Document ID: EPA-HQ-OW-2002-0033-0124
Agency: epa
Document Type: Supporting & Related Material
Title: 
Posted Date: 2003-04-14T04:00Z

3.
DRINKING
WATER
INTAKE
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1
3.1.
BACKGROUND
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1
3.2.
KEY
GENERAL
POPULATION
STUDIES
ON
DRINKING
WATER
INTAKE
1
3.3.
RELEVANT
GENERAL
POPULATION
STUDIES
ON
DRINKING
WATER
INTAKE
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9
3.4.
PREGNANT
AND
LACTATING
WOMEN
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17
3.5.
HIGH
ACTIVITY
LEVELS/
HOT
CLIMATES
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20
3.6.
RECOMMENDATIONS
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23
3.7.
REFERENCES
FOR
CHAPTER
3
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30
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
1
3.
DRINKING
WATER
INTAKE
3.1.
BACKGROUND
Drinking
water
is
a
potential
source
of
human
tapwater
intake,
rather
than
total
fluid
intake,
is
emphasized
exposure
to
toxic
substances.
Contamination
of
drinking
in
this
section.
water
may
occur
by,
for
example,
percolation
of
toxics
All
studies
on
drinking
water
intake
that
are
currently
through
the
soil
to
ground
water
that
is
used
as
a
source
of
available
are
based
on
short­
term
survey
data.
Although
drinking
water;
runoff
or
discharge
to
surface
water
that
is
short­
term
data
may
be
suitable
for
obtaining
mean
intake
used
as
a
source
of
drinking
water;
intentional
or
values
that
are
representative
of
both
short­
and
long­
term
unintentional
addition
of
substances
to
treat
water
(
e.
g.,
consumption
patterns,
upper­
percentile
values
may
be
chlorination);
and
leaching
of
materials
from
plumbing
different
for
short­
term
and
long­
term
data
because
more
systems
(
e.
g.,
lead).
Estimating
the
magnitude
of
the
variability
generally
occurs
in
short­
term
surveys.
It
should
potential
dose
of
toxics
from
drinking
water
requires
also
be
noted
that
most
drinking
water
surveys
currently
information
on
the
quantity
of
water
consumed.
The
available
are
based
on
recall.
This
may
be
a
source
of
purpose
of
this
section
is
to
describe
key
published
studies
uncertainty
in
the
estimated
intake
rates
because
of
the
that
provide
information
on
drinking
water
consumption
subjective
nature
of
this
type
of
survey
technique.
(
Section
3.2)
and
to
provide
recommendations
of
The
distribution
of
water
intakes
is
usually,
but
not
consumption
rate
values
that
should
be
used
in
exposure
always,
lognormal.
Instead
of
presenting
only
the
assessments
(
Section
3.6).
lognormal
parameters,
the
actual
percentile
distributions
are
Currently,
the
U.
S.
EPA
uses
the
quantity
of
2
L
per
presented
in
this
handbook,
usually
with
a
comment
on
day
for
adults
and
1
L
per
day
for
infants
(
individuals
of
10
whether
or
not
it
is
lognormal.
To
facilitate
comparisons
kg
body
mass
or
less)
as
default
drinking
water
intake
rates
between
studies,
the
mean
and
the
90th
percentiles
are
(
U.
S.
EPA,
1980;
1991).
These
rates
include
drinking
given
for
all
studies
where
the
distribution
data
are
water
consumed
in
the
form
of
juices
and
other
beverages
available.
With
these
two
parameters,
along
with
containing
tapwater
(
e.
g.,
coffee).
The
National
Academy
information
about
which
distribution
is
being
followed,
one
of
Sciences
(
NAS,
1977)
estimated
that
daily
consumption
can
calculate,
using
standard
formulas,
the
geometric
mean
of
water
may
vary
with
levels
of
physical
activity
and
and
geometric
standard
deviation
and
hence
any
desired
fluctuations
in
temperature
and
humidity.
It
is
reasonable
percentile
of
the
distribution.
Before
doing
such
a
to
assume
that
some
individuals
in
physically­
demanding
calculation
one
must
be
sure
that
one
of
these
distributions
occupations
or
living
in
warmer
regions
may
have
high
adequately
fits
the
data.
levels
of
water
intake.
The
available
studies
on
drinking
water
consumption
Numerous
studies
cited
in
this
chapter
have
are
summarized
in
the
following
sections.
They
have
been
generated
data
on
drinking
water
intake
rates.
In
general,
classified
as
either
key
studies
or
relevant
studies
based
on
these
sources
support
EPA's
use
of
2
L/
day
for
adults
and
1
the
applicability
of
their
survey
designs
to
exposure
L/
day
for
children
as
upper­
percentile
tapwater
intake
rates.
assessment
of
the
entire
United
States
population.
Many
of
the
studies
have
reported
fluid
intake
rates
for
both
Recommended
intake
rates
are
based
on
the
results
of
key
total
fluids
and
tapwater.
Total
fluid
intake
is
defined
as
consumption
of
all
types
of
fluids
including
tapwater,
milk,
soft
drinks,
alcoholic
beverages,
and
water
intrinsic
to
purchased
foods.
Total
tapwater
is
defined
as
water
consumed
directly
from
the
tap
as
a
beverage
or
used
in
the
preparation
of
foods
and
beverages
(
i.
e.,
coffee,
tea,
frozen
juices,
soups,
etc.).
Data
for
both
consumption
categories
are
presented
in
the
sections
that
follow.
However,
for
the
­
Tapwater
Consumption
in
Canada
­
In
a
study
conducted
purposes
of
exposure
assessments
involving
source­
specific
by
the
Canadian
Department
of
Health
and
Welfare,
970
contaminated
drinking
water,
intake
rates
based
on
total
individuals
from
295
households
were
surveyed
to
tapwater
are
more
representative
of
source­
specific
tapwater
intake.
Given
the
assumption
that
purchased
foods
and
beverages
are
widely
distributed
and
less
likely
to
contain
source­
specific
water,
the
use
of
total
fluid
intake
rates
may
overestimate
the
potential
exposure
to
toxic
substances
present
only
in
local
water
supplies;
therefore
studies,
but
relevant
studies
are
also
presented
to
provide
the
reader
with
added
perspective
on
the
current
state­
ofknowledge
pertaining
to
drinking
water
intake.

3.2.
KEY
GENERAL
POPULATION
STUDIES
ON
DRINKING
WATER
INTAKE
Canada
Department
of
Health
and
Welfare
(
1981)
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
2
August
1997
Table
3­
1.
Daily
Total
Tapwater
Intake
Distribution
for
Canadians,
by
Age
Group
(
approx.
0.20
L
increments,
both
sexes,
combined
seasons)

Age
Group
(
years)
Amount
Consumed
5
and
under
6­
17
18
and
over
a
L/
day
%
Number
%
Number
%
Number
0.00
­
0.21
11.1
9
2.8
7
0.5
3
0.22
­
0.43
17.3
14
10.0
25
1.9
12
0.44
­
0.65
24.8
20
13.2
33
5.9
38
0.66
­
0.86
9.9
8
13.6
34
8.5
54
0.87
­
1.07
11.1
9
14.4
36
13.1
84
1.08
­
1.29
11.1
9
14.8
37
14.8
94
1.30
­
1.50
4.9
4
9.6
24
15.3
98
1.51
­
1.71
6.2
5
6.8
17
12.1
77
1.72
­
1.93
1.2
1
2.4
6
6.9
44
1.94
­
2.14
1.2
1
1.2
3
5.6
36
2.15
­
2.36
1.2
1
4.0
10
3.4
22
2.37
­
2.57
­
0
0.4
1
3.1
20
2.58
­
2.79
­
0
2.4
6
2.7
17
2.80
­
3.00
­
0
2.4
6
1.4
9
3.01
­
3.21
­
0
0.4
1
1.1
7
3.22
­
3.43
­
0
­
0
0.9
6
3.44
­
3.64
­
0
­
0
0.8
5
3.65
­
3.86
­
0
­
0
­
0
>
3.86
­
0
1.6
4
2.0
13
TOTAL
100.0
81
100.0
250
100.0
639
Includes
tapwater
and
foods
and
beverages
derived
from
tapwater.
a
Source:
Canadian
Ministry
of
National
Health
and
Welfare,
1981.
determine
the
per
capita
total
tapwater
intake
rates
for
at
home
and
tapwater
consumed
away
from
home.
The
various
age/
sex
groups
during
winter
and
summer
seasons
survey
also
did
not
attempt
to
estimate
intake
rates
for
fluids
(
Canadian
Ministry
of
National
Health
and
Welfare,
1981).
other
than
tapwater.
Consequently,
no
intake
rates
for
total
Intake
rate
was
also
evaluated
as
a
function
of
physical
fluids
were
reported.
activity.
The
population
that
was
surveyed
matched
the
Daily
consumption
distribution
patterns
for
various
Canadian
1976
census
with
respect
to
the
proportion
in
age
groups
are
presented
in
Table
3­
1.
For
adults
(
over
18
different
age,
regional,
community
size
and
dwelling
type
years
of
age)
only,
the
average
total
tapwater
intake
rate
was
groups.
Participants
monitored
water
intake
for
a
2­
day
1.38
L/
day,
and
the
90th
percentile
rate
was
2.41
L/
day
as
period
(
1
weekday,
and
1
weekend
day)
in
both
late
summer
determined
by
graphical
interpolation.
These
data
follow
a
of
1977
and
winter
of
1978.
All
970
individuals
lognormal
distribution.
The
intake
data
for
males,
females,
participated
in
both
the
summer
and
winter
surveys.
The
and
both
sexes
combined
as
a
function
of
age
and
expressed
amount
of
tapwater
consumed
was
estimated
based
on
the
in
the
units
of
milliliters
(
grams)
per
kilogram
body
weight
respondents'
identification
of
the
type
and
size
of
beverage
are
presented
in
Table
3­
2.
The
tapwater
survey
did
not
container
used,
compared
to
standard
sized
vessels.
The
include
body
weights
of
the
participants,
but
the
body
survey
questionnaires
included
a
pictorial
guide
to
help
weight
information
was
taken
from
a
Canadian
health
participants
in
classifying
the
sizes
of
the
vessels.
For
survey
dated
1981;
it
averaged
65.1
kg
for
males
and
55.6
example,
a
small
glass
of
water
was
assumed
to
be
kg
for
females.
Intake
rates
for
specific
age
groups
and
equivalent
to
4.0
ounces
of
water,
and
a
large
glass
was
seasons
are
presented
in
Table
3­
3.
The
average
daily
total
assumed
to
contain
9.0
ounces
of
water.
The
study
also
tapwater
intake
rates
for
all
ages
and
seasons
combined
was
accounted
for
water
derived
from
ice
cubes
and
popsicles,
1.34
L/
day,
and
the
90th
percentile
rate
was
2.36
L/
day.
and
water
in
soups,
infant
formula,
and
juices.
The
survey
The
summer
intake
rates
are
nearly
the
same
as
the
winter
did
not
attempt
to
differentiate
between
tapwater
consumed
intake
rates.
The
authors
speculate
that
the
reason
for
the
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
3
small
seasonal
variation
here
is
that
in
Canada,
even
in
the
summer,
the
ambient
temperature
seldom
exceeded
20
degrees
C
and
marked
increase
in
water
consumption
with
high
activity
levels
has
been
observed
in
other
studies
only
when
the
ambient
temperature
has
been
higher
than
20
degrees.
Average
daily
total
tapwater
intake
rates
as
a
function
of
the
level
of
physical
activity,
as
estimated
subjectively,
are
presented
in
Table
3­
4.
The
amounts
of
tapwater
consumed
that
are
derived
from
various
foods
and
beverages
are
presented
in
Table
3­
5.
Note
that
the
consumption
of
direct
"
raw"
tapwater
is
almost
constant
across
all
age
groups
from
school­
age
children
through
the
oldest
ages.
The
increase
in
total
tapwater
consumption
beyond
school
age
is
due
to
coffee
and
tea
consumption.
Table
3­
2.
Average
Daily
Tapwater
Intake
of
Canadians
(
expressed
as
milliliters
per
kilogram
body
weight)

Average
Daily
Intake
(
mL/
kg)

Age
Group
(
years)
Females
Males
Both
Sexes
<
3
53
35
45
3­
5
49
48
48
6­
17
24
27
26
18­
34
23
19
21
35­
54
25
19
22
55+
24
21
22
Total
Population
24
21
22
Source:
Canadian
Ministry
of
National
Health
and
Welfare,
1981.

Table
3­
3.
Average
Daily
Total
Tapwater
Intake
of
Canadians,
by
Age
and
Season
(
L/
day)
a
Age
(
years)

<
3
3­
5
6­
17
18­
34
35­
54
<
55
All
Ages
Average
Summer
0.57
0.86
1.14
1.33
1.52
1.53
1.31
Winter
0.66
0.88
1.13
1.42
1.59
1.62
1.37
Summer/
Winter
0.61
0.87
1.14
1.38
1.55
1.57
1.34
90th
Percentile
Summer/
Winter
1.50
1.50
2.21
2.57
2.57
2.29
2.36
Includes
tapwater
and
foods
and
beverages
derived
from
tapwater.
a
Source:
Canadian
Ministry
of
National
Health
and
Welfare,
1981.

Table
3­
4.
Average
Daily
Total
Tapwater
Intake
of
Canadians
as
a
Function
of
Level
of
Physical
Activity
at
Work
and
in
Spare
Time
(
16
years
and
older,
combined
seasons,
L/
day)

Work
Spare
Time
Activity
Consumption
Number
of
Respondents
Consumption
Number
of
Respondents
Level
L/
day
L/
day
a
b
b
Extremely
Active
1.72
99
1.57
52
Very
Active
1.47
244
1.51
151
Somewhat
Active
1.47
217
1.44
302
Not
Very
Active
1.27
67
1.52
131
Not
At
All
Active
1.30
16
1.35
26
Did
Not
State
1.30
45
1.31
26
TOTAL
688
688
The
levels
of
physical
activity
listed
here
were
not
defined
any
further
by
the
survey
report,
and
categorization
of
activity
level
by
survey
a
participants
is
assumed
to
be
subjective.
Includes
tapwater
and
foods
and
beverages
derived
from
tapwater.
b
Source:
Canadian
Ministry
of
National
Health
and
Welfare,
1981.

