Document ID: EPA-HQ-OW-2004-0002-0592
Agency: epa
Document Type: Supporting & Related Material
Title: 
Posted Date: 2004-11-30T05:00Z

Potential
Effects
of
LNG
and
Related
Facilities
on
Marine
Biota
System
or
Organism
Potential
Effects
Study
Site
Reference
TEMPERATURE
DECREASE
Marine
Biota
The
anthropogenic
decrease
in
water
temperature
adversely
affects
the
living
organisms.
This
impact
is
proposed
to
be
regarded
as
a
case
of
thermal
pollution.
Black
Sea
and
Desnogorsk
Reservoir
3
Corals
Limits
abundance,
diversity,
and
distribution.
Can
cause
stress
and
mortality.
Biscayne
Bay,
Florida
1
Larval
and
juvenile
herring
Clupea
harengus
High
larvae
mortality.
Vistula
Lagoon,
Baltic
Sea
2
Phytoplankton
(
Skeletonema
costatum)
Disruption
of
aggregates.
This
may
be
an
important
factor
in
determining
the
flux
rate
of
fixed
carbon
and
nutrients,
since
aggregated
cultures
had
significantly
higher
sinking
rates
than
unaggregated
cultures.
Northern
Adriatic
Sea
and
Lab
experiments
4
Pinfish
/
Largemouth
bass
Can
cause
mortality.
Laguna
Madre,
Southern
Texas
coast
/
Northern
Florida
5,
14
Crustacean
larvae
(
Rhithropanopeus
harrisii
and
Neopanope
sayi)
Behavioral
change
(
vertical
movement).
Lab
6
Whelk
mollusk
(
Busycon
canaliculatum)
Temperature­
dependent
changes
affected
enzyme
pyruvate
kinase
properties
in
a
manner
that
would
restrict
enzyme
function
at
low
temperature.
Lab
7
Marine
copepod
(
Calanus
finmarchicus)
Growth
and
survival
of
copepodite
stages
were
markedly
affected
by
temperature.
Coastal
areas
of
northern
Norway;
Lab
8
CHLORINATION
Benthic
community
Decline
on
abundance.
Lab
9
Phytoplankton
Growth
reduction
and
mortality,
and
influence
of
cellular
density.
Lab
10
Oyster
larvae
Effects
on
the
growth
of
marine
invertebrates
during
their
delicate
larval
stages
(
e.
g.
oysters),
and
mortality.
Lab
15
Estuarine
and
marine
organisms
(
plankton,
macroinvertebrates,
fish)
Review
paper
of
data
related
to
biofouling
control
in
estuarine
and
marine
thermoelectric
power
plants.
11
ENTRAINMENT
Zooplankton
Community
composition
and
abundance.
Missouri
River
12,
17,
18
Phytoplankton
Changes
on
population
structure;
reduction
of
species
diversity.
Southern
California
13
Phytoplankton,
zooplankton,
and
ichthyoplankton
Mortality
and
near­
field
alterations
of
benthic
and
epibenthic
communities.
Western
Cape
Cod
Bay,
Massachusetts
16
Nektonic
organisms,
zooplankton.
Entrainment
and
impingement
results
of
a
monitoring
program.
Tallaboa
and
Guayanilla
Bays,
Puerto
Rico
19
LITERATURE
CITED
(
1)
Lirman,
D.,
Orlando,
B.,
Macia,
S.,
Manzello,
D.,
Kaufman,
L.,
Biber,
P.,
and
Jones,
T.,
2003.
Coral
communities
of
Biscayne
Bay,
Florida
and
adjacent
offshore
areas:
diversity,
abundance,
distribution,
and
environmental
correlates.
Aquatic
Conservation:
Marine
and
Freshwater
Ecosystems,
13
(
2):
121­
135.

