Similar dual-peak responses were also observed by Nirenberg and Meister in the mouse retinas [2] . However, the intrinsic mechanism for the origination of the dual-peak response still remains unclear. It is well accepted that amacrine cells shape the temporal structure of ganglion cell's firing activity, which implies that they may play a key role in the generation of the dual-peak response. However, amacrine cells are comprised of numerous subtypes and each subtype is provided with different morphological or biochemical properties [3] [4] [5] . Furthermore, most amacrine cells use the common neurotransmitters and receptors to transmit information [6] [7] [8] . So it is difficult to study the origination of the dual-peak response just using pharmacological tools.

Similar dual-peak responses were also observed by Nirenberg and Meister in the mouse retinas.

However, amacrine cells are comprised of numerous subtypes and each subtype is provided with different morphological or biochemical properties.

Furthermore, most amacrine cells use the common neurotransmitters and receptors to transmit information.


China's rural-urban migration has been described as the largest migration flow in history (Zhao, 1999) . Rural-urban migrants have provided the cheap labor that has propelled China's high rate of economic growth for over three decades. Recently, scholars have started to distinguish between first-generation rural-urban migrants, born before 1980, and newgeneration rural-urban migrants, born in 1980 or thereafter.

China's rural-urban migration has been described as the largest migration flow in history.


The emergence of multiresistant bacteria of human and veterinary origin is nowadays a great health concern. Wildlife, normally not exposed to clinically useful antimicrobial agents, can acquire resistant bacteria mainly through water polluted from feces of human and farm activity. Current data reveal that carriage of multiresistant strains is widespread in, at least, some wild populations like waterfowl, birds of prey, and rodents [6] - [8] . The aim of the present study was to characterize the serotypes, phylogroups, virulence-gene profiles and antimicrobial resistances of a group of E. coli strains isolated from asymptomatic griffon vulture, and to establish if griffon vulture could play a role in the spread of resistant or potentially pathogenic E. coli strains.

Current data reveal that carriage of multiresistant strains is widespread in, at least, some wild populations like waterfowl, birds of prey, and rodents.


Routine semen analysis is widely performed as a major test for male fertility potential by assessing sperm concentration, motility, and morphology of the spermatozoa. However, these results do not provide accurate diagnostic or prognostic information about human fertility either in vivo or in vitro [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] . Sperm function may not be predicted by semen analysis, as the fertilisation process involves a large number of biochemical events not measured by these parameters. Nearly a third of male infertility etiologies remain idiopathic. Clinically, these patients with unexplained infertility have difficulty deciding which of the assisted reproductive technologies (ART) would be the best option to assist them to achieve pregnancy with lower cost and a less invasive procedure.

However, these results do not provide accurate diagnostic or prognostic information about human fertility either in vivo or in vitro.


Another model that captures unreliability in radio networks is the dual graph model [7, 18, 19, 28, 29] . In this graph-based model, there is a static set of edges that form the network graph as well as an additional graph ′ which consists of edges that may or may not be present in each round, as chosen by an adversary. While an excellent way to capture an environment where some links are reliable and others are not, the dual graph model fails to model random noise.

Another model that captures unreliability in radio networks is the dual graph model.


In this section we evaluate Ferry using a scheme S for stock quotes application proposed by Gupta el al. [11] . We first describe the Ferry simulator, the scheme S for the stock quotes application, the datasets, and the metrics used for evaluation. Then, we present the experimental results.

In this section we evaluate Ferry using a scheme S for stock quotes application proposed by Gupta el al..


Drug analysis in hair has grabbed the attention of toxicology analysts and researchers in recent years. This is mainly because it has provided some ability of proving drug ingestion when conventional samples could not. Hair differs from other traditional biological samples used for human toxicological analysis such as urine, blood, liver or saliva with its significantly longer detection window (months) allowing retrospective investigation and measurement of drug consumption. Hair analysis is becoming accepted in many developed countries for substance consumption related issues in a wide range of sectors; the medico-legal sector, workplace testing, treatment monitoring, schools, forensics, research, insurance companies, environmental biomonitoring and driving licensing [1] [2] [3] [4] .

Hair analysis is becoming accepted in many developed countries for substance consumption related issues in a wide range of sectors; the medico-legal sector, workplace testing, treatment monitoring, schools, forensics, research, insurance companies, environmental biomonitoring and driving licensing.


The development of the proposed basic drugs extraction method was based on previous studies showing that methanolic and aqueous solution is capable of extracting drugs from hair samples [2] . However, a comparison between this extraction solution and the digestion with Table 5 . Stability (%) of the analytes after sonication/incubation at 50˚C/18h (n = 3) and after extraction and digestion with 1 M NaOH at 50˚C/3h (n = 2). NaOH was not probably suggested in this specified way, particularly with general basic drugs screening. Therefore, the mixture of methanol, formic acid and acetonetrile (methanolic solution) was proposed to extract basic drugs. Methanol and 0.1% formic acid are protic solvents and capable of swelling the hair and attracting/ionizing basic drugs entrapped inside the hair shaft, at least theoretically. Acetonitrile was added in a small amount (10%) as it was recommended by some articles [15, 22] . The first early recovery experiments with the methanolic method produced extracts that were turbid in colour which brought about the necessity of adding a filtration step to the method and checking the effect of these filters on the drugs' recovery. Mini-UniPrep filters were chosen as they are syringeless, simple and fast. As these filters come in different materials, a comparison study was carried out and showed that PTFE based filters gave the highest recoveries for the analytes. It was seen from the stability results that digestion with NaOH reduces the stability of most of the analytes whereas methanolic incubation has no such effect on stability as the great majority of drugs showed >90% stability with or without blank hair.

The development of the proposed basic drugs extraction method was based on previous studies showing that methanolic and aqueous solution is capable of extracting drugs from hair samples.

Acetonitrile was added in a small amount (10%) as it was recommended by some articles.


The ac Stark shift (or 'light-shift') is the shift of atomic energy levels due to the interaction of the oscillating electromagnetic field and the induced atomic dipole moment [1] . This shift is one of the major limitations on the frequency stability of vapour-cell frequency standards ('Rb atomic clocks') [2] . The light-shift depends on the intensity and the optical frequency detuning of the pumping light and may be expressed (to first order and in local approximation) by the intensity light-shift coefficient α and the frequency light-shift coefficient β [3] .

The ac Stark shift (or 'light-shift') is the shift of atomic energy levels due to the interaction of the oscillating electromagnetic field and the induced atomic dipole moment.

This shift is one of the major limitations on the frequency stability of vapour-cell frequency standards ('Rb atomic clocks').

The light-shift depends on the intensity and the optical frequency detuning of the pumping light and may be expressed (to first order and in local approximation) by the intensity light-shift coefficient α and the frequency light-shift coefficient β.


There are two important problems to be considered regarding using nanosilica powder. One important consideration is dispersion. Intensive mechanical/ultrasonic dispersion and/or surface treatment were applied in the aforementioned studies. Failing to achieve proper dispersion will cause a negative effect on the strength evolution process [11] . Another problem that should be taken into consideration in using nanosilica is the decrease in fluidity, due to its high surface area to volume ratio and increased water demand. In considering the two constituents (fly ash and nanosilica), the benefits of each material can help counteract the shortcomings of the other: reactive nanosilica can improve the early-age mechanical properties while fly ash can improve flowability. Regarding the issue of dispersion, water-based colloidal nanosilica (CNS) can be used in place of nanosilica powder.

Failing to achieve proper dispersion will cause a negative effect on the strength evolution process.


The superconformal algebras arising from compactification on Calabi-Yau nfolds are well known [9] . They correspond to extensions of the N=2 Virasoro algebra by a complex field of dimension n/2. For n=1 it is an extension of the N=2 Virasoro algebra by a complex fermion and a complex boson, whereas for n=2 it becomes the (small) N=4 Virasoro algebra. This is expected since SU(2) = Sp(1) and all 4-manifolds with Sp(1) holonomy are hyperkähler. These algebras exist for generic values of the Virasoro central charge. For n=3 and n=4, the cases of interest in the present note, the Virasoro central charge is fixed to 9 and 12 respectively, corresponding to compactification manifolds of dimensions 6 and 8, respectively.

The superconformal algebras arising from compactification on Calabi-Yau nfolds are well known.


To The expression for the temperature in Eq. (5), the effects of the rarefaction parameter (b v Kn), and fluid-wall interaction parameter (ln) on the temperature profile and rate of heat transfer which are expressed as the Nusselt number are exactly the same as those given by Chen and Weng [2] . Fig. 2 shows the velocity variation for different values of rarefaction parameter (b v Kn). It is observed that as b v Kn increases, the velocity slip at the wall increases which reduces the retarding effect of the wall. This yields an observable increase in the gas velocity near the wall. Also, as b v Kn increases, the temperature jump increases and reduces the amount of heat transfer from the wall to the fluid. This reduction in heat transfer reduces the buoyancy effect, which derives the flow and hence reduces the gas velocity far from the wall. The reduction in velocity due to the reduction in heat transfer is offset by the increase in velocity due to the reduction in the frictional retarding forces near the wall. In addition, as the wall-ambient temperature difference ratio (n) increases, the effect of rarefaction parameter (b v Kn) on the microchannel slip velocity becomes significant. Fig. 3 shows the velocity variation for different values of fluid-wall interaction parameter (ln). It clearly reveals that velocity slip increases on the microchannel surfaces with increase of fluid wall interaction parameter while the impact of fluid-wall interaction parameter on the microchannel slip velocity become significant with the decrease of the wall-ambient temperature difference ratio (n). Fig. 4 Fig. 4 that the effect of the Hartmann number is to decrease the fluid velocity. This is the classical Hartmann effect. Furthermore, the effect of Hartmann number on the microchannel slip velocity becomes significant with the increase of the wall-ambient temperature difference ratio (n).

