Document ID: EPA-HQ-OAR-2010-0162-0129
Agency: epa
Document Type: Supporting & Related Material
Title: 
Posted Date: 2010-11-30T05:00Z

Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas
Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Final Report

July 20, 2010

Prepared for

Amy Kopin

Environmental Protection Agency

2000 Traverwood Dr.

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105

Prepared by

Louis Browning, Seth Hartley, Larry O’Rourke,

Jennifer Brickett, Ryan Thompson, Lisa McNally

ICF International

620 Folsom Street, Suite 200

San Francisco, CA 94107

415.677.7100

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05

Table of Contents

  TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u    HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395252"  1.	Introduction
  PAGEREF _Toc267395252 \h  1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395253"  1.1.	Purpose, Regulatory Background, and
Scope	  PAGEREF _Toc267395253 \h  1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395254"  1.2.	Division of Tasks	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395254 \h  2  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395255"  1.3.	Report Organization	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395255 \h  2  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395256"  2.	Description of Technologies	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395256 \h  3  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395257"  2.1.	Baseline Vehicles and Technologies	
 PAGEREF _Toc267395257 \h  3  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395258"  Class 7 and 8 Tractors	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395258 \h  3  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395259"  Trailers	  PAGEREF _Toc267395259 \h  4  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395260"  Class 3 through 8 Vocational Trucks	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395260 \h  16  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395261"  Class 7 and 8 buses	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395261 \h  20  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395262"  2.2.	Summary of Technologies and
Strategies	  PAGEREF _Toc267395262 \h  22  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395263"  2.3.	Aerodynamic improvements	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395263 \h  25  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395264"  Aerodynamic Hoods	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395264 \h  25  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395265"  Aerodynamic Mirrors	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395265 \h  27  

AeroCones™	  PAGEREF _Toc267395266 \h  27  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395267"  Airtabs™	  PAGEREF _Toc267395267 \h 
28  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395268"  Boat Tails	  PAGEREF _Toc267395268 \h 
28  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395269"  Aerodynamic Bumpers	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395269 \h  29  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395270"  Tractor Gap Fairing	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395270 \h  29  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395271"  Roof Fairings	  PAGEREF _Toc267395271 \h
 30  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395272"  Tractor Side Fairings	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395272 \h  30  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395273"  Trailer Side Skirts	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395273 \h  31  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395274"  Trailer Gap Fairings	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395274 \h  31  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395275"  2.4.	Rolling resistance improvements	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395275 \h  32  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395276"  Automatic Tire Inflation (ATI)	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395276 \h  32  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395277"  Low-Rolling Resistance Tires	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395277 \h  33  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395278"  Single Wide (Wide-Base) Tires	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395278 \h  35  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395279"  2.5.	Operational improvements	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395279 \h  36  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395280"  Advanced Driver Training	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395280 \h  36  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395281"  Speed Limiter	  PAGEREF _Toc267395281 \h
 37  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395282"  2.6.	Idling reduction technologies	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395282 \h  38  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395283"  Anti-idle System (a.k.a., Automatic
Engine Stop System)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395283 \h  38  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395284"  Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395284 \h  38  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395285"  Thermal Storage Systems	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395285 \h  39  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395286"  Engine Recovery Systems (ERS)	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395286 \h  40  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395287"  Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395287 \h  41  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395288"  Direct Fired Heaters	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395288 \h  42  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395289"  Fuel Cell APU	  PAGEREF _Toc267395289 \h
 44  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395290"  Truck Stop Electrification	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395290 \h  45  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395291"  2.7.	Engine improvements	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395291 \h  47  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395292"  Integrated Starter/Alternator	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395292 \h  47  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395293"  Turbo Compounding	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395293 \h  48  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395294"  Variable Geometry Turbocharger	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395294 \h  49  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395295"  Variable Valve Actuation	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395295 \h  50  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395296"  2.8.	Transmission and Drivetrain
improvements	  PAGEREF _Toc267395296 \h  51  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395297"  Early Torque Convertor Lock-up	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395297 \h  51  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395298"  Hybrid Powertrain	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395298 \h  51  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395299"  Low-Friction Engine Lube and Drive Train
Lubricants	  PAGEREF _Toc267395299 \h  53  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395300"  Rankine Bottoming Cycle	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395300 \h  54  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395301"  2.9.	Weight reduction technologies	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395301 \h  55  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395302"  Aluminum Air Tanks	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395302 \h  55  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395303"  Aluminum Axles and Axle Hubs	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395303 \h  56  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395304"  Aluminum Wheels	  PAGEREF _Toc267395304
\h  56  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395305"  Lightweight Brake Drums	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395305 \h  57  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395306"  Lightweight Cab Components	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395306 \h  59  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395307"  Lightweight Suspension Systems	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395307 \h  60  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395308"  Reduced Number of Batteries	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395308 \h  60  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395309"  Aluminum Structural Components for
Trailers	  PAGEREF _Toc267395309 \h  61  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395310"  2.10.	Electrification	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395310 \h  61  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395311"  Electrification of Accessory Loads	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395311 \h  61  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395312"  2.11.	Air conditioning and transport
refrigerated unit (TRU) improvements	  PAGEREF _Toc267395312 \h  62  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395313"  Alternative Refrigerants	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395313 \h  62  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395314"  Use of Highly Reflective Structural
Materials	  PAGEREF _Toc267395314 \h  63  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395315"  Low Power Draw A/C	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395315 \h  65  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395316"  Use of Advanced Electrical Transport
Refrigeration Unit (TRU) Systems	  PAGEREF _Toc267395316 \h  67  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395317"  Use of Cryogenic CO2 Unit	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395317 \h  68  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395318"  Use of Leakage Reducing Components	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395318 \h  70  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395319"  3.	Cost Tables	  PAGEREF _Toc267395319
\h  71  

 

List of Figures

  TOC \h \z \t "Figure Caption,6"    HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395320" 
Figure 2-1: Peterbilt 379 Traditional Sleeper Cab	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395320 \h  4  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395321"  Figure 2-2: Dry Freight Van (Wabash
National)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395321 \h  5  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395322"  Figure 2-3: Aluminum Combination Flatbed
(Wabash national)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395322 \h  6  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395323"  Figure 2-4: Aluminum Flatbed Drop Deck	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395323 \h  7  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395324"  Figure 2-5: Reefer (Utility Trailer
Manufacturing Company)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395324 \h  8  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395325"  Figure 2-6: Dry Van (Utility Trailer
Manufacturing Company)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395325 \h  9  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395326"  Figure 2-7: Flatbed (Utility Trailer
Manufacturing Company)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395326 \h  10  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395327"  Figure 2-8: Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer
(East Manufacturing)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395327 \h  11  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395328"  Figure 2-9: Aluminum Frameless Dump
Trailer (East Manufacturing)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395328 \h  11  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395329"  Figure 2-10:  Steel Tub Body Frame Dump
Trailer (East Manufacturing)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395329 \h  12  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395330"  Figure 2-11: Grain Hopper (Timpte)	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395330 \h  12  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395331"  Figure 2-12: Chemical Transport Tanker
(Polar Tank)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395331 \h  13  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395332"  Figure 2-13: Petroleum Tanker (Polar
Tank)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395332 \h  13  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395333"  Figure 2-14: Sanitary Food Tanker (Polar
Tank)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395333 \h  14  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395334"  Figure 2-15: Lowboy, 2-Axle (Trail King
Industries)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395334 \h  14  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395335"  Figure 2-16: Lowboy, 3-Axle (Trail King
Industries)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395335 \h  15  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395336"  Figure 2-17: Flatbed / Step Deck (Trail
King Industries)	  PAGEREF _Toc267395336 \h  15  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395337"  Figure 2-18: Class 6 Box Truck	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395337 \h  18  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395338"  Figure 2-19: Class 6 Dump Truck	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395338 \h  18  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395339"  Figure 2-20: Class 4 Work Truck	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395339 \h  19  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395340"  Figure 2-21: Class 8 Refuse Truck	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395340 \h  20  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395341"  Figure 2-22:  Class 7 School Bus	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395341 \h  21  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395342"  Figure 2-23: Class 8 Transit Bus	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395342 \h  22  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395343"  Figure 2-24: Automatic Start/Stop System
  PAGEREF _Toc267395343 \h  38  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395344"  Figure 2-25: Thermal Storage Unit	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395344 \h  40  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395345"  Figure 2-26: Engine Recovery System	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395345 \h  41  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395346"  Figure 2-27: APUs	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395346 \h  42  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395347"  Figure 2-28: Direct Fired Heater	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395347 \h  43  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395348"  Figure 2-29. Turbo Compounding Turbine	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395348 \h  48  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395349"  Figure 2-31: Lightweight Brake Drum
Components	  PAGEREF _Toc267395349 \h  58  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395350"  Figure 2-31: Solar Energy Reflection
Improvement through Application of SolarCool Coatings Paint	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395350 \h  64  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395351"  Figure 2-33: Evaporative A/C Unit	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395351 \h  66  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395352"  Figure 2-34: Rooftop Low Power Draw A/C	
 PAGEREF _Toc267395352 \h  66  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395353"  Figure 2-34: Transport Refrigeration
Units	  PAGEREF _Toc267395353 \h  67  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395354"  Figure 2-35: ThermoKing's Cryogenic CO2
Unit	  PAGEREF _Toc267395354 \h  69  

 

List of Tables

  TOC \h \z \t "Table Caption,6"    HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395355"  Table
2-1: Baseline Tractors and Prices	  PAGEREF _Toc267395355 \h  3  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395356"  Table 2-2: Trailer Types and
Manufacturers	  PAGEREF _Toc267395356 \h  4  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395357"  Table 2-3: Baseline Trailer Prices	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395357 \h  16  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395358"  Table 2-4: Baseline Vocational Truck and
Bus Prices	  PAGEREF _Toc267395358 \h  16  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395359"  Table 2-5: Baseline Bus Prices	  PAGEREF
_Toc267395359 \h  20  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395360"  Table 2-6: Strategies Investigated in
this Report	  PAGEREF _Toc267395360 \h  22  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395361"  Table 2-7: Low Rolling Resistance Tire
Types	  PAGEREF _Toc267395361 \h  34  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395362"  Table 2-8: Hybrid system component sizes
  PAGEREF _Toc267395362 \h  52  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395363"  Table 2-9: Hybrid Vehicle Incentives	 
PAGEREF _Toc267395363 \h  53  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395364"  Table 3-2: Class 7 and 8 Trailer
Technology Cost/Price Summary	  PAGEREF _Toc267395364 \h  90  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395365"  Table 3-3: Class 3 through 8 Vocational
Truck Technology Cost/Price Summary	  PAGEREF _Toc267395365 \h  98  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc267395366"  Table 3-4: Class 7 and 8 Bus Technology
Cost/Price Summary	  PAGEREF _Toc267395366 \h  104  

 

Introduction

Purpose, Regulatory Background, and Scope

Regulation of greenhouse gases is underway. EPA issued an Advanced
Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (ANPRM) for Greenhouse Gas Emissions in
July 2008 in response to the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision on
Massachusetts v. EPA.  The EPA issued the Proposed Endangerment and
Cause or Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases under the Clean Air
Act in April 2009.  The standards shall give appropriate consideration
to the cost, energy, and safety factors associated with the application
of the technologies.  The new GHG reporting rule (40 CFR Parts 86, 87,
89 et al. Mandatory Reporting of Greenhouse Gases; Final Rule), from
October 2009 requires that sources including fossil fuel suppliers and
industrial gas suppliers, direct greenhouse gas emitters and
manufacturers of heavy-duty and off-road vehicles and engines with
emissions above certain threshold levels monitor and report their
emissions. On April 1, 2010, EPA and NHTSA announced the National
Program to Cut Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Improve Fuel Economy for
Cars and Trucks, establishing a national program consisting of new
standards for model year 2012 through 2016 light-duty vehicles,
including the first-ever national GHG emissions standards under the
Clean Air Act and CAFE standards under the Energy Policy and
Conservation Act. In addition, President Obama directed EPA and NHTSA to
take the next steps to reduce GHG emissions and fuel consumption by
developing the first-ever GHG and fuel consumption regulations for
heavy-duty engines and vehicles in an announcement made on May 21, 2010.
 

The heavy-duty truck sector includes Class 2b through Class 8 trucks
that can have a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of more than 8,500
lbs.  This sector is powered primarily by diesel engines, but gasoline
powered vehicles are also used.  Heavy-duty trucks were responsible for
18 percent of the U.S. Transportation GHG emissions in 2006 and the CO2
emissions are expected to grow nearly 30 percent by 2030.  Reductions
can be achieved through engine, vehicle, and operational improvements,
with vehicle improvements expected to make up the bulk of the achievable
reductions. 

The purpose of this analysis is to estimate the cost impacts of
technologies that can be used to reduce GHG emissions on heavy-duty
trucks and engines.  The cost estimates have been determined for a
number of different truck classes and a variety of technologies and
operating strategies to which they apply. The improvements are organized
into one of the following nine categories: 

Aerodynamic improvements, 

Rolling resistance improvements, 

Operational improvements, 

Idling reduction technologies, 

Engine improvements, 

Transmission and drivetrain improvements, 

Weight reduction, 

Electrification, and 

Air conditioning improvements and improvements in transport refrigerated
unit (TRU) technology. 

The vehicles analyzed include Class 7 and 8 tractors, trailers, class
3-8 work trucks, and class 6-8 buses. This report presents the results
of this research. 

Division of Tasks

Analysis was done in a series of tasks, each encompassing specific types
of vehicles. In each case, baseline vehicles were defined along with
appropriate technologies. For the purposes of this report, the tasks are
defined as and include:

Task 2: Class 7 and 8 regional tractors and Class 8 long-haul tractors

Task 3: Trailers hauled by Class 7 and 8 regional and long-haul tractors

Task 5: Class 3 through 8 vocational trucks

Task 6: Class 7 and 8 buses 

Throughout this report, analysis may refer to categories by task or by
vehicle class.

Report Organization

The remainder of this report is organized along the following structure.
Section 2 summarizes the baseline vehicles in the current fleet and
presents an overview of the nine categories of technologies that can
provide reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. Section 3 presents a
summary of costs associated with each technology. Tables showing the
cost analyses are presented by task, with each technology category
broken out within these tasks.

Description of Technologies

Baseline Vehicles and Technologies

Class 7 and 8 Tractors

One sleeper and one day cab model were selected as baseline vehicles for
the Class 7 and 8 tractor application.   REF _Ref263870341 \h  Table 2-1
 shows these vehicles, their specifications, and associated prices. 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  1 : Baseline
Tractors and Prices

2010 FREIGHTLINER CL12064ST-COLUMBIA 120	Sleeper Size  70"  	$113,000 

Sleeper  Mid Roof XT Sleeper  

	Engine Make Detroit Diesel  

	Engine Type  14.0  

	Horsepower  455  

	Transmission  10 Speed  

	Check for Over Drive  Yes  

	Engine Brake  Yes  

	Suspension  Air Ride  

	Gear Ratio  3.42  

	Tires  22.5LP  

	Wheels  All Aluminum  

	

It is noteworthy that many improvements, especially aerodynamic
improvements, may already be incorporated in these vehicles. Thus it
could be advantageous to assess a more traditional style cab, such as
the Peterbilt 379 sleeper cab. However, this vehicle was discontinued in
2007 and cannot serve as a current technology baseline. 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  1 : Peterbilt
379 Traditional Sleeper Cab

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.truckpaper.com" 
http://www.truckpaper.com 

Trailers

There are numerous types of trailers hauled by Class 7 and 8 tractors.
Baseline retail prices and weight ranges were indentified for the
trailer types listed in   REF _Ref264012690 \h  Table 2-2 , based on
leading manufacturers. The following discusses these manufacturers and
the corresponding trailer types. 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  2 : Trailer Types
and Manufacturers

Chief Manufacturer	Trailer Types	Baseline Trailer Category	Details

Great Dane	van	box	N/A

Wabash National	van	box	Dry van

Wabash National (formerly Transcraft) 	flatbed	specialized	48' aluminum
combination flatbed

Wabash National (formerly Transcraft)	flatbed drop deck	specialized	48'
flatbed drop deck

Hyundai	container chassis	box	N/A

Utility Trailer Manufacturing	reefer	box	reefer; dry van; 48' flatbed

East Manufacturing	dump	specialized	3 types of dump trailers

Timpte	grain	specialized	2 price ranges for grain hoppers

Polar Tank Trailers	tanker	specialized	4 types of tankers

Trail King Industries /Landall	lowbed	specialized	2 lowboys; 1 48' step
deck flatbed

Great Dane

Price and weight range data for the Great Dane manufacturer of box
trailers were not available

Wabash National

Retail price data and weight data were identified for a dry freight van,
flatbed, and flatbed drop deck trailers:

Dry Freight Van

Wabash offers three types of dry freight van 2-axle trailers:
DuraPlate®; FrieghtPro™; and DuraPlate HP, the latter being the most
expensive. The average curb weight is approximately 14,000 pounds. The
DuraPlate dry van trailer's standard features include:

The ultra-wide design of the DuraPlate trailer provides an interior
width of 101-1/2" (scuff-to-scuff) 

The DuraPlate composite sidewall panel is constructed of a high-density
polyethylene plastic core bonded between two high-strength steel skins. 

Steel interior to resist tears, punctures and related damage. 

Postless sidewall design. 

High-strength, corrugated steel scuff is fastened to the DuraPlate
sidewall every 8". 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  2 : Dry Freight
Van (Wabash National)

 

Source:   HYPERLINK
"http://www.wabashnational.com/Images/popups/DuraPlatePop.jpg" 
http://www.wabashnational.com/Images/popups/DuraPlatePop.jpg 

Aluminum Combination Flatbed (48-foot)

The combination flatbed 2-axle trailer is available in extreme, heavy,
and standard. Basic features, including approximate weight of each are
listed below.

Extreme Duty: Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102"
widths; additional lightweight features are available. Basic features
include:

Tandem axles with various axle spacings 

Aluminum floor, front and rear plate 

Aluminum side rails 

Includes 5" aluminum floor sills 

GVWR 80,000 lbs.

Approx. 10,760 lbs. w/standard options 

Heavy Duty: Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102"
width. Basic features include:

Tandem, various axle spacings 

Aluminum floor, front and rear plate 

Aluminum side rails 

Includes 5" aluminum floor sills 

GVWR 80,000 lbs.

Approx. 9,960 lbs. w/standard options 

Standard Duty: Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102"
widths. Basic features include:

Tandem, various axle spacings 

Aluminum floor, front and rear plate 

Aluminum side rails 

Includes 5" aluminum floor sills 

GVWR 73,000 lbs.

Approx. 9,760 lbs. w/standard options

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  3 : Aluminum
Combination Flatbed (Wabash national)

 

Source:   HYPERLINK
"http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/products/Eagle.jpg" 
http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/products/Eagle.jpg 

Flatbed Drop Deck (48-foot)

The D-Eagle flatbed drop deck 2-axle trailer is available in 45', 48'
and 53' lengths with 102” width. The approximate weight is 10,120
pounds with the following standard options: 

Tandem, various axle spacings 

Aluminum floor, front and rear plate 

Includes 5" aluminum floor sills 

80,000 lbs. over lower deck

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  4 : Aluminum
Flatbed Drop Deck

 

Source:   HYPERLINK
"http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/products/D-Eagle.jpg" 
http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/products/D-Eagle.jpg 

Transcraft (Wabash)

Transcraft is now a Wabash company. See above for descriptive
information about Wabash trailers.

Hyundai

Cost data were not available for Hyundai’s container chassis.

Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company

Reefer

The curb weight of Utility’s 2-axle reefer trailer is approximately
14,200 pounds. The 3000R series reefer trailer is available with the
following standard features:

Patented Barrier Rear Doors 

Utility-Designed Door Hardware 

5/16" Thick Dock Board Guide Plates 

Integrated Heavy-Duty 10" High Wearband 

Landing Leg Support and Bracing 

Foam-In-Place Insulation Air Ride Suspension 

5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End System 

Thermal Barriers 

Tensioned Roof Skin 

LED Lights 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  5 : Reefer
(Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

 

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.utilitytrailer.com/reefers/3000R.asp" 
http://www.utilitytrailer.com/reefers/3000R.asp 

Dry Van

Utility’s 4000D series dry van 2-axle trailer is a traditional plywood
lined dry van. The approximate weight is 13,500 pounds. Standard
features include:

12" Galvanized Steel Wearband 

Stainless Steel Rear Door Frame 

Integrated Threshold Plate Assembly 

Air Ride Suspension 

Weather Tight Floor System 

Reliable Support Leg Bracing 

Heavy-Duty King Pin Assembly 

High-Strength Front Wall 

Unique Roof Design 

5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End System 

Bendix® TAB-6 ABS System 

Modular Electrical System

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  6 : Dry Van
(Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

 

Source:   HYPERLINK
"http://www.utilitytrailer.com/dryvans/4000d_x_composite.asp" 
http://www.utilitytrailer.com/dryvans/4000d_x_composite.asp 

Flatbed (48-foot) 

™ series 2-axle aluminum (also available in a steel 4000S series)
flatbed trailer (commercial length is 48-feet) is approximately 9,800
pounds in curb weight. The standard features for this trailer include:

Hendrickson Narrow Hanger AANT 23k Spread Air Ride Suspension 

80,000 PSI High Tensile Steel, Hat-Shaped Main Beam Top Flange 

6,500 lbs. Working Load Limit Rated Pipe Spools 

Aluminum Front Rail 

100% Plug-in Connectors 

Durable Outrigger Attachments 

Higher Quality Paint Process for Lower Life Cycle Costs 

Integral Cinch Track 

Front Stainless Steel Corners 

5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End System 

Durable Suspension Design 

Plasma-Cut One-Piece Main Beam Webs 

Microencapsulated Adhesive on All Screws 

Side Rails are Mechanically Fastened 

Contoured Beam at Rear for Proper Axle Loading 

Rear Corners Designed for High Impact Loads 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  7 : Flatbed
(Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

 

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.utilitytrailer.com/flatbeds/4000A.asp" 
http://www.utilitytrailer.com/flatbeds/4000A.asp 

East Manufacturing

Specialized dump trailers comprise about 3 to 4 percent of the market.
The following three 2-axle, “lightweight” dump trailers range in
weight between 10,000-17,000 pounds. Dump trailers are available in a
range of axles, up to 8-axles.

Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer 

th Genesis™ and traditional sheet and post body styles are available
for triple-ten (gravel train), super-train, break-up double, twelve
wheelers and up to 8-axle semi-trailer configurations. Steel bodied dump
trailers are also available.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  8 : Aluminum
Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)

 

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_dump.html" 
http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_dump.html 

Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer

Frameless dump trailers are designed for the ideal balance between low
weight for more payload, and heavy-duty strength for durability.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  9 : Aluminum
Frameless Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)

  

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framelessal.html" 
http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framelessal.html 

Frame Dump Trailer (Steel Tub Body)

The body of the East steel trailer is made from AR450 grade steel to
handle construction and demolition work.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  10 :  Steel Tub
Body Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing)

 

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framesteel.html" 
http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framesteel.html 

Timpte

Grain Hopper

The standard 2-axle hopper trailer is available in 38-, 40-, and 42-feet
lengths with an average curb weight of approximately 9,000 pounds.
Typical application includes transportation of agricultural and
industrial bulk commodities. Axles typically have a 22,500 pound beam
capacity. Typical baseline tires are eight 11R24.5 Bridgestone R195F
radials.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  11 : Grain
Hopper (Timpte)

  

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.timpte.com/newtrailers.html" 
http://www.timpte.com/newtrailers.html 

Polar Tank Trailers

Typical applications include transport of chemical and petroleum
products, fertilizer, asphalt, and food items (tanks are stainless
steel, sterilized and insulated). 

Chemical Transport Tanker 

The 2010 POLAR Chemical Transport has a carrying capacity of 8,500
gallons for the transport of petro chemical solvents. The tanker is made
of aluminum, with a curb weight of 9,010 pounds. Standard installed
tires can be Yokohama RY587 - 11R 22.5 and wheel size is 8.25 x 22.5
with aluminum hub. A chemical transport trailer that is insulated and
made of stainless steel has a curb weight of about 13,000 pounds.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  12 : Chemical
Transport Tanker (Polar Tank)

 

Source:    HYPERLINK
"http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=display_trailer&file=261" 
http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=display_trailer&file=261 

Petroleum Transport Tanker 

The 2010 POLAR petroleum transport 2-axle tanker has a carrying capacity
of 9,500 gallons and a curb weight of 10,000 pounds. The
multi-compartment aluminum is used for transporting petroleum from
refinery to gas stations. 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  13 : Petroleum
Tanker (Polar Tank)

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.senecatank.com/91680001.JPG" 
http://www.senecatank.com/91680001.JPG 

Sanitary Food Tanker

The two-axle sanitary food tanker is made of stainless steel and is
insulated. The curb weight is approximately 10,500.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  14 : Sanitary
Food Tanker (Polar Tank)

Source:   HYPERLINK
"http://www.trucker.com/TrailerDetail.aspx?SID=1983886" 
http://www.trucker.com/TrailerDetail.aspx?SID=1983886 

Trail King Industries 

Lowboy (TK70HDG)

This two-axle lowboy (hydraulic self-lifting detachable gooseneck)
trailer has a 26-foot deck with a 17,000-pound curb weight. This series
is used for construction applications (e.g., hauling construction
equipment). The trailer uses 8.25 x 22.5 disc wheels and 255/70R x 22.5
16PR radial tires.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  15 : Lowboy,
2-Axle (Trail King Industries)

 

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=3" 
http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=3 

Lowboy (TK110HDG)

The three-axle lowboy (hydraulic self-lifting detachable gooseneck)
trailer has ability to lift above or below transport positions for
commercial applications. The trailer has a 26-foot deck, steel wheels,
oak decking, is 102 feet wide with a 22,000-pound curb weight. 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  16 : Lowboy,
3-Axle (Trail King Industries)

 

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=27" 
http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=27 

Flatbed / Step Deck (TK70ACS) 

The two-axle flatbed (step deck) TK70ACS model has a curb weight of
9,900 pounds with standard 8.25 x 22.5 disc wheels and 11R x 22.5 16PR
radial tires for commercial applications. The flatbed trailer is 48 feet
long and 102 feet wide.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  17 : Flatbed /
Step Deck (Trail King Industries)

 

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=1" 
http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=1 

  REF _Ref264012700 \h  Table 2-3  lists typical retail prices for each
of the generic trailer types. The prices listed here may fluctuate
depending upon on the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during the
course of an actual sale. 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  3 : Baseline
Trailer Prices

Baseline Trailer Category	Trailer Types	Curb Weight (lbs)	New Price

Box	Van	13,850	$25,000

Specialized	Flatbed	10,600	$29,500

Box	Container chassis	N/A	N/A

Box	Reefer	14,200	$52,000-100,000

Specialized	Dump

$50,000

Specialized	Grain	9,000	$31,750

Specialized	Flatbed drop deck	10,900	$32,000

Specialized	Tanker	10,628	$61,625

Specialized	Lowbed	17,725	$49,500

Class 3 through 8 Vocational Trucks

Task 5 addresses class 3 through 8 vocational trucks. These vehicles
include service trucks, refuse trucks, delivery trucks and other
vocational trucks. Four types of trucks were selected for further
exploration: a class 3-6 box truck, a class 3-6 dump truck, a class 4
utility truck, and a class 8 refuse truck. The descriptions below offer
specific information on each type of truck. 

Baseline costs were collected for each of these types of trucks as well
as for a selected type of each category. Approximate values are shown in
  REF _Ref263868218 \h  Table 2-4 . Retail prices listed here may
fluctuate depending on the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during
the course of an actual sale.

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  4 : Baseline
Vocational Truck and Bus Prices

Category	Typical Vehicle	Price

Class 3-6 box truck 	Kenworth T270	$72,000 for truck with automatic
transmission. 

$67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission. 

Approximately $12,000 for a 24 foot box body. 

Class 3-6 dump truck 	Kenworth T270 	$72,000 for truck with automatic
transmission. 

$67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission. 

For a 16 foot dump body, add about $10-$16K (depending on steel vs
aluminum). 

Class 4 work truck 	International CityStar CF500 	$40,000 for a new
16,000 lb CF500 excluding body. 

Body with standard lift gate costs about $7,500. 

(Note this truck ceased production 6 months ago, although a new version
is expected soon)

Class 8 refuse truck 	Volvo VHD Series (e.g. VHD64B200)	Volvo VHD
65BT200 truck retails for about $120,000 excluding the body. 

Bodies retail for about $70-$90,000 for standard rear packers, depending
on size and equipment 

$198,000 is a typical price for a new Volvo class 8 refuse truck, both
cab and chassis, with a 25 yard rear loader refuse box, excluding FET.  
 

Class 3-6 Box Truck

A class 3-6 box truck is a medium-duty truck with a box body that has a
gross vehicle weight range from 10,001 to 26,000 pounds. A class 6 box
truck was selected for further investigation. A Kenworth 270 was
identified as a sample class 6 box truck. The Kenworth T270 is a
two-axle truck rated at 26,000 GVWR. The chassis is shared with the
Kenworth class 6 dump truck. A 24 foot box body for the class 6 truck
adds about $12,000 to the price of the truck. Two 22.5” wheels are on
the front axle and four 22.5” wheels are on the rear axle. For this
medium-duty chassis truck, there is not a singlewide tire application
available from the manufacturer. The standard options for this truck
also include a PACCAR PX-8 engine, steel frames and steel fuel tanks. 
Optional equipment pertinent to GHG emissions reducing features includes
a CARB emission reduction drivetrain feature, aluminum wheels, aluminum
fuel tanks, aerodynamic bumper, and aerodynamic mirrors.  

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  18   SHAPE  \*
MERGEFORMAT   : Class 6 Box Truck

 

Source: Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.kenworth.com/newspics/T270.jpg" 
http://www.kenworth.com/newspics/T270.jpg 

Class 3-6 Dump Truck

A class 3-6 dump truck is a medium-duty truck with a dump body that has
a gross vehicle weight range from 10,001 to 26,000 pounds. A class 6
dump truck was selected for further investigation. A Kenworth 270 was
identified as a sample class 6 dump truck. The Kenworth T270 is a
two-axle truck rated at 26,000 GVWR. The chassis is the same as that of
the class 6 box truck. The only difference is the body. A 16 foot dump
body for the class 6 truck would cost about $10,000 - $16,000 in
addition to the price of the truck. Two 22.5” wheels are on the front
axle and four 22.5” wheels are on the rear axle. For this medium-duty
chassis truck, there is not a singlewide tire application available from
the manufacturer. The standard options for this truck also include a
PACCAR PX-8 engine, steel frames and steel fuel tanks. Optional
equipment pertinent to GHG emissions reducing features includes a CARB
emission reduction drivetrain feature, aluminum wheels, aluminum fuel
tanks, aerodynamic bumper, and aerodynamic mirrors.  

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  19   SHAPE  \*
MERGEFORMAT   : Class 6 Dump Truck

Source:   HYPERLINK
"https://www.truckhunt.com/resources/images/user/trucks/45ee7c68-a822-4f
2e-bfea-245b209af584_medium.jpg" 
https://www.truckhunt.com/resources/images/user/trucks/45ee7c68-a822-4f2
e-bfea-245b209af584_medium.jpg 

Class 4 Work Truck

A class 4 work truck is a medium-duty truck, with a utility body and
often features a lift gate or bucket that has a gross vehicle weight
range from 14,001 to 16,000 pounds. An International CityStar™ CF500
was identified as a sample class 4 work truck rated at 16,000 GVWR. Note
that this truck is no longer in production as of approximately January
2010 but a comparable version is expected to be released within the
year. A body with a lift gate is standard for a utility truck, and would
add about $7,500 to the truck price.  The two axle truck has two wheels
on the front axle and four wheels on the rear axle.   For this
medium-duty chassis truck, there is not a singlewide tire application
available from the manufacturer.  The standard features for this truck
include a high strength, low alloy steel frame, an International VT 275
engine and 19.5” wheels.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  20 :  SHAPE  \*
MERGEFORMAT    Class 4 Work Truck

 

Source: Image of International City Star CF500   HYPERLINK
"http://www.usedtrucksforsalebyowner.net/image_gd/imagegd_big_inside.php
?74257776.jpg" 
http://www.usedtrucksforsalebyowner.net/image_gd/imagegd_big_inside.php?
74257776.jpg 

Class 8 Refuse Truck

A class 8 refuse truck is a heavy-duty truck with a refuse body used for
trash, waste or garbage hauling. The GVWR of the truck is between
33,001-60,000 pounds. A standard refuse truck body is usually a rear
loader body, but price will vary according to the features. A rear
loader 25-32 yard body costs about $70,000-$90,000 in addition to the
truck price depending on the size of the equipment and its features
(e.g. an overhead attachment). A Volvo VHD 65BT200 was identified as a
sample class 8 refuse truck. The VHD 65BT200 is a three axle truck that
has two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on each of the rear
axles.  For this heavy-duty chassis truck, singlewide tires are included
as an option, but are not recommended for use because of difficulties
entering and exiting landfills. 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  21 :  SHAPE  \*
MERGEFORMAT    Class 8 Refuse Truck

 

Source:   HYPERLINK
"http://www.impextrucks.co.uk/img/refuse_collection_wehicle.jpg" 
http://www.impextrucks.co.uk/img/refuse_collection_wehicle.jpg 

Class 7 and 8 buses

Task 6 addresses class 7 and 8 buses. These vehicles include school,
commercial and transit buses. Two types of buses were selected for
further exploration: a class 7 school bus and a class 8a transit bus.
The descriptions below offer specific information on each type of bus.  
REF _Ref263869095 \h  Table 2-5  shows baseline vehicle price estimates.
Retail prices listed here may fluctuate depending on the quantity,
timing, and/or other factors during the course of an actual sale.

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  5 : Baseline Bus
Prices

Category	Typical Vehicle	Price

Class 7 school bus 	International CE Series Type C bus, 31,000 lbs, 2010
Emission Standards, 77 passengers. 

Bluebird All American Rear Engine School Bus, Type D, 33,000 lbs, 84
passengers.	$78-80,000 for 2010 Virginia Emissions 2010 Standard Bus -
conventional (type C). 

$95,000 for a new 2011 Bluebird All American Rear Engine School Bus
(type D). 

Class 8 transit bus  	International RE Series Bus	$99-$100,000 for 2010
Virginia Standards (up to 37,000 pounds). 

Class 7 School Bus

A class 7 school bus has a GVWR of between 26,001-33,000 pounds. An
International CE Series school bus was identified as a sample class 7
school bus. This conventional two axle bus has two wheels on the front
axle and four wheels on the rear axles. Singlewide tires are not allowed
as options for school buses in many states due to safety concerns. The
International CE is a 77 passenger bus with a GVWR of 31,000 pounds.
Standard options include an International MaxForce® 7 or MaxForce® DT
engine, full power hydraulic brakes and electric entrance door. Optional
features include factory-installed air conditioner.  

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  22 :  Class 7
School Bus

 

Source:   HYPERLINK
"http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/uploadedImages/News/Chicago/Images/
Business/Bus.jpg" 
http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/uploadedImages/News/Chicago/Images/B
usiness/Bus.jpg 

Class 8 Transit Bus

A class 8a transit bus has a GVWR of between 33,001-60,000 pounds. An
International RE Series Commercial bus was identified as a sample class
8 transit bus. This rear-engine two axle bus has two wheels on the front
axle and four wheels on the rear axle. The International RE is a 52
passenger bus with a GVWR of 37,000 pounds.  Standard options include an
International MaxForce® DT engine, a roof-mounted HVAC system and air
brakes. Optional features include aluminum wheels.  

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  23 : Class 8
Transit Bus

 

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.interstatetransportation.com/buses/3/6/"
 http://www.interstatetransportation.com/buses/3/6/ 

Summary of Technologies and Strategies  

The technologies investigated in this report are summarized in   REF
_Ref263781449 \h  Table 2-6 . Broadly, they are categorized into
aerodynamic improvements, rolling resistance improvements, operational
improvements, idling reduction technologies, engine improvements,
transmission and drivetrain improvements, weight reduction,
electrification, air conditioning improvements, and improvements in
transport refrigerated unit (TRU) technology. 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  6 : Strategies
Investigated in this Report

Improvement	Vehicle Class Investigated

Aerodynamic Improvements

Aerodynamic Hoods	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Aerodynamic Mirrors	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Aerocones	Trailers

Air Tabs	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Boat Tails and Air Tabs	Trailers

Bumper	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Gap Fairings	Trailers

Roof Fairings	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Side Fairings	Class 7-8 Tractors

Side Skirts	Trailers

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Tractor Gap Fairing	Class 7-8 Tractors

Rolling Resistance Improvements

Automatic Tire Inflation	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Trailers

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Low Rolling Resistance Tires	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Trailers

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Single Wide Tires	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Trailers

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Operational Improvements

Advanced Driver Training	Class 7-8 Tractors

Speed Limiters	Class 7-8 Tractors

Idle Reductions

Anti-idle System (i.e., automatic engine stop system)	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems	Class 7-8 Tractors

Thermal Storage Systems	Class 7-8 Tractors

Engine Recovery Systems	Class 7-8 Tractors

Auxiliary Power Units	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Direct fired heaters	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Fuel Cell APUs	Class 7-8 Tractors

Truck Stop Electrification	Class 7-8 Tractors

Engine Improvements

Electronic Fans	Class 7-8 Tractors

Integrated Starter/Alternator 	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Low Friction Engine Lube	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Turbo compounding  	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Variable Geometry Turbo	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Variable Valve Actuation	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Transmission and Drivetrain Improvements

Early Torque Converter Lockup	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Hybrid Powertrain	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Low-Friction Drivetrain Lube	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Rankine Bottoming Cycle	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Weight Reduction

Aluminum Air Tanks	Class 7-8 Tractors

Aluminum Axle Hubs	Class 7-8 Tractors

Aluminum Wheelset	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Light Weight Brake Drums	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Lightweight Cab Components	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Lightweight Suspension System	Class 7-8 Tractors

Reduced Number of Batteries	Class 7-8 Tractors

Tare Weight Reduction via Al structural components	Trailers

Tare Weight Reduction via Al wheels	Trailers

Electrification

Accessory Electrification (Power Steering, Water Pumps, Fans, etc.)
Class 7-8 Tractors

Air Conditioning

Low Power Draw A/C	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Use of Alternative Refrigerants	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Use of highly reflective structural materials	Class 3-8 Vocational
Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Use of Leakage-Reducing Components	Class 7-8 Tractors

	Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

	Class 6-8 Buses

Reefer Improvements

Alternative Refrigerants	Trailers

Low power draw A/C	Trailers

Advanced Electrical TRU	Trailers

Use of cryogenic CO2 units	Trailers

Use of highly reflective structural materials	Trailers

Use of leakage-reducing components	Trailers

The remainder of Section   REF _Ref263782238 \r \h  2  provides an
overview for each of these technologies. It is important to note that
the combinations of class, vehicle application, and technologies
researched here do not reflect every available combination, as it would
be impractical to try and identify every combination here.  Fleet owners
and operators are left to decide which technology works best for their
application.  Also, some strategies that appear in the list for Class
7-8 Tractors were found to not be applicable in practice. Those were not
investigated further. 

An overview of the findings of the research for each technology
investigated is summarized in Section 3. 

Aerodynamic improvements

Aerodynamic Hoods

Technology Definition 

Truck manufacturers offer aerodynamic models that include a streamlined
front profile and sloped hood.  A more aerodynamic hood and cab design
can significantly improve the aerodynamics of the vehicle and reduce
drag.  Aerodynamic hoods are usually one component in an overall
aerodynamic design that includes the bumper, mirrors, headlights and
other cab features.  Significant research, including wind tunnel
testing, is usually required to design an aerodynamic cab and associated
hood design.  

Availability 

Most aerodynamic hoods are manufactured by outside suppliers. 
Aerodynamic hoods are made of molded composites with inexpensive molded
compounds.  Numerous suppliers are available who can produce custom
hoods designed to manufacturer specifications.  Some manufacturers also
make some of their own hoods.

Vehicle Application

Aerodynamic hoods can be installed on single-unit trucks and truck
tractors.  They can be used on sleeper cabs, day cabs, and on all cab
sizes.  An aerodynamic hood is customized to a specific truck cab design
to achieve superior aerodynamic performance. 

Aerodynamic hoods may not be appropriate for some vocational trucks. 
The purpose for which a vehicle is designed also affects the extent to
which it can incorporate certain aerodynamic features.  For instance,
the radiator in a vocational truck is larger than that on a standard
highway truck because of the work required from the vehicle.  Having a
larger radiator makes it more difficult to design an aerodynamic hood
with a low sloping profile for a vocational truck.  A vocational truck
needs more ground clearance and has larger axles, all affecting the
aerodynamic features.  The vocational truck environment involves more
dust and thus requires greater filtration of intake air.  Many
vocational vehicles with the larger dual 15 inch canisters on their
sides are meeting the engine’s need for greater air filtration,
although this may not be aerodynamic.

The material that tends to be used in vocational products (with non
aerodynamic hoods) is more durable and has a higher manufacturing cost. 
The vocational truck environment tends to cause more damage to truck
hoods resulting in more vocational hoods designed such that components
can be replaced instead of forcing replacement of the entire hood.     

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

In general, there would not be a significant difference in piece cost
between the shape of an aerodynamic hood and a non-aerodynamic hood.  A
manufacturer could choose to make the shell of the hood in different
designs for minimal cost.  Most of the cost for a new aerodynamic design
is associated with developing and testing the new design.  Once this R&D
is conducted, there is little difference in manufacturing cost between
producing a new hood shape as compared to the old less aerodynamic hood
shape.

One cost element that would be different from a standard non-aerodynamic
hood would be the styled headlamp that would be required for an
aerodynamic design.  This can require a multi-million dollar investment
program for a truck manufacturer.  Engineering testing and tooling costs
are large for styled headlamps.  It may be difficult to use
off-the-shelf components to create such a styled headlight.  Due to the
numerous components required for stylized headlights, there is typically
a long lead time for this element of approximately 30 – 48 months.

Aerodynamic Mirrors 

Technology Definition 

An aerodynamic mirror typically has a curved housing and a minimal
number of arms.  The arms have an aero shape with curved upper and lower
surfaces.  An aerodynamic mirror might also have a curved back.  Mirrors
are typically designed and optimized to improve the flow of air as it
moves off of the vehicle and in free stream around the vehicle.  Each
cab design has a unique air flow profile which can require different
aerodynamic mirrors for optimal effect.  

