Document ID: EPA-HQ-OAR-2004-0008-0452
Agency: epa
Document Type: Supporting & Related Material
Title: 
Posted Date: 2006-12-01T05:00Z

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Marine Outboard and Personal Watercraft SI Engine Technologies and Costs

Preliminary Report

July 2006

021348

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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Marine Outboard and Personal Watercraft SI Engine 

Technologies and Costs

Final Report

July 2006

Prepared for

	U.S Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Transportation and Air Quality

2000 Traverwood Drive

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105

Prepared by:

	Louis Browning and Seth Hartley

ICF International

394 Pacific

San Francisco, CA 94111

(415) 677-7100

	

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Table of Contents

  TOC \o "1-2" \h \z \t "Heading 3,3"    HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735141"  1.
Introduction	  PAGEREF _Toc86735141 \h  1-1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735142"  2.	Background	  PAGEREF _Toc86735142 \h 
2-1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735143"  3.	Technology Description	  PAGEREF
_Toc86735143 \h  3-1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735144"  3.1.	Baseline Technologies	  PAGEREF
_Toc86735144 \h  3-2  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735145"  3.2.	Advanced Technologies	  PAGEREF
_Toc86735145 \h  3-3  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735146"  3.2.1.	2-Stroke Direct Fuel Injection
Technologies	  PAGEREF _Toc86735146 \h  3-3  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735147"  3.2.2.	2-Stroke Indirect Fuel Injection	 
PAGEREF _Toc86735147 \h  3-4  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735148"  3.2.3.	4-Stroke Port (Multipoint) Fuel
Injection	  PAGEREF _Toc86735148 \h  3-4  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735149"  3.2.4.	4-Stroke Throttle Body Fuel
Injection	  PAGEREF _Toc86735149 \h  3-5  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735150"  3.2.5.	Electronic Control Modules	 
PAGEREF _Toc86735150 \h  3-5  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735151"  3.2.6.	Catalysts	  PAGEREF _Toc86735151
\h  3-5  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735152"  4.	Cost Methodology	  PAGEREF
_Toc86735152 \h  4-1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735153"  4.1.	Hardware Costs	  PAGEREF
_Toc86735153 \h  4-1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735154"  4.2.	Fixed Costs	  PAGEREF _Toc86735154
\h  4-2  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735155"  4.3.	Operating Costs	  PAGEREF
_Toc86735155 \h  4-3  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735156"  5.	Results	  PAGEREF _Toc86735156 \h  5-1
 

 List of Figures

  TOC \h \z \c "Figure"    HYPERLINK \l "_Toc86735136"  Figure 2-1.
Examples of Outboard and PWC Configurations	  PAGEREF _Toc86735136 \h 
2-2  

 List of Tables

  TOC \h \z \c "Table"    HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865168"  Table 2-1
Outboard and PWC Engines/Boat Sales Estimates (2000-2003) (NMMA)	 
PAGEREF _Toc87865168 \h  2-2  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865169"  Table 3-1 Engine Sizes Used for Costing	 
PAGEREF _Toc87865169 \h  3-1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865170"  Table 3-2 Advanced Technology Packages	 
PAGEREF _Toc87865170 \h  3-2  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865171"  Table 3-3 Catalyst Characteristics for
Outboard Engines	  PAGEREF _Toc87865171 \h  3-6  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865172"  Table 3-4 Catalyst Characteristics for
Personal Watercraft Engines	  PAGEREF _Toc87865172 \h  3-6  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865173"  Table 4-1 Production Levels (units per
year)	  PAGEREF _Toc87865173 \h  4-3  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865174"  Table 5-1 2-Stroke Direct Fuel Injected
Outboard Marine Gasoline Engines	  PAGEREF _Toc87865174 \h  5-2  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865175"  Table 5-2 2-Stroke Indirect Fuel Injected
Outboard Marine Gasoline Engines	  PAGEREF _Toc87865175 \h  5-3  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865176"  Table 5-3 4-Stroke Electronic Fuel
Injected Outboard Marine Gasoline Engines	  PAGEREF _Toc87865176 \h  5-4
 

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865177"  Table 5-4 Migration Costs from 2-stroke
to 4-stroke Outboard Marine Engines	  PAGEREF _Toc87865177 \h  5-5  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865178"  Table 5-5 Three-way Catalyst costs for
4-stroke MPI Outboard Marine Engines	  PAGEREF _Toc87865178 \h  5-5  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865179"  Table 5-6 2-Stroke Direct Fuel Injected
Personal Watercraft Marine Gasoline Engines	  PAGEREF _Toc87865179 \h 
5-6  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865180"  Table 5-7 2-Stroke Indirect Fuel Injected
Personal Watercraft Marine Gasoline Engines	  PAGEREF _Toc87865180 \h 
5-7  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865181"  Table 5-8 4-Stroke Electronic Fuel
Injected Personal Watercraft Marine Gasoline Engines	  PAGEREF
_Toc87865181 \h  5-8  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865182"  Table 5-9 Migration Costs from 2-stroke
to 4-stroke Personal Watercraft Marine Engines	  PAGEREF _Toc87865182 \h
 5-9  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865183"  Table 5-10 Three-way Catalyst costs for
4-stroke MPI Personal Watercraft Marine Engines	  PAGEREF _Toc87865183
\h  5-9  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865184"  Table 5-11 Three-way Marine Catalysts
Cost Estimates	  PAGEREF _Toc87865184 \h  5-10  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865185"  Table 5-12 Research, Development and
Prototype Testing Costs per Month	  PAGEREF _Toc87865185 \h  5-11  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865186"  Table 5-13 Durability Testing Costs per
Month	  PAGEREF _Toc87865186 \h  5-11  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865187"  Table 5-14 Annual Cost Savings by
Converting from 2-Stroke to 4-Stroke for Marine Outboard Gasoline
Engines	  PAGEREF _Toc87865187 \h  5-13  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865188"  Table 5-15 Annual Cost Savings by
Converting from 2-Stroke to 4-Stroke for Personal Watercraft Gasoline
Engines	  PAGEREF _Toc87865188 \h  5-14  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865189"  Table 5-16 Summary of Incremental
Outboard Technology Costs	  PAGEREF _Toc87865189 \h  5-15  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc87865190"  Table 5-17 Summary of Incremental
Personal Watercraft Technology Costs	  PAGEREF _Toc87865190 \h  5-16  

 

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Introduction

	The United States Environmental Protection Agency’s (USEPA) final
rule on spark-ignited (SI) marine engines, published in August, 1996,
established emission limits for marine gasoline outboard engines and SI
engines used in personal watercraft and jet boat applications, resulting
in cleaner and better performing marine engines.  The standards set in
1996 included an increasingly strict regulation of HC and NOx emissions
phased in from 1998 to 2006, but did not include a CO cap.  In 2002
USEPA proposed a rule on evaporative emissions standards that included a
notice of intent for future regulation of outboard and personal
watercraft emissions.  USEPA is now considering new emission standards
for outboard and personal watercraft.  The new standards under
consideration would likely require technologies similar to those needed
to meet new emission standards recently adopted by CARB. These would
include the use of four-stroke engines or two-stroke engines with direct
injection technologies.  

	In some cases, updated technology is expected to be implemented to
reduce emissions, such as adding fuel injection technology or exhaust
after-treatment.  In other cases, migrating to cleaner technologies
already in existence, such as moving from two- to four-stroke engines,
will be required to meet new standards.  The purpose of this report is
to provide details on incremental technology and estimated costs for
marine outboard and personal watercraft SI engines that could be fleet
averaged to meet reduced emission levels.  ICF International determined
prices for technology packages for marine outboard SI engines, which
include migrating from a base package of uncontrolled, carbureted
two-stroke engines to direct fuel injection and indirect fuel injection
systems for two-stroke engines, as well as migrating to four-stroke
engines.  For four-stroke engines, the base was taken as uncontrolled,
carbureted engines, and advanced systems investigated were migration to
throttle body injected and multipoint fuel injection systems.  The
addition of a three-way catalyst inside the exhaust manifold for
four-stoke, multipoint fuel-injected engines was also investigated. 
Because the technology mix needed to comply with any new, lower emission
standards for outboard marine and personal watercraft engines is not
known and is likely to be achievable through a mix of technologies and
engines, this array of technology packages are representative of what
might be available on marine outboard and personal watercraft SI
engines.  All technology packages considered are open-loop systems and
are available in some form on marine outboard or personal watercraft
engines available today.

	The cost estimates include fixed and variable costs and rely on
information gathered from engine and equipment manufacturers and
experience in costing other SI engine technologies.  Representative
engine models of different sizes are used to develop incremental
technologies. Early drafts of the technology package descriptions and
cost estimates were submitted for review to industry contacts.  Their
comments were incorporated in the results presented in this report.

	The following sections discuss background information on marine
outboard and personal watercraft SI engines (Section 2), describe
baseline and advanced technologies (Section 3), and present the cost
estimate methodologies (Section 4) and the results obtained (Section 5).

Background

	Marine outboard and personal watercraft (PWC) engine manufacturers
occasionally purchase engine blocks, but typically produce outboard and
personal watercraft engine packages themselves. This includes installing
fuel systems, exhaust and intake systems, and features that permit
optimal performance as marine engines.  This process includes
waterproofing, adding a fuel system, gear packages, and exhaust systems.
 Engine manufacturers may also be watercraft manufacturers, particularly
for PWC and jet boat applications, and in that capacity install their
completed engines in boats.

