DOI: 10.5061/dryad.jh9w0vtjf
title: Late Pleistocene cave bear from Niedźwiedzia Cave (Poland): its fate and preservation inferred from taphonomy, pathology, and geochemistry

description: This comprehensive study examines bone remains from Niedźwiedzia Cave in
 the Eastern Sudetes, offering detailed insights into the palaeobiology and
 adversities encountered by the Pleistocene cave bear Ursus spelaeus
 ingressus in the Śnieżnik Massif. Emphasising habitual cave use for
 hibernation and a primarily herbivorous diet, the findings attribute
 mortality to resource scarcity during hibernation and habitat
 fragmentation amid climate shifts. Taphonomic analysis identifies
 prolonged cave use by successive generations without predation impact yet
 underscores alkaline cave conditions influencing post-depositional
 processes. Mortality patterns, notably among juveniles, imply dwindling
 resources, indicative of environmental instability. Skeletal examination
 reveals a high incidence of forelimb fractures, indicating risks during
 activities like digging or confrontations. Palaeopathological evidence
 unveils vulnerabilities to tuberculosis, abscesses, rickets, and injuries,
 elucidating mobility challenges. The cave’s silts exhibit an unusual zinc
 concentration, potentially derived from successive bear generations
 consuming zinc-rich plants. This study illuminates the lives of late cave
 bears, elucidating unique environmental hurdles faced near their species’
 end.
description: (<em>a</em>) Palaeobiology and taphonomy
 The study analysed 2122 cave bear cheek teeth from Niedźwiedzia
 Cave across seven areas, merging data from three nearby excavation sites
 for statistical analysis. Six areas underwent detailed examination
 following a comprehensive protocol (figure 2; Palaeobiology and taphonomy
 in electronic supplementary material, table
 S<strong>1</strong>). The analysis involved:
 Anatomical and taxonomic identification, using
 statistical tests to detect biases and categorise teeth by developmental
 stages and distribution patterns. Employing the
 minimum number of individuals (MNI) for individual
 categorisation. Identifying bone damage caused by
 different factors, distinguishing between carnivore and human-induced
 alterations . Utilising Stiner’s [36] age-scoring
 technique to determine the demographic structure of the bear assemblage.
 Using tooth eruption and wear, this technique identifies nine
 developmental stages that approximate true ages, resistant to damage and
 forming crucial foundational data for analysis.
 Analysing mortality patterns through wear stages, survivor
 counts, age-specific mortality rates, and survival time curves across cave
 levels and areas. The study combined
 tooth-based ontogenetic ages with postcranial estimates and employed
 various statistical analyses and software packages while controlling false
 discovery rates to ensure reliable results with a significance level below
 p &lt; 0.05. (<em>b</em>)
 Palaeopathology The detailed analysis of approximately
 2000 <em>U. s. ingressus</em> bones from Niedźwiedzia Cave,
 housed at the University of Wrocław (Poland), employed diverse methods
 (Palaeopathology in electronic supplementary material). This extensive
 study aimed to uncover an array of pathological changes shedding light on
 the bears’ adaptations to harsh environmental conditions. Additionally, it
 aids in comprehending the potential factors contributing to the eventual
 extinction of these bears in the Late Pleistocene.
 (<em>c</em>) Geochemical analysis
 Samples from different silt profiles in Marten’s and Primitive
 Man’s Corridors underwent thorough geochemical analysis, revealing
 specific sediment characteristics and elements present (figures 2, 3;
 Geochemical analysis in electronic supplementary material). These analyses
 involved assessing organic matter, carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, and
 phosphate content, as well as concentrations of various elements through
 specialised laboratory techniques.
 (<em>d</em>) Bone material and collagen
 extraction New isotopic analysis of cave bears from
 Niedźwiedzia Cave was compared with existing Central European data (Bone
 material and collagen extraction in electronic supplementary material,
 tables S2, S3). The study examined 39 adult remains—31 bones and 8
 teeth—using collagen to understand their diet and tooth development, e.g.
 . Altitude-adjusted isotopic data from other caves were considered for
 comparison. Isotopic data underwent comparison using isotopic niche space
 analysis and the Kernel Utilisation Density (KUD) model, calculated at a
 95% contour level with the rKIN package in R software. Collagen extraction
 involved a modified Longin method with NaOH treatment, followed by carbon
 and nitrogen measurements. Analysis at the University of Warsaw ensured
 precision below 0.1‰ for δ<sup>15</sup>N and below 0.2‰ for
 δ<sup>13</sup>C. (<em>e</em>)
 Chronology Chronological analysis of <em>U. s.
 ingressus</em> bones from Niedźwiedzia Cave involved radiocarbon and
 U–Th dating (Chronology in electronic supplementary material). Radiocarbon
 dating used collagen extracted from bones. U–Th dating at the U–series
 Laboratory in Warsaw included cleaning, collagen assessment, and
 alpha-spectrometric measurements to compute ages based on activity ratios,
 adjusting for initial thorium contamination.
description: # Late Pleistocene cave bear from Niedźwiedzia Cave (Poland): its fate and
 preservation inferred from taphonomy, pathology, and geochemistry
 [https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.jh9w0vtjf](https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.jh9w0vtjf) ## Description of the data and file structure On Dryad, the file 'tables.xlsx' contains the underlying data for Tables 1-2 and Supplemental Tables S1-S3. Captions, units, and column headings are specified on each tab. In the Supplementary information on the related Zenodo deposit (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10397280) are the images for the figures in the manuscript, PDF versions of the supplemental tables, and the Supplementary information provided in docx format.  ## Sharing/Access information n/a ## Code/Software n/a