No consistent effects of grazing on forbs was revealed, as measured either by plant frequency or by plant basal cover. From the evidence collected to date, there was no consistent response of forbs to ungulate grazing on the northern range. Green forb biomass was reduced by grazing at some locations, years, and sites but the reverse of this was also commonly measured. Some of the annual variations observed may have been related to variations in precipitation. Coughenour et al.
Some soil compaction is a logical consequence of the hoof action of ungulates on the soil surface.
For more on soils, see Chapter 5 . The area of greatest emphasis during the most recent research initiative concerned grazing effects on grasslands. While we now understand the grasslands better than the other components of the winter range, continuation of some aspects of grassland research is strongly recommended. First, a more intensive and consistent monitoring program for grassland production, grassland nutrient content, and climatic changes is needed. Second, the effects of the mechanisms of grazing on grasslands need to be better understood.