Chronic inhalation or oral exposure to cadmium in animals results in effects on the kidney, liver, lung, bone, immune system, blood, and nervous system. These data also permit calculation of pharmacokinetic parameters of cadmium absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination. EPA has not established an RfC for cadmium. Animal studies provide evidence that cadmium has developmental effects, such as low fetal weight, skeletal malformations, interference with fetal metabolism, and impaired neurological development, via inhalation and oral exposure. Oral exposure may cause reproductive effects in humans, but only at high levels of exposure.
Limited evidence exists for an association between inhalation exposure and reproductive effects.
Some developmental effects, such as impaired neurobehavioral development, and reproductive effects, such as decreased reproduction and testicular damage, have been noted in oral animal studies. However, the evidence is limited rather than conclusive due to confounding factors. Animal studies have reported cancer resulting from inhalation exposure to several forms of cadmium, while animal ingestion studies have not seen cancer from exposure to cadmium compounds. EPA uses mathematical models, based on animal studies, to estimate the probability of a person developing cancer from breathing air containing a specified concentration of a chemical. Cadmium compounds range in solubility in water from quite soluble to practically insoluble.