As a consequence, differences in levels of adult mortality between indigenous and non-indigenous populations are higher than differences in infant mortality. In Bolivia estimates are not as consistent as in Guatemala. During 1980-1988, differences between the two ethnic groups in the decline of mortality resulted in smaller differences in infant mortality than in adult mortality. Although not all the results obtained from the maternal orphanhood method are consistent, it proves useful for obtaining estimates of adult mortality differentials when no other information is available. Basically, indirect estimates of mean household income and the proportion of household under the poverty line are made for each of the provinces and districts of Peru.
Estimation is implemented in two main stages.
First, a statistical relationship between income and a set of individual, household and locational characteristics is established with survey data also available in the censuses. Second, the census data are used in conjunction with the estimated model to estimate the percentage of households poor at the department and district level. The same approach may be used to generate geogaphically disaggregated estimates for other cut-off points of the income distribution. The different measures adopted to deal with the critical relationships between the population and the environment will depend on the prevalent approach. There are instruments, based on specific theoretical standpoints, used to identify the environmental impacts of demographic changes.