The Ph.D. degree culminates in a dissertation based on original research. Courses in quantitative research methods, which include the use of computers, are an integral part of graduate study and usually necessary to complete the dissertation. D. based on practical work and examinations rather than a dissertation, prepares students for clinical and other applied positions. In clinical or counseling psychology, the requirements for the doctoral degree generally include an additional year or more of internship or supervised experience. Competition for admission into graduate programs is keen.
Some universities require an undergraduate major in psychology.
Others prefer only basic psychology with courses in the biological, physical, and social sciences, statistics, and mathematics. APA also has accredited about 275 institutions that provide internships for doctoral students in clinical and counseling psychology. Although financial aid is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain, some universities award fellowships, or scholarships, or arrange for part-time employment. The National Science Foundation, the Department of Health and Human Services, the Armed Forces, and many other organizations also provide financial aid. Psychologists who want to enter independent practice must meet certification or licensing requirements.