Table
3­
5.
Average
Daily
Tapwater
Intake
by
Canadians,
Apportioned
Among
Various
Beverages
(
both
sexes,
by
age,
combined
seasons,
L/
day)
a
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
4
August
1997
Age
Group
(
years)

Under
3
3­
5
6­
17
18­
34
35­
54
55
and
Over
Total
Number
in
Group
34
47
250
232
254
153
Water
0.14
0.31
0.42
0.39
0.38
0.38
Ice/
Mix
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.03
0.02
Tea
*
0.01
0.05
0.21
0.31
0.42
Coffee
0.01
*
0.06
0.37
0.50
0.42
"
Other
Type
of
Drink"
0.21
0.34
0.34
0.20
0.14
0.11
Reconstituted
Milk
0.10
0.08
0.12
0.05
0.04
0.08
Soup
0.04
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.08
0.11
Homemade
Beer/
Wine
*
*
0.02
0.04
0.07
0.03
Homemade
Popsicles
0.01
0.03
0.03
0.01
*
*

Baby
Formula,
etc.
0.09
*
*
*
*
*

TOTAL
0.61
0.86
1.14
1.38
1.55
1.57
Includes
tapwater
and
foods
and
beverages
derived
from
tapwater.
a
*
Less
than
0.01
L/
day
Source:
Canadian
Ministry
of
National
Health
and
Welfare,
1981.

Data
concerning
the
source
of
tapwater
(
municipal,
as
"
all
water
from
the
household
tap
consumed
directly
as
well,
or
lake)
was
presented
in
one
table
of
the
study.
This
a
beverage
or
used
to
prepare
foods
and
beverages."
Total
categorization
is
not
appropriate
for
making
conclusions
water
was
defined
as
tapwater
plus
"
water
intrinsic
to
foods
about
consumption
of
ground
versus
surface
water.
and
beverages"
(
i.
e.,
water
contained
in
purchased
food
and
This
survey
may
be
more
representative
of
total
beverages).
The
authors
showed
that
the
age,
sex,
and
tapwater
consumption
than
some
other
less
comprehensive
racial
distribution
of
the
surveyed
population
closely
surveys
because
it
included
data
for
some
tapwater­
matched
the
estimated
1977
U.
S.
population.
containing
items
not
covered
by
other
studies
(
i.
e.,
ice
Daily
total
tapwater
intake
rates,
expressed
as
mL
cubes,
popsicles,
and
infant
formula).
One
potential
source
(
grams)
per
day
by
age
group
are
presented
in
Table
3­
6.
of
error
in
the
study
is
that
estimated
intake
rates
were
These
data
follow
a
lognormal
distribution.
The
same
data,
based
on
identification
of
standard
vessel
sizes;
the
accuracy
expressed
as
mL
(
grams)
per
kg
body
weight
per
day
are
of
this
type
of
survey
data
is
not
known.
The
cooler
climate
presented
in
Table
3­
7.
A
summary
of
these
tables,
of
Canada
may
have
reduced
the
importance
of
large
showing
the
mean,
the
10th
and
90th
percentile
intakes,
tapwater
intakes
resulting
from
high
activity
levels,
expressed
as
both
mL/
day
and
mL/
kg­
day
as
a
function
of
therefore
making
the
study
less
applicable
to
the
United
age,
is
presented
in
Table
3­
8.
This
shows
that
the
mean
States.
The
authors
were
not
able
to
explain
the
and
90th
percentile
intake
rates
for
adults
(
ages
20
to
65+)
surprisingly
large
variations
between
regional
tapwater
are
approximately
1,410
mL/
day
and
2,280
mL/
day
and
for
intakes;
the
largest
regional
difference
was
between
Ontario
all
ages
the
mean
and
90th
percentile
intake
rates
are
1,190
(
1.18
liters/
day)
and
Quebec
(
1.55
liters/
day).
mL/
day
and
2,090
mL/
day.
Note
that
older
adults
have
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
­
Total
Water
and
Tapwater
Intake
in
the
United
States:
Population­
Based
Estimates
of
Quantities
and
Sources
­
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
estimated
water
intake
rates
based
on
data
collected
by
the
USDA
1977­
1978
Nationwide
Food
Consumption
Survey
(
NFCS).
Daily
intake
rates
for
tapwater
and
total
water
were
calculated
for
various
age
groups
for
males,
females,
and
both
sexes
combined.
Tapwater
was
defined
greater
intakes
than
do
adults
between
age
20
and
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
5
Table
3­
6.
Total
Tapwater
Intake
(
mL/
day)
for
Both
Sexes
Combineda
Age
(
years)
Number
of
Observations
Mean
SD
S.
E.
of
Mean
Percentile
Distribution
1
5
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
<
0.5
182
272
247
18
*
0
0
80
240
332
640
800
*

0.5
­
0.9
221
328
265
18
*
0
0
117
268
480
688
764
*

1
­
3
1498
646
390
10
33
169
240
374
567
820
1162
1419
1899
4
­
6
1702
742
406
10
68
204
303
459
660
972
1302
1520
1932
7
­
10
2405
787
417
9
68
241
318
484
731
1016
1338
1556
1998
11
­
14
2803
925
521
10
76
244
360
561
838
1196
1621
1924
2503
15
­
19
2998
999
593
11
55
239
348
587
897
1294
1763
2134
2871
20
­
44
7171
1255
709
8
105
337
483
766
1144
1610
2121
2559
3634
45
­
64
4560
1546
723
11
335
591
745
1057
1439
1898
2451
2870
3994
65
­
74
1663
1500
660
16
301
611
766
1044
1394
1873
2333
2693
3479
75+
878
1381
600
20
279
568
728
961
1302
1706
2170
2476
3087
Infants
(
ages
<
1)

Children
(
ages
1­
10)

Teens
(
ages
11­
19)

Adults
(
ages
20­
64)

Adults
(
ages
65+)

All
403
5605
5801
11731
2541
26081
302
736
965
1366
1459
1193
258
410
562
728
643
702
13
5
7
7
13
4
0
56
67
148
299
80
0
192
240
416
598
286
0
286
353
559
751
423
113
442
574
870
1019
690
240
665
867
1252
1367
1081
424
960
1246
1737
1806
1561
649
1294
1701
2268
2287
2092
775
1516
2026
2707
2636
2477
1102
1954
2748
3780
3338
3415
Total
tapwater
is
defined
as
"
all
water
from
the
household
tap
consumed
directly
as
a
beverage
or
used
to
prepare
foods
and
beverages."

a
*
Value
not
reported
due
to
insufficient
number
of
observations.

Source:
Ershow
and
Cantor,
1989.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
6
August
1997
Table
3­
7.
Total
Tapwater
Intake
(
mL/
kg­
day)
for
Both
Sexes
Combineda
Age
(
years)
Number
of
Observations
Mean
SD
S.
E.
of
Mean
1
5
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
Actual
Count
Weighted
Count
<
0.5
182
201.2
52.4
53.2
3.9
*
0.0
0.0
14.8
37.8
66.1
128.3
155.6
*

0.5
­
0.9
221
243.2
36.2
29.2
2.0
*
0.0
0.0
15.3
32.2
48.1
69.4
102.9
*

1
­
3
1498
1687.7
46.8
28.1
0.7
2.7
11.8
17.8
27.2
41.4
60.4
82.1
101.6
140.6
4
­
6
1702
1923.9
37.9
21.8
0.5
3.4
10.3
14.9
21.9
33.3
48.7
69.3
81.1
103.4
7
­
10
2405
2742.4
26.9
15.3
0.3
2.2
7.4
10.3
16.0
24.0
35.5
47.3
55.2
70.5
11
­
14
2803
3146.9
20.2
11.6
0.2
1.5
4.9
7.5
11.9
18.1
26.2
35.7
41.9
55.0
15
­
19
2998
3677.9
16.4
9.6
0.2
1.0
3.9
5.7
9.6
14.8
21.5
29.0
35.0
46.3
20
­
44
7171
13444.5
18.6
10.7
0.1
1.6
4.9
7.1
11.2
16.8
23.7
32.2
38.4
53.4
45
­
64
4560
8300.4
22.0
10.8
0.2
4.4
8.0
10.3
14.7
20.2
27.2
35.5
42.1
57.8
65
­
74
1663
2740.2
21.9
9.9
0.2
4.6
8.7
10.9
15.1
20.2
27.2
35.2
40.6
51.6
75+
878
1401.8
21.6
9.5
0.3
3.8
8.8
10.7
15.0
20.5
27.1
33.9
38.6
47.2
Infants
(
ages
<
1)

Children
(
ages
1­
10)

Teens
(
ages
11­
19)

Adults
(
ages
20­
64)

Adults
(
ages
65+)

All
403
5605
5801
11731
2541
26081
444.3
6354.1
6824.9
21744.9
4142.0
39510.2
43.5
35.5
18.2
19.9
21.8
22.6
42.5
22.9
10.8
10.8
9.8
15.4
2.1
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.0
2.7
1.2
2.2
4.5
1.7
0.0
8.3
4.3
5.9
8.7
5.8
0.0
12.5
6.5
8.0
10.9
8.2
15.3
19.6
10.6
12.4
15.0
13.0
35.3
30.5
16.3
18.2
20.3
19.4
54.7
46.0
23.6
25.3
27.1
28.0
101.8
64.4
32.3
33.7
34.7
39.8
126.5
79.4
38.9
40.0
40.0
50.0
220.5
113.9
52.6
54.8
51.3
79.8
Total
tapwater
is
defined
as
"
all
water
from
the
household
tap
consumed
directly
as
a
beverage
or
used
to
prepare
foods
and
beverages."

a
*
Value
not
reported
due
to
insufficient
number
of
observations.

Source:
Ershow
and
Cantor,
1989.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
7
Table
3­
8.
Summary
of
Tapwater
Intake
by
Age
Age
Group
Intake
(
mL/
day)
Intake
(
mL/
kg­
day)

Mean
10th­
90th
Percentiles
Mean
10th­
90th
Percentiles
Infants
(<
1
year)
302
0­
649
43.5
0
­
100
Children
(
1­
10
years)
736
286­
1,294
35.5
12.5
­
64.4
Teens
(
11­
19
years)
965
353­
1,701
18.2
6.5
­
32.3
Adults
(
20
­
64
years)
1,366
559­
2,268
19.9
8.0
­
33.7
Adults
(
65+
years)
1,459
751­
2,287
21.8
10.9
­
34.7
All
ages
1,193
423­
2,092
22.6
8.2
­
39.8
Source:
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)

65,
an
observation
bearing
on
the
interpretation
of
the
females;
the
variation
of
each
from
the
combined­
sexes
Cantor,
et
al.
(
1987)
study
which
surveyed
a
population
that
mean
was
about
8
percent.
was
older
than
the
national
average
(
see
Section
3.3).
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
also
presented
data
on
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
also
measured
total
water
total
water
intake
and
tapwater
intake
for
children
of
various
intake
for
the
same
age
groups
and
concluded
that
it
ages.
They
found,
for
infants
and
children
between
the
ages
averaged
2,070
mL/
day
for
all
groups
combined
and
that
of
6
months
and
15
years,
that
the
total
water
intake
per
unit
tapwater
intake
(
1,190
mL/
day)
is
55
percent
of
the
total
body
weight
increased
smoothly
and
sharply
from
30
water
intake.
(
The
detailed
intake
data
for
various
age
mL/
kg­
day
above
age
15
years
to
190
mL/
kg­
day
for
ages
groups
are
presented
in
Table
3­
9).
Ershow
and
Cantor
less
than
6
months.
This
probably
represents
metabolic
(
1989)
also
concluded
that,
for
all
age
groups
combined,
requirements
for
water
as
a
dietary
constituent.
However,
the
proportion
of
tapwater
consumed
as
drinking
water,
they
found
that
the
intake
of
tapwater
alone
went
up
only
foods,
and
beverages
is
54
percent,
10
percent
and
36
slightly
with
decreasing
age
(
from
20
to
45
mL/
kg­
day
as
percent,
respectively.
(
The
detailed
data
on
proportion
of
age
decreases
from
11
years
to
less
than
6
months).
Ershow
tapwater
consumed
for
various
age
groups
are
presented
in
and
Cantor
(
1989)
attributed
this
small
effect
of
age
on
Table
3­
10).
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
also
observed
that
tapwater
intake
to
the
large
number
of
alternative
water
males
of
all
age
groups
had
higher
total
water
and
tapwater
sources
(
besides
tapwater)
used
for
the
younger
age
groups.
consumption
rates
than
Table
3­
9.
Total
Tapwater
Intake
(
as
percent
of
total
water
intake)
by
Broad
Age
Categorya,
b
Age
(
years)
Mean
Percentile
Distribution
1
5
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
<
1
26
0
0
0
12
22
37
55
62
82
1­
10
45
6
19
24
34
45
57
67
72
81
11­
19
47
6
18
24
35
47
59
69
74
83
20­
64
59
12
27
35
49
61
72
79
83
90
65+
65
25
41
47
58
67
74
81
84
90
Does
not
include
pregnant
women,
lactating
women,
or
breast­
fed
children.
a
Total
tapwater
is
defined
as
"
all
water
from
the
household
tap
consumed
directly
as
a
beverage
or
used
to
prepare
foods
and
beverages."
b
0
=
Less
than
0.5
percent.

Source:
Ershow
and
Cantor,
1989.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
8
August
1997
Table
3­
10.
General
Dietary
Sources
of
Tapwater
for
Both
Sexesa,
b
Age
(
years)
Source
%
of
Tapwater
Mean
Standard
Deviation
5
25
50
75
95
99
<
1
Foodc
Drinking
Water
Other
Beverages
All
Sources
11
69
20
100
24
37
33
0
0
0
0
39
0
0
87
0
10
100
22
70
100
100
100
100
100
1­
10
Foodc
Drinking
Water
Other
Beverages
All
Sources
15
65
20
100
16
25
21
0
0
0
5
52
0
10
70
15
19
84
32
44
96
63
100
100
93
11­
19
Foodc
Drinking
Water
Other
Beverages
All
Sources
13
65
22
100
15
25
23
0
0
0
3
52
0
8
70
16
17
85
34
38
98
68
100
100
96
20­
64
Foodc
Drinking
Water
Other
Beverages
All
Sources
8
47
45
100
10
26
26
0
0
0
2
29
25
5
48
44
11
67
63
25
91
91
49
100
100
65+
Foodc
Drinking
Water
Other
Beverages
All
Sources
8
50
42
100
9
23
23
0
0
3
2
36
27
5
52
40
11
66
57
23
87
85
38
99
100
All
Foodc
Drinking
Water
Other
Beverages
All
Sources
10
54
36
100
13
27
27
0
0
0
2
36
14
6
56
34
13
75
55
31
95
87
64
100
100
Does
not
include
pregnant
women,
lactating
women,
or
breast­
fed
children.
a
Individual
values
may
not
add
to
totals
due
to
rounding.
b
Food
category
includes
soups.
c
0
=
Less
than
0.5
percent.
Source:
Ershow
and
Cantor,
1989.

