community-datasets/selqa huggingface dataset:
Article: Chemical reaction
Section: History

Question: Which group first actively experimented with chemicals by applying theory and not just experimental observations?

Chemical reactions such as combustion in the fire, fermentation and the reduction of ores to metals were known since antiquity.
Initial theories of transformation of materials were developed by Greek philosophers, such as the Four-Element Theory of Empedocles stating that any substance is composed of the four basic elements – fire, water, air and earth.
In the Middle Ages, chemical transformations were studied by Alchemists.
They attempted, in particular, to convert lead into gold, for which purpose they used reactions of lead and lead-copper alloys with sulfur.
The production of chemical substances that do not normally occur in nature has long been tried, such as the synthesis of sulfuric and nitric acids attributed to the controversial alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān.
The process involved heating of sulfate and nitrate minerals such as copper sulfate, alum and saltpeter.
In the 17th century, Johann Rudolph Glauber produced hydrochloric acid and sodium sulfate by reacting sulfuric acid and sodium chloride.
With the development of the lead chamber process in 1746 and the Leblanc process, allowing large-scale production of sulfuric acid and sodium carbonate, respectively, chemical reactions became implemented into the industry.
Further optimization of sulfuric acid technology resulted in the contact process in 1880s, and the Haber process was developed in 1909–1910 for ammonia synthesis.
From the 16th century, researchers including Jan Baptist van Helmont, Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton tried to establish theories of the experimentally observed chemical transformations.
The phlogiston theory was proposed in 1667 by Johann Joachim Becher.
It postulated the existence of a fire-like element called "phlogiston", which was contained within combustible bodies and released during combustion.
This proved to be false in 1785 by Antoine Lavoisier who found the correct explanation of the combustion as reaction with oxygen from the air.
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac recognized in 1808 that gases always react in a certain relationship with each other.
Based on this idea and the atomic theory of John Dalton, Joseph Proust had developed the law of definite proportions, which later resulted in the concepts of stoichiometry and chemical equations.
Regarding the organic chemistry, it was long believed that compounds obtained from living organisms were too complex to be obtained synthetically.
According to the concept of vitalism, organic matter was endowed with a "vital force" and distinguished from inorganic materials.
This separation was ended however by the synthesis of urea from inorganic precursors by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828.
Other chemists who brought major contributions to organic chemistry include Alexander William Williamson with his synthesis of ethers and Christopher Kelk Ingold, who, among many discoveries, established the mechanisms of substitution reactions.
Article: Lincoln Memorial
Section: Statue

Question: The Lincoln Memorial is constructed from which type of marble?

Lying between the north and south chambers is the central hall containing the solitary figure of Lincoln sitting in contemplation.
The statue was carved by the Piccirilli Brothers under the supervision of the sculptor, Daniel Chester French, and took four years to complete.
The statue, originally intended to be only tall, was, on further consideration, enlarged so that it finally stood tall from head to foot, the scale being such that if Lincoln were standing, he would be tall.
The extreme width of the statue is the same as its height.
The Georgia white marble sculpture weighs and had to be shipped in 28 separate pieces.
The statue rests upon an oblong pedestal of Tennessee marble high, wide, and deep.
Directly beneath this lies a platform of Tennessee marble about long, wide, and high.
Lincoln's arms rest on representations of Roman fasces, a subtle touch that associates the statue with the Augustan (and imperial) theme (obelisk and funerary monuments) of the Washington Mall.
The statue is discretely bordered by two pilasters, one on each side.
Between these pilasters and above Lincoln's head stands the engraved epitaph, composed by Royal Cortissoz, shown in the box to the left.
Article: Telescope
Section: Abstract

Question: What does a telescope collect to aid in the observation of remote objects?

