DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5116420
title: 3-D synthetic near surface data set with frequency-domain electromagnetic induction data

description: Realistic three-dimensional exhaustive data set that mimics a near surface mining landfill deposit of waste fine-shaly sands. The data set is composed by petrophysical properties and frequency domain electromagnetic induction (FDEM) data and was created with the purpose of testing algorithms for near-surface modeling and characterization using electromagnetic data. The set of petrophysical properties include porosity, water saturation, particle density and density. Each property corresponds to a single geostatistical realization. The three-dimensional model has a dimension of 150 by 200 by 4 meters (i.e., length, width, depth) with a cell size of 0.5 m by 0.5 m by 0.1 m, respectively (grid size of 300 x 400 x 40). The model grid has 4.8 million cells.<br> Porosity and particle density were modelled based on samples of fine-shaly sands collected at a mine tailing in Portugal for which we investigated porosity, specific weight and particle density. The results of these investigations were used to generate three-dimensional models of subsurface rock properties with unconditional stochastic sequential simulation (Deutsch & Journel, 1998).<br> Porosity was modelled with an omnidirectional spherical variogram model in the horizontal direction. The variogram model has a horizontal range of 10 m, a vertical range of 1 m and a nugget effect of 0.2 % of the total variance of the data. This variogram model describes the expected spatial distribution of this property in the mine tailing. To ensure plausibility between rock properties, particle density and water saturation models were generated with stochastic sequential co-simulation (Deutsch & Journel, 1998) conditioned to the porosity model. For particle density we imposed an omnidirectional spherical variogram model in the horizontal direction with a range of 10 m, a vertical range of 1 m and a nugget effect of 0.2 % of the total variance of the data, and the correlation between porosity and particle density from the lab measurements. For water saturation we imposed an omnidirectional spherical variogram model in the horizontal direction with a range of 16 m, a vertical range of 2 m and a nugget effect of 0.1 (%). For the co-simulation we imposed a correlation between porosity and water content, borrowed from Bhanbhro et al. (2013) and Dumont et al. (2016). The pore fluid was defined as consisting in 80% of water and 20% of leachate, having a density of 0.99114 g/cm3 at a temperature of 30ºC (Souza et al., 2014). The density was mathematically calculated from porosity and particle density models and the density of the pore fluid by using a simple volumetric average of the geological material densities and its relationship to porosity (Mavko et al., 2009), <em>d</em><sub><em>b</em> </sub>= (1 - Ø) <em>d<sub>0</sub></em> Ø <em>d<sub>fl</sub></em> , where <em>d<sub>0</sub></em> is the density of the mineral grains, <em>d<sub>fl</sub></em> is the density of the pore fluids, and Ø is porosity. The electrical conductivity (EC) was created based on the well-known empirical relationship of Archie’s law (Archie, 1942). We first calculate electrical conductivity using the following equation, <em>R<sub>t</sub></em> = <em>a</em> <em>S<sub>w</sub><sup>-n</sup></em> Ø<sup><em>-m</em></sup> <em>R<sub>w</sub></em> , where <em>a</em> is the tortuosity constant, assumed as 0.88, <em>S<sub>w</sub></em> is the water saturation, <em>n</em> is the saturation exponent, assumed as 2, Ø is the porosity, <em>m</em> is the cementation exponent, assumed as 1.37, and <em>R<sub>w</sub></em> is the electrical resistivity of the pore fluid, assumed as 0.25. From the lithology and range of porosity values of the mining landfill model, the values of <em>a</em>, <em>n</em> and <em>m</em> were defined from Keller (1987). The electrical resistivity of the pore fluid was defined based on its composition and density (Keller, 1987). The EC was calculated based on Archie´s second law (Archie, 1942), where conductivity of the partially