DOI: 10.5061/dryad.k98sf7mfp
title: Assessing the sociodemographic factors associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex infection among free-ranging long-tailed Macaques in Thailand

description: The threat of disease transmission at the intersection of human-wildlife
 interfaces underscores the urgent need for detailed studies on the
 transmission of human-borne pathogens across species, especially among
 nonhuman primates in urban areas. This research focuses on the social and
 demographic determinants of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC)
 infection in free-ranging long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in
 Thailand. Behavioral observations and non-invasive biological specimens
 (freshly defecated feces and rope-baited oral samples) were collected from
 98 long-tailed macaques living in Wat Khao Thamon, southern Thailand,
 between August 2021 and February 2022. We detected the MTBC antigen using
 IS6110 nested-PCR method in 11 out of 98 monkeys (11.22%). Logistic GLMs
 revealed that the risk of MTBC acquisition was higher among macaques with
 frequent human-macaque interactions, whereas increased social grooming of
 conspecifics showed a trend toward reducing the risk. Our findings suggest
 that anthropogenic exposure increases the risk of MTBC infection among
 macaques, but this risk may be mitigated (socially buffered) by increased
 within-group affiliative interactions. More generally, the potential for
 increased disease prevalence in wildlife with frequent human interactions
 or reduced social buffering highlights the need to consider animal
 socio-demography when developing strategies to understand and prevent the
 transmission of diseases between humans and wildlife.
description: Our study involved behavioral observations and non-invasive
 biological sample collection of 149 adult long-tailed macaques from
 September 2021 to February 2022. We collected data using Samsung Galaxy
 Tablets and the HanDBase application. Observations were conducted by four
 trained observers for 6.5 hours daily, from Monday to Friday, following
 inter-observer reliability tests (Cohen’s kappa ≥ 0.85). Behavioral data
 were gathered through focal animal sampling, behavioral event sampling,
 and point-time scans. <strong>Focal
 Sampling</strong>: We selected 101 animals based on their social
 interactions and followed them in 10-minute sessions using a randomized
 sequence. During each session, we recorded behaviors such as grooming,
 agonistic interactions, and self-scratching. After excluding three animals
 with insufficient data, we had 98 focal individuals (57 males, 41 females)
 with observation times ranging from 10.24 to 14.44 hours.
 <strong>Behavioral Event Sampling</strong>: This
 method was used to record all instances of human-macaque interactions,
 including food provision, physical contact, and aggression, as well as any
 signs of sickness (e.g., coughing, changes in body condition). Focal
 sampling primarily captured monkey-monkey interactions, while event
 sampling data were used for analyses involving human interactions and
 clinical signs. <strong>Non-Invasive Biological
 Sampling</strong>: Samples were collected using fecal swabs from
 freshly dropped feces and saliva samples from chewed, baited ropes. All
 samples were preserved in sterile lysis buffer and processed using a
 nested PCR method targeting the IS6110 sequence for detecting active MTBC
 infection. A total of 394 samples were analyzed from the 98 focal
 individuals. This approach allowed us to gather
 comprehensive behavioral and health data while minimizing the impact on
 the natural behaviors of the macaques.
description: # Assessing the sociodemographic factors associated with Mycobacterium
 tuberculosis complex infection among free-ranging long-tailed Macaques in
 Thailand
 [https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.k98sf7mfp\\](https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.k98sf7mfp\\) This study integrated behavioral observation and non-invasive biological sample collection to identify *Mycobacterium tuberculosis* complex (MTBC) infection in free-ranging macaques. From the data collection described above, we derived the following variables: ID: A two-digit unique identifier assigned to each monkey. Name: The designated name of each monkey. MTBC (N = negative, P = positive): An animal was classified as MTBC-detected if at least one collected sample tested positive. Sex (M = Male, F = Female): Determined based on external genitalia. Age class (young = young adult, adult, old = old adult): Categorized based on body characteristics and consensus among researchers. Rank*: Calculated using David's score with the Elorating package in R (unitless). Rank class (low, medium, high): Subjects were categorized into rank classes based on their David's score values, using the 25th and 75th percentiles as cutoffs. Duration of grooming*: Calculated as the proportion of time each macaque spent giving or receiving grooming, relative to their total observation time (unitless, originally calculated as a percentage). Agonistic interactions*: Frequency of submission or received aggression events, divided by the total observation time (in hour) for each individual (unitless, originally calculated as events per hour). Human interaction: Categorized based on the frequency of interactions recorded during behavioral event sampling into low (zero interactions), medium (1-2 interactions), or high (more than 2 interactions). Rank certainty* (0.5 = uncertain to 1 = certain): Calculated as the probability that an individual is certain of its dominance rank, using the Perc package in R (unitless). Self-scratching*: Frequency of self-scratching events, divided by the total observation time for each individual (unitless, originally calculated as events per hour). Coughing: Frequency of observed coughing events recorded during behavioral event sampling (unit: events). Variables marked with an asterisk (*) were Z-score transformed to avoid biases in assessing variable importance and interpreting effect sizes. We did not observe any changes in body condition or signs of lethargy during the study.