Document ID: USCG-2015-0912-0007
Agency: uscg
Document Type: Supporting & Related Material
Title: 
Posted Date: 2015-10-16T04:00Z

Guidelines on Fatigue Module 3

                                   FATIGUE AND THE SEAFARER

 Module 3 contains practical information intended for the seafarer (master, officers, ratings and all other shipboard personnel) working on ships. It is recommended that all seafarers become familiar with Module 1 (Fatigue - Causes and Consequences) first. The management level officers (master and officers) should also become familiar with Module 2 (Fatigue and the Company).
 
 
 As highlighted in module 2, the responsibility for managing fatigue risks and minimizing the risk to safety is a shared responsibility between the company (as your employer) and yourself (as the employee). The company is primarily responsible for creating a work and living environment that minimizes fatigue-related risks. You are responsible for ensuring that time available for rest and sleep is used appropriately and your behaviour does not create or increase risk. 
 
 

 1.     What causes fatigue and why is it important?

 The maritime industry operates a variety of work schedules in a wide range of operational environments whichmeans that at some point you are likely to experience fatigue. 
 
 Fatigue affects all individuals, regardless of skill, rank, experience, knowledge or training. 
 
 The most common causes of fatigue known to seafarers are lack of sleep, poor quality of rest and sleep, stress and excessive workload. There are many other contributors as well, and each will vary depending on the circumstance (i.e. operational, environmental, individual differences).
 
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 Fatigue may be made worse by one or a combination of factors. These include, ship operational factors (duty schedules, workload), adverse environmental conditions (noise, ship motion, etc.), stress and health (medical condition, sleep disorders, use of supplements, diet, etc.).See Module 1 for more detail.  
 
     
       
    
       
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 When determining why fatigue has occurred, there is often a focus on sleep. This is because  the duration, quantity, and the quality of sleep are especially important for recovery from fatigue and for maintaining normal alertness and performance. Sleep loss and sleepiness can degrade every aspect of a person's performance: physical, mental and behavioral. Studies found the effect of sleep debt to be comparable to alcohol impairment, in terms of negatively impacting performance.
 
Also, as we get older, it generally becomes more difficult to get to sleep when we want to sleep and to stay asleep. This is particularly true during daytime sleep, but even night-time sleep may prove to be more challenging as we get older. Frequent awakenings can lead to increased sleepiness when you are awake.

 Working at sea may limit seafarers opportunity for sleep and recovery in each 24-hour period. Seafarers working throughtheir window of circadian low ,  will in most cases, be working while fatigued.  Initially trying to sleep during hours when you are ordinarily awake may be difficult.  There are particular times when the risks associated with fatigue are increased, regardless of the relationship between fatigue and recovery sleep. Times when fatigue risk levels are particularly high are:
 
 

 * Working during your window of circadian low; 
 * When regular short breaks have not been taken;
 * When duty schedules are longer than 8 hours; 
 * When adjusting to a new schedule;
 * Early duty starts. Early start times often shorten sleep obtained the period before because most people often find it difficult to go to bed earlier in compensation and find it hard to get to sleep quickly if they do go to bed early;
 * When new to the job or ship. Learning a new job and/or getting to know a new ship, and crew is often challenging. Some individuals may find they do not sleep well during the first week on a new ship. This is especially worse if they are suffering from jet lag. 

 2.     How can you recognize fatigue in yourself and in others (signs/symptoms)?
 
 
 Fatigue can affect your mind, body and emotions (e.g. your ability to perform tasks involving physical exertion and strength, as well as your ability to solve complex problems or make decisions). When fatigued, your performance is impaired, which means that in some cases you cannot continue to perform shipboard tasks safely and efficiently. A dangerous aspect is that fatigued individuals are poor judges of their own level of fatigue and hence performance,  largely because fatigue can affect their ability to make judgments or solve complex problems.
 
 
 
 Fatigue-related signs and symptoms are often divided into three categories: cognitive, physical and behavioural. Table 1.1 in Module 1 lists these fatigue signs and symptoms into the three categories (mental, physical and behavioural). These signs and symptoms of fatigue may be used to identify an individual's level of alertness. .  Nonetheless, You may recognize some of these signs and symptoms in others (with time, you may learn to identify some within yourself). 
 

