community-datasets/selqa huggingface dataset:
Article: Computer science
Section: Major achievements

Question: Due, in part, to breaking the Enigma code, who won World War II?

Despite its short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and society - in fact, along with electronics, it is a founding science of the current epoch of human history called the Information Age and a driver of the Information Revolution, seen as the third major leap in human technological progress after the Industrial Revolution (1750-1850 CE) and the Agricultural Revolution (8000-5000 BCE).
These contributions include:
 The start of the "digital revolution", which includes the current Information Age and the Internet.
 A formal definition of computation and computability, and proof that there are computationally unsolvable and intractable problems.
 The concept of a programming language, a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction.
 In cryptography, breaking the Enigma code was an important factor contributing to the Allied victory in World War II.
 Scientific computing enabled practical evaluation of processes and situations of great complexity, as well as experimentation entirely by software.
It also enabled advanced study of the mind, and mapping of the human genome became possible with the Human Genome Project.
Distributed computing projects such as Folding@home explore protein folding.
 Algorithmic trading has increased the efficiency and liquidity of financial markets by using artificial intelligence, machine learning, and other statistical and numerical techniques on a large scale.
High frequency algorithmic trading can also exacerbate volatility.
 Computer graphics and computer-generated imagery have become ubiquitous in modern entertainment, particularly in television, cinema, advertising, animation and video games.
Even films that feature no explicit CGI are usually "filmed" now on digital cameras, or edited or postprocessed using a digital video editor.
 Simulation of various processes, including computational fluid dynamics, physical, electrical, and electronic systems and circuits, as well as societies and social situations (notably war games) along with their habitats, among many others.
Modern computers enable optimization of such designs as complete aircraft.
Notable in electrical and electronic circuit design are SPICE, as well as software for physical realization of new (or modified) designs.
The latter includes essential design software for integrated circuits.
 Artificial intelligence is becoming increasingly important as it gets more efficient and complex.
There are many applications of the AI, some of which can be seen at home, such as robotic vacuum cleaners.
It is also present in video games and on the modern battlefield in drones, anti-missile systems, and squad support robots.
Article: Great Wall of China
Section: Visibility from low Earth orbit

Question: In what expedition did Ed Lu partake?

A more controversial question is whether the Wall is visible from low Earth orbit (an altitude of as little as ).
NASA claims that it is barely visible, and only under nearly perfect conditions; it is no more conspicuous than many other man-made objects.
Other authors have argued that due to limitations of the optics of the eye and the spacing of photoreceptors on the retina, it is impossible to see the wall with the naked eye, even from low orbit, and would require visual acuity of 20/3 (7.7 times better than normal).
Astronaut William Pogue thought he had seen it from Skylab but discovered he was actually looking at the Grand Canal of China near Beijing.
He spotted the Great Wall with binoculars, but said that "it wasn't visible to the unaided eye."
U.S.
Senator Jake Garn claimed to be able to see the Great Wall with the naked eye from a space shuttle orbit in the early 1980s, but his claim has been disputed by several U.S. astronauts.
Veteran U.S. astronaut Gene Cernan has stated: "At Earth orbit of to high, the Great Wall of China is, indeed, visible to the naked eye."
Ed Lu, Expedition 7 Science Officer aboard the International Space Station, adds that, "it's less visible than a lot of other objects.
And you have to know where to look.
"In 2001, Neil Armstrong stated about the view from Apollo 11: "I do not believe that, at least with my eyes, there would be any man-made object that I could see.
I have not yet found somebody who has told me they've seen the Wall of China from Earth orbit.
...I've asked various people, particularly Shuttle guys, that have been many orbits around China in the daytime, and the ones I've talked to didn't see it.
"In October 2003, Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei stated that he had not been able to see the Great Wall of China.
In response, the European Space Agency (ESA) issued a press release reporting that from an orbit between , the Great Wall is visible to the naked eye.
In an attempt to further clarify things, the ESA published a picture of a part of the “Great Wall” photographed from Space.
However, in a press release a week later (no longer available in the ESA’s website), they acknowledged that the "Great Wall" in the picture was actually a river.
Leroy Chiao, a Chinese-American astronaut, took a photograph from the International Space Station that shows the wall.
It was so indistinct that the photographer was not certain he had actually captured it.
Based on the photograph, the "China Daily" later reported that the Great Wall can be seen from space with the naked eye, under favorable viewing conditions, if one knows exactly where to look.
However, the resolution of a camera can be much higher than the human visual system, and the optics much better, rendering photographic evidence irrelevant to the issue of whether it is visible to the naked eye.
Article: September 11 attacks
Section: FBI

Question: Why was Atta forced to check two of his three bags?