Availability 

The design of the aerodynamic mirror shell is dictated by the truck
manufacturer and is typically manufactured by a supplier.  Truck-Lite®
is a major manufacturer of a number of different mirrors, including the
aerodynamic mirror for Freightliner’s Cascadia® model.  There are
numerous suppliers who are available to manufacture custom mirror
designs for truck makers.

Vehicle Application

Aerodynamic mirrors can be installed on single-unit trucks and truck
tractors.  They can be used on sleeper cabs, day cabs, and on all cab
sizes.  An aerodynamic mirror is usually customized to the specific cab
and hood design to achieve the best results.

Vocational truck mirrors are not typically optimized for the cab. 
Construction sites and other vocational truck environments tend to cause
mirror damage, requiring mirrors to be replaced.  Truck fleets thus find
it is desirable to use a standard mirror component that can be replaced
easily.

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

An aerodynamic mirror typically has four way mirror control and the arm
structure is more robust.  Because of the minimal number of arms, the
strength and cost of the arms tends to be greater.  An aero mirror will
typically include boots or special breakaway features.  Another
difference is that on a standard mirror only the mirror glass rotates
while the arms remained in a fixed position, while on an aero mirror the
whole assembly turns.  These factors tend to increase cost.

™

Technology Definition 

An AeroCone™ is used to reduce aerodynamic drag between the tractor
and trailer.  It can also be used to reduce drag on the front of the
cargo compartment of straight trucks.  By alleviating crosswinds, an
AeroCone improves vehicle stability, road safety and reduces fuel
consumption.  

Availability 

Trailer aerodynamic devices are offered by a few companies today, for
example the AeroCone is available from ATD Dynamics, and the Nose Cone®
is currently marketed by the FitzGerald Corporation of California.

Vehicle Application

The AeroCone can be installed on standard dry van trailers or standard
van straight trucks.  Refrigerated tanks block installation on a reefer
truck.  Aerodynamic tractor models generally have tractor fairings,
which reduce the benefit of the AeroCone. 

Airtabs™

Technology Definition 

Airtabs™ are patented vortex generators that can be installed on a
truck to reduce drag.  The Airtab is an aerodynamic surface, consisting
of a small wishbone shaped ridge that creates a vortex.  Air tabs are
installed at the back of tractors, trailers or straight trucks to
improve the aerodynamics on the vehicle.  Each Airtab creates two tight
swirls of air or vortices that combine to reduce the suction and drag at
the rear of vehicles traveling at speeds above approximately 35 mph.    

Vehicle Application

Airtabs enhance aerodynamic performance equally well on cube vans,
straight trucks, expeditors, buses, utility trailers, faired "bob tail"
tractors, flat beds and tankers. The results may vary somewhat with
vehicle type.

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

The length of the vehicle does not affect price.  Taller vehicles, such
as moving trucks, would have a somewhat higher installation cost.

Boat Tails

Technology Definition 

A boat tail, sometimes called a trailer tail, is a tapering protrusion
mounted on the rear of a truck or trailer to reduce aerodynamic drag. 
There are a number of different boat tail designs.  

Availability 

There are a variety of different manufacturers that make boat tails. 
These include Aerodynamic Trailer Systems, AeroVolution, ATS, Transtex
and Solus.

Vehicle Application

Boat tails can be installed on standard dry van trailers or refrigerated
vans.  Some boat tail products are only applicable to swing door
trailers because the mounting brackets require a swing door plane.     

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Trailer tails should last the life of the vehicle or 5 to 10 years. 
Some may require minor repairs because of impacts.

Aerodynamic Bumpers

Technology Definition 

An aerodynamic bumper typically replaces traditional chrome bumpers
found on tractors with a lighter weight material and a design that is
integrated with the hood and fenders.  Aerodynamic bumpers are typically
injection molded and improve the total drag of the tractor;
consideration must be given to not restricting airflow to the engine
when designing the bumper.   

Availability 

There are a number of truck bumper suppliers and manufacturers. 
Hendrickson is one of the largest bumper manufacturers, and they make a
number of different aerodynamic bumpers for different truck tractor
models. Aerodynamic bumpers are usually designed by truck OEM’s and
sourced out to a supplier 

Vehicle Application

Aerodynamic bumpers can be installed on sleeper cabs, day cabs, and on
all cab sizes.

Tractor Gap Fairing

Technology Definition 

A tractor gap fairing, also known as a cab extender or gap seal, reduces
the gap between the tractor and the trailer, reducing aerodynamic drag
and improving the fuel economy of the vehicle.      

Availability 

Makers of tractor gap fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon
Composites although there are numerous suppliers.  Truck manufacturers
sometimes contract with a range of different suppliers for custom gap
seals that are included as standard components on aerodynamic truck
models.  

Vehicle Application

Tractor gap fairings can be installed on either a sleeper cab or a day
cab, and on all cab sizes.

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

The cost of the gap fairing will vary depending on the height of the
tractor.  For instance, a taller sleeper cab will require a taller gap
fairing, with the cost difference being related to the additional
material that is required.

Roof Fairings

Technology Definition 

A roof fairing extends over the cab of a tractor and has enclosed sides.
 Roof fairings are designed to improve the flow of air over and around a
tractor-trailer, reducing aerodynamic drag and increasing fuel
efficiency.

Some roof fairing designs are collapsible to allow for the fairing to be
taken down when the tractor is operated without an attached trailer.    

Availability 

Major suppliers of roof fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon
Composites.  Roof fairings can be purchased as a retrofit, but truck
manufacturers also contract with a number of different suppliers to
manufacture roof fairings for aerodynamic models where the roof fairing
comes as a standard integrated component. 

Vehicle Application

Roof fairings can be installed on sleeper cabs or day cabs, and on most
cab sizes, although they would not be needed on a high-roof sleeper cab,
since the tall roof functions as a fairing.  Aerodynamic truck models
may come with roof fairings as standard equipment.  In addition, roof
fairings would not be purchased for a tractor hauling a flatbed trailer,
since this would have a negative impact on the aerodynamics of this
vehicle configuration.

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

In some cases, a company that orders roof fairings for a new vehicle may
have brackets installed on the vehicle at the factory, but have the
fairings shipped separately and installed by the dealer.  The extra
height of fairings can cause problems with clearances during transit in
some cases.   

Tractor Side Fairings

Technology Definition 

Tractor side fairings, also known as cab fairings, extend downward from
the base of the cab between the wheels of the tractor, covering the open
space and streamlining the fuel tank(s). Most cab side fairings have
steps to reach the cab molded directly into the fairing.  In some cases,
the fairing may consist of a single component that is a wheel to wheel
fairing.  In other cases, the side fairing consists of two components, a
partial side fairing and a fuel tank fairing.  Tractor side fairings can
be used on both day cabs and sleeper cabs.  

Availability 

Makers of side fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon
Composites, although there are numerous suppliers.  Truck manufacturers
often contract with suppliers for custom fairings that are included as
standard components of aerodynamic truck models.  

Vehicle Application

Tractor side fairings can be installed on either a sleeper cab or a day
cab, and on all cab sizes.  

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

The cost of the side fairing will vary depending on the size of the
truck tractor.  For instance, a truck with a longer wheelbase, such as
sleeper cab, will require a longer and typically more expensive fairing
than a day cab.

Trailer Side Skirts

Technology Definition 

Trailer side skirts, or trailer fairings, extend down from the bottom of
the trailer to cover part of the open space between the tractor and the
rear wheels.  These fairings improve airflow around the trailer and
reduce drag.  

Availability 

Trailer side skirts are widely available from a number of different
companies, including: ATD Dynamics, Freight Wing, Solus, Carrier
Transicold, Fleet Engineers, Laydon Composites, Ridge Corp., GreenWing,
Silver Eagle, Transtex and Utility Trailer.

Vehicle Application

Trailer side skirts can be installed on dry van and refrigerated
trailers, and are being testing on flatbed applications.  Side skirts
can also be installed on tanker trucks, but they have achieved limited
penetration in this market.

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Side fairings are more expensive on trailers with a higher deck.   Side
fairings for tanker trucks can be slightly more expensive, primarily due
to additional costs for mounting.

Trailer Gap Fairings

Technology Definition 

A trailer gap fairing performs the same function as a tractor gap
fairing, the difference being a trailer gap fairing is installed on a
trailer while the tractor gap fairing is installed on the tractor. 
Trailer gap fairings, also known as gap reducers, are usually rounded
additions to the sides and/or top of the front of the trailer that
reduce the gap between the tractor and trailer.  

Availability 

Trailer gap fairings are available from a number of different suppliers.
 Firms that produce SmartWay verified gap reducers include Carrier
Transicold, FreightWing, Laydon Composites and Nosecone. 

Vehicle Application

Trailer gap fairings can be installed on standard dry van and
refrigerated trailers.       

Rolling resistance improvements

Automatic Tire Inflation (ATI)

Technology Definition 

With properly inflated tires, tire rolling resistance is decreased and
fuel use is reduced compared to under-inflation. Automatic tire
inflation systems (ATI) monitor and continually adjust the level of
pressurized air in tires, maintaining proper tire inflation
automatically, even while the truck is moving.  The Meritor Tire
Inflation System by Pressure Systems International uses the vehicle’s
air-brake compressor to supply air to all of the tires. Air from the
existing trailer air supply is routed to a control box, then into each
axle. The axles act as conduits to distribute air through rotary union
assemblies at the spindle ends, which then distribute air to each tire
as needed.  Another system uses self-contained compressors mounted on
each hub that are powered by the rolling motion of the wheels. Once an
ATI system is installed, it should not require any special attention
from the driver.

Availability 

™) and Hendrickson (TIREMAAX® Electronic Controller; TIREMAAX®
Constant Pressure).

Vehicle Application

The application and price information discussed below is based on
research acquired from Pressure Systems International (PSI) Meritor tire
inflation systems.

Class 8 Long-Haul Trailers. For long haul trucking, PSI’s inflation
system is only available for the trailer, (and dollies and chassis)
only. [For a two-axle trailer, the cost is approximately $750 if system
is installed at manufacturing level. For labor, add another $200 if
system is added to an existing trailer as a retrofit truck. (The cost is
around $550 to be added to a single axle trailer or dollies.) In either
case a return on investment, with all things considered, is reported to
be less than one year and typically about 8 months.].

Vocational Trucks (e.g., service trucks, refuse trucks, delivery trucks,
etc.). Service trucks that have air brake systems can be fitted with
external ATI. 

Urban/Transit Buses. Buses of all types can also be fitted with external
ATI typically for the steer tires, drive tires, and a tag (non-drive)
axle tires. These types of systems would not require the governing of
engines or the deflation feature. [Therefore, these systems for six
wheel end positions would cost approximately $1000 to $1,250 price
range. Monitoring systems would run $650 to $900 per vehicle if that
type of system is used.]

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Prices vary depending on the number of axles. For a two axle trailer,
one kit will handle all 8 tires on a tandem dual axle system or all 4
tires on wide-base single tire system, the addition of the ThermALERT
option would increase the cost. [See “Vehicle Application” section
above.]  

The wear part of PSI’s ATI is the “Through-T” component. The price
of a replacement Through-T is in the range of $25 if purchased from a
parts sales house; it does not require special tools to install and can
be installed in approximately 15 minutes. The Through-T is the rotary
connection that delivers stationary air from the spindle end of axle to
rotating tires through the hoses. The Through-T component’s lifespan
has been tested to be up to 1 million miles, but in reality, the
component typically gets about 500K-750K miles of wear life.

Low-Rolling Resistance Tires

Technology Definition 

Tire rolling resistance refers to a frictional effect associated with
the contact of the tread of the tire with the road surface, and the
flexing of the tread. Reduction of rolling resistance can be
accomplished through the use of new materials, such as the combination
of silica and synthetic elastomer.

Given that many trucks have a large number of tires in contact with the
road (e.g., 18 wheels), rolling resistance can have a significant effect
on efficiency. Thus, tire rolling resistance is an important component
of the total engine power demand on a truck. Rolling resistance can be
reduced by avoiding under-inflation of existing tires (to reduce
unnecessary flexing), substituting one wide-tire for a pair of dual
tires (leading to a net reduction in total tread area, sidewall flexing,
or both), use of alternative tire materials to reduce rolling
resistance. To the extent that rolling resistance can be reduced, total
engine power demand is also reduced. This, in turn, leads to reductions
in fuel use and exhaust CO2 emission from the truck. 

Tire manufacturers seek to reduce the rolling resistance in order to
improve fuel economy. There are 2 recognized categories of Low Rolling
Resistance Tires: Single Wide-base (see below for further discussion
about this technology) and Low Rolling Resistance Dual Tires. A well
designed wide-base single tire has lower rolling resistance than
traditional dual tires.  Manufacturers also offer low rolling resistance
versions of dual tires.

Availability 

Leading brands for low-rolling resistance tires (common steer, drive,
and trailer models) are shown in   REF _Ref264031411 \h  \* MERGEFORMAT 
Table 2-7 .

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  7 : Low Rolling
Resistance Tire Types

Brand	Street	Drive	Trailer

Bridgestone	R287A, R280, R250F, R260F, R287	M720, Greatec	R195, Greatec
Trailer, Greatec R125, R197, S197

BF Goodrich	ST244	 DR 444	TR144 

Continental	HSL-2 (replaces HSL), HSR1 ECO Plus, HSR2 ECO Plus	HDL ECO
Plus, HDL2 DL ECO Plus, HDR1 ECO Plus, HSR1 ECO Plus, HSR2 ECO Plus	HTL
ECO Plus, HTL1

Double Coin	N/A	FD405	FT105

Dunlop Tire	SP384 FM	 SP456 FM	SP193 FM

Firestone	FS590 PLUS, FS507	FD662	FT455 PLUS

General	S371, S581	D660, S371, S581	ST250

Goodyear	G395 LHS Fuel Max, G399 Fuel Max, G662 Fuel Max	G305 LHD Fuel
Max, G392 SSD, G305 Fuel Max AT	G316 LHT Fuel Max, G316 Fuel Max
DuraSeal

Michelin	 XZA3, XZA2, XZA1+, XZE, XZE2, XZA2 Energy,	XDA2+ Energy, XDA
Energy, XDA3, X-One XDA, X-One XDN2, XOne XDA Energy, XDE2+, XDN2, XDE
M/S	XTA Energy, XT1, X-One XTA, X-ONE XTE, XTE

Toyo Tires	M137, M154	M657	M127

Yokohama 	RY617, 103ZR, 101ZL	703ZL, TY517mc2	 RY587mc2, RY587

Hankook	AL07+, AL11	Z35a, DL11	TL01 

Vehicle Application

Class 8 combination Line-Haul Tractor-Trailers, including day cabs and
mid- and full-size sleeper cabs. 

Single Wide (Wide-Base) Tires

Technology Definition 

Single-wide tires are used by a number of carriers and private fleets on
combination vehicles to reduce rolling resistance. The benefits of
reducing rolling resistance are more substantial on combination
vehicles, and single-wide tires are not currently available for
single-unit trucks.  A single wide-base tire with an aluminum rim is
lighter than two standard tires and wheels.

Combination trucks usually have two sets of dual tires at each end of an
axle. Dual tires are heavy and also produce high rolling resistance.
Single wide-base tires, which are commercially available products, can
replace these dual tires in most applications. Wide-base tires that have
a combined lower weight (e.g., there are only two sidewalls for one
tire, versus four sidewalls for two tires) and produce lower rolling
resistance reduce energy use. This best practice is suitable for
combination trucks that have van trailers, which are the majority of the
total truck fleet. By using single instead of dual tires, there is a
need for increased attention to tire inflation pressure for safety
reasons.

Single-wide tires have mainly been confined to niche markets and
installed on combination vehicles. For vehicles that weigh-out, they can
have the added benefit of reducing the truck’s tare weight and
increasing the payload that can be carried. Tare weight reduction is
important in making the business case for investing in these tires and
their wheels.

Availability 

Leading brands for Single Wide Tires include Michelin, Goodyear, and
Bridgestone. These are available from a variety of tire manufacturers
and retailers. Retailers may specialize by vehicle application or type.
Michelin makes the X-One® single wide tire for trucks. Goodyear makes a
wide based tire called the Super Single.  Bridgestone also makes a wide
based tire.

Vehicle Application

Class 8 combination Line-Haul Tractor-Trailers, including day cabs and
mid- and full-size sleeper cabs. 

Traditional dual tires are replaced with one single wide tire and
aluminum wheel, and can be applied to all tractor and trailer tire
positions except for the steer tires. The new generation of wide-base
tires has a section width of up to 17.5 inches, for a typical tandem
axle combination truck these tires comply with pavement weight laws in
all 50 states.  For some non-tandem axle combination trucks, wide-base
tires may not comply with "inch-width" laws in certain states. Note that
single-wide tires are not currently manufactured for single-unit trucks
or buses. 

Operational improvements

Advanced Driver Training

Technology Definition 

Courses on fuel efficiency teach fleet managers and drivers fuel saving
techniques such as:

using cruise control; 

coasting; 

block-shifting; 

braking and accelerating smoothly and gradually; 

progressive shifting; 

limiting unnecessary truck idling; 

starting out in a gear that does not require use of the throttle when
releasing the clutch; 

limiting unnecessary shifting; 

driving at the lowest engine speed possible; and

reducing parasitic energy losses by limiting the use of accessories.  

	There are numerous training options: 

Subscription with lessons: in this type of training, a company may pay a
monthly subscription fee to another company, such as Instructional
Technologies, that offers many types of electronic training courses,
including fuel efficiency courses. 

High-Level Training without a Subscription: a trucking company may also
develop an internal training program where a trainer meets individually
with drivers to teach fuel efficiency techniques and to monitor driver
performance. 

Classroom Lessons: A trucking company may require its drivers to take a
course through a vocational school or for-profit training organization
that teaches drivers fuel-saving techniques. 

Availability 

Training can be provided by employers, vocational schools, and
for-profit training organizations.

Vehicle Application

Driver training courses are most often utilized by trucking fleets with
Class 8 vehicles. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Estimates vary based on the type of training, number of hours of driver
time required and wage rates.  

Speed Limiter

Technology Definition 

A maximum vehicle speed can be pre-programmed into the engine’s
electronic control unit. The American Trucking Association estimates
that approximately 77 percent of its members have speed limiters set at
68 mph or lower. Programming is most often done by the engine
manufacturer.

Availability 

Most engines are capable of being programmed for a maximum speed.

Vehicle Application

A speed limit can be pre-programmed for Class 8 tractor trailer trucks,
and is most likely applicable to other vehicle classes as well.  

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Although the programming is most often done by the engine manufacturer,
costs may arise to truck owners if the speed needs to be adjusted after
the vehicle is purchased. The maximum speed can be adjusted at a dealer
and involves connecting to the engine’s electronic control unit to a
computer using proprietary software and reprogramming the engine
software. 

Idling reduction technologies

Anti-idle System (a.k.a., Automatic Engine Stop System)

Technology Definition 

Truck engines can be pre-programmed to shut off after a certain amount
of time spent idling. , The idling time can be specified when ordering a
truck. 

Availability 

All new Class 8 truck engines can be pre-programmed., For example, this
system is part of the Cummins 2007 engine. However, the use rate for
this technology is small.

Vehicle Application

An automatic engine stop system can be pre-programmed for Class 8
tractor trailer trucks.  

Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems

Technology Definition 

Automatic engine start/stop systems are used to start and stop the truck
engine automatically to maintain oil temperature, a specified cab
temperature, and/or to maintain battery voltage. Drivers typically
activate the system while resting and program a desired temperature
range; the engine will start and shut off automatically in order to
operate the heating or air conditioning systems and maintain the desired
temperature range. 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  24 : Automatic
Start/Stop System

Source:   HYPERLINK
"http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis525/term/f00/ian/Op
timized%20Idle.htm" 
http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis525/term/f00/ian/Opt
imized%20Idle.htm  

Availability 

Detroit Diesel currently offers an automatic engine start/stop system.
Cummins previously offered the ICON Idle Control System, however, they
are currently working to develop a new system. , As part of this
development phase, they are developing an engine that further minimizes
bearing wear due to frequent start/stops of the engine. 

Vehicle Application

This technology is most often used on Class 8 sleeper cabs. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

There are additional costs for programming the engine computer that are
incurred from the use of technology. Volume discounts are available for
purchases of 10 units or more.  Installation costs will vary depending
on the complexity of the installation.  

Thermal Storage Systems 

Technology Definition 

Thermal storage units provide cooling to the bunk of a truck’s cab
without using any fuel or creating any emissions. It serves as an
alternative to diesel fueled APUs. The unit charges while you drive and
is considered fully charged in approximately 4 to 6 hours and then can
provide up to 10 hours of cooling off of one charge while the engine is
off.,  While driving, a thermal storage core made of patented
graphite/water matrix is frozen to 12 degrees Fahrenheit by an electric
refrigeration compressor driven by the truck’s standard electrical
system.  Once the truck is parked and the engine is off, a
high-efficiency pump circulates coolant through the storage core to a
heat exchanger in the air handling system.  Four fans then blow cool air
through the heat-exchanger directly into the bunk. The cold storage unit
mounts to the truck’s rail frame and the in-cab air handler delivers
chilled air to the bunk. Note that a Hybrid Blue Cool Truck thermal
storage system is now available; it operates similarly to the Blue Cool
Truck thermal storage unit but also includes shore power functionality.

