DOI: 10.5061/dryad.h18931zvf
title: Mapping the diversity of cetacean and primate cultural heritage

description: There is burgeoning evidence for animal culture across a range of
 vertebrate taxa. Social learning, the process that results in non-human
 culture, can have population-level effects and thus can inform
 conservation science and policy. It has been argued that non-human culture
 can provide insights into both how conservation is conducted and what
 managers should be aiming to conserve (the ‘unit to conserve’). Here we
 conducted a literature review for studies about culture in cetaceans and
 primates, and we provide three datasets that underpin an interactive
 cartographic representation of the diversity of cultural behaviours and
 ecological contexts in which they arise, including in co-operation or
 mutualism with human local populations. Our work is intended as a pilot
 project for a central repository for scientific evidence of the vast
 diversity of living cultural heritage of non-human societies. Loosely
 based on the impressive UNESCO resource on human cultures: Dive into
 Cultural Heritage, this work is intended for a broad audience, from
 scientists and policymakers to local non-governmental organisations and
 Indigenous communities.  In the first instance, a pilot project
 is proposed to map the vibrant diversity of cetacean and primate cultures
 across the globe. We provide three datasets: primates, cetaceans, and
 cetacean migration.
description: We collected papers primarily through non-exhaustive literature
 searches on Scopus and Google Scholar. We searched for keywords “culture,
 social learning, tradition” alongside common names for the following
 species; Humpback Whales, Killer Whales, Sperm Whales, Chimpanzees,
 Orangutans, Gorillas, Capuchins, Japanese Macaques - and the following
 groups: Dolphins, Great Apes, Monkeys, Whales. Further papers were found
 in the reference lists for books and reviews, most notably: Whitehead
 & Rendell (2015), Brakes <em>et al.</em> (2021), and
 Whiten (2021). Finally, a number of papers were found through connections
 with colleagues of co-authors. Papers were added to the
 dataset if they represented animal culture, here defined as “Information
 or behaviour – shared within a community – which is acquired from
 conspecifics through some form of social learning” (after Whitehead
 & Rendell 2015). A notable exception to this rule is the
 literature on migratory (Baker <em>et al.</em>, 2013;
 O’Corry-Crowe <em>et al.,</em> 2018; Valenzuela <em>et
 al.,</em> 2009), and dietary (Foote <em>et al.,</em>
 2016), culture in cetaceans, where genetic variation is used as a proxy
 for cultural drift. During the literature search, emphasis was placed on
 studies that together showed a range of the following parameters; a)
 species, b) geographic location, and c) cultural diversity. Other papers
 were also added to the study showing the emergence of cooperation with
 humans (Cantor <em>et al.</em>, 2023; D’Lima <em>et
 al.,</em> 2014; Niel, 2002). This further highlights the cultural
 capacity of cetaceans and the interplay of various cultural systems, with
 implications for coexistence and conservation.
description: # Mapping the diversity of cetacean and primate cultural heritage
 [https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.h18931zvf](https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.h18931zvf) ## Description of the data and file structure Each record within each dataset represents a population showing a particular culture, either observed directly in the study or referenced in the study. The datasets are unrelated to each other (primates, cetaceans, and cetacean migrations), and are shown on the same interactive map. The interactive map ([https://arcg.is/fCDrC](https://arcg.is/fCDrC)[) ](https://arcg.is/18mfrK2)contains three different datasets as a pilot study to begin quantifying animal culture: primates, cetaceans, and then specifically information about migrations of cetaceans. Here are tables describing the metadata within each of the datasets that are visualized in the maps. ### Data definitions for the primate dataset (published as a Storymap here: [https://arcg.is/18mfrK2](https://arcg.is/18mfrK2)) * **Paper ID**: Unique identifier for the study being referenced as having evidence of animal culture. * **Ref**: The peer-reviewed study presenting or referencing evidence of animal culture. * **DOI**: Digital object identifier where the study can be found. * **SubOrder**: The taxonomic sub-Order of the species in the focal population. * **Species**: Latin binomial nomenclature of the species in the focal population. * **CommonName**: The common English name of the species in the focal population. * **Population**: The population descriptor assigned to the focal group by the authors of the study. In situations where no descriptor was given, we designated the population as ([STUDY LOCATION] group). * **Latitude**: The approximate latitude of the study, reported in degrees, to generalize the area of study (to protect the animals). In studies where coordinates were