It is precisely that the horns are denied to untrustworthy promisors that makes these endorsements effective signals of quality. Another way to apprehend untrustworthiness is, of course, represented by knower services that trusters pay for. Another way of apprehending untrustworthiness is forged by competitors. Promisors expose the poor characteristics of competitors' products, if only by insinuation, in advertisements, sales demonstrations, and marketing literature. Before the 1971 imposition of restrictions on cigarette advertising, advertisements for low-tar brands sometimes pictured rivals and listed the tar content beside each.
Many researchers think that the restrictions have inhibited the market for low-tar cigarettes.
In general, competitive advertising is a great service to trusters as it helps them discover product differences and the validity of product claims. Another way for promisors to apply pressure on their rivals is to challenge the truth of their advertising. To help you decide, you can get to know him, look into his credentials and seals of approval, try out his service on a trial basis, ask for a warranty, ask a neighbor about him, get a second opinion, consult an information bureau or a rating organization, find out what his competitors are saying about him, or have someone that you trust arrange your dealings with him. Look for someone else who gives better grounds for trust. A failure to foster trust opens opportunities for individuals and firms to profit by providing what is lacking.