Are all Impostors alike? Distinguishing between True and Strategic Impostor Phenomenon and Trait-Relatedness within the Dark Triad.
Creators: name: Deadman, David
Publisher: name: figshare
Year: 2023
Subjects: classificationCode: 520503
subject: Personality and individual differences

description: <br>This study seeks to obtain data that will help address any research gaps, namely the possible relation between true and strategic Impostor Phenomenon (IP) and their possible trait relatedness within the Dark Triad. Impostor Phenomenon has been linked to several aspects of personality, for example, Ross &amp; Krukowski (2003) posit that IP is related to a maladaptive perception of the world that restricts development and progress. Similarly, Langford &amp; Clance (1993, p. 1), “reported a positive relationship between IP and the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Scale.”True IP, according to Clance &amp; O’Toole (1988), is traditionally a concept where individuals perceive themselves less favourably than others do. On the other hand, strategic IP contains all the hallmarks of true IP with one exception, strategic impostors perceive themselves as least as positively as others but will claim to view themselves negatively in public but less in private (Leary et al., 2001). A more detailed account of the Imposter PhenomenontheImpostor and the Dark Triadis given in the following sections of this paper. Further, are the effects of true and strategic IP relatable to elements within the dark triad? For example, is true IP or strategic IP more relatable, or are they both? The Dark Triad(DT) comprises three sub-clinical traits: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and Psychopathy. These personality traits were first proposed by KowalskiKowalsk (2001) and expanded on by Paulhus &amp; Williams(2002). Since then, increased interest and research have been to understand the dynamics of IP and DT(Jonason &amp; Kavanagh, 2010). The constructs that make up the dark triad have differing origins, however, the consensus among academics is that they are callous, manipulative, and self-serving personality traits (Paulhus &amp; Williams,2002). It is noteworthy that, unlike narcissism and psychopathy, Machiavellianism is not considered to be a mental disorder as classified in the Diagnostic and StatisticalManualofMental Disorders(DSM-V), rather it is considered to be a personality construct,(Krumenacker,2019).Design &amp; MaterialsTo acquire the data from the participants, Likert-style questionnaires were used (Likert, 1932). “A Likert scale is a psychometric scale with multiple categories from which respondents indicate their opinions, attitudes, or feelings about a particular issue” (Nemoto &amp; Beglar, 2014, p. 2).It is key to note that the scale moves from a weaker to a stronger endorsement from left to right. Despite the scale containing a neutral category, Nemoto &amp; Beglar (2014), suggest that they should not be used, where practicable, as neutral categories may cause statistical issues when analysing data in social science software packages. On the other hand, Chyung et al (2017) support using the neutral category as it allows participants to truly express their neutral viewpoint and moderate the risk of biased responses that agree or disagree. However, varying researchers have argued that the Likert scale is not without its limitations. For example, Ogden &amp; Lo (2012) highlight the ongoing debate that asks whether Likert data is ordinal or interval. Further, Peng et al. (1977), made the distinction between the cultural differences that Likert scales produce versus the cultural differences proposed by cultural scholars, they also proposed that a deprivation model may be in effect that echoes Maslow’s hierarchy of needs where individuals place greater emphasis on the deficiencies in their life rather than what is sufficient (Maslow, 1943). To obtain the data, the Clance Imposter Phenomenon Scale questionnaire (Clance &amp; Imes, 1978) will be employed, in addition to this, questionnaires from the Narcissism Inventory (overt &amp; covert) (Cheek et al., 2013), the Levenson Scale for Psychopathy and Machiavellianism (Levenson et al., 1995; Lang, 2020), and the Core Self-Evaluation will be applied (Judge et al., 2003). The Clance Imposter Phenomenon scale This scale (see Appendix A) is designed to evaluate to what extent an individual is experiencing a true Imposter Phenomenon. As you will see, scoring for true IP is thus: Figure 2, Scoring the Impostor Test: The Impostor Test was developed to help individuals determine whether they have IP characteristics and, if so, to what extent they are experiencing it. After taking the Impostor Test, add together the numbers of the responses to each statement. If the total score is 40 or less, the respondent has few Impostor characteristics; if