Napoleon defeated by Wellington at Waterloo, banished again to St. Helena in South Atlantic. War of 1812 ends with treaty of Ghent. Greeks proclaim a republic and independence from Turkey. Turks invade Greece. Greece also aided by France and Britain.
Brazil becomes independent of Portugal.
1823 U.S. Monroe Doctrine warns European nations not to interfere in Western Hemisphere. Mexico becomes a republic, three years after declaring independence from Spain. Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. 1825 First passenger-carrying railroad in England. French invade Algeria.