This allows the viewer to quickly identify his current position and orientation on the map and consequently, in the environment. Although map use is not an appropriate tool for every situation, the ability to quickly extract survey knowledge directly from a map often makes it a powerful navigation aid. Even when spatial knowledge is well developed and functional, it still has a tendency to be error prone. We do not tend to represent the relative positions between all places we encounter. Large regions, such as continents, encompass smaller regions, such as countries, and so on until the lowest level of detail has been encoded.
Errors occur when direction is inferred from a high level of abstraction.
For example, Reno, Nevada is actually farther west than San Diego, California. Yet this is often estimated in error due to the encoding of California as being west of Nevada. Environmental Design Spatial knowledge theory is well represented in environmental design methodology. Urban planners and architects have long been interested in designing spaces that are easily navigable and, consequently, pleasant places to be. They include walkways, streets, railroads, expressways, and mass transit lines.