Abstract:
Hardbottom
habitats
of
Biscayne
Bay,
a
shallow
lagoon
adjacent
to
the
city
of
Miami,
Florida,
USA,
contain
a
limited
number
of
coral
species
that
represent
a
small
subset
of
the
species
found
at
nearby
offshore
hardbottom
and
reef
habitats
of
the
Florida
Reef
Tract.
Although
the
physical
characteristics
of
this
basin
make
it
a
marginal
environment
for
coral
growth,
the
presence
of
dense
populations
of
Siderastrea
radians
and
Porites
furcata
indicate
that
these,
as
well
as
other
corals
that
are
found
at
lower
densities,
are
able
to
tolerate
extreme
and
fluctuating
conditions.
Three
factors,
temperature,
sedimentation,
and
salinity,
appear
to
limit
coral
abundance,
diversity,
and
distribution
within
Biscayne
Bay.
Temperatures
exhibit
high
frequencies
of
extreme
high
and
low
values
known
to
cause
coral
stress
and
mortality
elsewhere.
Similarly,
sedimentation
rates
are
very
high
and
sediment
resuspension
caused
by
currents,
storms
and
boating
activities
commonly
bury
corals
under
sediment
layers.
Sediment
burial
was
shown
experimentally
to
influence
growth
and
mortality
of
S.
radians.
The
salinity
of
Biscayne
Bay
is
influenced
by
freshwater
inputs
from
canal,
sheetflow
and
groundwater
sources
that
create
a
near­
shore
environment
with
low
mean
salinity
and
high
salinity
fluctuation.
Coral
communities
along
this
western
margin
have
the
lowest
coral
density
and
species
richness.
Chronic
exposure
to
low
salinity
was
shown
experimentally
to
cause
a
decrease
in
the
growth
of
S.
radians.
The
location
of
Biscayne
Bay,
downstream
of
a
large
restoration
effort
planned
for
the
Everglades
watershed,
highlights
the
need
to
understand
the
relationship
between
the
physical
environment
and
the
health
of
benthic
communities.
The
data
presented
here
provide
the
type
of
scientific
information
needed
so
that
management
decisions
can
take
into
account
the
potential
impacts
of
human
activities
on
the
health
of
coral
populations
that
are
already
near
their
tolerance
limits
for
temperature,
salinity,
and
sedimentation.

(
2)
Fey,
D.
P.
2001.
Differences
in
temperature
conditions
and
somatic
growth
rate
of
larval
and
early
juvenile
spring­
spawned
herring
from
the
Vistula
Lagoon,
Baltic
Sea
manifested
in
the
otolith
to
fish
size
relationship.
Journal
of
Fish
Biology,
58
(
5):
1257­
1273.

Abstract:
Larval
and
juvenile
herring
Clupea
harengus
collected
in
the
Polish
part
of
the
Vistula
Lagoon
in
May­
July
1997
had
hatched
between
17
April
and
9
June
and
originated
from
three
cohorts.
The
spawning
season
began
on
1
March
at
3.8
parallel
C
and
was
completed
on
3
June
at
12.7
parallel
C.
Mortality
among
larvae
was
high
in
the
first
2
weeks
of
April,
probably
associated
with
significant
temperature
decrease
at
the
beginning
of
the
spawning
season.
The
growth
of
10­
48mm
L
sub(
S)
herring
was
linear,
highest
for
larvae
and
juveniles
from
the
first
cohort
(
0.58mmmm
super(
1)
day
super(
1)),
slower
for
the
second
cohort
(
0.55mmmm
super(
1)
day
super(
1))
and
the
slowest
for
the
third
cohort
(
0.45mmmmday
super(
1)).
Temperature
effects
on
the
growth
were
inconclusive
and
potentially
unfavorable
feeding
conditions
in
June
might
have
been
responsible
for
the
relatively
slow
growth
of
third
cohort
larvae
and
juveniles.
Relationships
between
otolith
size
(
perimeter,
length,
width,
area,
and
weight)
and
fish
size
(
L
sub(
S))
differed
among
the
three
cohorts,
related
mostly
to
the
positive
temperature
effect
on
otolith
growth,
individuals
growing
in
warmer
water
had
larger
otoliths.
Although
a
negative
growth
rate
effect
was
observed
as
well,
it
was
less
significant.

(
3)
Beznosov,
V.
N.
and
Suzdaleva,
A.
L.,
2001.
Temperature
Decrease
in
the
Surface
Water
Layer
of
a
Reservoir
as
an
Example
of
Environmental
Thermal
Pollution.
Water
Resources/
Vodnye
Resursy,
28
(
4):
396­
398.

Abstract:
Based
on
the
results
of
experiments
carried
out
in
the
Black
Sea
and
Desnogorsk
Reservoir,
it
is
shown
that
the
anthropogenic
decrease
in
the
temperature
of
water
medium
adversely
affects
the
living
organisms.
This
impact
is
proposed
to
be
regarded
as
a
case
of
thermal
pollution.