Some of the more visible signs and symptoms include:

    A. Mental:
    * Poor judgment of distance, speed, time, etc.;
    * Slow or no response to normal, abnormal or emergency situations;
    * Slowed comprehension and learning;
    * Reduced attention span;
    * Difficulty concentrating and thinking clearly;
    * Decreased ability to pay attention.

    B. Physical
    * Inability to stay awake (an example is head nodding or falling asleep against your will);
    * Difficulty with hand-eye coordination skills (such as, switch selection);
    * Speech difficulties (it may be slurred, slowed or garbled);
    * Increased frequency of dropping objects like tools or parts;
    * Digestion problems;
    * Insomnia;
    * Change in appetite.
       
    C. Behavioral
    * Decreased tolerance and anti-social behavior;
    * Increased mood changes (examples are irritability, tiredness and depression);
    * Increasing omissions and carelessness. 

 Long-term effects of sleep loss may lead to cardiovascular diseases, gastro-intestinal diseases, mental health problems and stress.
 
    The more of the signs and symptoms you observe in others and/or experience yourself the more likely it is that alertness is significantly reduced. Fatigue is not the only cause of such symptoms, but when several occur together, it is likely to indicate fatigue-related impairment.
 
 
 It is important that you notify your supervisor (or management level officers) when you recognize that you or other crewmembers are fatigued. It is important to have  open communication between you and your supervisor regarding fatigue prevention and detection. Your company's fatigue risk management (FRM) processes should allow for open communication and reporting between you and your supervisor (or management level officers) regarding fatigue prevention and detection.   
 
 

 
 
 
 
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 3.      What can seafarers do to help reduce and manage the risk of fatigue on ships? 
    
    * Obtain adequate sleep
The most effective strategy to fight fatigue is to ensure that you get the very best quality and duration of sleep. The provision of adequate sleep opportunity is important to ensure adequate sleep.  As indicated in module 2, the company should provide you with an adequate sleep opportunity for recovery. 

In order to be effective in satisfying your body's need, sleep must meet three criteria, and include:

       * Duration/Quantity;
       * Quality; and
       * Continuity. 
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      Sleep is most valuable if obtained in a single block.A short sleep or nap can provide a powerful boost to alertness. However, it is important to know that napping does not eliminate the need for sleep.

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      There could be instances in which you may not obtain adequate sleep, even though you are provided with adequate sleep opportunity. Aspects mentioned below can all affect the amount and quality of sleep obtained:

      *       you are working during the night and may simply be unable to sleep during the day; 
      *       your sleep may have been interrupted by colleagues, unexpected events or operational demands (role-dependent);
      *       you may suffer from a sleep disorder, or other medical or physical problem that keeps you awake;
      *       emotional stress due to family problems at home; 
      *       inability to get to sleep due to concerns about work or other worries;
      *       the sleeping environment (comfort, noise, darkness, ship motion, privacy) may not allow for adequate sleep;
      *       the type of food consumed; 
      *       medication or use of prescribed/over the counter/natural remedies; 
      *       consumption of  stimulants (i.e. caffeine, amphetamines,  alcohol); 
      *       use of personal electronic devices before sleep, which may delay the onset of sleep and not allow adequate sleep to be obtained;
      *       social activities or high arousal just before your rest period, and inability to sleep.

      Regardless of the circumstances causing insufficient or poor quality sleep, these should preferably be identified through proactive measures and treated as a potential shipboard hazard. This is an important aspect of any program that includes the need to report sleep related issues. 
      
      The company should have  processes in place (Module 2) to provide you the opportunity to report back situations when you have been unable to obtain adequate sleep or feel at risk of making fatigue-related errors, specifically if conducting safety and security critical tasks (such as navigating in congested waters). This can be as simple as verbally reporting to your supervisor, management level officers, the ship's safety committee or by utilising a sleep log or sleep diary to monitor your sleep (see Appendix 3).  

