Odocoileus virginianus
Creators: name: Don E. Wilson
name: Russell A. Mittermeier
Publisher: name: Lynx Edicions
Year: 2011
Subjects: Biodiversity
Taxonomy
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Artiodactyla
Cervidae
Odocoileus
Odocoileus virginianus

description: 36.
White-tailed Deer
Odocoileus virginianus
French: Cerf de Virginie / German: WeilRwedelhirsch / Spanish: Ciervo de cola blanca
Other common names: Florida Key Deer (clavium)
Taxonomy. Dama virginiana Zimmermann, 1780,
Virginia (USA).
The first Odocoileus appeared about four million years ago. The current subspecies arrangement is completely unsatisfactory and needs revision. Thirty-eight subspecies are traditionally recognized.
Subspecies and Distribution.
O.v.virginianusZimmermann,1780—fromVirginiatoMississippiandGeorgia.
O.v.acapulcensisCaton,1877—coastalSCMexico.
O.v.borealisMiller,1900-SECanadaandNEUSA.
O.v.cariamuBoddaert.1784-FrenchGuianaandNEBrazil.
O.v.carrnimlsGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-NMexico(CarmenMts,Coahuila).
O.v.chiriquemisJ.A.Allen,1910-Panama.
O.v.clamumBarbour&G.M.Allen,1922-SEUSA(HeridaKeys).
O.v.couesiCoues8:Yarrow,1875fromNevada(SWUSA)toNWMexico.
O.v.cumxsawhuHummelinck,1940-LesserAntilles(Curaçao1).
O.v.dacolensısGoldman8:Kellogg,1940fromBritishColumbia8cAlberta(SWCanada)toColorado8cSDakota(NUSA).
O.v.gnudoliiGay8cGervais,1846-C8:EColombia,WVenezuela,ÊEcuador,andNPeru.
O.v.gymnotisWiegmann,1833fromEVenezuelatoSuriname.
O.v.hillonmsisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(HiltonHeadI,SouthCarolina).
O.v.IeucumsDouglas,1829-NWUSA(CoastalWashington8cOregon).
O.v.macmurusRaﬁnesque,1817fromSMinnesotatoCLouisiana(USA).
O.v.margarita:Osgood,1910-Venezuela(IslaMargarita).
O.v.mcilhennyiEW.Miller,1928-SUSA(coastalTexas8:Louisiana).
O.v.mexıcanusGmelin,1788-CMexico.
O.v.miquihuanensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-NCMexico.
O.v.nelsoniMerriam,1898-SMexico,Guatemala.
O.v.rugribarbisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Blackbeardl.Georgia).
O.v.oaxacensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-SMexico(Oaxaca).
O.v.ochrourusBailey,1932-SWCanadaandNWUSA(innerWashingtonandOregonioWyoming).
O.v.muelaBangs,1896-SEUSA(NWFlorida).
O.v.pmıvıanusGray,1874-PeruandNWBolivia.
O.v.rothschildiThomas,1902-Panama(Coibal).
O.v.semmalusGoldman&Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Florida).
O.v.smaloaeJ.AAllen,1903-CWMexico.
O.v.launnsulaeGoldman8cKellogg,1940-EUä(Bulls1,NonlrCarolina).
O.v.taranusMeams,1898-CUSA(fromNebraskatoNewMexicoandTexas).
O.v.thomasiMerriam,1898-SEMexicoandGuatemala.
O.v.loltecusSaussure,1860-SMexico.
O.v.lmpualzsCabrera,1918coastalColombiaandEcuador.
O.v.truerMerriam,1898fromBelizetoCostaRica.
O.v.ustusTrouessart,1910innerEcuador.
O.v.venalorıusGoldman8cKellogg,1940—EUSA(HuntingIs,SouthCarolina).
O.v.vememıasGoldman8:Kellogg,1940—NEMexico.
O. v. yuaıtanensıls Hays. 1872 -SE Mexico (Yucatan).
White-tailed Deer have been introduced into Czech Republic, Finland, Serbia, New Zealand, and Cuba.
Descriptive notes. Head—body 120-190 cm for males (adult bucks) and 115-150 cm for fenales (does), tail 14-37 cm, shoulder height 60-105 cm (bucks) and 55-95 cm (does); weight 30-130 kg (adult bucks) and 25-85 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in Canada and northern USA, with records of 180-230 kg weight for exceptional bucks and 115 kg for does. Sexual size dimorphism is very variable, with adult bucks on average 30-60% heavier than does. Generally a medium-sized deer, with a relatively long and broad tail, brown with a white fringe above, white below. The ears are large, around half the length of the face. The lacrimal fossa is shallow. The coat is mainly russet brown in summer, gray to grayish-brown in winter; the underparts and a throat patch are whitish. The rostrum is dark, with a white spot on the chin, a white band on the muzzle and a whitish eye ring. Molts in April-June and August-September. Newborn fawns flecked with around 300 white spots, which disappear after 3—4 months. Nasal, preorbital, forehead, metatarsal, tarsal, front and rear interdigital, and (in males) preputial glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is relatively small; deer in part of the South American range may lack it. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males have antlers. The main beam curves forward and slightly inward, and a few vertical tines arise directly from it; the subbasal snag is moderately long. Antlers of adults are on average 30-60 cm long, with two to four tines, but antler beams of 80 cm and antler pairs with 30-38 tines are known. The first antler set, small bony buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, which grows in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Maximum antler size is attained at 5-7 years of age. Antler casting of adults occurs in most of North America from late December to early February. Antler regrowth begins only in March-April, with velvet shedding in September. In northern Mexico antler casting is postponed to May and velvet cleaning to October. From southern Mexico to northern South America, at tropical and equatorial latitudes, antlers are usually cast all year. Hooves are elongated, 4-8 cm long.
