title: An examination of the impact of supply and demand side factors on female labour force participation rate in 187 countries: 1990-2019
Creators: name: Al-haddad, Raihan Jumah
Publisher: name: University of Reading
Year: 2022

description: In the last three decades, female labour force participation rates (FLPR) have approached near 
parity to male labour force participation rates (MLPR). The increase in FLPR has traditionally 
been analysed and informed by models that draw upon economic development. These wholly 
econometric approaches, which posit a u-shaped relationship, would benefit from more 
thoroughly capturing the complexities and dynamics that underline and shape FLPR outcomes. 
Although FLPR has approached parity, the dynamics that influence its outcomes remain vastly 
understudied. This research study therefore investigates female labour force participation rates 
through a novel conceptual framework that combines time allocation theory with a modernist 
perspective that accounts for socially embedded factors. The framework illuminates an 
understanding of the social and institutional elements that impact female labour force 
outcomes, albeit to varying degrees, on a universal scale. It is asserted that these elements have 
contributed to elevating FLPR outcomes but have also in certain instances served to aggravate 
gender disparities. 
The framework advances knowledge on the nuances and complementarity between the wide-ranging forces that shape FLPR across 187 countries between 1990-2019. The thesis proposes 
various key determinants as integral in determining FLPR outcomes. The determinants, which 
are comprehensively explored in this research, are as follows: (1) FLPR and GDP (supply-side); (2); FLPR and Female Unemployment (demand-side); (3) FLPR and Fertility Rates
(supply-side and demand-side); (4) FLPR and Paternity Leave (supply-side); (5) FLPR and 
Educational Parity (demand-side); (6) FLPR and Female Parliamentary Representation 
(demand-side); FLPR and Male Labour Force Participation Rate (MLPR) (supply-side and 
demand-side); (8) FLPR and Female Employment in Services and Industry (supply-side); and
(9) FLPR and policy-related measures (demand-side). The study data utilises the International 
Labour Organisation (ILO), World Bank and Organisation of Economic Cooperation and 
Development (OECD) databases to produce a cross-sectional analysis that measures and 
assesses if the coefficient associations between the key determinants change across years and
over time. This study differs from prior studies in that it covers a greater number of years (a 
30-year period) and, crucially, it includes a greater number of elements that can influence the 
value of FLPR. In addition, policy-relevant variables such as C095-Protection of Wages 
Convention Ratifications and C100-Equal Remuneration Convention Ratifications are 
included in this study's model. Countries dummies will not be used in this study because one 
of the key goals is to analyse cross-country variation. Furthermore, previous research has assumed that the relationship between FLPR and the explanatory factors used in this study has 
a constant time changing coefficient; however, this study uses a cross-sectional analysis to see 
if the coefficients of the variable (i.e. the associations) change over time. Furthermore, the 
regression explicitly detects and investigates shocks across each of the study's years. 
Furthermore, there are suggested estimation procedures as robustness check tests that include 
various stages of analysis as a systematic approach, where the systematic approach can 
generally serve a better overall understanding of the discipline's knowledge.
The theoretical and practical implications of this research are evidenced in the findings which 
suggest that FLPR is impacted by myriad factors that carry high levels of complementarity. 
Accordingly, these key factors appear to exacerbate existing constraints (time, budget, 
opportunity) that females experience and endure within the household. The key factors further 
indicate the presence of an additional behavioural constraint to which females are subjected. 
Behavioural constraints reflect socially embedded, cultural, structural and institutional barriers 
that create an added constraint, which impedes females from maximising utility, human and 
social capital as well as access to quality education and employment. These constraints and 
barriers aggravate efforts aimed at achieving gender equality and actualising quality female 
labour force outcomes. 
This thesis contributes to advancing knowledge on female labour force participation rates,
investigating scarcely studied supply- and demand-side factors that influence FLPR outcomes 
on a macro-level scale. Its original contribution stems from its novel conceptual framework 
which combines time allocation theory with a modernist perspective. The data and findings in 
this thesis carry practical implications that can be taken into consideration by policymakers 
seeking to promote the United Nations Sustainable Development Agenda 2030.