community-datasets/selqa huggingface dataset:
Article: Microscope
Section: Optical

Question: What's the limited for magnification with a light microscope?

The most common type of microscope (and the first invented) is the optical microscope.
This is an optical instrument containing one or more lenses producing an enlarged image of a sample placed in the focal plane.
Optical microscopes have refractive glass and occasionally of plastic or quartz, to focus light into the eye or another light detector.
Mirror-based optical microscopes operate in the same manner.
Typical magnification of a light microscope, assuming visible range light, is up to 1250x with a theoretical resolution limit of around 0.250 micrometres or 250 nanometres.
This limits the practical magnification limit to ~1500x.
Specialized techniques (e.g., scanning confocal microscopy, Vertico SMI) may exceed this magnification but the resolution is diffraction limited.
The use of shorter wavelengths of light, such as the ultraviolet, is one way to improve the spatial resolution of the optical microscope, as are devices such as the near-field scanning optical microscope.
Sarfus, a recent optical technique increases the sensitivity of standard optical microscope to a point it becomes possible to directly visualize nanometric films (down to 0.3 nanometre) and isolated nano-objects (down to 2 nm-diameter).
The technique is based on the use of non-reflecting substrates for cross-polarized reflected light microscopy.
Ultraviolet light enables the resolution of microscopic features, as well as to image samples that are transparent to the eye.
Near infrared light can be used to visualize circuitry embedded in bonded silicon devices, since silicon is transparent in this region of wavelengths.
In fluorescence microscopy, many wavelengths of light, ranging from the ultraviolet to the visible can be used to cause samples to fluoresce to allow viewing by eye or with the use of specifically sensitive cameras.
Phase contrast microscopy is an optical microscopy illumination technique in which small phase shifts in the light passing through a transparent specimen are converted into amplitude or contrast changes in the image.
The use of phase contrast does not require staining to view the slide.
This microscope technique made it possible to study the cell cycle in live cells.
The traditional optical microscope has more recently evolved into the digital microscope.
In addition to, or instead of, directly viewing the object through the eyepieces, a type of sensor similar to those used in a digital camera is used to obtain an image, which is then displayed on a computer monitor.
These sensors may use CMOS or charge-coupled device (CCD) technology, depending on the application.
Article: Donatello
Section: Main works

Question: What piece of art is in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston?

 "St. Mark" (1411–1413), Orsanmichele, Florence
 St. George Tabernacle (c. 1415–1417) — Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence
 "Prophet Habacuc" (1423–1425) — Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence
 "The Feast of Herod" (c. 1425) — Baptismal font, Baptistry of San Giovanni, Siena
 "David" (c. 1425–1430) — Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence
 "Madonna of the Clouds" (c. 1425–35) marble relief, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
 "Equestrian Monument of Gattamelata" (1445–1450) — Piazza del Santo, Padua
 "Magdalene Penitent" (c. 1455) — Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence
 "Judith and Holofernes" (1455–1460) — Palazzo Vecchio, Florence
 "Virgin and Child with Four Angels" or "Chellini Madonna" (1456), Victoria and Albert Museum
Article: Operation Barbarossa
Section: Phase 2: Battle for Smolensk (3 July – 5 August 1941)

Question: When was the battle for Smolensk over?