(
4)
Thornton,
D.
C.
O.
and
Thake,
B.,
1998.
Effect
of
temperature
on
the
aggregation
of
Skeletonema
costatum
(
Bacillariophyceae)
and
the
implication
for
carbon
flux
in
coastal
waters.
Marine
Ecology
Progress
Series,
174:
223­
231.

Abstract:
Skeletonema
costatum
was
isolated
from
a
mucilaginous
algal
bloom
in
the
Northern
Adriatic
Sea
during
April
1993.
In
nitrate­
limited
continuous
culture
the
formation
of
aggregations
of
cells
was
positively
correlated
with
temperature.
Raising
the
temperature
from
10
to
20
degree
C
caused
cells
to
aggregate
without
a
change
in
culture
biomass.
Reducing
the
temperature
to
10
degree
C
caused
washout
of
the
aggregates,
again
with
no
change
in
biomass.
In
batch
culture
there
was
a
positive
relationship
between
aggregate
concentration
and
temperature
at
10,
15,
20
and
25
degree
C.
Aggregates
and
the
cell
surface
of
S.
costatum
adsorbed
Alcian
blue,
a
stain
for
acid
and
sulphated
polysaccharides.
Disruption
of
the
aggregates
on
addition
of
0.2
M
Na
sub(
2)
EDTA
indicated
that
cross­
linking
between
polysaccharides
by
divalent
cations
(
probably
Ca
super(
2+)
in
seawater)
bound
the
aggregates
together.
Aggregates
may
form
in
situ
under
conditions
of
temperature
increase
and
high
phytoplankton
biomass.
Surface
water
temperature
increased
by
0.2
degree
C/
d
in
the
second
half
of
July
1992
in
the
Northern
Adriatic,
coinciding
with
a
chlorophyll
a
increase
of
10
to
50
mu
g/
l.
A
temperature
difference
of
1.2
degree
C
was
observed
at
2
stations
4
m
apart
in
May
1992
on
either
side
of
a
plume
front
associated
with
the
River
Po;
transfer
of
phytoplankton
in
eddies
from
cold
to
warm
waters
may
lead
to
the
formation
of
aggregates.
Aggregate
disruption
may
occur
with
the
sinking
of
aggregates
from
surface
waters
to
the
relatively
cool
waters
below
the
thermocline.
The
temperature
decrease
through
the
thermocline
varied
between
2.7
and
4.1
degree
C
in
May
1992.
The
relationship
between
aggregation
and
temperature
may
be
an
important
factor
in
determining
the
flux
rate
of
fixed
carbon
and
nutrients
from
the
photic
zone
to
deeper
waters
and
the
sea
bed.
Aggregated
cultures
had
significantly
higher
sinking
rates
than
unaggregated
cultures.

(
5)
Bennett,
WA
and
Judd,
F.
W.,
1992.
Factors
affecting
the
low­
temperature
tolerance
of
Texas
pinfish.
Transactions
of
the
American
Fisheries
Society,
121
(
5):
659­
666.
Abstract:
Subtropical
regions
are
occasionally
exposed
to
extreme
low
temperatures
that
often
cause
massive
fish
kills.
Nowhere
is
this
phenomenon
more
striking
than
in
the
Laguna
Madre
of
the
southern
Texas
coast,
where
shallow,
nearly
landlocked
water
can
cool
rapidly.
The
Texas
Parks
and
Wildlife
Dep
estimated
that
a
series
of
cold
fronts
during
the
1980s
killed
over
29
million
marine
fish
along
the
southern
Texas
coast.
Lab
experiments
were
conducted
to
determine
the
effects
of
rate
of
temperature
decrease,
acclimation
time,
acclimation
temperature,
and
seasonal
changes
on
the
low­
temperature
tolerance
of
pinfish
Lagodon
rhomboides.
The
critical
thermal
minimum
(
CTMin)
was
insensitive
to
rates
of
temperature
decrease
between
0.5
degree
C/
h
and
1.5
degree
C/
h
but
was
linearly
correlated
with
acclimation
temperature.
When
water
temperatures
were
decreased
at
1.0
degree
C/
h,
the
mean
CTMin
of
pinfish
acclimated
at
24.0
degree
C
was
3.4
degree
C.
Acclimation
adjustments
in
CTMin
for
fish
transferred
from
22.0
degree
C
to
11.7
degree
C
were
complete
within
5
d.
Indeed,
cold­
temperature
acclimation
was
80%
complete
in
30
h.
Seasonally
acclimatized
pinfish
had
mean
CTMin
values
ranging
from
0.5
degree
C
(
Jan)
to
5.3
degree
C
(
Jul).
Responses
of
pinfish
to
cold
temperature
in
the
laboratory
may
explain
variations
in
mortality
seen
in
natural
Laguna
Madre
pinfish
populations
during
episodes
of
extreme
cold.