the score is between 41 and 60, the respondent has moderate IP experiences; a score between 61 and 80 means the respondent frequently has Impostor feelings; and a score higher than 80 means the respondent often has intense IP experiences. The higher the score, the more frequently and seriously the Impostor Phenomenon interferes in a person’s life (Clance &amp; Imes, 1978, p. 2). The IP scale achieved excellent internal consistency (α = .92).Core Self Evaluation, (CSE) Core self-evaluations (Figure 3) are instinctive judgments that we all make about ourselves and our lives. The core self-evaluation (see Appendix B) questionnaire is designed to test for strategic IP and is scored thus: The mean CSES score is between 3.8 and 3.9. Therefore, Scores of 3.7 and below indicate true imposters whereas scores of 4 and above indicate strategic imposters (Judge et al., 2003). The CSE scale achieved good internal consistency (α = .80). The Short, Dark Triad Questionnaire The Short Dark Triad (Figure 4, see Appendix C) test is a brief personality test that tells you how you fare on the three dark personality traits- Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and Psychopathy (Jones &amp; Paulhus, 2013). The SDT scale achieved acceptable internal consistency (α = .72).Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy ScaleThe Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (Figure 5, see Appendix D) was developed to assess psychopathic traits and behaviours in the general population (Levenson et al., 1995). The LSR scale achieved good internal consistency (α = .76). Narcissistic Personality Inventory (Overt) Overt narcissists are characterised by grandiose, attention and entitlement, with an 'inflated' sense of self which is commonly expected. The NPI (NPI-16) scale (see Appendix E) used to test for overt narcissism comprises sixteen statements that elicit a narcissistic or non-narcissistic response. For example, statement one posits I like to be the centre of attention (a narcissistic response), or it makes me uncomfortable to be the centre of attention (a non-narcissistic response) (Ames et al, 2006). The NPIO scale achieved good internal consistency (α = .75). Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale (Covert) This test (see Appendix F) explores subclinical personality features related to the vulnerable and sensitive narcissistic style, also known as covert narcissism (Hendin &amp; Cheek, 1997). This test explores subclinical personality features related to the vulnerable and sensitive narcissistic style, also known as covert narcissism. Each statement requires a response that best describes to what extent each item is a characteristic of their feelings. For example, 1 = very uncharacteristic or untrue, strongly disagree, 2 = uncharacteristic, 3 = neutral, 4 = characteristic, 5 = very characteristic or true, strongly agree. The NPIC scale achieved an acceptable level of internal consistency (α = .72).MACH-IV Test. The Mach IV test (Figure 6, see Appendix G) and personality survey became the standard self-assessment scaling tool for the Machiavellianism construct. This Mach-IV test is designed to test for deficient levels of morality and empathy in an individual. Further, the test also measures to what extent, those who have a proclivity for mistrusting and manipulating others, possess (Lang, 2020). The Mach-IV scale achieved an acceptable level of internal consistency (α = .70). Procedure Participants comprised 51 students from the undergraduate and postgraduate psychology cohort at Canterbury Christchurch University. They were recruited through the research participation scheme (RPS) and were forwarded a link to the Gorilla data acquisition platform. The link provided an overview that explained the nature of the study and included an informed consent form and all relevant information regarding the research, including the right to withdraw, how the data will be stored and contact details of organisations or departments within the university if they felt that they required additional support. The psychology student cohort will comprise undergraduate and postgraduate students. All students who participate in the study will be remunerated in the form of academic credit through the RPS.Ethical ConsiderationsAs Per the British Psychological Society (BPS) and Canterbury Christchurch University’s (CCCU) codes of ethical practice, all participants were deemed to be non-vulnerable adults who were made aware of their rights to withdraw from the study at any time. Further, all participants were informed of the nature of the study and were invited to consent only when they were happy to do so. Data was gathered anonymously, using the Gorilla survey platform, and stored on a password-protected hard drive. Full transparency was provided if participants had any concerns or questions.<br><br>