Additional articles were derived by manual review of retrieved references. Acute traumatic ocular injuries occur in boxers. Long-term ocular injuries affect a significant proportion of both amateur and professional boxers and include retinal tears, holes, and detachments. Boxing-induced acute brain injury can cause death, although acute mortality from boxing is rare. The presence of APOE e4 may accelerate or potentiate neurological damage.
Ocular injuries occur frequently in both amateur and professional boxers.
An initial complete examination should be required before licensure for either amateur or professional boxers. This initial examination should include visual acuity, visual fields, slit-lamp biomicroscopy, intraocular pressure measurements, gonioscopy, and a dilated vitroretinal examination including indirect ophthalmoscopy with scleral depression. This examination should be repeated at least annually. Mandatory periods of exemption from ring activity should be instituted for individuals with retinal tears and for boxers with repaired retinal detachments. All such individuals have had variable amounts of amateur exposure.