To The expression for the temperature in Eq. (5), the effects of the rarefaction parameter (b v Kn), and fluid-wall interaction parameter (ln) on the temperature profile and rate of heat transfer which are expressed as the Nusselt number are exactly the same as those given by Chen and Weng.

This is the classical Hartmann effect.


As for emissions trading scheme analysis in port-hinterland logistics planning problems, there are few similar or related researches in existing literature. There are some researches on supply chain modeling in a carbon trading environment, which tried to assess the impact of carbon price and carbon cap factors [46, 47] . They mainly tested the impact of different carbon prices on supply chain behavior, and the results revealed that the trading price had a great influence on supply chain decisions. However, in our study, it was revealed that the higher desired trading price was required with the lower cap set on the total emissions generated. The interaction of the grandfathering cap and trading price was specifically investigated, to discover the watershed price. Similar results were not found in the literature, especially in the field of hinterland distribution network modeling. Moreover, the grandfathering percentages of 90% and over, were the best situations for the decision maker in the YREB case of this paper. These findings may be innovative, and they help enrich the existing literature.

There are some researches on supply chain modeling in a carbon trading environment, which tried to assess the impact of carbon price and carbon cap factors.


Although the model and its application serve the supportive role of emissions control policies in reducing carbon emissions through the port-hinterland distribution network, they also point out one limit on policy setting. This paper had not considered some instruments that are also aimed at reducing emissions, for example, subsidy of intermodal chains, which also influences the route choice of shippers in cost performance. In addition, maritime shipping network has impacts on the port-hinterland connections and the decisions of shippers, especially in the context of the Belt and Road Initiative originally proposed by China [48] . Thus, another extension of the research may be applying the methodology toglobal supply chains to explore the understanding of the policy impacts on a global scale.

In addition, maritime shipping network has impacts on the port-hinterland connections and the decisions of shippers, especially in the context of the Belt and Road Initiative originally proposed by China.


We can more rigorously test the connection between growth and environmental destruction, and the dis-connection between equality and such destruction, by looking at changes over time in P, A, E, and I. Because the GFN does not supply figures on individual countries' ecological footprints over time, for this analysis I used the closely-related measure of CO 2 emissions instead [19] . While changes in population and per-capita GDP from 1980 to 2005 correlate very significantly with changes in CO 2 emissions over the same period (p < 10 9 and 10 7 , respectively), changes in income equality do not To illustrate, it happens that the richest country in the dataset-the UAE-also had the highest rate of population growth, with over four times more people in 2005 than in 1980. The UAE's total CO 2 emissions rose nearly as much, i.e., 3.5-fold. At the other extreme of population change, Bulgaria lost 13% of its population size, and its emissions fell even faster, i.e., by 46%. China's per-capita GDP rose faster than any other country's-nearly eight-fold-and its CO 2 emissions also increased massivelyalmost four-fold. At the low end of per-capita GDP change, Liberia's dropped by 73%, and its emissions declined more than proportionally, by 77%.

We can more rigorously test the connection between growth and environmental destruction, and the dis-connection between equality and such destruction, by looking at changes over time in P, A, E, and I. Because the GFN does not supply figures on individual countries' ecological footprints over time, for this analysis I used the closely-related measure of CO 2 emissions instead.


In this paper, I test the environmental side of this proposal, through analysis of a few key national socioeconomic and ecological variables across space and time. The socioeconomic variables are human population size, per-capita gross domestic product (GDP), equality of net household income, and changes over time in these three variables since 1980, which is the earliest year for which the World Bank has made the relevant GDP figures available. A positive change in either population or GDP/capita constitutes "growth" in that dimension. I use data on equality of income, rather than wealth, because standardized measures of the former are now available for a large number of countries and years [9] . The ecological variables are ecological footprint, carbon dioxide emission, and number of threatened species. A country's ecological footprint quantifies its demand on nature for resource supply and waste absorption. CO 2 emission is well-correlated with, but less comprehensive than, ecological footprint. But countries' CO 2 emissions are known for longer periods of time than are their ecological footprints. Number of threatened species indicates the effects of human economic activity on our fellow life forms.

I use data on equality of income, rather than wealth, because standardized measures of the former are now available for a large number of countries and years.


The range of validity of our final expression is rather broad. We only assume the validity of the Kramers-Heisenberg formula describing the scattering of light by a quantum system, where we neglect the Thomson scattering and the non-resonant term. We also assume that only the dipole and quadrupole transitions play a role, but this is an excellent approximation in the x-ray range [15] . Our result is a group theoretical consequence of the scattering cross-section. In particular, we do not assume that the states can be described by some LS or LSJ coupling, we do not make the fast collision approximation, we do not assume that some radial dipole and quadrupole matrix elements are independent of energy as in most other works on this subject. We even do not assume that a specific edge is measured. All these additional assumptions can be made in the final expression if necessary.

We also assume that only the dipole and quadrupole transitions play a role, but this is an excellent approximation in the x-ray range.


These findings are important because they point to new relevant factors in the relationship between spectators and ethics in sports and suggest that it is not the competitive sport itself but the adopted metaperception of goal perspective which could explain that the extensive exposure to soccer programming in the mass media is related to low levels of moral functioning. Accordingly, the fans might become identified with the successes of their favourite team and, depending on how it is built; this identification would take two VOLUME --| ISSUE -| 2018 | 9 possible orthogonal or independent directions: metaperception of task and ego orientation. In the first case, the perception of success would be related to the effort, the progression, the self-improvement, and the selfreferenced targets of achievement. In the second case all would depend on the final result of the competition (winning or losing) independently of the way it is attained (playing well or deficiently). Metaperception of task orientation seems quite constant, while the metaperception of ego orientation increases with the exposure to soccer related programming Similar results had been previously observed in the case of the soccer players. An increase in the level of sport involvement intensifies the ego orientation (Cecchini et al., 2007; Kavussanu and Ntoumanis, 2003) . This has been explained assuming that in this kind of sports athletes unavoidably interact with the opponent and this interaction is the vehicle through which they attempt to establish superiority (Kavussanu and Ntoumanis, 2003) . Success depends on dominating the rivals; establishing and maintaining the superiority over them. This act of comparing is continuous throughout the entire play. Athletes are constantly aware of how they are doing and therefore, they act consequently.

An increase in the level of sport involvement intensifies the ego orientation.

This has been explained assuming that in this kind of sports athletes unavoidably interact with the opponent and this interaction is the vehicle through which they attempt to establish superiority.


The purpose of this study was to examine whether exposure to soccer programming are associated with the moral functioning of soccer spectators, and if these relationships are mediated by some metaperception of goal orientation. We have observed that the exposure to soccer programming (measured in hours spent watching soccer matches on television, watching or listening soccer programs on television and/or radio, and reading news about soccer in the press or internet) is positively associated with low levels of moral functioning. We have also found that this outcome is partly mediated by the spectators' metaperception of ego orientation. Thus, supporters with extensive exposure to soccer programming may be more likely to present high metaperception of ego orientation, which in turn would be associated with low levels of moral functioning. These results are consistent with those maintaining that cognitive distortions mediate the relationship between the consequences of aggressive shows and the frequency with which people are exposed to those entertainment media (Richmond and Wilson, 2008) . Therefore, the perceiver cognitions have become increasingly more important in explaining these issues (Orue and Calvete, 2012) .

These results are consistent with those maintaining that cognitive distortions mediate the relationship between the consequences of aggressive shows and the frequency with which people are exposed to those entertainment media.

Therefore, the perceiver cognitions have become increasingly more important in explaining these issues.


The HF surface-wave radar (HFSWR) is an effective and relatively low-cost means of providing over-the-horizon surveillance of surface vessels. It is achieved by the propagation of the HF vertically polarized electromagnetic wave along the ocean surface. So it is possible to detect targets up to few hundred kilometers. However, not all the energy emitted by the HFSWR propagates along the surface. Some energy is directed upward, then will be reflected from the ionosphere and returned to the radar under certain conditions [1] . As far as the HFSWR is concerned, the Doppler spectrum of the echo through the ionosphere is widened and shifted, and these unwanted echoes are generally called the ionospheric clutter. It has been proved that the ionospheric clutter is one of the dominant clutters degrading the performance of the HFSWR severely [2] .

Some energy is directed upward, then will be reflected from the ionosphere and returned to the radar under certain conditions.

It has been proved that the ionospheric clutter is one of the dominant clutters degrading the performance of the HFSWR severely.


In Fennoscandia, the amount of woody debris has declined dramatically during the last century (Siitonen 2001) . This has generated a situation in which many species of various organism groups depending on coarse logs and snags have decreased to the extent that they have become locally extinct and nationally redlisted (Siitonen 2001) . Notably, most of the red-listed species recorded in this study are liverworts that grow on logs and other woody debris elevated from the forest floor (Appendix). They belong to the species that disappeared or decreased considerably in frequency in the buffer strips (Fig. 8) . The interpretation of this is that bryophytes on convex surfaces in forests along streams are more dependent on a moist microclimate than their counterparts on concave surfaces that have access to moisture directly from the ground.

In Fennoscandia, the amount of woody debris has declined dramatically during the last century.

This has generated a situation in which many species of various organism groups depending on coarse logs and snags have decreased to the extent that they have become locally extinct and nationally redlisted.


Advanced age is known to be one of the leading causes of stroke, a major generator of motor function deficiency (Wolf et al., 1991) . An ageing population is expected to generate a larger gap between supply and demand of human labour in the field physiotherapy. Along these lines, robot-assisted rehabilitation systems are becoming essential parts of physical therapy. In addition to reducing the manual work load on therapists, rehabilitation robots also serve to improve the standardization and repeatability of exercises during therapy sessions, and provide quantitative measurements of patient performance.