Availability 

Webasto manufactures the Blue Cool Truck thermal storage unit. No other
manufacturers have been identified. 

Vehicle Application 

Thermal storage units, such as the Blue Cool Truck, are designed for use
by heavy duty trucks, not for medium duty trucks.

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

There are no expected operations/maintenance costs for thermal storage
units, such as the Blue Cool Truck. Since there are very few moving
parts, once installed, there should be no expected
operations/maintenance costs for 3-5 years. Note that the Blue Cool
Truck Hybrid System costs approximately $2,000 more than the standard
Blue Cool Truck unit and includes shore power functionality.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  25 : Thermal
Storage Unit

 

Source: Blue Cool Truck Image,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/images/vendorImages/vendor_307244/
product_26/C5_Truck_Prod_Circle_300rgb.jpg" 
http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/images/vendorImages/vendor_307244/p
roduct_26/C5_Truck_Prod_Circle_300rgb.jpg 

Engine Recovery Systems (ERS)

Technology Definition 

An engine recovery system keeps a cab warm while at rest without burning
fuel by enabling an existing vehicle heater to operate with the engine
off. The coolant in a warm engine contains considerable amounts of
stored heat energy. An ERS recovers this energy to keep the vehicle
interior warm without the need to idle the engine. By continuing the
circulation of the hot coolant through the cab heater with the engine
off, the system recovers this heat for useful purposes, it is estimated
that the Authotherm® ERS will keep a Class 7 or 8 truck warm for 3-4
hours. The system functions automatically and shuts off when the coolant
temperature drops to 95 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Availability 

Autotherm® Systems manufactures an engine recovery system – Autotherm
T-2500. 

Vehicle Application 

Engine recovery systems can be used for medium and heavy duty trucks. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

There are no maintenance costs for the unit beyond installation. 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  26 : Engine
Recovery System

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.autothermusa.com/company.html" 
http://www.autothermusa.com/company.html 

Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)

Technology Definition 

APUs are generally mounted externally on the truck cab. An APU typically
consists of a small combustion engine and generator combination that can
provide power to the truck when the main engine is shut off. Electricity
from an APU can be used to power heating, air conditioning, and other
electrical accessories for the cab and sleeper. Non-traditional electric
battery-operated APUs are also available. Fuel cell APUs are currently
in the research phase, but are expected to be offered by 2012. 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  27 : APUs

Source: Cascade Sierra Solutions. “Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing
Emissions.” 2008 Fall Edition.

Availability 

Examples of companies that offer APU systems include: Pony Pack®, Inc.,
RigMaster, and Thermo King. Glacier Bay Inc., Thermo King, Idle Free®
and others offer an electric battery-operated APU; Delphi is developing
a fuel cell APU. Some APUs may be sold directly from the APU
manufacturer, but most APUs are sold through retailers. 

Vehicle Application

Industry interviews indicate that APUs are most often installed on Class
8 sleeper cabs, but may be installed on day cabs. APUs are not generally
installed on Class 5 box trucks or buses. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Non-traditional electric battery-driven systems are available and
slightly cheaper than diesel-powered APUs. Costs associated with APUs
include: capital and installation, and may include warranty costs. Large
volume discounts are common.

Direct Fired Heaters

Technology Definition 

Direct fired heaters serve as climate control systems that do not rely
upon either the large truck engine or small diesel engine powered units
to supply energy for heating, which reduces fuel consumption and GHG
emissions.  

A direct fired heater is sometimes referred to as a fuel operated
heater, a bunk heater or an air heater. There are several categories of
heaters, including preheated engine coolant heaters and in-cab air
heaters. A preheated engine coolant heater is used to warm the cab
before the engine is started to eliminate cold starts and provide engine
pre-heat.  An in-cab air heater provides immediate heat and offers
capacity to heat a cab overnight while the driver sleeps. The preheated
engine coolant heater is often less expensive than the in-cab air
heater, but offers less capacity. Some manufacturers offer combination
units which combine the pre-heating and in-cab heating functions. 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  28 : Direct
Fired Heater

 

Source: How an Air Heater Works, Espar,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.html" 
http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.html 

The primary focus for this report is in-cab air heaters. A direct fired
air heater uses a small combustion flame to supply heat through a heat
exchanger. When the heater is turned on (without the engine on), a
burner motor starts and a blower unit draws combustion air into a heat
exchanger.  Simultaneously, fuel is drawn from the truck’s fuel tank
– generating a fuel-air mixture that ignites. A flame is formed and
hot combustion gases are circulated through the heat exchanger.  A hot
air fan draws in room or fresh air and the heat of the combustion gases
is then transferred by the heat exchanger to the hot air. Warm air then
flows through the cab. 

Availability 

There are many models of direct fire heaters. Some manufacturers include
Espar Heater Systems, and Webasto Thermosystems. Each company
manufactures units suitable for class 3-8 vehicles including long-haul
trucks and school buses. Some manufacturers also offer combination units
that include functionality for pre-engine heating and in-cab heating. 
For instance, Webasto’s Tandem 717 combines the engine pre-heating
function of the TSL 17 with the in-cab heater Air Top 2000 ST. These
combination units are more expensive than single units. 

Vehicle Application 

Most direct fire heaters are applicable to class 3-8 vehicles. Some
units, such as a direct fire combination unit with an engine pre-heater,
are targeted more for full-size sleeper cabs due to their capacity.
Nonetheless, the single-unit direct fire heaters are appropriate for use
in any vehicle type for class 3-8.  

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Notable discounts, taxes, fees or applicable cost factors are not
available. 

Fuel Cell APU

Technology Definition

It is expected that the first vehicle to be equipped with a fuel cell in
production, although not for main propulsion power, is likely to be a
Class 8 tractor-trailer truck.  A number of companies including: Delphi,
Protonex, Boeing, and others are working to develop a fuel cell APU. 
Delphi is working on a solid-oxide fuel cell (SOFC) that operates on
multiple types of fuel. Mounted behind the fairings, the SOFC will start
up and power lighting and other accessories as well as heat provide for
sleeper cab warmth in winter and electricity for sleeper cab
air-conditioning in warm weather. The truck's diesel engine will not
need to run for those purposes.

The Delphi SOFC, which produces nearly zero emissions, has a fuel
consumption of 0.13 gal/hr at no load and about 0.2 gal/hr in typical
operation. That's at least 15% lower than the small two-cylinder diesels
that normally power the APUs and is about 80% lower than an idling truck
engine. The Delphi SOFC uses an electrolyte that is called
yttria-stabilized zirconia, a zirconium-oxide-based ceramic. The
material, which is stable at room temperature, is hard and chemically
inert, and it also is used in dental crowns.   According to Delphi,
the SOFC has an operating efficiency of 30% on diesel fuel and 40% on
natural gas and lends itself to mass production, and because it contains
no precious metals and is cost-effective.

Availability

Delphi indicated that the SOFC would be available in the 2012 timeframe.
However, Cummins has estimated that this technology may not be available
until 2014.

Vehicle Application

Class 8 sleeper cabs.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Delphi said it would compete against "midrange" APUs—i.e., in the
$8000-$9000 installed price range (some diesel APUs are as much as 50%
higher).  NOTEREF _Ref263761351 \h  \* MERGEFORMAT  79 

Truck Stop Electrification

Technology Definition

Truck stop electrification (TSE) provides power to vehicles while they
are docked at service bays to avoid overnight idling. TSE systems are
either "off-board" (a.k.a., Advanced Truckstop Electrification, ATE) or
"truck-board" (which may also be referred to as, TSE). ATE is an
external system that connects to the truck cab via a window or other
access point, and consists of an HVAC subsystem mounted off-board the
tractor which may also provide 120-Volt AC outlets and an entertainment
package (internet, telephone, cable television). The systems commonly
referred to as TSE are typically a combination of truck-board and
facility power systems – a.k.a. shore-power. Shore-power provides
access to 120- or 240-Volt power from a land-based source and separates
the electrical supply from the accessory system installed in the
tractor. Commercial shore-power facilities may also include credit card
readers, cable television, and communication interface. 

An example of a traditional off-board (a.k.a. ATE) system was that of
IdleAire™, deployed at several facilities throughout the U.S (see
“Availability” section below). It included heating, cooling, AC
electrical outlets, touch screen monitor with Internet access, and phone
and cable television connections. The HVAC system was mounted atop an
overhead truss assembly, where the wiring and ductwork originated and
reached the truck via a drop down, protective, flexible shield which
supports the integrated computer service console. The service console
was connected to the tractor through the passenger-side window by a
mounting template, which retailed at the facility for $10. The service
cost was $1.25 per hour for registered fleets and $1.50 per hour to
others for basic services, payable via an automatic card reader. There
was no required on-board componentry for the IdleAire™ off-board
system, although internet service could be made available via
user-supplied equipment and use of the telephone service requires the
user’s phone. 

No standard truck-board equipment set exists for shore-power, although
OEM tractor installations may be developed. One test system includes a
Smart Energy Management System (EMS), a Cab Comfort (Dometic) HVAC
system, wiring kits and receptacles, and an inverter/charger and may
operate on 120 Volt/20A up to 240 Volt/50A. The electrical connection
hardware is on-board the truck and a stationary pedestal at the truck
stop houses electrical power connections. An exterior-grade wire harness
connects the two subsystems. Prices for the on-board system depend on
the truck configuration. 

™ also provides ATE via a fitted window unit that supplies UV filtered
air, heat, A/C, power, internet, cable, and intercom communications.
Some also include block heater power. Use of the system is currently
free, but requires purchase of a required insert which retails between
$11-25 depending on the truck.

Availability

The IdleAire™ Corporation filed for bankruptcy protection on May 12,
2008 and, after failing to find a buyer, closed on January 29, 2010.
News reports do state, however, that some facilities are expected to be
operational in July, 2010. The facilities IdleAire™ was operating
appear to be shut down. However, other companies are operating some
stations. These currently seem to be limited to EnviroDock in NY,
Shorepower Technologies in CA, OR, WA, and NC, CabAire in CT and NC. 
The DOE lists TSE sites that are available.

Envirodock offers a range of systems depending on the limitations of the
truck stop architecture, and have installations of both ATE and
shore-power (TSE) types. They have reported little use of the TSE-only
system, which they attribute to truckers being resistant to modifying
their (very expensive investment in their) cab. Envirodock reports
having two beta sites in New York and will open one in Tennessee, as
well as noting a driving concern for any truck stop electrification
program is that there is little enforcement of anti-idling laws
nationwide since it is unclear who has jurisdiction. CabAire™ has
received $1.1M in federal funding to install 100 truck electrification
spaces at two truck stops in Alabama ($11k/space).

Vehicle Application

TSE applies to principally to overnight idling vehicles, i.e. Class 8
sleeper cabs. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Avoided operating and maintenance costs from truck idling service are
directly proportional to the hours an engine idles. LP Tardif &
Associates Inc. found that an additional $0.92 is spent on service,
maintenance, and repairs for every hour the truck spends idling. 

Most of the cost to operate truck stop electrification is in the
electric infrastructure, including needed transformers.  Total estimates
of infrastructure installation costs for a full ATE system are
$7500-8000 per system, including electric, islands, mounting, lighting,
etc. The cost of shore-power type systems is less.  The cost depends on
many factors, including input power rating, A/C BTU rating, heat kWh
rating, etc. These costs must be passed on to the user ultimately, if
the systems are to be profitable. Most truck stop electrification
deployments do not provide power for TRUs, which require much greater
load and A-rating and thus are more expensive. 

Engine improvements

Integrated Starter/Alternator

Technology Definition

The integrated starter/alternator system provides additional electric
motor boost for extra power.  It is a concept that is referred to as a
mild hybrid.  The integrated starter/alternator is mounted between the
engine flywheel and the transmission and provides engine start/stop
capabilities.  In addition, the larger battery pack provides some
limited duration auxiliary power capability if coupled with electrified
accessories.  Regenerative braking provides additional power to the
battery. The battery is sized modestly to minimize cost and weight
increases.

The integrated starter/alternator replaces the existing starter and
alternator supplying those functions in addition to being able to
provide regenerative braking, automatic engine shut-off at idle, instant
restart and limited launch assist.

Availability

Some manufacturers are considering these systems as a less costly
alternative to a full hybrid electric system.

Vehicle Application

All vocational trucks

Turbo Compounding

Technology Definition

Turbo compounding adds a power turbine downstream of the conventional
turbocharger. By capturing waste heat from the exhaust stream, the power
turbine generates additional work which can be fed back to the engine
crankshaft using a sophisticated transmission (mechanical systems) or by
generating electricity (electrical systems). The power turbine, shown in
  REF _Ref267048427 \h  \* MERGEFORMAT  Figure 2-29 , has a gear or
generator connected to the shaft instead of a compressor. In addition,
the conventional turbocharger turbine is down-sided to provide more
power to the power turbine.  This smaller turbocharger provides better
transient response and higher boost pressure at lower speeds as well. 
Optimal matching of the turbocharger and power turbine is required.91

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  29 . Turbo
Compounding Turbine

Source: Cummins Turbo Technologies

Power turbines are available in two types, namely radial and axial.  The
radial turbine is best suited to variable speed applications.  The axial
power turbine is more efficient with single engine speed applications.
However, the axial turbine is more compact but it is not as well suited
to truck applications that operate at variable engine speeds. Using a
turbo compounding system increases the engine overall thermal efficiency
from 42% to 46%.

Availability

Several manufacturers are making turbo compounding units including
Holset for Cummins, DDC and Volvo Powertrain.

Vehicle Application

All Trucks

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Mechanical turbo compounding systems would include port liners, variable
valve actuation and a high-efficiency power turbine.  Electrical systems
would include the mechanical turbo compounding components plus a 40 kW
motor/generator, power electronics and balance of plant modifications. 
Electric auxiliaries can be added with electric turbo compounding. 
Cummins estimates mechanical turbo compounding to be approximately
$2,000 for a mechanical system and approximately $6,500 for an electric
system which does not include electrifying the auxiliary loads.   The
prices quoted are intended to be representative of end-user prices.

Variable Geometry Turbocharger

Technology Definition

  SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1 Variable geometry turbochargers (VGTs) have been
developed in an effort to match turbocharger performance to engine
operation over a wider speed-load range.  VGTs also allow for quicker
transient response by restricting the turbine nozzle during
accelerations.  Their ability to provide additional air to the engine
over a wider range of operating conditions also allows for emissions
reductions.

VGTs allow modification of the aspect ratio depending upon loads and
speeds.  The aspect ratio is the ratio of the area of the cone to radius
from the center hub as shown in   REF _Ref267048461 \h  \* MERGEFORMAT 
Figure 2-30 . Optimal aspect ratios at low speed are considerably
different from those at high speeds.  By varying the aspect ratio, the
turbocharger is more efficient at all conditions.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  30 :
Turbocharger Aspect Ratio

Source: http://www.myturbodiesel.com/1000q/turbocharging.htm#A/R ratio

Being able to vary the aspect ratio is very important as aspect ratio
that is too small will cause the turbo to choke the engine leading to
lower engine power output. Also by being able to alter the aspect ratio
as the engine accelerates, the turbo response can be increased. It can
also be used to introduce EGR to lower emissions.

Availability

Most heavy duty engine manufacturers are using VGTs on their engines to
meet 2010 emission standards.

Vehicle Application

All Trucks

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Price is incremental to a fixed geometry turbocharger.

Variable Valve Actuation

Technology Definition

Variable valve actuation (VVA) allows valves to open and close through
use of mechanical, electro-hydraulic or electronic solenoids (camless). 
Being able to control valve timing, valve lift and the amount of time
the valve is open can greatly improve engine performance during
transient conditions.  Generally valves are controlled by a cam which
fixes valve timing and lift.  This usually reduces engine performance at
some loads and speeds and leads to less optimal drivability, fuel
economy and emissions.

VVA’s benefits are less for diesel engines than for gasoline engines
because of the narrower range of operating speeds.  VVA does allow
better emission control by controlling exhaust temperatures for
aftertreatment devices.  It also allows the turbocharger to operate more
efficiently at a variety of engine operating modes.  Turbo compounding
can also benefit from VVA because it can control the amount of energy in
the exhaust stream.

Availability

Eaton is developing both camless and mechanical systems.

Vehicle Application

All Trucks

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Price depends strongly on engine configuration (e.g., number of
cylinders), whether applied to intake and/or exhaust valves, and whether
the system is cam operated or camless. 

Transmission and Drivetrain improvements

Early Torque Convertor Lock-up

Technology Definition

Torque convertors act as a clutch for automatic or automated manual
transmissions.  They also multiply torque, absorb torsional vibration of
the engine and drivetrain.  The torque convertor sits between the engine
and transmission and is filled with automatic transmission fluid.  It
uses an impeller/turbine system to transmit torque from the engine to
the transmission.  If the impeller (connected to the engine) is going at
a higher speed than the turbine (connected to the transmission), the
torque is multiplied from the engine to the transmission.  When the
impeller is moving at the same speed as the turbine, there is no torque
multiplication but there is a 4 to 5 percent loss in energy.  To prevent
this, torque convertors contain a lock-up clutch that mechanically
connects the impellor and turbine.

Generally this lock-up event occurs around 37 mph.  This is actuated by
the transmission controller.  By reprogramming the controller, earlier
lock-up can occur which can provide additional fuel economy benefits at
lower speeds.

Availability

Allison Transmissions builds most of the heavy-duty vehicle
transmissions.

Vehicle Application

All long-haul trucks with automated manual transmissions.  This concept
is less viable on vocational trucks due to the lower and transient
nature of their duty cycle.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Allison mentions that in most cases early torque convertor lock-up is
just a software change and won’t require any additional labor on new
trucks.  In some cases the springs in the clutch would need to be
changed to minimize noise, vibration and harshness. In new trucks, even
this would result in little or no cost increase.

Hybrid Powertrain

Technology Definition

These systems are similar in concept to the full hybrids used in
light-duty applications. Hybrids come in both a parallel-hybrid and a
series-hybrid design.

In a series-hybrid, the electric generator is driven by a small engine
which is used to charge the batteries.  The batteries are used to power
an electric motor or motors that drive the vehicle.  In a series-hybrid,
the engine does not provide power to the wheel but is only used to
charge the batteries.  As such, the engine can operate at a more
efficient condition.  However, because mechanical energy needs to be
converted to electrical energy and back again, this can lead to losses. 
Generally series systems are not used on higher speed applications but
have been used on some transit buses.

Parallel-hybrid systems employ a small electric motor coupled to the
engine crankshaft.  In a parallel-hybrid, both the engine and motor can
drive the wheels.  These systems are more efficient in higher speed
applications.  There have been a number of demonstrations of this
technology on heavy duty vehicles.

Availability

Parallel-hybrid systems are currently available in transit bus, motor
coach, and Class 3-6 box and bucket trucks, and in the fleet
demonstration stage for refuse haulers. There have been a few
demonstrations of Class 8 tractor trailers using a parallel
architecture. 

Vehicle Application

All vocational trucks and short haul Class 8 trucks.  This concept has
limited value in line haul trucking applications.

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Components include a motor/generator, battery pack, power electronics, a
modified clutch assembly, electrification of auxiliary loads and balance
of plant.    REF _Ref264038000 \h  Table 2-8  shows motor/generator and
battery pack and convertor sizes for various truck types.

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  8 : Hybrid system
component sizes

Components	Class 4 Utility Truck	Class 6 Box Truck	Class 8 Refuse Truck
Class 8 Transit Bus	Class 8 Short Haul Truck

Motor/Generator	30kW	30 kW	100 kW & 30 kW	100 kW & 30 kW	50 kW

DC to DC Convertor	5 kW	5 kW	8 kW	8 kW	5 kW

Battery	4 kWh	4 kWh	8 kWh	8 kWh	4 kWh

As manufacturers indicated that costs of hybrid systems were considered
proprietary, ICF estimated prices for the 6 truck types based upon
component costs with associated mark-ups.  End-user costs were as
follows:

Class 4 Utility Truck -- $33,000

Class 6 Box Truck -- $37,000

Class 8 Refuse Truck -- $69,000

Class 8 Transit Bus -- $60,000

Class 8 Short Haul Truck -- $25,000

The Class 8 short haul truck assumes that the R&D costs could be spread
over a larger sales volume than the other categories.  These costs match
fairly well with the incentives that ARB is offering under AB 118
funding for the Air Quality Improvement Program.  Generally the
incentive amounts comprise 50 percent of the incremental costs. 
Incentive amounts are shown in   REF _Ref264038022 \h  Table 2-9 .

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  9 : Hybrid Vehicle
Incentives

Vehicle Class	Base Vehicle Incentive

Class 4 - 6 (14,000 – 26,000 lbs GVWR)	$20,000

Class 7 (26,001 – 33,000 lbs GVWR)	$25,000

Class 8 (33,001 – 38,000 lbs GVWR)	$30,000

Class 8 (> 38,000 lbs GVWR)	$35,000

Low-Friction Engine Lube and Drive Train Lubricants

Technology Definition 

Conventional mineral oil lubricants may have too high viscosity to
effectively slip between and lubricate the moving parts, particularly
new truck components that are designed with close tolerances and tight
fits. Conventional lubricants may also be heavy, making it harder for
pumps, gears and shafts to move. These effects create energy and
friction losses that waste fuel. Alternatively, low-friction lubricants
reduce friction and wear of critical vehicle systems including the
engine, transmission and drive train. Without lubricants, moving parts
inside these systems would grind together causing heat, stress, and
excessive wear. 

