While some Slavic settlers migrated to Kazakhstan voluntarily, others were re-settled after serving sentences in labour camps during the Stalinist era. Many of the 'punished peoples', such as the Chechens and Ingushs, returned in large numbers to their homelands when they were first given permission during the late 1950s. Others, like Germans and Koreans, settled down in Kazakhstan and gradually integrated into Kazakh society. The emigration of the non- indigenous minorities increased during the perestroika period and following independence. Major reasons for emigration include the deteriorating economic situation and the infringement of civil rights.
Public policies continue to limit access to political offices.
For example, only a few members of minority groups serve in elective offices, the civil services and high ranking internal positions. Access to higher education is also limited, and the Ministry of Higher Education officially declared in 1994 that it would act in favour of Kazakhs in sending students to study abroad. The Kazakhs are a Turkic people, descendants of nomadic tribes who fell under Russian domination during the eighteenth century. They were traditionally a nomadic people until the period of forced collectivisation during the 1930s. Relations between the Hordes have a pronounced influence on political and economic life, and no attempt has been made to diminish this influence.