark energy) of the Universe.


To overcome the subjects of bio-based grafts, synthetic grafts have been developed due to their unlimited supply and no disease transmission (Amini et al., 2012) . The graft should support, reinforce and organize the regenerating tissue and interact with extracellular matrix components, growth factors, and cell receptors (Khan et al., 2008; Madihally and Matthew, 1999) . Other desirable characteristics of synthetic grafts are high osteoinductive and angiogenic potentials, biological safety, biodegradability, bone-like mechanical properties, and reasonable cost (Amini et al., 2012) .

To overcome the subjects of bio-based grafts, synthetic grafts have been developed due to their unlimited supply and no disease transmission.

The graft should support, reinforce and organize the regenerating tissue and interact with extracellular matrix components, growth factors, and cell receptors.

Other desirable characteristics of synthetic grafts are high osteoinductive and angiogenic potentials, biological safety, biodegradability, bone-like mechanical properties, and reasonable cost.


In this paper we focus on these limitations in the job flows literature by comparing the gross job flows and the persistence of new jobs in the service sector and manufacturing sector of the economy. The persistence of new jobs is the extent to which job creation endures (is not reversed) in subsequent years. High rates of gross job creation are viewed as desirable if they result in high net growth rates, or if they are facilitating technological or demand changes, even when offset by high rates of job destruction in other establishments (Audretsch and Mahmood, 1994) . But the same high job creation rates are viewed as undesirable if large proportions of those new jobs are lost within the next few years. A high persistence rate implies more stable employment. Analyzing the fraction of newly created jobs which are destroyed in subsequent years provides a way to identify types of establishments or sectors whose new jobs are less stable than average.

High rates of gross job creation are viewed as desirable if they result in high net growth rates, or if they are facilitating technological or demand changes, even when offset by high rates of job destruction in other establishments.


To overcome such limitation, we have designed a simplified slow freezing program for cryopreserving cells and tissues. The suggested program only takes the merits of slow freezing method; it does not utilize programmable freezer and freezing cells are simply placed into a -80°C deep freezer and liquid nitrogen, consequently. Furthermore, it does not employ multistep equilibration protocols of cryoprotectants, seeding and cooling, and step-wise dilution procedure of cryoprotectant after thawing. Using this alternative program, we have achieved post-thaw survival rate as much as 50%. Especially in the case of ESC freezing that employed only small number of colony-forming cells are provided for the cryopreservation, however, the simplified program ought to further be optimized for increasing post-thaw survival (Miyamoto et al., 2006) . Consequently, we conducted to optimize a method of ESC cryopreservation program. In this study, it was examined whether three factors, freezing protocol (vitrification or simplified slow freezing), cryoprotectant [dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), ethylene glycol (EG), or both] and using of additional feeder cells for post-thaw subculture, could improve post-thaw survival and maintenance of ESCs. The effectiveness of the optimized protocol was evaluated by monitoring ESC morphology and viability, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production after thawing.

Especially in the case of ESC freezing that employed only small number of colony-forming cells are provided for the cryopreservation, however, the simplified program ought to further be optimized for increasing post-thaw survival.


Choice of solar energy, in countries like Nepal, is the best and ultimate option among the different energy including alternative energy sources. If we think of complete solution of rural electrification in Nepal, we have to plan to link up micro-hydro/pico-hydro with solar energy exploitation. Thus, an accurate knowledge and database of solar radiation at a particular place and selected sites are important for the development of many solar devices, the establishment of solar plant at the proposed site and for estimation of their performance [8] .

Thus, an accurate knowledge and database of solar radiation at a particular place and selected sites are important for the development of many solar devices, the establishment of solar plant at the proposed site and for estimation of their performance.


The lecture was not more effective than the game in producing more positive attitudes-beliefs scores by t-test p ¼ 0:468, and confirmed by multiple regression in the reduced model. However, the lecture produced a statistically significant, though modest 1.3 percent (p ¼ 0:031) increase in positive attitudes-beliefs scores from pre-test baseline to post-test outcome while the game did not significantly increase positive attitudes-beliefs scores. This concurs with the literature where attitudes or affective change by games has been mixed, with some producing change while others do not (Bredemeir and Greenblatt, 1981) .

This concurs with the literature where attitudes or affective change by games has been mixed, with some producing change while others do not.


Myiasis is an invasive infestation in the body of vertebrates caused by maggots (larvae) of flies. There are over 100 species of dipteran flies causing myiasis (John et al., 2006) . The clinical and pathological manifestation of myiasis in animals depend on the genus and species of fly involved, mode of invasion by larva, degree and type of migration after invasion, and stage in the life cycle of fly. Myiasis is a well-known condition to veterinarians as this condition in animals are frequently found especially in underdeveloped regions. It causes severe economic losses worldwide (Otranto, 2001) .

There are over 100 species of dipteran flies causing myiasis.

It causes severe economic losses worldwide.


In Section 2, we prove that 2n-anacci numbers and all their natural powers, cannot be zeros of any chromatic polynomials. In Section 3, we study (2n + 1)-anacci. Finally, in the last section, we introduce numbers which are related to 2n-anacci constants, and ask a question similar to the Beraha question [2] .

In Section 3, we study (2n + 1)-anacci.

Finally, in the last section, we introduce numbers which are related to 2n-anacci constants, and ask a question similar to the Beraha question.


On the other hand, several researchers have studied the effects of allelochemicals on seed germination based only on the final number of seeds germinated under experimental conditions. The mean germination time, mean germination speed and synchronism of germination are characteristics that express the rate and degree of organization or disorder in chemical reactions that occur with seeds during the germination process and need to be analyzed together with germinability (SANTANA et al., 2006) . Therefore, we evaluated all of these indexes besides the root growth to improve the quantification of the germination process when analyzing the effects of allelochemicals.

The mean germination time, mean germination speed and synchronism of germination are characteristics that express the rate and degree of organization or disorder in chemical reactions that occur with seeds during the germination process and need to be analyzed together with germinability.


Amid the immense pressure of continuous improvement in productivity, responsiveness, and flexibility, manufacturing firms are facing huge challenges from their consumer market to satisfy individual customer requirements. Manufacturers are striving to meet these requirements by focusing their core competencies to enable them to compete effectively and efficiently to the best of their ability. The traditional view of an enterprise, with clear boundaries, limited relationships with others, and a strong internal focus on efficiency and quality is no longer adequate [1] . Today, firms aim to improve their competitive edge by focusing on core competencies and outsourcing all other functions. In such environments, organizational barriers break down, partnerships with suppliers, clients, and even competitors are common place and efficiency and quality are considered beyond enterprise boundaries. The current trend among manufacturing firms is to form collaborative networks to succeed and achieve business goals [2] .

The traditional view of an enterprise, with clear boundaries, limited relationships with others, and a strong internal focus on efficiency and quality is no longer adequate.

The current trend among manufacturing firms is to form collaborative networks to succeed and achieve business goals.


The growing access to heterogeneous and independent data repositories has attracted many research communities to explore ways of representing data in ways that they can be shared and processed automatically using scripts or programs [14] . The idea is to provide explicit semantic descriptions for all information resources and encode them in an unambiguous and machine understandable form. However, a semantic description itself is not able to solve the problem of integration and combination of information from diverse sources. In order to make the data understandable to users as well as programs, it is also necessary to build an ontology of the terms relevant to the field under consideration [15] . Thus, the semantic web research community is also exploiting ontologies for semantically describing the domains associated with the given information sources [16] . Ontology is considered to be the backbone of the semantic web and the keystone for the web's automated tasks such as searching, merging, sharing, maintaining, customizing, and monitoring. It is used to provide machine processable semantics for data and information sources that can be used by an agent (software or human), application, or other information resources. The primary benefit of this new vision should be to make the information understandable to both users and programs, as then it will become possible for firms to understand the semantics of other firms and communicate and share their information with others. Semantic web services are used as a platform for sharing semantic enabled information over the web [12] . The present paper considers the broad area of semantic web technology implemented in manufacturing. The objective of this paper is to provide a comprehensive review of the varied research work that has been done in implementing semantic web and ontology in the broad domain of manufacturing. The remainder of this paper is as follows. Section 2 provides brief details of the key enablers used in literature for manufacturing system integration. Section 3 details the related research work done to implement semantic web and ontology in the broad domain of manufacturing. Section 4 illustrates the domain of manufacturing where companies seek to use these tools for enhancing their co-operative and competitive edge in the market. In section 5, an ontology model for information resources is developed and its real-life implementation is described. Finally, section 6 concludes the paper.

The growing access to heterogeneous and independent data repositories has attracted many research communities to explore ways of representing data in ways that they can be shared and processed automatically using scripts or programs.

