Risk based on observational studies may be incorrect due to selection biases and confounding variables. This has not been tested by intervention trials. Strategies for preventing osteoporosis and hip fracture. Stopping smoking may reduce osteoporotic fractures. A meta-analysis of observational studies showed a strong risk between smoking, osteoporosis and fractures.
Persistent smoking increases the risk of a hip fracture by about half.
However, no interventional studies were found i . Evidence from observational studies suggests that lower intakes of vitamin D and calcium are risk factors for osteoporosis. It is likely that a dietary increase in calcium and vitamin D will result in fewer fractures but the effectiveness of interventions have not been tested in the general population i . Allison S. Cost benefits of nutritional support. Calcium and Vitamin D supplements can reduce fractures in high risk individuals.