Friction losses in the drive train (transmission and differential) and
engine can be reduced by using low-viscosity lubricants. Most
manufacturers of lubricants produce “fuel economy” options that have
lower viscosity than standard lubricants. However, use of low viscosity
lubricants can result in higher drive train or engine wear, which
increases maintenance costs. In selecting lubricants, most fleet
managers believe they currently have struck the proper balance between
fuel savings and maintenance costs.

Low-viscosity lubricants are less resistant to flow than conventional
lubricants, and may contain additives designed to withstand the extreme
pressure that could occur as the lubricant flows between tight fitting
parts. Low viscosity lubricants may be made from synthetic or mineral
oil blends with extreme pressure additives. 

Transmission (Drive Train) Lubricants

Lubricants can reduce gear contact friction in transmissions, but they
also reduce fuel efficiency because of their viscosity.  Low-viscosity
transmission fluid is made from synthetic or mineral oil blends and is
reported to decrease transmission friction and also reduce fuel
consumption. 

Engine Lubricants

Some energy losses in an engine are due to mechanical friction.
Reduction in internal engine friction can be achieved using improved
lubricants. Low-viscosity engine lubricants are made from synthetic or
mineral oil blends for the purpose of reducing internal engine friction.
Low-viscosity engine lubricants can reduce energy use. Low-viscosity
engine fluid typically costs more than conventional lubricants. These
strategies have wide applicability to all types of truck classes and
operations.

Availability 

Available types of low-friction lubricants (engine and transmission)
include Valvoline, Chevron Delo®, and Mobile1.

Vehicle Application

Vocational truck engine, transmission and drive train (Class 3-8)

Transit bus engine, engine, transmission and drive train (Class 6, 7)

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Additional cost savings may be possible due to reduced engine wear and
maintenance, and by providing a longer period between engine overhauls.

Rankine Bottoming Cycle

Technology Definition

A Rankine bottoming cycle system converts otherwise wasted thermal
energy from the engine to provide additional work.  The heat is used to
heat a working fluid that can be used to drive a turbine.  Waste heat is
captured from: 

the exhaust after any aftertreatment, 

the EGR cooler,

the engine coolant, and

the charge air cooler.

The turbine is used to drive a generator to create electricity which can
then be used by and electric motor connected to the engine crankshaft. 

While bottoming cycles provide good energy for continuous high speed
operation, their transient response is poor.  This can be mitigated by
combining the system with a hybrid electric drive system.  In this case
the electricity provided by the Rankine bottoming cycle can be used to
supplement engine power when at higher continuous speeds and store power
at other conditions.

Availability

Discussions with manufacturers suggest that they envision the bottoming
cycle as a promising technology that could come into the market in the
2015 timeframe. However, this technology is still in the early stages of
development, and there are significant capital cost and packaging issues
to be resolved.

Vehicle Application

All Trucks

Notable Cost-Related Factors

The Rankine bottoming cycle system would include a turbine, generator
and flywheel producing 30 kW, an air cooled condenser, an EGR boiler, a
stack boiler, controls and power electronics, energy storage and
modifications to the balance of plant.  Cummins estimates such a system
would cost the end user approximately $7,000.

Weight reduction technologies

Aluminum Air Tanks

Technology Definition 

Air tanks made out of aluminum rather than steel are one method to
reduce overall truck weight. The reduced weight savings improves fuel
economy. Standard steel tanks range in size from ¼ gallon to 20
gallons. Prices are difficult to estimate since there is not an
industry-wide fixed number of air tanks per truck. Air tanks are used
for a variety of functions, ranging from tire inflation, air brakes, air
horns and air-powered seats. Class 8 trucks may have two to four air
tanks depending on the functionality of the air in the truck.

Availability 

Conversations with industry representatives indicate that steel air
tanks are currently the standard and that the use of aluminum for air
tanks is fairly rare, particularly for class 8 trucks. 

Vehicle Application 

Air tanks are used in all classes of 3-8 vehicles depending on the
functionality of the air for the vehicle. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Note that aluminum usually costs about 50 – 100% more than steel.

Aluminum Axles and Axle Hubs

Technology Definition

Attempts to replace traditional axles and axle hubs with lightweight
versions composed chiefly of aluminum, although other materials have
been considered, such as carbon fiber. 

Availability

To date, industry opinion is that this technology will not make it into
production due to heat and integrity issues. Although some research has
been done on axle tubes, center carrier areas, cover plates, etc., this
is still in the research and development phase and difficult to provide
cost estimates for.

Vehicle Application

Not currently applicable to any vehicles. 

Aluminum Wheels 

Technology Definition 

Forged and cast aluminum wheels are lighter than traditional steel
wheels. Aluminum wheels provide enhanced performance advantages over
standard steel wheels, including weight savings, and lower maintenance
and operating costs. The mounting system for aluminum wheels can be ball
seat or hub piloted. Alcoa offers a full set of options for heavy duty
trucks and buses including 22.5”, 24.5”, and 14" wide-base wheels,
that when partnered with the right tire, can increase fuel and tire
efficiency as well as save weight. For example, the all-purpose
commercial wheel (i.e., 24.5” LvL ONE™) weighs 56 pounds compared to
a typical 86 pound steel wheel. For a standard dry flatbed trailer, a 2
axle – 8 wheel configuration with 22.5 by 8.25 inch wheels, replacing
steel wheels with aluminum would reduce the trailer’s weight by 176
pounds.

Wheel manufacturers are offering aluminum wheels in 22.5x14-in. sizes to
help bring additional weight and fuel savings to fleets. Alcoa offers a
wide base wheel engineered to work with low profile long-haul tires on
drive and trailer axles. In the wide base tire system, one wide wheel
and tire replaces a set of dual wheels and tires. Wide base wheel and
tire assemblies save fuel, in part, because they include only half as
many flexing sidewalls as a set of dual tires. Accuride DupleX-One
wide-base 22.5x14-in. aluminum wheels, the company notes, reduce fuel
expense or increase payload capacity when used in place of traditional
dual wheel sets on tandem-axle tractors and trailers. Developed in
conjunction with Michelin, the forged aluminum wheels can save 120 lbs.
per axle.

Availability 

Aluminum wheels are widely available for use on trailers and are
frequently a manufacturer optional feature of trailers. Manufacturers of
aluminum wheels include Alcoa and Accuride. 

Vehicle Application 

Aluminum wheels are available for heavy duty trucks (Class 6-8) and
Class 8 buses for drive, steer, and trailer axles for dual (22.5 and
24.5 x8.2) and single wide tires (22.5x14-in.)

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Additional benefits of aluminum wide-base (single-wide) tires and wheels
include reduced maintenance costs. Maintenance costs can be lower
because there are only four wheel positions per tandem compared to
eight. In addition, without an inner tire/wheel, inflation and visual
inspection becomes much easier and more effective. Super wide aluminum
wheels also tend to help keep brake packages running cooler and,
therefore, lasting longer.

Lightweight Brake Drums

Technology Definition 

Lightweight brake drums offer an opportunity to reduce truck weight and
thereby reduce fuel consumption. A lightweight brake drum is considered
an effective weight-savings option for trucks. These brake drums can
save nearly 25 pounds per drum compared to standard steel brake drums,
and replace standard or heavy duty full steel cast drums. Lightweight
brake drums, like the CentriFuse® drums are made of an iron alloy core
but have a steel outer shell. The lightweight drums are often combined
with aluminum wheels and aluminum hubs for additional weight savings.  

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  31 : Lightweight
Brake Drum Components

Source: CentriFuse® Product Brochure   HYPERLINK
"http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_drums_brochure.pdf" 
http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_drums_brochure.pdf 

Availability 

Motor Wheel Commercial Vehicle Systems. Inc. manufactures the
CentriFuse® Brake Drum. Several types of brake drum are available
including CentriFuse Lite, CentriFuse Wide Break, and CentriFuse Plus. 

Vehicle Application 

Lightweight brake drums can be used on any type of medium or heavy duty
truck and are frequently used for vehicles seeking lighter components.
Usually there are two brake drums per axle of a vehicle.

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

CentriFuse lightweight brake drums are reported as lasting four times
longer than conventional steel drums – therefore extending lifecycle
and reducing maintenance costs. Drums are alloy with a steel shell which
offers an added element of safety against breakage, thereby improving
cost-effectiveness. 

Lightweight Cab Components

Technology Definition

Like other lightweight options, replacing cab structural and surface
materials with lighter weight alternatives will reduce vehicle weight
and increase efficiency, assuming the vehicles are operating full in
terms of volume, but not at their full weight rating or what is known as
“cubed out.”  In the case of operating with the reverse scenario, or
“weighed out” any gain from the use of lighter weight components
would be offset by increased load.

Industry has indicated that some progress has been made on lightweight
technologies. Plastic cab components are typically sheet molded
composites (SMC) and are common in cab components where structural
strength is not of the utmost importance, such as hoods, air deflectors,
and sleeping cabin roofs. The majority of remaining cab components will
be made of steel or steel with some portion of aluminum.  Lightweight
prototype vehicles have been developed for some vehicle classes. For
example, the use of high strength stainless steel for a Class 8 bus body
and chassis has been shown to result in a mass savings of about 50%
(300% increase in fuel economy) with a cost savings of about 30%.  This
has only made it through a prototype phase and had various commercial
setbacks. 

Indications are that industry perceives aluminum frame cabs to be less
durable and add significantly to the truck purchase price. However, most
manufacturers offer lightweight versions of many other technologies.
Price differentials are generally driven by material cost and volume,
with aluminum roughly 50-100% more expensive than equivalent steel
components, although tooling and fixed costs are roughly the same. SMC
components are generally comparable in price to steel, depending on
thickness. Price differential estimates are difficult to obtain since
lightweight components are often offered only as packages that could
include tanks, wheels, and other elements. 

Availability

Found with some frequency in existing vehicles, although industry is
generally leery of their use. 

Vehicle Application

All vehicles

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Generally lightweight components are only available as packages.
Lifetime, operations, and maintenance costs should be comparable to
steel. 

Lightweight Suspension Systems

Technology Definition

Cab weight reduction and increased efficiency could come from the use of
lighter components, including replacement of suspension materials.
Currently these materials are made of steel, especially the springs, due
to its generally superior performance over other materials. 

Industry has said that lightweight suspensions could come from the use
of aluminum in certain components, however it was generally felt that
critical suspension components are expected to remain mostly steel. For
example, brackets, stayrods, and port controls could be made from
aluminum, while carbon and composite materials have been researched, but
are not anticipated for near-term use in heavy duty vehicles due to cost
and performance concerns. Further research and development for advanced
materials are needed. 

Availability

This technology is not currently available, except at an R&D level. It
is not anticipated in the near term. 

Reduced Number of Batteries

Technology Definition

A possible approach to reduce cab weight and thus engine load could be
to reduce the number of batteries installed per truck. 

Availability

Industry has indicated that reducing the number of batteries installed
in a truck is not currently a viable option. The number of batteries
required (three is standard for Class 8 tractors) is driven by the need
for cold-cranking amps. While other truck classes with smaller engines
could use fewer than three batteries, they are typically designed with
the smallest number necessary. 

As an alternative, advanced battery technology could offer either
lightweight alternatives or potentially greater strength, which could
lead to fewer batteries required. However, industry believes this is in
the distant future for heavy duty trucks, and would likely not offer
much weight reduction anyway.

Vehicle Application

Not currently applicable to any vehicles. 

Aluminum Structural Components for Trailers

Technology Definition 

Aluminum structural components can significantly reduce weight on
trailers for heavy duty trucks, and therefore reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. For the purposes of this research, aluminum components apply
to trailer types including dry vans, reefers and tankers.  Many steel or
plywood structural components for trailers can be replaced with aluminum
to reduce weight in a variety of applications. Aluminum roof posts
(rather than steel) often reduce weight by 75 pounds. Aluminum floor
joists (rather than steel) can reduce weight by 300 pounds.  Aluminum
floors (rather than wood floors) can reduce weight by 385 pounds. 
Aluminum cross members (rather than steel) can reduce weight by 155
pounds.  Aluminum side posts (rather than steel) may reduce weight by
275 pounds.  Finally, aluminum roof bows (rather than steel) can reduce
weight by about 100 pounds.

Availability

Aluminum components are widely available for use on trailers and are
frequently a manufacturer optional feature of trailers. 

Vehicle Application

Manufacturers offer aluminum component upgrades for trailers for class 8
heavy duty trucks. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Aluminum costs about 50 to 100% more than steel, and can sometimes cost
more to assemble than steel depending on the various fasteners required.
 Note that some manufacturers are beginning to use plastics for
structural components, for which the material costs are comparable to
steel, but this is not widespread.

Electrification

Electrification of Accessory Loads

Technology Definition

Generally most accessory loads such as the power steering pump, the
water pump, the air conditioning compressor, engine fan, and the air
compressor are driven mechanically by belts connected to the engine
crankshaft.  If a large source of electrical energy is available, such
as with hybrid systems or electric turbo compounding, these accessory
loads can be electrically driven reducing the direct load on the engine.
 The engine cooling fan can also be converted to electric drive although
for line haul applications, the efficiency savings are small because the
fan on times are low.

Availability

Not much research has been done on electrifying heavy-duty truck
components. However, there will likely be growing interest in
electrified accessories, such as power steering, due to the emergence of
hybrid-systems that offer “engine-off” or zero-emissions vehicle
mode of operations. 

Vehicle Application

All trucks using either hybrid technology or electric turbo compounding.

Air conditioning and transport refrigerated unit (TRU) improvements

Alternative Refrigerants

Technology Definition

Refrigerants leak, directly emitting GHGs. Moving to refrigerants with a
lower global warming potential (GWP) is one method to reduce the GHG
impact of heavy duty vehicles. 

Several gases have emerged as contenders with a lower GWP than the
current widely used refrigerant, HFC-134a, (GWP of 1,300) including CO2
(GWP = 1), HFC-152a (GWP = 120), and Propane (GWP = 20). Each of these
gases would require a refrigeration system modified to some extent from
the current 134a systems and present their own challenges related to
safety, flammability, toxicity, and other health and environmental
concerns. 

Globally, motor vehicle air conditioning manufacturers have appeared to
settle on a single future refrigerant, HFO-1234yf. HFO-1234yf is
“acceptable for use in mobile air conditioning from a toxicity
perspective”, has low ignition potential, GWP of 4 with lifetime of
days, no ozone depleting potential (ODP), low smog-forming potential,
and low ecosystem impact.  It also requires minimal changes to current
system architecture, however, the refrigerant itself is expensive.
Currently, research prices are $500 per kg, with final in-production
price estimated to be about $50 per lb  as compared to R134a which
retails today for approximately $7 per lb (with volume discounts as much
as $1.20/lb)

Availability

CO2, Propane, and HFC-152a are readily available but less likely to be
implemented than HFO-1234yf. HFO-1234yf is currently unavailable
commercially. 

Vehicle Application

All mobile vehicle air conditioning systems, including Class 8 tractors,
TRUs, Class 3-8 work trucks, and light-duty vehicles. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors

Current prices are much higher than the baseline HFC-134a, although
expected to come down once in production. Minimal hardware redesign is
expected to be necessary, unless it is decided that systems should move
to a dual loop design. Assuming the architecture is maintained as a
single loop, prices may reasonably be scaled by the vehicle charge size.

Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials

Technology Definition 

 There are several techniques to reflect solar energy from trailers,
including:

Replacing a standard aluminum roof with a translucent, white fiberglass
roof;

Covering trailer sides with reflective tape strips; and

Painting trailer roofs with white reflective paint. 

These techniques can be applied to refrigerated trailers to reduce the
amount of fuel used to regulate the temperature in the trailer. Some of
these techniques may also be applied to school buses to reduce the
amount of fuel used to air condition the bus.

Although white fiberglass roofs reflect solar energy, they are mostly
used for their translucency benefits. One disadvantage of using this
roof is that it punctures easier than a standard aluminum roof.

Conspicuity reflective tape may be laid in strips on trailer sides. For
example, UPS covers half of each truck side with this tape to increase
reflectivity.

White reflective paint, such as SolarCool, an acrylic elastomeric
coating with sealed ceramic micro-bubbles may be applied to trailer tops
to reflect solar radiation. 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  31 : Solar
Energy Reflection Improvement through Application of SolarCool Coatings
Paint

Source: SolarCool Coatings Brochure provided by Pat Scanlon of Solar
Cool Coatings

Availability 

There appear to be a few companies that manufacture translucent, white
fiberglass roofs. Crane Composites is one of the main manufacturers of
these roofs. There are several companies that produce reflective tape.
There are several companies that manufacturer reflective, white paint.

Vehicle Application

These reflective strategies can be applied to Class 8 trailers. Research
indicates that these strategies can also be applied to Class 5 box
trucks and Class 7 buses. However, installation of a translucent, white
fiberglass roofs is not a widespread strategy for buses. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Operation and maintenance is an additional cost for these strategies.
For example, punctures to fiberglass roofs need to be sealed, reflective
tape strips replaced every few years, and reflective paint recoated
every few years. 

Reefer Improvements

Low Power Draw A/C

Technology Definition 

Low power draw air conditioning (A/C) units operate without dependence
on a diesel engine powered unit. Eliminating the need to operate based
on a diesel powered engine unit reduces the need for idling in order to
cool the cab. Low power draw systems usually either use water-based
evaporation or self-contained air conditioners. Water based cooling is
ideal for mild temperatures. For more extensive cooling needs, a
self-contained air conditioner is ideal. Water-based coolers use
evaporation to reduce the temperature of the air by an average of 10 to
15 degrees. A small amount of electrical current is needed to operate a
blower fan to circulate the cooled air. One disadvantage of the
evaporative cooler is that it can only make small changes in temperature
and therefore is not always suitable for very hot climates. For hot
climates or extended cooling during rest periods, there are
self-contained units which are operated by dedicated batteries.,

Availability 

Many companies manufacture low power draw A/C systems, including
CoolMoves, DC Power Solutions and Dometic Environmental Corporation. 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  33 : Evaporative
A/C Unit

 

Source: Cool Moves Minicool Product Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://coolmoves.ca/products/mini-cool/dinamic/" 
http://coolmoves.ca/products/mini-cool/dinamic/ 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  34 : Rooftop Low
Power Draw A/C

  

Source: Cool Moves Bycool Product Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://coolmoves.ca/products/bycool/revolution/" 
http://coolmoves.ca/products/bycool/revolution/ 

Vehicle Application 

Many evaporative coolers and self-contained cooling systems can be
mounted on multiple types of trucks.  Some can be mounted on rooftops
for flat-cab or body roof trucks, others mounted within the cab body of
the truck. Some units are geared more toward sleeper cabs and others for
daytime cooling. Note that the evaporative coolers work best in dry
climates. 

For a class 7 school bus or a class 8 transit bus, it would be
recommended to use a rooftop cooling system or an evaporative unit,
ultimately depending on the climate the vehicle operates in. For medium
duty trucks like the class 6 box truck, it would be recommended to use
an evaporative unit.  

Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) Systems

Technology Definition 

A transport refrigeration unit (TRU) is a refrigeration system designed
to refrigerate temperature-sensitive products that are transported in
insulated vans, trucks, or rail cars. Traditional, mechanical TRUs are
powered by a diesel engine, the most common engine size being 35 hp.
Conventional diesel-powered TRUs may be purchased with an electric
standby (E/S) option, which allows the TRU engine to be shut off when a
compatible power supply is available at a facility so TRU diesel engine
emissions are eliminated.  

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  34 : Transport
Refrigeration Units

Source: Photo provided by David Kiefer of Transicold.

A more advanced alternative to the conventional diesel-powered TRU is a
hybrid electric TRU. In this system, a diesel engine drives a generator
that, in turn, powers an electric semi-hermetic refrigeration compressor
and electrically driven fans, all controlled by an advanced
microprocessor. The benefits of a hybrid-electric TRU include: greater
fuel-efficiency to reduce carbon emissions, less leakage potential, and
significantly less maintenance requirements versus a conventional
belt-driver system. 

Because a hybrid electric TRU uses electrical energy, it requires less
coolant than a conventional diesel-powered TRU. Because it uses less
coolant, it requires fewer valves, which are susceptible to leakage. For
example, Transicold’s Vector® hybrid unit uses a semi-hermetic
compressor, uses a third less refrigerant and half the braze joints as a
conventional diesel-powered TRU. The unit also has an electric standby
option for stationary units. 

Solar power TRUs are currently unavailable, but have been tested in the
UK. Solar TRUs consume no fuel, do not suffer the same mechanical
failures, and have longer operating lives. 

Availability 

Carrier Transicold offers a hybrid electric TRU.  

Vehicle Application

The hybrid TRU discussed above may be used on Class 8 trailers. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

A hybrid electric TRU is more expensive than a conventional TRU without
E/S, and has less operating and maintenance costs over a conventional
TRU with the E/S add-on option.  