saturated rock (<em>c<sub>t</sub></em>) is the inverse of its resistivity (<em>R<sub>t</sub></em>), <em>c<sub>t</sub></em> = 1 / <em>R<sub>t </sub></em> (Mavko et al., 2009). Since the relationship between magnetic minerals and the magnetic properties of the rocks depends primarily of the composition and grain size of them (Butler, 2005), the magnetic susceptibility (MS) was modelled using the common range of magnetic susceptibility for unconsolidated sediments (Hudson et al., 1999) with unconditional stochastic sequential simulation (Deutsch & Journel, 1998), imposing an omnidirectional spherical variogram model in the horizontal direction with a range of 20 m, a vertical range of 4 m and a nugget effect of 0.1 % of the total variance. From the resulting three-dimensional models of EC and MS, we retrieved nine equally spaced boreholes along the same yz profile. These borehole data might be used as experimental data for modelling workflows, including geophysical inversion. FDEM data, both the in-phase (IP) and quadrature-phase (QP), were calculated using a 1-D forward model (Hanssens et al., 2019). The acquisition configuration replicates one of the most common sensors for FDEM near-surface surveys, namely the DUALEM-421S (DUALEM Inc., Milton, Canada). It considers two loop-loop coil orientations, a horizontal coplanar (HCP) and a perpendicular one (PRP), with the normal 3 offsets per coil orientation for this equipment, 1, 2 and 4 meters for HCP, and 1.1, 2.1 and 4.1 meters for PRP, plus an extra offset per coil orientation, 10 meters for HCP and 10.1 meters for PRP, ensuring a theoretical larger depth of investigation. The FDEM data were calculated defining the operating frequency of the sensor as 9000 Hz, with an elevation to the surface of 0.15 m.
description: João Narciso acknowledge the support from the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology) through the project SFRH/BD/139577/2018. The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the CERENA (strategic project FCT-UIDB/04028/2020).
description: {"references": ["Archie, G. E. (1942). \"The Electrical Resistivity Log as an Aid in Determining Some Reservoir Characteristics.\" Trans., 146, 54\u201362.", "Bhanbhro, R., Knutsson, R., Rodriguez, J., Edesk\u00e4r, T. and Knutsson, S. (2013). \"Basic description of tailings from Aitik focusing on mechanical behavior\", International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering , Vol. 3, Nr 12, s. 65-69", "Butler, D. K. (2005). Near-Surface Geophysics. Tulsa, Okla.: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.", "Deutsch, C. and Journel, A. G. (1998). GSLIB: Geostatistical software library and users' guide: Oxford University Press", "Dumont, G., Pilawski, T., Dzaomuho-Lenieregue, P., Hilligsmann, S., Delvigne, F., Thonart, P., Robert, T., Nguyen, F. and Hermans, T. (2016). \"Gravimetric water distribution assessment from geoelectrical methods (ERT and EMI) in municipal solid waste landfill\", Waste Management, 55, 129-140,", "Hanssens, D., Delefortrie, S., De Pue, J., Van Meirvenne, M., and De Smedt, P. (2019). \"Frequency- Domain Electromagnetic Forward and Sensitivity Modeling: Practical Aspects of modeling a Magnetic Dipole in a Multilayered Half-Space\", IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine, 7(1), 74-85", "Hudson, M., Mikolas, M., Geissman, J. and Allen, B. (1999). \"Paleomagnetic and rock magnetic properties of Santa Fe Group sediments in the 98th Street core hole and correlative surface exposures, Albuquerque basin, New Mexico\", New Mexico Geology Society Guidebook, 50, 355\u2013361", "Keller, G. V. (1987). \"Rock and mineral properties\": In Electomangnetic Methods in Applied Geophysics, Investigations in Geophysics Series 1, Society of Exploration Geophysics", "Mavko, G., Mukerji, T., and Dvorkin, J. (2009). The Rock Physics Handbook \u2013 Tools for Seismic Analysis of Porous Media, Cambridge University Press, 2nd Edition, UK.", "Souza, M., Oliveira, M., Ara\u00fajo, A. and Castro, J. (2014). \"Analyze of the density and viscosity of landfill leachate in different temperatures\", American Journal of Environmental Engineering, 4(4), 71-74."]}