As a result, headmasters often provide supplements with funds collected by Parent-Teacher Associations, which means that teacher incomes depend on the ability of parents to bear extra costs. Thus, wages vary widely from region to region. After major declines in pay in Africa and Latin America during the 1980s, there is growing recognition that low salaries have hindered attempts to attract and retain qualified professionals. Incentives can help make up the difference. In Indonesia, for example, teachers in rural or other less desirable areas receive a 50 per cent salary bonus.
Many African countries require villages to house rural teachers.
In Tanzania, the lack of accommodation for teachers in rural areas became so severe that in 1991 a presidential fund was established to help resolve the shortage. Another way to control expenditures while improving quality is to use lower cost teaching assistants recruited from the local community. Assistants spare teachers from routine tasks and allow them to spend more time working with students. And, through ongoing training, paraprofessionals can gradually work their way into the professional ranks. Despite the obstacles of mountainous terrain and isolated villages, Bhutan is making efforts to expand education access.