In addition, mathematical symbols can also be represented by strings of bits and logically manipulated by computers for example, to invert matrices algebraically or to construct mathematical proofs using software. Standards are essential for advances in computing, communication and automation because without standards interaction among machines or even among software packages for a single machine is impossible. For example, communication of information objects, such as a spreadsheet or CAD design, between software programs and devices requires a standard representation. In comparison with the standards for human interaction, the standards for machine interaction are rigid and exacting. Firms have mixed motives in setting standards.
Firms frequently try to set proprietary standards to get customers locked into using their products.
However, if each firm were to adopt its own standard, communication between equipment from different vendors would be difficult. In a growing market, one way that standards are set is that participants tend to follow the dominant firm or coalition of firms. Another way standards are set is by consortia and other organizations. Today, the move is towards open standards to ease the problems of creating systems of multivendor equipment. Standards expand the market and allow the small firms to seek niches knowing their specialty can be meshed with other equipment.