Advanced age is known to be one of the leading causes of stroke, a major generator of motor function deficiency.


Physical therapies are indispensable in the treatment of neurological problems. Therapies are conventionally delivered via physiotherapists, who provide active assistance or guidance to patients to help promote recovery by fulfilling a set of exercises. The amount of manual labour involved in conventional physiotherapy is a major concern, especially when considered in relation to the ageing trend of world's population in developed countries (Wolfgang et al., 2008) .

The amount of manual labour involved in conventional physiotherapy is a major concern, especially when considered in relation to the ageing trend of world's population in developed countries.


The first category is of devices with no actuation (Hidler et al., 2006; Mehta et al., 2009; Newton et al., 2008; Sergi et al., 2011) . The purpose of these devices is to measure the interaction forces or movement patterns of patients during, just before or just after the MRI process. The devices in this category are typically equipped with multiple-degrees-of-freedom force sensors or optical encoders that are MRI-compatible. Although these devices help researchers gather data for perception and diagnostic studies, their use for rehabilitation is limited, owing to their inability to assist patients.

The first category is of devices with no actuation.


Many robotic rehabilitation devices are being employed to treat a range of neurological problems, including joint instability, inability to bear weight and loss of limb function. With the proliferation of robotic rehabilitation systems, recent efforts have concentrated on improving efficacy of therapies conducted through use of such devices. Given that neuroplasticity of the brain is considered the main mechanism driving recovery, neuroimaging techniques can provide decisive information to evaluate efficacy of different treatment procedures (Dong et al., 2006) .

Given that neuroplasticity of the brain is considered the main mechanism driving recovery, neuroimaging techniques can provide decisive information to evaluate efficacy of different treatment procedures.


An environmental scan of the literature was conducted January, 2013 using combinations of the terms "criteria", "definition"; and "essential nutrient", "nutrient essentiality", "conditionally essential nutrient" within the search engines PubMed and Google Scholar. No limits on the year of publication or language were used. Three contemporary nutrition textbooks were also consulted (Shils et al., 1999; Erdman et al., 2012; Whitney & Rolfes, 2002) . Hand searching within the reference lists of textbooks and articles identified from the environmental scan was also conducted to locate further definitions and identify criteria for the aforementioned terms.

Three contemporary nutrition textbooks were also consulted.


As a preliminary step, a morphological analysis of the threads was carried out to get information about the yarn geometry [45] . Then, the single filaments constituting the thread were tested in tension to get an estimation of the flax tensile strength. Consequently, the strength of the entire yarn was assessed by means of tensile tests on both untreated and coated specimens. Finally, aiming to study the influence of the coating on the yarns-to-matrix bond, pull-out tests were carried out by taking out both untreated and treated yarns from mortar cylinders [30] . Although no specific investigations have been carried out in this regard, it is worth emphasizing that further analysis is required for analyzing the XSBR coating sustainability impact of the entire system. However, as a first step, it is fundamental to quantify the benefits of the impregnation in terms of mechanical properties. Further durability and life-cycle assessment analysis may clarify if the eventual gap, in terms of environmental impact, is offset by the mechanical benefits, and if more sustainable coating materials may be employed.

As a preliminary step, a morphological analysis of the threads was carried out to get information about the yarn geometry.

Finally, aiming to study the influence of the coating on the yarns-to-matrix bond, pull-out tests were carried out by taking out both untreated and treated yarns from mortar cylinders.


Our finding, that uteroplacental blood flow did not change markedly during spinal anaesthesia, is in accordance with our earlier data [22] . In that study, placental blood flow, recorded with an isotope technique, did not change in seven healthy parturients and even increased in one patient with preeclampsia during spinal anaesthesia. In the 12 pre-eclamptic patients in this study, a marked increase in uterine artery PI as a sign of increased vascular resistance was seen in only one patient simultaneously with a period of severe hypotension lasting 4-6 min after induction of spinal anaesthesia. This was, however, corrected promptly with adequate measures. In the other patient, with even more marked hypotension, uterine artery PI increased only slightly and normalized rapidly. It seems therefore that PI levels in uterine arteries are stable and not sensitive to a moderate decrease in maternal arterial pressure. The good condition of the neonates was a further indication of undisturbed uterine haemodynamic state during the study. The small number of pre-eclamptic subjects examined here may, however, have limited the possibility of observing significant changes in uterine artery PI values after marked maternal hypotension.

Our finding, that uteroplacental blood flow did not change markedly during spinal anaesthesia, is in accordance with our earlier data.


A variety of plasma flows along open magnetic field lines can be found in the solar-terrestrial plasma systems, for example, solar wind (a supersonic expansion of plasma blowing out of the solar corona) and polar wind (an ambipolar outflow of thermal plasma from the terrestrial ionosphere at high latitudes to the magnetosphere along open geomagnetic field lines of the Earth). The purpose of this paper is to review the observations related to O + and H + ions outflows in the polar wind in order to compare them with the corresponding simulations obtained by using Barghouthi model (Barghouthi, 2008) . We expect from this comparison to shed light on the significant role of wave-particle interaction in controlling the ion outflow in the polar wind region. We also want to discuss the potential role of finite wavelength effects (i.e. velocity dependent velocity diffusion coefficients), and provide the scientific community with the wavelength of the electromagnetic turbulence that best matches many of the observed features. The Barghouthi model can provide a good match to many observations, and we expect that we have a lot to learn also from the cases with poor agreement, which we also discuss.

The purpose of this paper is to review the observations related to O + and H + ions outflows in the polar wind in order to compare them with the corresponding simulations obtained by using Barghouthi model.


As a precipitation-hardenable superalloy, IN718 has been widely used to make critical components of gas turbines, power plants, spacecraft and rocket motors due to its excellent corrosion resistance, thermal resistance, wear resistance and high strengths at elevated temperature [1] [2] [3] . However, IN718 is commonly classified as the difficult machining material because of high shear strength, low material removal rate and excessive tool wear by conventional machining methods [4] . Although it is reported that current hybrid manufacturing methods can pave a way to solve the aforementioned problems, there are many shortcomings such as high cost, long lead-time and environmental impacts that cannot meet the requirement for wide applications of IN718 material [5] [6] . Thus it is urgent to seek alternative technique expanding the value of such material in potential applications.

As a precipitation-hardenable superalloy, IN718 has been widely used to make critical components of gas turbines, power plants, spacecraft and rocket motors due to its excellent corrosion resistance, thermal resistance, wear resistance and high strengths at elevated temperature.

However, IN718 is commonly classified as the difficult machining material because of high shear strength, low material removal rate and excessive tool wear by conventional machining methods.

Although it is reported that current hybrid manufacturing methods can pave a way to solve the aforementioned problems, there are many shortcomings such as high cost, long lead-time and environmental impacts that cannot meet the requirement for wide applications of IN718 material.


For Cassie-Baxter model, the key factors affecting contact angle value are the roughness parameter of wetted area rf, the portion of surface wetted by testing liquid f and the chemical compositions of surface layer, associated with θ [21] . Therefore, according to Eq. (2), one can modify θCB on the rough surface by simply varying surface morphology and, as a result, the portion of wetted solid area f. Theoretically, a superhydrophobic surface can be achieved on any intrinsically hydrophilic materials [22] [23] [24] .

For Cassie-Baxter model, the key factors affecting contact angle value are the roughness parameter of wetted area rf, the portion of surface wetted by testing liquid f and the chemical compositions of surface layer, associated with θ.

Theoretically, a superhydrophobic surface can be achieved on any intrinsically hydrophilic materials.


Sensitive photosensors with a low intrinsic radioactivity are mandatory for future dark matter detectors using liquid noble gases, such as xenon or argon, as WIMP targets. Based on the study presented here, we conclude that the Hamamatsu R11410 3" PMT is a good candidate for LXe detectors. Therefore it was chosen to be the light detector for the next-generation experiment XENON1T [13] .

Therefore it was chosen to be the light detector for the next-generation experiment XENON1T.


The central part of these detectors are two arrays of photosensors, installed below the target volume in the liquid xenon (LXe) and above in the gas phase. Typical operation parameters are temperatures around −100 • C and absolute pressures of about 2 bar. These sensors detect the primary scintillation signal, leading to typically only a few photoelectrons at threshold, as well as the charge signal which is amplified by proportional scintillation in the gas phase and therefore larger [9] . For the current phase of experiments, photomultipliers (PMTs) are used because of their high quantum efficiency (QE), single photoelectron sensitivity, fast timing characteristics, low dark current, and because they can be operated at cryogenic conditions in LXe. The scintillation wavelength of xenon is in the vacuum ultraviolet region (VUV) at 178 nm and the photocathode must have a high quantum efficiency at this wavelength. Preferentially it should be above 30%, close to the maximum values achieved to-date.

These sensors detect the primary scintillation signal, leading to typically only a few photoelectrons at threshold, as well as the charge signal which is amplified by proportional scintillation in the gas phase and therefore larger.


Unlike its transmission and reception modes of operation, a nanoantenna can also serve as a good aid for fluorescence spectroscopy due to strong field enhancement localized in the feed region [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] . However, the shape and overall dimensions of the antenna with its substrate play a critical role in achieving local field enhancement while avoiding quenching. The structural shapes of optical antennas are quite similar to those of traditional antennas with one exception: ease of manufacturability. It is possible to propose many varieties of 2-and 2.5D planar traditional antennas to optical regime, but manufacturing tolerances and limits of processing technologies shorten the list to quite few simple structures. In that respect, rod and bowtie geometries have been preferred over other designs. Nevertheless, spirals and other structures have also been simulated for better performance.