With
respect
to
region
of
the
country,
the
northeast
collected
for
only
a
three­
day
period,
the
extrapolation
to
states
had
slightly
lower
average
tapwater
intake
(
1,200
chronic
intake
is
uncertain.
mL/
day)
than
the
three
other
regions
(
which
were
approximately
equal
at
1,400
mL/
day).
This
survey
has
an
adequately
large
size
(
26,446
individuals)
and
it
is
a
representative
sample
of
the
United
States
population
with
respect
to
age
distribution,
sex,
racial
composition,
and
residential
location.
It
is
therefore
suitable
as
a
description
of
national
tapwater
consumption.
The
chief
limitation
of
the
study
is
that
the
data
were
collected
in
1978
and
do
not
reflect
the
expected
increase
in
the
consumption
of
soft
drinks
and
bottled
water
or
changes
in
the
diet
within
the
last
two
decades.
Since
the
data
were
Roseberry
and
Burmaster
(
1992)
­
Lognormal
Distributions
for
Water
Intake
­
Roseberry
and
Burmaster
(
1992)
fit
lognormal
distributions
to
the
water
intake
data
reported
by
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
and
estimated
population­
wide
distributions
for
total
fluid
and
total
tapwater
intake
based
on
proportions
of
the
population
in
each
age
group.
Their
publication
shows
the
data
and
the
fitted
log­
normal
distributions
graphically.
The
mean
was
estimated
as
the
zero
intercept,
and
the
standard
deviation
was
estimated
as
the
slope
of
the
best
fit
line
for
the
natural
logarithm
of
the
intake
rates
plotted
against
their
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
9
Table
3­
11.
Summary
Statistics
for
Best­
Fit
Lognormal
Distributions
for
Water
Intake
Ratesa
ln
Total
Fluid
Group
Intake
Rate
(
age
in
years)
F
F
R2
0
<
age
<
1
6.979
0.291
0.996
1
#
age
<
11
7.182
0.340
0.953
11
#
age
<
20
7.490
0.347
0.966
20
#
age
<
65
7.563
0.400
0.977
65
#
age
7.583
0.360
0.988
All
ages
7.487
0.405
0.984
Simulated
balanced
population
7.492
0.407
1.000
ln
Total
Tapwater
Group
Intake
(
age
in
years)
F
F
R2
0
<
age
<
1
5.587
0.615
0.970
1
#
age
<
11
6.429
0.498
0.984
11
#
age
<
20
6.667
0.535
0.986
20
#
age
<
65
7.023
0.489
0.956
65
#
age
7.088
0.476
0.978
All
ages
6.870
0.530
0.978
Simulated
balanced
population
6.864
0.575
0.995
These
values
(
mL/
day)
were
used
in
the
following
equations
to
a
estimate
the
quantiles
and
averages
for
total
tapwater
intake
shown
in
Tables
3­
12.
97.5
percentile
intake
rate
=
exp
[
F
+
(
1.96
F
)
]
.

75
percentile
intake
rate
=
exp
[
F
+
(
0.6745
F
)
]
.

50
percentile
intake
rate
=
exp
[
F
]
25
percentile
intake
rate
=
exp
[
F
­
(
0.6745
F
)
]
.

2.5
percentile
intake
rate
=
exp
[
F
­
(
1.96
F
)
]
.

Mean
intake
rate
­
exp
[
F
+
0.5
F
)
]
.
2
Source:
Roseberry
and
Burmaster,
1992.
corresponding
z­
scores
(
Roseberry
and
Burmaster,
1992).
These
intake
rates
were
based
on
the
data
originally
Least
squares
techniques
were
used
to
estimate
the
best
fit
presented
by
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989).
Consequently,
the
straight
lines
for
the
transformed
data.
Summary
statistics
same
advantages
and
disadvantages
associated
with
the
for
the
best­
fit
lognormal
distribution
are
presented
in
Table
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
study
apply
to
this
data
set.
3­
11.
In
this
table,
the
simulated
balanced
population
represents
an
adjustment
to
account
for
the
different
age
distribution
of
the
United
States
population
in
1988
from
the
age
distribution
in
1978
when
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
collected
their
data.
Table
3­
12
summarizes
the
quantiles
and
means
of
tapwater
intake
as
estimated
from
the
best­
fit
distributions.
The
mean
total
tapwater
intake
rates
for
the
two
adult
populations
(
age
20
to
65
years,
and
65+
years)
were
estimated
to
be
1.27
and
1.34
L/
day.
3.3.
RELEVANT
GENERAL
POPULATION
STUDIES
ON
DRINKING
WATER
INTAKE
National
Academy
of
Sciences
(
1977)
­
Drinking
Water
and
Health
­
NAS
(
1977)
calculated
the
average
per
capita
water
(
liquid)
consumption
per
day
to
be
1.63
L.
This
figure
was
based
on
a
survey
of
the
following
literature
sources:
Evans
(
1941);
Bourne
and
Kidder
(
1953);
Walker
et
al.
(
1957);
Wolf
(
1958);
Guyton
(
1968);
McNall
and
Schlegel
(
1968);
Randall
(
1973);
NAS
(
1974);
and
Pike
and
Brown
(
1975).
Although
the
calculated
average
intake
rate
was
1.63
L
per
day,
NAS
(
1977)
adopted
a
larger
rate
(
2
L
per
day)
to
represent
the
intake
of
the
majority
of
water
consumers.
This
value
is
relatively
consistent
with
the
total
tapwater
intakes
rate
estimated
from
the
key
studies
presented
previously.
However,
the
use
of
the
term
"
liquid"
was
not
clearly
defined
in
this
study,
and
it
is
not
known
whether
the
populations
surveyed
are
representative
of
the
adult
U.
S.
population.
Consequently,
the
results
of
this
study
are
of
limited
use
in
recommending
total
tapwater
intake
rates
and
this
study
is
not
considered
a
key
study.
Hopkins
and
Ellis
(
1980)
­
Drinking
Water
Consumption
in
Great
Britain
­
A
study
conducted
in
Great
Britain
over
a
6­
week
period
during
September
and
October
1978,
estimated
the
drinking
water
consumption
rates
of
3,564
individuals
from
1,320
households
in
England,
Scotland,
and
Wales
(
Hopkins
and
Ellis,
1980).
The
participants
were
selected
randomly
and
were
asked
to
complete
a
questionnaire
and
a
diary
indicating
the
type
and
quantity
of
beverages
consumed
over
a
1­
week
period.
Total
liquid
intake
included
total
tapwater
taken
at
home
and
away
from
home;
purchased
alcoholic
beverages;
and
non­
tapwater­
based
drinks.
Total
tapwater
included
water
content
of
tea,
coffee,
and
other
hot
water
drinks;
homemade
alcoholic
beverages;
and
tapwater
consumed
directly
as
a
beverage.
The
assumed
tapwater
contents
for
these
beverages
are
presented
in
Table
3­
13.
Based
on
responses
from
3,564
participants,
the
mean
intake
rates
and
frequency
distribution
data
for
various
beverage
categories
were
estimated
by
Hopkins
and
Ellis
(
1980).
These
data
are
listed
in
Table
3­
14.
The
mean
per
capita
total
liquid
intake
rate
for
all
individuals
surveyed
was
1.59
L/
day,
and
the
mean
per
capita
total
tapwater
intake
rate
was
0.95
L/
day,
with
a
90th
percentile
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
10
August
1997
Table
3­
13.
Assumed
Tapwater
Content
of
Beverages
Beverage
%
Tapwater
Cold
Water
Home­
made
Beer/
Cider/
Lager
Home­
made
Wine
Other
Hot
Water
Drinks
Ground/
Instant
Coffee:
a
Black
White
Half
Milk
All
Milk
Tea
Hot
Milk
Cocoa/
Other
Hot
Milk
Drinks
Water­
based
Fruit
Drink
Fizzy
Drinks
Fruit
Juice
1b
Fruit
Juice
2b
Milk
Mineral
Waterc
Bought
cider/
beer/
lager
Bought
Wine
100
100
100
100
100
80
50
0
80
0
0
75
0
0
75
0
0
0
0
Black
­
coffee
with
all
water,
milk
not
added;
White
­
coffee
with
80%
a
water,
20%
milk;
Half
Milk
­
coffee
with
50%
water,
50%
milk;
All
Milk
­
coffee
with
all
milk,
water
not
added;
Fruit
juice:
individuals
were
asked
in
the
questionnaire
if
they
b
consumed
ready­
made
fruit
juice
(
type
1
above),
or
the
variety
that
is
diluted
(
type
2);
Information
on
volume
of
mineral
water
consumed
was
obtained
only
as
c
"
number
of
bottles
per
week."
A
bottle
was
estimated
at
500
mL,
and
the
volume
was
split
so
that
2/
7
was
assumed
to
be
consumed
on
weekends,
and
5/
7
during
the
week.
Source:
Hopkins
and
Ellis,
1980.
Table
3­
12.
Estimated
Quantiles
and
Means
for
Total
Tapwater
Intake
Rates
(
mL/
day)
a
Age
Group
Percentile
Arithmetic
(
years)
Average
2.5
25
50
75
97.5
0
<
age
<
1
80
176
267
404
891
323
1
#
age
<
11
233
443
620
867
1,644
701
11
#
age
<
20
275
548
786
1,128
2,243
907
20
#
age
<
65
430
807
1,122
1,561
2,926
1,265
65
#
age
471
869
1,198
1,651
3,044
1,341
All
ages
341
674
963
1,377
2,721
1,108
Simulated
Balanced
Population
310
649
957
1,411
2,954
1,129
Total
tapwater
is
defined
as
"
all
water
from
the
household
tap
consumed
directly
as
a
beverage
or
used
to
prepare
foods
and
beverages."
a
Source:
Roseberry
and
Burmaster,
1992
value
of
about
1.3
L/
day
(
which
is
the
value
of
the
percentile
for
the
home
tapwater
alone
in
Table
3­
14).
Liquid
intake
rates
were
also
estimated
for
males
and
females
in
various
age
groups.
Table
3­
15
summarizes
the
total
liquid
and
total
tapwater
intake
rates
for
1,758
males
and
1,800
females
grouped
into
six
age
categories
(
Hopkins
and
Ellis,
1980).
The
mean
and
90th
percentile
total
tapwater
intake
values
for
adults
over
age
18
years
are,
respectively,
1.07
L/
day
and
1.87
L/
day,
as
determined
by
pooling
data
for
males
and
females
for
the
three
adult
age
ranges
in
Table
3­
15.
This
calculation
assumes,
as
does
Table
3­
14
and
3­
15,
that
the
underlying
distribution
is
normal
and
not
lognormal.
The
advantage
of
using
these
data
is
that
the
responses
were
not
generated
on
a
recall
basis,
but
by
recording
daily
intake
in
diaries.
The
latter
approach
may
result
in
more
accurate
responses
being
generated.
Also,
the
use
of
total
liquid
and
total
tapwater
was
well
defined
in
this
study.
However,
the
relatively
short­
term
nature
of
the
survey
make
extrapolation
to
long­
term
consumption
patterns
difficult.
Also,
these
data
were
based
on
the
population
of
Great
Britain
and
not
the
United
States.
Drinking
patterns
may
differ
among
these
populations
as
a
result
of
varying
weather
conditions
and
socio­
economic
factors.
For
these
reasons
this
study
is
not
considered
a
key
study
in
this
document.
International
Commission
on
Radiological
Protection
(
ICRP)
(
1981)
­
Report
to
the
Task
Group
on
Reference
Man
­
Data
on
fluid
intake
levels
have
also
been
summarized
by
the
International
Commission
on
Radiological
Protection
(
ICRP)
in
the
Report
of
the
Task
Group
on
Reference
Man
(
ICRP,
1981).
These
intake
levels
for
adults
and
children
are
summarized
in
Table
3­
16.
The
amount
of
drinking
water
(
tapwater
and
water­
based
drinks)
consumed
by
adults
ranged
from
about
0.37
L/
day
to
about
2.18
L/
day
under
"
normal"
conditions.
The
levels
for
children
ranged
from
0.54
to
0.79
L/
day.
Because
the
populations,
survey
design,
and
intake
categories
are
not
clearly
defined,
this
study
has
limited
usefulness
in
developing
recommended
intake
rates
for
use
in
exposure
assessment.
It
is
reported
here
as
a
relevant
study
because
the
findings,
although
poorly
defined,
are
consistent
with
the
results
of
other
studies.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
11
Table
3­
14.
Intake
of
Total
Liquid,
Total
Tapwater,
and
Various
Beverages
(
L/
day)

Beverage
All
Individuals
Consumers
Only
a
Mean
Intake
Approx.
Std.

Error
of
Mean
Approx.
95%

Confidence
Interval
for
Mean
10
and
90
Percentiles
1
and
99
Percentiles
Percentage
of
Total
Number
of
Individuals
Mean
Intake
Approx.