	Outboard and personal watercraft engines come in both four-stroke and
two-stoke configurations.  Fuel delivery in either can currently be
carbureted, or fuel injected (port, throttle body, or direct fuel
injected).  Almost all systems are currently open loop, and they
typically have no exhaust after-treatment, although at least one
manufacturer sells a PWC system with a catalyst housed in the exhaust
and a closed loop system.  There are large variations of technologies
currently used in outboard and PWC engines, including a range of fuel
injection technologies, and engine powers ranging from less than 10 to
over 300 hp.  The largest emitting engines, 2-stroke carbureted, tend to
be grouped toward smaller sizes, and are expected to be phased out over
the next few years.  Essentially all outboard and personal watercraft
engines are gasoline powered.  Three examples of outboard and PWC
engines are shown in Figure 2-1, for a large two-stroke DFI outboard
(Mercury’s Optimax 225), a small, carbureted four-stroke outboard
(Tohatsu’s 9.8 hp Four-Stroke) and a four-stroke PWC (Yamaha’s FX
High Output model). 	According to the National Marine Manufacturers
Association’s (NMMA) estimates, shown in Table 2-1, the sales of
outboard boats and engines, as well as PWC and jet boats all fell from
2000 to 2003, although most showed a modest increase in 2004, the most
recent year of data.  Outboard boats accounted for about 55% of the
total mechanically propelled recreational boat sales in the United
States in 2004, the largest fraction of any boat type. PWC accounted for
about 20% of the total mechanically propelled recreation boat sales in
2004, while jet boats made up about 1%.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  1  Examples of
Outboard and PWC Configurations

Sources: 

1.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.mercurymarine.com/mercury_225_optimax_saltwater" 
http://www.mercurymarine.com/mercury_225_optimax_saltwater . 

2.   HYPERLINK "http://tohatsu.com/outboards/9_8_4st.html" 
http://tohatsu.com/outboards/9_8_4st.html . 

3.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.yamaha-motor.com/products/unitinfo/3/wvr/37/350/0/yamaha_fx_
high_output.aspx" 
http://www.yamaha-motor.com/products/unitinfo/3/wvr/37/350/0/yamaha_fx_h
igh_output.aspx .  

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  1  Outboard and
PWC Engines/Boat Sales Estimates (2000-2004) (NMMA)

Year 	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004

Outboard Boats	241,200	217,800	212,000	207,100	216,600

Outboard Motors	348,700	299,100	302,100	305,400	315,300

Personal Watercraft	92,000	80,900	79,300	80,600	79,500

Jet Boats	7,000	6,200	5,100	5,600	5,600

Source:  HYPERLINK
"http://nmma.org/facts/boatingstats/2004/files/market1.asp"
http://nmma.org/facts/boatingstats/2004/files/market1.asp  

Technology Description

	Because there is expected to be a mix of technologies implemented
fleet-wide to meet possible future emissions standards of reduced HC+NOx
and CO emissions, this study focuses on a range of technologies and
develops incremental costs in migrating between these technologies.  The
baseline technologies are considered to be uncontrolled, carbureted two-
and four-stroke engines. Advanced packages include direct fuel injection
and indirect fuel injection systems for two-stroke engines, as well as
migrating to four-stroke engines, and migration from carburetion to
throttle body injected and multipoint fuel injected systems for
four-stroke engines.  The addition of a three-way catalyst inside the
exhaust manifold for four-stoke, multipoint fuel injected engines was
also included in the pricing.  Common sizes of outboard and personal
watercraft engines were used for costing purposes and these are shown in
Table 3-1.  Other engine models of similar sizes will have similar
changes and costs.  Note that not all manufacturers produce engines in
these configurations and that not all configurations are available for
all sizes today from any manufacturer.  Where not available, estimates
were made based on similar sized engines and comparable technology. 
Table 3-2 lists the advanced technology packages for 2 and 4 stroke
engines.  

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  3 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  1  Engine Sizes
Used for Costing

Engine Type	Horsepower	Displacement	Cylinders

Outboard Engines	9.9 hp	0.25 L	2

	40 hp	0.76 L	3

	75 hp	1.60 L	3

	125 hp	1.80 L	4

	225 hp	3.00 L	6

Personal Watercraft Engines	85 hp	1.65 L	2

	130 hp	1.85 L	3

	175 hp	2.50 L	4

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  3 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  2  Advanced
Technology Packages

	2-stroke	Indirect Fuel Injection 	Direct Fuel Injection	Migration to   
  4-stroke 

4-stroke	Throttle Body Injection	Multipoint Fuel Injection	MPI with
Oxidation Catalyst 

	

Baseline Technologies

	The baseline technologies considered for each of the five outboard and
three PWC engine models consist of carbureted fuel delivery systems not
calibrated for low emissions.  This includes both 2-stroke and 4-stroke
engine models. Note that a carbureted 4-stroke engine is also considered
an advanced technology option for carbureted 2-stroke engines.  Many
manufacturers produce engines in both these configurations in a range of
sizes, although new carbureted 2-stroke engines are expected to be
phased out over the next few years. Currently, carbureted engines are
more popular in smaller engine sizes to provide low-cost, entry-level
marine engines for their clients. 

	Two-stroke engines fire every engine revolution and have fewer moving
parts than their 4-stroke counterparts.  This gives 2-stroke engines a
high power to weight ratio.  However, the fuel short circuiting inherent
in conventional 2-strokes, the consumption of oil, and the reduced fuel
efficiency and engine durability of conventional carbureted 2-stroke
engines makes them much less environmentally friendly than 4-stroke
engines.  Carbureted 2-stroke engines are as much as 25-40% less
efficient than comparable 4-strokes or direct fuel injected 2-strokes.  

	Four-stroke engines fire every other engine revolution, thus allowing a
single complete stroke for both charging and clearing the combustion
chamber.  Conventional 4-stroke engines are heavier than their 2-stroke
counterparts, but more fuel-efficient and produce fewer emissions by
eliminating fuel short circuiting and isolating lubricating oil from the
combustion process.  

	All baseline engines are carbureted.  The technology behind carburetors
has changed little over time.  Generally, any improvement in the
efficiency of carburetors has been obtained by reducing tolerances in
the manufacturing process.  Generally, carburetion provides fuel to
multiple cylinders unevenly, has less control of air/fuel ratio
particularly during transients, often is set rich of stoichiometric, and
requires the user to operate a choke, all of which make carburetion less
ideal than fuel injection.  Carbureted systems are less expensive and
mechanically and electrically simpler than fuel injected systems,
however.  

Advanced Technologies

	A mix of advanced technologies is likely to be applied to the suite of
new engines produced to comply with lower emission standards.  As shown
in Table 3-2, these packages differ for 2-stroke and 4-stroke engines. 
For both 2- and 4-stroke engines, fuel injection is likely to replace
carburetion, while 2-stroke engines are likely to be replaced with
cleaner 4-stroke engines.  Two types of fuel injection systems are
already established for each of the engine cycles, and are considered
here: direct and indirect injection for 2-stroke engines and port and
throttle body injection for 4-stroke engines.  Additionally, exhaust
after treatment with a three-way catalyst inserted into the exhaust
manifold is considered for the port fuel injected 4-stroke engines.  All
engines configurations for outboard and PWC engines considered here are
open loop without catalysts and closed loop with catalyst.

	Note that in comparison of technologies, migration from 2-stroke
carbureted to 4-stroke carbureted engines is considered.  This is not
really a migration to an advanced technology; however it will result in
significant emissions reductions for the reasons discussed above.  This
comparison also appears below.  

2-Stroke Direct Fuel Injection Technologies

	Direct fuel injection (DFI) in 2-stroke engines reduces the problem of
fuel short-circuiting that is responsible for the typically poor
efficiency and emissions rate associated with 2-stroke engines.  This is
done by inducting air only into the combustion chamber and injecting
fuel into the combustion chamber directly after the exhaust ports have
been covered by the piston.  Converting a conventional 2-stroke engine
to a DI engine is accomplished by replacing the cylinder head with one
that allows an injector beside the spark plug, removing the carburetor,
and installing an additional higher pressure fuel pump, engine control
module, and various sensors and wiring to properly meter the fuel
delivery.  

	DFI technology has been adopted well by the market for its enhanced
performance and fuel economy characteristics.  It is most popular on
larger outboard and personal watercraft engines, as it provides the good
power to weight ratio associated with 2-stroke engines but improves
greatly on the efficiency and emissions rate of the engine.  There are
currently three types of DFI systems: ETech (cam-assist) used by BRP and
others, Orbital (air assist) used by Mercury Marine and others, and a
proprietary Yamaha system.  These systems differ primarily in the
pressures under which they operate and the method used to atomize the
fuel.  

2-Stroke Indirect Fuel Injection

	Indirect injection (IDI) for 2-stroke engines is very similar to
throttle body injection for 4-stroke engines.  In this case, the
carburetor is replaced with a mixing chamber where the fuel, air, and
oil are pre-mixed before being inducted into the combustion chamber. 
This system has advantages over conventional carbureted 2-stroke engines
in that the air-fuel mixture is more precise for a given load, the fuel
and oil are properly pre-mixed, and the system is generally less
expensive.  However, this technology does not necessarily deliver the
enhanced emissions performance of direct injected 2-stroke engines
because short circuiting is still possible.  