(
6)
Forward,
R.
B.
Jr.,
1990.
Behavioral
responses
of
crustacean
larvae
to
rates
of
temperature
change.
Biological
Bulletin,
Marine
Biological
Laboratory,
Woods
Hole,
178
(
3):
195­
204.

Abstract:
The
ontogeny
of
behavioral
responses
of
larvae
of
the
crabs
Rhithropanopeus
harrisii
and
Neopanope
sayi
to
rates
of
change
in
temperature
were
analyzed
using
a
video
system.
A
temperature
decrease
evoked
an
ascent
in
both
species.
The
threshold
rates
of
decrease
for
Stages
I
and
IV
zoeae
of
R.
harrisii
,
and
Stage
I
zoeae
of
N.
sayi
,
were
0.06,
0.1,
and
0.09
degree
C
min
super(­
1),
respectively.
Stage
IV
zoeae
of
N.
sayi
were
unresponsive
to
any
rate
of
decrease.
Larvae
descended
upon
a
temperature
increase.
For
Stages
I
and
IV
zoeae
of
R.
harrisii
and
Stage
I
of
N.
sayi
the
threshold
rates
of
temperature
increase
were
0.07,
0.24,
and
0.18
degree
C
min
super(­
1),
respectively.
Stage
IV
zoeae
of
N.
sayi
were
again
unresponsive.
In
general,
there
was
an
ontogenetic
change
in
responsiveness
as
Stage
IV
zoeae
of
both
species
were
less
sensitive
than
Stage
I
zoeae.
The
average
absolute
amounts
of
temperature
change
needed
to
evoke
a
response
was
independent
of
the
rate
of
change
at
rates
above
threshold
and
ranged
from
0.29
to
0.49
degree
C
for
both
species.

(
7)
Michaelidis,
B
and
Storey,
K.
B.,
1990.
Interactions
of
temperature
and
pH
on
the
regulatory
properties
of
pyruvate
kinase
from
organs
of
a
marine
mollusk.
Journal
of
Experimental
Marine
Biology
and
Ecology:
140
(
3):
187­
196.

Abstract:
The
effects
of
low
temperature
assay
(
5
degree
C)
on
the
properties
of
the
aerobic
(
low
phosphate)
vs.
anoxic
(
high
phosphate)
forms
of
pyruvate
kinase
(
PK)
from
foot
muscle
and
gill
of
the
whelk
Busycon
canaliculatum
(
L.)
were
assessed
at
two
pH
values,
pH
7.00
and
7.25,
and
compared
to
control
conditions
of
20
degree
C
and
pH
7.00
(
all
assayed
in
imidazole
buffer).
When
pH
was
held
constant
at
7.00,
the
decrease
in
assay
temperature
to
5
degree
C
had
large
effects
on
the
measured
kinetic
parameters
of
all
PK
forms,
as
compared
to
20
degree
C
and
pH
7.00.
However,
when
assay
pH
was
allowed
to
rise,
from
7.00
to
7.25,
with
the
temperature
decrease
to
5
degree
C
there
were
fewer
alterations
of
kinetic
parameters
and
quantitatively
smaller
changes
to
enzyme
properties.
It
appears,
then,
that
when
pH
rises
with
decreasing
temperature
following
alphastat
predictions,
kinetic
properties
of
PK
are
largely
conserved.
Low
temperature,
at
either
pH
value,
had
several
significant
effects
on
PK
properties.
For
example,
low
temperature
raised
the
S
sub(
0.5)
for
phosphoenolpyruvate
of
PK­
anoxic
from
gill
by
3­
6
fold
and
decreased
the
I
sub(
50)
Mg
.
ATP
for
PK­
anoxic
from
foot
by
the
same
amount.
Arrhenius
plots
of
PK
activity
for
the
gill
PK
forms
showed
a
distinct
break
at
10
degree
C;
>
10
degree
C
Q
sub(
10)
was
2.5
whereas
<
10
degree
C
Q
sub(
10)
was
8.4.
Temperature­
dependent
changes
in
all
cases
affected
enzyme
properties
in
a
manner
that
would
restrict
enzyme
function
at
low
temperature.

