Women said premarital intercourse was unacceptable, and could damage the family's reputation. Regarding responsibility for contraception, young men viewed contraception as a woman's responsibility, but young women would not consider seeking or requesting contraception for fear of being thought of as sexually active. Differences in expectations create separate standards for males and females in terms of the social consequences of pregnancy. For adolescent girls in many countries, an unplanned pregnancy usually means expulsion from school, while teenage fathers can remain in school. Gender also affects cultural acceptance of behaviors and practices that can jeopardize reproductive health.
Females are at higher risk of sexual violence, including rape or domestic violence, than are boys.
A recent Demographic and Health Survey in Egypt, for example, showed that nearly nine of every 10 women believed beatings by husbands are justified under some circumstances, and almost one third reported being beaten during pregnancy. Female genital mutilation, practiced in some cultures, can also jeopardize reproductive health. The World Health Organization reports that some 2 million girls undergo the procedure annually. The impact on birth varies depending upon the type of FGM practiced.