In order to make the data understandable to users as well as programs, it is also necessary to build an ontology of the terms relevant to the field under consideration.

Thus, the semantic web research community is also exploiting ontologies for semantically describing the domains associated with the given information sources.

Semantic web services are used as a platform for sharing semantic enabled information over the web.

Finally, section 6 concludes the paper.


We presented here the simplest version of this algorithm, namely linear problems in one dimension. The approach readily extends to time-dependent problems, systems of equations, and higherdimensions, analogously to the ultraspherical method for differential equations (Olver & Townsend, 2014) . Nonlinear problems may be solved by a Newton-Raphson-like approach, but in such situations the banded structure (although not the well-conditioned) property of the discretisation is lost. A linear complexity method for nonlinear problems, even for ODES, remains elusive.

The approach readily extends to time-dependent problems, systems of equations, and higherdimensions, analogously to the ultraspherical method for differential equations.


There have been other recent attempts to apply the 'worm' method to Abelian gauge models [7] , [8] , [9] , [10] , [11] . The important new feature in the present study is in our mind however, that we succeed in generalizing the low noise estimators for fundamental correlations from spin to gauge systems. Also the rôle of twisted boundary conditions on the torus will be discussed which leads to interesting topological universal finite size observables.

There have been other recent attempts to apply the 'worm' method to Abelian gauge models.


Polycaprolactone (PCL) is a hydrophobic, semicrystalline polymer having a glass transition temperature ( ) of −60 ∘ C and crystalline melting point ranging between 59 and 64 ∘ C. Its crystallinity tends to decrease with increasing molecular weight, that is typical for semicrystalline polymers. PCL is soluble in chloroform, dichloromethane, carbon tetrachloride, benzene, toluene, cyclohexanone, and so forth at room temperature. This polymer has a low solubility in acetone, butanone, ethyl acetate, dimethylformamide, diethyl ether, and so on and is insoluble in alcohol, petroleum ether, diethyl ether, and so forth [6] . The PCL homopolymer has a total degradation of 2-4 years depending on the starting molecular weight of the applied material and structural properties as porosity, thickness, total specific surface, and so on. The rate of hydrolysis can be altered by copolymerization with other lactones or glycolides/lactides. The degradation accelerates in enzyme rich or acidic environment. Nowadays, typical medical usage of PCL materials is drug delivery systems and scaffolds for tissue engineering of bones, cartilages, tendon and ligaments, blood vessels, skin, and nerves and as medical devices mainly as sutures and wound dressing [6, 7] .

This polymer has a low solubility in acetone, butanone, ethyl acetate, dimethylformamide, diethyl ether, and so on and is insoluble in alcohol, petroleum ether, diethyl ether, and so forth.

Nowadays, typical medical usage of PCL materials is drug delivery systems and scaffolds for tissue engineering of bones, cartilages, tendon and ligaments, blood vessels, skin, and nerves and as medical devices mainly as sutures and wound dressing.


Electrospinning and centrifugal spinning are widespread technologies for production of fibrous and nanofibrous materials nowadays. The final products are partiality used for medical applications mainly as drug delivery systems, wound dressings, and scaffolds for tissue engineering. The applied polymeric materials are usually biodegradable, which are typically semicrystalline ones, thus consisting of amorphous and crystalline phases. The polymer in the amorphous state has an unordered structure contrary to the crystalline material that exhibits orderliness. The arranged areas are called crystallites and their sizes are generally of hundreds of nanometers [1] . The crystalline phase has a higher density and stiffness compared to the amorphous phase. The crystallinity of the same raw polymer material differs with the use of different treatment or production technologies [1] .

The arranged areas are called crystallites and their sizes are generally of hundreds of nanometers.

The crystallinity of the same raw polymer material differs with the use of different treatment or production technologies.


In some studies, it is indicated that electrospun fibers from polymer solutions have a lower crystallinity than fibers produced from melts or foils from dilute solutions. The cause of lower crystallinity is usually explained by the relatively quick deposition of fibers (the jet velocity during needle electrospinning for polyethyleneoxide/water solutions was measured from 0.5 to 5 m/s) onto the collector during electrospinning, which does not allow enough time to evolve high crystalline portion in the final fiber. Besides there is an opportunity to influence slightly the final crystallinity of the fibers at a given technology by varying the processing conditions [2] [3] [4] .

Besides there is an opportunity to influence slightly the final crystallinity of the fibers at a given technology by varying the processing conditions.


The degree of crystallinity (crystalline ratio) is very important for a polymer material degradation point of view and it is known that the amorphous parts degrade preferably. At the beginning of degradation, crystallites appear on 2 Journal of Nanomaterials the surface of polymeric material, which may explain the mentioned preferential degradation of the amorphous phase of the polymer. Because of the more stable structure of the crystallites, there is a direct proportionality between the degradation rate and the initial crystallinity [5] . The degree of crystallinity of the fibers determines the degradation time that is one important property from an implanted material point of view. On the other hand, higher crystallinity means higher strength properties that is also basically important. The formed morphology of a semicrystalline polymer material depends on the crystallization conditions. In case of electrospinning and centrifugal spinning, these conditions include the polymer solution concentration, polymer molecular weight, and presence and type of nucleating agents. The crystallization conditions are of course connected with production technology parameters (process and material conditions).

Because of the more stable structure of the crystallites, there is a direct proportionality between the degradation rate and the initial crystallinity.


Distance between spinning electrode and collector has usually only moderate influence to the final crystallinity of an electrospun fibrous material. However, it is important that the fiber had time to elongate, organize macromolecules, and thus influence the morphology and diameter of the resulting electrospun fibers. Overall, fibers with longer trajectories have usually higher molecular orientation and their crystallinity is also higher [8, 10] . The temperature and humidity of the ambient environment in which the process of spinning proceeds have an influence on spinning of polymer solutions and the rate of evaporation of the solvent [11] . The more volatile the solvent is, the faster the evaporation occurs in the formation of fibers and therefore the crystallinity of the formed fibers is lower. It is necessary to avoid too fast drying, or on the contrary too slow [8, 12] .

Overall, fibers with longer trajectories have usually higher molecular orientation and their crystallinity is also higher.

The temperature and humidity of the ambient environment in which the process of spinning proceeds have an influence on spinning of polymer solutions and the rate of evaporation of the solvent.

It is necessary to avoid too fast drying, or on the contrary too slow.


Cost behavior refers to the way costs respond to change in activity and decision. Understanding cost behavior is critical for managers and accountants in order to provide and use information to make effective decisions (Maher et al., 2008) . Many stakeholders require timely and relevant information from management accountants for planning, controlling, decision-making, and performance evaluation (Horngren et al., 2012) .

Understanding cost behavior is critical for managers and accountants in order to provide and use information to make effective decisions.

Many stakeholders require timely and relevant information from management accountants for planning, controlling, decision-making, and performance evaluation.


From management's perspective, managers need to know how costs behave in order to make informed decisions about products, and to plan and evaluate performance (Lanen, et al., 2011) . From investors' perspective, investors depend on the published financial statements prepared by the management that are based on available information regarding the determinants of cost behavior. From financial analysts' perspective, predicting cost behavior is an essential part of earnings prediction (Weiss, 2010) .

From management's perspective, managers need to know how costs behave in order to make informed decisions about products, and to plan and evaluate performance.

From financial analysts' perspective, predicting cost behavior is an essential part of earnings prediction.


We examine a sample of firms listed on the Egyptian Stock Exchange (EGX) that may be special to examine. EGX is one of the oldest stock exchanges around the world. EGX was established in 1883 and 1903 in Alexandria and Cairo, respectively. At that time, EGX was considered the fifth largest market in the world (Desoky and Mousa, 2012) . Since 1991, Egypt adopted a comprehensive reform program to privatize state owned firms and promote the widespread stock ownership in a movement towards capitalization.

At that time, EGX was considered the fifth largest market in the world.


Statistical analyses. Analyses were completed with SPSS 20.0. The distributional properties of each measure (normality, floor/ceiling effects) were examined and the measures were confirmed to be able to be analyzed without transformation. At p = .05, we had adequate power to detect group differences with large effects (Cohen, 1992) . Differences in background factors between the groups were analyzed with t tests for normally distributed outcomes and with chi-square for dichotomous variables. A mixed model analysis of variance for repeated measures (ANOVA) across groups was applied to (a) the percentage of trials on which convex regions were seen as figures in the 2-and 8-region displays used to test effects of convexity and surface integration on figure assignment and (b) the percentage of trials on which participants reported perceiving the critical regions of experimental and control OMEFA displays as figure. When interactions were found, an independent samples t test was performed to explore the nature of the interaction. We examined group differences in explicit object discrimination by using univariate ANOVA in Study 1 and independent samples t tests in Studies 2 and 3. Finally, we used a multiple regression analysis to examine whether IQ and age relate to the effect of object memories on figure assignment (i.e., performance on the OMEFA task) in both DS and ASD groups.