Adding the power infrastructure at facilities with TRUs that use E/S is
very expensive. Costs for power outlets in parking areas increase
significantly due to trenching costs. 

Use of Cryogenic CO2 Unit

Technology Definition 

Cryogenic CO2 refrigeration units heat and cool using liquid CO2 that is
routed through an evaporator coil that cools air blown over the coil.
For example, the ThermoKing cryogenic system moves liquid CO2 from the
refillable vehicle tank through a sealed evaporator coil inside the
cargo space, thus cooling the coil. Temperature controlled air is
circulated over the coil and through the cargo space. Having extracted
all the useful energy, it exhausts to the atmosphere. On trailer
applications, heat for defrosting the evaporator coil and temperature
control is generated by a diesel heater when required. Infrastructure
for these units include: a fuel holding tank at the distribution
facility and a pumping station to pressure the fuel and pump it into the
TRU. 

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  35 :
ThermoKing's Cryogenic CO2 Unit

Source: Thermo King CryoTech Brochure

Availability 

ThermoKing manufactures a cryogenic CO2 unit, but it is currently only
available in the European Union. However, these units are being
demonstrated in the United States. 

Vehicle Application

These units can be installed on Class 8 trailers. They would most likely
be installed on trucks that are operated for local deliveries.

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

The capital cost of a cryogenic unit is slightly higher than a standard
TRU. However, the facility infrastructure costs for the fuel adds to the
capital cost. Fuel costs vary depending on the nature of the operation.
As of 2003, operating costs for liquid CO2 are typically double the
diesel fuel-operating costs and increase with distance from the source.
Maintenance costs are lower since the systems have fewer moving parts.
Over the lifetime of the unit, the largest maintenance cost is the
refurbishing of the liquid cryogen storage tank, which is replaced
roughly once every 5-7 years. Volume discounts for these units are
minimal. 

Use of Leakage Reducing Components 

Technology Definition 

In general, components to minimize leakages are already incorporated
into most modern air conditioning and transport refrigeration units
(TRUs, reefer) systems. A/C system loads in tractors and work trucks are
parasitic loads on the engine that only burden the engine when operated,
thus reducing fuel efficiency and increasing tailpipe GHG emissions
(indirect effect). However, modern refrigerants are also potent
greenhouse gases, and leakage of them from the systems lead to direct
emissions of GHGs. 

In mobile vehicle air conditioning (MVAC) systems, leakage can be
reduced through the use of enhanced hose components, such as
veneer/barrier hoses or ultra-low permeation hoses, improved fittings
and connections (multiple o-rings, seal washers, and seal washers with
o-rings, and metal gaskets), and/or multiple-lip seals for the
compressor shaft seal. 

For TRUs, however, one area for potential leakage in a conventional
diesel-powered TRU is the shaft seal between the compressor and the
engine. This leakage potential is removed with a hybrid electric TRU
which uses an electric transmission and a semi-hermetic, electrically
powered compressor instead of a leakage-susceptible shaft. This system
also uses a third less refrigerant than conventional TRUs, further
reducing leakage potential. This system is discussed under the section
“Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU)
Systems”. 

Availability 

Leakage reducing components for MVAC systems are readily available and
largely already employed by the industry. 

Vehicle Application

This technology is used in all tractors and work trucks, as well as
trailers. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Operations and maintenance savings are incurred with the use of leakage
reducing components given the longer lifetimes of refrigerant charges. 



Cost Tables

  REF _Ref263952707 \h  Table 3-1  through   REF _Ref263952712 \h  Table
3-4  show the estimated cost for each technology, organized by the four
tasks. A description of each of these technologies is given in Section
2. In each table the following column appear: 

Category – the nine technology categories listed previously

Technology – the technology considered

Incremental To – if the technology is incremental to another
technology, the baseline technology is listed

Technology Types – subcategories of the technology

[Vehicle] Type Applied To – Tractor, Trailer, Bus, or Vocational
vehicle the technology may be implemented on

Manufacturer Cost – if the price/cost value is manufacturer cost, it
is listed in this column

Retail Price – if the price/cost value is retail price, it is listed
in this column

Type of Price/Cost – a summary of the price/cost value

O&M Costs – any operations and maintenance costs determined from the
research

Discount Information – any information on discounts available from the
research

Notes – any notes on values or methodologies used in the calculations

Cost information was gathered through telephone interviews with
manufacturers and vendors. This was also compared to values found in the
literature.  All values were combined to hide any proprietary or
sensitive information gathered.

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  3 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  1 : Class 7 and 8
Tractor Technology Cost/Price Summary

Category	Technology	Incremental To	Technology Types	Tractor Type Applied
To	Manufacturer Cost	Retail Price	Type of Price/Cost	O&M Costs	Discount
Information

Aerodynamic Improvements	Roof Fairing	No Fairing 	Roof Fairing	Day Cab

$1,100	Retail

10-15% for large orders

Midsize Sleeper

$1,400	Retail

10-15% for large orders

Fullsize Sleeper	n/a	n/a

	10-15% for large orders

	Side Fairing 	No Fairing	Fuel Tank Fairing	Day Cab

$1,500	Retail

No Data Available

Midsize Sleeper	$1,500	Retail

No Data Available

Fullsize Sleeper	$1,500	Retail

No Data Available

	Partial Side Fairing	Day Cab	$366	Retail

10-15% for large orders

Midsize Sleeper	$530	Retail

10-15% for large orders

Fullsize Sleeper	$700	Retail

10-15% for large orders

	Wheel to Wheel Full Side Fairing	Day Cab	$1,700	Retail

No Data Available

Midsize Sleeper	$2,100	Retail

No Data Available

Fullsize Sleeper	$2,200	Retail

No Data Available

	Full Aero Mirror	Baseline Mirror	 Aero Mirror, pair	All	$660

	No Data Available

	Incremental, per Truck	All	$428	Incremental Retail

	Partial Aero Mirror	Baseline Mirror	Semi-Aero Wing-Shaped “Moto”
Mirror	All	$450

	No Data Available

	Incremental, per Truck	All	$218	Incremental Retail

	Baseline Mirror

Standard Mirror, pair	All	$232	Retail

No Data Available

	Tractor Gap Fairing	No Fairing	Side Extender	Day Cab	$320	Retail

10-15% for large orders

Midsize Sleeper	$360	Retail

No Data Available

Fullsize Sleeper	$400	Retail

No Data Available

	Aerodynamic Hood	Baseline Hood

Day Cab	n/a

	No Data Available

Midsize Sleeper

n/a

	No Data Available

Fullsize Sleeper	n/a

	No Data Available

	Bumper	Classic Bumper	Aero Bumper	Day Cab

$960	Incremental Retail

No Data Available

Midsize Sleeper	$960	Incremental Retail

No Data Available

Fullsize Sleeper	$960	Incremental Retail

No Data Available

	Classic Bumper	Day Cab

$390	Incremental Retail

No Data Available

Midsize Sleeper	$390	Incremental Retail

No Data Available

Fullsize Sleeper	$390	Incremental Retail

No Data Available

Rolling Resistance Improvements	Single Wide Tires	Baseline Dualie Drive
Tires on Steel Wheels	Single Wide Drive Tire	All

$1,000

	No Data Available

	Wide-Base Al Wheel	All

$650

Additional components	All

n/a

Number/Drive Axle

	2

Drive Axles

	2

Changes/year

	0.300

Total (Capital)

	$6,600

Total per year (O&M)

	$1,977

Incremental, per Truck

	$(228)	 Incremental Retail 

	Incremental, per (Single-Wide) Wheel

	$(57)	 Incremental Retail 

	O&M per Truck per Year

	$(199)

O&M per (Single Wide) Tire per Year

	$(50)

Baseline (Dualie) Drive Tire	All

$404

Baseline (Dualie) Al Wheel	All

$450

Number/Drive Axle

	4

Drive Axles

	2

Changes/year

	0.319

Total (Capital)

	$6,828

	No Data Available

	Total per year (O&M)

	$2,176

Low Rolling Resistance Tires 	Baseline Tire (no wheel change) 	LRRT
(drive)

	$424

Number/Drive Axle

	4

Drive Axles

	2

Changes/year

	0.296

LRRT (steer)

	$449

Number/Steer Axle

	2

Steer Axles

	1

Changes/year

	0.252

Total (Capital)

	$4,286

Total per year (O&M)

	$1,231

Capital per truck

	$246	Incremental Retail

	Capital per tire

	$25	Incremental Retail

5-10% for large orders

	O&M per truck per year

	$(18)

O&M per tire per year

	$ (2)

Baseline (Dualie) Drive Tire

	$404

Number/Drive Axle

	4

Drive Axles

	2

Changes/year

	0.319

Baseline Steer Tire

	$406

Number/Steer Axle

	2

Steer Axles

	1

Changes/year

	0.271

Total (Capital)

	$4,040

	No Data Available

	Total per year (O&M)

	$   1,249

Automatic Tire Inflation	No ATI  System	External, tractor system
(package)	All

$1,500

Install labor (hrs, included)

	8

Labor costs (per hr; for retrofit)

	$19

components only

	$1,351	Retail

No Data Available

Operational Improvements	Programmable speed limiter 	No Speed Limiter
Incremental Cost of System	All

$-

Time to Program the Engine (minutes)

	5

Labor costs (per hr; for retrofit)

	$19

Total

	$2	Labor

n/a

	Advanced Driver Training	No Training	Subscription with Lessons (per
driver)	All

$50

Price per course

	$15

Number courses on fuel economy

	1

Duration (hours/course)

	4

Driver Salary/hr

	$18.62

Per Driver Per Year

	$139	Retail

 No Data Available 

	High-Level Training without a Subscription	All

Duration (hours/course)

	10

Driver Salary/hr

	$18.62

Trainer Salary/hr

	$31

Training Materials

	$19

Per Driver Per Year

	$515	Retail

 No Data Available 

	Literature Only	All

Price per course

	$125.00

Number courses

	1

Duration (hours/course)

	8

Driver Salary/hr

	$18.62

Per Driver Per Year

	$274	Retail

 No Data Available 

Idle Reductions	Auxiliary Power Units	No APU

Most Day Cabs	n/a

Traditional APU	Midsize and Fullsize Sleepers	$7,700	Retail

 Volume discounts of about 13-19% available 

	Truck overnight idling (hours/year)

	1800

APU Fuel Consumption (gal/hour)

	0.25

Engine Fuel Consumption (gal/hour)

	0.8

Fuel Cost ($/gal)

	$3

Incremental O&M per truck per year

	$ (2,970)

Direct Fired Heaters 	No DFH	Simple Bunk Heater/DFH	All

$1,400	Retail

 No Data Available 

	Engine Recovery Systems	No EFS	Simple	All

$585	Retail

 Volume discounts available, but unquantified 

	Deluxe

	$710	Retail

 Volume discounts available, but unquantified 

	Thermal Storage Systems	No TSS	Full TSS system	All

$4,500	Retail

 No Data Available 

	Truck Stop Electrification	Engine Idling	Advanced Truckstop
Electrification (ATE)	Midsize and Fullsize Sleepers

	Mounting Template

	$18

Per Site Install Cost

	$11,000

Use Rate ($/hour)

	$1.00	May be negotiable

	Truck overnight idling (hours/year)

	1800

Install Cost

	$0

Capital Per Truck 

	$18	Retail

	Annual O&M per truck

	$1,800

Incremental O&M per truck per year

	$ (2,520)	 n/a 

	Baseline

	Engine Fuel Consumption (gal/hour)

	0.8

Fuel Cost ($/gal)

	$3

Annual Cost per Truck

	$4,320

Shore Power Truckstop Electrification (TSE)	Midsize and Fullsize
Sleepers

	Per Truck Install Cost

	$199

Per Site Install Cost

	$2,100

Use Rate ($/hour)

	$1.00	May be negotiable

	Truck overnight idling (hours/year)

	1800

Capital Per Truck

	$199	Retail

	Annual O&M per truck

	$1,800

Incremental O&M per truck per year

	$ (2,520)	 n/a 

Baseline idling

	Engine Fuel Consumption (gal/hour)

	0.8

Fuel Cost ($/gal)

	$3

Annual Cost per Truck

	$4,320

	Idle Reductions	Anti-Idle System	No System	Automatic Engine Shut-Down
All

	n/a

	technology

$-

	activation

$55

	Mandated AESD Cost

$-

	Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems	No System	Optimized Idle	All

activation/ programming

	$400

kit

	$900

	 Volume discounts of 17%  

	Total

	$1,300	Retail

	Fuel Cell APUs

	$7,550	Retail

No Data Available

 Engine Improvements	Low Friction Engine Lube	Standard Engine Lubes
Lube Costs	All

	  

	Oil changes/year

	3.15

Incremental cost/oil change

	$  268.50

Engine Modifications

	$-	Retail

	Incremental Total per Truck per Year

	$ 845.78	No Data Available

	Integrated Starter/ Alternator	Baseline Starter and Alternator

All

10 kW integrated starter/alt system

$7,600

Incremental Total per Truck 

$7,200	Incremental Retail

No Data Available

	Baseline Starter

	$200

Baseline Alternator

	$200

Total

	$400

	No Data Available

	Mechanical Turbo compounding	No TBC	Mechanical TBC	All

Port Liners

	$400

Variable Valve Actuation

	$300

High efficiency power turbine

	$1,275

Total

	$1,975

Incremental Total per Truck

	$1,040	Incremental Retail

No Data Available

	Baseline VGT

	$935

	No Data Available

	Electrical Turbo  compounding	No TBC	Electric TBC	All

Mechanical Turbo compounding components

	$1,975

40 kW motor/generator

	$1,200

Power Electronics

	$1,200

Electric accessories

	$1,000

Balance of Plant

	$2,163

Total

	$7,538

	Incremental Total per Truck

	$6,603	Incremental Retail

No Data Available

	Baseline VGT

	$935

	No Data Available

	Electronic Fans

	All

n/a

	n/a

	Variable Valve Actuation	no VVA	VVA System	All

Number Cylinders

	6

Price per cylinder

	$50

Total

	$300	Retail

No Data Available

Engine Improvements	Variable Geometry Turbo (VGT)	Baseline Fixed (FGT)
VGT system	All

$935

Incremental to FGT

	$435	Incremental Retail

No Data Available

	Baseline FGT

	$500

	No Data Available

	Rankine Bottoming Cycle	No Rankine System	Turbine, generator and
flywheel (30 kW system)	All

$2,000

Air cooled condenser 

	$500

EGR boiler

	$400

Stack boiler

	$1,000

Balance of Plant

	$1,440

Controls & Power Electronics

	$1,300

Energy storage

	$150

Total

	$6,790	Retail

No Data Available

 Transmission and Drivetrain Improvements	Hybrid Powertrain
Conventional Powertrain 	Hybrid System	All

50 kW Motor/Generator

	$3,000

4 kW Battery Pack

	$6,400

Power Electronics

	$3,000

Balance of Plant

	$6,600

Modified Clutch Assembly

	$4,000

Electrification of Accessories

	$2,000

Total

	$25,000	Retail

No Data Available

	 Low Friction Drivetrain Lube	Conventional Transmission Lubes	Low
Friction Lube 	All

Changes/year

	0.7875

Cost/change

	$        339	No Data Available

	Drivetrain Modifications

	(none required)

	$-

Incremental Total per Truck per Year

	$ 140.96

Baseline (Conventional Lube)

	Cost/change

	$160	No Data Available

	Early Torque Converter Lockup	No ETCLU

All

	$0	Retail	No Data Available

Weight Reduction	 Aluminum Wheels	Conventional Steel Wheels	Upgrade
Dualies to Aluminum	All

Al Standard Width Wheel

	$450

	 Bulk discounts available but unquantified 

	Baseline (Dualie) Drive Tire

	$404

Number/Drive Axle

	4

Drive Axles

	2

Baseline Steer Tire

	$406

Number/Steer Axle

	2

Steer Axles

	1

Total

	$8,540

per truck

	$3,120	Incremental Retail

	per wheel

	$312	Incremental Retail

	Upgrade to Aluminum SWTs

	Al Wide-Base Wheel

	$650

	 Bulk discounts available but unquantified 

	Single Wide Drive Tire

	$1,031

Number/Drive Axle

	2

Drive Axles

	2

Baseline Steer Tire

	$406

Number/Steer Axle

	0

Steer Axles

	1

Total

	$6,724

per truck

	$1,304	Incremental Retail

	per wheel

	$326	Incremental Retail

	Baseline

	Steel Standard Width Wheel

	$138

	 Bulk discounts available but unquantified 

	Baseline (Dualie) Drive Tire

	$404

Number/Drive Axle

	4

Drive Axles

	2

Baseline Steer Tire

	$406

Number/Steer Axle

	2

Steer Axles

	1

Total

	$5,420

Aluminum Axle Hubs

	n/a	n/a	n/a

	n/a

	Light Weight Brake Drums	Baseline Full-Cast Brake Drums	Centrifuse
Drums	All

Drum

	$120

	No Data Available

	Number/Axle

	2

Axles

	3

Total

	$720

Total Capital per Truck

	$270	Incremental Retail

	Total Capital per Axle

	$90	Incremental Retail

	Changes/year

	0.10

Total per year (O&M)

	27.00

Total O&M per Truck

	$ (3)

	Baseline

	Drum

	$75

	No Data Available

	Total

	$450

Changes/year

	0.40

Total per year (O&M)

	$30.00

 Aluminum Air Tanks	Steel Air Tanks	Aluminum air tank, 3x 4-Gal
configuration	All

4-Gal Al Air Tank

	$147

Number of Tanks

	3

Total

	$441

Baseline steel air tanks

	4-Gal Al Air Tank

	$61

Total

	$183

Incremental  per truck

	$258	Incremental Retail

	Incremental  per tank

	$86	Incremental Retail

No Data Available

	Aluminum air tank, 2x 20-Gal configuration	All

20-Gal Al Air Tank

	$301

Number of Tanks

	2

Total

	$602

Baseline steel air tanks

	20-Gal Al Air Tank

	$125

Total

	$250

Incremental  per truck

	$352	Incremental Retail

	Incremental  per tank

	$176	Incremental Retail

No Data Available

	Aluminum air tank, 4x 5-Gal configuration	All

5-Gal Al Air Tank

	$158

Number of Tanks

	4

Total

	$631

Baseline steel air tanks

	5-Gal Al Air Tank

	$66

Total

	$262

Incremental  per truck

	$369	Incremental Retail

	Incremental  per tank

	$92	Incremental Retail

No Data Available

	 Reduced Number of Batteries	n/a

n/a

 n/a 	n/a

No Data Available

 	 Lightweight Suspension Systems	n/a

n/a

 n/a 	n/a

No Data Available

Electrification

 	Electric Water pumps

	All

n/a

n/a	No Data Available

	 Electric Power Steering

Incremental  per truck	All

$1,500	Incremental Retail	n/a	No Data Available

	 Evaporative Unit

	All

$2,000	Retail

No Data Available

Air Conditioning	Low Power Draw A/C

Standard APU or Battery Driven MVAC	All

$4,105	Retail

 Bulk discounts available but unquantified 

	Complex Battery-Driven MVAC	Sleeper Cabs

$7,750	Retail

No Data Available

	Use of Leakage Reducing Components

 All	$30

Manufacturer Cost

No Data Available

	CO2 as refrigerant	 	 	All 	$70

Manufacturer Cost

No Data Available

	Use of Alternative Refrigerants

HFC-152A	All	$50

Manufacturer Cost

No Data Available

	Propane as refrigerant	All	$50

Manufacturer Cost

No Data Available

	HFO-1234yf

	hardware changes	Class 8, Day Cab

$10

	incremental refrigerant costs

	$158

Total

	$168	Incremental Retail Price

No Data Available

	hardware changes	Class 8, Sleeper Cab

$10

	incremental refrigerant costs

	$198

Total

	$208	Incremental Retail Price

No Data Available

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  3 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  2 : Class 7 and 8
Trailer Technology Cost/Price Summary

Category	Technology	Incremental To	Technology Types	Trailer Type Applied
To	Manufacturer Cost	Retail Price	Discount Information	O&M Costs

Aerodynamic Improvements	Trailer Side Skirts	No trailer fairings	Side
fairing/Side skirt	Van, Reefer, Flatbed

 $1,900 	low volume, 13%; high volume, 28%

	Tanker

 $2,100 	high volume, 20%

Gap Fairings	No gap fairings	Aluminum Gap Fairing	Van, Reefer

$850	No data available

Trailer Aerocone	No AeroCone	AeroCone	Van

$1,264	high volume, 20%

Boat Tails	No Boat Tail	Trailer Tail	Van

$2,800	25-30%

	Reefer

$3,100	25-30%

Air Tabs	No Air Tabs	Air Tab	Van, Reefer

$240	low volume, 15%

high volume, 25%

	Rolling Resistance Improvements	Single Wide Tires	Baseline Dualie
Trailer Tires on Steel Wheels, 2-Axle Trailer	Upgrade to SWTs on Al
Wheels, 2-Axle  Trailer	All

	Single Wide Tire

	$794

	Wide-Base Al Wheel

	$650

	Additional components

	n/a

	Number/Axle

	2

	Axles

	2

	Changes/year

	0.300

	Total (Capital)

	$5,777

	Total per year (O&M)

	$1,731

	Incremental, Capital per Trailer

	$(135)	No data available

Incremental, Capital per (Single -Wide) Wheel

	$(34)