Unlike its transmission and reception modes of operation, a nanoantenna can also serve as a good aid for fluorescence spectroscopy due to strong field enhancement localized in the feed region.


Salinity reduces plant growth due to osmotic and ionic effects on soil solution. The most damaging effects of salinity on plants include ion toxicity, water deficit and nutrient imbalance (Marschner, 1995) . Additionally, components of photosynthetic electron transport in the chloroplasts as well as the enzyme responsible for carbon assimilation are highly sensitive to Na + and Cl -concentrations (Nayidu et al., 2013) . The salt-related decline in the photosynthetic activity might trigger PSII photoinhibition and/or photodamage (Lu and Vonshak, 2002) . Therefore, measurements of chlorophyll a fluorescence is a rapid and noninvasive tool used to screen varieties for salinity tolerance. Furthermore, plants subjected to salinity experience oxidative damages through an increase of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Arora et al., 2008) . These ROS cause oxidative stress by initiating lipid peroxidation that leads to a loss of membrane integrity (Dionisio-Sese and Tobita, 1998) . To scavenge the ROS, plants possess protective enzymes like peroxidase [POD (EC 1.11.1.7)] and diamine oxidase [DAO (EC 1.4.3.6)] that protect plants from ROS damage (Xing et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2012) .

The most damaging effects of salinity on plants include ion toxicity, water deficit and nutrient imbalance.

Additionally, components of photosynthetic electron transport in the chloroplasts as well as the enzyme responsible for carbon assimilation are highly sensitive to Na + and Cl -concentrations.

The salt-related decline in the photosynthetic activity might trigger PSII photoinhibition and/or photodamage.

Furthermore, plants subjected to salinity experience oxidative damages through an increase of reactive oxygen species (ROS).

These ROS cause oxidative stress by initiating lipid peroxidation that leads to a loss of membrane integrity.

To scavenge the ROS, plants possess protective enzymes like peroxidase [POD (EC 1.11.1.7)] and diamine oxidase [DAO (EC 1.4.3.6)] that protect plants from ROS damage.


Soil salinity is one of the most serious environmen- Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is considered to be moderately tolerant to salinity (Maas and Hoffmann, 1976) . Although pomegranate is one of the oldest known edible fruits, its culture has always been restricted and generally is considered as a minor crop. In recent years, pomegranates are increasingly recognized as attractive fruit trees that provide highly valued health beneficial ingredients and a wide range of usages of the fruit and its products. Thus, it is of utmost importance to exploit its potential against salinity.

Soil salinity is one of the most serious environmen- Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is considered to be moderately tolerant to salinity.


The successful use, over years, of engineering materials, especially mild steel, in construction, aerospace, automobile, and most especially in the oil and gas sector, has been massive, due to its inclusive properties. Its multifaceted importance on low cost, availability and ease of fabrication has also given it an edge on demand. Unfortunately, mild steel versatility has its limitations, as it has a low hardness tendency, increases plastic deformation and is prone to structural defect in high temperature applications [1] [2] [3] .

Unfortunately, mild steel versatility has its limitations, as it has a low hardness tendency, increases plastic deformation and is prone to structural defect in high temperature applications.


Over time, as more clinical staff were trained and standardised protocols and guidelines were introduced, the probable explanation for increasing ratios of clinical staff to ART and PMTCT in our study is that HIV/ AIDS services were increasingly mainstreamed and therefore normalised and integrated into normal facility staff workloads. From the perspective of access and availability of services and the institutionalisation of HIV/AIDS control at the facility level, this can be seen as a positive development. However, this paper takes the perspective of workload and the implications of HIV service scale up on health workers. It should be noted, also, that the data on task sharing that were obtained from health facility managers, which showed increasing numbers of staff allocated to the provision of HIV ser- A study which assessed the role of lay counsellors in Zambia, found that they provided up to 70% of HIV counselling and testing services at health facilities [37] . We did not quantify the number and trends in lay or voluntary counsellors, 2005-07, and the staff designated as counsellors were trained staff employed by these facilities. It is possible that some facility managers designated staff as ART and PMTCT providers, who were not part of their formal staff complement, in the responses to the survey. It is also likely that practices in a small clinic employing a clinical officer and one or two nurses, who take on a range of service activities, is different to a district hospital or large urban clinic where more specialisation occurs. Therefore quantifying an increased (and by 2007 quite high) proportion of existing frontline staff as taking on these responsibilities on top of their other non-HIV workload is still a hypothesis. This requires testing with different data collection tools, or better still, improved routine information systems. However, staff shortages and rapidly increasing HIV workload were a reality, as also demonstrated in increases in the numbers of HIV laboratory tests. In Mumbwa, where a combination of HIV and non-HIV workload increases were greatest, eight surveyed rural health centres delivering routine services and increasingly delivering HIV services were staffed with an average of one nurse and one clinical officer each, which is consistent with national reports of greater staff shortages in rural areas [2] .

It should be noted, also, that the data on task sharing that were obtained from health facility managers, which showed increasing numbers of staff allocated to the provision of HIV ser- A study which assessed the role of lay counsellors in Zambia, found that they provided up to 70% of HIV counselling and testing services at health facilities.

In Mumbwa, where a combination of HIV and non-HIV workload increases were greatest, eight surveyed rural health centres delivering routine services and increasingly delivering HIV services were staffed with an average of one nurse and one clinical officer each, which is consistent with national reports of greater staff shortages in rural areas.


In combination with the resistive readout structure it is proposed to integrate about 90 % of the charge to achieve optimum spatial resolution [18] . Compared to the signal length fwhm, presented here, the charge integration time from 5 % to 95 % of the original signal can be calculated to be τ 5−95 % ≈ 1.4 τ fwhm . Due to charge diffusion on the readout structure the charge integration time for signals with a width of τ 5-95 % = 92 ns is stretched to about τ rs:5-95 % = 150 ns. Compared to the geometry of MicroCAT-or micromegas-detectors the triple-GEM constellation offers faster signals since only the electrons and not the slow ions contribute to the signal shape.

In combination with the resistive readout structure it is proposed to integrate about 90 % of the charge to achieve optimum spatial resolution.


In our detector setup the drift field has the most crucial influence on the signal length although for smaller conversion regions this parameter becomes less important due to smaller longitudinal electron diffusion. The drift field should be chosen as large as allowed by the detector setup. However, the drift field should not be too high ( 2 kV/cm) because the uppermost GEM loses transparency for too high drift fields [12] . The GEM operation voltage, which is mainly determined by the desired gas gain, does not influence the signal widths visibly. Transfer and induction fields 2 kV/cm minimise the widths of the signal. If the contribution of the electron induced box-shaped current (see Fig. 11 ) becomes noticeable the distance between the undermost GEM and the anode can be reduced, i.e. to 0.5 mm. This should suppress this effect.

However, the drift field should not be too high ( 2 kV/cm) because the uppermost GEM loses transparency for too high drift fields.

This should suppress this effect.


The strong influence of the quencher fraction indicates, that a stable avalanche process is not only based on electron-induced ionization of gas atoms. The UVphotons which are produced in the avalanche development may contribute noticeably to the multiplication procedure. With increasing pressure and constant (or even larger) quench gas fraction the range of the UV-photons is decreasing. For instance, the deterioration in energy resolution in a MWPC is stopped when a very small quench gas fraction of only 2 % at very high pressures (up to 30 bar) is added to argon [26] . However, still smaller fractions of quenching gas lead to an unsafe operation of the detector.

For instance, the deterioration in energy resolution in a MWPC is stopped when a very small quench gas fraction of only 2 % at very high pressures (up to 30 bar) is added to argon.


One of the most widely-known of switched beam networks is Butler matrix [6] . It is a passive feeding N × N network with beam steering capabilities for phased array antennas with N outputs connected to antenna elements and N inputs or beam ports. Feeding an N -element antenna array using an N × N Butler matrix, N orthogonal beams can be generated, and each one has a gain of the whole array.

One of the most widely-known of switched beam networks is Butler matrix.


This multipath phenomenon arises when a transmitted signal undergoes reflection from various obstacles in the propagation environment which degrades the transmission quality and limits the frequency efficiency [2] [3] [4] . Smart antennas are one resolution to overcome this problem [5] . Smart antenna systems are introduced to improve wireless performance and increase system capacity by spatial filtering, which can separate spectrally and temporally overlapping signals from multiple users. Smart antennas systems can be generally categorized into two approaches based on transmit strategy: adaptive arrays and switched beams [6] [7] [8] . Adaptive arrays consist of multiple antenna elements at the transmitting and/or receiving side of the communication link, whose signals are processed adaptively in order to exploit the spatial dimension of the mobile radio channel. This technique allow to steer the main lobe in the desired signal direction and to create pattern nulls in directions of interferences, which results in a better signalto-interference ratio. However, the physical implementation of these algorithms is more complex and leads to costly systems. On other hand, switched beams systems are referred as antenna array system that forms multiple fixed beams with enhanced sensitivity in a specific area. This antenna system detects signal strength, selects one of the several predetermined fixed beams, and switches from one beam to another as the user moves.

This multipath phenomenon arises when a transmitted signal undergoes reflection from various obstacles in the propagation environment which degrades the transmission quality and limits the frequency efficiency.

Smart antennas are one resolution to overcome this problem.

Smart antennas systems can be generally categorized into two approaches based on transmit strategy: adaptive arrays and switched beams.


