The past two decades have also brought to light the problems of special groups, particularly women, for whom escape from poverty is especially difficult. Formidable legal and cultural barriers can hinder the entry of women into the labor market. At home the psychological burden of culturally induced low self-esteem, added to the physical burden of domestic chores, inhibit their mobility and block opportunities for gaining better work. These conditions have important implications for antipoverty policy. Contrary to the implications of the economist's standard unitary household model, unequal bargaining power within the household can result in underinvestment in human capital for women.
Public interventions targeting poor households can therefore be inadequate.
Gender-targeted policies might be far more effective. At the same time better opportunities for outside work for young women can raise the average age of marriage. As a consequence, women bear fewer children and raise them in better conditions. Targeting women as part of an effort to reduce poverty in a growing economy inevitably raises the controversial issue of fertility control. Those who oppose fertility control policies note that a large family may be a voluntary choice, a way of getting extra help or providing for old age.