The DNA is first treated with restriction enzymes, which cut it into fragments. During gel electrophoresis, fragments separate according to length, resulting in a pattern of bands. DNA fingerprinting can identify deceased individuals from skeletal remains, perpetrators of crimes from blood or semen samples, and genetic makeup of long-dead individuals or extinct organisms. Following a PCR, DNA segments can be analyzed. Automated DNA sequencers that make use of computers can sequence genes at a fairly rapid rate.
Biotechnology allows mass production of proteins that are difficult to obtain otherwise.
Human growth hormone treats people who grow slower than normal. Vaccines that use treated bacteria or viruses to trigger immunity response may cause the disease. Genes for surface proteins can be used to genetically engineer harmless bacteria to copy the protein. Transgenic bacteria have been produced to protect and improve the health of plants. Frost-minus bacteria protect the vegetative parts of plants from frost damage.