Studies are also underway to understand the development of polyembryonic insects. Progress indicates that profound alterations in early development have arisen independently multiple times in the Hymenoptera. Several of these alterations have been essential preadaptations for the evolution of polyembrony. Male diploidy results in either sterility or lethality. This results in significant fitness costs and has selected for mechanisms in many haplo-diploid organisms to avoid inbreeding.
Male diploidy is also of significant concern when using parasitoids in biological control.
Our studies have focused on the parasitoid Bracon hebetor . We have characterized sex allele diversity among and within populations of B. hebetor and identifiedspecific mechanisms by which B. hebetor avoids inbreeding.