The participation effect, although reduced in size, is significant for three years following migration. The wages of employed married women who migrate appear to be unaffected in any year following migration. This study examines how race and gender affect the economic status of scientists and engineers. Using data from the 1989 Survey of Natural and Social Scientists and Engineers, the wage rates of minority females are compared with those of white males, white females, and minority males for the native-born population and immigrants. The results reveal Asian women's parity with white men in some contexts.
Economic discrimination holds up for black and white women only.
There is also evidence that institutional contexts affect men and women with similar characteristics in different ways. The findings challenge the claim for universalism but offer some support for the discipline-dependence hypothesis. This paper econometrically compares the subminimum wage propensities of immigrants and US natives using 1989 microdata. A conventional expectation is that immigrants are more likely to earn subminimum wages because of their lesser education and knowledge of labor rights. However, immigrants also tend to participate full time in the labor market and field studies suggest they provide employers an 'experienced' labor pool.