Statistical analyses.

Analyses were completed with SPSS 20.0.

At p = .05, we had adequate power to detect group differences with large effects.


Bone tissue is an inorganic-bioorganic composite material consisting mainly of collagen (Col) and HA. It is related in the literature that the functionalization process of hydroxyapatite surfaces with collagen improves the adherence of this material on bone like tissues [12] . However, the synthesized biocomposites of collagen and hydroxyapatite alone do not have adequate mechanical properties for some biomedical applications. This behavior can be optimized by polymeric binders that provide improved durability and mechanical properties for these materials [13] . Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) hydrogels exhibit biocompatibility and high elastic modulus, allowing the use of this polymer for several biomedical applications including drug delivery systems and radioisotope carries [14, 15] .

It is related in the literature that the functionalization process of hydroxyapatite surfaces with collagen improves the adherence of this material on bone like tissues.

This behavior can be optimized by polymeric binders that provide improved durability and mechanical properties for these materials.

Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) hydrogels exhibit biocompatibility and high elastic modulus, allowing the use of this polymer for several biomedical applications including drug delivery systems and radioisotope carries.


Osteosarcoma is the most common primary malignant bone tumors, affecting mostly children, adolescents and young adults [1] . The number of new cases of bone tumors up to 19 years is approximately estimated in 670 cases per million inhabitants per year in Brazil [2, 3] . This is an aggressive tumor that results in a high mortality rate and poor prognosis [4] . A neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by an invasive surgical resection is the most common treatment for this pathology. Due to the low sensitivity of osteosarcoma to ionizing radiation, such treatment is not used very often and it can be recommended only to postsurgical therapy [5] [6] [7] . Considering these difficulties, there is an emergent need to find new therapeutic alternatives.

Osteosarcoma is the most common primary malignant bone tumors, affecting mostly children, adolescents and young adults.

The number of new cases of bone tumors up to 19 years is approximately estimated in 670 cases per million inhabitants per year in Brazil.

This is an aggressive tumor that results in a high mortality rate and poor prognosis.

Due to the low sensitivity of osteosarcoma to ionizing radiation, such treatment is not used very often and it can be recommended only to postsurgical therapy.


The advice given in EU-driven Energy Performance Certificates (EPCs) is based on estimated consumption, whereas in California, for example, the energy audits include an analysis of current energy bills. Green mortgages, where a mortgage provider tops up the maximum allowed mortgage with a specific fund for thermal retrofit measures, are explored by the US and the UK governments and advocated by the 2013 European Commission's Climate Action report 'Shifting private finance toward climate-friendly investments' [63] . In the UK, for example, Nationwide, which is one of the biggest mortgage providers in the country, has a product that includes a £20,000 'energy improvement' top up of the mortgage, with an interest rate 0.5% lower than the main mortgage interest rate. This makes it a more beneficial arrangement compared to (now defunct) Green Deal funding. A lower default risk is associated with improved home energy ratings (EnergyStar) in the US, and it has been argued that this should be taken into consideration when underwriting home mortgages [65] . A working market for green mortgages will require standardised building energy performance tools, such as the EPCs, and there is a need for quality assurance for certificate accuracy so that it would reflect behavioural effects.

Green mortgages, where a mortgage provider tops up the maximum allowed mortgage with a specific fund for thermal retrofit measures, are explored by the US and the UK governments and advocated by the 2013 European Commission's Climate Action report 'Shifting private finance toward climate-friendly investments'.

A lower default risk is associated with improved home energy ratings (EnergyStar) in the US, and it has been argued that this should be taken into consideration when underwriting home mortgages.


The rebound effect has been seen as a phenomenon that needs to be prevented, reduced and counteracted [19] . On the other hand, parties such as the International Energy Agency (IEA) have started to recognise the rebound effect as a co-benefit of energy efficiency policy that has wider social benefits, such as reduction of fuel poverty [20] . This is because the rebound effect implies an increase in the level of energy services, which is what is needed in fuel poor homes.

The rebound effect has been seen as a phenomenon that needs to be prevented, reduced and counteracted.

On the other hand, parties such as the International Energy Agency (IEA) have started to recognise the rebound effect as a co-benefit of energy efficiency policy that has wider social benefits, such as reduction of fuel poverty.


In the numerous empirical studies that followed, it was generally found that 'backfire' seldom occurred, but still the energy savings were seldom proportionate to the energy efficiency increase. It seemed the energy efficiency increase was being divided into two parts: one portion went to reduce energy consumption, and the remaining portion was 'taken back' to increase the consumption of 'energy services' [8] . Energy services are the benefits people get from consuming energy, such as warmer homes, greater distances travelled, more goods produced, and brighter lighting. This twopart phenomenon came to have the label 'rebound effect', a term which first appears in academic literature in 1983 [9] .

It seemed the energy efficiency increase was being divided into two parts: one portion went to reduce energy consumption, and the remaining portion was 'taken back' to increase the consumption of 'energy services'.

This twopart phenomenon came to have the label 'rebound effect', a term which first appears in academic literature in 1983.


The necessity for novel qualitative sensor systems with the capacity to detect targeted molecular compounds is ever-present. For several decades, sensors based on biological recognition, such as those utilizing enzymes, antibodies, microorganisms or aptamers, have received a majority of interest within this field thanks to their superior recognition properties [1] . Biomolecules do, however, suffer from a generally poor chemical and physical stability as well as being costly to synthesize or refine and thus in more recent years, artificial receptors have been garnered with an increasing degree of attention [2] .

For several decades, sensors based on biological recognition, such as those utilizing enzymes, antibodies, microorganisms or aptamers, have received a majority of interest within this field thanks to their superior recognition properties.

Biomolecules do, however, suffer from a generally poor chemical and physical stability as well as being costly to synthesize or refine and thus in more recent years, artificial receptors have been garnered with an increasing degree of attention.


From noise generation to structural vibration and fatigue, the fluctuating pressure field induced by wall-bounded turbulent flows is important across a range of engineering problems. Further, the wall-pressure field is coupled to velocity fluctuations across the entire domain via a Poisson equation, and the wall-parallel gradient in wall pressure is directly proportional to the flux of vorticity from the wall (Koumoutsakos 1999) . As a result, an improved understanding of the wall-pressure field can also contribute significantly to the development and implementation of effective control, especially because wall-based sensing represents the only truly practical option in most flows of engineering interest.

Further, the wall-pressure field is coupled to velocity fluctuations across the entire domain via a Poisson equation, and the wall-parallel gradient in wall pressure is directly proportional to the flux of vorticity from the wall.


Family benefit policy has followed rather different trajectories in Japan and the UK (Bradshaw and Tokoro, 2012) . In the UK, family allowances were part of the Beveridge plan for social security and introduced in 1945 for the second and subsequent child. In the late 1970s, the existing child tax allowances and family allowances were combined and became universal child benefits paid for all children. Meanwhile, a means-tested child benefit for employed families had been introduced in 1972 (Family Income Supplement) and with changes in name over time -family credit, working families tax credit and child tax credit becoming universal credit in 2013 -it has become an important element in supporting families. But now, as part of the Coalition government's response to the financial crisis, child benefit has been frozen for three years from 2010, tax credits and other working age benefits are being increased by less than the rate of inflation and child benefit is being taken away from tax payers with earnings over £50,000 per year so that they are lost completely at £60,000.

Family benefit policy has followed rather different trajectories in Japan and the UK.


In the 2009 general election, the then opposition DPJ promised a new universal child benefit, the Kodomo-teate, of 26,000 yen monthly for all children until they completed secondary school. After winning the election, the DPJ government introduced this new benefit at half the rate (13,000 yen per month per child) for 2010, for the first year, and the benefit should have been 26,000 yen from the second year. But the DPJ government failed to secure enough financial resources to fulfil its election promise and left the benefit at the same level. This decision invited strong criticisms from the opposition parties. The universal benefit became a symbol of irresponsibility and failure of the DPJ government. After the great earthquake and tsunami disaster in March 2011, the financial situation became even worse. In August 2011, the three major political parties made an agreement to bring back the old benefit system with an income test for those on higher incomes from 2012. Although the universal principle has gone, the resurrected system provides 5,000 yen per month for children who lost the benefit as a result of the income test. This was also a necessary measure to compensate for losing the old child tax allowance, although this is not enough. This means that under the LDP-New Komeito coalition government, all children still receive some types of cash benefit, at least for the time being (Tokoro, 2012) .