Std.
Error
of
Mean
Approx.
95%

Confidence
Interval
for
Mean
Total
Liquid
1.589
0.0203
1.547­
1.629
0.77­
2.57
0.34­
4.50
100.0
1.589
0.0203
1.547­
1.629
Total
Liquid
Home
1.104
0.0143
1.075­
1.133
0.49­
1.79
0.23­
3.10
100.0
1.104
0.0143
1.075­
1.133
Total
Liquid
Away
0.484
0.0152
0.454­
0.514
0.00­
1.15
0.00­
2.89
89.9
0.539
0.0163
0.506­
0.572
Total
Tapwater
0.955
0.0129
0.929­
0.981
0.39­
1.57
0.10­
2.60
99.8
0.958
0.0129
0.932­
0.984
Total
Tapwater
Home
0.754
0.0116
0.731­
0.777
0.26­
1.31
0.02­
2.30
99.4
0.759
0.0116
0.736­
0.782
Total
Tapwater
Away
0.201
0.0056
0.190­
0.212
0.00­
0.49
0.00­
0.96
79.6
0.253
0.0063
0.240­
0.266
Tea
0.584
0.0122
0.560­
0.608
0.01­
1.19
0.00­
2.03
90.9
0.643
0.0125
0.618­
0.668
Coffee
0.190
0.0059
0.178­
0.202
0.00­
0.56
0.00­
1.27
63.0
0.302
0.0105
0.281­
0.323
Other
Hot
Water
Drinks
0.011
0.0015
0.008­
0.014
0.00­
0.00
0.00­
0.25
9.2
0.120
0.0133
0.093­
0.147
Cold
Water
0.103
0.0049
0.093­
0.113
0.00­
0.31
0.00­
0.85
51.0
0.203
0.0083
0.186­
0.220
Fruit
Drinks
0.057
0.0027
0.052­
0.062
0.00­
0.19
0.00­
0.49
46.2
0.123
0.0049
0.113­
0.133
Non
Tapwater
0.427
0.0058
0.415­
0.439
0.20­
0.70
0.06­
1.27
99.8
0.428
0.0058
0.416­
0.440
Home­
brew
0.010
0.0017
0.007­
0.013
0.00­
0.00
0.00­
0.20
7.0
0.138
0.0209
0.096­
0.180
Bought
Alcoholic
Beverages
0.206
0.0123
0.181­
0.231
0.00­
0.68
0.00­
2.33
43.5
0.474
0.0250
0.424­
0.524
Consumers
only
is
defined
as
only
those
individuals
who
reported
consuming
the
beverage
during
the
survey
period.

a
Source:
Hopkin
and
Ellis,
1980.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
12
August
1997
Table
3­
15.
Summary
of
Total
Liquid
and
Total
Tapwater
Intake
for
Males
and
Females
(
L/
day)

Beverage
Age
Group
(
years)
Number
Mean
Intake
Approx.
Std.
Error
of
Mean
Approx
95%
Confidence
Interval
for
Mean
10
and
90
Percentiles
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Total
Liquid
Intake
1­
4
88
75
0.853
0.888
0.0557
0.0660
0.742­
0.964
0.756­
1.020
0.38­
1.51
0.39­
1.48
5­
11
249
201
0.986
0.902
0.0296
0.0306
0.917­
1.045
0.841­
0.963
0.54­
1.48
0.51­
1.39
12­
17
180
169
1.401
1.198
0.0619
0.0429
1.277­
1.525
1.112­
1.284
0.75­
2.27
0.65­
1.74
18­
30
333
350
2.184
1.547
0.0691
0.0392
2.046­
2.322
1.469­
1.625
1.12­
3.49
0.93­
2.30
31­
54
512
551
2.112
1.601
0.0526
0.0215
2.007­
2.217
1.558­
1.694
1.15­
3.27
0.95­
2.36
55+
396
454
1.830
1.482
0.0498
0.0356
1.730­
1.930
1.411­
1.553
1.03­
2.77
0.84­
2.17
Total
Tapwater
Intake
1­
4
88
75
0.477
0.464
0.0403
0.0453
0.396­
0.558
0.373­
0.555
0.17­
0.85
0.15­
0.89
5­
11
249
201
0.550
0.533
0.0223
0.0239
0.505­
0.595
0.485­
0.581
0.22­
0.90
0.22­
0.93
12­
17
180
169
0.805
0.725
0.0372
0.0328
0.731­
0.8790
0.659­
0.791
0.29­
1.35
0.31­
1.16
18­
30
333
350
1.006
0.991
0.0363
0.0304
0.933­
1.079
0.930­
1.052
0.45­
1.62
0.50­
1.55
31­
54
512
551
1.201
1.091
0.0309
0.0240
1.139­
1.263
1.043­
1.139
0.64­
1.88
0.62­
1.68
55+
396
454
1.133
1.027
0.0347
0.0273
1.064­
1.202
0.972­
1.082
0.62­
1.72
0.54­
1.57
Source:
Hopkin
and
Ellis,
1980.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
13
Table
3­
16.
Measured
Fluid
Intakes
(
mL/
day)

Subject
Total
Fluids
Milk
Tapwater
Water­
Based
Drinksa
Adults
("
normal"
conditions)
b
1000­
2400
120­
450
45­
730
320­
1450
Adults
(
high
environmental
temperature
to
32
E
C)
2840­
3410
3256
±
SD
=
900
Adults
(
moderately
active)
3700
Children
(
5­
14
yr)
1000­
1200
330­
500
ca.
200
ca.
380
1310­
1670
540­
650
540­
790
Includes
tea,
coffee,
soft
drinks,
beer,
cider,
wine,
etc.
a
"
Normal"
conditions
refer
to
typical
environmental
temperature
and
activity
levels.
b
Source:
ICRP,
1981.

Gillies
and
Paulin
(
1983)
­
Variability
of
Mineral
Intakes
from
Drinking
Water
­
Gillies
and
Paulin
(
1983)
conducted
a
study
to
evaluate
variability
of
mineral
intake
from
drinking
water.
A
study
population
of
109
adults
(
75
females;
34
males)
ranging
in
age
from
16
to
80
years
(
mean
age
=
44
years)
in
New
Zealand
was
asked
to
collect
duplicate
samples
of
water
consumed
directly
from
the
tap
or
used
in
beverage
preparation
during
a
24­
hour
period.
Participants
were
asked
to
collect
the
samples
on
a
day
when
all
of
the
water
consumed
would
be
from
their
own
home.
Individuals
were
selected
based
on
their
willingness
to
participate
and
their
ability
to
comprehend
the
collection
procedures.
The
mean
total
tapwater
intake
rate
for
this
population
was
1.25
(
±
0.39)
L/
day,
and
the
90th
percentile
rate
was
1.90
L/
day.
The
median
total
tapwater
intake
rate
(
1.26
L/
day)
was
very
similar
to
the
mean
intake
rate
(
Gillies
and
Paulin,
1983).
The
reported
range
was
0.26
to
2.80
L/
day.
The
advantage
of
these
data
are
that
they
were
generated
using
duplicate
sampling
techniques.
Because
this
approach
is
more
objective
than
recall
methods,
it
may
result
in
more
accurate
response.
However,
these
data
are
based
on
a
short­
term
survey
that
may
not
be
representative
of
long­
term
behavior,
the
population
surveyed
is
small
and
the
procedures
for
selecting
the
survey
population
were
not
designed
to
be
representative
of
the
New
Zealand
population,
and
the
results
may
not
be
applicable
to
the
United
States.
For
these
reasons
the
study
is
not
regarded
as
a
key
study
in
this
document.
Pennington
(
1983)
­
Revision
of
the
Total
Diet
Study
Food
List
and
Diets
­
Based
on
data
from
the
U.
S.
Food
and
Drug
Administration's
(
FDA's)
Total
Diet
Study,
Pennington
(
1983)
reported
average
intake
rates
for
various
foods
and
beverages
for
five
age
groups
of
the
population.
The
Total
Diet
Study
is
conducted
annually
to
monitor
the
nutrient
and
contaminant
content
of
the
U.
S.
food
supply
and
to
evaluate
trends
in
consumption.
Representative
diets
were
developed
based
on
24­
hour
recall
and
2­
day
diary
data
from
the
1977­
1978
U.
S.
Department
of
Agriculture
(
USDA)
Nationwide
Food
Consumption
Survey
(
NFCS)
and
24­
hour
recall
data
from
the
Second
National
Health
and
Nutrition
Examination
Survey
(
NHANES
II).
The
number
of
participants
in
NFCS
and
NHANES
II
was
approximately
30,000
and
20,000,
respectively.
The
diets
were
developed
to
"
approximate
90
percent
or
more
of
the
weight
of
the
foods
usually
consumed"
(
Pennington,
1983).
The
source
of
water
(
bottled
water
as
distinguished
from
tapwater)
was
not
stated
in
the
Pennington
study.
For
the
purposes
of
this
report,
the
consumption
rates
for
the
food
categories
defined
by
Pennington
(
1983)
were
used
to
calculate
total
fluid
and
total
water
intake
rates
for
five
age
groups.
Total
water
includes
water,
tea,
coffee,
soft
drinks,
and
soups
and
frozen
juices
that
are
reconstituted
with
water.
Reconstituted
soups
were
assumed
to
be
composed
of
50
percent
water,
and
juices
were
assumed
to
contain
75
percent
water.
Total
fluids
include
total
water
in
addition
to
milk,
ready­
to­
use
infant
formula,
milk­
based
soups,
carbonated
soft
drinks,
alcoholic
beverages,
and
canned
fruit
juices.
These
intake
rates
are
presented
in
Table
3­
17.
Based
on
the
average
intake
rates
for
total
water
for
the
two
adult
age
groups,
1.04
and
1.26
L/
day,
the
average
adult
intake
rate
is
about
1.15
L/
day.
These
rates
should
be
more
representative
of
the
amount
of
source­
specific
water
consumed
than
are
total
fluid
intake
rates.
Because
this
study
was
designed
to
measure
food
intake,
and
it
used
both
USDA
1978
data
and
NHANES
II
data,
there
was
not
necessarily
a
systematic
attempt
to
define
tapwater
intake
per
se,
as
distinguished
from
bottled
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
14
August
1997
Table
3­
17.
Intake
Rates
of
Total
Fluids
and
Total
Tapwater
by
Age
Group
Average
Daily
Consumption
Rate
(
L/
day)

Age
Group
Total
Fluidsa
Total
Tapwaterb
6­
11
months
2
years
14­
16
years
25­
30
years
60­
65
years
0.80
0.99
1.47
1.76
1.63
0.20
0.50
0.72
1.04
1.26
Includes
milk,
"
ready­
to­
use"
formula,
milk­
based
soup,
a
carbonated
soda,
alcoholic
beverages,
canned
juices,
water,
coffee,
tea,
reconstituted
juices,
and
reconstituted
soups.
Does
not
include
reconstituted
infant
formula.
Includes
water,
coffee,
tea,
reconstituted
juices,
and
b
reconstituted
soups.
Source:
Derived
from
Pennington,
1983.
water.
For
this
reason,
it
is
not
considered
a
key
tapwater
intake
for
different
adult
age
groups
(
age
20
years
and
study
in
this
document.
older)
ranged
from
0.62
to
0.76
L/
day,
water­
based
drinks
U.
S.
EPA
(
1984)
­
An
Estimation
of
the
Daily
Cantor
et
al.
(
1987)
­
Bladder
Cancer,
Drinknig
Average
Food
Intake
by
Age
and
Sex
for
Use
in
Assessing
Water
Source,
and
Tapwater
Consumption
­
The
National
the
Radionuclide
Intake
of
the
General
Population
­
Using
data
collected
by
USDA
in
the
1977­
78
NFCS,
U.
S.
EPA
(
1984)
determined
daily
food
and
beverage
intake
levels
by
age
to
be
used
in
assessing
radionuclide
intake
through
food
consumption.
Tapwater,
water­
based
drinks,
and
soups
were
identified
subcategories
of
the
total
beverage
category.
Daily
intake
rates
for
tapwater,
water­
based
drinks,
soup,
and
total
beverage
are
presented
in
Table
3­
18.
As
seen
in
Table
3­
18,
mean
tapwater
intake
ranged
from
0.34
to
0.69
L/
day,
soup
intake
ranged
from
0.03
to
0.06
L/
day,
and
mean
total
beverage
intake
levels
ranged
from
1.48
to
1.73
L/
day.
Total
tapwater
intake
rates
were
estimated
by
combining
the
average
daily
intakes
of
tapwater,
water­
based
drinks,
and
soups
for
each
age
group.
For
adults
(
ages
20
years
and
older),
mean
total
tapwater
intake
rates
range
from
1.04
to
1.47
L/
day,
and
for
children
(
ages
<
1
to
19
years),
mean
intake
rates
range
from
0.19
to
0.90
L/
day.
These
intake
rates
do
not
include
reconstituted
infant
formula.
The
total
tapwater
intake
rates,
derived
by
combining
data
on
tapwater,
water­
based
drinks,
and
soup
should
be
more
representative
of
sourcespecific
drinking
water
intake
than
the
total
beverage
intake
rates
reported
in
this
study.
These
intake
rates
are
based
on
the
same
USDA
NFCS
data
used
in
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989).
Therefore,
the
data
limitations
discussed
previously
also
apply
to
this
study.

