Alessandro Volta invents the electric battery using the internal properties of different metals. The work of Charles Wheatstone, Ohm, and Kirchoff leads to the design and analysis of how current flows. William Gilbert, physician to Queen Elizabeth I of England, discovered that the earth behaves like a giant magnet. Modern scientists have learned even more. The law of Biot and Savart, thr force between electric currents, mpere's law.
Force fields have definite properties of their own suitable for scientific study.
The discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831 creates an important technological breakthrough in the generation of the electric power. In 1887, an exquisitely designed measurement of the earth's motion through the ether results in the most brilliant failure in scientific history. Albert Einstein is motivated to perfect the central ideas of physics, resulting in a new understanding of the meaning of space and time. Hot discoveries about the behavior of gases make the connection between temperature and heat. With the quest for low temperatures came the discovery that all elements can exist in each of the basic states of matter.