This means that under the LDP-New Komeito coalition government, all children still receive some types of cash benefit, at least for the time being.


In the present work, we treat similar problems using discrete-time multitype branching processes in random environments, which offer alternatives to the above birth with migration processes. The advantage of multitype branching processes is that we can separate more clearly the birth and migration phases. We can, for example, treat in this way populations composed of organisms where birth occurs in a very precise period. When this is not the case, discrete-time modeling still provides relevant information for population growth. We consider the problem of finding optimal strategies that maximize the random Lyapounov exponent. Our mathematical approach allows us to deal with continuous trait and environment spaces T and E , illustrated on an explicitly solvable model originally developed by Haccou and Iwasa [9] . For the attention of scientists not familiar with advanced mathematics, we first illustrate some results and provide examples of when both T and E are finite.

Our mathematical approach allows us to deal with continuous trait and environment spaces T and E , illustrated on an explicitly solvable model originally developed by Haccou and Iwasa.


Compartmentwise forest inventory is a widely used method in Finland, both in public and privately owned forests. The basic unit of forest inventories is a forest stand, which is used as the management-planning unit. The size of a forest stand is normally 0.5-2 ha. The forest stand is defined as a homogenous area according to relevant stand characteristics, e.g. site fertility, composition of tree species and stand age. Forest inventory data are mostly collected with the aid of field surveys, which are both expensive and time-consuming. The method is also sensitive to subjective measurement errors. Remote sensing is normally used for nothing more than delineation of compartment boundaries. The total costs of compartmentwise inventory in Finland were 17.9 €/ha in 2000, of which 7.9 €/ha, i.e. 45% of the costs, consisted of field measurements (Uuttera et al. 2002) .

The total costs of compartmentwise inventory in Finland were 17.9 €/ha in 2000, of which 7.9 €/ha, i.e. 45% of the costs, consisted of field measurements.


Aerial photos have traditionally been used in forest management planning. As a result of technological advances, the interpretation of aerial photos has evolved from analogue imagery and devices to digital applications. An analogue aerial photo can be digitized by scanning or the photos can be taken directly with digital cameras. Numerical aerial photos can be rectified to a desired coordinate system. The effects of terrain elevation can be considered with a digital elevation model. The result of such rectification, an orthophoto, is spatially almost as accurate as a common map. In addition, the image is highly scalable. Digital orthophotos are currently used commonly as background images in forestry mapping and geographic information system (GIS) applications (Holopainen 1998) .

Digital orthophotos are currently used commonly as background images in forestry mapping and geographic information system (GIS) applications.


The suite of active safety features on different vehicle platforms can vary significantly in feature offering, feature functionality, and performance. Some systems provide a Forward Collision Warning (FCW) feature that only provides warnings to alert the driver to a potential collision. Other systems support an Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) feature which enables the vehicle to autonomously slow down when a slower vehicle is encountered ahead and then resume the original driver-selected speed once the obstruction clears. Still other systems support autonomous braking capabilities, such as a Crash Imminent Braking (CIB) system feature [6] .

Still other systems support autonomous braking capabilities, such as a Crash Imminent Braking (CIB) system feature.


Active safety system manufacturers currently test their systems according to their own defined validation specifications. There is not a common measurement method to objectively compare active safety feature performance levels on different vehicle platforms [5, [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] . This paper describes a performance measurement method for evaluating and comparing the capabilities of CIB systems on various vehicles. The design of the method emphasizes the measurement of the vehicle systemlevel performance results and does not consider the methodologies associated with the decision to engage the autonomous braking functionality. The developed scoring method considers all four possible CIB actions: true positive (system activates in presence of "true" threat objects), true negative (system does not activate in absence of "true" threat objects), false positive (system activates on objects (e.g.: clutter) not considered "true" threat targets), and false negative (system does not activate in presence of "true" threat objects).

There is not a common measurement method to objectively compare active safety feature performance levels on different vehicle platforms.


There are two ways to run and plan detectors for the high-sensitivity search. One uses a high energy resolution and/or signal-tracking detector, such as CUORE, GERDA, MAJORANA, NEMO, and EXO [5, 6, 7, 8, 9] . Such detectors have the strong advantage of less background contamination. The high energy resolution enables us to use the narrow region of interest, which is less sensitive to the background. The tracking discrimination can determine the characteristic topology of the double-beta decay, which exhibits two beta tracks from a nucleus. The other takes a large-volume liquid scintillator detector, such as KamLAND-Zen and SNO+ [3, 10] . They can use many target nuclei and collect high statistics; however, they do not have such tracking information nor such a good energy resolution. Therefore, it is difficult for liquid scintillator detectors to discriminate the signal from the radioactive backgrounds.

One uses a high energy resolution and/or signal-tracking detector, such as CUORE, GERDA, MAJORANA, NEMO, and EXO.

The other takes a large-volume liquid scintillator detector, such as KamLAND-Zen and SNO+.


The sensitivity to m ββ is proportional to the square root of the exposure time with a background-free search, while it is to the fourth square root of the exposure time with some background [4] . Hence, for the high-sensitivity 0ν2β search, we require many target nuclei, a long livetime, and a background-free environment. Unfortunately, environmental radioactive backgrounds exist at the Q-value of the 0ν2β, especially decay chains of uranium and thorium.

The sensitivity to m ββ is proportional to the square root of the exposure time with a background-free search, while it is to the fourth square root of the exposure time with some background.


Focussing on inter-firm projects, this paper challenges the assumption that projects are a persistent organizational configuration of production, drawing on the case of the advertising industry. The advertising industry was chosen because it is characterized by an almost idealtype structure where inter-firm project organization is the rule rather than the exception. By exploring the cases of Frankfurt/Main and Leipzig, it will be shown that the organization of production is substantially affected by periods of economic crisis or political transformation (Bathelt and Jentsch 2004) . To a certain degree, we support the view that projects are a flexible organizational arrangement capable of adjusting themselves to many challenges in the 2 market environment. In this respect, projects can be more efficient than other, more durable organizational arrangements. In this article, we intend to provide evidence that projects might be replaced by more permanent forms of economic organization in periods of economic or political crises, which is, in part, due to some limitations.

By exploring the cases of Frankfurt/Main and Leipzig, it will be shown that the organization of production is substantially affected by periods of economic crisis or political transformation.


Gene transfection agents are generally categorized as either viral or non-viral. Viral vectors dominate because of high efficiency and long-term maintenance of expression, but concerns including immunogenicity, carcinogenicity, restricted DNA loading capacity, and high cost for mass production impede their commercialization and clinical use [7] [8] [9] . In contrast, non-viral vectors avoid the shortcomings of viral vectors, but the efficiency of transfection is compromised. In the case of stem cell transfection, the rate of successful modification (40 % by electroporation, ∼20-35 % by cationic polymer and liposome, 80 % by efficient viral vectors) is lower than that for differentiated cells [10] . To optimize the transfection efficiency of stem cells, research into making an ideal nonviral vector which has high efficiency and low cytotoxicity is currently underway.

Viral vectors dominate because of high efficiency and long-term maintenance of expression, but concerns including immunogenicity, carcinogenicity, restricted DNA loading capacity, and high cost for mass production impede their commercialization and clinical use.

In the case of stem cell transfection, the rate of successful modification (40 % by electroporation, ∼20-35 % by cationic polymer and liposome, 80 % by efficient viral vectors) is lower than that for differentiated cells.


Through the use of double-stranded DNA that is integrating or not into the host genome as well as double or singlestranded RNA techniques, biological states of stem cells such as differentiation, self-renewal, and growth can be controlled [5, 6] . Numerous stem cell genetic engineering strategies have been employed to increase cell survival rate, control differentiation, and produce therapeutic factors with exciting results. Despite positive reported outcomes, the genetic manipulation of stem cells faces several problems for ultimate clinical translation, some of which are common across many applications and some of which are unique. Not only are there challenges with increasing the efficiency of transfection, controlling targeting, limiting mutagenic potential, and reducing cytotoxicity, but also whatever delivery system is employed must maintain stem cell differentiation status and viability. Research has therefore largely been on the materials and methods for delivering DNA and RNA in order to improve the therapeutic potential of stem cell therapy.

Through the use of double-stranded DNA that is integrating or not into the host genome as well as double or singlestranded RNA techniques, biological states of stem cells such as differentiation, self-renewal, and growth can be controlled.


Within industry fixed bed multi-phase reactors e.g. trickle beds, are often used to mitigate this catalyst separation problem however given the large bed diameters illumination can be problematic when considering them for photocatalysis [15] . However small scale fixed bed reactors can be used for such processes. It is also known that multi-phase fixed bed reactors can be operated under different gas and liquid flow regimes which in turn present different flow characteristics in the bed. Trickle flow is associated with a continuous co/counter-current flow of both the liquid and gas through the bed. Alternatively in Taylor flow the liquid and gas flow as separate slugs. Depending on the demands of the catalyst either of these two flow regimes, or others available, could be the most suitable.