      If you continue experiencing inadequate sleep and the opportunity for recovery from work is not provided this will prolong fatigue putting your health, well-being and safety of the ship at risk. 
      
Below is some general guidance on developing good sleep habits:
 
    *                   If possible, develop consistent sleep time(s) (i.e. go to bed at the same time(s) every day);
    *          Develop and follow a pre-sleep routine to promote sleep at bedtime (e.g. a warm shower, reading calming material, or just making a ritual of pre-bed preparation). 
    *  Get sufficient sleep, especially before a period when you expect that time for adequate sleep will not be available.
       *          Avoid stimulating activities prior to sleep such as exercise, television and movies, etc. 
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      *          Make the sleep environment conducive to sleep (a dark, quiet and cool environment, and a comfortable bed encourages sleep). A white noise generator or ear plugs can be of used if you can sleep with them in. 
       *          Block out as much light as possible. This might involve the use of blackout curtains, roller shutters, heavy blinds, or an inexpensive option such as black plastic. . A sleep mask can also be used.
      *       Whenever possible, ensure that you give yourself enough time in bed for plenty of sleep.
      *       As much as possible, ensure you are not interrupted during your extended period of sleep.  
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      *          Avoid alcohol, caffeine, and other stimulants  prior to sleep (keep in mind that coffee, tea, colas, chocolate, and some medications, including cold remedies and aspirin contain alcohol and/or caffeine). Avoid caffeine and other stimulants at least six hours before bedtime.
      *          Relaxation techniques may help (such as meditation).
      *          Do not nap during the day if you have difficulty sleeping during your normal sleep period.
      *          Limit light exposure from the use of personal electronic devices prior to bed time.  

    *        Maintain fitness for duty
      Ensuring you are fit for duty and able to maintain safe levels of alertness and performance is important. Taking personal responsibility for your duty schedules and rest periods and providing feedback to your supervisor, management level officers and the company is important to ensure that you are provided with the best possible opportunity to maintain fitness for duty. 

      There may be instances when changing schedules that even though you are provided with adequate sleep opportunity and you obtain sufficient sleep you may still show signs of fatigue. An example of this is when you are working during your circadian low. Hence, monitoring fatigue prior to and during your duty period is an important aspect of fatigue risk management (FRM). Monitoring and assessing the level of fatigue prior to your duty schedule can also be helpful in ensuring you are able to perform tasks safely.

Some ships may have systems in place to monitor and assess seafarer sleep and fitness for duty. It is important that you contribute to this data collection process. This information provides an  indicator to the management level officers and the company of fatigue levels.  

       Below is some general guidance that may help you maintain fitness for duty:

    
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    *           Take strategic naps (the most effective length of time for a nap is about 20 minutes);
    *           Take breaks when scheduled short breaks are assigned;
    
    *           Whenever possible, monitor and effectively manage your sleep (can use Appendix 3);
    *           Whenever possible, maintain and monitor fitness for duty including medical fitness (can use Appendix 4 and 5);
    *           Report any fatigue impairment in yourself and others that could have or may have the potential of effecting ship safety;
    *           Record and report actual hours of work and rest. Apart from being a regulatory requirement, these provide anindicator on whether your workload is manageable;
    
    *           Eat regular, well-balanced meals. Try and avoid eating right before sleeping. Try and exercise regularly;
    *           Limit the use of seasickness medication (if you are using medication inform your shipboard supervisor).
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      A number of strategies have been identified, as potentially providing some relief in managing fatigue. It must be emphasized that these strategies will not restore an individual's state of alertness; they only provide short-term relief, and may in fact, simply mask the symptoms temporarily. At some stage, sleep must be obtained for physical and mental recovery to occur.  The following list captures some of these management strategies: 
    
    
    
       * Short Rest breaks within duty periods
          Rest, apart from sleep, can be provided in the form of breaks or changes in activities during the duty period. Rest pauses or breaks may be helpful  if  performance  is  to  be  maintained over long periods of time. Factors influencing the need for rest are the length and intensity of the activities prior to a break or a change in activity, the length of the break, or the nature or change of the new activity. It is recognised that in a shipboard environment this may not always be feasible, however as much as possible short breaks should be planned into the duty period. 
      
