War-related refugees are often compelled to extract fuelwood and freshwater resources at an unsustainable rate in order to survive. In 1999, these numbers were swelled by refugees fleeing Kosovo during the conflict in Yugoslavia. In addition to the environmental stress caused by warfare, there is now increasing concern that environmental degradation and resource shortages may actually cause armed conflict. Examples of environmental degradation capable of escalating into violence include severe water shortages, widespread desertification, health-threatening toxic contamination, and refugee flight from environmental wastelands. Even within nations, increasing demands for limited natural resources create domestic tensions, as well as intensifying the pressure between private and public interests.
National security is now increasingly dependent on environmental security.
Over the past 10 years, military expenditures have been greatly reduced in nearly all regions. The ratio of global military expenditure to gross national product fell to 3 per cent in 1994, a new low for the entire period since 1960, compared to 5.5 per cent in 1984. This has positive implications for the redirection of military finance towards social expenditure although there is little evidence that savings in military expenditure have been used to finance environmental action. However, the environment has certainly benefited from a reduced military consumption of minerals and petroleum. Since many environmental problems extend beyond national boundaries, the development of regional levels of governance, through regional conventions, economic cooperation organizations, and even unions of governments, is creating institutional structures able to respond to transboundary environmental issues.