Phase 2: Battle for Smolensk (3 July – 5 August 1941).
On 3 July, Hitler finally gave the go-ahead for the Panzers to resume their drive east after the infantry divisions had caught up.
However, a rainstorm typical of Russian summers slowed their progress and Russian defenses stiffened.
The delays gave the Soviets time to organize a massive counterattack against Army Group Center.
Its ultimate objective was Smolensk, which commanded the road to Moscow.
Facing the Germans was an old Soviet defensive line held by six armies.
On 6 July, the Soviets attacked the 3rd Panzer Army with 700 tanks.
The Germans defeated this counterattack with overwhelming air superiority.
The 2nd Panzer Army crossed the River Dnieper and closed on Smolensk from the south while the 3rd Panzer Army, after defeating the Soviet counterattack, closed on Smolensk from the north.
Trapped between their pincers were three Soviet armies.
On 18 July, the Panzer Groups came to within sixteen kilometres of closing the gap but the trap would not snap shut until 26 July.
When the Panzer Groups finally closed the gap, 300,000 Red Army soldiers were captured; but liquidating the pocket took another ten days in which time 100,000 Red Army soldiers escaped to stand between the Germans and Moscow.
Four weeks into the campaign, the Germans realized they had grossly underestimated Soviet strength.
The German troops had used their initial supplies without attaining the expected strategic freedom of movement.
Operations were now slowed down to allow for resupply; the delay was to be used to adapt strategy to the new situation.
Hitler had lost faith in encirclement as large numbers of Soviet soldiers had escaped the pincers.
Hitler now believed he could defeat the Soviets by economic damage, depriving them of the industrial capacity to continue the war.
That meant seizing the industrial center of Kharkov, the Donets Basin and the oil fields of the Caucasus in the south and the speedy capture of Leningrad, a major center of military production, in the north.
He also wanted to link up with the Finns to the north.
Fedor von Bock and almost all the German generals involved in Operation "Barbarossa", vehemently argued in favor of continuing the all-out drive toward Moscow.
Besides the psychological importance of capturing the enemy's capital, the generals pointed out that Moscow was a major center of arms production and the center of the Soviet communications and transportation system.
More importantly, intelligence reports indicated that the bulk of the Red Army was deployed near Moscow under Semyon Timoshenko for an all-out defense of the capital.
But Hitler was adamant, and issued a direct order to Heinz Guderian, bypassing his commanding officer von Bock, to send Army Group Centre's tanks to the north and south, temporarily halting the drive to Moscow.
Article: Mona Lisa
Section: Title and subject

Question: Who's name became the inspiration for the Italian name for the painting?

The title of the painting that is known in English as Mona Lisa stems from a description by Renaissance art historian Giorgio Vasari, who wrote ""Leonardo undertook to paint, for Francesco del Giocondo, the portrait of Mona Lisa, his wife"."
"Mona" in Italian is a polite form of address originating as "ma donna" —similar to "Ma’am", "Madam", or "my lady" in English.
This became "madonna", and its contraction "mona".
The title of the painting, though traditionally spelled "Mona" (as used by Vasari), is also commonly spelled in modern Italian as "Monna Lisa", but this is rare in English.
Vasari's account of the "Mona Lisa" comes from his biography of Leonardo published in 1550, 31 years after the artist's death, and which has long been the best known source of information on the provenance of the work and identity of the sitter.
Leonardo's assistant Salaì, at his death in 1525, owned a portrait which in his personal papers was named "la Gioconda", a painting bequeathed to him by Leonardo.
That Leonardo painted such a work, and its date, were confirmed in 2005 when a scholar at Heidelberg University discovered a marginal note in a 1477 printing of a volume written by the ancient Roman philosopher Cicero.
The note is dated October 1503 and was written by Leonardo's contemporary Agostino Vespucci.
This note likens Leonardo to renowned Greek painter Apelles, who is mentioned in the text, and states that Leonardo was at that time working on a painting of Lisa del Giocondo.
The sitter, Lisa del Giocondo,was a member of the Gherardini family of Florence and Tuscany, and the wife of wealthy Florentine silk merchant Francesco del Giocondo.
The painting is thought to have been commissioned for their new home, and to celebrate the birth of their second son, Andrea.
The Italian name for the painting, "La Gioconda", means "jocund" ("happy" or "jovial"), or literally "the jocund one", a pun on the feminine form of the sitter's married name "Giocondo".
In French, the title "La Joconde" has the same meaning.
Over the years there have been several alternative views among scholars as to the subject of the painting.
Some have argued that Lisa del Giocondo was the subject of a different portrait, identifying at least four other paintings as the "Mona Lisa" referred to by Vasari.
Several other individuals have been proposed as the subject of the painting.
Isabella of Aragon, Cecilia Gallerani, Costanza d'Avalos, Duchess of Francavilla, Isabella d'Este, Pacifica Brandano or Brandino, Isabela Gualanda, Caterina Sforza, —even Salaì and Leonardo himself— are all among the list of posited models portrayed in the painting.
Currently, the consensus of art historians is that the painting depicts Lisa del Giocondo, which has always been the traditional view.
Article: The Invisible War
Section: Members of Congress