       * Strategic Napping
          
       
A short sleep or nap can provide a powerful boost to alertness. Research has identified "strategic napping" as a short-term relief technique to help maintain performance levels during long periods of wakefulness. Naps as short as 10 to 15 minutes are known to deliver measurable benefits. Naps are helpful in maintaining performance if sufficient longer sleep is occasionally missed. The most effective length of time for a nap is about 20 minutes.  It is recommended that you take naps in the way that you believe best suits you. Napping should be encouraged to be a planned activity of fatigue management and prevention. This means that if you have the opportunity to nap you should take it. 
However, there are some drawbacks associated with napping. One potential drawback is that naps longer than 30 minutes will cause sleep inertia.

       *           Caffeine 
          Another popular fatigue countermeasure is the strategic use of caffeine (encountered in coffee and tea, some energy drinks, and to a lesser extent in colas and chocolate) as a stimulant. Caffeine can improve alertness temporarily but it is not a substitute for adequate sleep and rest.  , It takes caffeine 15-30 minutes to take effect and caffeine levels drop by half every 5-6 hours. Its effects can last long after consumption and may interfere with needed sleep. It is important to consider however, that there are individual differences in terms of the effects of caffeine, tolerance and withdrawal can develop.  Caffeine should be avoided before bedtime. In addition, regular usage over time reduces its value as a stimulant and may make you more tired and less able to sleep. Caffeine consumption can also cause other side effects such as hypertension, headaches, mood swings and anxiety.

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::	Nutrition and Hydration
Adequate nutrition and hydration is also important for managing and preventing fatigue. Ideally, one should have a balanced diet, eat regularly, have healthy snacks, eat breakfast, plan meals, drink water regularly and avoid late night meals (which result in slower digestion). The recommended daily intake of water is two litres or eight glasses. To be as alert and awake as possible, you need to monitor your fluid intake.

       * Environment (light, temperature, humidity, and sound)
          Bright lights, cool dry air, obtrusive or loud music or other annoying irregular sounds may temporarily increase alertness.
          

       * Muscular activity
 Physical well-being has a number of key components: notably exercise, diet, hydration, and sleep. Any type of muscular physical activity helps to keep you alert; running, walking, stretching or even chewing gum can stimulate your level of alertness. Exercise can also improve sleep. Proper physical self-care results in a range of positive outcomes including reserves of energy during the duty period, consistent and restful sleep patterns, proper concentration spans and a satisfying sense of feeling healthy. The benefits of regular exercise include improved mood, better stress coping, and enhanced self-esteem and well-being.
          
          
          
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       * Social Interaction
          
          Social interaction (conversation) can help you stay awake. However, the interaction must be active to be effective.
          
          
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 An important consideration is that when feelings of fatigue are high, seafarers may engage in fatigue countermeasures (such as walking around, using caffeine or stimulants, etc.) to reduce the likelihood of fatigue-related errors. However, there may be instances that high levels of fatigue are not be mitigated by individual countermeasures. Hence, prompt, consistent, and appropriate action is required (by the management level officers through company support) whenever a crewmember is potentially not fit for duty. This may include the need for additional actions (such as task rotation, additional supporting resources, etc.) for managing fatigue related risks. The goal should be to maintain and promote safety.
 
 
 	
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 	
 
 	
 	
 	
 	
 	
 	
 	
 	
 	
 	
 	
 
 
 	
 
 
 
 	
 
 
 	
 
 
 	
 
 
 	
 
 
 
 	
 	
 
 
 
 	
 
 
 
 
 	
 
 
 
 	
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5.      What can management level officers do to reduce and manage the risk of fatigue on ships? 

