Excretion occurs mainly via the urine. Urinary excretion of cadmium by individuals without renal dysfunction primarily reflects the amount of cadmium retained in the kidneys. The target organs for cadmium toxicity depend on the type of exposure. Inhalation of cadmium can lead to chronic obstructive airway disease. Following long-term exposure, renal tubular and glomerular dysfunction can develop.
Renal function can deteriorate further, even after cessation of exposure to cadmium.
Cadmium can suppress cell-mediated immune responses in vitro. Administration of cadmium at doses that affect placental morphology or function induces fetal anaemia, growth retardation, teratogenicity and embryonic and fetal death in experimental animals. Reproductive and developmental toxicity have been reported following exposure to cadmium compounds by oral and inhalation routes, but the effects are generally much less severe than after parenteral administration. In three of five studies, the frequencies of chromosomal aberration were increased in peripheral blood lymphocytes of workers exposed to cadmium in the metal industry, where they were usually also exposed to other metals. No effect of cadmium was observed in a limited study of workers from a Swedish alkaline battery factory.