Methods include spark gap, electromagnetic, and piezoelectric energy. Ureteroscopy scopes can be flexible or rigid. Ureteroscopy is most effective for distal ureteral stones. Intracorporeal lithotripsy with the use of baskets and graspers may be done. Percutaneous nephrolithotomy may be indicated in the presence of staghorn renal stones, lower pole stones, and selected ureteral stones.
Percutaneous access is required and ultrasonic aspiration can be performed.
Open surgery techniques include anatrophic nephrolithotomy, pyelolithotomy, and ureterolithotomy. With the advancement of alternatives to open surgery discussed above, the incidence of performing open surgery for stone disease is small and decreasing. Infection Infections such as fungus balls and pyelonephritis may also cause hematuria. Trauma Renal trauma can be classified as blunt or penetrating. For staging purposes, the CT scan is the best single study and should be done if the patient's condition warrants.