Simulium (Hebridosimulium) laciniatum : Edwards 1924
Creators: name: Craig, Douglas A.
name: Currie, Douglas C.
name: Hunter, Fiona F.
name: Spironello, Mike
Publisher: name: Zenodo
Year: 2006
Subjects: Biodiversity
Taxonomy
Animalia
Arthropoda
Insecta
Diptera
Simuliidae
Simulium
Simulium laciniatum

description: <i>Simulium</i> (<i>Hebridosimulium</i>) <i>laciniatum</i> Edwards (Figs. 1b, 4b, 5g, 6c, 9h, 11f, 13g, 15b, 16g, 18g, 20g) <i>Simulium laciniatum</i>: Edwards 1924:572 <i>Simulium jolyi</i>: Edwards (1932:103) not Roubaud 1906 <i>Hebridosimulium jolyi</i>: Grenier &amp; Rageau (1961: 96) not Roubaud 1906 <i>Simulium</i> (<i>Hebridosimulium</i>) <i>jolyi</i>: Crosskey (1967: 30) in part not Roubaud 1906 <i>Simulium</i> (<i>Hebridosimulium</i>) <i>laciniatum</i>: Dumbleton (1973: 453) revalidation <i>Simulium</i> (<i>Hebridosimulium</i>) <i>jolyi laciniatum</i>: Crosskey (1974: 150) <i>Simulium</i> (<i>Hebridosimulium</i>) <i>laciniatum</i>: Craig (1987: 383); Crosskey (1987: 451); Crosskey (1989: 223); Crosskey &amp; Howard (2004: 29) <i>Types</i> <b>Holotype</b>. Adult. Pinned female. Label data – "W Greenwood/ Mt Evans / Lautoka, Fiji / 2500 ft. 11.5.19." (BM). <b>Paratype</b>. Adult. Pinned female. Label data – "W Greenwood/ Mt Evans. Fiji / 18.6.1922 " (BM). <i>Diagnosis</i> Large species. Adults: black; pleural membrane with distinct yellow hairs; legs markedly bicolourous. Pupa: 8 gill filaments, shorter and thicker than in other species; branching pattern (2+1)+2+2+1. Larva: hypostomal teeth poorly developed; postgenal cleft with marked anterior extension; posterior abdomen steatopygous; dorsal tubercles absent. <i>Redescription</i> <b>Adult female</b> (based on numerous topotypical specimens in alcohol). Body: head blackish brown, thorax dark brown, abdomen blackish brown; total length 2.6–3.2 mm. Head: width 0.94–1.0 mm; depth 0.58–0.64 mm; postocciput black, vestiture of dense, black hairs; frons thickly golden haired and pruinose, slightly protruded; frons-head ratio (narrowest width of frons: greatest width of head) 1.0:5.8. Eye: interocular distance 0.17 mm; ommatidia 0.020 mm in diameter; ca 40 rows across and down at mid-eye. Clypeus: 0.21–0.28 mm wide; concolourous with frons; vestiture of dense black and pale hairs, less so in specimens from Taveuni. Antenna: length 0.51–0.61 mm; flagellomeres grayish yellow; slightly darker basally and apically, scape and pedicel pale yellow. Mouthparts: length 0.3 times head depth; mandible with 30–35 markedly fine inner teeth; lacinia with 15 inner teeth and 10 outer teeth; maxillary palpus with all articles evenly dark brown, proportional length of 3rd, 4th, and 5th articles 1.0:0.9:1.4; sensory vesicle markedly elongate, ca. 0.3 times width of 3rd article, opening 0.8 times as wide as vesicle. Thorax: length 1.3–1.5 mm; width 1.0– 1.2 mm; postpronotal lobes markedly paler than scutum; scutum evenly medium brown in dry specimens, but 2 lateral vittae in alcohol specimens, vestiture of dense, very fine pale hairs, longer dark hairs posteriorly; more evenly coloured and less hairy in Taveuni specimens; scutellum more or less concolourous with scutum, vestiture of long black hairs and pale hairs laterally, apical angle 125°; postnotum concolourous with scutum; pleuron evenly dark brown; pleural membrane slightly paler and with distinct yellow hairs (Fig. 4b). Wing: length 2.7–2.9 mm; width 1.2 –1.4 mm. Legs: coxae light brown; trochanters paler; fore leg femur light brown, remainder of leg black; mid leg femur darker brown with dense black vestiture, remainder of leg as for fore leg; hind leg femur as for mid leg, tibia pale basally, tarsus pale except for calcipala, tarsomere black. Abdomen: overall black; vestiture of dense silver hairs, long laterally, with few black hairs; basal scale black with golden hairs; hairs dark and sparser in specimens from