Curriculum is presented whole to part with emphasis on big concepts. Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly valued. Pursuit of student questions is highly valued. Curricular activities rely heavily on textbooks and workbooks. Curricular activities rely on primary sources of data and manipulative materials.
Students are view as thinkers with emerging theories about the world.
Teachers generally behave in a didactic manner, disseminating information to students. Teachers generally behave in an interactive manner, mediating the environment for students. Children were interviewed individually and asked to do oral and written tasks involving addition, subtraction, number composition, and the properties of the decimal system. All interviews were untimed and audiotaped. These tasks are described in Table 2.