Upper limb function is recognised by experts as a high priority area for treatment of children with hemiplegia [39] . A large body of research has investigated therapeutic interventions and modes of delivery to maximise outcomes for this group of children [40] . Recent research has predominantly focused on improving motor skills via motor learning approaches and has demonstrated that intensive goal-directed treatments have a positive effect on hand function [40] . However, there is limited research into whether reducing developmental non-use and improving bimanual hand function might be more effectively achieved by treating any sensory impairments that are known to contribute to impaired motor function. A recent systematic review of interventions for tactile deficits that may be suitable for children suggested two approaches that were effective in adults post stroke [41] . This study aims to investigate one of those recommended: transfer enhanced somatosensory discrimination training, known as Sense© training [36] .

Upper limb function is recognised by experts as a high priority area for treatment of children with hemiplegia.

A large body of research has investigated therapeutic interventions and modes of delivery to maximise outcomes for this group of children.

Recent research has predominantly focused on improving motor skills via motor learning approaches and has demonstrated that intensive goal-directed treatments have a positive effect on hand function.

A recent systematic review of interventions for tactile deficits that may be suitable for children suggested two approaches that were effective in adults post stroke.

This study aims to investigate one of those recommended: transfer enhanced somatosensory discrimination training, known as Sense© training.


To develop a robust model with low complexity, we used a pixel-based background subtraction method based on spatial similarity computed using the structural similarity method (SSIM) [36] . Using spatial similarity, we measured the pixel similarity and eliminated background pixels. The remaining pixels were classified as either background or foreground pixels using KDE. Since we eliminated most background pixels and used only two features for KDE, the complexity of the proposed method was significantly reduced. The proposed method was evaluated using two datasets (Wallflower's and Li's datasets) and showed favorable performance over some existing methods.

To develop a robust model with low complexity, we used a pixel-based background subtraction method based on spatial similarity computed using the structural similarity method (SSIM).


In slurry-shield-driven project, the method of opening the working chamber under compressed air has been widely used, such as in Nanjing Yangtze River Tunnel [6] [7] [8] . A filter cake plays an important role on the working face stability in the normally tunneling [9, 10] . As opening an excavation chamber under compressed air, the air pressure is in direct action on the filter cake, and it is the key to the excavation face stability. However, few theoretical researches on the mechanism of air tightness of the filter cake are reported.

In slurry-shield-driven project, the method of opening the working chamber under compressed air has been widely used, such as in Nanjing Yangtze River Tunnel.

A filter cake plays an important role on the working face stability in the normally tunneling.


Nowadays, shield tunneling method has been widely used in the construction of subway and river-crossing tunnels in China [1] . However, shield-tunneling machine malfunctions and highly worn cutting wheel or cutters were encountered frequently and nagged the construction enterprises seriously in the difficult geological conditions [2] [3] [4] . To restore the excavation, technicists have to open chambers to maintain equipment or exchange the cutters. Meanwhile maintaining the stability of tunnel face is the most vital problem as opening chambers in shield tunneling projects [5] . Generally, compressed air is used to support the tunnel face during opening chamber operations in some subjects. However, in some soils with high permeability, the tunnel face cannot be supported effectively without any accessory measures as the massive air leakage. This problem has attracted the attention of construction enterprises in the world and some accessory measures, such as filter cakes formed on the surface, have been taken to reduce the permeability of soils as opening chamber under air pressure [2, 5] .

Nowadays, shield tunneling method has been widely used in the construction of subway and river-crossing tunnels in China.

However, shield-tunneling machine malfunctions and highly worn cutting wheel or cutters were encountered frequently and nagged the construction enterprises seriously in the difficult geological conditions.

Meanwhile maintaining the stability of tunnel face is the most vital problem as opening chambers in shield tunneling projects.

This problem has attracted the attention of construction enterprises in the world and some accessory measures, such as filter cakes formed on the surface, have been taken to reduce the permeability of soils as opening chamber under air pressure.


In shield tunnel construction, opening an excavation chamber under compressed air is an engineering challenge. Cases of excavation chamber opening have been reported in some countries, such as the Elbe 4 Tunnel in Germany, which was excavated in the slurry shield mode of the TBM composed of sand, marlite, and boulder in the chamber replacement center cutters [6] . The Red Line Metro in the St. Petersburg subway in Russia is under a pressure of 0.55 MPa, with a clay and fine sand formation opening an excavation chamber under compressed air [1] . The Holland Westerschelde Tunnel has a gas pressure of MPa in a depth of 60 m of a clay-layer open chamber [7, 8] . These aforementioned cases of opening an excavation chamber belong to engineering accident treatment. Thus, this study focused on describing the processes and points in chamber opening, such as symptoms of decompression sickness. However, theoretical and practical analyses on the mechanism of air tightness of filter cakes and an excavation face during chamber opening are limited.

Cases of excavation chamber opening have been reported in some countries, such as the Elbe 4 Tunnel in Germany, which was excavated in the slurry shield mode of the TBM composed of sand, marlite, and boulder in the chamber replacement center cutters.

The Red Line Metro in the St. Petersburg subway in Russia is under a pressure of 0.55 MPa, with a clay and fine sand formation opening an excavation chamber under compressed air.

The Holland Westerschelde Tunnel has a gas pressure of MPa in a depth of 60 m of a clay-layer open chamber.


Uncertainties involved in the supply chain optimization can be categorized into two main groups: (1) environmental and (2) system [2] . Environmental uncertainties are attributed to the performance of each member of supply chain consisting of suppliers, manufacturers, and so forth. System uncertainties are attributed to routine processes in the supply chain such as production and distribution. The above-mentioned uncertainties adversely contribute to the quality of decisions made in strategic, tactical, and operational levels of supply chain. With respect to the alluded points and necessity of considering uncertainties in adopting various decisions in the supply chain networks, researchers, in tune with designing their supply chain networks, have strived to include foregoing two aspects of uncertainties to better represent the practical features of real-world problems. Thus, for this purpose, advanced optimization methodologies are desired. Hence, many researchers have recently made attempts to model the uncertainty in supply chains [3] [4] [5] .

Uncertainties involved in the supply chain optimization can be categorized into two main groups: (1) environmental and (2) system.

Hence, many researchers have recently made attempts to model the uncertainty in supply chains.


Current investigations of MRE microstructures are limited to fractions of the total sample geometry [28] . These studies would not capture larger structures that percolate (or span) length scales of the order of the entire specimen. Additionally, no studies of the contact interaction between neighboring particles, attracted to each other locally during curing, have been performed. The particulate nature of MREs is important to remember since the mechanics of granular media identify anisotropic distribution of contacts, which would occur on a particle-to-particle length scale, as a source of variation in the bulk response [30] . To the best of our knowledge, studies of MRE behavior or structure in these two regimes, distribution of particle contacts and the percolation of aggregates of particles induced by curing in the presence of a magnetic field, have not been conducted in the MRE literature. We believe that further studies are clearly necessary and should focus on these two length scales.

Current investigations of MRE microstructures are limited to fractions of the total sample geometry.

The particulate nature of MREs is important to remember since the mechanics of granular media identify anisotropic distribution of contacts, which would occur on a particle-to-particle length scale, as a source of variation in the bulk response.


Organic electroluminescent (EL) devices are of great interest because of their efficient emissions in the visi-ble region and their potential applications in full colour large-area flat panel displays. Electroluminescence in polymeric or molecular materials is obtained by the recombination of electrons and holes injected at the anode and cathode, respectively. Much effort has been put into the development of new organic EL molecular materials and appropriate device structures to achieve high-efficiency and stable devices with defined emission colours. Of the various kinds of EL materials, 1,8-naphthalimide derivatives have attracted attention due to their high photoluminescence quantum yields and good optical, thermal and chemical stabilities [1] [2] [3] . The 1,8-Naphthalimide derivatives have unique photophysical properties, which have been widely used as brilliant yellow dyes in synthetic fiber technology, as functional segments for the design of dual-mode chemical (protons)/electrochromic molecular switches and as functional fluorescent imaging polymers [4] [5] [6] .

Of the various kinds of EL materials, 1,8-naphthalimide derivatives have attracted attention due to their high photoluminescence quantum yields and good optical, thermal and chemical stabilities.

The 1,8-Naphthalimide derivatives have unique photophysical properties, which have been widely used as brilliant yellow dyes in synthetic fiber technology, as functional segments for the design of dual-mode chemical (protons)/electrochromic molecular switches and as functional fluorescent imaging polymers.


There are 15 crane species in the world, seven of which migrate to the Republic of Korea (ROK) for wintering [1] . The red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis) is an endangered species according to the Red List of International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) [2] . It breeds in southeastern Russia, northeastern China, Mongolia, and on Hokkaido Island in eastern Japan. After breeding, red-crowned cranes migrate to the ROK and coastal China and overwinter there [3] . Wintering sites are very important for migratory birds during the time following the breeding period [4] .

There are 15 crane species in the world, seven of which migrate to the Republic of Korea (ROK) for wintering.

The red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis) is an endangered species according to the Red List of International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).

After breeding, red-crowned cranes migrate to the ROK and coastal China and overwinter there.

Wintering sites are very important for migratory birds during the time following the breeding period.


Farmland is the main crane habitat in Cheorwon-gun. In other regions, wetlands are also important crane habitats [5, 30, 31] . In Cheorwon-gun, however, farmland is much more accessible as a crane food source since there are very few wintertime disturbances from human activity there.

In other regions, wetlands are also important crane habitats.


We found that cranes also prefer areas near farm roads. Since there is no wintertime farming in Cheorwon-gun, there is very little human-or vehicular farm road traffic and therefore limited disturbance there. Farm roads are higher than farmland because they were constructed on an embankment. Therefore, farm roads provide shelter from strong winds. Additionally, winds move grain to the edge between farmland and farm roads [30] .

Additionally, winds move grain to the edge between farmland and farm roads.