not provided, we provided an approximate latitude based on the name of the study site given in the literature. In studies where coordinates were given for the edges of an area, the center of these points was used. * **Longitude**: The approximate longitude of the study, reported in degrees, to generalize the area of study (to protect the animals). In studies where coordinates were not provided, we provided an approximate longitude based on the name of the study site given in the literature. In studies where coordinates were given for the edges of an area, the center of these points was used. * **GroupNum**: The number of discrete conspecific groups in a single study population. * **StudyLocation**: The common name of the study site is represented in the referenced paper. * **StudyScale**: The spatial reach of the study. * **CultReach**: Whether the culture is specific to an area or population, or has a greater distribution. Measured by 2 different discrete terms: 1. Localized - The culture captured in the study remains within the confines of a specific study site or focal population; or 2. Widespread - The culture captured in the study extends beyond the reach of specific study sites. * **BehDist**: Shows whether the studied behaviour is unique to a population * **MaterialCulture**: Whether the cultural behaviour shown involves the use of tools or structures acquired from the surrounding environment (y = yes; n = no). * **EvidenceType**: How the culture is reported in the literature, measured by 3 different discrete terms: 1. Anecdotal - The cultural behaviour is assumed through anecdotal evidence from researchers, or non-scientific literature; 2. Observed - Cultural transmission of the behaviour is reported in the study as a finding, or correlations between cultural spread and association rates are found; 3. Experimental - The experimental methods are designed to show cultural transmission between individuals. * **EvidencePath**: A brief summary of the pathway through which culture was identified in the paper. Common pathways include network-based-diffusion analyses, association networks, genetic differences, and method-of-exclusion. * **Domain**: Behavioural grouping * **Behaviour**: The specific focal behaviour observed or reported in the study. * **CultDiversity**: The cultural aspects of the focal behaviour specific to the group studied. * **CulturalSpread**: Reported evidence of whether the culture was transmitted across populations (either assumed or observed in the study). * **Transmission**: Mode of cultural transmission of the behavior (NA = not given; horizontal, vertical or both) * **Methods**: A brief description of the mechanism for data collection in the study. ### Data definitions for the Cetaceans dataset (published as a Storymap here: [https://arcg.is/18mfrK2](https://arcg.is/18mfrK2)) * **Ref**: The peer-reviewed study presenting or referencing evidence of animal culture. * **DOI**: Digital object identifier where the study can be found. * **SubOrder**: The taxonomic sub-Order of the species in the focal population. * **Species**: Latin binomial nomenclature of the species in the focal population. * **CommonName**: The common English name of the species in the focal population. * **Population**: The population descriptor assigned to the focal group by the authors of the study. In situations where no descriptor was given, we designated the population as ([STUDY LOCATION] group). * **Latitude**: The approximate latitude of the study, reported in degrees, to generalize the area of study (to protect the animals). In studies where coordinates were not provided, we provided an approximate latitude based on the name of the study site given in the literature. In studies where coordinates were given for the edges of an area, the center of these points was used. * **Longitude**: The approximate longitude of the study, reported in degrees, to generalize the area of study (to protect the animals). In studies where coordinates were not provided, we provided an approximate longitude based on the name of the study site given in the literature. In studies where coordinates were given for the edges of an area, the center of these points was used. * **GroupNum**: The number of discrete conspecific groups in a single study population. * **CulturalDif**: The number of discrete cultural differences observed in the same behavior in a single study population. E.g. Despite there being 20 pods studied in the Avacha Gulf, there were only 6 distinct vocal cultures identified, so CulturalDist would be 6 (Filatova et al., 2017). * **StudyLocation**: The common name of the study site is represented in the referenced paper. * **CultReach**: Whether the culture is specific to an area or population, or has a greater distribution. Measured by 2 different discrete terms: Localized - The culture captured in the study remains within the confines of a specific study site or focal population. Widespread - The culture captured in the study extends beyond the reach of specific study sites. * **MaterialCult**: Whether the cultural behaviour shown involves the use of