DOI: 10.5061/dryad.r2280gb9w
title: Springs ecosystem classification supplementary information

description: Springs ecosystems are globally abundant, geomorphologically diverse, and
 bio-culturally productive, but are highly imperiled by anthropogenic
 activities. More than a century of scientific discussion about the wide
 array of ecohydrological factors influencing springs has been informative,
 but has yielded little agreement on their classification. This lack of
 agreement has contributed to the global neglect and degradation of springs
 ecosystems by the public, scientific, and management communities. Here we
 review the historical literature on springs classification variables,
 concluding that site-specific source geomorphology remains the most
 diagnostic approach. We present a conceptual springs ecosystem model that
 clarifies the central role of geomorphology in springs ecosystem
 development, function, and typology. We present an illustrated dichotomous
 key to terrestrial (non-marine) springs ecosystem types and subtypes, and
 describe those types. We identify representative reference sites, although
 data limitations presently preclude selection of continentally or globally
 representative reference springs of each type. We tested the
 classification key using data from 244 randomly selected springs of 13
 major types that were inventoried in North America. The dichotomous key
 correctly identified springs type in 87.5% of the cases, with
 discrepancies primarily due to differentiation of primary versus secondary
 typology, and insufficient inventory team training. Using that
 information, we identified sources of confusion and clarified the key.
 Among the types that required more detailed explanation were hypocrenes,
 springs, in which groundwater is expressed through phreatophytic
 vegetation. Overall, springs biodiversity and ecosystem complexity are
 due, in part, to the co-occurrence of multiple intra-springs
 microhabitats. We describe microhabitats that are commonly associated with
 different springs types, reporting at least 13 microhabitats, each which
 can support discrete biotic assemblages. Interdisciplinary agreement on
 basic classification is needed to enhance scientific understanding and
 stewardship of springs ecosystems, the loss and degradation of which
 constitute a global conservation crisis. We provide data on
 springs ecosystem classification using non-sensitive springs data selected
 in an unbiased fashion from Springs Online (springsdata.org) to test the
 springs classificaiton dichotomous key and description (attached as
 separate pages to this dataset).   
description: The data provided for analysis in Table 3 were selected in a
 stratified, quasi-random method from the information available in Springs
 Online to test the dichotomous classificaiton key. Non-sensitive [not
 specifically excluded from use by the springs steward(s)], were randomly
 selected in approximate proportion to springs type frequency within the
 Springs Online database. Springs data were used to test whether the
 springs classification key and description (also attached) correctly
 identified the field-determined springs type. Comparisons were performed
 by the authors and by Museum of Northern Arizona's Springs
 Stewardship Institute staff. The proportion of correct answers are
 presented in Table 3. Following this analysis, the dichotomous key was
 refined to improve its ability to identify springs geomorphic type.   
    
description: The site numbers listed refer to springs with substantial
 inventory data in Springs Online (springsdata.org). Access to the
 inventory data for each springs is unrestricted for many springs,but some
 require permission from the intellectual property owner (ususally the
 springs steward), which may be a governmental agency, a non-governmental
 agency, or a private individual. Please contact the Museum of Northern
 Arizona Springs Stewardship Institute (3101 N. Ft. Valley Rd., Flagstaff,
 AZ 86001 USA; (928) 774-5211 X 231; LStevens@musnaz.org or
 Larry@SpringStewardship.org) for questions about, or assistance with
 access to these data.