A telescope is an instrument that aids in the observation of remote objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation (such as visible light).
The first known practical telescopes were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 17th century, using glass lenses.
They found use in terrestrial applications and astronomy.
Within a few decades, the reflecting telescope was invented, which used mirrors.
In the 20th century many new types of telescopes were invented, including radio telescopes in the 1930s and infrared telescopes in the 1960s.
The word "telescope" now refers to a wide range of instruments detecting different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, and in some cases other types of detectors.
The word ""telescope"" (from the Greek τῆλε, "tele" "far" and σκοπεῖν, "skopein" "to look or see"; τηλεσκόπος, "teleskopos" "far-seeing") was coined in 1611 by the Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani for one of Galileo Galilei's instruments presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei.
In the "Starry Messenger", Galileo had used the term "perspicillum".
Article: Hell's Kitchen (U.S. TV series)
Section: Cast

Question: Who was the sous chef in each of the first 5 seasons?

Gordon Ramsay is the head chef.
The narrator is Jason Thompson.
Jean-Philippe Susilovic, a Belgian maître d' comes from Petrus, one of Ramsay's London restaurants and appeared in the first seven seasons and later returned for the 11th season.
Susilovic was also the maître d' for the first series of the original British version.
James Lukanik replaced Susilovic for the eighth-tenth seasons.
Each team also has the services of one of two sous-chefs.
The sous-chefs are Andrea "Andi" Van Willigan (from season 7 onwards) and James Avery (from season 11 onwards).
Previous sous-chefs were Mary Ann Salcedo, Gloria Felix, Season 2 winner Heather West, and Scott Leibfried.
Head Chefs
 Gordon Ramsay
Sous Chefs
;Blue Team
 Scott Leibfried (Seasons 1 – 10)
 James Avery (Seasons 11 – present)
;Red Team
 Mary-Ann Salcedo (Seasons 1 – 3)
 Gloria Felix (Seasons 4 – 5)
 Heather West (Season 6)
 Andi Van Willigan (Seasons 7 – present)
Maître d's
 Jean-Philippe Susilovic (Seasons 1 – 7, 11 – present)
 James Lukanik (Seasons 8 – 10)
Article: Steak
Section: Rib steak

Question: What is the definition of a ribeye?

A rib steak is a beef steak sliced from the rib primal of a beef animal, with rib bone attached.
In the United States, the term rib eye steak is used for a rib steak with the bone removed; however in some areas, and outside the U.S., the terms are often used interchangeably.
The rib eye or "ribeye" was originally, as the name implies, the center best portion of the rib steak, without the bone.
Article: Diving
Section: Canada

Question: How many age groups are there events for?

Most provincial level competitions consist of events for 6 age groups (Groups A, B, C, D, E, and Open) for both genders on each of the three board levels.
These age groups roughly correspond to those standardized by FINA, with the addition of a youngest age group for divers 9 and younger, Group E, which does not compete nationally and does not have a tower event (although divers of this age may choose to compete in Group D).
The age group Open is so called because divers of any age, including those over 18, may compete in these events, so long as their dives meet a minimum standard of difficulty.
Although Canada is internationally a fairly strong country in diving, the vast majority of Canadian high schools and universities do not have diving teams, and many Canadian divers accept athletic scholarships from American colleges.
Adult divers who are not competitive at an elite level may compete in masters diving.
Typically, masters are either adults who never practiced the sport as children or teenagers, or former elite athletes who have retired but still seek a way to be involved in the sport.
Many diving clubs have masters teams in addition to their primary competitive ones, and while some masters dive only for fun and fitness, there are also masters competitions, which range from the local to world championship level.
Article: Rice
Section: Europe

Question: Whose returning soldiers would have encountered rice on their expeditions to Asia?

