DOI: 10.5061/dryad.kkwh70s8v
title: Non-exploitative human disturbance provides shelter for prey from predator

description: Human activities can influence behaviors of predators and prey, as well as
 predator-prey interactions. Using camera trap data, we investigated
 whether or to what extent human activities influenced behaviors of
 predators (tigers and leopards) and prey (sambar deer, spotted deer, wild
 boar, barking deer), and predator-prey interactions in the Barandabhar
 Corridor Forest (BCF), Chitwan District, Nepal. A multispecies occupancy
 model revealed that the presence of humans altered the conditional
 occupancy of both prey and predator species. Specifically, the conditional
 occupancy probability of prey was substantially higher (ψ = 0.91, CI =
 0.89–0.92) when humans were present than when humans were absent (ψ =
 0.68, CI = 0.54–0.79). The diel activity pattern of most prey species
 overlapped strongly with humans, whereas predators were generally more
 active when humans were absent. Finally, the spatio-temporal overlap
 analysis revealed that human-prey interactions (i.e., the probability that
 both humans and prey species being present on the same grid at the same
 hourly period) was ~3 times higher (10.5%, CI = 10.4%–10.6%) compared to
 spatio-temporal overlap between humans-predators (3.1%, CI = 3.0%–3.2%).
 Our findings are consistent with the human-shield hypothesis and suggest
 that ungulate prey species may reduce predation risk by using areas with
 high human activities.
description: Camera trap surveys were conducted between December 2015 and
 January 2016. The study area (Barandabhar Corridor Forest, BCF, area ~88
 sq km) was divided into 88 grids measuring 1 X 1 km each. Unbaited camera
 traps were strategically placed at each grid, along forest roads and
 trails, based on signs of prey and predator presence. Multiple camera trap
 models were used. The traps were set up 0.5 m above ground, 4–5 m apart on
 both sides of the trails, and remained active for a minimum of 20 days,
 totaling 1,760 trap nights. The dataset includes four
 prey species (sambar deer, spotted deer, wild boar, and barking deer), two
 predator species (tigers and leopards), and humans. Multispecies occupancy
 models were used to analyze the detection history matrix, considering prey
 and predator guilds. The model compared the probability of occurrence for
 different species combinations, both in the presence and absence of
 humans. Temporal overlap analysis examined diel
 activity patterns between humans and prey, as well as humans and
 predators. Coefficient of overlap (Δ) was calculated to determine the
 degree of overlap between two species' activity patterns. The overlap
 was categorized as low, moderate, or high based on the Δ value. Bootstrap
 resampling was used to obtain confidence intervals for each overlap
 index. Spatio-temporal overlap analysis was performed
 to assess the overlap in space and time between species. A matrix of
 species detection per hour was created for each grid, indicating the
 presence of predators or prey during specific hourly intervals.
 Proportions of grids were calculated where species were detected alone,
 where two species overlapped, and where all three species were active.
 Bootstrap resampling was used to estimate standard errors and confidence
 intervals for the spatio-temporal overlap.
description: Microsoft Excel, and RStudio to run the R-code given in the
 '.txt' format.