Cancer
Institute
(
NCI),
in
a
population­
based,
case
control
study
investigating
the
possible
relationship
between
bladder
cancer
and
drinking
water,
interviewed
approximately
8,000
adult
white
individuals,
21
to
84
years
of
age
(
2,805
cases
and
5,258
controls)
in
their
homes,
using
a
standardized
questionnaire
(
Cantor
et
al.,
1987).
The
cases
and
controls
resided
in
one
of
five
metropolitan
areas
(
Atlanta,
Detroit,
New
Orleans,
San
Table
3­
18.
Mean
and
Standard
Error
for
the
Daily
Intake
of
Beverages
and
Tapwater
by
Age
Age
(
years)
Tapwater
Intake
Water­
Based
Drinks
Soups
Total
Beverage
Intake
(
mL)
(
mL)
(
mL)
(
mL)
a
b
All
ages
662.5
±
9.9
457.1
±
6.7
45.9
±
1.2
1434.0
±
13.7
Under
1
170.7
±
64.5
8.3
±
43.7
10.1
±
7.9
307.0
±
89.2
1
to
4
434.6
±
31.4
97.9
±
21.5
43.8
±
3.9
743.0
±
43.5
5
to
9
521.0
±
26.4
116.5
±
18.0
36.6
±
3.2
861.0
±
36.5
10
to
14
620.2
±
24.7
140.0
±
16.9
35.4
±
3.0
1025.0
±
34.2
15
to
19
664.7
±
26.0
201.5
±
17.7
34.8
±
3.2
1241.0
±
35.9
20
to
24
656.4
±
33.9
343.1
±
23.1
38.9
±
4.2
1484.0
±
46.9
25
to
29
619.8
±
34.6
441.6
±
23.6
41.3
±
4.2
1531.0
±
48.0
30
to
39
636.5
±
27.2
601.0
±
18.6
40.6
±
3.3
1642.0
±
37.7
40
to
59
735.3
±
21.1
686.5
±
14.4
51.6
±
2.6
1732.0
±
29.3
60
and
over
762.5
±
23.7
561.1
±
16.2
59.4
±
2.9
1547.0
±
32.8
Includes
water­
based
drinks
such
as
coffee,
etc.
Reconstituted
infant
formula
does
not
appear
to
be
included
in
this
group.
a
Includes
tapwater
and
water­
based
drinks
such
as
coffee,
tea,
soups,
and
other
drinks
such
as
soft
drinks,
fruitades,
and
alcoholic
drinks.
b
Source:
U.
S.
EPA,
1984.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
15
Table
3­
20.
Frequency
Distribution
of
Total
Tapwater
Intake
Ratesa
Consumption
Rate
(
L/
day)
Frequency
(%)
b
Cumulative
Frequency
(%)
b
#
0.80
0.81­
1.12
1.13­
1.44
1.45­
1.95
$
1.96
20.6
21.3
20.5
19.5
18.1
20.6
41.9
62.4
81.9
100.0
Represents
consumption
of
tapwater
and
beverages
derived
from
a
tapwater
in
a
"
typical"
winter
week.
Extracted
from
Table
3
in
Cantor
et
al.
(
1987).
b
Source:
Cantor,
et
al.,
1987.
Francisco,
and
Seattle)
and
five
States
(
Connecticut,
Iowa,
surface
versus
groundwater
since
a
large
fraction
(
24
New
Jersey,
New
Mexico,
and
Utah).
The
individuals
percent)
of
municipal
water
intake
in
this
survey
could
not
interviewed
were
asked
to
recall
the
level
of
intake
of
be
specifically
attributed
to
either
ground
or
surface
water.
tapwater
and
other
beverages
in
a
typical
week
during
the
winter
prior
to
the
interview.
Total
beverage
intake
was
divided
into
the
following
two
components:
1)
beverages
derived
from
tapwater;
and
2)
beverages
from
other
sources.
Tapwater
used
in
cooking
foods
and
in
ice
cubes
was
apparently
not
considered.
Participants
also
supplied
information
on
the
primary
source
of
the
water
consumed
(
i.
e.,
private
well,
community
supply,
bottled
water,
etc.).
The
control
population
was
randomly
selected
from
the
general
population
and
frequency
matched
to
the
bladder
cancer
case
population
in
terms
of
age,
sex,
and
geographic
location
of
residence.
The
case
population
consisted
of
Whites
only,
had
no
people
under
the
age
of
21
years
and
57
percent
were
over
the
age
of
65
years.
The
fluid
intake
rates
for
the
bladder
cancer
cases
were
not
used
because
their
participation
in
the
study
was
based
on
selection
factors
that
could
bias
the
intake
estimates
for
the
general
population.
Based
on
responses
from
5,258
White
controls
(
3,892
males;
1,366
females),
average
tapwater
intake
rates
for
a
"
typical"
week
were
compiled
by
sex,
age
group,
and
geographic
region.
These
rates
are
listed
in
Table
3­
19.
The
average
total
fluid
intake
rate
was
2.01
L/
day
for
men
of
which
70
percent
(
1.4
L/
day)
was
derived
from
tapwater,
and
1.72
L/
day
for
women
of
which
79
percent
(
1.35
L/
day)
was
derived
from
tapwater.
Frequency
distribution
data
for
the
5,081
controls,
for
which
the
authors
had
information
on
both
tapwater
consumption
and
cigarette
smoking
habits,
are
presented
in
Table
3­
20.
These
data
follow
a
lognormal
distribution
having
an
average
value
of
1.30
L/
day
and
an
upper
90th
percentile
value
of
approximately
2.40
L/
day.
These
values
were
determined
by
graphically
interpolating
the
data
of
Table
3­
20
after
plotting
it
on
log
probability
graph
paper.
These
values
represent
the
usual
level
of
intake
for
this
population
of
adults
in
the
winter.
A
limitation
associated
with
this
data
set
is
that
the
population
surveyed
was
older
than
the
general
population
and
consisted
exclusively
of
Whites.
Also,
the
intake
data
are
based
on
recall
of
behavior
from
the
winter
previous
to
the
interview.
Extrapolation
to
other
seasons
and
intake
durations
is
difficult.
The
authors
presented
data
on
person­
years
of
residence
with
various
types
of
water
supply
sources
(
municipal
versus
private,
chlorinated
versus
nonchlorinated,
and
surface
versus
well
water).
Unfortunately,
these
data
can
not
be
used
to
draw
conclusions
about
the
National
average
apportionment
of
Table
3­
19.
Average
Total
Tapwater
Intake
Rate
by
Sex
Age,
and
Geographic
Area
Group/
Subgroup
Respondents
L/
day
Number
of
Tapwater
Intake,
Average
Total
a,
b
Total
group
5,258
1.39
Sex
Males
3,892
1.40
Females
1,366
1.35
Age,
years
21­
44
291
1.30
45­
64
1,991
1.48
65­
84
2,976
1.33
Geographic
area
Atlanta
207
1.39
Connecticut
844
1.37
Detroit
429
1.33
Iowa
743
1.61
New
Jersey
1,542
1.27
New
Mexico
165
1.49
New
Orleans
112
1.61
San
Francisco
621
1.36
Seattle
316
1.44
Utah
279
1.35
Standard
deviations
not
reported
in
Cantor
et
al.
(
1987).
a
Total
tapwater
defined
as
all
water
and
beverages
derived
from
b
tapwater.
Source:
Cantor
et
al.,
1987.

AIHC
(
1994)
­
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
­
The
Exposure
Factors
Sourcebook
(
AIHC,
1994)
presented
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
16
August
1997
Table
3­
21
Mean
Per
Capita
Drinking
Water
Intake
Based
on
USDA,
CSFII
Data
From
1989­
91
(
mL/
day)

Sex
and
Age
(
years)
Plain
Drinking
Water
Coffee
Tea
Fruit
Drinks
and
Adesa
Total
Males
and
Females:

Under
1
1­
2
3­
5
5
&
Under
194
333
409
359
0
<
0.5
21
<
0.5
9
26
17
17
85
100
86
211.5
427.5
537
463
Males:

6­
11
12­
19
20­
29
30­
39
40­
49
50­
59
60­
69
70­
79
80
and
over
20
and
over
537
725
842
793
745
755
946
824
747
809
2
12
168
407
534
551
506
430
326
408
44
95
136
136
149
168
115
115
165
139
114
104
101
50
53
51
34
45
57
60
697
936
1,247
1,386
1,481
1,525
1,601
1,414
1,295
1,416
Females:

6­
11
12­
19
20­
29
30­
39
40­
49
50­
59
60­
69
70­
79
80
and
over
20
and
over
476
604
739
732
781
819
829
772
856
774
1
21
154
317
412
438
429
324
275
327
40
87
120
136
174
137
124
161
149
141
86
87
61
59
36
37
36
34
28
46
603
799
1,074
1,244
1,403
1,431
1,418
1,291
1,308
1,288
All
individuals
711
260
114
65
1,150
Includes
regular
and
low
calorie
fruit
drinks,
punches,
and
ades,
including
those
made
from
powdered
mix
and
frozen
concentrate.
Excludes
a
fruit
juices
and
carbonated
drinks.
Source:
USDA,
1995.
drinking
water
intake
rate
recommendations
for
adults.
to
make
recommendations
for
this
document.
Although
AIHC
(
1994)
provided
little
information
on
the
studies
used
to
derive
mean
and
upper
percentile
recommendations
the
references
indicate
that
several
of
the
studies
used
were
the
same
as
ones
categorized
as
relevant
studies
in
this
handbook.
The
mean
adult
drinking
water
recommendations
in
AIHC
(
1994)
and
this
handbook
are
in
agreement.
However,
the
upper
percentile
value
recommended
by
AIHC
(
1994)
(
2.0
L/
day)
is
slightly
lower
than
that
recommended
by
this
handbook
(
2.4
L/
day).
Based
on
data
provided
by
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989),
2.0
L/
day
corresponds
to
only
approximately
the
84th
percentile
of
the
drinking
water
intake
rate
distribution.
Thus,
a
slightly
higher
value
is
appropriate
for
representing
the
upper
percentile
(
i.
e.,
90
to
95th
percentile)
of
the
distribution.
AIHC
(
1994)
also
presents
simulated
distributions
of
drinking
water
intake
based
on
Roseberry
and
Burmaster
(
1992).
These
distributions
are
also
described
in
detail
in
Section
3.2
of
this
handbook.
AIHC
(
1994)
has
been
classified
as
a
relevant
rather
than
a
key
study
because
it
is
not
the
primary
source
for
the
data
used
USDA
(
1995)
­
Food
and
Nutrient
Intakes
by
Individuals
in
the
United
States,
1
Day,
1989­
91.
­
USDA
(
1995)
collected
data
on
the
quantity
of
"
plain
drinking
water"
and
various
other
beverages
consumed
by
individuals
in
1
day
during
1989
through
1991.
The
data
were
collected
as
part
of
USDA's
Continuing
Survey
of
Food
Intakes
by
Individuals
(
CSFII).
The
data
used
to
estimate
mean
per
capita
intake
rates
combined
one­
day
dietary
recall
data
from
3
survey
years:
1989,
1990,
and
1991
during
which
15,128
individuals
supplied
one­
day
intake
data.
Individuals
from
all
income
levels
in
the
48
conterminous
states
and
Washington
D.
C.
were
included
in
the
sample.
A
complex
three­
stage
sampling
design
was
employed
and
the
overall
response
rate
for
the
study
was
58
percent.
To
minimize
the
biasing
effects
of
the
low
response
rate
and
adjust
for
the
seasonality,
a
series
of
weighting
factors
was
incorporated
into
the
data
analysis.
The
intake
rates
based
on
this
study
are
presented
in
Table
3­
21.
Table
3­
21
includes
data
for:
a)
"
plain
drinking
water",
which
might
be
assumed
to
mean
tapwater
directly
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
17
consumed
rather
than
bottled
water;
b)
coffee
and
tea,
For
both
individuals
who
drank
tapwater
and
which
might
be
assumed
to
be
constituted
from
tapwater;
individuals
who
drank
juices
reconstituted
with
tapwater,
and
3)
fruit
drinks
and
ades,
which
might
be
assumed
to
be
the
number
of
glasses
ranged
from
1
to
20.
The
highest
reconstituted
from
tapwater
rather
than
canned
products;
percentage
of
the
population
(
37.1
percent)
who
drank
and
4)
the
total
of
the
three
sources.
With
these
tapwater
consumed
3­
5
glasses
and
the
highest
percentage
assumptions,
the
mean
per
capita
total
intake
of
water
is
of
the
population
(
51.5
percent)
who
consumed
juice
estimated
to
be
1,416
mL/
day
for
adult
males
(
i.
e.,
20
years
reconstituted
with
tapwater
drank
1­
2
glasses.
Based
on
the
of
age
and
older),
1,288
mL/
day
for
adult
females
(
i.
e.,
20
assumption
that
each
glass
contained
8
ounces
of
water
years
of
age
and
older)
and
1,150
mL/
day
for
all
ages
and
(
226.4
mL),
the
total
volume
of
tapwater
and
juice
with
both
sexes
combined.
Although
these
assumptions
appear
tapwater
consumed
would
range
from
0.23
L/
day
(
1
glass)
reasonable,
a
close
reading
of
the
definitions
used
by
USDA
to
4.5
L/
day
(
20
glasses)
for
respondents
who
drank
(
1995)
reveals
that
the
word
"
tapwater"
does
not
occur,
and
tapwater.
Using
the
same
assumption,
the
volume
of
this
uncertainty
prevents
the
use
of
this
study
as
a
key
study
tapwater
consumed
for
the
population
who
consumed
3­
5
of
tapwater
intake.
glasses
would
be
0.68
L/
day
to
1.13
L/
day
and
the
volume
The
advantages
of
using
these
data
are
that;
1)
the
of
juice
with
tapwater
consumed
for
the
population
who
survey
had
a
large
sample
size;
2)
the
authors
attempted
to
consumed
1­
2
glasses
would
be
0.23
L/
day
to
0.46
L/
day.
represent
the
general
United
States
population
by
Assuming
that
the
average
individual
consumes
3­
5
glasses
oversampling
low­
income
groups
and
by
weighting
the
data
of
tapwater
plus
1­
2
glasses
of
juice
with
tapwater,
the
to
compensate
for
low
response
rates;
and
3)
it
reflects
range
of
total
tapwater
intake
for
this
individual
would
more
recent
intake
data
than
the
key
studies.
The
range
from
0.9
L/
day
to
1.64
L/
day.
These
values
are
disadvantages
are
that:
1)
the
response
rate
was
low;
2)
the
consistent
with
the
average
intake
rates
observed
in
other
word
"
tapwater"
was
not
defined
and
the
assumptions
that
studies.
must
be
used
in
order
to
compare
the
data
with
the
other
The
advantages
of
NHAPS
is
that
the
data
were
tapwater
studies
might
not
be
valid;
3)
the
data
collection
collected
for
a
large
number
of
individuals
and
that
the
data
period
reflects
only
a
one­
day
intake
period,
and
may
not
are
representative
of
the
U.
S.
population.
However,
reflect
long­
term
drinking
water
intake
patterns;
and
4)
data
evaluation
of
drinking
water
intake
rates
was
not
the
on
the
percentiles
of
the
distribution
of
intakes
were
not
primary
purpose
of
the
study
and
the
data
do
not
reflect
the
given.
total
volume
of
tapwater
consumed.
However,
using
the
Tsang
and
Klepeis
(
1996)
­
National
Human
Activity
Pattern
Survey
(
NHAPS)
­
The
U.
S.
EPA
collected
information
on
the
number
of
glasses
of
drinking
water
and
juice
reconstituted
with
tapwater
consumed
by
the
general
population
as
part
of
the
National
Human
Activity
Pattern
Survey
(
Tsang
and
Klepeis,
1996).
NHAPS
was
conducted
between
October
1992
and
September
1994.
Over
9,000
Total
Water
by
Pregnant
and
Lactating
Women
­
Ershow
individuals
in
the
48
contiguous
United
States
provided
data
et
al.
(
1991)
used
data
from
the
1977­
78
USDA
NFCS
to
on
the
duration
and
frequency
of
selected
activities
and
the
estimate
total
fluid
and
total
tapwater
intake
among
time
spent
in
selected
microenvironments
via
24­
hour
pregnant
and
lactating
women
(
ages
15­
49
years).
Data
for
diaries.
Over
4,000
NHAPS
respondents
also
provided
188
pregnant
women,
77
lactating
women,
and
6,201
noninformation
of
the
number
of
8­
ounce
glasses
of
water
and
pregnant,
non­
lactating
control
women
were
evaluated.
The
the
number
of
8­
ounce
glasses
of
juice
reconstituted
with
participants
were
interviewed
based
on
24
hour
recall,
and
water
than
they
drank
during
the
24­
hour
survey
period
then
asked
to
record
a
food
diary
for
the
next
2
days.
(
Tables
3­
22
and
3­
23).
The
median
number
of
glasses
of
"
Tapwater"
included
tapwater
consumed
directly
as
a
tapwater
consumed
was
1­
2
and
the
median
number
of
beverage
and
tapwater
used
to
prepare
food
and
tapwaterglasses
of
juice
with
tapwater
consumed
was
1­
2.
based
beverages.
"
Total
water"
was
defined
as
all
water
assumptions
described
above,
the
estimated
drinking
water
intake
rates
from
this
study
are
within
the
same
ranges
observed
for
other
drinking
water
studies.