The amount of farmland in an area is significantly correlated to the availability of food [19, 29] . The suitable habitat area of the red crowned cranes in Cheorwon-gun is about 80 km 2 , and a large amount of it is farmland. The existing farmland area in the region is adequate to sustain a crane community there. Nevertheless, if cultivation practices were changed there to make more food available, then even larger crane communities could live in Cheorwon-gun.

The amount of farmland in an area is significantly correlated to the availability of food.


In this paper, we use the representation of equidistant particle velocities as a stationary Markov process to upscale particle motion and solute transport in the framework of timedomain random walks in terms of the pore-scale velocity distribution and characteristic length scale. We employ two velocity Markov models of different complexity. The first is based on a Bernoulli process for the prediction of the velocity series, the second on an OrnsteinUhlenbeck velocity process for the normal scores of velocity (Morales et al. 2017; Puyguiraud et al. 2019) . The resulting time-domain random walk models are used to predict breakthrough curves, displacement mean, and variance as well as the full spatial particle distributions or propagators from full three-dimensional flow, and particle tracking simulations for a Berea sandstone sample.

The first is based on a Bernoulli process for the prediction of the velocity series, the second on an OrnsteinUhlenbeck velocity process for the normal scores of velocity.


In a cw-CRDS system light is coupled into a single transverse cavity mode, typically the TEM 00 , thus requiring accurately designed mode matching optics. To initiate a ring-down the light being coupled into the cavity is switched off, and during the ring-down process it is desirable that all the coupled light not being transmitted through the output mirror continues to resonate in the TEM 00 mode [29] . In some circumstances the sensitivity of cw-CRDS can be enhanced by improving the mechanical stability of the cavity or by increasing the coupled optical power into the cavity through locking the laser to a single longitudinal cavity mode [30] .

To initiate a ring-down the light being coupled into the cavity is switched off, and during the ring-down process it is desirable that all the coupled light not being transmitted through the output mirror continues to resonate in the TEM 00 mode.

In some circumstances the sensitivity of cw-CRDS can be enhanced by improving the mechanical stability of the cavity or by increasing the coupled optical power into the cavity through locking the laser to a single longitudinal cavity mode.


A further contrast between the approaches becomes apparent when a flame is present within the optical cavity. As resonant effects are minimal in the pulsed regime it follows that any disturbance to the transverse mode structure of the cavity, caused by thermal gradients of the flame, will produce a lesser reduction in the cavity ring-down time. This is not the case for a cw-CRD system, where all the light needs to remain within the TEM 00 mode. We have previously used CRDS with a pulsed dye laser, with a pulse power of 6 mJ and a line-width of 0.1 cm −1 , to undertake studies on singlet methylene and HCO in the same porous plug burner [31] . During these measurements a reduction of ≈50% in the ring-down time was observed due to the thermal disturbance of the optical field, which is much less than the ≈80% reduction seen in the cw-CRDS setup presented in Section 3. In the cw-CRDS system described in this work the most significant cause for de-coupling from the TEM 00 mode is therefore the introduction of the flame into the cavity. Any improvements to the mechanical stability of the cavity would have a negligible effect on the overall sensitivity of the flame measurements since thermal losses are dominant.

We have previously used CRDS with a pulsed dye laser, with a pulse power of 6 mJ and a line-width of 0.1 cm −1 , to undertake studies on singlet methylene and HCO in the same porous plug burner.


During the 1990s, tariffs in both developing and developed countries came down substantially, leading researchers to name the period the Great Liberalization of the 1990s (Estevadeordal and Taylor, 2013) . Those reductions were predominantly a result of the GATT Uruguay Round, spanning the years 1986 to 1994 and phased in from 1995 to 2000, but also a result of regional trade agreements and unilateral liberalization. On average, developed country tariffs were cut from around 6 to 3 percent, while developing country tariffs were cut from almost 20 to 13 percent between 1990 and 2000 (Appendix D).

During the 1990s, tariffs in both developing and developed countries came down substantially, leading researchers to name the period the Great Liberalization of the 1990s.


In this paper results of a study carried out using an automatic goniometer on the meteor radar at the Kharkiv National University of Radioengineering (49 • 30 N, 36 • 51 E) are presented, with the purpose to obtain the individual time-spatial parameters of IGW and to determine features of their statistical distribution. The automatic goniometer of the Kharkiv meteor radar station (AG MRS) is intended to study dynamic parameters of the Earth's atmosphere at altitudes 80-105 km with the opportunity of revealing the high-altitude structure of zonal wind motions. AG MRS, operating on 31.1 MHz, consists of a five-element antenna array that is directed to the east, and makes Doppler measurements of the radial drift velocity, angular data (azimuth and elevation), and range, i.e. slant distance up to the reflecting area of meteor trails (Kashcheyev and Oleynikov, 1994) .

AG MRS, operating on 31.1 MHz, consists of a five-element antenna array that is directed to the east, and makes Doppler measurements of the radial drift velocity, angular data (azimuth and elevation), and range, i.e. slant distance up to the reflecting area of meteor trails.


An interesting outcome of our study is evidence on the performance of IMF standby programs from a crucial, yet understudied, point of view. Although the main aim of IMF programs is to bring about fiscal sustainability, most hard evidence generated by their critiques has pointed to their negative effects in other respects (Przeworski and Vreeland, 2000; Bird, 2001) . Our analysis in this paper concerns the fiscal discipline issue: Do standby programs ensure that their limits on explicit spending and borrowing are not undermined by off-budget government activities? Do they entail sufficient monitoring of fiscal operations to curb disguised liability creation? Our empirical results suggest that the monitoring function of standby programs is strong and the costs that it imposes on off-budget spending ensure that the stock of hidden debt tends to decline towards the end of the program. In this sense, standby programs are successful in bringing about fiscal discipline as long as they last. IMF programs may have adverse effects in the form of slow growth or increased inequality, but they do seem to discourage opaque government expenditures. However, our evidence does not show that the measures applied by the IMF lead to fiscal adjustment on a more permanent basis.

Although the main aim of IMF programs is to bring about fiscal sustainability, most hard evidence generated by their critiques has pointed to their negative effects in other respects.


The main view of hidden public debt examined so far in the literature is that restrictions on public expenditure and deficit induce governments to resort to off-budget activities. This idea is important because constraints on spending and deficit exist in all countries in one form or another. Externally imposed constraints aimed at fiscal discipline are also common in international pacts and multilateral arrangements, as in the European Union's Maastricht Treaty and IMF conditionality. If such arrangements merely cause governments to shift their spending off-budget, then fiscal adjustment may be an illusion (Easterly, 1999) . Empirical investigation of this hypothesis in the case of U.S. states and IMF/World Bank adjustment programs seem to be supportive (Joulfaian and Marlow, 1991; Easterly, 1999) . However, the evidence is still quite limited and in part sketchy. In particular, it is not clear from the existing empirical work whether restrictions are ineffective irrespective of their design and circumstances, or they may work in some situations but not in others. This is important because the institutional environments of countries differ in terms of the opportunities and pressures that arise for debt hiding. For example, governments with higher exposed debts may have greater incentive to keep their expenditures out of sight and, if their intervention in markets is already extensive, they may find more instruments at their disposal to do so.

If such arrangements merely cause governments to shift their spending off-budget, then fiscal adjustment may be an illusion.

Empirical investigation of this hypothesis in the case of U.S. states and IMF/World Bank adjustment programs seem to be supportive.


Ultra-clean hydrogen has been recognized as a carbon-free fuel that can be used to power polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells. The PEM fuel cell is an efficient electrochemical device that produces electricity that can be used in several important applications such as transportation, power generation and electronic devices (Zamel, 2013) . Although the PEM fuel cells are a versatile clean technology and friendly to the environment, but are sensitive to hydrogen purity. Carbon monoxide traces of about (5-10 ppm) are enough to severely poison the active sites of the platinum catalyst at the anode, resulting in transient cell potential oscillations and a profound drop in the overall efficiency of the PEM fuel cell (Oetjen et al., 1996; Farrell et al., 2007) . Also, ammonia traces of about 13 ppm have catalyst poisoning effects on the PEM fuel cells (Uribe et al., 2002; Chellappa et al., 2002; Vilekar et al., 2012) . Conventional steam reformers produce inevitably hydrogen with carbon monoxide beyond allowable limits. Therefore, the purity of hydrogen imposes severe constraints on the conventional hydrogen production processes.

The PEM fuel cell is an efficient electrochemical device that produces electricity that can be used in several important applications such as transportation, power generation and electronic devices.

Carbon monoxide traces of about (5-10 ppm) are enough to severely poison the active sites of the platinum catalyst at the anode, resulting in transient cell potential oscillations and a profound drop in the overall efficiency of the PEM fuel cell.

Also, ammonia traces of about 13 ppm have catalyst poisoning effects on the PEM fuel cells.


The effect of the feed temperature along the length of the FBMR is shown in Fig. 4a . A feed temperature range (600°C-900°C) is considered (Chiuta et al., 2013; Di Carlo et al., 2014) . As shown in Fig. 4a , a substantial increase in ammonia conversion is achieved by increasing the feed temperature. About 91.20% increase in ammonia conversion is obtained from 20.91% to 36.98%, when the feed temperature is increased from 600°C to 900°C. It is interesting to note that the effect of feed temperature on the ammonia conversion at high values is more pronounced than at low values. For example the increase of ammonia conversion is about 11.57% when the feed temperature is increased from 600°C to 700°C and about 32.63% when the feed temperature is increased from 800°C to 900°C. Fig. 4b shows the ammonia conversion as a function of temperature at different feed temperatures. As one can see that the exit low temperature in the vicinity of the equilibrium is obtained by all cases. In this situation, the performance of the FBMR is controlled by the kinetics and virtually weak hydrogen permeation. The corresponding mole fractions of the components NH 3 , H 2 and N 2 are shown in Fig. 4c . The ammonia and hydrogen concentrations show inflection points of minimum and maximum value, respectively. This behavior is caused by the effect of ammonia consumption and hydrogen permeation on the total number of moles that prevail along the length of the reactor.