Question: What state is congressman Mike Turner from in the movie The Invisible War

 Chellie Pingree, (D, Maine)
 Louise Slaughter (D, New York)
 Mike Turner (R, Ohio)
 Loretta Sanchez (D, California)
 Jackie Speier (D, California)
 Ted Poe (R, Texas)
 Susan Davis, (D, California)
 Niki Tsongas, (D, Massachusetts)
Article: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Section: Surrender of Japan and subsequent occupation

Question: Why did't Hirohito speak of the soviets?

Until August 9, Japan's war council still insisted on its four conditions for surrender.
On that day Hirohito ordered Kōichi Kido to "quickly control the situation ... because the Soviet Union has declared war against us."
He then held an Imperial conference during which he authorized minister Shigenori Tōgō to notify the Allies that Japan would accept their terms on one condition, that the declaration "does not comprise any demand which prejudices the prerogatives of His Majesty as a Sovereign ruler.
"On August 12, the Emperor informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender.
One of his uncles, Prince Asaka, then asked whether the war would be continued if the "kokutai" could not be preserved.
Hirohito simply replied "Of course."
As the Allied terms seemed to leave intact the principle of the preservation of the Throne, Hirohito recorded on August 14 his capitulation announcement which was broadcast to the Japanese nation the next day despite a short rebellion by militarists opposed to the surrender.
In his declaration, Hirohito referred to the atomic bombings:In his "Rescript to the Soldiers and Sailors" delivered on August 17, he stressed the impact of the Soviet invasion and his decision to surrender, omitting any mention of the bombs.
Hirohito met with General MacArthur on September 27, saying to him that "he peace party did not prevail until the bombing of Hiroshima created a situation which could be dramatized."
Furthermore, the "Rescript to the Soldiers and Sailors" speech he told MacArthur about was just personal, not political, and never stated that the Soviet intervention in Manchuria was the main reason for surrender.
In fact, a day after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, Hirohito ordered his advisers, primarily Chief Cabinet Secretary Hisatsune Sakomizu, Kawada Mizuho, and Masahiro Yasuoka, to write up a surrender speech.
In Hirohito's speech, days before announcing it on radio on August 15, he gave three major reasons for surrender: Tokyo's defenses would not be complete before the American invasion of Japan, Ise Shrine would be lost to the Americans, and atomic weapons deployed by the Americans would lead to the death of the entire Japanese race.
Despite the Soviet intervention, Hirohito did not mention the Soviets as the main factor for surrender.
Article: Pathology
Section: History

Question: Disease-causing pathogens are also called what?

The history of pathology can be traced back to antiquity when people began examining bodies.
The examination of bodies led to the dissection of bodies in order to discover the cause of death.
During that time, the people already began formulating today what we know as inflammation, tumors, boils, and much more.
Pathology began to develop as a subject during the 19th Century through teachers and physicians that studied pathology.
They referred to it as “pathological anatomy” or “morbid anatomy.” However, pathology as a field of medicine was not recognized until the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
In the 19th century, physicians realized that disease-causing pathogens, or germs (disease-causing, or pathogenic, microbes, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, amoebae, molds, protists, and prions) existed and were capable of reproduction and multiplication, and that evil spirits or humors, or even the signs and symptoms of the condition, were not the causative agent of a disease.
Through the new information gathered regarding germ reproduction, physicians began to compare the characteristics of one germ’s symptoms as they developed within an affected individual to another germ’s characteristics and symptoms.
This realization led to the foundational understanding that diseases are able to create themselves, and that they can affect human beings in unique ways.
In order to determine causes of diseases, medical experts used the most common and widely accepted assumptions or symptoms of their times.
This is true for those in the past and today.
What set pathology apart from other specialties was the ability to determine a symptom with the naked eye.
During the 19th century, Rudolf Virchow gave the biggest contribution to the field by introducing the procedure of analyzing tissue and cells through a microscope to pathologists.
This greatly affected the discipline because it was another way to analyze objects, and it led to more advanced technological developments.
By the late 1920s to early 1930s pathology was deemed a medical specialty.
During the years following, the decision to split pathology into sub-specialties arose.
Today, anatomical, clinical, molecular, forensic, oral, dermatopathology, hematopathology, and neuropathology exist as medical specialties.
Today, pathologists are physicians who are diagnosing patients with diseases through examination of biopsies and resections.
Their work also includes working with other physicians and scientists on solutions to treat diseases such as various kinds of cancers.
Article: The Night Watch
Section: Cultural legacy