Taveuni. Genitalia (Fig. 5g): median region of sternite VIII moderately depressed and pale medially; hypogynial valves with vestiture of sparse short hairs; median edges concave, short, membranous apical extension cone-shaped and posteriorly directed; genital fork stem narrow, lateral arms with small clear region, anteriorly directed apodeme cone-shaped; anal lobes rounded with few longer hairs posteriorly, anterior anterolateral apodeme not well developed, anteromedian concavity distinct with numerous hairs; cercus broad; spermatheca ovoid, reticulate pattern, moderately pigmented. <b>Adult male</b> (based on numerous topotypical specimens in alcohol). Body: overall dark brown to black; total length 2.7–3.5 mm. Head (Fig. 1b): width 0.86–1.2 mm; depth 0.71–0.82 mm. Eyes: upper ommatidia dark orange, large, 0.057 mm in diameter, ca. 13 across and 16 down; lower ommatidia brown, 0.019 mm in diameter, ca. 26 across and 35 down. Clypeus: dark brown, pruinose 0.17 times as wide as head; vestiture of medium and short hairs laterally. Antenna: total length 0.66–0.70 mm; flagellomeres light yellow, scape, pedicel, and base of first flagellomere slightly darker than remainder; first flagellomere slightly longer than remainder. Mouthparts: short, length 0.2 times head depth; mandibles insubstantial, finely tapered with apical hairs; lacinia broad basally, finely tapered apically with terminal hairs, some tooth-like; palpus dark, 0.58 mm long, proportional lengths of 3rd, 4th, and 5th articles 1.0:1.4:1.6, 3rd article distinctly hairy, sensory vesicle barrel shaped, occupying 0.33 times width of article, opening 0.33 times width of vesicle. Thorax: length 1.2–1.4 mm; width 0.8–1.1 mm; broadest anteriorly; postpronotal lobes and scutum evenly medium brown; vestiture of short pale hairs often rubbed clear; scutellum lighter than scutum, apical angle distinctly obtuse; vestiture of markedly long stiff black hairs laterally, interspersed with paler hairs; postnotum concolourous with scutum; pleuron concolourous with scutum. Wing: 2.4–2.6 mm in length, 1.3–1.5 mm at maximum width. Legs: markedly bicolourous, tarsi and tibial apices dark brownish black, remainder yellow or reddish yellow; pretarsal claws with ca. 25 grappling hooks dorsally. Abdomen: anteriorly yellowish, remainder brownish black, vestiture of dense fine yellow hairs, markedly longer laterally; basal scale with markedly long, pale yellowish hairs. Genitalia (Fig. 6c): gonocoxa 1.3 times longer than basal width, vestiture of numerous substantial hairs, anterolateral apodeme well developed; gonostyle approximately 2.5 times longer than basal width, subequal in length to gonocoxa, distinct mediobasal strengthening ridge; ventral plate small, sloped laterally, proximal arms distinctly curved medially and tapered; median keel slightly angulate apically and laterally, stem narrow, vestiture of markedly small, evenly spaced hairs; parameral spines as for other species; dorsal sclerite broadly rounded apically, less V-shaped than other species; median sclerite short, slightly longer than apical width. Cerci: distinct. <b>Pupa</b> (based on numerous topotypical specimens in alcohol). Body length: 2.8–3.8 mm. Gill (Fig. 9h): maximum length 1.28 mm, 8 filaments occasionally 9th as stump, evenly thick, light grey; petioles short, branching pattern (2+1)+2+1+2. Head and thorax with evenly distributed sparse, dark brown rounded granules. Cocoon: markedly boot shaped, anterior collar well raised above substrate, occasionally lower, opening equal to, or slightly narrower than, cocoon base, with marked edge, not flared laterally. <b>Larva</b> (based on numerous topotypical mature last-instar larvae). Body (Fig. 11f): total length 6.3–7.9 mm; female evenly mottled gray, male yellowish-gray with paler intersegmental regions. Head (Fig. 13g): female medium to dark brown posteriorly