Immediately after the attacks, the Federal Bureau of Investigation started PENTTBOM, the largest criminal inquiry in the history of the United States.
At its height, more than half of the FBI's agents worked on the investigation and followed a half-million leads.
The FBI concluded that there was "clear and irrefutable" evidence linking al-Qaeda and bin Laden to the attacks.
The FBI was quickly able to identify the hijackers, including leader Mohamed Atta, when his luggage was discovered at Boston's Logan Airport.
Atta had been forced to check two of his three bags due to space limitations on the 19-seat commuter flight he took to Boston.
Due to a new policy instituted to prevent flight delays, the luggage failed to make it aboard American Airlines Flight 11 as planned.
The luggage contained the hijackers' names, assignments and al-Qaeda connections.
"It had all these Arab-language (sic) papers that amounted to the Rosetta stone of the investigation", said one FBI agent.
Within hours of the attacks, the FBI released the names and in many cases the personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers.
By midday, the U.S. National Security Agency and German intelligence agencies had intercepted communications pointing to Osama bin Laden.
On September 27, 2001, the FBI released photos of the 19 hijackers, along with information about possible nationalities and aliases.
Fifteen of the men were from Saudi Arabia, two from the United Arab Emirates, one (Atta) from Egypt, and one from Lebanon.
Article: Syndics of the Drapers' Guild
Section: Abstract

Question: In what year did Jochem de Neve die?

The Sampling Officials (), also called "Syndics of the Drapers' Guild", is a 1662 oil painting by Rembrandt.
It is currently owned by the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam.
It has been described as his "last great collective portrait".
The painting appears on the packaging of Dutch Masters cigars.
The men (with the exception of Bel who is an attendant as indicated by his calotte) are drapers who were elected to assess the quality of cloth that weavers offered for sale to members of their guild.
Their one-year terms in office began on Good Friday and they were expected to conduct their inspections thrice weekly.
The name "staalmeester" refers to the steel pliers the inspectors used to press the seals of their city (front) and guild (reverse) into penny-sized slugs of lead that were specially affixed to record the results of the inspection.
There were four grades of quality, the highest was indicated by pressing four seals and the lowest by pressing only one.
The men, who are appraising a length of Persian-style fabric against exemplars from a swatch book, are (from left to right):
Jacob van Loon (1595–1674)
Volckert Jansz (1605 or 1610–1681)
Willem van Doeyenburg (ca.
1616–1687)
Frans Hendricksz Bel (1629–1701)
Aernout van der Mye (ca.
1625–1681)
Jochem de Neve (1629–1681)
The guild commissioned this portrait and it hung in their guild hall, the :nl:Staalhof (Amsterdam), until 1771.
Article: DNA
Section: History and anthropology

Question: What is the name of the study of DNA?

Because DNA collects mutations over time, which are then inherited, it contains historical information, and, by comparing DNA sequences, geneticists can infer the evolutionary history of organisms, their phylogeny.
This field of phylogenetics is a powerful tool in evolutionary biology.
If DNA sequences within a species are compared, population geneticists can learn the history of particular populations.
This can be used in studies ranging from ecological genetics to anthropology; For example, DNA evidence is being used to try to identify the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel.DNA has also been used to look at modern family relationships, such as establishing family relationships between the descendants of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson.
This usage is closely related to the use of DNA in criminal investigations detailed above.
Indeed, some criminal investigations have been solved when DNA from crime scenes has matched relatives of the guilty individual.
Article: Italy
Section: Literature and theatre

Question: In what time period did Commedia dell'arte begin?

The basis of the modern Italian language was established by the Florentine poet Dante Alighieri, whose greatest work, the Divine Comedy, is considered among the foremost literary statements produced in Europe during the Middle Ages.
There is no shortage of celebrated literary figures in Italy: Giovanni Boccaccio, Giacomo Leopardi, Alessandro Manzoni, Torquato Tasso, Ludovico Ariosto, and Petrarch, whose best-known vehicle of expression, the sonnet, was created in Italy.
Prominent philosophers include Giordano Bruno, Marsilio Ficino, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Giambattista Vico.
Modern literary figures and Nobel laureates are nationalist poet Giosuè Carducci in 1906, realist writer Grazia Deledda in 1926, modern theatre author Luigi Pirandello in 1936, poets Salvatore Quasimodo in 1959 and Eugenio Montale in 1975, satirist and theatre author Dario Fo in 1997.
Carlo Collodi's 1883 novel, "The Adventures of Pinocchio", is the most celebrated children's classic by an Italian author.
Italian theatre can be traced back to the Roman tradition which was heavily influenced by the Greek; as with many other literary genres, Roman dramatists tended to adapt and translate from the Greek.
For example, Seneca's "Phaedra" was based on that of Euripides, and many of the comedies of Plautus were direct translations of works by Menander.
During the 16th century and on into the 18th century, Commedia dell'arte was a form of improvisational theatre, and it is still performed today.
Travelling troupes of players would set up an outdoor stage and provide amusement in the form of juggling, acrobatics, and, more typically, humorous plays based on a repertoire of established characters with a rough storyline, called "canovaccio".
Article: Telescope
Section: Types of mount

Question: What does a telescope mount do?