 As highlighted in section 3 there are a number of measures that can be taken to manage and reduce the risk of fatigue. Many of the measures are unfortunately beyond a single person's ability to influence, such as voyage scheduling, ship design, and work scheduling which can all affect the quality and duration of sleep. Therefore, the particular nature of fatigue as a safety hazard makes managing shipboard fatigue and associated risks the shared responsibility of the company (as the employer) and the seafarer (as the employee). Both must be aware of the risks involved, especially the impact of various types of duty and work schedules. Module 2 provides recommended strategies for the company, to manage the risks of fatigue at sea. Some important aspects related to company responsibility include:
      
 * Developing policies and practices within the ship's safety management system to manage fatigue related risks;
 * Developing work schedules that prevent high levels of fatigue during duty periods;
 * Developing work schedules that allow for adequate rest and recovery periods between duty schedules (if possible allow for an anchor sleep period of 7 to 8 hours);
 * Implementing appropriate and safe duty/watch periods taking into account circadian effects;
 *  Providing an adequate sleep environment on the ship.
 * Ensuring all crew are trained and aware of the causes and consequences of fatigue;
 * Promoting a safety reporting culture and open communication; and
 * Continuously assessing, controlling, monitoring and evaluating fatigue-related hazards. 
      
The following provides a recommended list of important fatigue management strategies in controlling and reducing the risk of fatigue on board ships, and are within the management level officers' ability to influence and/or implement:

   *    Ensuring compliance with maritime regulations (minimum hours of rest and/or maximum hours of work);
   
   *    Using rested personnel to cover for those traveling long hours to join the ship and whom are expected to go on duty as soon as they arrive on board (e.g. allowing proper time to overcome fatigue and become familiarized with the ship);

   *    Impressing upon shore management the importance and benefits of addressing fatigue management and countermeasures in the context of the company's Safety Management System (as required by the International Safety Management Code) and highlighted in Module 2;

   *    Managing the amount of time seafarers need to spend performing sustained physically and mentally demanding work (tank cleaning, navigation through congested waters, etc.);

   *    Setting standards and policies to allow time for communication at watch/duty handovers;

   *    Ensuring nutritious food options are served on-board and crew have continuous access to drinking water;

   *    Providing nighttime personnel with appropriate meal choices; 
   

   *    Maintain constant interaction between shore management and the ship management with respect to fatigue awareness and preventive measures on board the ships;
   
   *    Creating an open communication environment, by making it clear to the crew that it is important to inform supervisors when fatigue is impairing their performance or that of others and ensuring that there will be no recriminations for such reports;

   *    Ensure that selected seafarers can do the job for which they are assigned to prevent the potential for fatigue in other crew members;

   *    Improving shipboard conditions to ensure that when there is an opportunity to sleep, crew members can take advantage of it without interruptions, e.g. by scheduling drills and routine maintenance functions in a manner that minimizes the disturbance of rest/sleep periods. All relevant crew should be aware of these protected sleep opportunities;
   

   *    Establishing on-board management techniques when scheduling shipboard work and rest periods and when scheduling work practices and assignment of duties in a more efficient manner (using, where appropriate, IMO and ILO recommended formats  -  "Model Format for Table of Shipboard Working Arrangements" and "Model Format for Records of Hours of Work or Hours of Rest of Seafarers");
   
   *    Assigning work by mixing up tasks to break monotony and to combine work requiring high physical or mental demand with low-demand tasks (job rotation);

   *    Avoid scheduling potentially hazardous tasks during the circadian lows of the seafarers involved, when practicable;

   *    Provide support for seafarers to recognize and deal with the effects of fatigue including onboard training if provided;

   *    Emphasizing the seafarers responsibility to sleep during rest periods to ensure that adequate sleep is obtained;
   
   *    Encourage and facilitate reporting on sleep issues, fatigue and fatigue- related events that effect shipboard health and safety;

   *    Taking time to monitor that  all personnel are getting adequate sleep;

   *    Ensuring that shipboard conditions, within the crew's ability to influence, are maintained in a good state (e.g. maintaining the heating, ventilation and air-conditioning on schedule, light bulbs are replaced, sources of unusual noise are taken care of at the first opportunity);

   *    Re- appraising work patterns and areas of responsibility on board to establish the most efficient utilization of resources (such as sharing the long cargo operations between all the deck officers instead of the traditional pattern and utilizing rested personnel to cover for those who have travelled long hours to join the ship and who may be expected to go on watch as soon as they arrive);

   *    Promoting supportive relationships on board (good morale) and dealing with interpersonal conflict between seafarers;

   *    Establishing shipboard practices for dealing with fatigue incidents and learning from them (e.g. as part of the safety meetings);

   *    Increasing awareness of the benefits of a healthy lifestyle (e.g. exercise, relaxation, proper nutrition). 
      

