Panthera uncia
Creators: name: Don E. Wilson
name: Russell A. Mittermeier
Publisher: name: Lynx Edicions
Year: 2009
Subjects: Biodiversity
Taxonomy
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Carnivora
Felidae
Panthera
Panthera uncia

description: 3.
Snow Leopard
Panthera uncia
French: Panthere des neiges / German: Schneeleopard / Spanish: Leopardo de las nieves
Other common names: Ounce
Taxonomy. Felis uncia Schreber, 1775,
Kopet-Dagh Mountains, near Iran.
Although formerly classified in its own genus Uncia, recent genetic analysis suggests that it was one ofthe earliest species to diverge within the Panthera. Two subspecies recognized.
Subspecies and Distribution.
P. u. uncia Schreber, 1775 — C Asia NE to Mongolia and Russia.
P.u. uncioides Horsfield, 1855 — W China, and the Himalayas.
Descriptive notes. Head-body 86-125 cm, tail 80-105 cm; weight 22-52 kg; adult males are larger than adult females. Fur is long and thick: in winter it may be 5 cm long on the back and sides and almost 12 cm long on the belly. Long fur gives the cat a rather stocky appearance. Background color of the fur varies from smoky-gray to grayish buff and the coat is marked with dark gray and black rosettes and spots. The pattern of spots and rosettes on each cat is unique. Centers of rosettes are usually darker than the background coat color. Chest and underparts are whitish. Adapted for living at high altitudes in mountainous terrain, the Snow Leopard has moderately long, powerful limbs, well-developed chest muscles and large, broad feet. The long, thick tail functions as a balancing aid while the cats are moving about in precipitous terrain. Snow Leopards are also known to be prodigious leapers. The skull has a short muzzle and a high domed forehead to accommodate the expanded nasal cavities. Ears are short, rounded, and set wide apart; the backs of the ears are light-colored and rimmed with black.
Habitat. Snow Leopards inhabit rugged and remote mountainous areas where the terrain is broken by steep cliffs, ridges, and ravines. The cat’s habitat is typically high rocky areas, alpine meadows, alpine steppe scrub, and high altitude forests. They generally spend the summer above tree line at elevations of 2700 to 6000 m, but in winter deep snow often forces wild ungulates to move to lower elevations and the Snow Leopards follow. The cats have also been found in isolated mountain massifs in Mongolia, and to reach these sites they would have had to traverse 20 to 65 km of broad, flat, open terrain.
Food and Feeding. Snow Leopards are capable of killing prey as much as three times their own weight. A large percentage oftheir diet consists of mountain-dwelling sheep and goats. Major prey species include bharal (Pseudois), Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), Markhor (Capra falconeri), Siberian Ibex (Capra sibirica), Argali (Ovis ammon), and Urial sheep (Quis orientalis). In some areas wild asses (Equus), musk deer, Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), and gazelles are also taken. Smaller prey such as marmots, pikas, hares and rabbits, pheasants, and voles are important food items, especially in summer. One estimate suggests that as much as 45% of the meat in a Snow Leopard’s summer diet may come from marmots. The cat also preys on domestic sheep, goats, cows, horses, yaks, and dogs. An unusual amount of vegetation, especially twigs of Myricaria and Tamarix bushes (Tamaricaceae), have been found in Snow Leopard scats, suggesting that these cats deliberately eat plant matter. Snow Leopards hunt by walking animal trails, ridge lines, river terraces, and the beds of deep gorges. They usually avoid open, unbroken terrain. When hunting, they tend to attack from a vantage point above the prey and have been seen pursuing prey across slopes and down mountainsides in chases of 200-300 m. Prey are killed with a bite to the nape or the throat. Carcasses are often moved to avoid attracting the attention of crows and vultures. The cat will remain with the carcass for 3-5 days, or until only bones remain. Captives require about 1-5 kg of meat per day and in the wild an adult blue sheep will provide the cat with food for a week. Females rearing young require about three times the normal amount of food to rear two to three young. One female and her two cubs consumed an adult Bharal in less than 48 hours; a similarsized kill would sustain a single Snow Leopard for 3-5 days.
Activity patterns. Snow Leopards are most active at dawn and dusk, but may be found hunting at any time of the day or night. In Mongolia, radio-tagged individuals were active 37% of the time, with the lowest level of activity occurring between12:00 and 18:00 h and the highest between 20:00 and 04:00 h. Where it is not subject to human disturbance the cat often hunts during the daytime. In areas where Snow Leopards feed on domestic animals they tend to hunt mainly at night.
