The universalism of structuralist models in attempting to explain all human behaviour has also been undermined. Structuralism is particularly inadequate in accounting for the use of exchange items for strategic or political gains. Transactionalism, which takes account of people maximizing and calculating in some of their social relationships provides a more useful methodology for these instances. Both structuralist and transactionalist angles have been integrated in a theory called 'adaptive strategies'. This approach considers plans of actions made by a group of people to deal with internal or external constraints in society, but acknowledges that it need not always be consciously realized by all the persons.
Spheres of exchange are more often a characteristic of non-monetary societies.
For example, before the introduction of European goods and money in the 1950s, the Tiv society of southern Nigeria contained three spheres of exchange. One was to do with locally produced commodities, such as foodstuffs. The second was to do with prestige items like slaves, cattle, horses and brass rods. There is also evidence for 'spheres of exchange' operating in modern societies that use money, commonly thought of as an all-purpose exchange item. For instance, services within a family or religious objects cannot be measured in monetary terms without upsetting moral values.