Within industry fixed bed multi-phase reactors e.g. trickle beds, are often used to mitigate this catalyst separation problem however given the large bed diameters illumination can be problematic when considering them for photocatalysis.


Finally, the results of this study allow us to conclude that between 24 and 48 hours after childbirth changes occur in the quality of the mothers' emotions toward the newborn. Mothers are significantly less fearful and emotions not clearly related with bonding tend to diminish. This result must be interpreted in the light of the mother's circumstances we mentioned before, and supports the idea in the literature that bonding intensifies gradually during the first weeks of life (Taylor et al., 2005) .

This result must be interpreted in the light of the mother's circumstances we mentioned before, and supports the idea in the literature that bonding intensifies gradually during the first weeks of life.


While many studies have explored creativity using EEG, to the best of our knowledge, only one research team is studying design processes using EEG. In one of their earlier studies, Nguyen and Zeng suggested that EEG can be used to partially replace protocol analysis. Their study demonstrated that visual perception could be distinguished from solution evaluation during a concept generation task [37] . Later work identified further correlations between EEG signals and specific design tasks derived from protocol analysis [38] . They later found that EEG measures of mental effort are low when the stress levels are high, though this relationship did not hold for other levels [34] .

Their study demonstrated that visual perception could be distinguished from solution evaluation during a concept generation task.

Later work identified further correlations between EEG signals and specific design tasks derived from protocol analysis.

They later found that EEG measures of mental effort are low when the stress levels are high, though this relationship did not hold for other levels.


Evaluation of postoperative dysphagia symptoms can be difficult, especially in the acute postoperative period. Postoperative dysphagia can be divided into two groups (acute and chronic) that likely have different etiologies. Acute postoperative dysphagia (dysphagia occurring within 6 weeks after surgery) can be secondary not only to esophageal dysmotility but also to edema and swelling of the operative site. Chronic dysphagia ([6 weeks) is more likely to be associated with failure of sufficient esophageal contraction in the distal esophagus to overcome the relative mechanical obstruction caused by fundoplication, inherent esophageal sensorimotor dysfunction from abnormal inhibition, variation in wrap construction, wrap dysfunction, or combinations thereof. Previous studies, unable to draw correlations clearly between abnormal manometry and dysphagia, have vaguely concluded that the etiology of postoperative dysphagia is multifactorial [8, 9] .

Previous studies, unable to draw correlations clearly between abnormal manometry and dysphagia, have vaguely concluded that the etiology of postoperative dysphagia is multifactorial.


Membrane filtration is frequently used for the separation of solids such as colloids and microbial cells from liquids. Applications range from treatment of industrial wastewater to purification of drinking water, to dairy processing, to the removal of macromolecules (proteins, polyphenols, polysaccharides, etc.) from beer and wine. Microfiltration in particular is an efficient technique for separating particles ranging from 0.1 μm up to a few microns in size from a liquid medium [1] . It can be conducted using two distinct modes of operation referred to as dead-end and crossflow microfiltration. In the dead-end configuration, the feed suspension flows perpendicular to the membrane surface, whereas in crossflow systems, the suspension flow is tangential to the membrane.

Microfiltration in particular is an efficient technique for separating particles ranging from 0.1 μm up to a few microns in size from a liquid medium.


The first two columns of Table 7 display the parameter estimates for the GOLM. The first column contrasts short LoS with categories medium and long LoS, and the second column contrasts categories short and medium LoS with category long LoS. In terms of interpretation, an OR C 1 indicates that higher values in the predictors make it more likely that the patient belongs to an upper LoS category than the current one, while an OR \ 1 indicates that higher values on the independent variable increase the likelihood of belonging to the current category or to a lower one (Williams 2007) . For example, the OR of diagnosis category 2 (e.g. insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, hepatic failure and stroke) is higher in the first section, indicating that a patient with a diagnosis category 2 is more likely (2 times more) to have a medium or long LoS rather than a short one. The OR of outpatient clinic is less than 1, so to ease the interpretation, we take their inverse. The higher value in the second column indicates that a patient who is referred to hospitalisation from the outpatient clinic is more likely (4.2 times more) to have a short or medium LoS rather than a long one.

The first column contrasts short LoS with categories medium and long LoS, and the second column contrasts categories short and medium LoS with category long LoS. In terms of interpretation, an OR C 1 indicates that higher values in the predictors make it more likely that the patient belongs to an upper LoS category than the current one, while an OR \ 1 indicates that higher values on the independent variable increase the likelihood of belonging to the current category or to a lower one.


When choosing the most appropriate model, there are some main points to consider: MNLM is a very popular model, and there is a wide selection of software on the market available for its implementation, which is naturally an advantage. However, the biggest drawback of the MNLM is that it ignores the clearly ordinal nature of the data which hinders the ability to assess effect directionality and progression (Cliff 1996) . The models based on the parallel assumptions are the only ones that strictly maintain the ordinality of the outcomes (Mccullagh 1980) . The rest of the models only retain the ordinal nature of the outcome to some extent (except for the MNLM that completely ignores the ordinal nature). Another advantage of the models based on the parallel assumption is their parsimony compared to most of the models presented here. However, the parallel assumption is rarely fulfilled and these models cannot be applied. SORM is another parsimonious model and easy to analyse, but it has been frequently associated with highly biased estimates and dubious identifiability when more than four outcome categories are involved (Holtbrugge and Schumacher 1991) . The partially constrained models have less parameter than the fully unconstrained models. Both AIC and BIC take into account parsimony when evaluating the model goodness of fit. For our particular case, the more parsimonious models did not outperform those models with more parameters.

However, the biggest drawback of the MNLM is that it ignores the clearly ordinal nature of the data which hinders the ability to assess effect directionality and progression.

The models based on the parallel assumptions are the only ones that strictly maintain the ordinality of the outcomes.

SORM is another parsimonious model and easy to analyse, but it has been frequently associated with highly biased estimates and dubious identifiability when more than four outcome categories are involved.


The construct of vibrancy has been showed to be multi-dimensional and to rely on different sensory elements. While the physical characteristics and information content of the acoustic environment are certainly important, the group interview conducted in this study pointed out that other visual aspects might contribute to modulate vibrancy perception, which is in line with the holistic approach underpinning the soundscape theory [11] . Particularly, the presence of people, as both aural (i.e., human voices) and visual (i.e., groups or individuals within sight) sources, was regarded as a key component of the vibrancy experience. The presence of people is indeed likely to provide a social dimension that seems to be at the core of vibrancy perception, and previous studies reported that even the aural presence of humans alone can enhance the perceived safety of a place [50] . Furthermore, a set of independent-sample t-tests was run to determine if there were differences in pleasantness, eventfulness or vibrancy between UK (Sheffield and Doncaster) and Chinese (Tangshan and Beijing) sites. No statistically significant differences emerged, for any of the three variables 102. This suggests that, at least for this experiment, the sample was not particularly influenced by the "cultural" content of the stimuli, either aurally (e.g., language of the voices heard, type of music, etc.) or visually (e.g., language of the shops' windows, ethnicity of the people in the scene, etc.).

While the physical characteristics and information content of the acoustic environment are certainly important, the group interview conducted in this study pointed out that other visual aspects might contribute to modulate vibrancy perception, which is in line with the holistic approach underpinning the soundscape theory.

The presence of people is indeed likely to provide a social dimension that seems to be at the core of vibrancy perception, and previous studies reported that even the aural presence of humans alone can enhance the perceived safety of a place.


Wetlands are under heavy pressure with the intensification of human activities and environmental changes. In Turkey, a large area of natural wetlands has been lost, degraded or transformed in recent decades. Some of them disappeared completely due to reclamation for agriculture and expansion of towns; others were degraded in quality due to environmental pollution; and yet others were changed into artificial wetlands such as paddy fields, aquacultural ponds, reservoirs and irrigation canals. Loss of natural wetlands worldwide in recent years has resulted in the construction of artificial wetlands, which are the only choice for water bird communities in the regions where natural wetlands are unavailable (Magnin et al. 2000) . DSİ (State Water Works) currently plans to irrigate the entire area along the upper reaches of the Sakarya River. One of the DSİ projects, the second phase of the "Upper Sakarya Irrigation Scheme", envisages the irrigation of 4736 ha area west and east of Balıkdamı. Water required by this project will be provided by four pumping stations on the Sakarya River and from the Göksu springs (immediately south of the IBA), where it will be stored in a small reservoir. The stone barrier will be replaced with a regulator, maintaining a higher water level throughout the year and creating a permanent lake of ca 500 ha in the eastern part of the IBA. In addition to the loss of valuable natural habitat in the western part, the creation of a permanent lake in the east will result in the loss of virtually all the sensitive and ecologically important marsh and mudflat areas.

