Rather, both are alternative possible paths of union development. In this article, we develop an institutional politics theory of public social provision and examine U.S. social spending programs at the end of the New Deal. This theory integrates key insights of institutional and political theories of social policy. Drawing on institutional arguments, our theory holds that the willingness or ability of pro-spending actors to promote social spending initiatives depends on institutional conditions, especially the extent of voting rights and the nature of political party systems. Furthermore, drawing on political arguments, the theory posits the importance of pro-spending actors, including progressive factions of political parties and organized challengers.
All analyses support the institutional politics theory.
This article examines the social composition of party membership in Hungary and the former Czechoslovakia during the mid-1980s. The social compositions of the two Communist parties reveal that despite the rhetoric of egalitarianism, gender inequality in political participation was systematic and common in both countries. Although social origins had minor importance in membership for both parties, it does not mean that educational attainment became the de facto factor in determining party membership. In Hungary the effects of education, particularly university degrees, were significant in party membership. The lack of changes in the coefficients for university education across age cohorts further suggests that the MSzMP has always favored university graduates.