Movements, Home range and Social organization. The mean straight-line distance between consecutive daily locations of Snow Leopards in Mongolia was 5 km, but on 18% of these occasions the distance was more than 10 km. The greatest distance traveled was 27.9 km. That Snow Leopards were capable of long-distance movement was also evident when they were located on isolated massifs, which were thought to be used as waypoints when crossing between distant mountain ranges. The cats had to cross 20 to 65 km of flat, open terrain to get to these massifs. The majority of studies on Snow Leopards have been done in areas of good habitat. In these “hotspots,” Snow Leopard ranges are surprisingly small (mean 18-6 km?, range10-7-36-2 km?), but since there were periods when animals could not be located, they were likely moving over larger ranges. In an area of Mongolia with low prey densities the home ranges were much larger. One female with kittens used an area of only 13-5 km?®, but the range of an old female was conservatively estimated at 585 km? Two males roamed areas of 61-141 km?, but these figures were considered underestimates of their ranges. Snow Leopards communicate mainly by scent marks, which includes feces, urine, and scrapes. Snow Leopards tend to make scrapes along their major travel routes, which include ridgelines, the base of cliffs, and river terraces. Some heavily-used routes are re-marked frequently. In one study area, the heaviest concentration ofscrapes occurred around stream confluences. In addition to making scrapes, both sexes also spray urine on rocks and boulders. They appear to spray sites that are protected from the elements, especially the undersides of overhanging rocks and boulders. In captivity, male Snow Leopards urine-spray more frequently than females, but there is no information on sex differences in marking behavior from the wild. Exceptfor females with young and mating pairs, Snow Leopards are solitary. There have been several observations ofthe cats traveling and hunting in pairs, but radio-tracking studies indicate that these associations are rare. Not surprisingly, only a few density estimates exist. Most suveys show that Snow Leopards typically exist at very low densities but can be locally abundant. In Nepal's Langu Valley the density of adults and subadults was 5-10 animals per 100 km ². In Nepal’s Annapurna Conservation Area, densities reached 5-7 adults per 100 km. In the best Snow Leopard habitat in Ladakh, density estimates vary from 2—4 per 100 km? Outside these “hotspots,” densities are much lower, approximately 0-5-1 adult per 100 km ².
Breeding. Snow leopards are unusual among the large cats in that they have a welldefined birth peak. Mating occurs from January through March and is marked by a noticeable increase in scent marking and calling. Captive observations indicate that estrus usually lasts from 5-8 days with copulations taking place over 3-6 days. Pairs mate often, 12-36 times per day, and coitus lasts 15-45 seconds. The young are born after a gestation period of 94-103 days. Litter size varies from 1-5, with an average of 2:2. Cubs are born in a cave or rock crevice and weigh 320-567 g. A thick, woolly natal coat helps insulate the young from the cold. For the first week after the young are born, females remain at or near the den, grooming, nursing, and resting. The young gain weight rapidly, putting on 300-500 g per week. By two months of age, they weigh about 4 kg, and by ten weeks they are weaned and weigh about 6 kg. Cubs begin following their mother sometime between 2—4 months of age. During this phase they may be more a hindrance than a help to their mother while she is hunting. Cubs are nutritionally dependent on their motherfor a relatively long time—possibly as long as 18 months. In captivity Snow Leopards become sexually mature at 2-3 years of age, but rarely breed before they are four years old.
Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Fully protected over most of its geographic range. Status surveys indicate that Snow Leopardslive at low densities throughout their geographic range, but in localized areas where prey abundance is high the cats may occur at relatively high densities. The global Snow Leopard population is estimated at 4080-6590 individuals. The major threat to the Snow Leopard is loss of natural prey and conflict with herders over depredation on domestic stock. In areas where Snow Leopards and shepherds live side by side, domestic livestock often form an important part of the Snow Leopards’ winter diet. Many Snow Leopards are killed each year in retaliation for stock raiding. The Snow Leopard’s prey is subject to fairly intense hunting by humansacross the cat’s range. Large-scale pika and marmot poisoning programs have depleted populations of these important but smaller prey items. At one time there was a fairly substantial demand for Snow Leopard skins from the fur trade, and in the 1920s approximately 1000 pelts a year were traded in the world fur markets. High quality fur coats made of Snow Leopard skins once fetched US $ 50,000 each. It is no longer legal to export Snow Leopard pelts, but coats and furs are still seen occasionally in shops in Nepal, China, and Taiwan. Thereis also some demand for Snow Leopard bones for use in the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) trade. A variety of coordinated efforts are underway to conserve Snow Leopards in the wild. These include compensation schemes for livestock losses and strengthening local conservation institutions through training and support. The International Snow Leopard Trust is currently offering incentives to people to protect local wildlife and helping them find better ways to manage their livestock. In addition, efforts are being made to establish a network of conservation areas across the cat’s range.
Bibliography. Ahlborn & Jackson (1988), Blomqvist & Nystrom (1980), Blomqvist & Sten (1982), Chundawat & Rawat (1994), Fox (1994), Fox & Chundawat (1988), Freeman (1980, 1983), Freeman et al. (1994), Hemmer (1972), Hillard (1989), Hunter et al. (1994), IUCN (2008), Jackson & Ahlborn (1988, 1989, 1990), Koshkarev (1984), Mallon (1988), McCarthy (2000), Miller & Jackson (1994), Nowell & Jackson (1996), Oli (1994), Oli et al. (1993), Rieger (1984), Schaller, Ren Junrang & Qiu Mingjiang (1988) Schaller, Tserendeleg & Amarsanaa (1994), Sunquist (1997), Sunquist & Sunquist (2002), Turner (1997).
description: Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2009, Felidae, pp. 54-168 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 127-128, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6376899