	O&M per Trailer per Year

	$(154)

	O&M per (Single Wide) Tire per Year

	$(38)

	Baseline, 2-Axle  Trailer

Baseline (Dualie) Trailer Tire

	$289

	Baseline (Dualie) Al Wheel

	$450

	Number/Axle

	4

	Axles

	2

	Changes/year

	0.319

	Total (Capital)

	$5,912	No data available

Total per year (O&M)

	$1,884

Baseline Dualie Trailer Tires on Steel Wheels, 3-Axle Trailer	Upgrade to
SWTs on Al Wheels, 3-Axle  Trailer	All

	Single Wide Tire

	$794

	Wide-Base Al Wheel

	$650

	Additional components

	n/a

	Number/Axle

	2

	Axles

	3

	Changes/year

	0.300

	Total (Capital)

	$8,665

	Total per year (O&M)

	$2,596

	Incremental, Capital per Trailer

	$(203)

	Incremental, Capital per (Single-Wide) Wheel

	$(34)	No data available

O&M per Trailer per Year

	$(230)

	O&M per (Single Wide) Tire per Year

	$(38)

	Baseline, 3-Axle  Trailer

Baseline (Dualie) Trailer Tire

	$289

	Baseline (Dualie) Al Wheel

	$450

	Number/Axle

	4

	Axles

	3

	Changes/year

	0.319

	Total (Capital)

	$8,868	No data available

Total per year (O&M)

	$2,826

	Low Rolling Resistance Tires	Baseline Trailer Tire (no wheel change),
2-Axle Trailer	LRRT	All

	LRR Trailer Tire

	$367

	Number/Axle

	4

	Axles

	2

	Changes/year

	0.296

	Total (Capital)

	$2,935	No data available

Total per year (O&M)

	$870

	Incremental, Capital per Trailer

	$623

	Incremental, Capital per Tire

	$78	No data available

O&M per Trailer per Year

	$(737)

	O&M per Tire per Year

	$(92)

	Baseline

Baseline (Dualie) Trailer Tire

	$289

	Number/Axle

	4

	Axles

	2

	Changes/year

	0.319

	Total (Capital)

	$2,312	No data available

Total per year (O&M)

	$737

Baseline Trailer Tire (no wheel change), 3-Axle Trailer	LRRT	All

	LRRT

	$367

	Number/Axle

	4

	Axles

	3

	Changes/year

	0.296

	Total (Capital)

	$4,403

	Total per year (O&M)

	$1,305

	Incremental, Capital per Trailer

	$935

	Incremental, Capital per Tire

	$78	No data available

O&M per Trailer per Year

	$(368)

	O&M per Tire per Year

	$(31)

	Baseline

Baseline (Dualie) Trailer Tire

	$289

	Number/Axle

	4

	Axles

	3

	Changes/year

	0.319

	Total (Capital)

	$3,468	No data available

Total per year (O&M)

	$1,105

	Automatic Tire Inflation	No ATI  System	Internal, trailer system	2-axle
or 3-axle

Package

	$750	No data available

Install labor (hrs, included)

	4

	Labor costs (per hr; for retrofit)

	$19

	components only

	$676	No data available

Internal, trailer system 	1-axle or dolly

Package

	$550	No data available

Install labor (hrs, included)

	4

	Labor costs (per hr; for retrofit)

	$19

	components only

	$476	No data available

	Weight Reduction	Tare weight reduction via Al structural components
Baseline Steel components	Roof Posts / Bows 	Dry Van

	Incremental, per Trailer

$120

No data available

Side posts 

Incremental, per Trailer

$525

No data available

Cross members / floor joists

Incremental, per Trailer

$400

No data available

Floor 

Incremental, per Trailer

$1,500

No data available

Tare weight reduction via Al wheels	Baseline Steel (dualie) wheels,
2-Axle Trailer	All

	Number/Axle

4

Axles

2

Incremental, per Trailer

$1,500

No data available

Incremental, per Wheel

$188

	Baseline Steel (dualie) wheels, 3-Axle Trailer

Number/Axle

4

Axles

3

Incremental, per Trailer

$2,250

No data available

Incremental, per Wheel

$188

	Air Conditioning	Use of Leakage Reducing Components

	Reefer

$30	No data available

Use of Advanced Electrical TRU Systems	Standard, Diesel TRU	Hybrid,
vector TRU	Reefer

	Incremental Total

	$4,000	No data available

Annual Operating Costs	 

$1,404

	Incremental O&M per Year

	$(2,106)

	Electric Standby (E/S) Option

TRU option

	$2,300

	Facility upgrade per terminal

	$1,250

	Per terminal, additional for transformer

	$6,000

	per hour use rate

	$5

	TRU overnight usage (hours/year)

	1800

	Incremental Total per Trailer

	$2,300	No data available

Annual O&M per Trailer

	$9,000

	Incremental O&M per Year

	$5,490

	Solar TRU

Total

	n/a	N/A

Fuel Cell TRU

Total

	n/a	N/A

Baseline

Fuel consumption (gal/hr)

	0.65

	Fuel Cost ($/gal)

	$3

	Annual Cost per Truck

No data available	$3,510

	Use of Cryogenic CO2 Units

Unit cost	Reefer

	per trailer

	$30,000	Marginal volume, 5%

Annual O&M per Trailer

	$7,020

	Incremental O&M per Year

	$3,510

	Infrastructure costs

per facility

	$150,000	No data available

Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials	Baseline Al Roof	Composite
Reflective Roof	Van, Reefer

	Roof

	$800

	Incremental, per Trailer

	$0	No data available

Number of small holes per year

	2

	Hole patch cost

	$100

	O&M Cost

	$200

	Coated Roof	Van, Reefer

	Roof

	$700

	Incremental, per Trailer

	($100)	No data available

Adding Reflective Tape	Van, Reefer

	100 ft roll

	$100

	spacing (strips/ft)

	1

	trailer width (ft)

	8.5

	trailer length (ft)

	53

	trailer height (ft)

	13.5

	Incremental Total, per 53' trailer

	$1,882	No data available

Baseline Roof	Van, Reefer

$800

	Use of Alternative Refrigerants

CO2 as refrigerant	Reefer	$70

No data available

HFC-152A	Reefer	$50

No data available

Propane as refrigerant	Reefer	$50

No data available

HFO-1234yf	Reefer

	hardware changes

$10

incremental refrigerant costs

$551

Total

$561	Incremental Retail Price	No data available

	

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  3 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  3 : Class 3
through 8 Vocational Truck Technology Cost/Price Summary

Category	Technology	Incremental To	Technology Types	Truck Type Applied
To	Manufacturer Cost	Retail Price	Type of Price/Cost	O&M Costs	Discount
Information

Low Rolling Resistance	Low Rolling Resistance Tires	None	LRRT	Class 6
Box Truck

LRRT (drive)

	$379

Number/Drive Axle

	4

Drive Axles

	1

Changes/year

	0.287

LRRT (steer)

	$329

Number/Steer Axle

	2

Steer Axles

	1

Changes/year

	0.287

Total (Capital)

	$2,174	Retail Price

 No data available 

	Total per year (O&M)

	$623

	Engine Improvements	Mechanical Turbo compounding	No TBC	Mechanical TBC
Class 6 Box Truck

N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A

	Electric Turbo compounding	No TBC	Electric TBC	Class 6 Box Truck

N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A

	Variable Valve Actuation	no VVA	VVA	Class 6 Box Truck

Cam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake only

Number Cylinders

	6

Total

	$455	Retail Price

 No data available 

	Cam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake and exhaust

Number Cylinders

	6

Total

	$910	Retail Price

 No data available 

	Mechanical, cam-operated VVA, intake only

Total

$700

Manufacturer Cost	 No data available 

	Fully variable, camless VVA

	Total

$2,350

Manufacturer Cost	 No data available 

	Variable Geometry Turbo (VGT)	Baseline Fixed (FGT)	VGT system	Class 6
Box Truck

	Incremental to FGT

	$675	Incremental Retail	 No data available 

Transmission and Drivetrain Improvements	Hybrid Powertrain	Conventional
Powertrain

Hybrid System – Class 4 Utility Truck

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer

      30 kW Motor/Generator 	$900 

      4 kW Battery Pack 	$3,200 

      Power Electronics 	$900 

      Balance of Plant 	$2,500 

      Modified Clutch Assembly 	$1,500 

      Electrification of Accessories 	$850

Total Hardware Cost	$9,850

      Labor @ $28/hr	$2,800

      Labor Overhead @ 40%	$1,120

      Markup @ 29%	$3,993

      Warranty Markup at 5%	$493

Total  Component Cost	$18,256

Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer

	      R&D Costs	$10,000,000

      Tooling Costs	$3,000,000

      Units/yr.	500

      Years to recover	5

Fixed cost/unit	$7,159

Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer	$25,415

Manufacturer Cost	 No data available 

     Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29%

$7,370

	Total Cost to Truck Purchaser

$32,785	Retail Price

 No data available 

Hybrid System – Class 6 Box Truck

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer

	      30 kW Motor/Generator 	$900

      4 kW Battery Pack 	$3,200

      Power Electronics 	$900

      Balance of Plant 	$3,000

      Modified Clutch Assembly 	$2,000

      Electrification of Accessories 	$1,000

Total Hardware Cost	$11,000

      Labor @ $28/hr	$3,780

      Labor Overhead @ 40%	$1,512

      Markup @ 29%	$4,725

      Warranty Markup at 5%	$550

Total  Component Cost	$21,567

Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer

      R&D Costs	$10,000,000

      Tooling Costs	$3,000,000

      Units/yr.	500

      Years to recover	5

Fixed cost/unit	$7,420

Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer	$28,987

 Manufacturer Cost 	 No data available 

      Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29%

$8,406

	Total Cost to Truck Purchaser

$37,393	Retail Price

 No data available 

Hybrid System -- Class 8 Refuse

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer

      30 kW Motor/Generator 	$900

     100 kW Motor/Generator 	$3,000

      8 kW Battery Pack 	$6,400

      Power Electronics 	$3,900

      Balance of Plant 	$8,500

      Modified Clutch Assembly 	$2,500

      Electrification of Accessories 	$1,750

Total Hardware Cost	$26,950

      Labor @ $28/hr	$5,600

      Labor Overhead @ 40%	$2,240

      Markup @ 29%	$10,089

      Warranty Markup at 5%	$1,348

Total  Component Cost	$46,227

Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer

	      R&D Costs	$10,000,000

      Tooling Costs	$3,000,000

      Units/yr.	500

      Years to recover	5

Fixed cost/unit	$7,159

Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer	$53,386

 Manufacturer Cost 	 No data available 

      Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29%

$15,482

	Total Cost to Truck Purchaser

$68,867	Retail Price

 No data available 

Air Conditioning	Low Power Draw A/C	Evaporative Unit	Class 6 Box Truck

$2,000	Retail Price

 No data available 

	Use of Leakage Reducing Components

Class 6 Box Truck	$25

Incremental Manufacturer Cost	 No data available 

	Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials	Baseline Al Roof

Class 6 Box Truck (24')

Composite Reflective Roof

Roof

$460

Incremental, per Trailer

$84	Incremental Retail Price	 No data available 

	Number of small holes per year

2

Hole patch cost

$100 

O&M Cost

$200 

Coated Roof

	Incremental

	Roof

	$422	Incremental Retail Price	 No data available 

	Cab

	$250	Incremental Retail Price

Adding Reflective Tape

100 ft roll

	$100

spacing (strips/ft)

	1

trailer width (ft)

	8.5

trailer length (ft)

	24

trailer height (ft)

	13.5

Incremental Total, per 24' trailer

$852	Incremental Retail Price	 No data available 

	Baseline Roof

	$376

Use of Alternative Refrigerants

CO2 as refrigerant	Class 6 Box Truck	$70

Manufacturer Cost	 No data available 

	HFC-152A	Class 6 Box Truck	$50

Manufacturer Cost	 No data available 

	Propane as refrigerant	Class 6 Box Truck	$50

Manufacturer Cost	 No data available 

	HFO-1234yf	Class 6 Box Truck, Day Cab

	hardware changes

$10

	incremental refrigerant costs

$124

	Total

$134	Incremental Retail Price	No data available

Class 6 Box Truck, Crew Cab

hardware changes

$10

	incremental refrigerant costs

$140

	Total

$150	Incremental Retail Price 	No data available

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  3 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  4 : Class 7 and 8
Bus Technology Cost/Price Summary

Category	Technology	Incremental To	Technology Types	Bus Type Applied To
Manufacturer Cost	Retail Price	Type of Price/Cost	O&M Costs	Discount
Information

Rolling Resistance Improvements	Low Rolling Resistance Tires	None	LRRT
Class 8 Transit Bus

LRRT (drive)

	$333

Number/Drive Axle

4

Drive Axles

	1

Changes/year

	0.167

LRRT (steer)

	$333

Number/Steer Axle

2

Steer Axles

	1

Changes/year

	0.167

Total (Capital)

	$1,998	Retail Price

 No data available 

	Total per year (O&M)

$333

	Engine Improvements	Mechanical Turbo compounding	No TBC	Mechanical TBC
Class 8 Transit Bus

N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A

	Electric Turbo compounding	No TBC	Electric TBC	Class 8 Transit Bus

N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A

	Variable Valve Actuation	no VVA

Class 8 Transit Bus

Cam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake only

	Number Cylinders

	6

Total

	$585	Retail Price

 No data available 

	Cam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake and exhaust

Number Cylinders

	6

	Engine Improvements	Variable Valve Actuation	No VVA	Total

	$1,170	Retail Price

 No data available 

	Mechanical, cam-operated VVA, intake only

Total

$700

Manufacturer Cost	 No data available 

	Fully variable, camless VVA

Total

$2,350

Manufacturer Cost	 No data available 

	Variable Geometry Turbo (VGT)	Baseline Fixed (FGT)	VGT system	Class 8
Transit Bus

Incremental to FGT

$935	Incremental Retail 	No data available

Drivetrain Improvements	Hybrid Powertrain	Conventional Powertrain	Class
8 Transit Bus

	Hardware Cost to Manufacturer

     30 kW Motor/Generator	$900

    100 kW Motor/Generator	$3,000

     8 kW Battery Pack	$6,400

     Power Electronics	$3,900

     Balance of Plant	$8,500

     Modified Clutch Assembly	$2,000

     Electrification of Accessories	$1,250

Total Hardware Cost	$25,950

      Labor @ $28/hr	$4,480

      Labor Overhead @ 40%	$1,792

      Markup @ 29%	$9,344

      Warranty Markup at 5%	$1,298

Total  Component Cost	$42,864

 Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer

      R&D Costs	$10,000,000

      Tooling Costs	$3,500,000

Drivetrain Improvements

      Units/yr.	1000

      Years to recover	5

Fixed cost/unit

$3,710

Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer	$46,574

 Manufacturer Cost 	 No data available 

Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29%

$13,506

	Total Cost to Truck Purchaser

$60,080	Retail Price

 No data available 

Air Conditioning	Low Power Draw A/C	Roof-mounted Evaporative Unit	Class
8 Transit Bus

$6,000	Retail Price

 No data available 

	Roof-mounted A/C System	Class 8 Transit Bus

$6,650	Retail Price

 No data available 

	Use of Leakage Reducing Components	Class 8 Transit Bus 	$30

Incremental Manufacturer Cost	 No data available 

	Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials	Baseline Al Roof

Class 8 Transit Bus (43’ 52-passenger)

	Composite Reflective Roof

Roof

	$645

Fasteners, etc.

	$100

Total

	$745	Retail Price

 No data available 

	Number of small holes per year

2

Hole patch cost

	$100

O&M Cost

	$200

	Coated Roof

	Incremental

	Roof

	$620	Incremental Retail Price	 No data available 

	Adding Reflective Tape

100 ft roll

	$100

spacing (strips/ft)

	1

	Air Conditioning	Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials	Baseline
Al Roof	bus width (ft)

	8.5

bus length (ft)

	43

bus height (ft)

	9.5

Incremental Total, per 24' trailer

$1,183	Incremental Retail Price	 No data available 

	Alternative Refrigerants

CO2 as refrigerant	Class 8 Transit Bus 	$70

Manufacturer Cost	 No data available 

	HFC-152A	Class 8 Transit Bus 	$50

Manufacturer Cost	 No data available 

	Propane as refrigerant	Class 8 Transit Bus 	$50

Manufacturer Cost	 No data available 

	HFO-1234yf	Class 8 Transit Bus 

	hardware changes

$10

	incremental refrigerant costs

$683

	Total

$                 693	Incremental Retail Price	 No data available 

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http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_drums_brochure.pdf.

“Clean, Silent and Efficient Refrigeration: Solutions for Distribution
and City Operations”, Thermo King CryoTech Commercial Brochure
provided by Thermo King Ireland, Ltd. 

“Clean Diesel Financing loan application form”, US EPA and Community
Development Transportation Lending Service, SmartWay.
http://www.ctaa.org/webmodules/webarticles/articlefiles/SmartWay_Brochur
e_and_Application.pdf.

“Consensus Building on Refrigerant Type”, September 2008 issue of
Automotive Engineering International, an SAE magazine.

“Delphi truck fuel-cell APU to hit road in 2012,” SAE International.
May 12, 2010. Accessed June 10, 2010.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222"  http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222  

“Documentation of the Development of Indirect Cost Multipliers for
Three Automotive Technologies”, August 2009 memorandum from Gloria
Helfand and Todd Sherwood, U.S. EPA.

Draft Regulatory Impact Analysis, Proposed Rulemaking to Establish
Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards and Corporate
Average Fuel Economy Standards, EPA-420-D-09-003, September 2009.

Draft Joint Technical Support Document, Proposed Rulemaking to Establish
Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards and Corporate
Average Fuel Economy Standards, US EPA and National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration, EPA-420-D-09-901, September 2009. 

 “Environmental Awareness and Outreach Measures to Reduce GHG
Emissions From the Trucking Sector”, L-P Tardif & Associates Inc.,
August, 1999.

Every Idle. Icon™. Cummins. 2005.   HYPERLINK
"http://international.cummins.com/attachments/public/english/Engine%20Re
lated/ICON/3606293_0205.pdf" 
http://international.cummins.com/attachments/public/english/Engine%20Rel
ated/ICON/3606293_0205.pdf 

“Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions”, Cascade Sierra
Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition.

Heavy Duty Truck/Trailer. Alcoa Wheels website. Accessed June 10, 2010. 
 HYPERLINK
"http://www.alcoa.com/alcoawheels/north_america/en/hdtt/index.asp" 
http://www.alcoa.com/alcoawheels/north_america/en/hdtt/index.asp .

“Heavy-Duty Vehicle Market Analysis: Vehicle Characteristics & Fuel
Use Manufacturer Market Shares”, ICCT, June 2009.

How an Air Heater Works, Espar,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.html" 
http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.html .

“Industry Evaluation of low global warming potential refrigerant
HFO-1234yf”, SAE CRP1234, 11/10/2009. 

“Industry Options for Improving Ground Freight Fuel Efficiency”,
Prepared by ICF for EPA, 2002.

International CE Series School Bus Commercial Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.icbus.com/ICCorp/BusDownloads/School%20Route/CE%20School%20S
ell%20Sheet.pdf" 
http://www.icbus.com/ICCorp/BusDownloads/School%20Route/CE%20School%20Se
ll%20Sheet.pdf 

International City Star CF500 Truck Commercial Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.navistar.com/Trucks/Trucks/Series/CityStar/CityStar500_600" 
http://www.navistar.com/Trucks/Trucks/Series/CityStar/CityStar500_600   

International Re Series Commercial Bus Commercial Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.icbus.com/ICBus/Buses/Commercial/Overview/Commercial+RE+Seri
es/" 
http://www.icbus.com/ICBus/Buses/Commercial/Overview/Commercial+RE+Serie
s/ 

Kenworth T270 Truck Commercial Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.kenworth.com/brochures/T270T370.pdf" 
http://www.kenworth.com/brochures/T270T370.pdf 

“Literature,” Pressure Systems International. Accessed June 10,
2010.   HYPERLINK "http://www.psi-atis.com/literature.htm" 
http://www.psi-atis.com/literature.htm  

“Low Rolling Resistance Tires,” SmartWay Finance Center Technology
website. Accessed June 10, 2010.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/technology.cfm?productTypeID=4&pro
ductTypeCategoryID=9" 
http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/technology.cfm?productTypeID=4&prod
uctTypeCategoryID=9  

“New Alcoa 22.4x14 wide base wheel fits low profile longhaul needs,”
Fleet Equipment, November 1, 2001.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.allbusiness.com/transportation-warehousing/828191-1.html" 
http://www.allbusiness.com/transportation-warehousing/828191-1.html .

Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking, ICF
International, Prepared for Environmental Defense Fund, December 2009.

“Polar Tank Trailer Inventory Display Page”, Polar Service Centers
website. Accessed June 10, 2010.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=display_trailer&file=261" 
http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=display_trailer&file=261 

Precision Partners Press Release, March 16, 2009.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.precisionpartnersinc.com/corporate/breaking-news/announces-i
ts-new-long-life-severe-service-brake-drums-centrifuse-plus/" 
http://www.precisionpartnersinc.com/corporate/breaking-news/announces-it
s-new-long-life-severe-service-brake-drums-centrifuse-plus/ .

