In other words, stutterers produce more of the same disfluencies that nonstutterers produce with the addition of struggle and avoidance. Operant responses are typically responses that are under the volitional control of the organism and are mediated by the central nervous system. Thus the value of operant learning as an explanation for stuttering is unclear. The following are the risk factors in stuttering. Some items are included just to dispel the myth associated with causes and risk of stuttering.
Children born to families with a history of stuttering are at a higher risk for stuttering.
Male relatives of female stutterers run the highest risk. Whether this is a risk factor for stuttering is not known. Some parents of children who stutter tend to entertain negative evaluation of their stuttering child's personality and have low expectations for their stuttering children as compared to their nonstuttering children. Whether this is a risk factor for stuttering is not known. Children who stutter are more likely to have concomitant phonological disorders and slightly delayed in speech and language development.