(
8)
Tande,
K.
S.,
1988.
Aspects
of
developmental
and
mortality
rates
in
Calanus
finmarchicus
related
to
equiproportional
development.
Marine
ecology
progress
series,
44
(
1):
51­
58.

Abstract:
The
marine
copepod
Calanus
finmarchicus
from
coastal
areas
of
northern
Norway
was
cultivated
at
3
temperatures
from
egg
to
adult
in
the
laboratory.
Growth
and
survival
of
copepodite
stages
were
markedly
affected
by
the
temperature
regime.
A
hypothesis
is
formulated
that
during
the
main
annual
growth
period
of
C.
finmarchicus
in
arctic­
boreal
areas
not
only
is
this
species
sensitive
to
a
temperature
decrease,
but
also
a
certain
temperature
increase
is
a
prerequisite
to
successful
growth
from
copepodite
Stage
I
to
copepodite
Stage
IV
and
V.
The
ecological
implications
of
this
hypothesis
are
discussed.

(
9)
Sheridan,
P.
F.
and
Badger
A.
C.,
1981.
Responses
of
experimental
estuarine
communities
to
continuous
chlorination.
Estuarine,
Coastal
and
shelf
Science,
13
(
3):
337­
347.

Abstract:
The
effects
of
continuous
chlorination
(
as
NaOCI)
on
estuarine
benthic
organisms
were
investigated
with
plankton­
derived
experimental
communities.
Twelve
consecutive
studies
were
conducted,
each
of
which
consisted
of
approximately
60­
day
colonization
periods
from
flowing
estuarine
waters
that
continuously
received
nominal
concentrations
of
o
multiplied
by
00,
0
multiplied
by
47,
0
degree
94
or
1
degree
41
mg
chlorine­
produced
oxidant
(
CPO)
1
super(­)
super(
1).
Significant
chlorination
effects
on
numerical
abundances
of
eight
dominant
species
were
detected
in
data
pooled
over
the
12
consecutive
studies,
although
only
two
species
were
significantly
affected
in
proportional
abundance.

(
10)
Videau,
C.,
Khalauski,
M.,
and
Penot,
M.,
1978.
The
chlorination
effects
of
monospecific
cultures
of
marine
phytoplankton.
Preliminary
results.
J.
Rech.
Oceanogr.,
3
(
2):
19­
28.

Abstract:
Static
chlorination
tests
have
been
carried
out
on
three
phytoplanktonic
marine
species
(
Dunaliella
primolecta,
Monochrysis
lutheri,
Phaeodactylum
tricornutum).
These
tests
have
led
to
the
following
conclusions:
(
1)
The
specific
response
and
the
sensibility
threshold
of
the
algae
tested:
the
chlorine
LC50
for
the
least
dense
culture
(
10
SUP­
3
cells.
ml
SUP­­
1
)
of
Dunaliella
and
Monochrysis
is
0
.
4
and
4
.
0
ppm
respectively,
while
the
growth
of
Phaeodactylum
is
slowed
down
or
stopped
at
a
chlorine
concentration
of
0
.
6
ppm.
(
2)
Influence
of
cellular
density:
chlorine
toxicity
increases
with
decreasing
cellular
concentration
(
tests
from
10
SUP­
3
to
10
SUP­
6
cells.
ml
SUP­­
1
).
(
3)
The
effect
on
chlorophyll
a:
in
Dunaliella,
chlorophyll
a
concentration
is
not
affected
when
the
mortality
due
to
the
chlorine
injection
is
equal
to
or
lower
than
50%.
The
chlorophyll
a
concentration
is
greatly
reduced
for
higher
mortality
rates.
(
4)
Influence
of
light:
chlorinations
conducted
in
the
dark
produce
a
lower
mortality
rate,
for
Dunaliella,
than
chlorinations
in
the
light.
The
mortality
rate
is
lower
as
long
as
the
cultures
are
kept
in
the
dark.
(
11)
Hall,
L.
W.,
Jr.,
Burton,
D.
T.,
and
Liden,
L.
H.,
1982.
Power
plant
chlorination
effects
on
estuarine
and
marine
organisms.
Critical
Reviews
in
Toxicology,
10
(
1):
27­
48.

