Cities and regions seceded in order to merge with more successful political systems. The Hansa towns used the exit option often, defecting from the league and integrating themselves into the German principalities. In his conclusion, Spruyt emphasizes that the system of nation-states is now more strongly established than ever before. It embraces the whole world, including the former colonies. Universalist systems such as Islam do not destabilize or endanger the system.
Regionalism results at most in the creation of new, smaller nation-states.
The only exception to the predominance of nation-states appears in Europe, where the European Union can be characterized as neither a new superstate nor a mere extension of the existing member states. In the debate to which the book makes an important contribution, certain issues merit further consideration. The complete neglect of England can undermine Spruyt's analysis in two ways. First, England probably preceded France in its formative process as a nation-state. By the twelfth century the Plantagenet dynasty had developed strong central institutions.