Habitat. As a pioneer species, it is often associated with early successional habitats, and as an ecotone species, it takes advantage of the woodland-meadow interface. It is extremely adaptable, living from northern temperate woodlands to semi-arid scrubland to prairies, savannas, and tropical dry and rain forests. In North Americait prefers forest edges and open woodlands close to farms and fields. Where White-tailed Deer and Mule Deer (O. hemionus)overlap, they tend to be ecologically separated; White-tailed Deer prefer the moister habitats, Mule Deer the drier ones. Up to 4500 m above sea level in the Andes.
Food and Feeding. As a flexible browser, it feeds on young leaves, buds,twigs,forbs, fruits, and seeds. It has occasionally been observed feeding on dead fish, birds, and insects.
Breeding. Females usually attain puberty at around 18 months of age, twelve at tropical latitudes. In high quality habitat some females may ovulate sooner and conceive at seven months of age. Males reach physiological maturity at about 18 months of age; even when adult bucks are present, a variable proportion of yearlings and two-year-old subadults have some opportunity to reproduce. At temperate latitudes rutis seasonal, occurring in November in most of North America, in January-March in northern Mexico. In tropical latitudes mating may occur year-round, with peaks locally variable. In Suriname mating activity is more frequent between April and October, in Colombia between February and August. One month before the rutting season subadult and adult males begin to perform sparring matches to establish a hierarchy. At the onset of the rut dominant adult males begin to rub antlers, fray saplings and bushes, scrape the ground, and rub-urinate. They adopt a tending bond mating system, in which they court individual receptive does. The buck initiates the courtship with a low-stretch approach followed by a long, fast chase in a large circle. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 26 days. During estrus they are receptive for 18-24 hours. The gestation lenght is normally 194-202 days. In North America fawning season peaks in May-June. Parturient does become territorial, actively defending fawning grounds. At temperate latitudes primiparous does give birth to one fawn, and adult does usually produce twins; in tropical ranges does often give birth to singletons. Newborn fawns weigh 1.7-4 kg and are able to stand in a few hours. For the first three weeks they remain hidden, and then they begin to accompany their mothers. By two months of age they form new family groups. Fawns begin to ingest their first vegetation at 2-3 weeks of age. At one month they are functional ruminants and may feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at four months. At tropical latitudes a postpartum estrus frequently occurs. Does have a long reproductive life span, of up to 14 years. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-7 years of age; does attain adult size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 11-16 years, with records of 19-20. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years of age. In the wild, mean life expectancy is often only two or three years. Pumas (Puma concolor), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Coyotes (C. latrans), foxes, and Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are the main predators in North America. Pumas, Jaguars (Panthera onca), and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) prey on the deer in Central and South America.
Activity patterns. Usually crepuscular, with peaks of activity at dusk andjust after dawn. Much of the day spent in the cover.
Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is a saltatorial runner, able to reach 60-65 km/h for a short distance. In flight it raises its conspicuous tail, exposing the white underside and rump. It is a good swimmer. Typically home range size is 1-3 km?, larger for adult males. In northern ranges, in response to cold weather and snow depth, White-tailed Deer may make relatively short migrations, 6-23 km long. It is a moderately social species. An adult doe, her fawn, and female offspring of previous years form a family or matriarchal group. Adult and subadult bucks form loose bachelor or fraternal groups. Bachelor groups are more common in winter after the antlers are shed, and disband some time after velvet cleaning. Family groups may form larger aggregations when feeding in rich pastures.
Status and Conservation. Populations of Guatemala CITES Appendix III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Its global demographic trend is assessed as stable. Actually in Canada and USA, White-tailed Deer are overabundant, but from Mexico to northern South America the species is often declining due to hunting pressure, habitat loss, and predation by feral dogs. In North America, just after the establishment of the first European settlements, this deer was persecuted. Its decline become dramatic with the European expansion into the continent’s interior, especially from 1850 onward. Deer reached their minimum in the early 1900s, with a population assessed at 300,000-500,000 animals. Strict hunting rules and habitat changes that increased environmental diversity fostered a remarkable increase in the total number of deer, estimated in the late 1990s at around 28-5 million individuals. Annual harvest in North America was about six million animals and annual victims of car collisions are around 700,000. “Florida Key Deer” (clavium), which live in 25 islands of the Florida Keys. reached a minimum population of about 50 animals in late 1940s, then grew to 300-400 individuals in 1974 and to 700-800 in 2000; collisions with cars on highways represent the main cause of mortality. The introduced population in Finland was estimated for 2005 as 55,000 individuals.
Bibliography. Crete & Daigle (1999), DelGiudice (2007), Demarais et al. (2000), Fuller et al. (1989), Geist (1998), Halls (1984), Hirth (1977), Lopez et al. (2004), McCullough (1979), Miller et al. (2003), Smith (1991).
description: Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Cervidae, pp. 350-443 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 435-436, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377