Rice was known to the Classical world, being imported from Egypt, and perhaps west Asia.
It was known to Greece by returning soldiers from Alexander the Great's military expedition to Asia.
Large deposits of rice from the first century A.D. have been found in Roman camps in Germany.
The Moors brought Asiatic rice to the Iberian Peninsula in the 10th century.
Records indicate it was grown in Valencia and Majorca.
In Majorca, rice cultivation seems to have stopped after the Christian conquest, although historians are not certain.
Muslims also brought rice to Sicily, where it was an important crop long before it is noted in the plain of Pisa (1468) or in the Lombard plain (1475), where its cultivation was promoted by Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, and demonstrated in his model farms.
After the 15th century, rice spread throughout Italy and then France, later propagating to all the continents during the age of European exploration.
In European Russia, a short-grain, starchy rice similar to the Italian varieties, has been grown in the Krasnodar Krai, and known in Russia as "Kuban Rice" or "Krasnodar Rice".
In the Russian Far East several "japonica" cultivars are grown in Primorye around the Khanka lake.
Increasing scale of rice production in the region has recently brought criticism towards growers' alleged bad practices in regards to the environment.
Article: Badminton
Section: Mixed doubles

Question: What players play from the back-court?

In mixed doubles, both pairs typically try to maintain an attacking formation with the woman at the front and the man at the back.
This is because the male players are usually substantially stronger, and can therefore produce smashes that are more powerful.
As a result, mixed doubles require greater tactical awareness and subtler positional play.
Clever opponents will try to reverse the ideal position, by forcing the woman towards the back or the man towards the front.
In order to protect against this danger, mixed players must be careful and systematic in their shot selection.
At high levels of play, the formations will generally be more flexible: the top women players are capable of playing powerfully from the back-court, and will happily do so if required.
When the opportunity arises, however, the pair will switch back to the standard mixed attacking position, with the woman in front and men in the back.
Article: Rolling in the Deep
Section: Track listing

Question: Who wrote "If It Hadn't Been for Love"?

Digital download
"Rolling in the Deep" – 3:48
Digital EP
"Rolling in the Deep" – 3:48
"Rolling in the Deep (Jamie xx Shuffle)" – 4:17
"Rolling in the Deep (Acapella)" – 3:56
"Rolling in the Deep (Avicii Remix)" – 4:25
CD single
"Rolling in the Deep" – 3:48
"If It Hadn't Been for Love" (written by Mike Henderson and Chris Stapleton) – 3:09
Article: I Won't Give Up
Section: Music video

Question: Who was the director for "I won't give up" and what was the release date for this music video?

On January 2, 2012, a lyric video was released.
Mark Blankenship from NPR found "I Won't Give Up" the best lyric video because "the lyrics are integrated into a story about a man who writes his girlfriend until they can finally reunite."
He added he preferred this video to the official one.
The official music video was directed by Mark Pellington and released on February 17, 2012.
Mraz explained "The story of the video is that we all have our stories.
We all have our own version of suffering….and everybody has many things to not give up on.
"Jason Lipshutz from "Billboard" found some similarities to Terrence Malick's film "The Tree of Life", "with its lingering shots of wholesome Americana, sun-stroked imagery, non-linear structure and contrast between out-of-focus landscape shots and striking close-ups."
The video was also compared to Bruce Springsteen's "We Take Care of Our Own" music video, "with its gritty portraits of beleaguered U.S. citizens of every race and creed."
Andrew Unterberger from PopDust described the video as "a stately, if somewhat boring, assemblage of nature shots mixed with pictures of people young and old looking semi-contemplative."
Article: Operation Barbarossa
Section: Nazi Germany policy towards the Soviet Union

Question: Who spoke of an inescapable battle against "pan-Slav ideals"?