Abstract:
This
review
was
designed
to
synthesize
current
phytoplankton,
zooplankton,
macroinvertebrate,
and
fish
chlorine
toxicity
data
related
to
biofouling
control
in
estuarine
and
marine
thermoelectric
power
plants.
The
following
research
recommendations
are
suggested
for
improving
the
existing
data:
(
1)
evaluation
of
the
recovery
potential
or
phytoplankton
after
exposure
to
chlorinated
of
brominated
oxidants
during
through­
plant
entrainment;
(
2)
assessment
of
the
effects
of
long­
term
exposure
of
phytoplankton
to
low
levels
of
chlorine
or
chlorine
by­
products
resulting
from
continuous
or
intermittent
applications;
(
3)
determination
of
possible
bioaccumulation
of
chlorinated
or
brominated
compounds
in
the
food
chain;
(
4)
evaluation
of
interacting
chlorine,
Delta
T,
mechanical
stress,
exposure
duration,
and
ambient
temperature
conditions
on
entrained
organisms;
and
(
5)
assessment
of
sublethal
effects
of
intermittent
and/
or
continuous
chlorination
on
macroinvertebrates
and
fish.
Site
specific
data
are
recommended
for
the
most
precise
evaluation
of
chlorination
effects
on
aquatic
organisms.

(
12)
Repsys,
A.
J.
and
Rogers,
G.
D.,
1982.
Zooplankton
studies
in
the
channelized
Missouri
River.
The
middle
Missouri
River,
a
collection
of
papers
on
the
biology
with
special
reference
to
power
station
effects.
Pp.
125­
146.

Abstract:
The
results
are
presented
of
long­
term
monitoring
programmes
undertaken
at
2
power
plants
on
the
Missouri
River
to
evaluate
the
effects
on
the
zooplankton
community.
The
community
composition,
abundance
and
seasonality,
entrainment
effects
and
thermal
effects
are
described.

(
13)
Briand,
F.
J.,
1975.
Effects
of
power­
plant
cooling
systems
on
marine
phytoplankton.
Marine
Biology,
33
(
2):
135­
146.

Abstract:
The
large
quantities
of
marine
phytoplankton
passing
through
the
cooling
systems
of
2
Southern
California
coastal
power
plants
were
found
to
be
greatly
reduced
in
numbers
(
41.7%)
and
in
volume
(
33.7%).
The
biomass
killed
from
June,
1972
to
May,
1973
amounted
to
{
approx}
1,7000
tons
of
organic
carbon.
Phytoplankton
mortalities
were
most
pronounced
from
Oct
to
Dec
when
intake
waters
of
17{
degree}
to
20{
degree}
C
were
subjected
to
temp
elevations
of
9
to
11{
degree}
C,
and
were
lowest
from
Jan
to
March
when
cooler
ambient
temps
prevailed.
There
was
no
apparent
reduction
in
phytoplankton
stocks
when
the
intake
water
was
cooler
than
15{
degree}
C.
Surviving
cells
in
25{
degree}
and
26.5{
degree}
C
effluent
waters
were
growing
3
times
faster
than
influent
populations,
which
suggests
that
powerplant
effects
on
phytoplankton
stocks
are
often
short­
lived.
However,
entrainment
effects
appear
very
disruptive,
in
changing
the
structure
of
phytoplankton
communities
and
in
constantly
reducing
species
diversity
(
H').
Passage
through
the
condenser
tubes
affected
algal
spp
differentially,
killing
diatoms
in
greater
numbers
(
45.7%)
than
dinoflagellates
(
32.8%),
and
reinforcing
the
dominance
of
the
2
major
spp,
Asterionella
japonica
and
Gonyaulax
polyedra,
that
were
the
most
tolerant.
The
severity
of
the
impact
appears
to
be
controlled
by
2
interacting
factors:
intake
water­
temp
and
magnitude
of
temp
increase.
On
this
basis,
use
by
coastal
power
plants
of
deep­
sea
water
for
cooling
is
strongly
advocated.
(
14)
Carmichael,
G.
J.,
H.
Williamson,
C.
A.
Caldwell,
and
J.
R.
Tomasso,
1988.
Communications:
Responses
of
Northern,
Florida,
and
Hybrid
Largemouth
Bass
to
Low
Temperature
and
Low
Dissolved
Oxygen.
The
Progressive
Fish­
Culturist,
50
(
4):
225
 
231.