3.4.
PREGNANT
AND
LACTATING
WOMEN
Ershow
et
al.
(
1991)
­
Intake
of
Tapwater
and
from
tapwater
and
non­
tapwater
sources,
including
water
contained
in
food.
Estimated
total
fluid
and
total
tapwater
intake
rates
for
the
three
groups
are
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
18
August
1997
Table
3­
22.
Number
of
Respondents
that
Consumed
Tapwater
at
a
Specified
Daily
Frequency
Population
Group
Total
N
Number
of
Glasses
in
a
Day
None
1­
2
3­
5
6­
9
10­
19
20+
DK
Overall
4,663
1,334
1,225
1,253
500
151
31
138
Gender
Male
2,163
604
582
569
216
87
25
65
Female
2,498
728
643
684
284
64
6
73
Refused
2
2
°
°
°
°
°
°
Age
(
years)
1­
4
263
114
96
40
7
1
0
5
5­
11
348
90
127
86
15
7
2
20
12­
17
326
86
109
88
22
7
°
11
18­
64
2,972
908
751
769
334
115
26
54
>
64
670
117
127
243
112
20
2
42
Race
White
3,774
1,048
1,024
1,026
416
123
25
92
Black
463
147
113
129
38
9
1
21
Asian
77
25
18
23
6
1
°
4
Some
Others
96
36
18
22
6
7
2
5
Hispanic
193
63
42
40
28
10
2
7
Refused
60
15
10
13
6
1
1
9
Hispanic
No
4,244
1,202
1,134
1,162
451
129
26
116
Yes
347
116
80
73
41
18
4
13
DK
26
5
6
7
4
3
°
1
Refused
46
11
5
11
4
1
1
8
Employment
Full­
time
2,017
637
525
497
218
72
18
40
Part­
time
379
90
94
120
50
13
7
5
Not
Employed
1,309
313
275
413
188
49
3
54
Refused
32
6
4
11
1
2
1
4
Education
<
High
School
399
89
95
118
51
14
2
28
High
School
Graduate
1,253
364
315
330
132
52
13
37
<
College
895
258
197
275
118
31
5
9
College
Graduate
650
195
157
181
82
19
4
6
Post
Graduate
445
127
109
113
62
16
3
12
Census
Region
Northeast
1,048
351
262
266
95
32
7
28
Midwest
1,036
243
285
308
127
26
9
33
South
1,601
450
437
408
165
62
11
57
West
978
290
241
271
113
31
4
20
Day
of
Week
Weekday
3,156
864
840
862
334
96
27
106
Weekend
1,507
470
385
391
166
55
4
32
Season
Winter
1,264
398
321
336
128
45
5
26
Spring
1,181
337
282
339
127
33
10
40
Summer
1,275
352
323
344
155
41
9
40
Fall
943
247
299
234
90
32
7
32
Asthma
No
4,287
1,232
1,137
1,155
459
134
29
115
Yes
341
96
83
91
40
16
1
13
DK
35
6
5
7
1
1
1
10
Angina
No
4,500
1,308
1,195
1,206
470
143
29
123
Yes
125
18
25
40
27
6
1
6
DK
38
8
5
7
3
2
1
9
Bronchitis/
Emphysema
No
4,424
1,280
1,161
1,189
474
142
29
124
Yes
203
48
55
58
24
9
1
5
DK
36
6
9
6
2
°
1
9
NOTE:
"°"
=
Missing
Data
"
DK"
=
Don't
know
N
=
sample
size
Refused
=
respondent
refused
to
answer
Source:
Tsang
and
Kleipeis,
1996
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
19
Table
3­
23.
Number
of
Respondents
that
Consumed
Juice
Reconstituted
with
Tapwater
at
a
Specified
Daily
Frequency
Population
Group
Total
N
Number
of
Glasses
in
a
Day
None
1­
2
3­
5
6­
9
10­
19
20+
DK
Overall
4,663
1,877
1,418
933
241
73
21
66
Gender
Male
2,163
897
590
451
124
35
17
33
Female
2,498
980
826
482
117
38
4
33
Refused
2
°
2
°
°
°
°
°
Age
(
years)
1­
4
263
126
71
48
11
4
1
2
5­
11
348
123
140
58
12
2
1
11
12­
17
326
112
118
63
18
7
1
4
18­
64
2,972
1,277
817
614
155
46
16
30
>
64
670
206
252
133
43
12
2
14
Race
White
3,774
1,479
1,168
774
216
57
16
44
Black
463
200
142
83
15
9
1
7
Asian
77
33
27
15
1
°
°
0
Some
Others
96
46
19
24
2
1
3
1
Hispanic
193
95
51
30
5
5
1
5
Refused
60
24
11
7
2
1
°
9
Hispanic
No
4,244
1,681
1,318
863
226
64
17
49
Yes
347
165
87
61
14
7
4
7
DK
26
11
6
5
°
1
°
3
Refused
46
20
7
4
1
1
°
7
Employment
Full­
time
2,017
871
559
412
103
32
9
20
Part­
time
379
156
102
88
19
7
2
5
Not
Employed
1,309
479
426
265
75
20
7
21
Refused
32
15
4
4
2
1
°
3
Education
<
High
School
399
146
131
82
25
7
2
4
High
School
Graduate
1,253
520
355
254
68
21
7
17
<
College
895
367
253
192
47
18
5
11
College
Graduate
650
274
201
125
31
7
1
5
Post
Graduate
445
182
130
92
26
5
3
4
Census
Region
Northeast
1,048
440
297
220
51
13
4
15
Midwest
1,036
396
337
200
63
17
4
14
South
1,601
593
516
332
84
26
10
28
West
978
448
268
181
43
17
3
9
Day
of
Week
Weekday
3,156
1,261
969
616
162
51
11
46
Weekend
1,507
616
449
307
79
22
10
20
Season
Winter
1,264
529
382
245
66
23
4
10
Spring
1,181
473
382
215
54
19
8
17
Summer
1,275
490
389
263
68
18
6
28
Fall
943
385
265
210
53
13
3
11
Asthma
No
4,287
1,734
1,313
853
216
69
20
55
Yes
341
130
102
74
25
3
1
5
DK
35
13
3
6
°
1
°
6
Angina
No
4,500
1,834
1,362
900
231
67
20
59
Yes
125
31
53
25
7
5
1
1
DK
38
12
3
8
3
1
°
6
Bronchitis/
Emphysema
No
4,424
1,782
1,361
882
230
65
21
57
Yes
203
84
53
44
10
6
°
3
DK
36
11
4
7
1
2
°
6
NOTE:
"°"
=
Missing
Data
"
DK"
=
Don't
know
N
=
sample
size
Refused
=
Respondent
refused
to
answer
Source:
Tsang
and
Klepeis,
1996
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
20
August
1997
Table
3­
24.
Total
Fluid
Intake
of
Women
15­
49
Years
Old
Reproductive
Statusa
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Percentile
Distribution
5
10
25
50
75
90
95
mL/
day
Control
Pregnant
Lactating
1940
2076
2242
686
743
658
995
1085
1185
1172
1236
1434
1467
1553
1833
1835
1928
2164
2305
2444
2658
2831
3028
3169
3186
3475
3353
mL/
kg/
day
Control
Pregnant
Lactating
32.3
32.1
37.0
12.3
11.8
11.6
15.8
16.4
19.6
18.5
17.8
21.8
23.8
17.8
21.8
30.5
30.5
35.1
38.7
40.4
45.0
48.4
48.9
53.7
55.4
53.5
59.2
Number
of
observations:
nonpregnant,
nonlactating
controls
(
n
=
6,201);
pregnant
(
n
=
188);
lactating
(
n
=
77).
a
Source:
Ershow
et
al.,
1991.
presented
in
Tables
3­
24
and
3­
25,
respectively.
Lactating
these
data
sets
(
Section
3.2).
A
further
advantage
of
this
women
had
the
highest
mean
total
fluid
intake
rate
(
2.24
study
is
that
it
provides
information
on
estimates
of
total
L/
day)
compared
with
both
pregnant
women
(
2.08
L/
day)
waterand
tapwater
intake
rates
for
pregnant
and
lactating
and
control
women
(
1.94
L/
day).
Lactating
women
also
had
women.
This
topic
has
rarely
been
addressed
in
the
a
higher
mean
total
tapwater
intake
rate
(
1.31
L/
day)
than
literature.
pregnant
women
(
1.19
L/
day)
and
control
women
(
1.16
L/
day).
The
tapwater
distributions
are
neither
normal
nor
lognormal,
but
lactating
women
had
a
higher
mean
tapwater
intake
than
controls
and
pregnant
women.
Ershow
et
al.
(
1991)
also
reported
that
rural
women
(
n=
1,885)
consumed
more
total
water
(
1.99
L/
day)
and
tapwater
(
1.24
L/
day)
than
urban/
suburban
women
(
n=
4,581,
1.93
and
1.13
L/
day,
respectively).
Total
water
and
tapwater
intake
rates
were
lowest
in
the
northeastern
region
of
the
United
States
(
1.82
and
1.03
L/
day)
and
highest
in
the
western
region
of
the
United
States
(
2.06
L/
day
and
1.21
L/
day).
Mean
intake
per
unit
body
weight
was
highest
among
lactating
women
for
both
total
fluid
and
total
tapwater
intake.
Total
tapwater
intake
accounted
for
over
50
percent
of
mean
total
fluid
in
all
three
groups
of
women
(
Table
3­
25).
Drinking
water
accounted
for
the
largest
single
proportion
of
the
total
fluid
intake
for
control
(
30
percent),
pregnant
(
34
percent),
and
lactating
women
(
30
percent)
(
Table
3­
26).
All
other
beverages
combined
accounted
for
approximately
46
percent,
43
percent,
and
45
percent
of
the
total
water
intake
for
control,
pregnant,
and
lactating
women,
respectively.
Food
accounted
for
the
remaining
portion
of
total
water
intake.
The
same
advantages
and
limitations
associated
with
the
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
data
also
apply
to
3.5.
HIGH
ACTIVITY
LEVELS/
HOT
CLIMATES
McNall
and
Schlegel
(
1968)
­
Practical
Thermal
Environmental
Limits
for
Young
Adult
Males
Working
in
Hot,
Humid
Environments
­
McNall
and
Schlegel
(
1968)
conducted
a
study
that
evaluated
the
physiological
tolerance
of
adult
males
working
under
varying
degrees
of
physical
activity.
Subjects
were
required
to
pedal
pedal­
driven
propeller
fans
for
8­
hour
work
cycles
under
varying
environmental
conditions.
The
activity
pattern
for
each
individual
was:
cycled
at
15
minute
pedalling
and
15
miute
rest
for
each
8­
hour
period.
Two
groups
of
eight
subjects
each
were
used.
Work
rates
were
divided
into
three
categories
as
follows:
high
activity
level
[
0.15
horsepower
(
hp)
per
person],
medium
activity
level
(
0.1
hp
per
person),
and
low
activity
level
(
0.05
hp
per
person).
Evidence
of
physical
stress
(
i.
e.,
increased
body
temperature,
blood
pressure,
etc.)
was
recorded,
and
individuals
were
eliminated
from
further
testing
if
certain
stress
criteria
were
met.
The
amount
of
water
consumed
by
the
test
subjects
during
the
work
cycles
was
also
recorded.
Water
was
provided
to
the
individuals
on
request.
The
water
intake
rates
obtained
at
the
three
different
activity
levels
and
the
various
environmental
temperatures
are
presented
in
Table
3­
27.
The
data
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
21
Table
3­
25.
Total
Tapwater
Intake
of
Women
15­
49
Years
Old
Reproductive
Statusa
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Percentile
Distribution
5
10
25
50
75
90
95
mL/
day
Control
Pregnant
Lactating
1157
1189
1310
635
699
591
310
274
430
453
419
612
709
713
855
1065
1063
1330
1503
1501
1693
1983
2191
1945
2310
2424
2191
mL/
kg/
day
Control
Pregnant
Lactating
19.1
18.3
21.4
10.8
10.4
9.8
5.2
4.9
7.4
7.5
5.9
9.8
11.7
10.7
14.8
17.3
16.4
20.5
24.4
23.8
26.8
33.1
34.5
35.1
39.1
39.6
37.4
Fraction
of
daily
fluid
intake
that
is
tapwater
(%)

Control
Pregnant
Lactating
57.2
54.1
57.0
18.0
18.2
15.8
24.6
21.2
27.4
32.2
27.9
38.0
45.9
42.9
49.5
59.0
54.8
58.1
70.7
67.6
65.9
79.0
76.6
76.4
83.2
83.2
80.5
Number
of
observations:
nonpregnant,
nonlactating
controls
(
n
=
6,201);
pregnant
(
n
=
188);
lactating
(
n
=
77).
a
Source:
Ershow
et
al.,
1991.

Table
3­
26.
Total
Fluid
(
mL/
Day)
Derived
from
Various
Dietary
Sources
by
Women
Aged
15­
49
Yearsa
Control
Women
Pregnant
Women
Lactating
Women
Meanb
Percentile
Meanb
Percentile
Meanb
Percentile
Sources
50
95
50
95
50
95
Drinking
Water
Milk
and
Milk
Drinks
Other
Dairy
Products
Meats,
Poultry,
Fish,
Eggs
Legumes,
Nuts,
and
Seeds
Grains
and
Grain
Products
Citrus
and
Noncitrus
Fruit
Juices
Fruits,
Potatoes,
Vegetables,
Tomatoes
Fats,
Oils,
Dressings,
Sugars,
Sweets
Tea
Coffee
and
Coffee
Substitutes
Carbonated
Soft
Drinksc
Noncarbonated
Soft
Drinksc
Beer
Wine
Spirits,
Liqueurs,
Mixed
Drinks
All
Sources
583
162
23
126
13
90
57
198
9
148
291
174
38
17
10
1940
480
107
8
114
0
65
0
171
3
0
159
110
0
0
0
NA
1440
523
93
263
77
257
234
459
41
630
1045
590
222
110
66
NA
695
308
24
121
18
98
69
212
9
132
197
130
48
7
5
2076
640
273
9
104
0
69
0
185
3
0
0
73
0
0
0
NA
1760
749
93
252
88
246
280
486
40
617
955
464
257
0
25
NA
677
306
36
133
15
119
64
245
10
253
205
117
38
17
6
2242
560
285
27
117
0
82
0
197
6
77
80
57
0
0
0
NA
1600
820
113
256
72
387
219
582
50
848
955
440
222
147
59
NA
Number
of
observations:
nonpregnant,
nonlactating
controls
(
n
=
6,201);
pregnant
(
n
=
188);
lactating
(
n
=
77).
a
Individual
means
may
not
add
to
all­
sources
total
due
to
rounding.
b
Includes
regular,
low­
calorie,
and
noncalorie
soft
drinks.
c
NA:
Not
appropriate
to
sum
the
columns
for
the
50th
and
95th
percentiles
of
intake.