A feed temperature range (600°C-900°C) is considered.


It has been well known that predominant sources for atmospheric PAHs in China are vehicle exhaust and coal combustion (Zhu et al., 1998; Peng et al., 2000; Li et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2005; He et al., 2005) . As capital cities, Zhengzhou and Urumchi prohibit and limit the wood combustion in the open spaces. Considering these facts, the vehicle exhaust and coal combustion would be the most important sources of atmospheric PAHs for these two cities in this research.

It has been well known that predominant sources for atmospheric PAHs in China are vehicle exhaust and coal combustion.


The improvement on chalcopyrite leaching by chloride ions was soon recognized. As early as 1970s, researches on chalcopyrite leaching had highlighted that ferric chloride gives faster leaching kinetics than ferric sulphate (Gupta and Mukherjee, 1990; Jones and Peters, 1976) . This improvement is credited, at least, to the following reasons: (i) formation of copper chloride complexes; (ii) increase in the anodic current during chalcopyrite leaching, (iii) changes on the surface form and properties of the reaction product. These aspects will be discussed in light of the results of the present work.

As early as 1970s, researches on chalcopyrite leaching had highlighted that ferric chloride gives faster leaching kinetics than ferric sulphate.


To fulfill the most up-to-date guidelines on preventive conservation, in recent years several scientific projects supported by the EC were aimed at developing innovative tools that could improve the standard methods for environmental monitoring in museums [4] . The current trend is to combine studies based on commercially available instruments (luxmeters and radiometers) with researches focused on the differentiability of the effects caused by various types of lighting sources, characterized by equal illuminance, to produce photochemical effects on a cultural heritage. For a correct conservation policy, it is important not only to monitor the single physical or chemical parameter, but also to evaluate the impact of the whole environment by measuring temperature/relative humidity, light, powders, selected pollutants, etc.. The available devices allow these measurements separately, but they are not suitable for assessing the overall effects of these factors.

To fulfill the most up-to-date guidelines on preventive conservation, in recent years several scientific projects supported by the EC were aimed at developing innovative tools that could improve the standard methods for environmental monitoring in museums.


CRP is an acute phase protein that is synthesized by the liver in response to various stimuli [11] . The induction of CRP synthesis in the liver is triggered by the production of IL-6 and TNF-by local pleural cells [12, 13] . The pleural fluid CRP levels are likely to reflect the serum levels because the presence of CRP in the pleural fluid may be due to increased diffusion from the blood as a result of inflamed capillary leakage [12, 13] .

CRP is an acute phase protein that is synthesized by the liver in response to various stimuli.

The induction of CRP synthesis in the liver is triggered by the production of IL-6 and TNF-by local pleural cells.

The pleural fluid CRP levels are likely to reflect the serum levels because the presence of CRP in the pleural fluid may be due to increased diffusion from the blood as a result of inflamed capillary leakage.


The areas studied are all in high altitude-(between 1,400 and 2,700 meters above sea level) and high-rainfall zones, experiencing mean annual rainfalls of 1,000 mm or greater. Nyandarua County has temperatures ranging from a minimum of 2°C to a maximum of 25°C. The rainfall ranges between 700 and 1,500 mm per annum [12] . In Meru County, annual temperatures range from a minimum of 16°C to a maximum of 23°C and rainfall from 500 to 2,600 mm. Temperatures in Nakuru County range from a minimum of 12°C to a maximum of 26°C per year with rainfall ranging from 1,800 to 2,000 mm. Maximum temperatures across all study counties, therefore, are sufficiently temperate, as are minimum temperatures -with the exception of Nyandaura. The highest variability in rainfall is recorded in Meru, where some areas receive less than 1,000 mm per year, which may explain the high usage of irrigation in the county. The predominant soil type is volcanic in Nyandarua and Meru but some parts of Nyandarua have red clay soil. Nakuru mainly has loamy soils.

The rainfall ranges between 700 and 1,500 mm per annum.

Nakuru mainly has loamy soils.


In addition to accelerated atherosclerosis, patients with end-stage renal disease are subject to diffuse medial calcification in the blood vessels; this is associated with increased cardiovascular mortality. Calciphylaxis, also known as calcific uremic arteriolopathy, is a specific and devastating form of vascular calcification (VC) and represents a severe complication of end-stage renal disease. Calciphylaxis is characterized by calcification in the media of the small-to medium-sized blood vessels of the dermis and subcutaneous fat, with or without endovascular fibrosis, causing thrombotic occlusion and resultant ischemic ulcers and tissue necrosis. Caucasian ethnicity, female sex, obesity, hyperphosphatemia, hypercalcemia and the use of warfarin are known risk factors. Early recognition and prompt treatment are vital, and clinical suspicion is a critical feature of the diagnosis. Research has indicated that positive pathologic findings, such as arteriolar calcification, subintimal fibroplasia, thrombosis and ischemic cutaneous necrosis, are the standard of diagnosis. However, skin biopsy procedures are subject to sampling errors and can initiate ulcer formation and propagation [1] . A bone scan can reveal abnormal subcutaneous uptake in clinically apparent areas of disease, but this is likely only true regarding nonulcerating lesions in viable tissue or deep and widespread lesions. Plain radiographs of the relevant soft tissues can demonstrate calcification among small blood vessels and play a role in diagnostics [1] [2] [3] . Treating calciphylaxis is challenging and multidisciplinary because of the lack of an optimal medical therapy; it involves strictly controlling the mineral metabolism, avoiding calcium and vitamin D analogues, and conducting diligent wound care, including scrupulous surgical management. Certain studies have reported successful treatment of calciphylaxis with sodium thiosulfate (STS) or cinacalcet [4] . In clinical situations, established VC tends to progress and is difficult to completely arrest or reverse. Recent studies have focused on how STS or cinacalcet affect the evolution of VC, but further research is necessary to elucidate the optimal use of these agents.

However, skin biopsy procedures are subject to sampling errors and can initiate ulcer formation and propagation.

Plain radiographs of the relevant soft tissues can demonstrate calcification among small blood vessels and play a role in diagnostics.

Certain studies have reported successful treatment of calciphylaxis with sodium thiosulfate (STS) or cinacalcet.


Takagi-Sugeno uses premise variables for computing weighting functions. Premise variables can be known (inputs or outputs of the system), or unknown variables taken as the state of the system to be estimated. State variables are usually unmeasurable, but they can be measured by the introduction of sensors, with an additional cost, but the right choice is to estimate the state variables in order to avoid the effects of sensor and shareholder faults that may have appeared on the inputs or outputs of the system considered. This justifies the research works on the state estimation of systems [48, 49] . In order to use the state of the system as premise variables, then the states must be estimated, hence the need to synthesize an adequate observer able to estimate the state of the system despite the presence of unknown inputs and disturbances. Hence, it is motivating to deem the common state of unmeasurable variables such as system states. The problem appears especially in the structure of the state of the TS observer.

This justifies the research works on the state estimation of systems.


Takagi-Sugeno (TS) fuzzy models have also attracted attention in recent years. The main feature of this class of nonlinear models is to represent the local dynamics of each fuzzy implication (rule) by linear system models. It has been effectively employed in the implementation of nonlinear systems [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] . Takagi-Sugeno models have been broadly utilized to represent nonlinear integer-order systems. However, the fuzzy Takagi-Sugeno scheme remains very efficient for nonlinear fractional order systems (FOS) [42] [43] [44] . Therefore, the use of fractional-order Takagi-Sugeno (FOTS) models to represent nonlinear FOS will be introduced in this paper. Several approaches confirm that the validity functions of Takagi-Sugeno representation rely on measurable premise variables, whereas various applications, like diagnosis, consider that those variables rely on the input and state variables of the system that are usually immeasurable [45] [46] [47] [48] .

It has been effectively employed in the implementation of nonlinear systems.

However, the fuzzy Takagi-Sugeno scheme remains very efficient for nonlinear fractional order systems (FOS).

Several approaches confirm that the validity functions of Takagi-Sugeno representation rely on measurable premise variables, whereas various applications, like diagnosis, consider that those variables rely on the input and state variables of the system that are usually immeasurable.


Development of ultra-low power or self-powered gas sensors with a high selectivity toward certain gases is required for their integration in smart mobile devices for environmental monitoring and hazardous gas detection [1] . Recent reports have shown promising concepts to realize self-powered gas sensors that are capable of detecting gases at zero power, which was achieved through designing heterostructure interfaces capable of harvesting solar light needed to drive the sensing signal as well as providing the activation energy needed for gas/sensor interactions [2] [3] [4] [5] . While, sensor selectivity remains a challenging issue that need to be addressed. As a result of their nonselective sensing mechanism based on redox interaction with gas molecules, gas sensors based on pure inorganic show poor selectivity [6] . Recently bioinspired approaches have found their way into gas sensing application due to the appealing analogies between both fields [7, 8] . High selectivity toward a single gas species can be achieved via the binding of the analyte to recognition surface elements, which is capable of specifically recognizing and binding with the target analyte [9] . In this respect, modifying the inorganic semiconductors surface with self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) have attract an increased interest in different fields of applications such as biosensors, biomolecular electronics, and gas sensors due to their rich and tunable functionalities which could provide a selective binding interaction between these organic receptor and target molecular species [9, 10] .

