Males and females may use open mouth threats. This involves showing the enemy the incisors and canines, and pulling the ears and nose back. Within groups a strict linear dominance hierarchy develops among males. This hierarchy is determined by such factors as age, size, and fighting skills. Since females do not disperse, they are the stable core of a group.
Females have a tendency to have close bonds with their maternal relatives throughout their lives.
There is, however, a dominance hierarchy among females in a group. The acquisition of rank involves active intervention by maternal kin, and the differential treatment by unrelated members of the group. Grooming among females is a common activity. This allows the lower-ranking females to receive less harassment, more support in aggresive interactions, and access to limited resources. This cultural behavior was observed in the preparation of food by long-tailed macaques.