DOI: 10.5061/dryad.905qfttxx
title: Data from: Larger frogs are better mimics but are more risk-averse in a non-toxic poison frog

description: Aposematic species signal to potential predators with salient and
 recognisable colouration. Predators learn to associate these warning
 signals with secondary defences (e.g., toxins) and will subsequently avoid
 attacking aposematic prey. Warning signals can therefore reduce the need
 to hide and/or flee and alleviate some of the energetic/opportunity costs
 of predator avoidance. Consequently, aposematic species are frequently
 active and bold in behaviour. Batesian mimics replicate the colours, and
 often the behaviour, of aposematic species and may benefit from a similar
 reduction in predation risk and energetic/opportunity costs. Allobates
 zaparo (Aromobatidae) is a non-toxic Batesian mimic of the chemically
 defended poison frog *Ameerega bilinguis *(Dendrobatidae). However, the
 efficacy of mimicry appears to change throughout ontogeny as Al. zaparo
 develops from a seemingly cryptic juvenile to the mimetic adult. We
 examined how morphological mimicry (i.e., colour) and the propensity to
 explore a novel environment (i.e., boldness) changed throughout ontogeny.
 We predicted that mimicry would improve with increasing size and that
 better mimics would engage in more exploratory behaviour. We found that
 larger mimics more closely matched their model however they were less
 likely to be active than were smaller frogs. These data suggest that
 larger size, and more accurate mimicry, do not necessarily correspond to
 increases in behavioural boldness. This result may arise from limitations
 in Batesian mimicry but factors including foraging requirements or
 social/reproductive behaviour cannot be discounted. More research is
 needed to understand the relationship between behaviour, colour, body
 size, and maturity in these frogs and across Batesian mimics more widely.
description: # Data from: Larger frogs are better mimics but are more risk-averse in a
 non-toxic poison frog Dataset DOI:
 [10.5061/dryad.905qfttxx](10.5061/dryad.905qfttxx) ## Description of the
 data and file structure Here we include all the RAW behaviour data, the
 original RAW image and video files used in McEwen et al. *Larger frogs are
 better mimics but are more risk-averse in a non-toxic poison frog*.
 Published in *Behavioral Ecology*. The video files
 (McEwen-etal-2025_BehaviourVideos.zip) include all experimental
 behavioural trials. The images files (McEwen-etal-2025_FrogPhotos.zip)
 include all images used to quantify frog colouration and mimicry. The
 behavioural data (McEwen-etal-2025_BehaviourData.csv) includes frog
 behavioural responses from each experimental trial and the processed
 visual modelling data. Data extracted from the video files
 (McEwen-etal-2025_BehaviourVideos.zip) and RAW image files
 (McEwen-etal-2025_FrogPhotos.zip). Light environment data
 (McEwen-etal-2025_LightEnvironment.csv) includes field and laboratory
 measurements of light intensity.  **Contact:** Brendan L. McEwen (McMaster
 University), email: mceweb1@mcmaster.ca James B. Barnett (Trinity College
 Dublin), email: jbarnett@tcd.ie **Location:** Iyarina Andes & Amazon
 Field School, Provincia de Napo, Ecuador. ### Files and variables ####
 File: McEwen-etal-2025_BehaviourVideos.zip **Description:** Original
 videos (.mp4) of frog behaviour in from the Novel Environment Test
 experiment (n = 351). See McEwen-etal-2025_BehaviourData.csv to link video
 filenames to experimental trial. #### File:
 McEwen-etal-2025_FrogPhotos.zip **Description:** Original RAW images
 (.NEF) of frogs used in the visual modelling (BIL = *Ameerega bilinguis*
 (n = 5); ZAP = *Allobates zaparo* (n=90)). See
 McEwen-etal-2025_BehaviourData.csv to link photograph filenames to frog
 data. #### File: McEwen-etal-2025_BehaviourData.csv **Description:** 
 ##### Variables * FocalFrog: Unique numeric code for each individual frog.
 * vids: The video file from which data were extracted. * Batch: Frogs
 within a* Batch* were collected and tested on the same days (n = 14). *
 Day: Day number within the experimental sequence (1 = first day; 2 =
 second day). * Round: Number of the experimental session nested within
 *Day* (1 = first session; 2 = second session). * TimeOfDay: Time period
 when experimental session was conducted (Morning = 09:00 - 12:00;
 Afternoon = 14:00 - 17:00). Local time in Tena, Ecuador (ECT = UTC
 -05:00). * LightTmnt: Lighting treatment during experimental session
 (Light = high light; Dark = low light). * SVL: Frog body length
 (snout-vent length) in mm. * Behavior: Description of whether frogs
 entered the arena within 15 minutes (entry = entered the arena; NA = did
 not enter the arena). * entry: Binary data of whether frogs entered the
 arena within 15 minutes (1 = entered the arena; 0 = did not enter the
 arena). * EntryLatency: Time in seconds before the frog entered the
 experimental arena. Frogs which did not enter the arena within 15 minutes
 are scored as 'NA'. * cross_square: The number of squares
 crossed on the arena floor during the experimental session. Frogs which
 did not enter the arena within 15 minutes are scored as 'NA'. *
 jump: The number of jumps performed on the arena floor during the
 experimental session. Frogs which did not enter the arena within 15
 minutes are scored as 'NA'. * climb: The number of wall climbing
 attempts performed during the experimental session. Frogs which did not
 enter the arena within 15 minutes are scored as 'NA'. *
 TimeInArena: Total time in second the focal frog spent within the arena
 during the experimental session. Frogs which did not enter the arena
 within 15 minutes are scored as 'NA'. * TimeClimbing: Time in
 seconds the focal frog spent on the arena wall during the experimental
 session. Frogs which did not enter the arena within 15 minutes are scored
 as 'NA'. * TimeTerrestrial: Time in seconds the focal frog spent
 on the arena floor during the experimental session. Frogs which did not
 enter the arena within 15 minutes are scored as 'NA'. *
 MinsTerrestrial: Time in minutes the focal frog spent on the arena floor
 during the experimental session. Frogs which did not enter the arena
 within 15 minutes are scored as 'NA'. * SPMT: Squares crossed
 per minute of terrestrial activity within the arena. Frogs which did not
 enter the arena within 15 minutes are scored as 'NA'. *
 JPMT: Jumps performed per minute of terrestrial activity within the
 arena. Frogs which did not enter the arena within 15 minutes are scored as
 'NA'. * DorsalColJND: mean chromatic contrast (dS) between focal
 *Al. zaparo* & the five *Am. bilinguis*. * DorsalLumJND: mean
 chromatic contrast (dL) between focal *Al. zaparo* & the five *Am.
 bilinguis*. #### File: McEwen-etal-2025_LightEnvironment.csv
 **Description:**  ##### Variables * Habitat: Location of light
 measurements (BehaviourArena = the experimental arena where behavioural
 trails were conducted; Iyarina = the research station; Forest = the closed
 canopy forest; Trail = the broken canopy disturbed trail). * Code: Unique
 code for each sampling location (EXP = the experimental arena; I = the
 research station; F1-F3 = three sites within the closed canopy forest; D =
 the broken canopy disturbed trail). * Sub_Site: Location within*
 Code* where measurements were taken. For the Experimental arena,
 categories refer to lighting treatments (High Treatment = high light
 treatment; Low Treatment = low light treatment). For the research station,
 categories refer to location relative to first/last calling male (ZAP
 Calling Spot = broken canopy site; Adjacent Forest = closed canopy site.
 For forest locations categories refer to cardinal points around site
 (Center = site where frog encountered; 10m North / 10m South / 10m West /
 10m East = 10 m to the north, south, west, & east of central point
 respectively). For the trail site, categories refer to distance from
 access road (Trail Head = on access road; 10m IntoTrail / 20m IntoTrail /
 30m IntoTrail / 40m IntoTrail / 50m IntoTrail = 10, 20, 30, 40, & 50 m
 along the trail towards the forest; Just Inside Forest = entrance to the
 closed canopy forest). * Date: Date of data collection (day / month /
 year). * TimeBlock: Time period when the experimental session was
 conducted (Morning = 09:00 - 12:30; Afternoon = 14:00 - 16:30). Local time
 in Tena, Ecuador (ECT = UTC -05:00). * TimeOfDay: Time of data collection
 (Hour : Minute : Second). Recorded to 1 minute intervals. Local time in
 Tena, Ecuador (ECT = UTC -05:00). * CanopyStructure: Canopy structure at
 the measurement location (Closed = close canopy with no view of the sky;
 Broken = broken canopy with gaps in the vegetation). The experimental
 arena is scored as NA. * Weather: Description of weather conditions during
 data collection. The experimental arena is scored as NA. * Lux:
 Illuminance in lux. #### File: McEwen-etal-2025_Rmarkdown.zip
 **Description:** Rmarkdown scripts for analysing frog colour, frog
 behaviour, and light environment data. All data were analysed using R
 v.4.3.2.