Environmental management of reefs in the archipelago falls under various Federal, State and county jurisdictions. Central Pacific U.S. reefs with status of National Wildlife Refuge include Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Baker Island and Johnston Island. Wake Atoll an incorporated U.S. territory administered by the U.S. Air Force. The general health of these reefs can be attributed to a number of factors.
Human population is still relatively low compared to developing nations.
The State of Hawaii has a vested interest in health of reefs due to the tourist-based economy, while most of the other U.S. reefs have been given refuge status. Hawaii and the Central Pacific reefs lie far from the influence of large continents. Deep water, high wave energy and ocean currents sweep pollutants away from the reefs. Nevertheless, many localized problems of great concern continue to emerge. These are related to continued human population growth, urbanization and development.