extended anteriorly to apotome, males with posterior pigmentation lighter and apotome pale; width 0.62–0.71 mm; length 0.79–0.96 mm; distance between antennal bases 0.33–0.43 mm; lateral margins of head subparallel; ecdysial lines straight, diverged strongly posteriorly; head spots not distinct, anteromedial spots slightly positive, posteromedial and anteromedial spots similarly, but surrounded with pale aureole, posterior head spots negative; anterior genae pale, darkly pigmented posteriorly (Fig. 15b); posterior edge of apotome not emarginated, postocciput not extended between cervical sclerites and apotome. Antenna: evenly pale; total length 0.58 mm; distal article 0.24 times as long as basal articles, extended well beyond labral fan stalk. Labral fan: stalk moderately pigmented, anterior palatal bar moderately well developed; 45–50 fine rays, 0.74 mm in length, 8–10 rays less substantial; microtrichia markedly fine and elongate, 2 time longer than ray width, pattern distinct, with 6 or 7 shorter microtrichia between those longer. Postgenal cleft (Fig. 16g): narrowly V-shaped, edges straight. Postgenal bridge: 0.3 times as long as cleft depth; genae evenly pigmented light brown, posterolateral elongated muscle spots positive. Hypostoma (Fig. 18g): overall broadly cone-shaped; ratio 6.6; median tooth and lateral teeth poorly developed, latter teeth broad and subequal in length to median tooth; sublateral teeth very small; paralateral teeth and lateral serrations essentially absent; 9–11 very substantial hypostomal setae per side (12 or 13 in Kadavu larvae). Mandible (Fig. 20g): all apical teeth well developed; 3 or 4 substantial spinous teeth, gap small but distinct; serration and sensillum distinctly separated, but not markedly developed. Abdomen: thorax and anterior abdomen subequal in width, expanded gradually posteriorly; moderately steatopygous. Posterior circlet: directed posteriorly; 160–165 rows of hooks; 20–25 hooks per row (total ca. 3,700). <i>Additional material examined</i> <b>Kadavu.</b> Solodamu, E178.11° S19.06°, alt. 128m, 25.viii–23.x.2003. Coll. H. Erwin, E. Schlinger, M. Tokota'a (3 females, 1 male; FBA 010408. BPBM). Kadavucoro Village, Wailea Waterfall, S19.03674° E178.37830°, alt. 10m, 27.xi.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). Nacomoto Village, Lambasa Waterfall, S19.04535° E178.35305°, alt. 100m, 28.xi.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae; DAC). Matava Resort, S19.04507° E178.39946°, alt. 33 m, 28.xi.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig. Attempting to bite (2 females; DAC). <b>Ovalau</b>. Mt. Vuma, 700', vii.14.38. Coll. E. C. Zimmerman (female; BPBM). Draiba Trail, alt. 600–800 ft. viii.8.38. Coll. E. C. Zimmerman (4 females; BPBM). Lovoni Val. alt. 50– 200 m. 27.xii. 69. Coll. N. H. L. Krause (2 females; BPBM). Levuka, alt. 0– 200 m.?.xii.78. Coll. N. H. L. Krause (7 females; BPBM). Levuka, Totonga Creek, alt. 70m alt., 17.viii.1980. Coll. D. A. Craig (larvae, pupae, reared adults; DAC). Waitovu Village, stream cascade, S17.66545° E178.82551°, alt. 50–74 m, 2.xii.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). Near Rukuruku, Stream junction, S17.65023° E178.76643°, alt. 76m, 2.xii.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). <b>Taveuni.</b> Waiyevo. 21.vi.1924. Coll. H. S. Evans. (female; BM). Alt. 0–100m, i.1972. Coll. N. H. L. Krause (2 females; BPBM). Caukadrove Prov. Devo Peak Radio Tower. S 16° 51' E 179° 58', alt. 1200m, 10–17.x.2002. Malaise in rain forest. Coll. M. E. Irwin, E. I. Schlinger, M. Tokota'a. (14 females, male (slightly lighter, smaller and less hairy than other males in Fiji); FBA027946. BPBM). Caukadrove Prov. Devo Forest reserve. S16° 50' E179° 59', alt. 800 m, 10–17.x.2002. Malaise in rain forest. Coll. M. E. Irwin, E. I. Schlinger, M. Tokota'a. (adults; FBA 027947. BPBM). Devo Peak Radio Tower, W179.97° S16.85°, alt. 1200m, 2–10.x.2002. Coll. M. E. Irwin, E. I. Schlinger, M. Tokota'a (1 female, missing wings; FBA021367. BPBM). 