Source:
Ershow
et
al.,
1991.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
22
August
1997
Table
3­
27.
Water
Intake
at
Various
Activity
Levels
(
L/
hr)
a
Room
Temperature
(
E
F)
b
Activity
Level
High
(
0.15
hp/
man)
c
Medium
(
0.10
hp/
man)
c
Low
(
0.05
hp/
man)
c
100
95
90
85
80
No.
d
­­

18
7
7
16
Intake
­­

0.540
(
0.31)

0.286
(
0.26)

0.218
(
0.36)

0.222
(
0.14)
No.

­­

12
7
16
­­
Intake
­­

0.345
(
0.59)

0.385
(
0.26)

0.213
(
0.20)

­­
No.

15
6
16
­­

­­
Intake
0.653
(
0.75)

0.50
(
0.31)

0.23
(
0.20)

­­

­­

Data
expressed
as
mean
intake
with
standard
deviation
in
parentheses.
a
Humidity
=
80
percent;
air
velocity
=
60
ft/
min.
b
The
symbol
"
hp"
refers
to
horsepower.
c
Number
of
subjects
with
continuous
data.
d
Source:
McNall
and
Schlegel,
1968.

presented
are
for
test
subjects
with
continuous
data
only
(
i.
e.,
those
test
subjects
who
were
not
eliminated
at
any
stage
of
the
study
as
a
result
of
stress
conditions).
Water
intake
was
the
highest
at
all
activity
levels
when
environmental
temperatures
were
increased.
The
highest
intake
rate
was
observed
at
the
low
activity
level
at
100
E
F
(
0.65
L/
hour)
however,
there
were
no
data
for
higher
activity
levels
at
100
E
F.
It
should
be
noted
that
this
study
estimated
intake
on
an
hourly
basis
during
various
levels
of
physical
activity.
These
hourly
intake
rates
cannot
be
converted
to
daily
intake
rates
by
multiplying
by
24
hours/
day
because
they
are
only
representative
of
intake
during
the
specified
activity
levels
and
the
intake
rates
for
the
rest
of
the
day
are
not
known.
Therefore,
comparison
of
intake
rate
values
from
this
study
cannot
be
made
with
values
from
the
previously
described
studies
on
drinking
water
intake.
United
States
Army
(
1983)
­
Water
Consumption
Planning
Factors
Study
­
The
U.
S.
Army
has
developed
water
consumption
planning
factors
to
enable
them
to
transport
an
adequate
amount
of
water
to
soldiers
in
the
field
under
various
conditions
(
U.
S.
Army,
1983).
Both
climate
and
activity
levels
were
used
to
determine
the
appropriate
water
consumption
needs.
Consumption
factors
have
been
established
for
the
following
uses:
1)
drinking,
2)
heat
treatment,
3)
personal
hygiene,
4)
centralized
hygiene,
5)
food
preparation,
6)
laundry,
7)
medical
treatment,
8)
vehicle
and
aircraft
maintenance,
9)
graves
registration,
and
10)
construction.
Only
personal
drinking
water
consumption
factors
are
described
here.
Drinking
water
consumption
planning
factors
are
based
on
the
estimated
amount
of
water
needed
to
replace
fluids
lost
by
urination,
perspiration,
and
respiration.
It
assumes
that
water
lost
to
urinary
output
averages
one
quart/
day
(
0.9
L/
day)
and
perspiration
losses
range
from
almost
nothing
in
a
controlled
environment
to
1.5
quarts/
day
(
1.4
L/
day)
in
a
very
hot
climate
where
individuals
are
performing
strenuous
work.
Water
losses
to
respiration
are
typically
very
low
except
in
extreme
cold
where
water
losses
can
range
from
1
to
3
quarts/
day
(
0.9
to
2.8
L/
day).
This
occurs
when
the
humidity
of
inhaled
air
is
near
zero,
but
expired
air
is
98
percent
saturated
at
body
temperature
(
U.
S.
Army,
1983).
Drinking
water
is
defined
by
the
U.
S.
Army
(
1983)
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
23
Table
3­
28.
Planning
Factors
for
Individual
Tapwater
Consumption
Environmental
Condition
Recommended
Planning
Factor
(
gal/
day)
a
Recommended
Planning
Factor
(
L/
day)
a,
b
Hot
Temperate
Cold
3.0c
1.5d
2.0e
11.4
5.7
7.6
Based
on
a
mix
of
activities
among
the
work
force
as
follows:
15%
light
work;
65%
medium
work;
20%
heavy
work.
These
factors
apply
to
a
the
conventional
battlefield
where
no
nuclear,
biological,
or
chemical
weapons
are
used.
Converted
from
gal/
day
to
L/
day.
b
This
assumes
1
quart/
12­
hour
rest
period/
man
for
perspiration
losses
and
1
quart/
day/
man
for
urination
plus
6
quarts/
12­
hours
light
work/
man,
c
9
quarts/
12­
hours
moderate
work/
man,
and
12
quarts/
12­
hours
heavy
work/
man.
This
assumes
1
quart/
12­
hour
rest
period/
man
for
perspiration
losses
and
1
quart/
day/
man
for
urination
plus
1
quart/
12­
hours
light
work/
man,
3
d
quarts/
12­
hours
moderate
work/
man,
and
6
quarts/
12­
hours
heavy
work/
man.
This
assumes
1
quart/
12­
hour
rest
period/
man
for
perspiration
losses,
1
quart/
day/
man
for
urination,
and
2
quarts/
day/
man
for
respiration
losses
e
plus
1
quart/
12­
hours
light
work/
man,
3
quarts/
12­
hours
moderate
work/
man,
and
6
quarts/
6­
hours
heavy
work/
man.

Source:
U.
S.
Army,
1983.
as
"
all
fluids
consumed
by
individuals
to
satisfy
body
needs
relevant.
Although
different
survey
designs
and
populations
for
internal
water."
This
includes
soups,
hot
and
cold
were
utilized
by
key
and
relevant
studies
described
in
this
drinks,
and
tapwater.
Planning
factors
have
been
report,
the
mean
and
upper­
percentile
estimates
reported
in
established
for
hot,
temperate,
and
cold
climates
based
on
these
studies
are
reasonably
similar.
The
general
design
of
the
following
mixture
of
activities
among
the
work
force:
both
key
and
relevant
studies
and
their
limitations
are
15
percent
of
the
force
performing
light
work,
65
percent
of
summarized
in
Table
3­
29.
It
should
be
noted
that
studies
the
force
performing
medium
work,
and
20
percent
of
the
that
surveyed
large
representative
samples
of
the
population
force
performing
heavy
work.
Hot
climates
are
defined
as
provide
more
reliable
estimates
of
intake
rates
for
the
tropical
and
arid
areas
where
the
temperature
is
greater
than
general
population.
Most
of
the
surveys
described
here
are
80
E
F.
Temperate
climates
are
defined
as
areas
where
the
based
on
short­
term
recall
which
may
be
biased
toward
mean
daily
temperature
ranges
from
32
E
F
to
80
E
F.
Cold
excess
intake
rates.
However,
Cantor
et
al.
(
1987)
noted
regions
are
areas
where
the
mean
daily
temperature
is
less
that
retrospective
dietary
assessments
generally
produce
than
32
E
F.
Drinking
water
consumption
factors
for
these
moderate
correlations
with
"
reference
data
from
the
past."
three
climates
are
presented
in
Table
3­
28.
These
factors
A
summary
of
the
recommended
values
for
drinking
water
are
based
on
research
on
individuals
and
small
unit
training
intake
rates
is
presented
in
Table
3­
30.
exercises.
The
estimates
are
assumed
to
be
conservative
because
they
are
rounded
up
to
account
for
the
subjective
nature
of
the
activity
mix
and
minor
water
losses
that
are
not
considered
(
U.
S.
Army,
1983).
The
advantage
of
using
these
data
is
that
they
provide
a
conservative
estimate
of
drinking
water
intake
among
individuals
performing
at
various
levels
of
physical
activity
in
hot,
temperate,
and
cold
climates.
However,
the
planning
factors
described
here
are
based
on
assumptions
about
water
loss
from
urination,
perspiration,
and
respiration,
and
are
not
based
on
survey
data
or
actual
measurements.

3.6.
RECOMMENDATIONS
representative
of
the
U.
S.
population,
it
is
not
included
here
The
key
studies
described
in
this
section
were
used
in
selecting
recommended
drinking
water
(
tapwater)
consumption
rates
for
adults
and
children.
The
studies
on
other
subpopulations
were
not
classified
as
key
versus
Adults
­
The
total
tapwater
consumption
rates
for
adults
(
older
than
18
or
20
years)
that
have
been
reported
in
the
key
surveys
can
be
summarized
in
Table
3­
31.
For
comparison,
values
for
daily
tapwater
intake
for
the
relevant
studies
are
shown
in
Table
3­
32.
Note
that
both
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
and
Pennington
(
1983)
found
that
adults
above
60
years
of
age
had
larger
intakes
than
younger
adults.
This
is
difficult
to
reconcile
with
the
Cantor
et
al.
(
1987)
study
because
the
latter,
older
population
had
a
smaller
average
intake.
Because
of
these
results,
combined
with
the
fact
that
the
Cantor
et
al.
(
1987)
study
was
not
intended
to
be
in
the
determination
of
the
recommended
value.
The
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
24
August
1997
Table
3­
29.
Drinking
Water
Intake
Surveys
Study
Number
of
Individuals
Type
of
Water
Consumed
Time
Period/
Survey
Type
Population
Surveyed
Comments
KEY
Canadian
Ministry
of
National
Health
and
Welfare,
1981
970
Total
tapwater
consumption
Weekday
and
weekend
day
in
both
summer
and
winter;

estimation
based
on
sizes
and
types
of
containers
used
All
ages;
Canada
Seasonal
data;
includes
many
tapwater­
containing
items
not
commonly
surveyed;
possible
bias
because
identification
of
vessel
size
used
as
survey
techniques;
short­
term
study
Ershow
and
Cantor,

1989
Based
on
data
from
NFCS;
approximately
30,000
individuals
Total
tapwater;
total
fluid
consumption
3­
day
recall,
diaries
All
ages;
large
sample
representative
of
U.
S.

population
Short­
term
recall
data;
seasonally
balanced
data
Rosenberry
and
Burmaster,
1992
Based
on
data
from
Ershow
and
Cantor,

1989
Total
tapwater;
total
fluid
consumption
3­
day
recall,
diaries
All
ages;
large
sample
representative
of
US
population
Short­
term
recall
data;
seasonally
balanced;

suitable
for
Monte
Carlo
simulations
RELEVANT
Cantor
et
al.,
1987
5,258
Total
tapwater;
total
fluid
consumption
1
week/
usual
intake
in
winter
based
on
recall
Adults
only;
weighted
toward
older
adults;
U.
S.
population
Based
on
recall
of
behavior
from
previous
winter;
short­
term
data;
population
not
representative
of
general
U.
S.
population
Gillies
and
Paulin,
1983
109
Total
tapwater
consumption
24
hours;
duplicate
water
samples
collected
Adults
only;
New
Zealand
Based
on
short­
term
data
Hopkin
and
Ellis,
1980
3,564
Total
tapwater,
total
liquid
consumption
1
week
period,
diaries
All
ages;
Great
Britain
Short­
term
diary
data
ICRP,
1981
Based
on
data
from
several
sources
Water
and
water­
based
drinks;
milk;
total
fluids
NAa
NAa
Survey
design
and
intake
categories
not
clearly
defined
NAS,
1977
Calculated
average
based
on
several
sources
Average
per
capita
"
liquid"

consumption
NAa
NAa
Total
tapwater
not
reported;
population
and
survey
design
not
reported
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
25
Table
3­
29.
Drinking
Water
Intake
Surveys
(
continued)

Study
Number
of
Individuals
Type
of
Water
Consumed
Time
Period/
Survey
Type
Population
Surveyed
Comments
Pennington,
1983
Based
on
NFCS
and
NHANES
II;
approximately
30,000
and
20,000
participants,
respectively
Total
tapwater;
total
fluid
consumption
NFCS:
24­
hour
recall
on
2­
day
dairy;
NHANES
II:
24­
hour
recall
NFCS:
1
month
to
97
years;

NHANES
II:
6
months
to
74
years;
representative
samples
of
U.
S.
population
Based
on
short­
term
recall
data
USDA,
1995
Based
on
89­
91
CSF11;

approximately
15,000
individuals
Plain
drinking
water,
coffee,

tea,
fruit
drinks
and
ades
1­
day
recall
All
ages,
large
sample
representative
of
U.
S.
population
Short­
term
recall
data;
seasonally
adjusted
U.
S.
EPA,
1984
Based
on
NFCS;

approximately
30,000
individuals
Tapwater;
water
based
foods
and
beverages;
soups;

beverage
consumption
3­
day
recall,
diaries
All
ages;
large
sample
representative
of
U.
S.
population
Short­
term
recall
data;
seasonally
balanced
U.
S.
EPA,
1995
Over
4,000
participants
of
NHAPS
Number
of
glasses
of
drinking
water
and
juice
with
tapwater
24­
hour
diaries
All
ages,
large
representative
sample
of
U.
S.
population
Does
not
provide
data
on
the
volume
of
tapwater
consumed
McNall
and
Schlegel,
1968
Based
on
2
groups
of
8
subjects
each
Tapwater
8­
hour
work
cycle
Males
between
17­
25
years
of
age;
small
sample;
high
activity
levels/
hot
climates
Based
on
short­
term
data
U.
S.
Army,
1983
NA
All
fluids
consumed
to
satisfy
body
needs
for
internal
water;
includes
soups,
hot
and
cold
drinks
and
tapwater
NA
High
activity
levels/
hot
climates
Study
designed
to
provide
water
consumption
planning
factors
for
various
activities
and
field
conditions;
based
on
estimated
amount
of
water
required
to
account
for
losses
from
urination,

perspiration,
and
respiration
Not
applicable.

