The most common winter damage is scaling, which is caused by cycles of freezing and thawing caused by the deicing agent. Water can be absorbed into the very fine capillary space in the concrete. When it freezes and expands, small flakes of mortar and concrete come loose from the surface. Concrete also can be damaged by the formation of salt crystals that have a similar effect as water freezing. Air-entrained concrete has minute air bubbles to increase resilience and resistance to wear.
Strength also is important for a durable, scale resistant concrete.
Sealers may be applied to prevent the concrete from absorbing water and salts. Some deicing chemicals are more damaging to concrete surfaces than others. Products such as ammonium nitrate or ammonium sulfate tend to damage concrete more than sodium chloride or calcium chloride. Improper use of deicing agents may cause injury to plants. Excess salts and fertilization from deicers impede uptake of nutrients.