Loss of natural wetlands worldwide in recent years has resulted in the construction of artificial wetlands, which are the only choice for water bird communities in the regions where natural wetlands are unavailable.


Leishmaniasis, a vector borne tropical/subtropical disease caused by the protozoan belonging to the genus Leishmaniais transmitted to humans by sandflyvectorsPhlebotomus and Lutzomyia. The clinical manifestations of the disease vary from cutaneous, muco-cutaneous to visceral leishmaniasis (VL) and the severity depends on the Leishmania species involved and the type of immune response to infection [1] . Leishmaniasis is a disease affecting about 89 countries and is endemic to Asia, Africa, parts of North and South America and the Mediterranean. Globally it is thought that 12 to 15 million are infected; with 1 to 2 million new cases and about 70,000 deaths reported yearly [1] . About 350 million worldwide are at risk of acquiring the diseasewhich has made it one of the seven most important tropical diseases according to the World Health Organization (WHO) [1] .

The clinical manifestations of the disease vary from cutaneous, muco-cutaneous to visceral leishmaniasis (VL) and the severity depends on the Leishmania species involved and the type of immune response to infection.

Globally it is thought that 12 to 15 million are infected; with 1 to 2 million new cases and about 70,000 deaths reported yearly.

About 350 million worldwide are at risk of acquiring the diseasewhich has made it one of the seven most important tropical diseases according to the World Health Organization (WHO).


Spinal cord and DRG morphological analysis also confirmed neuroprotection by GCP II inhibition. Qualitative assessment of sections found many large-caliber degenerating argyrophillic axonal profiles were present in the dorsal columns of the pyridoxine-intoxicated rats but were less prominent in rats treated with 2-MPPA. These profiles are thought to be the ascending collaterals of afferents that degenerate as a consequence of a high dose pyridoxine administration [26] . The almost complete absence of the H-wave reflex after pyridoxine treatment versus the significantly less severe loss in the GCPII treated animals provides credence to these morphological findings. In addition, this is also supported by the increased number of sensory fibers in the lumbar DRG from rats treated with 2-MPPA compared to vehicle treated pyridoxine rats, as H-wave reflex also involve the DRG sensory neurons.

These profiles are thought to be the ascending collaterals of afferents that degenerate as a consequence of a high dose pyridoxine administration.


We consider our work an example of computational auditory scene analysis (CASA). CASA broadly distinguishes two stages in sound perception: segmentation and grouping (Bregman, 1990; Wang and Brown, 2006; Szabo et al., 2016) . Our method offers a new segmentation method: segments" that are dominated by pulses, tones or noises can be identified and characterized by thresholding of the tract features. These segments can be used directly in grouping algorithms or they can be used to select appropriate (local) analysis algorithms. Our work is based on a phenomelogical description of aspects of perception. It ignores most of the physiology of the auditory system. Instead it uses a more mathematical physics style of reasoning to constrain the choices leading up to our tract features.

CASA broadly distinguishes two stages in sound perception: segmentation and grouping.


All types of hemagglutinin (HA) of human, pig, horse and aquatic bird influenza viruses, recognize sialyl lacto-series type I and II sugar chains (Sialic acid -SA) alfa 2-3(6)Gal beta 1-3(4)Glc Nac beta 1) in glycoproteins and glycolipids in target cells such as common receptor molecules. Avian and equine influenza viruses preferentially bind the terminal sialic acid alpha 2-3 Gal (SA2-3 Gal) linkage, while human influenza viruses preferentially bind the SA2-6 Gal linkage. This SA distribuition in animal species influences the influenza virus host range. The swine trachea has receptors for both avian influenza viruses (SA2-3 Gal specific) and for the human influenza viruses (SA2-6 Gal specific); possibly allowing pigs to adapt the avian influenza viruses to humans and facilitate its tropism mechanisms (Suzuki 2000) .

The swine trachea has receptors for both avian influenza viruses (SA2-3 Gal specific) and for the human influenza viruses (SA2-6 Gal specific); possibly allowing pigs to adapt the avian influenza viruses to humans and facilitate its tropism mechanisms.


Heat pipes generally are cylindrical pipes, however the evaporator or condenser or both can be flat. In this case it is called a flat heat pipe. The advantages of flat heat pipe technology are the isothermal characteristics and flat evaporator surface which maximises the radiation absorbing area [22] . Flat heat pipes are commonly used in heat dissipation of electrical and electronic devices as they are able to transport high heat flux and make thermal management of such devices feasible. A substantial amount of research was conducted on flat heat pipes and vapour chambers [23, 24] . The main focus of the investigation was based on the effect of the heat transfer rate on the thermal resistance of the heat pipe and the isothermal characteristics of the heat pipe [25e33] .

The advantages of flat heat pipe technology are the isothermal characteristics and flat evaporator surface which maximises the radiation absorbing area.

A substantial amount of research was conducted on flat heat pipes and vapour chambers.


Flat heat pipes can also utilised in solar applications when combined with PV panels [34] . Joining heat pipes with PV panels makes the system produce electricity and thermal heat simultaneously. This combination of flat heat pipe with PV panels increases the efficiency of PV panel by decreasing the working temperature of the panel [35] .

Flat heat pipes can also utilised in solar applications when combined with PV panels.

This combination of flat heat pipe with PV panels increases the efficiency of PV panel by decreasing the working temperature of the panel.


We presented fast and fully decentralized algorithms for performing random walks in distributed dynamic networks. Our algorithm satisfies strong round complexity guarantees and our work presents robust techniques for this fundamental graph primitive in dynamic graphs. We further extend the work to show how it can be used for efficient sampling and other applications such as token dissemination. Our bounds for the token dissemination problem improve on previously best known algorithms under a suitably general dynamic graph model. Our framework and results have also been used subsequently in other dynamic network applications as well [2, 3] .

Our framework and results have also been used subsequently in other dynamic network applications as well.


The key to cost-effective monitoring of a SBS is the identification and monitoring of the critical path of the service composition because any delays on the critical path will directly impact the response time of the SBS. However, the volatility of the operating environments makes the response times of the BCs of the SBSs probabilistic [4] . Thus, the critical path of a SBS is probabilistic -every execution path can be critical with certain probabilities which represent their criticalities in the service composition. Thus, identifying the critical path turns into calculating those probabilities. With the knowledge of the criticalities, cost-effective monitoring can be conducted by prioritising the execution paths with high criticalities in monitor allocation.

However, the volatility of the operating environments makes the response times of the BCs of the SBSs probabilistic.


Availability of credit has been frequently described as the lifeblood of any real estate development. But, mortgage valuation is fundamental to bank lending decisions (Loveli and French, 1996) . In secured lending, for example, the underlying philosophy is to assess the open market value of the assets on which the loan is based and to ensure that the former is greater than the amount borrowed. The degree by which the asset value exceeds the loan provides the margin of asset cover or the loan-to-value ratio (McWilliams, 1992; Crosby, French and Ward, 1993; Loveli and French, 1996; Baum, 1998; and, Aluko, 2000) .

But, mortgage valuation is fundamental to bank lending decisions.

The degree by which the asset value exceeds the loan provides the margin of asset cover or the loan-to-value ratio.


This study investigated the caries prevalence and severity trends in Nevada youth using both the mean DMFT index and the SiC Index. The use of DMFT has been an accepted practice for assessing the prevalence and severity of caries in a population [4] . However the epidemiologic changes in the dental caries picture during the last 2-3 decades, have made it increasingly evident that mean DMFT values do not capture the polarized caries development with a more skewed distribution of caries [8] . Mean DMFT values are an average of all members of the population, irrespective of the distribution of the severity of the disease within the population.

The use of DMFT has been an accepted practice for assessing the prevalence and severity of caries in a population.

However the epidemiologic changes in the dental caries picture during the last 2-3 decades, have made it increasingly evident that mean DMFT values do not capture the polarized caries development with a more skewed distribution of caries.


