A Bridge Over Turbulent Waters: The Australia-Indonesia Relationship Through the Lens of Irregular Migration
Creators: name: Gordyn, Carly
Publisher: name: The Australian National University
Year: 2020

description: The story we are often told about the Australia-Indonesia relationship is that it is a turbulent one - marked by frequent successes and setbacks. And it is no wonder, considering the differences between these two neighbouring countries: they are different historically, culturally, linguistically, religiously, and politically. The issue of irregular migration is another area of difference, as the two countries face the issue from different positions: Australia is a destination country while Indonesia is a transit country, combating irregular migration is a top priority for Australia but it is not for Indonesia, and while Australia is a signatory to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (the Refugee Convention), Indonesia is not. Nevertheless, Australia and Indonesia work together in preventing the movement of irregular migrants, exemplified by their co-hosting of the Bali Process on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons and Related Transnational Crime (hereafter: the Bali Process), which was established in 2002. Considering their various differences, this cooperation raises questions about how and why Australia and Indonesia work together in this field and what principles underlie their management of irregular migration. While much of the scholarly literature focusses on Australia and Indonesia's most recent management of irregular migration - especially since the establishment of the Bali Process - the two countries have actually been working together on issues around irregular migration since the 1960s, a history thus far overlooked. The purpose of this thesis is to examine this missing history and to ask of it: how have Australia and Indonesia cooperated in managing irregular migration since the 1960s? In answering this question, I examine three instances of 'cooperation' between Australia and Indonesia in the management of irregular migration: border crossers in Papua New Guinea (1965-1973), the Indochinese refugee crisis (1975-1979), and the boat arrivals of the late 90s and early 2000s which resulted in the establishment of the Bali Process (1995-2002). For each case, I analyse historical archives and triangulate this data with semi-structured interviews of Australian and Indonesian policymakers. My examination of these cases draws upon the Foreign Policy Analysis (FPA) subfield of International Relations (IR) to consider factors below the 'unitary state' level that drive, inhibit and foster cooperation on irregular migration and under what conditions. This research has uncovered a number of factors that have shaped cooperation, including leaders - especially at the lower levels - and their strategic outlook; domestic public opinion; interpersonal and inter-institutional relationships; the role of the media, and; the international political context in which cooperation occurs. But the ubiquitous and generally overlooked factor underpinning this cooperation was the role that trust played - its presence, absence and attempts at building it at various levels - not just at the leadership level, but also at the bureaucratic level. This thesis makes new contributions to knowledge in a number of ways. First, this thesis is the first longue duree study of Australia and Indonesia's management of irregular migration. Second, this thesis speaks to the role and motivations of transit countries in pursuing the border control policies of a destination state. Third, by examining one foreign policy problem between Australia and Indonesia throughout time, this thesis sheds light on how this often-turbulent bilateral relationship operates, despite significant and repeated pressures. Finally, by highlighting the central role of trust in Australia-Indonesia relations, this thesis underscores just how important long-term investments in institutional and personal relationships will be to ensure these neighbours are able to enjoy productive international relations into the future.