	Component-wise, IDI differs from DFI in the replacement of fuel
metering solenoids with injectors, the addition of a fuel distributor,
and the replacement of the air compressor and air regulator with a high
pressure fuel pump and a pressure regulator.  

4-Stroke Port (Multipoint) Fuel Injection

	A port fuel injection (PFI) system includes an injector per cylinder, a
fuel rail, a pressure regulator, an electronic control module (ECM),
manifold air pressure and temperature sensors, an additional higher
pressure fuel pump, a throttle assembly, a throttle position sensor, and
a magnetic crankshaft pickup for engine speed.   

	PFI systems also require a cool fuel system in order to prevent vapor
lock problems.  When a boat’s engine is turned off, its heat can turn
the fuel in the fuel line into vapor.  If an attempt is made to restart
the engine, no fuel is supplied to the engine as the fuel injector
cannot inject vapor and because of the positive vapor pressure in the
fuel line, the pump will not pump liquid fuel into the line.  Cooling
the fuel using a cool fuel system will keep it in liquid state and
eliminate the occurrence of vapor lock.  Since fuel cooling is necessary
for all fuel injected systems, it only becomes an emission-related cost
if a manufacturer upgrades a carbureted system to a fuel injected system
in order to meet emissions standards

	In general, PFI systems provide better fuel distribution between
cylinders than carbureted fuel systems.  PFI allows for better fuel
control during transients than carbureted engines.  

4-Stroke Throttle Body Fuel Injection 

	Throttle body injected (TBI) systems essentially replace a carburetor
with a throttle body into which a precise amount of fuel is injected and
mixed with air before induction into the combustion chamber.  This
allows reduced cost over PFI systems on 4-stroke engines as there is no
need for a fuel rail and there are fewer injectors needed (typically one
to two) for the engine (although they are typically larger and more
expensive than those for PFI systems).  TBI systems do not allow the
same precise fuel distribution among cylinders as offered by PFI
systems, but the performance is enhanced over traditional carbureted
systems.  TBI systems are also less expensive than PFI systems.  

Electronic Control Modules

	Electronic control modules (ECM) control fuel injection and ignition
timing in uncontrolled fuel injected systems.  Carbureted systems may
also use an ignition control module (ICM), which has limited functions. 

	Currently, fuel injected systems’ ECMs are 32-bit systems.  Although
fuel injected systems’ ECMs will be required to perform more tasks to
meet emissions standards, the 32-bit processors are still adequate for
these additional requirements.  A large portion of ECM costs are related
to software development which is considered a fixed cost.

Catalysts

	Three-way catalysts are likely to be incorporated only on some outboard
and personal watercraft models as an additional control mechanism for
emissions reduction.  The catalyst envisioned for these engines is
likely to be a small “brick” located inside the exhaust system with
a volume about 35% of the total engine displacement.  Although catalysts
are not common on outboard and personal watercraft engines, at least one
manufacturer (Yamaha) has provided high-end PWCs and jet boats with
catalysts in the exhaust system for several model years.  Southwest
Research Institute has also tested catalysts in inboard engines and
found that adequate emission reductions can be realized with reasonable
catalyst life.

	Table 3-3 describes the three-way catalysts envisioned for marine
outboard engines and Table 3-4 for PWC engines.  Platinum/Rhodium
precious metal catalysts will most likely be used.  A precious metal
loading of around 1.0 gram per liter of catalyst size are expected to be
used. 

	According to catalyst manufacturers, a ceramic substrate will be
sufficiently strong to withstand the vibration and temperature
variations marine systems are subjected to.  To avoid underestimating
costs, costs were calculated with the ceramic substrate mounted in a
steel can. In practice, the substrate can be mounted with or without a
shell in the exhaust system.  One catalyst is envisioned per engine. 
The total cost of adding a catalyst includes the catalyst, housing and
retooling the exhaust manifold, as well as labor, markup, and warranty
costs.  

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  3 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  3  Catalyst
Characteristics for Outboard Engines 

Engine Size	9.9 hp Engine	40 hp Engine	75 hp Engine	125 hp Engine	225 hp
Engine

Catalyst Size	0.09 L	0.27 L	0.56 L	0.63 L	1.05 L

Substrate	Ceramic

400 cells per inch	Ceramic

400 cells per inch	Ceramic

400 cells per inch	Ceramic

400 cells per inch	Ceramic

400 cells per inch

Washcoat	75% cerium

25% alumina oxide	75% cerium

25% alumina oxide	75% cerium

25% alumina oxide	75% cerium

25% alumina oxide	75% cerium

25% alumina oxide

Precious Metals	Pt/Rh   4/1

Loading 1.0 g / L	Pt/Rh   4/1

Loading 1.0 g / L	Pt/Rh   4/1

Loading 1.0 g / L	Pt/Rh   4/1

Loading 1.0 g / L	Pt/Rh   4/1

Loading 1.0 g / L

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  3 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  4  Catalyst
Characteristics for Personal Watercraft Engines

Engine Size	85 hp Engine	130 hp Engine	175 hp Engine

Catalyst Size	0.58 L	0.65 L	0.88 L

Substrate	Ceramic

400 cells per inch	Ceramic

400 cells per inch	Ceramic

400 cells per inch

Washcoat	75% cerium

25% alumina oxide	75% cerium

25% alumina oxide	75% cerium

25% alumina oxide

Precious Metals	Pt/Rh   4/1

Loading 1.0 g / L	Pt/Rh   4/1

Loading 1.0 g / L	Pt/Rh   4/1

Loading 1.0 g / L

Cost Methodology

	In order to determine costs for technologies that manufacturers are
likely to employ to comply with potential future emission regulations,
representative models of the five outboard and three PWC engines
described earlier were chosen among several manufacturers’ engine
lines and cost information was collected for each.   No single model’s
costs were used to develop the estimates presented in this report, but
rather representative averages of all costs collected were used for each
technology. 

	The technologies described in Section 3 have benefits that go beyond
emission control.  Assigning the full incremental cost of these
technologies as an impact of emissions standards may therefore
overestimate the true cost of emission control.  The costing described
herein only focuses on emissions-related improvements and not
performance-related ones. All costs are reported in 2005 dollars and
represent the incremental costs associated with various technology
packages engine manufacturers might employ in different aspects of their
production lines to meet new emission standards. 

Hardware Costs

	The hardware cost to the manufacturers varies greatly with emission
technology package.  Generally, as engines and fuel delivery systems
become more complicated, one of the largest incremental costs will be
the enhancement of ECMs.  Other fuel system components, such as air
compressors, pressure regulators, injectors, and the various sensors
used in the systems also add significant costs to the enhanced
technology packages.  Manufacturer prices of all components were
estimated from various sources, including confidential information from
engine manufacturers and previous work performed by ICF International on
spark-ignited engine technology.  Discounted dealer and parts supplier
prices were used to verify the range of component prices, as were prices
obtained directly from engine manufacturers.

	Three-way catalyst component information was obtained directly from
catalyst manufacturers and current ICF work with three-way catalyst
technology and costs for sterndrive and inboard SI engines.  The prices
of precious metal per troy ounce represent average prices over the last
three years. Washcoat and steel prices represent current estimates. The
labor cost is based upon a small scale production of catalysts of a
similar size of 15,000 units per year and an average labor time of a
half hour per unit, which includes the time necessary to install the
catalyst in the exhaust manifold.  To minimize costs, all manufacturers
with similar-sized engines will most likely use a similar catalyst. 
Labor rates used are estimated $17.50 per hour plus a 60% fringe rate
for a total labor cost of $28 per hour.

	All hardware costs to the engine manufacturer are subject to a 29%
mark-up which represents a typical mark-up of technologies on new engine
sales.  This mark-up includes manufacturer overhead, manufacturer
profit, dealer overhead and dealer profit.  A separate supplier mark-up
of 29% is also applied to the catalyst.  The 5% warranty markup is added
to the hardware cost to represent an overhead charge covering warranty
claims associated with the new parts. This is a lower rate than what
would be typically used because of the long history of similar
electronic fuel injection systems in other applications.

Fixed Costs

	The fixed costs to the manufacturer include the cost of researching,
developing and testing a new technology.  It also includes the cost of
retooling the assembly line for the production of new parts.  The fixed
costs are listed separately for the development and durability testing
costs.  The advanced fuel system technology needed to reduce emissions
is already in part present in a considerable share of many current
product lines, thus further development needed is minimal. 

	The number of units per year per engine family and the number of years
to recover are used to determine the fixed cost per unit in 2005
dollars. The present cost estimate uses the average engine sales shown
in Table 4-1.   The numbers of units per year are estimates derived from
confidential information received from manufacturers.  The numbers
reflect the variation in average production between large and small
businesses that share the market.  

	Five years is used as the length of time to recover an investment in
new technology.  This is a typical value for the marine outboard and
personal watercraft industry.

