Pteronotus Gray 1838
Creators: name: Pavan, Ana C
name: Marroig, Gabriel
Publisher: name: Zenodo
Year: 2017
Subjects: Biodiversity
Taxonomy
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Chiroptera
Mormoopidae
Pteronotus

description: <i>3.2. Diversification times in the genus Pteronotus</i> The rising of Mormoopidae is estimated in the late Oligocene, ca. 32 Ma (95% HPD = 31–36.7 Myr). Divergence time of the Most Recent Common Ancestor (MRCA) of genus <i>Pteronotus</i> dates to the middle Miocene, around 16.1 Ma, with a confidence interval (95% HPD) ranging from 12.3 to 20.2 Myr. Diversification events giving rise to the main clades of <i>Pteronotus</i> are evenly distributed along the genus phylogeny. The first was the basal split between the ancestor of Clade 4 (subgenus <i>Phyllodia</i>) and the branch giving rise to the other <i>Pteronotus</i> clades. Splitting between Clade 3 and the ancestor of Clades 1 and 2 also took place early in the genus evolutionary history (<b>~</b> 13.9 Ma), followed by the separation of Clades 1 and 2 at 11.3 Ma. Emergence of closely related species started at the late Miocene, around 7.5 Ma, with differentiation between <i>P. macleayi</i> and <i>P. quadridens</i> within Clade 2, and extended through all Pliocene less than 3 Ma with cladogenesis within Clades 4, 3 and 1. Origin and diversification of most extant <i>Pteronotus</i> lineages is recent, occurring during the Pleistocene (Fig. 1 and Table 2). <b>Table 1</b> Evolutionary rate statistics for each <i>loci</i> investigated in the present study. Values were estimated under the uncorrelated lognormal relaxed molecular clock. HPD = High Posterior Density. <b>Table 2</b> Estimates for the Most Recent Common Ancestor (MRCA) of <i>Pteronotus</i> lineages sampled for two or more specimens in the multilocus dating analysis. <i>3.3. Ancestral geographic ranges</i> Results of the six biogeographic models implemented in BioGeoBEARS are presented in Table 3, which describes Log-likelihood values found for each of them. Comparative statistics show that DIVAj (LnL = <b>¯</b> 42.27) and DIVA (LnL = <b>¯</b> 44.07) models best fitted the data, indicating assumptions on geographic range evolution made by dispersal-vicariant method mostly satisfy patterns of geographic distribution of <i>Pteronotus</i> lineages. Implementation of DIVA model includes two free anagenetic parameters, d (dispersion rate/range expansion) and e (extinction rate/range retraction), and fixed cladogenetic parameters allowing equal probability of vicariance for all descendant size ranges, but disallowing subset sympatric speciation (Matzke, 2013). The assignment of the free parameter J in the model, specifying weights for jump-dispersal events in the cladogenesis matrix, produced significant improvement of the biogeographic model (AICwt = 0.69 for DIVAj versus 0.31 for DIVA; Table 3). As previously shown for other islands groups (Matzke, 2014), inclusion of the J parameter in the model was important to explain some biogeographic events in the genus <i>Pteronotus</i>, such as colonization of Caribbean islands. <b>Table 3</b> Log-likelihood values of the six biogeographic models tested in the present study. Models performance was compared through Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and Akaike weight (AICwt), the last being estimated just between the two better AIC values. The most probable states for the ancestral node ranges for the genus <i>Pteronotus</i> were estimated using the DIVAj model (Fig. 2). Geographic range estimates of early nodes in the phylogeny had relatively low probabilities in all biogeographic models (data not shown), demonstrating higher uncertainty of biogeographic inferences. Area combinations displayed with black dashed lines in phylogeny nodes had frequencies smaller than 10% in the estimates, but that still are the most probable states amongst the 638 possible area combinations. The most probable alternative states of ancestral ranges according to DIVAj model are listed in Table S3. According to the DIVAj model, the ancestor of <i>Pteronotus</i> inhabited a wide geographic area, ranging from Central America and Jamaica to the Amazon Region. An initial vicariant event split this population in the ancestral lineage of Clade 4 in South America and the ancestral lineage of Clades 1 + 2 + 3 in Central America (both ancestors could not have raised in CA because dispersal-vicariant model does not allow subset sympatric speciation). The ancestral population of Clade 4 later expanded its range into Central America, while ancestor of Clades 1, 2 and 3 diversified and dispersed to South America. In the subsequent cladogenesis event, between Clades 1 and 2, the first dispersal jump to Greater Antilles in the genus evolutionary history took place. The dotted-lined arrows in Fig. 2 highlight the shift in ancestral geographic ranges from Caribbean Coast and Central America to Jamaica and Cuba at Clade 2 ancestor. Diversification events within Clades 3 and 4 also required dispersal jumps, as displayed by the same arrows in the figure. Within Clade 4, both Amazon occupation by the ancestor of Clade 4C and the second colonization event in the Greater Antilles by the ancestor of Clade 4A were presumed to involve shifts in ancestral distributions. A similar scenario is estimated by the DIVA model (Fig. S 2), except that occupation of new areas occurred via anagenetic dispersal of ancestral populations instead of through jumps at cladogenesis events. <b>4. Discussion</b> <i>4.1. Origin and diversification patterns in the genus Pteronotus</i> Our time-scale estimates suggest that early cladogenesis events within the genus <i>Pteronotus</i> occurred gradually, encompassing a large time range during the evolutionary history of this group. The age of the Most Recent Common Ancestor (MRCA) of genus <i>Pteronotus</i> was estimated to be between 12.3 and 20.2 Ma, which is old when compared to divergence of other bat genera (Lim, 2008; Rojas et al., 2016; Velazco and Patterson, 2013). Despite this, the genus <i>Pteronotus</i> harbors a relatively small number of species, which are morphologically homogeneous in their skull and external characters (Simmons and Conway, 2001). The lack of phenotypic variation confounded early species designations based solely on morphology, while this genus is characterized by deep genetic divergences among lineages (Pavan and Marroig, 2016). Interestingly, the MRCA of the genus <i>Pteronotus</i> lived around 16 Ma, which represents just half of age of the MRCA of Family Mormoopidae, estimated to be at least 32 Myr old. This large interval of ca. 16 Myr between family and genus origins may imply the ancestor of <i>Pteronotus</i> underwent a long period of anagenetic evolution or, alternatively, that basal lineages filling this temporal gap became extinct later. Biogeographic reconstruction of DIVAj model provides a scenario with both vicariant events and dispersal jumps to explain distributional patterns of extant <i>Pteronotus</i> lineages. This model proposes a widely distributed ancestor for the genus <i>Pteronotus</i>, which does not favor any of the current biogeographic hypotheses on the group origin (Morgan and Czaplewski, 2012; Smith, 1972). It is important to highlight, however, that ancestral range estimates by DIVA model seeks to minimize dispersal-extinction costs (Ronquist, 1997). Thus, it tends to reconstruct wide ancestral ranges at early nodes (which are directly related to the maximum number of areas settled) to explain distributional patterns of phylogeny tips (Lamm and Redelings, 2009; Ree et al., 2005). In spite of this, it seems that founder event speciation was an important mode of lineage splitting in the genus <i>Pteronotus</i>, particularly within Clade 4.
description: Published as part of <i>Pavan, Ana C &amp; Marroig, Gabriel, 2017, Timing and patterns of diversification in the Neotropical bat genus Pteronotus (Mormoopidae)., pp. 61-69 in Molecular phylogenetics and evolution 108</i> on pages 63-66, DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2017.01.017, http://zenodo.org/record/7845815
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