A recent survey showed that 14 members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development used between 1 and 20 economic instruments for environmental protection. Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands were the most progressive in this respect. Of the 151 instruments in use, approximately half were charges and one third were subsidies. Others were such instruments as deposit-refund systems, market creation, and enforcement incentives. In the developing world, there is considerable emphasis on communal management systems.
Property rights can play a particularly important role in conservation and biodiversity protection.
It all relates to the conversion of non-domesticated land to other uses, such as agriculture or industry, as detailed in Chapter 4. Transferring the responsibility of resource management to local communities and allowing them a fair share of the benefits arising from economic activities associated with non-cultivated biological resources helps reduce the pressure to convert such areas. An example of retention of customary rights over land is found in Papua New Guinea, where more than 90 per cent of the land remains communal. In contrast with other developing countries, only 13 per cent of the forestland in Papua New Guinea has been converted to other uses. Other economic instruments are also widely used.