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  4 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  1  Production
Levels (units per year)

Engine Type	Horsepower	Sales

Outboard Engines	9.9 hp	5,000

	40 hp	5,600

	75 hp	6,400

	125 hp	5,900

	225 hp	4,700

Personal Watercraft Engines	85 hp	1,700

	130 hp	5,300

	175 hp	1,000

Operating Costs

Migration from conventional 2-stroke engine technology to 4-stroke or
direct-injection 2-stroke engine technology reduces fuel consumption
from 15 to 40% due to less fuel short-circuiting.  Fuel cost savings for
use of 4-stroke and direct-injection 2-stroke engine technology over
conventional 2-stroke engine technology have been analyzed using an
average gasoline price of $1.92 per gallon.  Additionally, a price of
$2.96 per quart was used for 2-stroke engine oil versus $2.31 per quart
for 4-stroke engine oil.  A load factor of 0.21 has been used along with
an activity of 34.8 hours per year for outboard engines and 77.3 hours
per year for personal watercraft.  An average life of 9.9 years was used
to calculate total fuel savings for PWC engines.  For outboard engines,
the average life ranged from 13.3 years for 225 hp engines to 26.1 years
for 9.9 hp engines.  A discount rate of 3% per annum over the life of
the engine was used to calculate present values.

This page intentionally left blank.

Results

	Outboard and personal watercraft engine manufacturers were initially
contacted to gather information on component costs for the technology
packages under consideration.  Preliminary cost estimates for the
systems were later submitted for review to the same industry contacts. 
Their comments were incorporated in the final version of the cost
estimates.  These are presented in the tables at the end of this
section.

	Tables 5-1 to 5-5 show a detailed development of cost estimates for
each of the technology packages for each engine and a comparison of the
costs across technologies for similar sized engines for outboard
engines.  Tables 5-6 through 5-10 show a detailed development of cost
estimates for each of the technology packages for personal watercraft. 

	As discussed above, migration from conventional 2-stroke engines to
4-stroke and direct-injection 2-stroke engines was also considered in
the mix of available technologies.  The results of this comparison are
shown in Tables 5-4 for outboard engines and Table 5-9 for personal
watercraft.  Although carbureted 4-strokes are not considered an
advanced technology, they do have significant emissions reductions and
cost savings over carbureted 2-stroke engines.  Also, because 4-strokes
are common in the market today, no increased research and development or
warranty costs are included in this comparison.  Further, this
comparison is not necessarily for carbureted to carbureted engine
models.  Particularly for larger engines, carburetion is less common. 
In these cases, the model comparison was between engine models with
similar fuel delivery technologies available for engines of that size.  

	Table 5-11 details catalyst prices per unit.  The total catalyst price
depends on the number of units used for each engine, although the
current layout envisions only one catalyst per engine.  Manufacturer
prices per unit vary between $33 and $93.

	Table 5-12 describes the composition of the research and development
costs.  The research and development costs for engine manufacturers
consist of the engineering design costs, the product development costs,
and the prototype testing costs for the first engine line built.  The
actual cost per engine for research and development that is included in
Tables 5-1 to 5-10 is based on six months of R&D at this rate.  For
systems with catalysts, another 3 months of R&D are included. The design
and development costs are essentially engineer and technician hours plus
prototype testing costs.  This may increase in the future as a result of
new emission standards.  Base engineer salaries are taken as $66,000 per
year and base technicianTable   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC
\s 1  1  2-Stroke Direct Fuel Injected Outboard Marine Gasoline Engines 

Carb - > DFI Costs	9.9 hp, 2 cyl	40 hp, 3 cyl	75 hp, 3 cyl	125 hp, 4 cyl
225 hp, 6 cyl

	Carb	DFI	Carb	DFI	Carb	DFI	Carb	DFI	Carb	DFI

Carburetor	$28 	N/A	$38 	N/A	$45 	N/A	$55 	N/A	$80 	N/A

     Number Required	     1 	 	      3 	 	      3 	 	       3 	 	   
 3 	 

Fuel Metering Solenoid (each)	 	$18 	 	$20 	 	$22 	 	$24 	 	$26 

     Number Required	 	2

3

3

4

6

 Air Compressor	 	$80 	 	$100 	 	$120 	 	$140 	 	$165 

 Air Regulator	 	$15 

$15 

$17 	 	$20 	 	$22 

 Throttle Body/Position Sensor	 	$30 

$35 

$35 	 	$40 	 	$50 

  Intake Manifold	$8 	$13 	$10 	$15 	$11 	$20 	$15 	$25 	$15 	$30 

  Fuel Pump	$7 	$10 	$10 	$10 	$15 	$10 	$16 	$10 	$18 	$10 

  ECM	 	$85 	 	$90 	 	$95 	 	$100 	 	$105 

  Air Intake Temperature Sensor	 	$5 	 	$5 	 	$5 	 	$5 	 	$5 

  Manifold Air Pressure Sensor	 	$10 	 	$10 	 	$11 	 	$11 	 	$11 

  Injection Timing Sensor/Timing Wheel	 	$5 	 	$8 	 	$9 	 	$10 	 
$10 

  Wiring/Related Hardware	 	$20 	 	$30 	 	$30 	 	$50 	 	$60 

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer	$43 	$309 	$134 	$378 	$161 	$418 	$196 
$507 	$273 	$624 

Labor @ $28 per hour	$1 	$14 	$2 	$17 	$2 	$21 	$2 	$24 	$3 	$28 

Labor overhead @ 40%	$1 	$6 	$1 	$7 	$1 	$8 	$1 	$10 	$1 	$11 

OEM markup @ 29%	$13 	$95 	$40 	$116 	$48 	$130 	$58 	$157 	$80 	$192 

Warranty Markup @ 5% 	 	$13 	 	$12 	 	$13 	 	$16 	 	$18 

Total Component Costs	$58 	$437 	$176 	$530 	$211 	$590 	$257 	$713 
$357 	$873 

 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Manufacturer	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	$0 	$679,956 	$0 	$692,712 	$0 	$704,832 	$0 	$718,440 	$0 
$738,482 

Tooling Costs	$0 	$150,000 	$0 	$150,000 	$0 	$150,000 	$0 	$150,000 	$0
	$150,000 

Units/yr.	5,000	5,000 	5,600	5,600 	6,400	6,400 	5,900	5,900 	4,700
4,700 

Years to recover	5	5 	5	5 	5	5 	5	5 	5	5 

Fixed cost/unit	$0 	$46 	$0 	$42 	$0 	$37 	$0 	$41 	$0 	$52 

Total Costs ($)	$58 	$483 	$176 	$572 	$211 	$627 	$257 	$753 	$357 
$925 

Incremental Total Cost ($)	 	$425 	 	$396 	 	$415 	 	$496 	 	$568 

 

R&D Costs	Carb	DFI	Carb	DFI	Carb	DFI	Carb	DFI	Carb	DFI

R&D Costs 	$0 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 	$0 
$474,611 

Durability Testing 	$0 	$205,346 	$0 	$218,101 	$0 	$230,221 	$0 
$243,829 	$0 	$263,871 

Total R&D per Engine Line	$0 	$679,956 	$0 	$692,712 	$0 	$704,832 	$0 
$718,440 	$0 	$738,482 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  2  2-Stroke
Indirect Fuel Injected Outboard Marine Gasoline Engines 

Carb - > IDI Costs	9.9 hp, 2 cyl	40 hp, 3 cyl	75 hp. 3 cyl	125 hp, 4 cyl
225 hp, 6 cyl

	Carb	IDI	Carb	IDI	Carb	IDI	Carb	IDI	Carb	IDI

Carburetor	$28 	N/A	$38 	N/A	$45 	N/A	$55 	N/A	$80 	N/A

      Number Required	1

3

3

3

3

	 Injectors (each)	 	$17 	 	$17 	 	$17 	 	$17 	 	$17 

     Number Required	 	2

3

3

4

6

 Fuel Distributor	 	$10 	 	$12 	 	$15 	 	$20 	 	$25 

 Pressure Regulator	 	$15 	 	$15 	 	$20 	 	$30 	 	$35 

 Intake Manifold	$8 	$13 	$10 	$15 	$11 	$17 	$15 	$35 	$15 	$35 

 Throttle Body/Position Sensor	 	$30 	 	$35 	 	$35 	 	$40 	 	$50 

 Fuel Pump	$7 	$20 	$10 	$20 	$15 	$30 	$16 	$40 	$18 	$45 

 ECM	 	$85 	 	$90 	 	$95 	 	$100 	 	$105 

 Air Intake Temperature Sensor	 	$5 	 	$5 	 	$5 	 	$5 	 	$5 

 Manifold Air Pressure Sensor	 	$10 	 	$10 	 	$11 	 	$11 	 	$11 

 Injection Timing Sensor	 	$7 	 	$8 	 	$9 	 	$10 	 	$10 

 Wiring/Related Hardware	 	$20 	 	$30 	 	$30 	 	$40 	 	$60 

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer	$43 	$249 	$134 	$291 	$161 	$318 	$196 
$399 	$273 	$483 

