Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences highlights several intelligences not measured by IQ scores. Heritability and adoption research shows that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to individual differences in intelligence. Because of different language customs and lack of familiarity with test content, IQ scores of low-SES, ethnic minority children often do not reflect their true abilities. Supplementing IQs with measures of adaptive behavior and adjusting testing procedures to take cultural differences into account are ways of reducing test bias. Language development continues during the school years, although changes are less dramatic than they were during early childhood.
Vocabulary increases rapidly, and pragmatic skills are refined.
Bilingual children are advanced in cognitive development and metalinguistic awareness. Schools are powerful forces in children's development. Class size, the school's educational philosophy, teacher-pupil interaction, grouping practices, and the way computers are integrated into classroom learning experiences affect motivation and achievement in middle childhood. Teachers face special challenges in meeting the needs of children who have learning difficulties or special intellectual strengths. American pupils have fared unevenly in recent international comparisons of academic achievement.