tools or structures acquired from the surrounding environment * **EvidenceType**: How the culture is reported in the literature, measured by 3 different discrete terms: 1. Anecdotal - The cultural behaviour is assumed through anecdotal evidence from researchers, or non-scientific literature; 2. Observed - Cultural transmission of the behaviour is reported in the study as a finding, or correlations between cultural spread and association rates are found; 3. Experimental - The experimental methods are designed to show cultural transmission between individuals. * **EvidencePath**: A brief summary of the pathway through which culture was identified in the paper. Common pathways include network-based-diffusion analyses, association networks, genetic differences, and method-of-exclusion. * **Direction**: Vertically = From mother to offspring; Horizontally = From peer to peer; Both = Both; Not Given = No identified in the paper * **Domain**: Behavioural grouping * **Behaviour**: The specific focal behaviour observed or reported in the study. * **CultDiversity**: The cultural aspects of the focal behaviour specific to the group studied. * **CulturalSpread**: Reported evidence of whether the culture was transmitted across populations (either assumed or observed in the study). * **Methods**: A brief description of the mechanism for data collection in the study. * **InteractionIP**: Notes about the behavior observed or reported ### Data definitions for the Cetaceans migration dataset (published as a Storymap here: [https://arcg.is/18mfrK2](https://arcg.is/18mfrK2)) * **Paper ID**: Unique identifier for the study being referenced as having evidence of animal culture. * **Ref**: The peer-reviewed study presenting or referencing evidence of animal culture. * **DOI**: Digital object identifier where the study can be found. * **Sub-order**: The taxonomic sub-Order of the species in the focal population. * **Species**: Latin binomial nomenclature of the species in the focal population. * **Red List category**: The International Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species is the world's most comprehensive information source on the global conservation status * **Population**: The population descriptor assigned to the focal group by the authors of the study. In situations where no descriptor was given, we designated the population as ([STUDY LOCATION] group). * **Latitude (summer)**: The Latitude in degrees of the Summer aggregation point at which the focal population was studied, derived from the original study. In studies where coordinates were not provided, we provided an approximate latitude based on the name of the study site given in the literature. In studies where coordinates were given for the edges of an area, the center of these points was used. * **Longitude (summer)**: The Longitude in degrees of the Summer aggregation point at which the focal population was studied, derived from the original study. In studies where coordinates were not provided, we provided an approximate latitude based on the name of the study site given in the literature. In studies where coordinates were given for the edges of an area, the center of these points was used. * **Latitude (winter)**: The Latitude in degrees of the Winter aggregation point at which the focal population was studied, derived from the original study. In studies where coordinates were not provided, we provided an approximate latitude based on the name of the study site given in the literature. In studies where coordinates were given for the edges of an area, the center of these points was used. * **Longitude (winter)**: The Longitude in degrees of the Winter aggregation point at which the focal population was studied, derived from the original study. In studies where coordinates were not provided, we provided an approximate latitude based on the name of the study site given in the literature. In studies where coordinates were given for the edges of an area, the center of these points was used. * **Location of Study**: The common name of the study site as represented in the referenced paper. * **Cultural scale**: The scale of the culture being studied * **Behavioural distribution**: Distribution of the general behaviour reported in the study * **Migratory Routes**: Beginning and end locations of migratory route * **Evidence & pathway**: Evidence and pathway for the culture described * **GroupDiv**: Cultural diversity is shown by the group * **Cultural Spread**: Note whether the spread of the culture has been observed or assumed * **Transmission**: Note whether the transmission of the culture is vertical (e.g., mother-offspring) or horizontal (e.g., across a cohort) * **Conservation interface**: Noted warning about conservation issues that may emerge due to culture ## Sharing/Access information Data was derived from the following sources: * All references are provided in the Excel files under "DOI". ## Code/Software All data were collected and stored in Microsoft Excel files and then imported to the web platform ([https://arcg.is/18mfrK2)](https://arcg.is/18mfrK2) where all data can be visualized.