Labor @ $28 per hour	$1 	$7 	$2 	$8 	$2 	$11 	$2 	$12 	$3 	$14 

Labor overhead @ 40%	$1 	$3 	$1 	$3 	$1 	$4 	$1 	$5 	$1 	$6 

Markup @ 29%	$13 	$75 	$40 	$88 	$48 	$96 	$58 	$121 	$80 	$146 

Warranty Markup @ 5% (a)	 	$10 	 	$8 	 	$8 	 	$10 	 	$11 

Total Component Costs	$58 	$344 	$176 	$398 	$211 	$437 	$257 	$546 
$357 	$659 

 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Manufacturer	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	$0 	$679,956 	$0 	$692,712 	$0 	$704,832 	$0 	$718,440 	$0 
$738,482 

Tooling Costs	$0 	$100,000 	$0 	$100,000 	$0 	$100,000 	$0 	$100,000 	$0
	$100,000 

Units/yr.	5,000	5,000 	5,600	5,600 	6,400	6,400 	5,900	5,900 	4,700
4,700 

Years to recover	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 

Fixed cost/unit	$0 	$43 	$0 	$39 	$0 	$35 	$0 	$38 	$0 	$49 

Total Costs ($)	$58 	$387 	$176 	$438 	$211 	$472 	$257 	$585 	$357 
$708 

Incremental Total Cost ($)	 	$329 	 	$262 	 	$260 	 	$328 	 	$351 

 

R&D Costs	Carb	IDI	Carb	IDI	Carb	IDI	Carb	IDI	Carb	IDI

R&D Costs 	$0 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 	$0 
$474,611 

Durability Testing 	$0 	$205,346 	$0 	$218,101 	$0 	$230,221 	$0 
$243,829 	$0 	$263,871 

Total R&D per Engine Line	$0 	$679,956 	$0 	$692,712 	$0 	$704,832 	$0 
$718,440 	$0 	$738,482 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  3  4-Stroke
Electronic Fuel Injected Outboard Marine Gasoline Engines

Carb -> EFI Costs	9.9 hp, 2 cyl	40 hp, 3 cyl	75 hp. 3 cyl	125 hp, 4 cyl
225 hp, 6 cyl

	Carb	TBI	PFI	Carb	TBI	PFI	Carb	TBI	PFI	Carb	TBI	PFI	Carb	TBI	PFI

 Carburetor	$28 	N/A	N/A	$38 	N/A	N/A	$45 	N/A	N/A	$55 	N/A	N/A	$80 	N/A
N/A

      Number Required	1

	3

	3

	3

	3	 	 

 Injectors (each)	 	$21 	$17 	 	$21 	$17 	 	$21 	$17 	 	$21 	$17 	 
$21 	$17 

      Number Required

1	2

1	3

1	3

2	4

2	6

 Fuel Rail	 	 	$40 	 	 	$55 	 	 	$65 	 	 	$70 	 	$80 	$80 

 Pressure Regulator	 	$10 	$15 	 	$10 	$15 	 	$15 	$20 	 	$20 	$30 
 	$25 	$35 

Intake Manifold	$8 	$13 	$13 	$10 	$15 	$15 	$11 	$17 	$17 	$15 	$25 
$25 	$15 	$30 	$30 

Throttle Body/Position Sensor	 	$30 	$30 	 	$35 	$35 	 	$35 	$35 	 
$40 	$40 	 	$50 	$50 

Fuel Pump	$7 	$15 	$20 	$10 	$15 	$20 	$15 	$20 	$25 	$16 	$25 	$30 	$18
	$30 	$35 

ECM	 	$85 	$95 	 	$90 	$100 	 	$95 	$105 	 	$100 	$110 	 	$105 
$115 

Air Intake Temperature Sensor	 	$5 	$5 	 	$5 	$5 	 	$5 	$5 	 	$5 	$5
	 	$5 	$5 

Manifold Air Pressure Sensor	 	$10 	$10 	 	$10 	$10 	 	$11 	$11 	 
$11 	$11 	 	$11 	$11 

Injection Timing Sensor	 	$5 	$5 	 	$8 	$8 	 	$9 	$9 	 	$10 	$10 	 
$10 	$10 

Wiring/Related Hardware	 	$20 	$20 	 	$30 	$30 	 	$30 	$30 	 	$40 
$40 	 	$60 	$60 

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer	$43 	$214 	$287 	$134 	$239 	$344 	$161 
$258 	$373 	$196 	$318 	$439 	$273 	$368 	$533 

Labor @ $28 per hour	$1 	$4 	$4 	$2 	$4 	$6 	$2 	$4 	$6 	$2 	$4 	$6 	$2 
$4 	$6 

Labor overhead @ 40%	$1 	$2 	$2 	$1 	$2 	$3 	$1 	$2 	$3 	$1 	$2 	$3 	$1 
$2 	$3 

Markup @ 29%	$13 	$64 	$85 	$40 	$71 	$102 	$47 	$77 	$111 	$58 	$94 
$130 	$80 	$108 	$157 

Warranty Markup @ 5% 	 	$9 	$12 	 	$5 	$11 	 	$5 	$11 	 	$6 	$12 	 
$5 	$13 

Total Component Costs	$58 	$292 	$390 	$176 	$321 	$466 	$211 	$345 
$503 	$257 	$424 	$590 	$356 	$487 	$712 

 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Manufacturer	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	$0 	$679,956 	$679,956 	$0 	$692,712 	$692,712 	$0 	$704,832 
$704,832 	$0 	$718,440 	$718,440 	$0 	$738,482 	$738,482 

Tooling Costs	$0 	$100,000 	$125,000 	$0 	$100,000 	$125,000 	$0 
$100,000 	$125,000 	$0 	$100,000 	$125,000 	$0 	$100,000 	$125,000 

Units/yr.	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,600	5,600	5,600	6,400	6,400	6,400	5,900
5,900	5,900	4,700	4,700	4,700

Years to recover	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 

Fixed cost/unit	$0 	$43 	$45 	$0 	$39 	$40 	$0 	$35 	$36 	$0 	$38 	$40 
$0 	$49 	$51 

Total Costs ($)	$58 	$335 	$435 	$176 	$360 	$506 	$211 	$380 	$539 
$257 	$462 	$629 	$356 	$537 	$763 

Incremental Total Cost ($)	 	$277 	$377 	 	$185 	$330 	 	$169 	$328 
 	$206 	$373 	 	$181 	$407 

 

	R&D Costs	Carb	TBI	PFI	Carb	TBI	PFI	Carb	TBI	PFI	Carb	TBI	PFI	Carb	TBI
PFI

R&D Costs	$0 	$474,611 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 
$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 	$474,611 

Durability Testing 	$0 	$205,346 	$205,346 	$0 	$218,101 	$218,101 	$0 
$230,221 	$230,221 	$0 	$243,829 	$243,829 	$0 	$263,871 	$263,871 

Total R&D per Engine Line	$0 	$679,956 	$679,956 	$0 	$692,712 	$692,712
	$0 	$704,832 	$704,832 	$0 	$718,440 	$718,440 	$0 	$738,482 	$738,482 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  4  Migration
Costs from 2-stroke to 4-stroke Outboard Marine Engines

Conversion to 4 Stroke Costs	9.9 hp Carb->Carb	40 hp Carb->Carb	75 hp
Carb->Carb	125 hp Carb->EFI	225 hp DFI->EFI

	2 stroke	4 stroke	2 stroke	4 stroke	2 stroke	4 stroke	2 stroke	4 stroke
2 stroke	4 stroke

Engine	$900 	$1,124 	$2,101 	$2,633 	$3,076 	$3,861 	$4,195 	$5,504 
$6,339 	$7,761 

Markup @ 29%	$261 	$326 	$609 	$764 	$892 	$1,120 	$1,217 	$1,596 
$1,838 	$2,251 

Total Costs ($)	$1,161 	$1,450 	$2,710 	$3,397 	$3,968 	$4,981 	$5,412 
$7,100 	$8,177 	$10,012 

Incremental Total Cost ($)	 	$289 	 	$686 	 	$1,013 	 	$1,689 	 
$1,834 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  5  Three-way
Catalyst costs for 4-stroke MPI Outboard Marine Engines

4 stroke MPI  Catalysts	9.9 hp	40 hp	75 hp	125 hp	225 hp

	No Cat	Cat	No Cat	Cat	No Cat	Cat	No Cat	Cat	No Cat	Cat

Catalyst	 	$33 	 	$45 	 	$62 	 	$67 	 	$92 

Manifold Modifications	 	$15 	 	$17 	 	$20 	 	$25 	 	$30 

Oxygen Sensor	 	$25 	 	$25 	 	$25 	 	$25 	 	$25 

Labor @ $28 per hour	 	$1 	 	$1 	 	$1 	 	$1 	 	$1 

Labor overhead @ 40%	 	$1 	 	$1 	 	$1 	 	$1 	 	$1 

OEM markup @ 29%	 	$22 	 	$26 	 	$32 	 	$34 	 	$43 

Warranty Markup @ 5%	 	$2	 	$2	 	$3	 	$3	 	$5

Total Component Costs	$0 	$99 	$0 	$116 	$0 	$144 	$0 	$156 	$0 	$197 

 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Manufacturer	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	$0 	$342,788 	$0 	$352,938 	$0 	$362,068 	$0 	$372,980 	$0 
$388,643 