 6.     What are the seafarer responsibilities in fatigue management on ships?

 As fatigue is a shared responsibility seafarers have a role to play in reducing the risks of fatigue. 
 
 Seafarer responsibilities include:
	
    * Commencing their duty schedule in a fit state to work the expected duty length and capable of performing assigned shipboard work safely; 
    * Monitoring and effectively managing hours of sleep.
    * ;
    * Reporting fatigue related hazards that effect safety in accordance with the ship's safety management system;
    * Maintaining appropriate communication about safety;
    * Being aware of fatigue and how to counter its effects; and 
    * Using available rest periods appropriately, in addition to using personal fatigue mitigation strategies.

 Seafarers should monitor and seek appropriate treatment for their health and general well-being, as physical health can impact on fatigue. Health and well-being includes short-term (acute) and chronic health conditions, genetic predispositions, nutrition, hydration and sleep difficulties. A wide range of sleep difficulties can affect fatigue, circadian functions, sleep duration and sleep quality. This includes a diversity of sleep disorders as indicated in Module 1. Hence, when managing fatigue, seafarers are responsible to monitor and manage any health concerns that may impact on their fitness for duty. 
 
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 8.  What rules and regulations are in place to help manage fatigue? 

 Each individual Flag Administration is responsible for the development, acceptance, implementation and enforcement of national and international legislation (conventions, codes, guidelines, etc.) that deal with the various fatigue aspects (Module 6): work hours, work scheduling, rest periods, crew competency and watchkeeping  practices.

 The following international organizations have issued various conventions and other mandatory instruments that address fatigue:

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       *     International Maritime Organization (IMO)
 International Convention on Standards of Training Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, as amended (STCW Convention); Seafarer's Training, Certification and Watchkeeping Code (STCW Code) Parts A and B; 
 International Safety Management Code (ISM Code); and various guidelines/recommendations.
 IMO Resolution A.1047(27) Principles of Minimum Safe Manning
       
       *     International Labor Organization (ILO)
 Maritime Labor Convention (MLC), 2006 (Regulations, Standards and Guidelines)

 In addition to the international standards, company and flag administration policies, which may be more stringent in some cases, should be followed on board all ships.
 

 1. How does fatigue relate to these IMO and ILO instruments? [MOVED TO MODULE 1]

    

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 The following IMO instruments contain guidance on fatigue related aspects:

    *     ISM Code
    This Code introduces safety management requirements on ship companies to assess all identified risks (both ashore and afloat) that affect safety (to ship and personnel) and environment and establish appropriate safeguards. The fatigue related requirements include the requirement for the company to:
       1.        Develop, implement and maintain a safety management system (ISM Code, 1.4)
       2.        Ensure that each ship is manned with qualified, certificated and medically fit seafarers in accordance with national and international requirements and  are appropriately manned in order to encompass all aspects of maintaining safe operations on board (ISM Code, 6.2);
       3.        Ensure necessary shipboard support is provided so that the master's duties can be safely performed (ISM Code 6.1.3); and
       4.        Provide familiarization and training for shipboard personnel.
       5. 
       6. 
       
       
    *     STCW Convention 
    Regulation VIII/1 (Fitness for duty) states that "each Administration shall, for the purpose of preventing fatigue:
       .1        establish and enforce rest periods for watchkeeping personnel and those whose duties involve designated safety, security and prevention of pollution duties in accordance with the provisions of section A-VIII/1 of the STCW Code; and
       .2        require that watch systems are so arranged that the efficiency of all watchkeeping personnel is not impaired by fatigue and that duties are so organized that the first watch at the commencement of a voyage and subsequent relieving watches are sufficiently rested and otherwise fit for duty".
    In addition, Part A of the Code sets minimum periods and frequencies of rest and requires that watch schedules be posted where they are easily accessible. 

