Pteropus livingstonii J. E. Gray 1866
Creators: name: Don E. Wilson
name: Russell A. Mittermeier
Publisher: name: Lynx Edicions
Year: 2019
Subjects: Biodiversity
Taxonomy
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Chiroptera
Pteropodidae
Pteropus
Pteropus livingstonii

description: 174.
Livingstone’s Flying Fox
Pteropus livingstonii
French: Roussette de Livingstone / German: Livingstone-Flughund / Spanish: Zorro volador de Livingstone
Other common names: Comoro Flying Fox, Livingstone's Fruit Bat
Taxonomy. Pteropus livingstonii J. E. Gray, 1866,
“Island of Johanna [= Anjouan Island], Comoro group [= Comoros].”
Pteropus livingstonii is in the livingstonii species group. Monotypic.
Distribution. Comoro Is (Anjouan and Mohéli).
Descriptive notes. Head-body 340 mm (tailless), ear 30-31 mm, hindfoot 5H 1- 53 mm, forearm 161-172 mm; weight 576- 3 g (males) and 601- 5 g (females). Livingstone’s Flying Fox is the largest species of western Indian Ocean Pteropus. Head 1s fox-like; muzzle is long and black. Eyes are relatively large, with orange to scarlet-red irises; ears are large, protruding, and semicircular above; inner margin is convex; outer margin is straight or slightly convex; and exposed concha is smooth, without ribs or grooves. Males and females are alike, generally blackish brown on head and body. Back is dark to blackish brown, with dark russet tinge, and speckled with golden or tawny hairs; tawny hairs are also variably found in mantle, lower back, and flanks; tawny-tipped hairs in mantle form a band c. 6 cm wide and 10-15 mm long anteroposteriorly, with tufts of similarly colored fur on each shoulder. Dense pelage is present on upper inside of femur and uropatagium,; upper side of tibia is naked. Belly and flanks are similarly colored as back. Genital area can be surrounded by ring of deep reddish brown hair, extending laterally as a short stripe. Wings are dark, often jet-black, shiny, and hairless; index claw is present; tail membrane is poorly developed. Skull is typical pteropine, with very long rostrum; orbit is often closed by postorbital process reaching zygomatic arch; and crests and mandible are strong. Dentition is typical pteropine, with relatively small canines grooved in their outer surface; P' is lost in most adults; and cheekteeth are relatively simple but robust.
Habitat. Undisturbed moist forests and, to a lesser extent, degraded forests at elevations above 300 m on Anjouan and 40 m on Mohéli. Roosts of Livingstone’s Flying Foxes are predominantly found in Ficus exasperata and FE lutea (Moraceae); Gyrostipula comorensis (Rubiaceae); and especially Gambeya spp. (Sapotaceae) and Nuxia pseudodentata (Stilbaceae). Roosts are in steep-sided (30-50°) valleys with south-east facing slopes, suggesting that they are sensitive to wind and sun.
Food and Feeding. Livingstone’s Flying Fox is primarily frugivorous, eating fruits of native trees but also nectar and leaves. Ficus antandronarumis preferred during wet season and F lutea during dry season; other foods come from at least 14 genera in 13 families. Flowers of Gyrostipula and Neonauclea (Rubiaceae) and flowers, nectar, and to a lesser extent unripe fruit of Ceiba (Malvaceae) are eaten. Captive bats caught and ate insects.
Breeding. Captive female Livingstone’s Flying Foxesstart to reproduce at 3-4 years old. After gestation of c.152 days, young are generally born in first part of September and weigh c. 137 g. Females with young were also observed in July-August, October, and January. Litter size is one.
Activity patterns. Livingstone’s Flying Foxes forage at night. During the day, they remain in roosts and bask and stretch their wings in the sun to warm up, or urinate on their wings while flapping them to cool down. They take advantage of afternoon thermals to soar long distances. Peak activity is between 22:00 h and 02:00 h, and it declines to ¢.04:00 h. They start urinating immediately after taking flight.
Movements, Home range and Social organization. Livingstone’s Flying Foxes form colonies of 15-150 individuals, exceptionally 250-349 during rainy seasons. Intra-island movements between roosts are common; inter-island movements are unknown. A dominant male has a harem of adult females and their female offspring.
Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Livingstone’s Flying Fox has a small distribution (1856 km? overall but probably 65-188 km *) and suspected significant population decline (current population is ¢.1300 animals: 940 on Anjouan and 360 on Mohéli) from habitat loss due to logging for firewood, construction, and conversion to agricultural use. Recent disappearance of lowland forests has forced individuals higher on slopes up to 400 m on Anjouan and 200 m on Mohéli. It is not threatened by hunting. “The Conservation Action Plan for Livingstone’s Flying Fox” was set up and adopted by the government of Comoros, and a captive breeding program was established that led to a captive population of 59 individuals spread over four institutions as of 2014. Based on high levels of inter-island genetic differentiation, island populations probably need to be considered separate management units. Livingstone’s Flying Foxes do not occur in any protected area, but plans for appropriate reserves are being developed.
Bibliography. Almeida et al. (2014), Andersen (1912b), Bergmans (1991), Cheke & Dahl (1981), Courts (1998), Daniel et al. (2017), Granek (2000), Ibouroi, Cheha, Arnal et al. (2018), Ibouroi, Cheha, Astruc et al. (2018), O'Brien et al. (2009), Sewall (2004), Sewall, Granek et al. (2007), Sewall, Young et al. (2016), Smith & Leslie (2006), Szekely et al. (2015), Trewhella et al. (2001).
description: Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2019, Pteropodidae, pp. 16-162 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 155, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6448815