Tooling Costs	$0 	$75,000 	$0 	$75,000 	$0 	$75,000 	$0 	$75,000 	$0 
$75,000 

Units/yr.	5,000	5,000 	5,600	5,600 	6,400	6,400 	5,900	5,900 	4,700
4,700 

Years to recover	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 

Fixed cost/unit	$0 	$23 	$0 	$21 	$0 	$19 	$0 	$21 	$0 	$27 

Total Costs ($)	$0 	$122 	$0 	$137 	$0 	$163 	$0 	$177 	$0 	$224 

Incremental Total Cost ($)	 	$122 	 	$137 	 	$163 	 	$177 	 	$224 

R&D Costs	No Cat	Cat	No Cat	Cat	No Cat	Cat	No Cat	Cat	No Cat	Cat

R&D Costs 	$0 	$237,305 	$0 	$237,305 	$0 	$237,305 	$0 	$237,305 	$0 
$237,305 

Durability Testing 	$0 	$105,483 	$0 	$115,633 	$0 	$124,763 	$0 
$135,675 	$0 	$151,338 

Total R&D per Engine Line	$0 	$342,788 	$0 	$352,938 	$0 	$362,068 	$0 
$372,980 	$0 	$388,643 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  6  2-Stroke
Direct Fuel Injected Personal Watercraft Marine Gasoline Engines 

Carb - > DFI Costs	85 hp, 2 cyl	130 hp, 3 cyl	175 hp, 4 cyl

	Carb	DFI	Carb	DFI	Carb	DFI

Carburetor	$38 	N/A	$55 	N/A	$80 	N/A

     Number Required	3

3

3	 

Nozzle/Accumulator (each)	 	$22 	 	$24 	 	$26 

     Number Required

2

3

4

Air Compressor	 	$120 	 	$140 	 	$165 

Air Regulator

$17 	 	$20 	 	$22 

Throttle Body/Position Sensor

$35 	 	$40 	 	$50 

Intake Manifold	$11 	$20 	$15 	$25 	$15 	$30 

Fuel Transfer Pump	$15 	$10 	$16 	$10 	$18 	$10 

ECM	 	$95 	 	$100 	 	$105 

Air Intake Temperature Sensor	 	$5 	 	$5 	 	$5 

Manifold Air Pressure Sensor	 	$11 	 	$11 	 	$11 

Injection Timing Sensor/Timing Wheel	 	$9 	 	$10 	 	$10 

Wiring/Related Hardware	 	$20 	 	$30	 	$40 

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer	$140 	$386 	$196 	$453 	$273 	$552 

Labor @ $28 per hour	$2 	$21 	$2 	$24 	$2 	$24 

Labor overhead @ 40%	$1 	$8 	$1 	$10 	$1 	$10 

OEM markup @ 29%	$41 	$120 	$58 	$144 	$80 	$170 

Warranty Markup @ 5% 	 	$12 	 	$13 	 	$14 

Total Component Costs	$184 	$548 	$257 	$654 	$356 	$769 

 	 	 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Manufacturer	 	 	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	$0 	$705,255 	$0 	$714,728 	$0 	$725,996 

Tooling Costs	$0 	$150,000 	$0 	$150,000 	$0 	$150,000 

Units/yr.	1,700	1,700	5,300	5,300	1,000	1,000

Years to recover	5	5 	5	5 	5	5 

Fixed cost/unit	$0 	$139 	$0 	$45 	$0 	$242 

Total Costs ($)	$184 	$687 	$257 	$699 	$356 	$1,011 

Incremental Total Cost ($)	 	$503 	 	$442 	 	$655 

 

R&D Costs	Carb	DFI	Carb	DFI	Carb	DFI

R&D Costs	$0 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 

Durability Testing	$0 	$230,644 	$0 	$240,118 	$0 	$251,386 

Total R&D per Engine Line	$0 	$705,255 	$0 	$714,728 	$0 	$725,996 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  7  2-Stroke
Indirect Fuel Injected Personal Watercraft Marine Gasoline Engines 

Carb - > IDI Costs	85 hp, 2 cyl	130 hp, 3 cyl	175 hp, 4 cyl

	Carb	IDI	Carb	IDI	Carb	IDI

  Carburetor	$38 	N/A	$55 	N/A	$80 	N/A

       Number Required	 3 	 	3 	 	 3 	 

  Injectors (each)	 	$17 	 	$17 	 	$17 

       Number Required	 	2	 	3	 	4

  Fuel Distributor	 	$15 	 	$20 	 	$25 

  Pressure Regulator	 	$20 	 	$30 	 	$35 

  Intake Manifold	$11 	$17 	$15 	$35 	$15 	$35 

  Throttle Body/Position Sensor	 	$35 	 	$40 	 	$50

  Fuel Pump	$15 	$30 	$16 	$40 	$18 	$45 

  ECM	 	$95 	 	$100 	 	$105 

  Air Intake Temperature Sensor	 	$5 	 	$5 	 	$5 

  Manifold Air Pressure Sensor	 	$11 	 	$11 	 	$11 

  Injection Timing Sensor	 	$9 	 	$10 	 	$10 

  Wiring/Related Hardware	 	$20 	 	$30 	 	$40 

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer	$140 	$291 	$196 	$372 	$273 	$429 

Labor @ $28 per hour	$2 	$11 	$2 	$12 	$2 	$12 

Labor overhead @ 40%	$1 	$4 	$1 	$5 	$1 	$5 

OEM markup @ 29%	$41 	$89 	$58 	$113 	$80 	$129 

Warranty Markup @ 5%	 	$8 	 	$9 	 	$8 

Total Component Costs	$184 	$402 	$257 	$510 	$356 	$583 

 	 	 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Manufacturer	 	 	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	$0 	$705,255 	$0 	$714,728 	$0 	$725,996 

Tooling Costs	$0 	$100,000 	$0 	$100,000 	$0 	$100,000 

Units/yr.	1,700	1,700	5,300	5,300	1,000	1,000

Years to recover	5	5 	5	5 	5	5 

Fixed cost/unit	$0 	$131 	$0 	$43 	$0 	$229 

Total Costs ($)	$184 	$533 	$257 	$553 	$356 	$812 

Incremental Total Cost ($)	 	$349 	 	$296 	 	$455 

 

R&D Costs	Carb	IDI	Carb	IDI	Carb	IDI

R&D Costs	$0 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 

Durability Testing	$0 	$230,644 	$0 	$240,118 	$0 	$251,386 

Total R&D per Engine Line	$0 	$705,255 	$0 	$714,728 	$0 	$725,996 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  8  4-Stroke
Electronic Fuel Injected Personal Watercraft Marine Gasoline Engines

Carb -> EFI Costs	85 hp, 2 cyl	130 hp, 3 cyl	175 hp, 3 cyl

	Carb	TBI	PFI	Carb	TBI	PFI	Carb	TBI	PFI

 Carburetor	$45 	N/A	N/A	$55 	N/A	N/A	$80 	N/A	N/A

      Number Required	3 	 	 	3 	 	 	 3 	 	 

 Injectors (each)	 	$21 	$17 	 	$21 	$17 	 	$21 	$17 

      Number Required	 	1	2

2	3

2	4

 Fuel Rail	 	 	$65 	 	 	$70 	 	 	$80 

 Pressure Regulator	 	$15 	$20 	 	$20 	$30 	 	$25 	$35 

 Intake Manifold	$11 	$17 	$17 	$15 	$25 	$25 	$15 	$30 	$30 

 Throttle Body/Position Sensor	 	$35 	$35 	 	$40 	$40 	 	$50 	$50 

 Fuel Pump	$15 	$20 	$25 	$16 	$25 	$30 	$18 	$30 	$35 

 ECM	 	$95 	$105 	 	$100 	$110 	 	$105 	$115 

 Air Intake Temperature Sensor	 	$5 	$5 	 	$5 	$5 	 	$5 	$5 

 Manifold Air Pressure Sensor	 	$11 	$11 	 	$11 	$11 	 	$11 	$11 

 Injection Timing Sensor	 	$9 	$9 	 	$10 	$10 	 	$10 	$10 

 Wiring/Related Hardware	 	$20 	$20 	 	$30 	$30 	 	$40 	$40 

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer	$161 	$248 	$346 	$196 	$308 	$412 	$273 
$348 	$479 

Labor @ $28 per hour	$2 	$4 	$6 	$2 	$4 	$6 	$2 	$4 	$6 

Labor overhead @ 40%	$1 	$2 	$3 	$1 	$2 	$3 	$1 	$2 	$3 

Markup @ 29%	$47 	$74 	$103 	$58 	$91 	$122 	$80 	$103 	$141 

Warranty Markup @ 5%	 	$4 	$9 	 	$6 	$11 	 	$4 	$10 

Total Component Costs	$211 	$332 	$467 	$257 	$411 	$554 	$356 	$460 
$640 

 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Manufacturer	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	$0 	$705,255 	$705,255 	$0 	$714,728 	$714,728 	$0 	$725,996 
$725,996 

Tooling Costs	$0 	$100,000 	$125,000 	$0 	$100,000 	$125,000 	$0 
$100,000 	$125,000 

Units/yr.	1,700	1,700	1,700	5,300	5,300	5,300	1,000	1,000	1,000

Years to recover	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 

Fixed cost/unit	$0 	$131 	$135 	$0 	$43 	$44 	$0 	$229 	$236 

Total Costs ($)	$211 	$463 	$602 	$257 	$453 	$598 	$356 	$689 	$875 

Incremental Total Cost ($)	 	$252 	$391 	 	$197 	$341 	 	$333 	$519 

 