A telescope mount is a mechanical structure which supports a telescope.
Telescope mounts are designed to support the mass of the telescope and allow for accurate pointing of the instrument.
Many sorts of mounts have been developed over the years, with the majority of effort being put into systems that can track the motion of the stars as the Earth rotates.
The two main types of tracking mount are:
 Altazimuth mount
 Equatorial mount
Article: Stone Mountain
Section: Places of interest

Question: What were the houses furnished with?

Confederate Hall, operated directly by the Stone Mountain Memorial Association or SMMA, is a museum that educates students and park guests on the geology and ecology of Stone Mountain as well as historical aspects of the area.
A small theater shows a historical documentary about the Civil War in Georgia called "The Battle for Georgia".
The education department is host to thousands of students each school year teaching the subjects of geology, ecology, and history.
Classes are designed to meet the Georgia Performance Standards and the North American Association for Environmental Education guidelines.
The Antebellum Plantation and Farmyard is an open air museum composed of 19 historic buildings, built between 1790 and 1875, which have been re-erected to the site to represent a pre-Civil War Georgia plantation.
The historic houses have been furnished with an extensive collection of period furniture and decorations.
The farm features live animals that guests can pet.
A 732-bell carillon that originated at the 1964 New York World's Fair, provides a daily concert.
A covered bridge, dating from 1892, which originally spanned the Oconee River in Athens, Georgia.
A grist mill, dating from 1869 and moved to the park in 1965.
Article: Girl with a Pearl Earring
Section: References in fiction

Question: When was the film Girl With a Pearl Earring produced?

Tracy Chevalier wrote a historical novel, also entitled "Girl with a Pearl Earring" (1999), fictionalizing the circumstances of the painting's creation.
In the novel, Johannes Vermeer becomes close with a fictional servant named Griet (based on Chevalier's close friend Georgia Kendall), whom he hires as an assistant and has sit for him as a painting model while wearing his wife's pearl earrings.
The novel inspired a 2003 film and 2008 play of the same name.
The 2003 film stars Scarlett Johansson as the girl with the pearl earring, Griet.
Johansson was nominated for various awards including a Golden Globe Award and a BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role.
Article: Aurora
Section: Frequency of occurrence

Question: Which direction does Earth's magnetic field point during magnetopause?

Auroras are occasionally seen in temperate latitudes, when a magnetic storm temporarily enlarges the auroral oval.
Large magnetic storms are most common during the peak of the eleven-year sunspot cycle or during the three years after that peak.
Within the auroral zone the likelihood of an aurora occurring depends mostly on the slant of interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) lines (the slant is known as Bz), however, being greater with southward slants.
Geomagnetic storms that ignite auroras actually happen more often during the months around the equinoxes.
It is not well understood why geomagnetic storms are tied to Earth's seasons while polar activity is not.
But it is known that during spring and autumn, the interplanetary magnetic field and that of Earth link up.
At the magnetopause, Earth's magnetic field points north.
When Bz becomes large and negative (i.e., the IMF tilts south), it can partially cancel Earth's magnetic field at the point of contact.
South-pointing Bzs open a door through which energy from the solar wind reaches Earth's inner magnetosphere.
The peaking of Bz during this time is a result of geometry.
The IMF comes from the Sun and is carried outward with the solar wind.
The rotation of the Sun causes the IMF to have a spiral shape called the Parker spiral.
The southward (and northward) excursions of Bz are greatest during April and October, when Earth's magnetic dipole axis is most closely aligned with the Parker spiral.
Bz is not the only influence on geomagnetic activity, however, the Sun's rotation axis is tilted 8 degrees with respect to the plane of Earth's orbit.
The solar wind blows more rapidly from the Sun's poles than from its equator, thus the average speed of particles buffeting Earth's magnetosphere waxes and wanes every six months.
The solar wind speed is greatest – by about 50 km/s, on average – around 5 September and 5 March when Earth lies at its highest heliographic latitude.
Still, neither Bz nor the solar wind can fully explain the seasonal behavior of geomagnetic storms.
Those factors together contribute only about one-third of the observed semiannual variations.
Article: Computer science
Section: The great insights of computer science

Question: How did Alan Turing advance computer science?

