DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.12547684
title: Jacobaea vulgaris and meadow Augmented image classification dataset (binary)

description: General Information

Total instances: 117008Instances in the Jacobaea vulgaris class: 58504 Instances in the Meadow class: 58504Image sizes from 224x224 pixels on three color channels (RGB)

Performance increase training a ResNet50 on the base dataset versus the same architecture on the augmented data set shared here: +3,79 percent points in ROC AUC on an independent test set with 240 instances.

Data Generation and Source

The initial images in this dataset were taken as part of the project “UAV-basiertes Grünlandmonitoring auf Bestands- und Einzelpflanzenebene” (engl. “UAV-based Grassland Monitoring at Population and Individual Plant Level”), financed by the Authority for Economy, Transport, and Innovation of Hamburg. In September 2018, flights with an octocopter were conducted over two extensively used grassland areas in the urban area of Hamburg.

In my master's thesis at DAMS Lab at TU Berlin, I evaluated the effect of different augmentation strategies for Jacobaea vulgaris image classification on the several performance metrics (most importantly the ROC AUC score). The identified augmentation strategies are -besides to performance based selection- also selected based on domain knowledge, which I acquired during the research for my master thesis. 

Additional information about the initial image generation process is to be found here  [p. 45–53] and here. 

 

Augmentations applied



Gaussian Noise: For the Gaussian noise augmentation, the mean of the added noise is set to zero. The lower and upper bounds for the random variance of the noise are 20.4663 and 54.0395 respectively. The bounds were identified by hyperparameter tuning. The search space for the lower bound was set from 5 to 30 and for the upper bound from 31 to 100. Those two search spaces were defined by visual inspection of the effects of applying Gaussian noise with different variance values to images of both classes. The Gaussian noise is sampled for each color channel individually. 

Random Brightness and Contrast: The brightness will randomly be increased or decreased by a factor ranging from 0.7010 to 1.2990. The The contrast will also be randomly increased by a factor ranging from 0.5775 to 1.4225. Those two ranges were identified using hyperparameter tuning. The search space for the maximal percentual increase or decrease of brightness and contrast was individually set from 1% to maximally 50% increase or decrease.

Cutout Dropout: In this augmentation method a certain percentage of the input image is getting covered by black patches. The patches have a certain size in pixels,  the implementation of this technique in this thesis uses square patches. The black patches are then randomly introduced into the image, by randomly alloacting thepatches across the image and then setting the corresponding pixel values to zero. The iamge is getting covered with patches until the cover percentage is reached. Weset percentage of the image to be randomly covered by black patches to 56.76%. The size of the patches, which randomly cover the image, is set to 4 pixels. Agood illustration of this is found in figure 4.2. The augmentation technique is inspired by the research proposed by Devries et al.[8]. Both values were identified by hyperparameter tuning. The search space for the patch size in pixels is categorical and includes the values [1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 14, 16, 28]. Those values all are multiples of 224, which is the image width and height in pixels. The patch size needs to be a multiple of the width and height in order to be suitable for the algorithm implementation. The search space for the cover percentage of the image had been set from 1% to 60%. This search space limits narrows the search down to a space where still a big part of the image is uncovered. The algorithm rearranges the image into a two dimensional grid and randomly masks rows of this grid by setting the pixel values in this row to zero. Then, the image gets rearranged, now with the randomly generated patches included.

Random Saturation: The saturation of each pixel is randomly getting shifted. The upper bound for randomly shifting the saturation value of each pixel is set to 231.689%. This value was identified using hyperparameter tuning. An upper limit of the maximal saturation shift had been set to 40% shift in either direction for hyperparameter tuning.

Horizontal Flip: The image gets flipped along the horizontal axis. 

Vertical Flip: The image gets flipped along the vertical axis.

Random Rotation 90 degrees: Randomly rotates the image by a k-fold of 90 degrees, whereby k = {0, 1, 2, 3}.


 

All augmentation methods and with their tuned augmentation hyperparameters (if existent) are applied to an image from the test set in figure 4.2. With the seven identifiedaugmentation techniques a dataset of 800% the size of the original dataset is created. The Augment model is trained on exactly this dataset. Of course next to the augmented images, the dataset still includes the original, unaugmented images. TensorFlow, along with additional libraries including Optuna for hyperparameter optimization and Albumentations for image augmentation, were used in for the implementation of this project.

 

Rational behind the augmentations applied



Random Rotation, Vertical and Horizontal Flip: These three augmentation strategies were chosen to make the classifier less sensitive to the orientation of the plant. The goal is to train a model that can classify plants regardless of their orientation. In order to achieve this effectively across different orientations, vertical flips, horizontal flips, and random 90-degree rotations are chosen for evaluation.

Random Saturation: The varying saturation of the images simulates different levels of chlorophyll in the leaves, which is responsible for the green color of theleaves and the intensity of this color. The color of the plant parts (leaves, stems, and flowers) is also influenced by factors such as soil, sun, weed density and pressure, location, and water availability. Varying the saturation of the images simulates changes in these factors.

Gaussian Noise: By adding noise, in this case Gaussian noise, different lighting conditions are simulated when capturing the images. We specifically chose Gaussiannoise because it is common in many real-world scenarios and is based on the Central Limit Theorem, which states that the sum of many independent random variables.tends to be normally distributed. This makes Gaussian noise a logical choice for simulating real-world random noise.

Random Brightness Contrast: The Random Brightness and Random Contrast Augmentation uses brightness to mimic varying lighting conditions and contrast to highlight differences between plants by contrasting them more strongly, thereby highlighting their edges. This approach for highlighting edges is of course much more subtle than the canny edge detection augmentation. This augmentation method combines a weak focus on edges with variations in lighting conditions in one approach. The random contrast is a much softer approach for highlighting edges of plants, compared to the Canny edge detection augmentation. The other features in the images do not get changed that much, compared to the changes from edge detection augmentation.

Cutout Dropout: The cutout augmentation simulates random occlusion by other plants. These occlusions are common and expected. Jacobaea vulgaris plants may be partially or completely obscured by other plants during image capturing. This augmentation technique makes the models more robust to random occlusion.


 

Data License

The dataset is licensed under the license CC BY 4.0. The attributor of the data is the Chair of Geodesy and Geoinformatics at the University of Rostock. The data was created within the scope of the project 'UAV-based Grassland Monitoring at Population and Individual Plant Level', financed by the Authority for Economy, Transport, and Innovation of Hamburg.