All of these approaches have clear benefits and, if we take seriously the overarching goal of preparing students for the challenges of the next century, they make sense. They raise complex questions about teacher and school accountability, as well as about the fairness of teachers' judgments. Many approaches to revising curriculum and instruction to improve achievement are now being tested. Many schools are adopting complete instructional programs designed by a variety of developers, ranging from university-based research teams to private companies. These programs usually focus on a particular area of curriculum, such as reading, and they typically include curricula and materials, concrete instructional strategies, professional development, and parental involvement.
Studies are also in progress that test different ways of organizing schools and grouping students.
Some, such as reducing class size in the primary grades, have proved to help children get a good start in school. 19 Other strategies, such as mixed-age classes and inclusion classes, seek to meet diverse students' needs more appropriately. And most are embracing strategies that ensure that every student is well known by at least some of the adults in the school. In the lower grades, some schools are trying policies that keep the same children and teacher together for more than one year. 20 Challenging Standards for All One important role of research is to help all Americans weigh the costs and benefits of the large-scale reform movements that sweep the nation from time to time.