German intentions.
Nazi Germany policy towards the Soviet Union.
As early as 1925, Hitler suggested in "Mein Kampf" that he would invade the Soviet Union, asserting that the German people needed "Lebensraum" ("living space", i.e., land and raw materials) and that these should be sought in the East.
Nazism viewed the Soviet Union (and all of Eastern Europe) as populated by ""Untermensch"" Slavs, ruled by "Jewish Bolshevik" masters.
"Mein Kampf" said Germany's destiny was to turn "to the East" as it did "six hundred years ago" and "the end of the Jewish domination in Russia will also be the end of Russia as a State."
Thereafter, Hitler spoke of an inescapable battle against "pan-Slav ideals", in which victory would lead to "permanent mastery of the world", although he also said they would "walk part of the road with the Russians, if that will help us".
Accordingly, it was stated Nazi policy to kill, deport, or enslave the majority of Russian and other Slavic populations and repopulate the land with Germanic peoples (see Generalplan Ost).
Before World War II, observers believed that in a war with the Soviet Union, Germany would attack through the Baltic states while the "Kriegsmarine" would seize Leningrad from the sea.
They assumed that possessing the entire Baltic basin would satisfy Hitler, who would not repeat Napoleon's mistake of attacking Moscow.
Article: Anatomy
Section: Research and practice

Question: What is the most used scientific study of the morphology of the adult human body?

Human anatomy.
Research and practice.
Human anatomy, including gross human anatomy and histology, is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the adult human body.
It differs from physiology in that anatomy is about the morphology of biological structures, while physiology is the way those structures actually work.
Generally, students of certain biological sciences, paramedics, prosthetists and orthotists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, nurses, and medical students learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials, and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers.
The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under a microscope.
Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school.
Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems.
The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy, has been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods.
A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians, especially surgeons and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such as histopathology and radiology.
Academic human anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools or teaching hospitals.
They are often involved in teaching anatomy, and research into certain systems, organs, tissues or cells.
Article: Victoria Falls
Section: Zambia's independence and Rhodesia's UDI

Question: In what year did Northern Rhodesia become an independent state?

In 1964, Northern Rhodesia became the independent state of Zambia.
The following year, Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence.
This was not recognized by Zambia, the United Kingdom or the vast majority of states and led to United Nations-mandated sanctions.
In response to the emerging crisis, in 1966 Zambia restricted or stopped border crossings; it did not re-open the border completely until 1980.
Guerilla warfare arose on the southern side of the Zambezi from 1972: the Rhodesian Bush War.
Visitor numbers began to drop, particularly on the Rhodesian side.
The war affected Zambia through military incursions, causing the latter to impose security measures including the stationing of soldiers to restrict access to the gorges and some parts of the falls.
Zimbabwe's internationally recognised independence in 1980 brought comparative peace, and the 1980s witnessed renewed levels of tourism and the development of the region as a centre for adventure sports.
Activities that gained popularity in the area include whitewater rafting in the gorges, bungee jumping from the bridge, game fishing, horse riding, kayaking, and flights over the falls.
Article: How to Save a Life
Section: Singles

Question: When did Over My Head reach top 40?

"Over My Head (Cable Car)" was released as the first single from the album, and it became a top 40 hit on the Modern Rock Tracks chart in late 2005.
It lasted three weeks on the chart and peaked at position #37.
The song peaked at #8 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.
On the "Billboard" Adult Top 40 chart, the single reached the #2 position.
Internationally, the song was a Top 25 hit in Australia, Canada, Denmark, Ireland, New Zealand and the UK.
The song was the fifth-most downloaded single of 2006.
"How to Save a Life" was released as the second single from the album.
The song reached the top three of the Billboard Hot 100 chart, surpassing the peak position of "Over My Head (Cable Car)".
It became the joint sixth longest charting single of all time on the Billboard Hot 100, tying with Santana's "Smooth", at 58 consecutive weeks.
The song also topped the Adult Top 40 chart for 15 consecutive weeks.
"How to Save a Life" became a major hit internationally, topping the singles chart in Ireland, Spain and Canada.
The song also charted in the top five in Australia, Italy, Sweden and in the UK Singles Chart.
"Look After You" was released as the band's third single; the song peaked at position 59 in the Billboard Hot 100, becoming the band's first single to miss the Top 40.
The song peaked at #49 on Billboard Pop 100 and at #12 on the Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks.
"All at Once" was released as the fourth and final single from the album.
It peaked at #20 on the Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks chart.
Article: Udon
Section: Cold

Question: What does Hadaka udon refer to?

