Peers provide an important context for the development of a wide range of social skills. While most researchers now disagree with Freud's account of conscience development, the power of inductive discipline is recognized. Social learning theorists believe that children learn to act morally through modeling. A third voice, the cognitive-developmental perspective, regards children as active thinkers about social rules. Hostile family atmospheres, poor parenting practices, and heavy viewing of violent television promote childhood aggression, which can spiral into serious antisocial activity.
Gender typing develops rapidly over the preschool years.
Neither cognitive-developmental theory nor social learning theory provide a complete account of the development of gender identity. Compared to children of authoritarian and permissive parents, children whose parents use an authoritative style are especially well adjusted and socially mature. Warmth, explanations, and reasonable demands for mature behavior account for the effectiveness of the authoritative style. Ethnic groups often have distinct child-rearing beliefs and practices that are adaptive when viewed in light of cultural values and the circumstances in which parents and children live. Child maltreatment is the combined result of factors within the family, community, and larger culture.