They focus on the role of male unionists, and different skill levels of men and women. Fawcett and Rathbone argue that equal pay for equal work was a mechanism for keeping women unequal since they did not have equal access to skills. This created higher wages for men and lower wages for women. Male unions were the main cause of women's overcrowding. It suggests that job segregation is patriarchal in nature and men's ability to organize in unions is a key element.
American experience differ from English.
In America, machinery, unskilled labor and women worker often went together. An increase in female labor force participation usually accompanied an increase in demand and technological changes. Also, a shortage of an industry's usual labor supply also resulted in shifts in female labor force participation. Male workers got protective legislation and exclusion of women. Hartmann notes that although she emphasizes the role of male workers, she also recognizes the important role of the employer.