The efficiency experts were thought to be symbolic of the progressive school reformers of this time. John Dewey and Lucy Sprague Mitchell , also considered to be progressive reformers during this time, opposed using a model of scientific management. Dewey argued that reform efforts modeled after scientific management were undemocratic, perpetuated the divisions of social classes in society, and did not promote individualism, which is a necessary component of a true democracy. Both Dewey and Mitchell, contemporaries of Thorndike, explored the science of assessment as well. According to Dewey, the proper role of assessment was feedback so that new learning could take place.
Testing is undemocratic if it prohibits the creation of new education.
It is tempting to tell a story of the development of assessment as one that evolved as a reaction, on the part of those interested in the amelioration of social inequity rather than as social sorting for industrial purposes. Julia Richman, a district superintendent of the New York City school system in 1903, was the first to recognize that the current classes of up to 60 children contained children of widely differing abilities. She led the movement of standardized testing and grouping students for specialized instruction. She also promoted the idea that education involved the whole child's physical and emotional health as well as scholastic achievement. Echoes of this thinking can be found in the Worcester Superintendent's report of 1926-1927 .