Boone distinguishes between private vs. public goods and argues that because public goods are indivisible yet excludable, it is easier for dominants to control and exploit. Many public works were needed to maintain land colonization which subsequently aided the cohesion of subordinates and investment of dominants, therby fueling the development of hierarchical structure. Biological communities can be described as being structured in such a way that determines how each organism in the community interacts with other organisms in the community. This structure is often referred to as a trophic pyramid that relays the ways in which energy is distributed throughout biological communities. Autotrophs, organisms that generate energy through the processes of photosynthesis and of oxidation, comprise the base of the trophic pyramid and contain the most energy.
Herbivores are animals that eat autotrophs in order attain energy in the form of nutrients.
Carnivores eat herbivores, forming the peak of the pyramid and containing the least amount of energy. The amount of energy each of these organisms possesses is important because it is expended in the natural process of metabolism. The trophic pyramid is only a small portion of the dynamic interactions between species, in terms of feeding patterns. Several trophic pyramids combined form a single food chain, conversely, several food chains combine to form complex food webs. There are many different species of animal that are involved in a single food web.