Development of ultra-low power or self-powered gas sensors with a high selectivity toward certain gases is required for their integration in smart mobile devices for environmental monitoring and hazardous gas detection.

Recent reports have shown promising concepts to realize self-powered gas sensors that are capable of detecting gases at zero power, which was achieved through designing heterostructure interfaces capable of harvesting solar light needed to drive the sensing signal as well as providing the activation energy needed for gas/sensor interactions.

As a result of their nonselective sensing mechanism based on redox interaction with gas molecules, gas sensors based on pure inorganic show poor selectivity.

Recently bioinspired approaches have found their way into gas sensing application due to the appealing analogies between both fields.

High selectivity toward a single gas species can be achieved via the binding of the analyte to recognition surface elements, which is capable of specifically recognizing and binding with the target analyte.

In this respect, modifying the inorganic semiconductors surface with self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) have attract an increased interest in different fields of applications such as biosensors, biomolecular electronics, and gas sensors due to their rich and tunable functionalities which could provide a selective binding interaction between these organic receptor and target molecular species.


We use two solution concepts of cooperative game theory. Shapley value and nucleolus are calculated to evaluate the shares of cooperative benefits to the countries (Shapley 1953; Schmeidler 1969) . The Shapley value is based on the marginal contributions of the country to each possible coalition, whereas the nucleolus maximizes the benefits of the least-satisfied coalition.

Shapley value and nucleolus are calculated to evaluate the shares of cooperative benefits to the countries.


All of this is tied up in growing assertions that we have now entered the 'Anthropocene', the alleged new phase of world history in which humans dominate the earth-system (Ogden et al. 2013) . The Anthropocene idea is meant to indicate that we are living through socio-ecological transformations so fundamental that they -quite literally -change the very geological structure of our planet. It is not surprising, therefore, that this has led to heated debates in a conservation community already frustrated by the failure to halt spiralling biodiversity and extinction crises. These debates have inspired the rise of new radical proposals for revolutionising conservation, including 'new' conservation, 'half Earth' and others. These, in turn, have triggered major potential for (contemplating) radical change in conservation policy and practice.

All of this is tied up in growing assertions that we have now entered the 'Anthropocene', the alleged new phase of world history in which humans dominate the earth-system.


In this paper we continue the study of languages of birooted trees and we make these connections with the theories of partial algebras and ordered monoids explicit. In short, we show that the theory of partial algebra provides effective tools to characterise MSO-definable languages of birooted trees. Additionally, the theory of partially ordered monoids provides, via the notion of quasirecognisability, a more subtle description of (a large subclass of) these languages. This can be seen as a further example of the use of partially ordered monoids in algebraic language theory [23] .

This can be seen as a further example of the use of partially ordered monoids in algebraic language theory.


Acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) is a specific type of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) characterized by the presence of abnormal promyelocytes in bone marrow and peripheral blood, young age at presentation, specific chromosomal abnormalities, coagulopathy, and a unique response to treatment with retinoic acid. Until recently, combination of all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) and chemotherapy with cytarabine and anthracyclines has been the standard treatment for APL. Although treatment with ATRA has improved the outcome of APL, early bleeding due to coagulopathy and relapse are the main causes of death in patients with APL [1] .

Although treatment with ATRA has improved the outcome of APL, early bleeding due to coagulopathy and relapse are the main causes of death in patients with APL.


Some true background calibrations use a noise calibration signal together with the normal input, to allow background calibration [6, 10] . One disadvantage of these techniques is the reduction of dynamic range because part of the input full scale is used by the calibration signal. This limitation has been solved at least for Interleaved ADCs using a chopper offset cancellation technique, in combination with a digital filter scheme, increasing drastically the complexity of the system [11] .

Some true background calibrations use a noise calibration signal together with the normal input, to allow background calibration.

This limitation has been solved at least for Interleaved ADCs using a chopper offset cancellation technique, in combination with a digital filter scheme, increasing drastically the complexity of the system.


Understanding delaying factors allow owners and contractors to reduce the impacts of such delays on their projects. Identification and assessment of delay factors are necessary yet challenging. There is a need to prioritize such significant delay factors. In construction projects, the delay is defined as an act or event that prolongs the time and budget limit specified for deliverables under the contract that the parties agreed upon [7, 8] .

In construction projects, the delay is defined as an act or event that prolongs the time and budget limit specified for deliverables under the contract that the parties agreed upon.


The construction industry plays an integral part in the advancement of any nation and the physical progress of construction projects including roads, buildings, power stations, and bridges is a measure of the economic upturn through which a society accomplishes its purpose and objectives of rural and urban advancement [1] . Public sector building construction projects are usually projected, and delays may occur during the project lifecycle. The delay is a situation when the owner and contractor mutually or separately contribute to the lack of completion of the project as specified in the original contract period [2] . Delays can be minimized when associated causes are clearly identified [3] [4] [5] .

The construction industry plays an integral part in the advancement of any nation and the physical progress of construction projects including roads, buildings, power stations, and bridges is a measure of the economic upturn through which a society accomplishes its purpose and objectives of rural and urban advancement.

The delay is a situation when the owner and contractor mutually or separately contribute to the lack of completion of the project as specified in the original contract period.

Delays can be minimized when associated causes are clearly identified.


In this paper, we put forward a new type of aperiodic monotile that does not require a reflection, and has rules that only apply to adjacent tiles. We start with a hexagonal tile satisfying Socolar and Taylor's first local rule, and add a rule that only allows finite patches of tiles to grow along a dendrite. Our second growth rule is motivated by the proposed growth of certain quasicrystals [6, 17] . Interestingly, a consequence of not requiring a reflected copy of our monotile is that the first rule can be enforced by shape alone, while this does not hold for the Socolar-Taylor monotile [13, p.22 ]. Although we are comparing our monotile with Socolar and Taylor's construction, these two monotiles are different in character. The Socolar-Taylor monotile is defined using local rules, whilst our monotile is defined by a local growth rule. Indeed, our growth rule is local in the sense of building tilings, but is not local as a rule on tilings. So the monotile we present here is not an einstein in the technical sense, but rather a variant that requires tilings to be constructed. Three representations of our monotile appear in Figure 1 , and each of these representations must satisfy the local rule R1 and the local growth rule R2 outlined below.

Our second growth rule is motivated by the proposed growth of certain quasicrystals.


In this study, acridine orange and ethidium bromide double staining was adopted to observe apoptosis. The change in the number of apoptotic bursal cells induced by IBDV mutants corresponded with results of flow cytometry assays, in accordance with the results of Vasconcelos and Ojeda [9, 11] . However, there was a slight difference in the time interval during which cells exhibited apoptosis and endurance.

The change in the number of apoptotic bursal cells induced by IBDV mutants corresponded with results of flow cytometry assays, in accordance with the results of Vasconcelos and Ojeda.


Nowadays, due to the stringent environmental legislations, it is mandatory to produce clean fuels, and therefore renewable energy sources and modern technologies are needed which is also expected to overcome the energy fossil limitation issues. One of alternatives is biodiesel which can reduce dependence on fossil fuels [1] . However from economics point of view, the biodiesel is not comparable with the petroleum based diesel due to its high production cost and feed-stock price [2] . The required raw materials can be obtained from a wide variety of bio sources; however, technical and economic feasibility, environmental effects, accessibility and national policy concerns must also be considered [3] . Vegetable oils manufactured from crops such as palm, jatropha, soybean, rapeseed, and residues can be used for producing bio diesel [4] . In recent years, biodiesel produced from palm oil has been identified as a renewable energy source with huge potential in the future [5] .

One of alternatives is biodiesel which can reduce dependence on fossil fuels.

However from economics point of view, the biodiesel is not comparable with the petroleum based diesel due to its high production cost and feed-stock price.

The required raw materials can be obtained from a wide variety of bio sources; however, technical and economic feasibility, environmental effects, accessibility and national policy concerns must also be considered.

Vegetable oils manufactured from crops such as palm, jatropha, soybean, rapeseed, and residues can be used for producing bio diesel.

In recent years, biodiesel produced from palm oil has been identified as a renewable energy source with huge potential in the future.


There are four primary methods to make biodiesel, i.e. blending, microemulsion, cracking and transesterification. In the latter method, the transesterification of triglycerides (vegetable oil and animal fats) with alcohol is carried out in the presence of a catalyst where the triglycerides in the vegetable oil with alcohol form a mixture of fatty acid alkyl esters and glycerol [6] . This process is catalyzed by catalysts with both acidic and basic sites in the homogeneous or heterogeneous phases [7] [8] . However, mineral chemical catalysts have some unavoidable drawbacks, such as environmental pollution and methanol consumption, a large amount of alkaline wastewater products and difficulties in catalyst recovery and reuse [9] [10] . These problems can be solved by using some new heterogeneous catalysts such as solid acids, resins, or zeolites in transesterification [11] [12] [13] [14] . But, all these processes and catalysts still have some problems related to environmental safety, catalyst recyclability, and also disposal of the spent catalyst [15] .

In the latter method, the transesterification of triglycerides (vegetable oil and animal fats) with alcohol is carried out in the presence of a catalyst where the triglycerides in the vegetable oil with alcohol form a mixture of fatty acid alkyl esters and glycerol.

This process is catalyzed by catalysts with both acidic and basic sites in the homogeneous or heterogeneous phases.

However, mineral chemical catalysts have some unavoidable drawbacks, such as environmental pollution and methanol consumption, a large amount of alkaline wastewater products and difficulties in catalyst recovery and reuse.

These problems can be solved by using some new heterogeneous catalysts such as solid acids, resins, or zeolites in transesterification.

But, all these processes and catalysts still have some problems related to environmental safety, catalyst recyclability, and also disposal of the spent catalyst.