We seem to be going straight from one mono-ideology, worship of Lenin, to another. But the many other cults and religions that have been observed here also played their part. Ten years ago, most people in Soviet Dagestan would have called themselves atheists, at least in public, although many quietly believed in private. For many Dagestanis, taking refuge in religion is a relief from the chaos in other parts of their post-Soviet lives. Makhachkala is an unkempt, struggling capital.
Unemployed youths loiter, smoking, on street corners outside crumbling apartment blocks.
Nervous hotel staff operate from behind iron grilles, guarded by gunmen. Suspicious characters frequent rackety casinos and bars. Middlemen charge would-be students bribes of thousands of dollars apiece to sign up at the university. Crime rates are higher than in other parts of Russia. After a 21-month war between the Russian army and the Chechen separatists, the whole region is awash with guns.