In the 75 most populous urban counties, blacks account for 20 percent of the population, but 54 percent of the murder victims. B. Social cost of crime 1. The studies that have been conducted to date regarding deterrence, including studies that focus on the crime rate and studies that focus on crime among specific groups of individuals, suggest that expected punishment has a significant deterrent effect. The available evidence suggests that there is, at best, a very weak relationship between crime and economic conditions. However, the studies that have been conducted are far from perfect.
Caution is required when drawing broad conclusions.
Efficient Punishment A. Imprisonment 1. Sentencing reform Two reforms have caused a sharp increase in the number of prisoners in the United States. B. Fines Western Europe relies much more heavily on fines than does the United States. In addition, the fine can be adjusted for the criminal's income. Depending on the crime, fines can be much more cost effective than incarceration.