    *     Resolution A.1047(27)  -  Principles of Minimum Safe Manning
    This resolution provides guidelines for determining minimum safe manning. In particular and in ensuring `fitness for duty'. Section 1.4.2 of the guideline states that "in determining the minimum safe manning of a ship, consideration should also be given to the capability of the master and the ship's complement to coordinate the activities necessary for the safe operation and for the security of the ship and for the protection of the marine environment".

    *     Resolution A.772(18)  -  Fatigue Factors in Manning and Safety
    This Resolution provides a general description of fatigue and identifies the factors of ship operations which may contribute to fatigue.

    *     Other Instruments
    The Appendix contains a list of IMO instruments identified as having some applicability to crew fatigue.
    
    
    
The following ILO instruments contain guidance on fatigue related aspects:

    *     Maritime Labor Convention (MLC, 2006). Relevant aspect of the MLC include, but are not limited to: 
       *       Regulation 2.3 (hours of work and hours of rest) introduces provisions to establish limits on seafarers' maximum working hours or minimum rest periods so as to maintain safe ship operations and minimize fatigue. 
       *       Regulation 2.7 (manning levels) ensure that seafarers work on board ships with sufficient personnel for the safe, efficient and secure operation of the ship.
       *       Regulation 3.1 (accommodation and recreational facilities) ensures that seafarers have decent accommodation and recreational facilities on board.
       *       Regulation 3.2 (food and catering) ensure that seafarers have access to good quality food and drinking water provided under regulated hygienic conditions.
       *       Regulation 4.3 (health and safety protection and accident prevention) ensure that seafarers' work environment on board ships promotes occupational safety and health.
   

 References
                                        
 
 
 
 
 International Transport Workers' Federation (1997) - Seafarer Fatigue: Wake up to the dangers.  IMO, MSC 69/INF.10 - United Kingdom.
 
 Kroemer, K.H.E., & Grandjean, E. (Re-printed 1999)  -  Fitting the Task to the Human.
 Taylor & Francis Ltd.  -  London, United Kingdom.
 
 McCallum, M.C., & Raby, M., Rothblum A. (1996) - Procedures for Investigating and Reporting Human Factors and Fatigue Contributions to Marine Casualties. Report No. CG-D- 09-97. Batelle Seattle Research Center and U.S. Coast Guard Research and Development Center
  -  Connecticut, United States.
 
 Moore-Ede M., Mitchell R. E., Heitmann A., Trutsche U., Aguirre A., & Hajarnavis H. (1996) - Canalert 1995: Alertness Assurance in the Canadian Railways - Circadian Technologies, Inc. - Massachusetts, United States.
 
 Parker, A.W., Hubinger, L.M., Green, S., Sargent, L., & Boyd, R. (1997) - A survey of the health, stress and fatigue of Australian Seafarers - Australian Maritime Safety Authority - Australia.
 
 Pollard J.K., Sussman E.D., & Stearns M. (1990) - Shipboard Crew fatigue, Safety and Reduced Manning. Report No. DOT-MA-RD-840-90014. John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center  -  Massachusetts, United States.
 
 
 Sandquist T., Raby M., Maloney A.L., Carvalhais T. (1996) - Fatigue and Alertness in Merchant Marine Personnel: A field study of work and sleep patterns. Report No. CG-D-06-97. Batelle Seattle Research Center and U.S. Coast Guard Research and Development Center  -  Connecticut, United States.
 
 Transportation Safety Board of Canada (1997) - A Guide for Investigating for Fatigue - Canada.
 
 United Kingdom National Union of Marine Aviation and Shipping Transport Officers (1997) -
 Give us a Break: NUMAST Report on Fatigue.  IMO, MSC 68/INF. 9 - United Kingdom.
 
 Videotel (1998). Fatigue and Stress at Sea video- London, United  Kingdom.