Finding appropriate formulas for negotiated liberalisation in these circumstances is not easy. Negotiations deal also with foreign operators' rights to establish their own facilities and supply these services. Access to and use of port facilities, such as pilotage, towing and tug assistance, provisioning, garbage collection, port captain's services, and anchorage. Negotiations deal with rights of foreign ships to gain access to these services without discrimination. Most countries reserve this kind of transportation for national-flag ships.
Economists argue that the costs of cabotage protection are extremely high.
Bulk shipping is considered to be more competitive. Liner shipping is traditionally dominated by rate-setting bodies known as conferences. Many countries exempt these conferences from anti-monopoly laws but how this is done varies from country to country. Seaborne shipping and its international liberalisation is further complicated by the use of flags of convenience such as those of Panama and Liberia. Flag of convenience laws mean ships can be owned by nationals of one country and be registered in another.