Abstract:
Two
parental
subspecies
of
largemouth
bass
(
Micropterus
salmoides),
northern
(
M.
s.
salmoides)
and
Florida
(
M.
s.
floridanus),
and
their
reciprocal
F
sub(
1)
hybrids
were
examined
for
their
responses
to
low
temperature
and
low
dissolved
oxygen
concentrations.
The
four
strains
(
verified
electrophoretically)
survived
a
temperature
decrease
from
21
to
1
degree
C
at
a
rate
of
about
1
degree
C/
d
followed
by
immediate
warming.
Among
fish
maintained
at
low
temperature
(
2.0
plus
or
minus
0.4
degree
C;
mean
plus
or
minus
SE)
for
5
d,
mortalities
were
48%
for
the
Florida
fish
and
4­
5%
for
the
Florida
(
female)
hybrid,
compared
with
zero
for
the
northern
fish
and
the
northern
(
female)
hybrid.
All
four
groups
showed
similar
trends
in
feeding
behavior
during
the
temperature
treatments.
At
22
degree
C
acclimation,
the
residual
oxygen
concentrations
(
oxygen
concentrations
at
time
of
death
by
hypoxia,
during
sealed­
jarhypoxia
bioassays)
were
lower
in
tests
with
the
northern
and
Florida
subspecies
than
in
tests
with
the
hybrids,
and
were
lower
for
northern
than
for
Florida
fish.

(
15)
Stewart,
M.
E.,
W.
J.
Blogoslawski,
R.
Y.
Hsu,
and
G.
R.
Helz,
1979.
By­
products
of
oxidative
biocides:
toxicity
to
oyster
larvae.
Marine
Pollution
Bulletin,
10
(
6):
166­
169.

Abstract:
Selected
by­
products
which
are
produced
upon
chlorination
or
ozonization
of
seawater
were
examined
for
their
effect
on
eastern
oyster
(
Crassostrea
virginica
)
larvae.
The
compounds,
bromate,
bromoform,
and
chloroform,
were
studied
at
0.05,
0.1,
1.0,
and
10.0
mg/
l.
Repeated
bioassays
indicated
that
even
at
these
low
levels,
all
3
substances
produced
some
larval
mortality.
This
preliminary
study
suggests
that
oxidation
by­
products
formed
during
chlorination
or
ozonization
of
power
plant
cooling
waters
may
have
adverse
effects
upon
the
growth
of
marine
invertebrates,
such
as
C.
virginica
during
their
delicate
larval
stages.

(
16)
Bridges,
W.
L.
and
R.
D.
Anderson,
1984.
A
brief
survey
of
Pilgrim
Nuclear
Power
Plant
effects
upon
the
marine
aquatic
environment.
Observations
on
the
Ecology
and
Biology
of
Weatern
Cape
Cod
Bay,
Massachusetts.
Lect.
Notes
Coastal
and
Estuarine
Studies,
11:
263­
271.

Abstract:
A
broad
range
of
environmental
studies,
begun
in
1969,
were
designed
to
detect
environmental
disturbances
attributable
to
release
of
heated
cooling
water
into
Cape
Cod
Bay
from
the
Pilgrim
Nuclear
Power
Station.
On
a
scale
encompassing
the
more
immediate
vicinity
of
the
power
station
certain
site
specific
or
occasionally
occurring
effects
were
documented.
Most
notable
were
several
significant
mortalities
due
to
"
gas
bubble
disease",
periodic
incidences
of
finfish
impingement
on
the
cooling
water
intake
traveling
screens,
near­
field
alterations
of
the
benthic
and
epibenthic
communities
in
the
vicinity
of
the
cooling
water
discharge,
and
entrainment
of
phytoplankton,
zooplankton,
and
ichthyoplankton
in
the
cooling
water
flow.

(
17)
Evans,
M.
S.,
Hawkins,
B.
E.,
and
Wurster,
T.
E.,
1978.
Effects
of
the
Donald
C.
Cook
Nuclear
Power
Plant
on
zooplankton
of
southeastern
Lake
Michigan.
Fourth
national
workshop
on
entrainment
and
impingement,
5
December
1977,
Chicago,
Illinois.