 "Zaru udon": Chilled udon noodles topped with shredded nori and served on a zaru (笊 or ざる), a sieve-like bamboo tray.
Accompanied by a chilled dipping sauce, usually a strong mixture of dashi, mirin, and shoyu.
Eaten with wasabi or grated ginger.
 "Bukkake udon": Cold udon served with thick dashi-broth.
 "Hadaka udon" (naked udon 裸うどん): Cold udon served on its own.
 Kijoyu udon: Served in a cold soup of raw (unpasteurized) soy sauce and sudachi (a type of citrus) juice, sometimes with a bit of grated daikon.
Article: Taekwondo
Section: Other organizations

Question: What is the AAU?

American Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) competitions are very similar, except that different styles of pads and gear are allowed.
Apart from WTF and ITF tournaments, major taekwondo competitions (all featuring WTF taekwondo only) include:
 Olympic Games
 Universiade
 Asian Games
 South East Asian Games
 South Asian Games
WTF taekwondo features in all multi-sport games except the Small Island Games.
It was accepted as a Commonwealth Games sport in June 2010.
Article: Water polo
Section: Setting the ball

Question: How long is typical for a reasonable amount of time to re-commence play after a foul?

The key to the offense is to accurately pass (or "set") the ball into the center forward or hole set, positioned directly in front of the goal ("the hole").
Any field player may throw the hole set a "wet pass."
A wet pass is one that hits the water just outside of the hole set's reach.
A dry pass may also be used.
This is where the hole set receives the ball directly in his hand and then attempts a shot at the cage.
This pass is much more difficult because if the pass is not properly caught, the officials will be likely to call an offensive foul resulting in a change of ball possession.
The hole set attempts to take possession of the ball a wet pass, to shoot at the goal, or to draw a foul from his defender.
A minor foul is called if his defender (called the "hole D") attempts to impede movement before the hole set has possession.
The referee indicates the foul with one short whistle blow and points one hand to the spot of the foul and the other hand in the direction of the attack of the team to whom the free throw has been awarded.
The hole set then has a "reasonable amount of time" (typically about three seconds) to re-commence play by making a free pass to one of the other players.
The defensive team cannot hinder the hole set until the free throw has been taken, but the hole set cannot shoot a goal once the foul has been awarded until the ball has been played by at least one other player.
If the hole set attempts a goal without the free throw, the goal is not counted and the defense takes possession of the ball, unless the shot is made outside the 5-meter line.
As soon as the hole set has a free pass, the other attacking players attempt to swim (or "drive") away from their defenders towards the goal.
The players at the flat position will attempt to set a screen (also known as a pick) for the driver.
If a driver gets free from a defender, the player calls for the pass from the hole set and attempts a shot at the goal.
Article: Italy
Section: Infrastructure

Question: How big was Italy's civilian air fleet during 2005?

In 2004 the transport sector in Italy generated a turnover of about 119.4 billion euros, employing 935,700 persons in 153,700 enterprises.
Regarding the national road network, in 2002 there were of serviceable roads in Italy, including of motorways, state-owned but privately operated by Atlantia.
In 2005, about 34,667,000 passenger cars (590 cars per 1,000 people) and 4,015,000 goods vehicles circulated on the national road network.
The national railway network, state-owned and operated by Ferrovie dello Stato, in 2003 totalled of which 69% is electrified, and on which 4,937 locomotives and railcars circulated.
The national inland waterways network comprised of navigable rivers and channels in 2002.
In 2004 there were approximately 30 main airports (including the two hubs of Malpensa International in Milan and Leonardo da Vinci International in Rome) and 43 major seaports (including the seaport of Genoa, the country's largest and second largest in the Mediterranean Sea).
In 2005 Italy maintained a civilian air fleet of about 389,000 units and a merchant fleet of 581 ships.