	R&D Costs	Carb	TBI	PFI	Carb	TBI	PFI	Carb	TBI	PFI

R&D Costs	$0 	$474,611 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 	$474,611 	$0 	$474,611 
$474,611 

Durability Testing	$0 	$230,644 	$230,644 	$0 	$240,118 	$240,118 	$0 
$251,386 	$251,386 

Total R&D per Engine Line	$0 	$705,255 	$705,255 	$0 	$714,728 	$714,728
	$0 	$725,996 	$725,996 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  9  Migration
Costs from 2-stroke to 4-stroke Personal Watercraft Marine Engines

Conversion to 4 Stroke Costs	85 hp Carb->EFI	130 hp, DFI->EFI	175 hp,
DFI->EFI

	2 stroke	4 stroke	2 stroke	4 stroke	2 stroke	4 stroke

Engine	$3,319 	$4,350 	$4,578 	$5,587 	$5,862 	$7,207 

Markup @ 29%	$963 	$1,262 	$1,328 	$1,620 	$1,700 	$2,090 

Total Costs ($)	$4,282 	$5,612 	$5,906 	$7,207 	$7,562 	$9,297 

Incremental Total Cost ($)	 	$1,330 	 	$1,302 	 	$1,735 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  10  Three-way
Catalyst costs for 4-stroke MPI Personal Watercraft Marine Engines

4 stroke MPI  Catalysts	85 hp	130 hp	175 hp

	No Cat	Cat	No Cat	Cat	No Cat	Cat

Catalyst	 	$64 	 	$68 	 	$82 

Manifold Modifications	 	$35 	 	$40 	 	$45 

Oxygen Sensor	 	$25 	 	$25 	 	$25 

Labor @ $28 per hour	 	$1 	 	$1 	 	$1 

Labor overhead @ 40%	 	$1 	 	$1 	 	$1 

OEM markup @ 29%	 	$36 	 	$39 	 	$45 

Warranty Markup @ 5%	 	$3	 	$3	 	$4

Total Component Costs	$0 	$165 	$0 	$177 	$0 	$202 

 	 	 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Manufacturer	 	 	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	$0 	$363,502 	$0 	$371,332 	$0 	$381,016 

Tooling Costs	$0 	$75,000 	$0 	$75,000 	$0 	$75,000 

Units/yr.	1,700	1,700	5,300	5,300	1,000	1,000

Years to recover	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 	5 

Fixed cost/unit	$0 	$71 	$0 	$23 	$0 	$126 

Total Costs ($)	$0 	$236 	$0 	$200 	$0 	$328 

Incremental Total Cost ($)	 	$236 	 	$200 	 	$328 

R&D Costs	No Cat	Cat	No Cat	Cat	No Cat	Cat

R&D Costs	$0 	$237,305 	$0 	$237,305 	$0 	$237,305 

Durability Testing	$0 	$126,197 	$0 	$134,026 	$0 	$143,710 

Total R&D per Engine Line	$0 	$363,502 	$0 	$371,332 	$0 	$381,016 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  11  Three-way
Marine Catalysts Cost Estimates

Table 5-11a Catalyst Parameters

Washcoat Loading	g/L	160

% ceria	by wt.	75

% alumina	by wt.	25

Precious Metal Loading	g/L	1.0

% Platinum	by wt.	80.0

% Palladium	by wt.	0.0

% Rhodium	by wt.	20.0

Labor Cost 	$/hr	$28.00 

Table 5-11b Material Costs

Material	$/troy oz	$/lb	$/g	Density (g/cc)

Alumina	 	$64.00 	$0.141 	3.9

Ceria	 	$22.00 	$0.049 	7.132

Platinum	$811 	 	$26.08 	 

Palladium	$210 	 	$6.76 	 

Rhodium	$1,121 	 	$36.04 	 

Stainless Steel	 	$0.85 	$0.003 	7.817

Table 5-11c Catalyst Unit Price

Engine Type	Outboards	PWC

Engine Power	9.9 hp	40 hp	75 hp	125 hp	225 hp	85 hp	130 hp	175 hp

Engine Displacement (L)	0.25	0.76	1.60	1.80	3.00	1.65	1.85	2.50

Catalyst Volume (L)	0.09	0.27	0.56	0.63	1.05	0.38	0.43	0.58

Substrate Diameter(cm)	4.50	6.00	8.50	9.00	11.00	9.00	9.00	10.00

Substrate	$2.48 	$3.56 	$5.35 	$5.77 	$8.32 	$5.45 	$5.88 	$7.26 

Ceria/Alumina	$1.00 	$3.05 	$6.42 	$7.23 	$12.04 	$6.62 	$7.43 	$10.03. 

Pt/Pd/Rd	$2.46 	$7.47 	$15.72 	$17.69 	$29.48 	$16.21 	$18.18 	$24.57 

Can (18 gauge 304 SS)	$0.39 	$0.82 	$1.31 	$1.42 	$1.98 	$1.34 	$1.44 
$1.76 

  Substrate Diameter (cm)	4.50	6.00	8.50	9.00	11.00	9.00	9.00	10.00

  Substrate Length (cm)	5.5	9.4	9.9	9.9	11.0	9.1	10.2	11.1

  Working Length (cm)	8.3	12.2	12.7	12.7	13.8	11.9	13.0	13.9

  Thick. of Steel (cm)	0.121	0.121	0.121	0.121	0.121	0.121	0.121	0.121

  Shell Volume (cm3)	10	22	32	34	47	31	35	43

  Steel End Cap Volume (cm3)	4	8	15	17	25	17	17	21

  Vol. of Steel (cm^3) w/ 20% scrap	17	35	57	61	86	58	63	76

  Wt. of Steel (g)	132	277	445	481	673	454	489	597

TOTAL MAT. COST	$6.33 	$14.90 	$28.80 	$32.10 	$51.82 	$29.63 	$32.92 
$43.62 

LABOR	$14.00 	$14.00 	$14.00 	$14.00 	$14.00 	$14.00 	$14.00 	$14.00 

Labor Overhead @ 40%	$5.60 	$5.60 	$5.60 	$5.60 	$5.60 	$5.60 	$5.60 
$5.60 

Supplier Markup @ 29%	$7.52 	$10.00 	$14.04 	$14.99 	$20.71 	$14.28 
$15.23 	$18.33 

Manufacturer Price	$33.45 	$44.50 	$62.44 	$66.69 	$92.13 	$63.50 
$67.76 	$81.55 

and operator salaries are taken as $42,900 per year plus 45 percent
fringe and 40 percent overhead mark-up. Prototype testing costs shown in
the table consist of performing stationary tests as well as tests in
water.  These are estimated at $1,250 per day for test time plus $500
per day for test engine costs for 20 days per month.  Durability testing
labor costs per month are shown in Table 5-13, with 3 and 6 month
durability testing costs shown in Table 5-14 for outboards and Table
5-15 for personal watercraft.

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  12  Research,
Development and Prototype Testing Costs per Month

 

Cost Item	 

No	Cost per

Month	 

Amount

Engineers	2	$5,500	$11,000

Techs/Operators	3	$3,575	$10,725

Total Salaries

 	$21,725

Fringe	45%	$9,776

Overhead

40%	$12,601

Prototype Testing	 	 	$35,000

Total Cost per Month	$79,102

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  13  Durability
Testing Labor Costs per Month

 

Cost Item	 

No	Cost per

Month	 

Amount

Engineers	0.75	$5,500	$4,125

Techs/Operators	2	$3,575	$7,150

Total Salaries

 	$11,275

Fringe	45%	$5,074

Overhead	40%	$6,540

Testing Costs

$10,000

Total Cost per Month	$32,888

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  14  Outboard
Durability Testing Costs

	3 Months Testing	6 Months Testing

Engine	Labor	Engine	Fuel	Total	Labor	Engine	Fuel	Total

9.9 hp, 2 cyl	$98,665	$5,620	$1,198	$105,483	$197,330	$5,620	$2,396
$205,346

40 hp, 3 cyl	$98,665	$13,165	$3,803	$115,633	$197,330	$13,165	$7,607
$218,101

75 hp, 3 cyl	$98,665	$19,305	$6,793	$124,763	$197,330	$19,305	$13,587
$230,221

125 hp, 4 cyl	$98,665	$27,520	$9,490	$135,675	$197,330	$27,520	$18,980
$243,829

225 hp, 6 cyl	$98,665	$38,805	$13,868	$151,338	$197,330	$38,805	$27,737
$263,871

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  15  Personal
Watercraft Durability Testing Costs

	3 Months Testing	6 Months Testing

Engine	Labor	Engine	Fuel	Total	Labor	Engine	Fuel	Total

85 hp, 2 cyl	$98,665	$21,750	$5,782	$126,197	$197,330	$21,750	$11,565
$230,644

130 hp, 3 cyl	$98,665	$27,935	$7,427	$134,026	$197,330	$27,935	$14,853
$240,118

175 hp, 4 cyl	$98,665	$36,035	$9,011	$143,710	$197,330	$36,035	$18,021
$251,386

	Operating cost savings for conversion from 2-stroke to 4-stroke for all
outboard and PWC sizes considered are given in Tables 5-16 and 5-17,
respectively.  