Question: Which "The Night Watch" inspired literary work was written by Agustina Bessa Luis?

 The work has inspired musical works in both the classical and rock traditions, including the second movement of Gustav Mahler's 7th Symphony and Ayreon's "The Shooting Company of Captain Frans B. Cocq" from "".
 Alexander Korda's 1936 biographical film "Rembrandt" depicts the painting, shown in error in its truncated form, as a failure at its completion, perceived as lampooning its outraged subjects.
 In King Crimson's song "The Night Watch", on its 1974 album "Starless and Bible Black", the lyricist Richard Palmer-James muses on the painting to capture a key period in Dutch history, when, after a long period of “Spanish Wars,” the merchants and other members of the bourgeoisie can turn their lives inward and focus on the tangible results of their lives’ efforts.
The song adopts a number of perspectives, including the primary subjects and the artist himself, and paints a mini-portrait of the emergence of the modern upper-middle class and the consumerist culture.
However, the song presents this portrait with a deft touch, and while not fully approving, is sympathetic in tone.
 In Jean-Luc Godard's 1982 film, "Passion", "The Night Watch" is reenacted with live actors in an opening shot.
Godard explicitly compares his film to Rembrandt's painting, describing them both as "full of holes and badly-filled spaces."
He instructs the viewer not to focus on the overall composition, but to approach his film as one would a Rembrandt and "focus on the faces.
"
 "The Night Watch" is a major plot device in the eponymous 1995-film, Night Watch, which focuses on the painting's theft.
 "The Night Watch" is parodied on the British cover of Terry Pratchett's 2002 book by the same name.
The cover illustrator, Paul Kidby, pays tribute to Rembrandt by placing him in the picture, in the position where Rembrandt is said to have painted himself.
 "The Night Watch" is the subject of a 2007-film by director Peter Greenaway called "Nightwatching", in which the film posits a conspiracy within the musketeer regiment of Frans Banning Cocq and Willem van Ruytenburch, and suggests that Rembrandt may have immortalized a conspiracy theory using subtle allegory in his group portrait of the regiment, subverting what was to have been a highly prestigious commission for both painter and subject.
His 2008 film "Rembrandt's J'Accuse" is a sequel or follow-on, and covers the same idea, using extremely detailed analysis of the compositional elements in the painting; in this Greenaway describes "The Night Watch" as (currently) the fourth most famous painting in the Western world, after the Mona Lisa, the Last Supper and the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.
 In 2006 "The Night Watch" has inspired the literary work A Ronda da Noite by the famous Portuguese writer Agustina Bessa Luís.
Article: DNA
Section: History and anthropology

Question: What is the field of genetics that compares the phylogeny of DNA?

Because DNA collects mutations over time, which are then inherited, it contains historical information, and, by comparing DNA sequences, geneticists can infer the evolutionary history of organisms, their phylogeny.
This field of phylogenetics is a powerful tool in evolutionary biology.
If DNA sequences within a species are compared, population geneticists can learn the history of particular populations.
This can be used in studies ranging from ecological genetics to anthropology; For example, DNA evidence is being used to try to identify the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel.DNA has also been used to look at modern family relationships, such as establishing family relationships between the descendants of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson.
This usage is closely related to the use of DNA in criminal investigations detailed above.
Indeed, some criminal investigations have been solved when DNA from crime scenes has matched relatives of the guilty individual.
Article: Fruitvale Station
Section: Promotion

Question: Were murals made for the film?

