According to Gilligan, such models often define maturation as separation and individuation. However, women's lives are more closely characterized by social interaction and personal relationships and attachment is vital to women's development. Women's lives are often less linear than the theories depict. The criticisms of existing models point out elements that are needed in revised theories of human development. Maturity would then mean the development of both the separate self and the connected self.
Identity is described as a process set within a sociohistorical context.
Peck's model of self-definition should have value for both men and women. In an alternative model, the relationship element could include the interweaving of the individual, family, and work. A test of the model with 449 adult community college students found a significant amount of diversity in the developmental stage of each role at a given time in a person's life. Assumption of a new role or change in an existing one might create conflict, prompting a need to modify other life roles. The spiral is energized by the need for self-esteem and affected by environmental influences.