	The costs presented in Table 5-18 are the incremental costs of all the
possible combinations of baseline and advanced technology scenarios for
outboard engines.  Table 5-19 lists incremental costs for personal
watercraft.  The results show that the most costly change in technology
is upgrading the same size engine from carbureted 2-stroke to 4-stroke,
particularly in the case where the 4-stroke engine is EFI.  Without
redesigning the entire engine, direct fuel injection is the most
expensive upgrade for 2-stroke engines, with costs as high as about $500
for the 225 hp engine.  For 4-stroke engines, the most expensive upgrade
is migration to multipoint injection with an three-way catalyst, which
has a price of about 98% that of the DFI 2-stroke upgrade. 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  16  Annual Cost
Savings by Converting from 2-Stroke to 4-Stroke for Marine Outboard
Gasoline Engines

Engine Size	9.9 hp	40 hp	75 hp	125 hp	225 hp

Stroke	2	4	2	4	2	4	2	4	2	4

Horsepower	9.9	9.9	40	40	75	75	125	125	225	225

BSFC (gal/hp-hr)	0.24	0.15	0.19	0.14	0.18	0.13	0.15	0.11	0.12	0.10

Load Factor	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21

Hours/year	34.8	34.8	34.8	34.8	34.8	34.8	34.8	34.8	34.8	34.8

Gallons per year	17.4	10.6	55.2	41.4	98.5	74.0	137.6	103.5	201.1	168.0

Gasoline cost/yr	$33.36 	$20.41 	$105.89 	$79.52 	$189.13 	$142.04 
$264.20 	$198.80 	$368.10 	$322.53 

2-st Oil Consump qts/yr	1.39	 	4.41	 	7.88	 	11.01	 	16.09	 

2-st Oil Cost/yr	$4.11 	 	$13.06 	 	$23.33 	 	$32.58 	 	$47.62 	 

4-st Oil Sump, qt	 	1.1	 	2.1	 	4.5	 	4.5	 	6.1

4-st Oil change Freq, yr	 	1.0	 	1.0	 	1.0	 	1.0	 	1.0

Oil Cost per year	 	$2.54 	 	$4.85 	 	$10.40 	 	$10.40 	 	$14.09 

4-st Filter Change Freq, yr	 	2.0	 	2.0	 	2.0	 	2.0	 	2.0

Filter Cost	 	$8.8 	 	$8.8 	 	$8.8 	 	$8.8 	 	$8.8 

Filter Cost per year	 	$4.40 	 	$4.40 	 	$4.40 	 	$4.40 	 	$4.40 

Total Costs per year	$37.47 	$27.35 	$118.95 	$88.77 	$212.45 	$156.84 
$296.78 	$213.60 	$433.72 	$341.02 

Life, yrs X load factor	5.49	5.49	4.25	4.25	3.62	3.62	3.10	3.10	2.79
2.79

Life, yrs	26.1	26.1	20.2	20.2	17.2	17.2	14.8	14.8	13.3	13.3

Total Cost discounted 7%	$444 	$324 	$1,267 	$946 	$2,090 	$1,543 
$2,678 	$1,927 	$3,674 	$2,889 

Cost Savings	 	$120 	 	$321 	 	$547 	 	$751 	 	$785 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  17  Annual Cost
Savings by Converting from 2-Stroke to 4-Stroke for Personal Watercraft
Gasoline Engines

Engine Size	85 hp	130 hp	175 hp

Stroke	2	4	2	4	2	4

Horsepower	85	85	130	130	175	175

BSFC (gal/hp-hr)	0.18	0.13	0.15	0.11	0.12	0.10

Load Factor	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21

Hours/year	77.3	77.3	77.3	77.3	77.3	77.3

Gallons per year	248.0	186.2	317.9	239.2	347.4	290.2

Gasoline cost/yr	$476.11 	$357.58 	$610.33 	$459.26 	$667.04 	$557.22 

2-st Oil Consump qts/yr	19.84	 	25.43	 	27.79	 

2-st Oil Cost/yr	$58.72 	 	$75.27 	 	$82.27 	 

4-st Oil Sump, qt	 	4.5	 	4.5	 	4.5

4-st Oil change Freq, yr	 	1.0	 	1.0	 	1.0

Oil Cost per year	 	$10.40 	 	$10.40 	 	$10.40 

4-st Filter Change Freq, yr	 	2.0	 	2.0	 	2.0

Filter Cost	 	$8.8 	 	$8.8 	 	$8.8 

Filter Cost per year	 	$4.40 	 	$4.40 	 	$4.40 

Total Costs per year	$534.83 	$372.37 	$685.61 	$474.05 	$749.31 
$572.02 

Life, yrs X load factor	2.07	2.07	2.07	2.07	2.07	2.07

Life, yrs	9.9	9.9	9.9	9.9	9.9	9.9

Total Cost discounted 7%	$3,719 	$2,589 	$4,767 	$3,296 	$5,210 	$3,977 

Cost Savings	 	$1,130 	 	$1,471 	 	$1,233 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  18  Summary of
Incremental Outboard Technology Costs

Engine Type	Engine	Fuel

System	Incremental

Cost	Change

from

Baseline

2-stroke OB	9.9 hp	Carb	$58 

	DFI	$483 	$425 

IDI	$387 	$329 

4stk Carb

$289 

	40 hp	Carb	$176 

	DFI	$572 	$396 

IDI	$438 	$262 

4stk Carb

$686 

	75 hp	Carb	$211 

	DFI	$627 	$415 

IDI	$472 	$260 

4stk Carb

$1,013 

	125 hp	Carb	$257 

	DFI	$753 	$496 

IDI	$585 	$328 

4stk Carb

$1,689 

	225 hp	Carb	$357 

	DFI	$925 	$568 

IDI	$708 	$351 

4stk Carb

$1,834 

4-stroke OB	9.9 hp	Carb	$58 

	TBI	$335 	$277 

PFI	$435 	$377 

PFI + Cat	$557 	$499 

	40 hp	Carb	$176 

	TBI	$360 	$185 

PFI	$506 	$330 

PFI + Cat	$644 	$468 

	75 hp	Carb	$211 

	TBI	$380 	$169 

PFI	$539 	$328 

PFI + Cat	$702 	$491 

	125 hp	Carb	$257 

	TBI	$462 	$206 

PFI	$629 	$373 

PFI + Cat	$807 	$550 

	225 hp	Carb	$356 

	TBI	$537 	$181 

PFI	$763 	$407 

PFI + Cat	$987 	$631 

			Carb = carbureted; DFI = direct fuel injected; IDI = indirect fuel
injection

			TBI = throttle-body fuel injection, PFI = multi-point fuel injection;
Cat = three-way catalyst

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  19  Summary of
Incremental Personal Watercraft Technology Costs

Engine Type	Engine	Fuel

System	Incremental

Cost	Change

from

Baseline

2-stroke PWC	85 hp	Carb	$184 

	DFI	$687 	$503 

IDI	$533 	$349 

4stk Carb

$1,330 

	130 hp	Carb	$257 

	DFI	$699 	$442 

IDI	$553 	$296 

4stk Carb

$1,302 

	210 hp	Carb	$356 

	DFI	$1,011 	$655 

IDI	$812 	$455 

4stk Carb

$1,735 

4-stroke PWC	85 hp	Carb	$211 

	TBI	$463 	$252 

PFI	$602 	$391 

PFI + Cat	$839 	$628 

	130 hp	Carb	$257 

	TBI	$453 	$197 

PFI	$598 	$341 

PFI + Cat	$798 	$541 

	210 hp	Carb	$356 

	TBI	$689 	$333 

PFI	$875 	$519 

PFI + Cat	$1,203 	$848 

Carb = carbureted; DFI = direct fuel injected; IDI = indirect fuel
injection

	TBI = throttle-body fuel injection, PFI = multi-point fuel injection;
Cat = three-way catalyst

 	“Update of EPA’s Motor Vehicle Emission Control Equipment Retail
Price Equivalent (RPE) Calculation Formula,” Jack Faucett Associates,
Report No. JACKFAU-85-322-3, September 1985.

 National average retail gasoline prices for 2005 without taxes from the
Energy Information Administration.

 Load factor, activity and lifetime values are consistent with values
used in EPA’s NONROAD model.

 Midwest engineer and technician salaries for 2005 from www.salary.com.

021348

Table of Contents

ICF International	  PAGE  ii 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164/WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  i 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164/WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

Introduction

ICF International	  PAGE  4-2 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164/WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  4-1 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164/WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

Background

Technology Description

Cost Methodology

Results

ICF International	  PAGE  5-5 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164 / WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

Results

ICF International	  PAGE  5-2 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164/WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  5-7 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164 / WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  5-6 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164/WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  5-8 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164/WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

Results

ICF International	  PAGE  5-12 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164 / WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  5-9 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164/WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  5-11 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164/WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  5-8 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164 / WA 2-1

021348		October 2004

Results

ICF International	  PAGE  5-13 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164 / WA 4-7

021348		 July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  5-14 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164 / WA 4-7

021348		 July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  5-16 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164 / WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  5-15 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164 / WA 4-7

021348		 July 2006.