Applied to the BIONOF case, considered as a particular PPP type, we conclude that although grid operators are private entities and BIONOF is about an unregulated green gas experiment, grid operators are involved as quasi/functional public authorities, effectively representing the public interest as perceived -in more or less specific terms -by underlying (pure) public authorities. As such grid operators are automatically obligated to uphold norms of (or originating in) public law and PPP collaboration should, as a matter of hybrid good energy governance, reflect (also) these norms (as they present themselves in the given legal polity). In instances of local and regional transition to sustainable energy, private and public stakeholders should be well aware of the particular (hybrid) position that the grid operators' are in and the particular legal demands and responsibilities that rest upon them. In that sense, this contribution is about managing expectations and promoting accountability to the benefit of good (regional and local) energy governance. These conclusions call for a further analysis on how PPP relations in this type of collaboration should be organized to further proper safeguards for (organizational) adherence to such principles. The balance that gas grid operators must strike between private and public interests is the subject of a broader discussion -as observed, inter alia, by Steenhuijsen and De Bruijne in their study of the role of energy network companies in the energy transitions [32] .

The balance that gas grid operators must strike between private and public interests is the subject of a broader discussion -as observed, inter alia, by Steenhuijsen and De Bruijne in their study of the role of energy network companies in the energy transitions.


These instructional materials bring life to learning by stimulating students to learn. The use of instructional materials in the classroom has the potential to help the teacher explain new concepts clearly, resulting in better student understanding of the concepts being taught. However, they are not ends in themselves but they are means to an end (Kadzera, 2006) .

However, they are not ends in themselves but they are means to an end.


Previous studies revealed that REDD+ countries readiness priority needs are stakeholder participation, non-carbon monitoring, and cross-sectoral coordination, whereas the design of benefit-sharing, conflict resolution, and revenue management systems are challenges faced by a few countries [12] . Also, REDD+ countries have mixed performance for various REDD+ functions [15] . Again, most REDD+ countries have low to moderate administrative capacity and governance structures to effectively implement REDD+ MRV consistent with the UNFCCC COPs decisions on REDD+ MRV [16] . Furthermore, Ghana has multiple of barriers to realizing equitable REDD+, although the country's NRS and other forest-related documents are to ensure equitable REDD+ [29] . Additionally, countries planning to implement REDD+ face political traction, but hopeful that public and private donors will fund domestic conservation programs [30] . Although these studies have explored some aspects of the REDD+ mechanism, there is still a lacuna in the subject area.

Previous studies revealed that REDD+ countries readiness priority needs are stakeholder participation, non-carbon monitoring, and cross-sectoral coordination, whereas the design of benefit-sharing, conflict resolution, and revenue management systems are challenges faced by a few countries.

Also, REDD+ countries have mixed performance for various REDD+ functions.

Again, most REDD+ countries have low to moderate administrative capacity and governance structures to effectively implement REDD+ MRV consistent with the UNFCCC COPs decisions on REDD+ MRV.

Furthermore, Ghana has multiple of barriers to realizing equitable REDD+, although the country's NRS and other forest-related documents are to ensure equitable REDD+.

Additionally, countries planning to implement REDD+ face political traction, but hopeful that public and private donors will fund domestic conservation programs.


Third, the Warsaw Framework of the UNFCCC COPs stipulates that REDD+ activities to reduce deforestation and forest degradation should be monitored, and its emissions, removals, and FRL must be measured, verified, and reported through an established NFMS. Our study revealed that most countries have not yet developed the NFMS but have paid attention to it in the NRS and are following the UNFCCC technical guidelines to develop a robust MRV system. Most REDD+ countries discussion on the MRVsystems are at the explanatory level, and are yet to consider options for its development [15] . Also, most countries have not specified strategies for leakage avoidance and permanence of REDD+. This is because some countries have instituted other national forest policies and programs, from which some of the activities proposed may positively interplay with the global REDD+ rules such as leakage avoidance and permanence. Ghana, for example, implemented the National Bioenergy Policy 2010, which sought to address the sustainability of the supply of fuelwood, and the National Tree Crops Policy, which sought to promote agroforestry practices, biodiversity conservation, and support private initiatives for environmental conservation. In Kenya, activities such as agroforestry, alternative energy sources and public and commercial forest management outlined in the National Forest Act of Kenya have positive interplay with REDD+ rules, in particular, leakage avoidance and permanence [28] . Fourth, REDD+ financing is an important component that developing countries need to pay attention to if they want to achieve emissions reductions. By the UNFCCC COPs decisions (Decision 4/COP 15, Decision 2/COP 17, and Decision 9/COP 19), REDD+ countries must put in place financing mechanisms that ensure the sustainability of REDD+ projects. All countries from our study have specified mechanisms to mobilize and manage funds for REDD+. Ghana has managed to receive over US$ 98 million in commitments to REDD+, and close to US$ 30 million in tangible support of REDD+ from original donors and intermediary institutions [41] . REDD+ countries should realign their financing mechanisms to more effectively address the direct and underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation to lower emissions from the forest sector.

Most REDD+ countries discussion on the MRVsystems are at the explanatory level, and are yet to consider options for its development.

In Kenya, activities such as agroforestry, alternative energy sources and public and commercial forest management outlined in the National Forest Act of Kenya have positive interplay with REDD+ rules, in particular, leakage avoidance and permanence.

Ghana has managed to receive over US$ 98 million in commitments to REDD+, and close to US$ 30 million in tangible support of REDD+ from original donors and intermediary institutions.


Second, from the UNFCCC COPs (decision 2/COP 13), parties define national and subnational forests and indicate which subnational projects are expected to be nested into national systems and which activities will be verified by experts. A clear definition of forests either at the national or subnational levels aids the monitoring process of deforestation and forest degradation and the MVR of emissions fluxes associated with REDD+ implementation. One key component in the development of forest reference levels or forest reference emission levels (FRL/FREL) is the scale. A decision by the COPs of the UNFCCC states that "parties may develop a subnational forest reference emission level as an interim measure while transitioning to national forest reference emission level" [35] (p. 59). The FRELs are critical for receiving REDD+ results-based payments because they serve as benchmarks for assessing a country's performance. Unfortunately, in our study, most countries have not paid attention or adhered to the REDD+ scale component of the UNFCCC COPs, and this can hinder the progress of countries, in particular, when it comes to the MVR of emissions for performance-based payments. Countries should review this gap in the NRS and take necessary action to develop forest definitions that can be applicable and viable for REDD+, considering all the parameters.

A decision by the COPs of the UNFCCC states that "parties may develop a subnational forest reference emission level as an interim measure while transitioning to national forest reference emission level"(p. 59).


It is no longer appropriate to dichotomize secondary education into preparation tracks for college or for work (Brand, 2003) . Thus, it is important for educators to find appropriate avenues to promote the evolution of secondary education from "…a narrowed discussion of a rigorous standard academic model targeted to higher achievement scores and a high school diploma to a model that encompasses rigor, relevance, and relationships targeted to meaningful postsecondary education and employment" (Guy, Sitlington, Larsen, & Frank, 2009, p. 39) . One such proposed method of accommodating this transition has been the integration of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) into agricultural mechanics curriculum (Parr et al., 2008) .

It is no longer appropriate to dichotomize secondary education into preparation tracks for college or for work.

One such proposed method of accommodating this transition has been the integration of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) into agricultural mechanics curriculum.


The high processing temperatures plus the low coefficient of thermal expansion makes PEI a good candidate for joining technology applications [12] [13] [14] . However, thermal processing, such as that found during welding and thermal bonding, is well known to cause a certain extension of thermal degradation, due to the high temperatures and dwell times. The thermal degradation in PEI was extensively studied in the last decades [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] . PEI can basically undergo thermal degradation in two ways: by random scission or by crosslinking [23] . Decreasing molecular weight (MW) may result in inferior polymer strength. Conversely, crosslinking will augment polymer strength.

The high processing temperatures plus the low coefficient of thermal expansion makes PEI a good candidate for joining technology applications.

The thermal degradation in PEI was extensively studied in the last decades.

PEI can basically undergo thermal degradation in two ways: by random scission or by crosslinking.


In this paper, the choice of coloured FSPNs (CFSPNs) as modelling and evaluation tool has been made because of the characteristics of the considered problem. In particular, the need for CPNs can be justified from the existence of repeated net structures in the overall model considered. Using CPNs reduces significantly the overall model complexity and simplifies its analysis and further study. In contrast, FSPNs have been selected, since they concentrate on the evolution of the stochastic process involved [10] . In the system considered, there exists a large number of continuous variables (e.g. power output), some of which are stochastic, as well as they take only discrete values (e.g. hours of the year). As a result, the PN variation that combines all the desired characteristics is CFSPNs.

In contrast, FSPNs have been selected, since they concentrate on the evolution of the stochastic process involved.


The Cooperative Bug Isolation (CBI) project at Berkeley performs compiletime instrumentation on a a number of large open-source projects and distributes the resulting binaries [13] . Information is then be gathered about how many times a program terminated successfully or not. Subsequent statistical analysis is used to isolate erroneous code segments. In contrast, GMC 2 is a model checker embedded at the Tree-SSA level of the open-source GCC compiler.