13–20.x.2002. Coll. M. E. Irwin, E. I. Schlinger, M. Tokota'a (7 females. FBA020047. BPBM). 25.ix–2.x.2002. Coll. M. E. Irwin, E. I. Schlinger, M. Tokota'a (4 females. FBA012575. BPBM). Waitavala Water Slides, S16.79613° W179.99058°, alt. 45m, 17.xi.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). Wainibau Falls, S16.86596° W179.90589°, alt. 30m, 18.xi.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae; DAC). Small waterfall 30 mins. on track from Lavena. S16.87089° W179.89072°, 18.xi.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae; DAC). Above Waitavala Water Slides, S16.79720° W179.99064°, alt. 60m, 19.xi.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). Devo Peak, Trib. Wairiki Str., S16.81939° W179.99456°, alt. 350m, 20.xi.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). <b>Vanua Levu</b>. Savusavu, alt. 100m,?. iii.1978. Coll. N. Krause (female; BPBM). Cascade, 2 km towards Savusavu from Nambalembala, alt. 10m, 21.viii.1980. Coll. D. A. Craig (larvae; DAC). Cross Island Road, 1 st cascade, 21.viii.1980, alt. 270m, Coll. D. A. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). Near Savusavu, alt. 300m, 15.vii.1980. Coll. T. K. Crosby &amp; P. A. Ryan. Basasega Crk. alt. 100m, 16.vii.1980. Coll. B. Cowey (larvae; DAC). New Waisala Rain Forest Waterfall, Ravini Stream, Trib. of the Narakariwai River. 27 km from Savusavu, S16.65305° E179.22107° (est.), alt. 95–170m, 23.xi.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). Savusavu Bay west road, Nakasa Water Fall, S16.67770° E179.19881°, alt. 90m, 25.xi.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). <b>Viti Levu</b>. Mt. Lautoka, 1.v.1919. Coll. W. Greenwood (female; BM); 10.v.1919. Coll. W. Greenwood (2 females; BM). Korovou, Tailevu, viii.1937. Coll. J. M. Valentine (female; BPBM). Navia Mill, nr Nadarivatu, alt. 2500', ix.17.1938. Coll. E. C. Zimmerman (female; BPBM); alt. 800–900m, 3.iv.1973; alt. 700–800m, 29.iv.1973; Coll. N. H. L. Krause (4 females; BPBM). Nadarivatu, ix.3.1938; alt. 3700', ix.10.1938; alt. 2700', ix.13.1938; viii.31.1938. Coll. E. C. Zimmerman (5 females; BPBM); alt. 300', 7.iii.54. Coll. M. Laird (female; BM); alt. 850m, 8–13.iii.1963. Coll. C. M. Yosimoto (2 females; BPBM); alt. 810m, vi.27.viii.4.1958. Coll. B. Malkin (female; BPBM). Suva, 1955. Coll. H. W. Simmonds (3 females; BM). Nausori Highland, alt. 500–700m, 1.x.70. alt. 500– 600m. 9.xi.1971. Coll. N. L. H Krause (8 females; BPBM). Tholo-i-Suva.?. i.1958. Coll. N. H. L. Krause (female; BPBM); 15.xi.1970. Coll. H. S. &amp; G. S. Robinson (1 female, 2 males; BM), 21.xii.1970, Coll. H. S. &amp; G. S. Robinson (larvae, pupae; BM). Nandala Riv., alt. 2,400', 13.vi.1971. Coll. M. E. &amp; N. H. Hynes (larvae, pupae adults; BM). Monasavu Riv., nr Nadarivatu.?. ix.1978. Coll. M. A. Rao (larvae, pupae, adult; BM). Nanuku Crk, alt. 700m, 2.vi.1980. Coll. B. Cowey and P. A. Ryan (larvae, biting females; DAC). Tholo-i-Suva, upper stream 14.viii.1980. Coll. D. A. Craig (pupae, adults; DAC); lower stream 15.viii.1980. Coll. D. A. Craig (pupae, adults; DAC); 8.ix.1984, 23.viii.1984. Coll. B. S. Batson (larvae, pupae; DAC). Nasivis R, trib, cascade nr, Waikumbukumba Vill, alt. 20m, 24.viii.1980. Coll. D. A. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). Nakorowabama R, trib, 27.5 km from Suva, alt. 40m, 17.viii.1980, Coll. D. A. Craig (larvae, pupae, reared adults; DAC). Kings Highway 0.1 km South, Wailota No. 1, 22.viii.1980. Coll. D. A. Craig (larvae, pupae, reared adults; ANIC, DAC. HT). Nadarivatu, Tumbeindreketi Creek, alt. 633m, 23.viii.1980. Coll. D. A. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). Lautoka, Vitonga Crk, alt. 150m, 24.viii.1980. Coll. D. A. Craig (larvae, pupae, reared adults; DAC); 29.vi.1981. 