From this perspective, such models are those which practitioners can use to predict the effect of their actions.
Action research tends to be participative.
Especially in its more participative forms it is likely to be regarded as credible and trustworthy by its participants. However, rigour can still be an issue with a wider audience. There, action research draws upon many sources of rigour which are also to be found in other qualitative approaches. Other sources of rigour capitalise on the specific features of action research, particularly its cyclic and action-oriented nature. Most cycles contain action, each action a test of the assumptions which underlie it.