Abstract:
An
overview
is
provided
of
the
preoperational
and
operational
zooplankton
monitoring
program
at
the
Donald
C.
Cook
Nuclear
Power
Plant
which
circulates
2,700
cu
m/
min
of
water
through
submerged
intake
and
discharge
structures.
Entrainment
studies
suggest
that
at
most
12%
of
the
entrained
zooplankton
were
killed
by
condenser
passage
and
that
there
was
no
evidence
of
delayed
mortality
within
24
hours
of
plant
passage.
Although
large
numbers
of
zooplankton
passed
through
the
plant,
losses
could
not
be
detected
in
zooplankton
populations
in
the
discharge
area
because
of
dilution
effects.
Calculations
of
the
depositional
area
and
rate
of
zooplankton
killed
by
plant
passage
suggest
that
no
significant
enrichment
of
the
sediments
with
these
dead
zooplankton
should
occur.
An
intensive
plume
mapping
study
indicated
that
spatial
alterations
in
zooplankton
populations
were
limited
to
a
distance
of
only
a
few
hundred
meters
from
the
discharge
jets.
In
summary,
although
the
Donald
C.
Cook
is
a
relatively
large
plant,
damage
to
the
zooplankton
community
has
been
minimized
by
locating
the
plant
on
a
large,
wellmixed
body
of
water;
by
operating
at
temperatures
that
do
not
approach
the
upper
lethal
limits
for
most
zooplankton;
and
by
the
use
of
discharge
jets
(
rather
than
canals),
which
rapidly
dilute
and
cool
condenser­
passed
water.

(
18)
Rogers,
G.
D.,
1978.
Entrainment
of
crustacean
zooplankton
through
Fort
Calhoun
Station.
Fourth
national
workshop
on
entrainment
and
impingement,
5
December
1977,
Chicago,
Illinois.

Abstract:
Entrained
crustacean
zooplankton
were
studied
at
Fort
Calhoun
Station
(
near
Blair,
Nebraska)
from
October
1973
through
June
1977
to
evaluate
the
effects
of
condenser
passage
on
zooplankton
survival.
Live­
dead
separations
were
performed
on
duplicate
samples
obtained
from
the
station's
intake
and
discharge
areas
with
a
filter
pump
system.
The
separations
were
performed
at
0,
4,
and
24
hours
following
condenser
passage.
Thermal
stress
appeared
to
be
the
principal
factor
reducing
zooplankton
viability
immediately
following
condenser
passage
(
0
hours).
On
17
sampling
dates
when
heat
was
not
being
exchanged
across
the
condenser,
mechanical
damage
accounted
for
an
average
increase
in
immotility
of
1.1%;
for
the
17
dates
when
the
station
was
generating
electricity,
a
3.8%
increase
in
immotility
was
observed.
The
relationship
between
viability
and
thermal
stress
at
0
hours
was
less
evident
at
4
and
24
hours.
During
the
entire
study
period,
increases
in
immotility
at
0
hours
ranged
from
0.0
to
16.0%
and
averaged
3.3%.
The
station
used
an
average
of
2.5%
(
SD,
1.02)
of
the
Missouri
River
flow
for
coling.
Assuming
homogeneous
distribution
of
zooplankton
in
the
river,
station
operation
decreased
the
viability
of
the
totaL
Missouri
River
zooplankton
community
passing
the
station
by
an
average
of
0.1%.

(
19)
Littrell,
J.
A.
and
J.
V.
Biaggi.
1979.
Petroleum
refinery
impacts
on
near
shore
marine
environment.
Proceedings
Association
of
Island
Marine
Laboratories
of
the
Caribbean.
Mayaguez,
Vol.
14,
p.
29.

Abstract:
A
one
year
biological
monitoring
program
was
conducted
in
Tallaboa
and
Guayanilla
Bays,
Puerto
Rico
to
assess
the
impacts
of
petroleum
refinery
facility
operations
on
the
near
shore
marine
life
of
Tallaboa
and
Guayanilla
Bays.
Topics
covered
are:
1)
impacts
from
impingement
of
nektonic
organisms
on
cooling­
water
intake
screens;
2)
Quantity
of
zooplankton
available
for
entrainment
in
cooling­
water
system;
3)
assessment
of
near
shore
fish
populations;
4)
sampling
of
fouling
and
interstitial
organisms;
5)
water
quality
of
Tallaboa
and
Guayanilla
Bays;
and
6)
toxicity
testing
of
heated
effluent
water.
Results
of
the
monitoring
program
are
discussed.