Interactions with a caring adult who provides consistent, caring responses. Families, communities, and society usually exert social control to compel individuals to act in socially acceptable ways. According to this theory, when these controls are absent, subcultures develop that promote attitudes and perceptions favorable to delinquency and other deviant behavior. Differences between a youth's aspirations and his or her opportunities cause frustration and failure. Strain theory argues that youth then turn to delinquent behavior as a way of coping.
Researchers suggest that there are three pathways through which male youth develop problem behavior.
The Authority Conflict Pathway begins before age 12 and consists of a progression from stubborn behavior to defiance and disobedience to authority avoidance. Examples of authority-avoidance behaviors include truancy, running away, and staying out late. The Covert Pathway begins with minor covert behavior, such as shoplifting and frequent lying, progresses to property damage, and eventually leads to moderate to serious delinquency. Fraud, burglary, and serious thefts might fall in this group. The Overt Pathway may start with minor aggression, such as bullying or annoying others.