The philosopher of computing Bill Rapaport noted three "Great Insights of Computer Science" 
 Leibniz's, Boole's, Alan Turing's, Shannon's, & Morse's insight: There are only 2 objects that a computer has to deal with in order to represent "anything"
All the information about any computable problem can be represented using only 0 & 1 (or any other bistable pair that can flip-flop between two easily distinguishable states,such as "on"/"off", "magnetized/de-magnetized", "high-voltage/low-voltage", etc.
).
 Alan Turing's insight: There are only 5 actions that a computer has to perform in order to do "anything"
 Every algorithm can be expressed in a language for a computer consisting of only 5 basic instructions:
: * move left one location
: * move right one location
: * read symbol at current location
: * print 0 at current location
: * print 1 at current location
 Boehm and Jacopini's insight: There are only 3 ways of combining these actions (into more complex ones) that are needed in order for a computer to do "anything"
Only 3 rules are needed to combine any set of basic instructions into more complex ones:
 sequence:
: first do this; then do that
 selection :
: IF such-&-such is the case, 
: THEN do this 
: ELSE do that
 repetition:
: WHILE such & such is the case DO this
Note that the 3 rules of Boehm's and Jacopini's insight can be further simplified with the use of goto (which means it's more elementary than structured programming.)
Article: Global warming
Section: Political discussion

Question: The agreement for the Framework Convention took place in what year?

Discourse about global warming.
Political discussion.
Most countries are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
The ultimate objective of the Convention is to prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system.
As is stated in the Convention, this requires that GHG concentrations are stabilized in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change, food production is not threatened, and economic development can proceed in a sustainable fashion.
The Framework Convention was agreed in 1992, but since then, global emissions have risen.
During negotiations, the G77 (a lobbying group in the United Nations representing 133 developing nations) pushed for a mandate requiring developed countries to " the lead" in reducing their emissions.
This was justified on the basis that: the developed world's emissions had contributed most to the stock of GHGs in the atmosphere; per-capita emissions (i.e., emissions per head of population) were still relatively low in developing countries; and the emissions of developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.
This mandate was sustained in the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention, which entered into legal effect in 2005.
In ratifying the Kyoto Protocol, most developed countries accepted legally binding commitments to limit their emissions.
These first-round commitments expired in 2012.US President George W. Bush rejected the treaty on the basis that "it exempts 80% of the world, including major population centers such as China and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the US economy.
"At the 15th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, held in 2009 at Copenhagen, several UNFCCC Parties produced the Copenhagen Accord.
Parties associated with the Accord (140 countries, as of November 2010)aim to limit the future increase in global mean temperature to below .
A preliminary assessment published in November 2010 by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) suggests a possible "emissions gap" between the voluntary pledges made in the Accord and the emissions cuts necessary to have a "likely" (greater than 66% probability) chance of meeting the objective.
The UNEP assessment takes the objective as being measured against the pre-industrial global mean temperature level.
To having a likely chance of meeting the objective, assessed studies generally indicated the need for global emissions to peak before 2020, with substantial declines in emissions thereafter.
The 16th Conference of the Parties (COP16) was held at Cancún in 2010.
It produced an agreement, not a binding treaty, that the Parties should take urgent action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to meet a goal of limiting global warming to above pre-industrial temperatures.
It also recognized the need to consider strengthening the goal to a global average rise of .
Article: Sound City (film)
Section: Technical

Question: Who produced "Sound City"?

 Sami Ansari – photography
 Matt Bissonette – composer
 James Brown – engineer, mixing
 Joe LaPorta – mastering
 Emily Lazar – mastering
 Chris Lord-Alge – mixing
 John Lousteau – engineer
 Jim Scott – engineer
 Chris Shiflett – composer
 Derek Silverman – engineering support
 Butch Vig – producer
Article: Volleyball
Section: Scoring

Question: When does an error occur in volleyball?

When the ball contacts the floor within the court boundaries or an error is made, the team that did not make the error is awarded a point, whether they served the ball or not.
If the ball hits the line, the ball is counted as in.
The team that won the point serves for the next point.
If the team that won the point served in the previous point, the same player serves again.
If the team that won the point did not serve the previous point, the players of the team rotate their position on the court in a clockwise manner.
The game continues, with the first team to score 25 points by a two-point margin is awarded the set.
Matches are best-of-five sets and the fifth set, if necessary, is usually played to 15 points.
(Scoring differs between leagues, tournaments, and levels; high schools sometimes play best-of-three to 25; in the NCAA matches are played best-of-five to 25 as of the 2008 season.
)Before 1999, points could be scored only when a team had the serve ("side-out scoring") and all sets went up to only 15 points.
The FIVB changed the rules in 1999 (with the changes being compulsory in 2000) to use the current scoring system (formerly known as "rally point system"), primarily to make the length of the match more predictable and to make the game more spectator- and television-friendly.
The final year of side-out scoring at the NCAA Division I Women's Volleyball Championship was 2000.
Rally point scoring debuted in 2001 and games were played to 30 points through 2007.
For the 2008 season, games were renamed "sets" and reduced to 25 points to win.