DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.10018938
title: xAI Ship Wakes in Sentinel-2 L2A images

description: xS2Wakes: A dataset for xAI of Wakes in S-2 (L2A).
Summary
The dataset is derived from Sentinel-2 Level-2A (L2A) satellite images and focuses on the marine domain over Danish fjords. It provides a comprehensive collection of ship wakes and background clutter (referred to as "no_wake_crop") for remote sensing applications. The dataset has undergone post-processing through the Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization (CLAHE) algorithm with a clip limit value of 0.12 and a tile size of 16x16. The dataset comprises four spectral bands: B2, B3, B4, and B8.
Importance and Relevance to Remote Sensing Community
Multifaceted Applications of Wake Detection
Ship wake detection serves as a cornerstone in a multitude of domains that are critical to both human and environmental well-being:
Navigational Safety: Understanding ship wakes can provide insights into water currents and traffic patterns. This is vital for ensuring the safe passage of marine vessels, particularly in narrow straits and busy ports.
Environmental Monitoring: The study of ship wakes can reveal the influence of vessels on aquatic ecosystems. For instance, excessive wake turbulence can lead to coastal erosion and can disrupt marine habitats.
Maritime Surveillance: Wake detection plays a crucial role in maintaining maritime security. Tracking the wakes of vessels can help in identifying illegal activities such as smuggling or unauthorized fishing.
Specifications

Data Source: Sentinel-2 L2A
Region of Interest: Danish fjords
Classes: Wake, No-Wake
Number of Samples:

Wake: 123
No-Wake: 150
Spectral Bands: B2 (Blue), B3 (Green), B4 (Red), B8 (NIR)
Post-Processing: CLAHE (Clip Limit = 0.12, Tile Size = 16x16)
Average Wake Chip Size: 390x351 pixels
Average No-Wake Chip Size: 380x390 pixels
Wake Detection and Analysis
Traditional Methods and Their Limitations
Traditionally, the process of ship wake detection has largely been a manual endeavor or employed simplistic statistical algorithms. Analysts would sift through satellite or aerial images to identify ship wakes, a process that is both time-consuming and prone to human error. Even automated statistical methods often lack the robustness needed to differentiate between true wakes and false positives, such as aquatic plants or natural water disturbances.
Role of xAI (Explainable AI) in Wake Identification
The introduction of explainable AI (xAI) techniques brings another layer of sophistication to wake analysis. While traditional machine learning models may offer high performance, they often act as "black boxes," making it difficult to understand how they arrive at a certain conclusion. In a critical domain like navigational safety or maritime surveillance, the ability to interpret and understand model decisions is indispensable. xAI methods can make these machine learning models more transparent, providing insights into their decision-making processes, which in turn can aid in fine-tuning or fully trusting the models.
Spectral Bands Selected
The inclusion of four key spectral bands—B2, B3, B4, and B8—offers the scope for multi-spectral analysis. Different bands can capture varying features of water and wake textures, thereby offering a richer feature set for machine learning models. We use these spectral bands as referred to in [Liu, Yingfei, Jun Zhao, and Yan Qin. "A novel technique for ship wake detection from optical images." Remote Sensing of Environment 258 (2021): 112375.] 
Understanding Optical vs. SAR Imaging Modalities
It is important to note the fundamental differences between wakes captured in Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images and those in optical imagery. In SAR images, narrow-V wakes often arise due to Bragg scattering, a phenomenon that does not exist at optical wavelengths. In optical images, bright lines close to turbulent wakes are actually foams generated by the interaction between the surface horizontal flow of turbulent wakes and the surrounding background waves (Ermakov et al., 2014; Milgram et al., 1993; Peltzer et al., 1992). This can make the detection of wakes in optical images more challenging as there are usually no bright lines near turbulent wakes, and Kelvin arms may also show dark contrast. Methods that solely rely on searching for a trough and peak pair, taking the trough as the turbulent wake, would miss many actual wakes and could also result in the identification of false wakes.
Contrast Enhancement
The application of the CLAHE (Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization) algorithm to this dataset allows for enhanced local contrast, enabling subtle features to become more pronounced. This significantly aids machine learning algorithms in feature extraction, thereby improving their ability to distinguish between complex patterns.
Environment and Clutter Assessment
In addition to wakes, the dataset contains samples labeled as "No-Wake," which include environmental clutter and clouds. These samples are crucial for training robust models that can differentiate wakes from similar-looking natural phenomena.