title: An investigation into cognitive and linguistic variables that influence the learning and production of formulaic sequences by undergraduate students via a speaking task in an English-as-a-second-language context
Creators: name: Alali, Khuloud
Publisher: name: University of Reading
Year: 2024

description: A key problem for second language (L2) learners in many contexts is to improve the fluency 
of their speech (Tavakoli &amp; Wright, 2020). As fluent speakers often make use of fixed 
expressions – i.e. formulaic sequences (FS), improving our understanding of these 
expressions will help us understand how they impact language ability in general and fluency 
in particular. Although many studies focus on the complexity, accuracy and fluency (CAF) of 
L2 learners’ output, there are still few in-depth studies that examine the CAF of the FSs 
themselves as used by L2 learners. Therefore, this study aimed to address this gap by 
investigating the correlation between various linguistic and cognitive variables and (a) the 
CAF of entire speech and (b) the CAF of FSs elicited via a speech sample. 
Participants in the study were adult L2 learners of English in Kuwait. The sample 
under study (N = 51) were mostly at A1 to A2 level according to the CEFR, with some 
participants at B1 to C1 levels. Participants carried out a monologic speaking task revolving 
around the topic of giving self-introduction in a work-life context. Participants also carried 
out the following tasks: a general proficiency test (the Quick Placement Test), a vocabulary 
test (New Vocabulary Levels Test), a FSs test (the Phrasal Vocabulary Size Test), a test of 
familiarity of FSs (operationalised as expressions learned from the participants’ textbook) and 
working memory tasks (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IV). 
This study proposes a novel complexity index of FSs, derived from TAALES indices 
(Kyle et al., 2018), and monolinguals’ judgements of the transparency of each FS and their 
complexity. The analysis of fluency of FSs is based on a study of the pauses before and after 
each FSs, while accuracy of FSs examination focuses on errors and error-free chunks within 
FSs.
Results from hierarchical regression analysis indicate that working memory was 
significantly associated with the complexity of overall speech, aligning with recent studies 
(Awwad &amp; Tavakoli, 2022). This suggests that learners with higher working memory capacity 
(WMC) can store and retain more complex speech compared to those with lower WMC. 
However, no significant associations were found between learners’ working memory and 
CAF of FSs, suggesting that for learners with lower working memory, the use of FSs serves 
as a compensatory strategy to overcome the challenges linked with limited WMC. These 
findings highlight the strategic role of FSs in enhancing speech production, addressing 
complexities in language use, accuracy and fluency. 
Interestingly, scores from the vocabulary test showed a less significant correlation 
with both the CAF of speech and CAF of FSs elicited via speech samples. This finding 
suggests several implications, including that low-proficiency learners may compensate for 
limited vocabulary by relying more on FSs, given their prior exposure to these sequences 
Similarly, general proficiency test scores showed a moderately positive correlation with 
CAF-FSs. This highlights the importance of general proficiency in language learning, 
although with a potentially less pronounced impact on the utilisation and integration of FSs 
into spoken language. These findings are important as they highlight the importance of 
concentrating on FSs in language learning, especially for this groups of participants – 
beginners. 
Furthermore, while the study shows that scores from the test of familiarity of FSs 
significantly predict CAF of FSs scores derived from speech samples, the FS test derived 
from literature containing unfamiliar FSs had a weaker association with both CAF of entire 
speech and CAF of FSs in speech. This underscores the importance of prior exposure and 
familiarity with domain knowledge. It is argued that it may also be the case that the FS test 
derived from the literature was too advanced to accurately capture beginner learners’ 
knowledge or to establish an association, considering that the participants were mostly lower�proficiency learners, even though this test was not restricted to a specific language 
proficiency level; instead, it was advocated for use by all L2 learners. These findings have 
several significant implications for L2 research, educators and those interested in pedagogy. 
An important avenue for future research involves replicating this study with learners 
at higher proficiency levels to explore whether similar individual difference variables 
associate with CAF of speech and subsequently CAF of FSs. Additionally, investigating 
whether scores from test of familiarity of FSs maintain their explanatory power for CAF of 
FSs, compared to more general FS tests, would provide insights into the dynamics of 
language production across proficiency levels.