Suede can be made from calf, kid, or cowhide by buffing the leather's inner surface to produce a nap. It is popular but less durable than ordinary leather. Shoes may also be made of patent leather, which is leather coated with varnish or enamel to give it a durable mirrorlike gloss. Also used are fabrics woven from either natural or man-made fibers, such as linen, canvas, and nylon. Many shoes are made of synthetic leatherlike materials, which consist of a fabric base coated with a chemical surface finish, and some are made of plastic.
Uppers consist of vamps, quarters, backstays, tongues, and linings.
The cutting of uppers is done for the most part by hydraulic presses called clicking machines. Hand cutting, however, may be used in the manufacture of shoes made of fine leather, shoes of fancy design, or shoes produced in small lots. The parts of the uppers are then sent to the fitting station, where keen-bladed skiving machines bevel or shave the edges of leather so that they can be turned over and cemented. Sewing machines are used to stitch uppers to linings. Other machines punch decorative designs and insert eyelets.