a
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
26
August
1997
Table
3­
30.
Summary
of
Recommended
Drinking
Water
Intake
Rates
Percentiles
Age
Group/
Fitted
Population
Mean
50th
90th
95th
Multiple
Distributions
<
1
year
0.30
L/
day
0.24
L/
day
0.65
L/
day
0.76
L/
day
Tables
3­
6,
Table
3­
11
a
44
mL/
kg­
day
35
mL/
kg­
day
102
mL/
kg­
day
127
mL/
kg­
day
3­
7,
and
3­
8
b
<
3
years
0.61
L/
day
­­
1.5
L/
day
­­
Table3­
3
c
3­
5
years
0.87
L/
day
­­
1.5
L/
day
­­
Table3­
3
c
1­
10
years
0.74
L/
day
0.66
L/
day
1.3
L/
day
1.5
L/
day
Tables
3­
6,
Table
3­
11
a
35
mL/
kg­
day
31
mL/
kg­
day
64
mL/
kg­
day
79.4
mL/
kg­
day
3­
7,
and
3­
8
b
11­
19
years
0.97
L/
day
0.87
L/
day
1.7
L/
day
2.0
L/
day
Tables
3­
6,
Table
3­
11
a
18
mL/
kg­
day
16
mL/
kg­
day
32
mL/
kg­
day
40
mL/
kg­
day
3­
7,
and
3­
8
b
Adults
1.4
L/
day
1.3
L/
day
2.3
L/
day
Tables
3­
6,
Table
3­
11
a
21
mL/
kg­
day
19
mL/
kg­
day
34
mL/
kg­
day
3­
7,
and
3­
8
b
Pregnant
Women
1.2
L/
day
1.1
L/
day
2.2
L/
day
2.4
L/
day
Table
3­
25
,
d
18.3
mL/
kg­
day
16
mL/
kg­
day
35
mL/
kg­
day
40
mL/
kg­
day
Lactating
Women
1.3
L/
day
1.3
L/
day
1.9
L/
day
2.2
L/
day
Table
3­
25
,
d
21.4
mL/
kg­
day
21
mL/
kg­
day
35
mL/
kg­
day
37
mL/
kg­
day
Adults
in
High
0.21
to
0.65
L/
hour,
depending
on
ambient
temperature
and
activity
level;
see
Table
3­
27.
Activity/
Hot
Climate
Conditionse
Active
Adults
6
L/
day
(
temperate
climate)
to
11
L/
day
(
hot
climate);
see
Table
3­
28.
f
a
Source:
Ershow
and
Cantor,
1989
b
Source:
Roseberry
and
Burmaster,
1992
c
Source:
Canadian
Ministry
of
Health
and
Welfare,
1981
d
Ershow
et
al.
(
1991)
presented
data
for
pregnant
women,
lactating
women,
and
control
women.
e
Source:
McNall
and
Schlegal,
1968
f
Source:
U.
S.
Army,
1983
Table
3­
31.
Total
Tapwater
Consumption
Rates
From
Key
Studies
Mean
Percentile
Number
in
(
L/
day)
(
L/
day)
Survey
Reference
90th
1.38
2.41
639
Canadian
Ministry
of
Health
1.41
2.28
11,731
Ershow
and
Cantor,
1989
and
Welfare,
1981
Table
3­
32.
Daily
Tapwater
Intake
Rates
From
Relevant
Studies
Mean
(
L/
day)
90th
Reference
Percentile
1.30
2.40
Cantor
et
al.,
1987
a
1.63
(
calculated)
­­
NAS,
1977
1.25
1.90
Gillies
and
Paulin,
1983
1.04
(
25
to
30
yrs)
­­
Pennington,
1983
1.26
(
60
to
65
yrs)
­­
Pennington,
1983
1.04­
1.47
(
ages
20+)
­­
U.
S.
EPA,
1984
1.37
(
20
to
64
yrs)
2.27
Ershow
and
Cantor,
1989
1.46
(
65+
yrs)
2.29
Ershow
and
Cantor,
1989
1.15
­­
USDA,
1995
1.07
1.87
Hopkins
and
Ellis,
1980
Age
of
the
Cantor
et
al.
(
1987)
population
was
higher
than
the
U.
S.
average.
a
USDA
(
1995)
data
are
not
included
because
tapwater
was
not
defined
in
the
survey
and
because
the
response
rate
was
low,
although
the
results
(
showing
lower
intakes
than
the
studies
based
on
older
data)
may
be
accurately
reflecting
an
expected
lower
use
of
tapwater
(
compared
to
1978)
because
of
increasing
use
of
bottled
water
and
soft
drinks
in
recent
years.
A
value
of
1.41
L/
day,
which
is
the
populationweighted
mean
of
the
two
national
studies
(
Ershow
and
Cantor,
1989
and
Canadian
Ministry
of
Health
and
Welfare,
1981)
is
the
recommended
average
tapwater
intake
rate.
The
average
of
the
90th
percentile
values
from
the
same
two
studies
(
2.35
L/
day)
is
recommended
as
the
appropriate
upper
limit.
(
The
commonly­
used
2.0
L/
day
intake
rate
corresponds
to
the
84th
percentile
of
the
intake
rate
distribution
among
the
adults
in
the
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
study).
In
keeping
with
the
desire
to
incorporate
body
weight
into
exposure
assessments
without
introducing
extraneous
errors,
the
values
from
the
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
27
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
study
(
Tables
3­
7
and
3­
8)
expressed
as
mL/
kg­
day
are
recommended
in
preference
to
the
liters/
day
units.
For
adults,
the
mean
and
90th
percentile
values
are
21
mL/
kg­
day
and
34.2
mL/
kg/
day,
respectively.
In
the
absence
of
actual
data
on
chronic
intake,
the
values
in
the
previous
paragraph
are
recommended
as
chronic
values,
although
the
chronic
90th
upper
percentile
may
very
well
be
larger
than
2.35
L/
day.
If
a
mathematical
description
of
the
intake
distribution
is
needed,
the
parameters
of
lognormal
fit
to
the
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
data
(
Tables
3­
11
and
3­
12)
generated
by
Roseberry
and
Burmaster
(
1992)
may
be
used.
The
simulated
balanced
population
distribution
of
intakes
generated
by
Roseberry
and
Burmaster
is
not
recommended
for
use
in
the
post­
1997
time
frame,
since
it
corrects
the
1978
data
only
for
the
differences
in
the
age
structure
of
the
U.
S.
population
between
1978
and
1988.
T
h
e
s
e
recommended
values
are
different
than
the
2
liters/
day
commonly
assumed
in
EPA
risk
assessments.
Assessors
are
encouraged
to
use
values
which
most
accurately
reflect
the
exposed
population.
When
using
values
other
than
2
liters/
day,
however,
the
assessors
should
consider
if
the
dose
estimate
will
be
used
to
estimate
risk
by
combining
with
a
dose­
response
relationship
which
was
derived
assuming
a
tap
water
intake
of
2
liters/
day.
If
such
an
inconsistency
exists,
the
assessor
should
adjust
the
doseresponse
relationship
as
described
in
Appendix
1
of
Chapter
1.
IRIS
does
not
use
a
tap
water
intake
assumption
in
the
derivation
of
RfCs
and
RfDs,
but
does
make
the
2
liter/
day
assumption
in
the
derivation
of
cancer
slope
factors
and
unit
risks.
Children
­
The
tapwater
intake
rates
for
children
reported
in
the
key
studies
are
summarized
in
Table
3­
33.
14­
16
yrs
0.72
Pennington,
1983
The
intake
rates,
as
expressed
as
liters
per
day,
generally
increase
with
age,
and
the
data
are
consistent
across
ages
for
the
two
key
studies
except
for
the
Canadian
Ministry
of
Health
and
Welfare
(
1981)
data
for
ages
6
to
17
years;
it
is
recommended
that
any
of
the
liters/
day
values
that
match
the
age
range
of
interest
except
the
Canada
data
for
ages
6
to
17
years
be
used.
The
mL/
kg­
day
intake
values
show
a
consistent
downward
trend
with
increasing
ages;
using
the
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
data
in
preference
to
the
Canadian
Ministry
of
National
Health
and
Welfare
(
1981)
data
is
recommended
where
the
age
ranges
overlap.
The
intakes
for
children
as
reported
in
the
relevant
studies
are
shown
in
Table
3­
34.
Table
3­
33.
Key
Study
Tapwater
Intake
Rates
for
Children
Age
Mean
Percentile
(
years)
(
L/
day)
(
L/
day)
Reference
90th
<
1
0.30
0.65
Ershow
and
Cantor,
1989
<
3
0.61
1.50
Canadian
Ministry
of
3­
5
0.87
1.50
Canadian
Ministry
of
1­
10
0.74
1.29
Ershow
and
Cantor,
1989
6­
17
1.14
2.21
Canadian
Ministry
of
11­
19
0.97
1.70
Ershow
and
Cantor,
1989
National
Health
and
Welfare,
1981
National
Health
and
Welfare,
1981
National
Health
and
Welfare,
1981
Table
3­
34.
Summary
of
Intake
Rates
for
Children
in
Relevant
Studies
Age
(
L/
day)
Reference
Mean
6­
11
months
0.20
Pennington,
1983
<
1
yr
0.19
U.
S.
EPA,
1984
<
1
yr
0.32
Roseberry
and
Burmaster,
1992
2
yrs
0.50
Pennington,
1983
1­
4
yrs
0.58
U.
S.
EPA,
1984
5­
9
yrs
0.67
U.
S.
EPA,
1984
1­
10
yrs
0.70
Roseberry
and
Burmaster,
1992
10­
14
yrs
0.80
U.
S.
EPA,
1984
15­
19
yrs
0.90
U.
S.
EPA,
1984
11­
19
yrs
0.91
Roseberry
and
Burmaster,
1992
Disregarding
the
Roseberry
and
Burmaster
study,
which
is
a
recalculation
of
the
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
study,
the
non­
key
studies
generally
have
lower
mean
intake
values
than
the
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1899)
study.
The
reason
is
not
known,
but
the
results
are
not
persuasive
enough
to
discount
the
recommendations
based
on
the
latter
study.
Intake
rates
for
specific
percentiles
of
the
distribution
may
be
selected
using
the
lognormal
distribution
data
generated
by
Roseberry
and
Burmaster
(
1992)
(
Tables
3­
11
and
3­
12).
Pregnant
and
Lactating
Women
­
The
data
on
tapwater
intakes
for
control,
pregnant,
and
lactating
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
28
August
1997
women
are
presented
in
Table
3­
25.
The
recommended
A
characterization
of
the
overall
confidence
in
the
intake
values
are
presented
in
Table
3­
30.
accuracy
and
appropriateness
of
the
recommendations
for
High
Activity/
Hot
Climates
­
Data
on
intake
rates
for
individuals
performing
strenuous
activities
under
various
environmental
conditions
are
limited.
None
of
these
is
classed
as
a
key
study
because
the
populations
in
these
studies
are
not
representative
of
the
general
U.
S.
population.
However,
the
data
presented
by
McNall
and
Schlegel
(
1968)
and
U.
S.
Army
(
1983)
provide
bounding
intake
values
for
these
individuals.
According
to
McNall
and
Schlegel
(
1968),
hourly
intake
can
range
from
0.21
to
0.65
L/
hour
depending
on
the
temperature
and
activity
level.
Intake
among
physically
active
individuals
can
range
from
6
L/
day
in
temperate
climates
to
11
L/
day
in
hot
climates
(
U.
S.
Army,
1983).
drinking
water
is
presented
in
Table
3­
35.
Although
the
study
of
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
is
of
high
quality
and
consistent
with
the
other
surveys,
the
low
currency
of
the
information
(
1978
data
collection),
in
the
presence
of
anecdotal
information
(
not
presented
here)
that
the
consumption
of
bottled
water
and
beverages
has
increased
since
1980
was
the
main
reason
for
lowering
the
confidence
score
of
the
overall
recommendations
from
high
to
medium.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
3­
29
Table
3­
35.
Confidence
in
Tapwater
Intake
Recommendations
Considerations
Rationale
Rating
Study
Elements
°
Level
of
peer
review
The
study
of
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
had
a
thorough
expert
panel
High
review.
Review
procedures
were
not
reported
in
the
Canadian
study;
it
was
a
government
report.
Other
reports
presented
are
published
in
scientific
journals.

°
Accessibility
The
two
monographs
are
available
from
the
sponsoring
agencies;
the
High
others
are
library­
accessible.

°
Reproducibility
Methods
are
well­
described.
High
°
Focus
on
factor
of
interest
The
studies
are
directly
relevant
to
tapwater.
High
°
Data
pertinent
to
U.
S.
See
"
representativeness"
below.
NA
°
Primary
data
The
two
monographs
used
recent
primary
data
(
less
than
one
week)
High
on
recall
of
intake.

°
Currency
Data
were
all
collected
in
the
1978
era.
Tapwater
use
may
have
Low
changed
since
that
time
period.

°
Adequacy
of
data
collection
These
are
one­
to
three­
day
intake
data.
However,
long
term
Medium
period
variability
may
be
small.
Their
use
as
a
chronic
intake
measure
can
be
assumed.

°
Validity
of
approach
The
approach
was
competently
executed.
High
°
Study
size
This
study
was
the
largest
monograph
that
had
data
for
11,000
High
individuals.

°
Representativeness
of
the
The
Ershow
and
Cantor
(
1989)
and
Canadian
surveys
were
High
population
validated
as
demographically
representative.

°
Characterization
of
The
full
distributions
were
given
in
the
main
studies.
High
variability
°
Lack
of
bias
in
study
design
Bias
was
not
apparent.
High
(
high
rating
is
desirable)

°
Measurement
error
No
physical
measurements
were
taken.
The
method
relied
on
recent
Medium
recall
of
standardized
volumes
of
drinking
water
containers,
and
was
not
validated.

Other
Elements
°
Number
of
studies
There
were
two
key
studies
for
the
adult
and
child
recommendations.
High
for
adult
and
There
were
six
other
studies
for
adults,
one
study
for
pregnant
and
children.
lactating
women,
and
two
studies
for
high
activity/
hot
climates.
Low
for
the
other
recommended
subpopulation
values.

°
Agreement
between
This
agreement
was
good.
High
researchers
Overall
Rating
The
data
are
excellent,
but
are
not
current.
Medium
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
3
­
Drinking
Water
Intake
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
3­
30
August
1997
3.7.
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