DOI: 10.5061/dryad.kh21qb76
title: Data from: Mutualism with plants drives primate diversification

description: Understanding the origin of diversity is a fundamental problem in biology.
 Evolutionary diversification has been intensely explored during the last
 years due to the development of molecular tools and the comparative
 method. However, most studies are conducted using only information from
 extant species. This approach probably leads to misleading conclusions,
 especially because of inaccuracy in the estimation of extinction rates. It
 is critical to integrate the information generated by extant organisms
 with the information obtained from the fossil record. Unfortunately, this
 integrative approach has been seldom performed, and thus our understanding
 of the factors fueling diversification is still deficient. Ecological
 interactions are a main factor shaping evolutionary diversification by
 influencing speciation and extinction rates. Most attention has focused on
 the effect of antagonistic interactions on evolutionary diversification.
 In contrast, the role of mutualistic interactions in shaping
 diversification has been much less explored. In this study, by combining
 phylogenetic, neontological and paleontological information, we show that
 a facultative mutualistic plant-animal interaction emerging from frugivory
 and seed dispersal has most likely contributed to the diversification of
 our own lineage, the primates. We compiled diet and seed dispersal ability
 in 381 extant and 556 extinct primates. Using well-established molecular
 phylogenies, we demonstrated that mutualistic extant primates had higher
 speciation rates, lower extinction rates and thereby higher
 diversification rates than non-mutualistic ones. Similarly, mutualistic
 fossil primates had higher geological durations and smaller per capita
 rates of extinction than non-mutualistic ones. As a mechanism underlying
 this pattern, we found that mutualistic extinct and extant primates have
 significantly larger geographic ranges, which promotes diversification by
 hampering extinction and increasing geographic speciation. All these
 outcomes together strongly suggest that the establishment of a facultative
 mutualism with plants has greatly benefited primate evolution and fueled
 its taxonomic diversification.
description: Figure
 S1Saturared structural
 equation models for data using both extant (A) and extinct (B)
 primatesFigure
 S2Ecological role
 evolution along the Cenozoic. (A) Temporal change in the proportion of
 fossil primates being antagonistic or mutualistic. (B) Temporal change in
 the proportion of fossil primates with different diet during the Cenozoic
 period. The proportion of primates belonging to each ecological role or
 diet category is found at each time as the vertical width of the region
 covered by it. As observed, the proportion of mutualistic primates was
 gradullay increasing throughout Cenozoic period.Figure
 S3Ecological role and
 species duration (A) Temporal duration of mutualistic and antagonistic
 fossil primates, quantified as the stratigraphic range in Ma. (B) Temporal
 duration of extinct primate genera belonging to different diet. As
 observed in the figure, primates belonging to different diet categories
 had different temporal duration. However, this difference was exclusively
 due to a longer duration of frugivorous primates consuming fleshy fruits
 and putatively behaving as seed dispersers and to a shorter duration of
 frugivorous primates consuming mostly seeds and hard fruits and behaving
 as antagonistics. When comparing only within frugivores, the stratigraphic
 range of antagonistic primates was significantly smaller than that of
 mutualistic ones. In contrast, the temporal duration of faunivorous,
 nectarivorous/gumnivorous and folivorous primates was statistically
 identical. The SEs of the reported averages are shown as error
 bars.Figure
 S4Relationship between
 diet category and geographic range of extant primates.Figure
 S5Figure
 S6Relationship between
 body mass (in log kg) and geological age (in Ma) (N= 184 species) of
 fossil primate genera.Appendix S1_Living
 Primates DietLiving Primates
 DietAppendix S2_Fossil
 Primates DietFossil Primates
 DietPrimates
 Diversification_supporting information 2nd