26.xi.1998 Coll. D. A. Craig (larvae, pupae, reared adults; DAC). Lami, alt. 20–200m,?. iii.1976; alt. 0–200m,?. ii.1977; alt. 0–100m,?. iii.1978; alt. 0–200m,?. ii.1981; alt. 0–200m,?. iii.1984; Coll. N. H. L. Krause (6 females; BPBM). Monasavu, alt. 81m, 9.x.1980, 24.x.1980. Coll. B. Cowey (larvae; DAC). Nadarivatu, Waikubkukubu creek, "Governor's pool", 7.iii.1981. Coll. M. Goettel (larvae, pupae, adults; DAC). Nadarivatu, Nadala Creek, 8.iii.1981. Coll. M. Goettel (larvae, pupae; DAC). Namosi Rd, 8 km N Queens Highway, alt. 320m. 3–7.xi.1981. Coll. B. H. &amp; W. E. Gagne (8 females; BPBM). Wainimala R. trib, 10.ix.1984. Coll. B. S. Batson (larvae; DAC). Waindina R. 21.viii.1984. Coll. B. S. Batson. (larvae, pupae; DAC). Wainalithi Riv., trib. 6.ix.1984. Coll. B. S. Batson (larvae, pupae; DAC). Waivaka, Waindwa R, trib, 8.ix.1984. Coll. B. S. Batson (larvae; DAC). Naitisiri Prov., Logging Rd, below Mt. Nakobalevu. E178° 25', S 18° 13', alt. 340m. 22.ix.2002. Colls. E. I. Schlinger, Moala (1 female, 1 male; FBA 027948, BPBM). Mt. Nakobalevu, Logging road behind Suva; in rain forest. S18° 3', E 178° 25'. alt. 340m. 13.xii.2002. " Biting collector on hand". Coll. E. I. Schlinger (6 females; FBA 027949, BPBM). Navai Village, alt. 700m. 6.vi.2003. "Moss on wet log". Coll. E. I. Schlinger (2 females; FBA 027950, BPBM). Koroyanitu Reserve, S17° 39' E177° 32', alt. 450m. 3.vi.2003, Coll. E. I. Schlinger (16 females; FBA 027951, BPBM). Near Lautoka, Abaca Village, Vereni Creek Waterfall. S17.66866° E177.54200°, alt. 510m, 4.xii.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). King's Highway, Uru's Waterfall, Waindaithi River. S17.66879° E177.54954°, alt. 120m, 5.xii.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). Coral Coast, Queen's Highway, Biasevu Village, Savunamatelaya Water Fall, S18.17973° E177.73834°, alt. 88–105m, 6.xii.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). Near Lautoka, Abaca Village, Savuione Falls, S17.67429° E177.55430° (est.), alt. ca. 600m, 7.xii.2004. Coll. D. &amp; R. Craig (larvae, pupae; DAC). <i>Distribution</i> FIJI: Kadavu, Ovalau, Taveuni, Vanu Levu, Viti Levu. <i>Comments</i> The taxonomic history of <i>S. laciniatum</i> has been confused ever since the name was proposed by Edwards (1924), in large part because original material from both Fiji and Vanuatu was mainly female adults, the morphological structures of which are highly conserved. It was not until larvae and pupae of the species were available from Fiji that Dumbleton (1973) recalled the name <i>S. laciniatum</i> from synonymy with <i>S. jolyi</i>. However, even then this action was contended by Crosskey (1974). A certain degree of inter- or intra-island morphological divergence might be expected among Fijian simuliids given the diversity of running-water habitats and occurrence on five islands, albeit four of these are adjacent to each other. However, there is little evidence of such divergence. In comparison to material from the type locality area of <i>S. laciniatum</i>, (Mount Koroyanitu region — old Mount Evans, Lautoka, Viti Levu), adult females from Kadavu Island (the most remote) have a less hairy clypeus than do those from Viti Levu, and their legs are darker, although the colour pattern is the same. There are minor colour differences in adults from other islands, but colour is variable and appears in large part to depend on preservation. Pupae show no differences in gill arrangement (Fig. 9h) or granule pattern on the cuticle. Larvae from Kadavu have markedly more hypostomal setae (13 vs. 8 or 9) than those from elsewhere; however, they exhibit no other obvious differences. On balance we concluded that Fijian simuliids are exclusively <i>S. laciniatum.