The Cooperative Bug Isolation (CBI) project at Berkeley performs compiletime instrumentation on a a number of large open-source projects and distributes the resulting binaries.


In typical DDT processes turbulent flow conditions increase the reaction zone surface area such that compression waves propagate into the unreacted reactive mixture, precondition the fluid to create localized hot spots that explode and facilitate the formation of a detonation wave (Oppenheim & Soloukhin 1973; Gamezo et al. 2008; Ivanov et al. 2011) . In this conventional approach viscous and diffusive transport effects play an important role during the early stages when the heat release is dominated by surface reactions from a flame. The purely gasdynamic detonation initiation process presented here retains much of the behaviour contained in typical DDT processes with turbulent flow conditions that increase the burnt-unburnt gas interface. However, the DDT process in this work is not dependent on heat released from surface reactions and relies solely on gasdynamic heating and auto-ignition following an extended induction period. Purely gasdynamic detonation initiation is usually associated with direct initiation where the detonation is initiated with a strong blast wave. In this case, the initial power deposition of heat on the acoustic time scale is more subtle and creates a detonation initiation process that has the purely gasdynamic characteristics of direct initiation, but demonstrates evolutionary behaviour similar to conventional DDT where viscous and diffusive transport effects are considered highly important.

In typical DDT processes turbulent flow conditions increase the reaction zone surface area such that compression waves propagate into the unreacted reactive mixture, precondition the fluid to create localized hot spots that explode and facilitate the formation of a detonation wave.


Consideration of multiple dimensions allows effects such as the Richtmyer-Meshkov and Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities to exist. The Richtmyer-Meshkov instability is found to be the primary source of turbulence generation in DDT (Oran & Gamezo 2007; Gamezo et al. 2001) . Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities can also be found in DDT as a secondary instability and are often suppressed by diffusive effects in NS solutions (Oran & Gamezo 2007) . In order to obtain a purely gasdynamic detonation initiation solution, it will be necessary to capture both the Richtmyer-Meshkov and Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities. It will also be necessary to minimize the numerical diffusion such that any unreacted pockets will have a minimal amount of heat diffused into them so that their autoignition times can be resolved.

The Richtmyer-Meshkov instability is found to be the primary source of turbulence generation in DDT.

Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities can also be found in DDT as a secondary instability and are often suppressed by diffusive effects in NS solutions.


As numerical diffusion decreases, the surface length of the material interface (figure 10) grows more rapidly. The contour plots (figure 2) for the cases j max = 8 and 9 show the generation of both Richtmyer-Meshkov and Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities for high enough resolution. This is consistent with previous simulations using adaptive grid codes that solve the Euler equations with premixed reactants (Fryxell et al. 2000; Deiterding 2009; Seitenzahl et al. 2009; Ziegler et al. 2011) .

This is consistent with previous simulations using adaptive grid codes that solve the Euler equations with premixed reactants.


In order to use polymer brushes for aqueous lubrication, a polymer must be employed for which water is a good solvent. One readily available and much studied such water-soluble polymer is poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) (Fig. 1) . PEG is uncharged, non-toxic, and used in a variety of applications ranging from pharmaceuticals to wood preservation. PEG brushes have been extensively used for inhibiting protein adsorption onto surfaces [12] .

PEG brushes have been extensively used for inhibiting protein adsorption onto surfaces.


The objective of this paper is to investigate whether 1D simulations can be applied to DOD inkjet droplet ejection through a comprehensive validation. As the first stage of a long term study, we only considered Newtonian fluid in this work. Fluid physical events, including the droplet formation, droplet breakup, droplet coalescence, and meniscus motion at the orifice are included into our 1D model. The droplet emergence from the orifice is based on the E&D's 1D equations of motion which are solved by method of lines (MOL) in a moving uniform staggered mesh. The shape-preserving piecewise cubic interpolation and third-order polynomial curve are employed to treat the coalescence of approaching droplets. The nozzle of the inkjet device is simplified into a circular tube, and hence, a 2D axisymmetric unsteady Poiseuille flow model can be adopted to describe the fluid dynamics in the nozzle. Droplet formation outside the nozzle plane and fluid dynamics in the nozzle are coupled together to simulate the droplet ejection process. These algorithms are implemented in a MATLAB code. To validate the proposed method and simulation code, a series of numerical tests are performed, including infinite microthread breakup, liquid filament contraction, droplet flight, and droplet ejection with a simple step-function pressure wave. To benchmark the 1D model, 2D axisymmetric simulations are conducted using a high fidelity code which is adapted from the open-source Gerris [27] . Acceptable agreement is found between the 1D and 2D results, whereas 1D simulations take significantly less amount of time than 2D simulations. Finally, examples of droplet ejection with different Oh number are presented to study the effect of Oh number on the droplet formation.

To benchmark the 1D model, 2D axisymmetric simulations are conducted using a high fidelity code which is adapted from the open-source Gerris.


To extend limits of impulse UWB radar, a solution consists of UWB antennas array utilization. On the other hand, high-power UWB pulse radiation source with a peak power higher than 10 10 W is necessary for solving a number of tasks. Realization of this type of source is possible on the basis of multi element arrays [3, 4] .

Realization of this type of source is possible on the basis of multi element arrays.


The airport pickup and delivery service is a value-added service for the air ticket corporation to attract customers and enhance market competitiveness. The vehicle scheduling in the airport pickup and delivery service is significantly important for the modern logistics engineering and transportation. And it has received the extensive attention and studied well. The vehicle routing and scheduling problem of pickup and delivery of customers to airport belongs to the vehicle routing problem [1] . Some vehicles and trip number are unnecessary for the whole pickup and delivery service [2] . The vehicle scheduling problem is similar to the routing problem in communication networks where we are to find the optimal route according to the origin-destination flows [3, 4] . In the pickup and delivery service for customers, the vehicle scheduling via vehicle collaborations has received extensive attentions from academic and industrial circles.

The vehicle routing and scheduling problem of pickup and delivery of customers to airport belongs to the vehicle routing problem.

Some vehicles and trip number are unnecessary for the whole pickup and delivery service.

The vehicle scheduling problem is similar to the routing problem in communication networks where we are to find the optimal route according to the origin-destination flows.


Seed crop yield usually decreases in the second and third year of cultivation and this was also observed in our study. Similar observation was reported by other authors [22] . Nowadays, seed crops in the UK are grown for 1-2 years and then they are renewed. Disadvantageous conditions for seed yield include strong thermal and humidity fluctuations during the growth period. Optimal temperature range at the stage of anthesis and seed formation in Phleum pratense is 15-18°C. In our study, such thermal conditions occurred each year of the experiment, meaning that thermal conditions were favourable in all years of the study. However, increased precipitation in June 2013 was probably one of the reasons for lower seed yield that year. High precipitation at anthesis and ripening lowers the seed yield.

Similar observation was reported by other authors.


Trade transaction costs (TTCs) may be categorized into directly incurred costs and indirect costs. Empirical estimates of TTCs vary substantially, but direct and indirect costs have been shown to be between 1% and 15% of the value of traded goods (Walkenhorst and Yasui 2005) . Direct costs (including customs fees, port charges, etc) tend to be relatively clear to traders. Indirect costs, on the other hand, tend to be less clear and may affect traders in terms of the cost of carrying inventory and market depreciation (Minor and Tsigas 2008) . In additon, the inconsistency and lack of transparency associated with indirect costs increase perceptions of risk and reduce firms willingness to participate in these markets. Given these high risks and the information costs involved, it is the indirect costs that often act as a more signficant barrier for SMEs to enter new markets.

Empirical estimates of TTCs vary substantially, but direct and indirect costs have been shown to be between 1% and 15% of the value of traded goods.

Indirect costs, on the other hand, tend to be less clear and may affect traders in terms of the cost of carrying inventory and market depreciation.


TTCs vary by trader-type, sector, and economy. Economies with higher per capita incomes tend to have more efficient border processes, though this is not always the case. Conversely, there are instances where relatively poor economies provide a relatively high quality of border services (Walkenhorst and Yasui 2005) . The characteristics of traders can also determine the extent of TTCs, with smaller firms tending to conduct fewer international transactions, leading to larger per unit costs. These cost disadvantages may include having a limited customs track record as well as relatively few specialized personnel to deal with trade formalities, and weaker financial reserves to cope with problems including unforeseen stock delays (Walkenhorst and Yasui 2005) .

Conversely, there are instances where relatively poor economies provide a relatively high quality of border services.

These cost disadvantages may include having a limited customs track record as well as relatively few specialized personnel to deal with trade formalities, and weaker financial reserves to cope with problems including unforeseen stock delays.