Presentation to NHTSA by US Department of Energy, Carol Schutte, PhD,
Materials Technologies, April 30, 2010. 

Pressure Systems International, Commercial Literature, Accessed June 10,
2010. http://www.psi-atis.com/literature.htm. 

“Reducing Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel Consumption and
CO2 Emissions”, NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Reseasrch Institute, TIAX,
LLC., October 2009.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final-2009
10.pdf" 
http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final-20091
0.pdf 

Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed
Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use Diesel-Fueled
Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and
Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

Skydel, Seth. “Fuel efficiency: aluminum wheels, side base singles.”
Fleet Equiements, April 1, 2009.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.allbusiness.com/government/government-bodies-offices/1231927
0-1.html" 
http://www.allbusiness.com/government/government-bodies-offices/12319270
-1.html .

“SolarCool Coatings”, Commercial Brochure provided by Solar Cool
Coatings, 117 Elm Av. Unit #5, Glenside, PA 19038. 

“System Optimization of an Ultralight Electric Transit Bus”, Bruce
Emmons, Autokinetics, Inc. April 20, 2006.
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/hvso_2006/23_emmons.pd
f.

 “Technologies and Approaches to Reducing the Fuel Consumption of
Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles”, Committee to Assess Fuel Economy
Technologies for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles, Board on Energy and
Environmental Systems Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences,
Transportation Research Board (Prepublication Copy), 2010. 
http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12845.html

“Technology Roadmap for the 21st Century Truck Program: A
Government-Industry Research Partnership”, 21CT-001, December 2000. 

“The Commercialisation of Solar Powered Transport Refrigeration”,
DTI, 2001.   HYPERLINK "http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file16833.pdf" 
http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file16833.pdf .

“Tires and Fuel Efficiency”, California Energy Commission, June
2006.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.energy.ca.gov/2006publications/CEC-600-2006-003/CEC-600-2006
-003-FS.PDF" 
http://www.energy.ca.gov/2006publications/CEC-600-2006-003/CEC-600-2006-
003-FS.PDF  “Truck Reflective Tape”, Thomasnet website. Accessed
June 10, 2010.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.thomasnet.com/products/truck-reflective-tape-87831160-1.html
" 
http://www.thomasnet.com/products/truck-reflective-tape-87831160-1.html
.

“Truck Stop Electrification As A Long-Haul Tractor Idling
Alternative”, Perrot et al., TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM.

“Truckers Back a National 65-mph Speed Limit,” U.S. News and World
Report, March 26, 2008.

“Turbocompound System”, Turbo Technologies website. Cummins.
Accessed June 10, 2010.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.holset.co.uk/mainsite/files/2_5_1_3-turbocompound%20system.p
hp" 
http://www.holset.co.uk/mainsite/files/2_5_1_3-turbocompound%20system.ph
p .

Volvo VHD Truck Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.volvotrucks.com/trucks/na/en-us/products/vhd_series/vhd/page
s/overview.aspx" 
http://www.volvotrucks.com/trucks/na/en-us/products/vhd_series/vhd/pages
/overview.aspx 

Webasto Blue Cool Truck Product Commercial Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_aircon.html" 
http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_aircon.html 

Webasto Commercial Product Brochure: Engine pre-heating, in-cab heating
and bunk cooling.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_heaters.html" 
http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_heaters.html . 

“White Paper on Fuel Economy”, Kenworth Truck Company, August 2008. 

   HYPERLINK "http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/06pdf/05-1120.pdf" 
http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/06pdf/05-1120.pdf 

   HYPERLINK
"http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/downloads09/GHG-MRR-Full%20V
ersion.pdf" 
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/downloads09/GHG-MRR-Full%20Ve
rsion.pdf 

 Personal communication, Charlie Wells, Manager of Dump Trailer Product
Line, East manufacturing, on 2/25/10.

 “Polar Tank Trailer Inventory Display Page,” Polar Service Centers
website. Accessed June 10, 2010.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=display_trailer&file=261" 
http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=display_trailer&file=261 .

 Conversations with Kenworth Truck Dealer: Sales Department, Truck
Enterprises, Inc, Harrisonburg, VA. 

 Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.kenworth.com/brochures/T270T370.pdf" 
http://www.kenworth.com/brochures/T270T370.pdf . 

 Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure. 

 Conversations with Kenworth Truck Dealer.

 Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure. 

 Conversation with International Dealer: Sales Department, International
Truck Sales, Richmond, VA. 

 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.navistar.com/Trucks/Trucks/Series/CityStar/CityStar500_600" 
http://www.navistar.com/Trucks/Trucks/Series/CityStar/CityStar500_600 . 

 Conversation with International Dealer: Sales Department.

 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure. 

 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure.

 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure.

 Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer: Sales Department, Colonial
Truck Sales. 

 Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer. 

 Volvo VHD Truck Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.volvotrucks.com/trucks/na/en-us/products/vhd_series/vhd/page
s/overview.aspx" 
http://www.volvotrucks.com/trucks/na/en-us/products/vhd_series/vhd/pages
/overview.aspx  

 Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer.

 Conversation with International School Bus Dealer: Sales Department,
Kingmor Supply. 

 International CE Series School Bus Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.icbus.com/ICCorp/BusDownloads/School%20Route/CE%20School%20S
ell%20Sheet.pdf" 
http://www.icbus.com/ICCorp/BusDownloads/School%20Route/CE%20School%20Se
ll%20Sheet.pdf .. 

 Conversations with IC Bus, LLC Sales Department.

 International Re Series Commercial Bus Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.icbus.com/ICBus/Buses/Commercial/Overview/Commercial+RE+Seri
es/" 
http://www.icbus.com/ICBus/Buses/Commercial/Overview/Commercial+RE+Serie
s/ .. 

 Phone conversation with truck aerodynamics manufacturer representative.

 “Literature,” Pressure Systems International website. Accessed June
10, 2010.   HYPERLINK "http://www.psi-atis.com/literature.htm" 
http://www.psi-atis.com/literature.htm . 

 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies – Automatic Tire
Inflation Systems,” SmartWay Transport Partnership. Accessed June 10,
2010.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/tireinflate.pdf" 
http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/tireinflate.pdf .   

 Interviews with Frank Sonzala, Executive VP of Sales and Marketing,
Pressure Systems International, 2010.

 Interviews with Frank Sonzala, Executive VP of Sales and Marketing,
Pressure Systems International, 2010.

 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in
Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007.

 California Energy Commission. “Tires and Fuel Efficiency.” June
2006.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.energy.ca.gov/2006publications/CEC-600-2006-003/CEC-600-2006
-003-FS.PDF" 
http://www.energy.ca.gov/2006publications/CEC-600-2006-003/CEC-600-2006-
003-FS.PDF 

 “Low Rolling Resistance Tires,” SmartWay Finance Center Technology
website. Accessed June 10, 2010.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/technology.cfm?productTypeID=4&pro
ductTypeCategoryID=9" 
http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/technology.cfm?productTypeID=4&prod
uctTypeCategoryID=9 .

 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing
Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel Consumption and CO2
Emissions, October 2009.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final-2009
10.pdf" 
http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final-20091
0.pdf .

 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions
from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense Fund, December
2009.

 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies –Single Wide-Based
Tires,” SmartWay Transport Partnership. Accessed June 10, 2010.  
HYPERLINK
"http://www.epa.gov/smartway/transport/documents/tech/supersingles.pdf" 
http://www.epa.gov/smartway/transport/documents/tech/supersingles.pdf .

 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in
Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007.

 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions
from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense Fund, December
2009.

 US EPA and Community Development Transportation Lending Service,
SmartWay Clean Diesel Financing loan application form.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.ctaa.org/webmodules/webarticles/articlefiles/SmartWay_Brochu
re_and_Application.pdf" 
http://www.ctaa.org/webmodules/webarticles/articlefiles/SmartWay_Brochur
e_and_Application.pdf .

 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies –Single Wide-Based
Tires.”   HYPERLINK
"http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/supersingles.pdf" 
http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/supersingles.pdf  

 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies Drivers Training.”  
HYPERLINK "http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/drivertraining.pdf" 
http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/drivertraining.pdf . 

 Conversation with Jim Voorhees, Instructional Technologies.

 Environmental Awareness and Outreach Measures to Reduce GHG Emissions
From the Trucking Sector, L-P Tardif & Associates Inc., August, 1999.

 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 

 “Truckers Back a National 65-mph Speed Limit,” U.S. News and World
Report, March 26, 2008. 

 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association.

 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association.

 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association.

 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 

 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association.

 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 

 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association.

 ICF International, Industry Options for Improving Ground Freight Fuel
Efficiency, Prepared for EPA, 2002  

 Conversation with John Beavers, Western Branch Diesel.

 ICF International, Industry Options for Improving Ground Freight Fuel
Efficiency, Prepared for EPA, 2002..  

 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

 Detroit Diesel. 

 Conversation with John Beavers, Western Branch Diesel.

 Detroit Diesel.

 Webasto Blue Cool Truck Product Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_aircon.html" 
http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_aircon.html . 

Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions
Report, 2008 Fall Edition   HYPERLINK
"https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide
-Fall08-Web.pdf" 
https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-
Fall08-Web.pdf 

   HYPERLINK
"http://www.webastoshowroom.com/bluecooltruck/.../Webasto_BlueCool_Hybri
d_Fact_Sheet_Final.doc" 
www.webastoshowroom.com/bluecooltruck/.../Webasto_BlueCool_Hybrid_Fact_S
heet_Final.doc 

 Webasto Blue Cool Truck Product Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_aircon.html" 
http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_aircon.html .

 Conversation with Josh Lucas, Webasto, May 19, 2010

 Conversation with Josh Lucas, Webasto, May 19, 2010.

 http://autothermusa.com/wordpress/no-engin-idle-facts/

 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions
Report, 2008 Fall Edition   HYPERLINK
"https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide
-Fall08-Web.pdf" 
https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-
Fall08-Web.pdf 

 Conversation with Autotherm Sales Department, May 5, 2010

 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies – Idle Reduction.”
http://www.epa.gov/smartway/transport/documents/carrier-strategy-docs/ap
u.pdf . 

 “Delphi truck fuel-cell APU to hit road in 2012,” SAE
International. May 12, 2010. Accessed June 10, 2010.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222"  http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222 

 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions
Report, 2008 Fall Edition   HYPERLINK
"https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide
-Fall08-Web.pdf" 
https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-
Fall08-Web.pdf 

 Webasto Product Brochure: Engine pre-heating, in-cab heating and bunk
cooling.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_heaters.html" 
http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_heaters.html .

 How an Air Heater Works, Espar,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.html" 
http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.html . 

 Webasto Product Brochure: Engine pre-heating, in-cab heating and bunk
cooling.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_heaters.html" 
http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_heaters.html ..

 http://fuelcellsworks.com/news/2010/05/13/delphi-field-testing-solid-ox
ide-fuel-cell-apu-with-a-heavy-duty-truck-manufacturer-and-the-technolog
y-is-scheduled-to-be-in-production-in-2012/

 Automotive Engineering Online, Delphi truck fuel-cell APU to hit road
in 2012, May 12, 2010.   HYPERLINK "http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222" 
http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222 .

 Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification As A Long-Haul Tractor Idling
Alternative, TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM.

 Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification As A Long-Haul Tractor Idling
Alternative, TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM.

   HYPERLINK "http://www.shorepower.com/"  http://www.shorepower.com/ 

   HYPERLINK "http://www.envirodock.com/index.php" 
http://www.envirodock.com/index.php 

   HYPERLINK
"http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2008/may/14/idleaire-turns-off-its-engines
/" 
http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2008/may/14/idleaire-turns-off-its-engines/

   HYPERLINK
"http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2010/jan/28/idleaire-fails-find-buyer-clos
ing-friday/" 
http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2010/jan/28/idleaire-fails-find-buyer-closi
ng-friday/ 

   HYPERLINK "http://www.etrucker.com/apps/news/article.asp?id=85394" 
http://www.etrucker.com/apps/news/article.asp?id=85394 . However, as of
July 20, 2010, no active locations are reported on their website. 

   HYPERLINK "http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/locator/tse/" 
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/locator/tse/ 

 Ed Maxwell, EnviroDock, 5/10/2010. 

 http://www.controlmod.com/pdfs/pr_releases/AlabamaPressRelease.doc

 Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification as a Long-Haul Tractor Idling
Alternative, TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM.

 Ed Maxwell, EnviroDock, 5/10/2010. 

 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing
Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel Consumption and CO2
Emissions, October 2009.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final-2009
10.pdf" 
http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final-20091
0.pdf .

 “Turbocompound System,” Turbo Technologies website. Cummins.
Accessed June 10, 2010.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.holset.co.uk/mainsite/files/2_5_1_3-turbocompound%20system.p
hp" 
http://www.holset.co.uk/mainsite/files/2_5_1_3-turbocompound%20system.ph
p .

 Conversation with Brian Mormino. Cummins.

 Conversation with Bob Leopold of Allison Transmission, May 6, 2010.

 ARB, AB 118: Air Quality Improvement Program (AQIP), FY 2010-11 Funding
Plan Discussion Document, April 2010.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/aqip/meetings/fy%202010-11/aqip_fy10-11_fp
_discussion_doc_040810.pdf" 
http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/aqip/meetings/fy%202010-11/aqip_fy10-11_fp_
discussion_doc_040810.pdf .

 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies –Low-Viscosity
Lubricants,” SmartWay Transport Partnership. Accessed June 10, 2010.  
HYPERLINK "http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/lowviscositylubes.pdf" 
http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/lowviscositylubes.pdf .

 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions
from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense Fund, December
2009.

 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in
Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007.

 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions
from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense Fund, December
2009.

 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in
Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007.

 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions
from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense Fund, December
2009.

 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions
Report, 2008 Fall Edition   HYPERLINK
"https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide
-Fall08-Web.pdf" 
https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-
Fall08-Web.pdf .

 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing
Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel Consumption and CO2
Emissions, October 2009.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final-2009
10.pdf" 
http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final-20091
0.pdf .

 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

 Conversation with Michigan Truck Supplies Sales Department, March 5,
2010. 

 Note that aluminum fuel tanks are more frequently offered as optional
equipment than aluminum air tanks. 

 As estimated by Franklin Josey, Volvo, February 9, 2010

 Alcoa 24.5” LvL One.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.alcoa.com/alcoawheels/north_america/en/brochures/docs/Alcoa_
LvL_One24.pdf" 
http://www.alcoa.com/alcoawheels/north_america/en/brochures/docs/Alcoa_L
vL_One24.pdf .

 Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales Contact, March 2, 2010.

 “New Alcoa 22.4x14 wide base wheel fits low profile longhaul
needs,” Fleet Equipment, November 1, 2001.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.allbusiness.com/transportation-warehousing/828191-1.html" 
http://www.allbusiness.com/transportation-warehousing/828191-1.html .

 Skydel, Seth. “Fuel efficiency: aluminum wheels, side base
singles.” Fleet Equipments, April 1, 2009. 	  HYPERLINK
"http://www.allbusiness.com/government/government-bodies-offices/1231927
0-1.html" 
http://www.allbusiness.com/government/government-bodies-offices/12319270
-1.html .

 Heavy Duty Truck/Trailer. Alcoa Wheels website. Accessed June 10, 2010.
  HYPERLINK
"http://www.alcoa.com/alcoawheels/north_america/en/hdtt/index.asp" 
http://www.alcoa.com/alcoawheels/north_america/en/hdtt/index.asp .

 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions
from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense Fund, December
2009.

 CentriFuse Product Brochure,   HYPERLINK
"http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_drums_brochure.pdf" 
http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_drums_brochure.pdf . 

 Conversations with Product Development Specialist, Motor Wheel
Commercial Vehicle System, July 16, 2010. 

 Conversations with Product Development Specialist, Motor Wheel
Commercial Vehicle Systems, March 19, 2010. 

 Precision Partners Press Release, March 16, 2009.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.precisionpartnersinc.com/corporate/breaking-news/announces-i
ts-new-long-life-severe-service-brake-drums-centrifuse-plus/" 
http://www.precisionpartnersinc.com/corporate/breaking-news/announces-it
s-new-long-life-severe-service-brake-drums-centrifuse-plus/ . 

 Emmons, Bruce. System Optimization of an Ultralight Electric Transit
Bus. Autokinetics, Inc. April 20, 2006.
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/hvso_2006/23_emmons.pd
f.

 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in
Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007.

 Franklin Josey, Volvo, 2/9/2010.

 Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales.

 Franklin Josey, Volvo, 2/9/2010

 Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales.

 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing
Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel Consumption and CO2
Emissions, October 2009.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final-2009
10.pdf" 
http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final-20091
0.pdf .

 Email exchange with Brad Hicks, ArvinMeritor, March 26, 2010.

 Peter Coll, SAE. Posted at:   HYPERLINK
"http://www.refrigeration-engineer.com/forums/showthread.php?t=23669" 
http://www.refrigeration-engineer.com/forums/showthread.php?t=23669 

 Industry Evaluation of low global warming potential refrigerant
HFO-1234yf, SAE CRP1234, 11/10/2009. 

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of Automotive Engineering International (an SAE magazine). p.30.

 E.g.,   HYPERLINK "http://www.koolit.net/prod_list.php?sci=9" 
http://www.koolit.net/prod_list.php?sci=9 , 5/25/2010

 Numerous conversations, including Gary Hansen, RedDotCorp.com,
5/26/2010.

 Conversation with John, Dan’s Truck Refrigeration. 

 Conservation with John, UPS. 

 SolarCool Coatings Brochure provided by Pat Scanlon of Solar Cool
Coatings. 

 “Truck Reflective Tape,” Thomasnet website. Accessed June 10, 2010.
  HYPERLINK
"http://www.thomasnet.com/products/truck-reflective-tape-87831160-1.html
" 
http://www.thomasnet.com/products/truck-reflective-tape-87831160-1.html
.

 Conversation with Bill Beckwith, Crane Composites. 

 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves

 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves

 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions
Report, 2008 Fall Edition   HYPERLINK
"https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide
-Fall08-Web.pdf" 
https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-
Fall08-Web.pdf . 

 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions
Report, 2008 Fall Edition   HYPERLINK
"https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide
-Fall08-Web.pdf" 
https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-
Fall08-Web.pdf . 

 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves

 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions
Report, 2008 Fall Edition   HYPERLINK
"https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide
-Fall08-Web.pdf" 
https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-
Fall08-Web.pdf . 

 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves

 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions
Report, 2008 Fall Edition   HYPERLINK
"https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide
-Fall08-Web.pdf" 
https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-
Fall08-Web.pdf . 

 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed
Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use Diesel-Fueled
Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and
Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed
Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use Diesel-Fueled
Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and
Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

 Conversation with David Kiefer, Transicold.

 Conversation with David Kiefer. 

 DTI, “The Commercialisation of Solar Powered Transport
Refrigeration.” 2001.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file16833.pdf" 
http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file16833.pdf .

 Conversation with David Kiefer.

 Conversation with David Kiefer.

 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed
Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use Diesel-Fueled
Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and
Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed
Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use Diesel-Fueled
Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and
Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

 Thermo King CryoTech Brochure. 

 Conversation with Tom Kampf, ThermoKing. 

 Conversation with Herman Viegas, ThermoKing.

 Conversation with Herman Viegas, ThermoKing. 

 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed
Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use Diesel-Fueled
Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and
Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

 ThermoKing CryoTech Brochure.

 Conversation with Sam Dutta, ThermoKing. 

 Conversation with Tom Kampf.

 Draft Regulatory Impact Analysis, Proposed Rulemaking to Establish
Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards and Corporate
Average Fuel Economy Standards, EPA-420-D-09-003, September 2009. 

 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in
Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007.

 Conversation with David Kiefer. 

ICF International	  PAGE  70 	  STYLEREF  Client  \* MERGEFORMAT  US
Environmental Protection Agency  

  STYLEREF  "Production Number"  \* MERGEFORMAT  EPA Contract
EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 		  STYLEREF  Date  \* MERGEFORMAT  July 20, 2010
 

ICF International	  PAGE  3 	  STYLEREF  Client  \* MERGEFORMAT  US
Environmental Protection Agency  

  STYLEREF  "Production Number"  \* MERGEFORMAT  EPA Contract
EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 		  STYLEREF  Date  \* MERGEFORMAT  July 20, 2010
 

  STYLEREF  "Document Title"  \* MERGEFORMAT  Investigation of Costs for
Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road
Vehicles 

  STYLEREF  "Heading 1"  \* MERGEFORMAT  Bibliography 

ICF International	  PAGE  112 	  STYLEREF  Client  \* MERGEFORMAT  US
Environmental Protection Agency  

  STYLEREF  "Production Number"  \* MERGEFORMAT  EPA Contract
EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 		  STYLEREF  Date  \* MERGEFORMAT  July 20, 2010
 

ICF International	  PAGE  71 	  STYLEREF  Client  \* MERGEFORMAT  US
Environmental Protection Agency  

  STYLEREF  "Production Number"  \* MERGEFORMAT  EPA Contract
EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 		  STYLEREF  Date  \* MERGEFORMAT  July 20, 2010
 

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.truckpaper.com" 
http://www.truckpaper.com  

Source:   HYPERLINK "http://www.truckpaper.com" 
http://www.truckpaper.com