Contraceptive prevalence surveys have not been conducted, but levels of reported use are less than expected for the reported levels of fertility. Infant mortality rates reflect improvement, with 37 per 1,000 live births in 1997 compared with 45 per 1,000 in 1990. The maternal mortality ratio, estimated at 72 per 100,000 live births, has remained unchanged over the last 10 years. The most common cause of maternal mortality is haemorrhage. Approximately 20 per cent of maternal deaths are due to abortion-related causes.
Literacy is universal for both women and men.
The Constitution guarantees women equal opportunities in education, training, employment, salary and promotions and equal rights in public and cultural spheres. However, female workers often face non-competitive and disadvantaged employment situations. Although women have a longer life expectancy, short birth intervals and frequent induced abortions adversely impact their reproductive health status. The State Health Programme of the President identifies improvements in the health of the population as the major goal and sets out a series of principles for changes in the health-care system. Special attention is being given to the reproductive health needs of young Turkmen people through improved quality of care.