The Weinstein Company commissioned three murals to be painted in Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco by well-known street artists Ron English, Lydia Emily and LNY, in anticipation of the film.
Some people questioned having a poster for the film in Fruitvale Station, but a BART spokeswoman said about this decision: "there was no debate whether to allow "Fruitvale Station" on BART.
None whatsoever.
We really support Ryan.
He's just an amazing person...
I think that Ryan had said it was his intention to show his love for Oakland and the people of Oakland, and he really succeeded.
"Promotional material used on the film's Facebook page and website referred to the controversial shooting of Trayvon Martin in Florida, which was in the news at the same time as the film's release.
This drew some criticism, with publicist Angie Meyer stating, "It's absolutely inappropriate and morally wrong to use a high profile case to create publicity and buzz around a movie release.
"As part of its film promotion, the Weinstein Co. set up the "I am __" campaign to encourage people to share stories of overcoming acts of social injustice or mistreatment, and to upload photos or other artworks related to those experiences.
Article: Vitruvian Man
Section: Abstract

Question: Where is Leonardo da Vinci's "The Vitruvian Man" drawing now stored?

The Vitruvian Man, , is a drawing created by Leonardo da Vinci circa 1490.
It is accompanied by notes based on the work of the architect Vitruvius.
The drawing, which is in pen and ink on paper, depicts a male figure in two superimposed positions with his arms and legs apart and simultaneously inscribed in a circle and square.
The drawing and text are sometimes called the "Canon of Proportions" or, less often, "Proportions of Man".
It is kept in the Gabinetto dei disegni e stampe of the Gallerie dell'Accademia, in Venice, Italy, under reference 228.
Like most works on paper, it is displayed to the public only occasionally.
The drawing is based on the correlations of ideal human proportions with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise "De Architectura".
Vitruvius described the human figure as being the principal source of proportion among the Classical orders of architecture.
Vitruvius determined that the ideal body should be eight heads high.
Leonardo's drawing is traditionally named in honor of the architect.
Article: Boston Tea Party
Section: Townshend duty crisis

Question: Why did the American Whigs hold the belief that Parliament had no right to tax the colonies?

Controversy between Great Britain and the colonies arose in the 1760s when Parliament sought, for the first time, to impose a direct tax on the colonies for the purpose of raising revenue.
Some colonists, known in the colonies as Whigs, objected to the new tax program, arguing that it was a violation of the British Constitution.
Britons and British Americans agreed that, according to the constitution, British subjects could not be taxed without the consent of their elected representatives.
In Great Britain, this meant that taxes could only be levied by Parliament.
Colonists, however, did not elect members of Parliament, and so American Whigs argued that the colonies could not be taxed by that body.
According to Whigs, colonists could only be taxed by their own colonial assemblies.
Colonial protests resulted in the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1765, but in the 1766 Declaratory Act, Parliament continued to insist that it had the right to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever".
When new taxes were levied in the Townshend Revenue Act of 1767, Whig colonists again responded with protests and boycotts.
Merchants organized a non-importation agreement, and many colonists pledged to abstain from drinking British tea, with activists in New England promoting alternatives, such as domestic Labrador tea.
Smuggling continued apace, especially in New York and Philadelphia, where tea smuggling had always been more extensive than in Boston.
Dutied British tea continued to be imported into Boston, however, especially by Richard Clarke and the sons of Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson, until pressure from Massachusetts Whigs compelled them to abide by the non-importation agreement.
Parliament finally responded to the protests by repealing the Townshend taxes in 1770, except for the tea duty, which Prime Minister Lord North kept to assert "the right of taxing the Americans".
This partial repeal of the taxes was enough to bring an end to the non-importation movement by October 1770.
From 1771 to 1773, British tea was once again imported into the colonies in significant amounts, with merchants paying the Townshend duty of three pence per pound.
Boston was the largest colonial importer of legal tea; smugglers still dominated the market in New York and Philadelphia.