</i> Independent, preliminary COI mitochondrial DNA analysis also shows Fijian simuliids to consist of one species, with complete lack of clustering of variants, for either islands or habitats (A. Cywinska; unpublished data). Larvae taken from trailing vegetation typically exhibit marked sexually dimorphic colour, i.e., females with evenly dark brown heads and grey bodies, and males with anterior head pale and body yellowish-orange. Larvae taken from rocky surfaces, and often in large numbers, tend not to show the colour patterns as above, but are rather intermediate in colour, i.e., grayish bodies, lighter head. The male: female ratio of all larvae sexed was normal. Habitat preferences of larvae are rather varied. Localities where conditions appear to be favourable, such as the edges of waterfalls and large rocks with fast flow may yield no larvae or pupae at all. Rather, larvae in such circumstances are found exclusively on trailing roots or leaves. Other
description: Published as part of <i>Craig, Douglas A., Currie, Douglas C., Hunter, Fiona F. &amp; Spironello, Mike, 2006, A taxonomic revision of the southwestern Pacific subgenus Hebridosimulium (Diptera: Simuliidae: Simulium), pp. 1-90 in Zootaxa 1380 (1)</i> on pages 53-60, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.1380.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/5071393
description: {"references": ["Edwards, F. W. (1924) On new species of nematocerous Diptera from Fiji and Trinidad. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 14, 573 - 573.", "Edwards, F. W. (1932) Marquesas Simuliidae. Bulletin Bernice P. Bishop Museum, 98, 103 - 109.", "Roubaud, M. E. (1906) Sur deux types interessant de Simuliides de l'Afrique equatoriale et des Nouvelle-Hebrides. Bulletin du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 12, 140 - 143.", "Grenier, P. &amp; Rageau, J. (1961) Un nouveau genre de Simulies: Hebridosimulium N. G. (Diptera, Simuliidae) des Nouvelles-Hebrides. Description des stades preimaginaux et du male, redescription de la femelle de H. jolyi (Roubaud), 1906. Bulletin de la Societe de Pathologie exotique, 54, 95 - 102.", "Crosskey, R. W. (1967) The classification of Simulium Latreille (Diptera: Simuliidae) from Australia, New Guinea and the western Pacific. Journal of Natural History 1, 23 - 51.", "Dumbleton, L. J. (1973) Simulium laciniatum Edwards - a valid species (Simuliidae: Diptera). Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 3, 453 - 456.", "Crosskey, R. W. (1974) The identity and taxonomic status of the man-biting black-fly of Fiji (Simuliidae: Diptera). Journal of Entomology (B), 43, 149 - 158.", "Craig, D. A. (1987) A taxonomic account of the black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) of the Society Islands - Tahiti, Moorea and Raiatea. Quaestiones Entomologicae, 23, 372 - 429.", "Crosskey, R. W. (1987) Fortuitous attachment of blackfly pupae to shrimp in Fiji (Dipt., Simuliidae). Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, 123, 149 - 150.", "Crosskey, R. W. (1989) Family Simuliidae (Chapter 24). In: Evenhuis, N. L. (Ed.), Catalog of the Diptera of the Australasian and Oceanian Regions. Bishop Museum Special Publication, Bishop Museum Press and E. J. Brill, Honolulu, pp. 221 - 225.", "Crosskey, R. W. &amp; Howard, T. M. (2004) A revised taxonomic and geographical inventory of world blackflies (Diptera: Simuliidae). The Natural History Museum, London. 78 pp. Available from http: // www. nhm. ac. uk / research-curation / projects / blackflies / (accessed 7 October 2006)", "Gorayeb, I. S. &amp; Pinger, R. R. (1978) Deteccao de predatores naturais das larvas de Simulium fulvinotum Cerq. e Mello, 1968 (Diptera, Nematocera). Acta Amazonica, 8, 629 - 637.", "Ryan, P. A. (2000) Fiji's Natural History. Exisle Publishing, Auckland. 288 pp.", "Adler, P. H., Currie, D. C. &amp; Wood, D. M. (2004) The Black Flies (Simuliidae) of North America. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. 941 pp."]}