Liquefaction induced deformations of earth structures
Creators: name: Jitno, Hendra
Publisher: name: University of British Columbia
Year: 2009

description: Liquefaction-induced ground displacements resulting from earthquake shaking are a major cause of damage to earth structures comprising of or underlain by loose saturated sands. A number of dams have failed due to liquefaction-induced deformations. Examples of these are the failures of eleven tailings dams in Chile during the March 1965 earthquake and the Mochikoshi tailings dams in Japan due to the 1978 earthquake. A number of other dams have undergone large deformations but have not failed in as much as the impounded water was not released. The classic example of this was the near failure of the Lower San Fernando dam due to the 1971 earthquake. A liquefaction induced flow slide occurred on the upstream side removing the crest of the dam and leaving only about 1.5 m freeboard. Of more interest from the analytical point of view was the behaviour of the Upper San Fernando dam in which the crest of this dam moved about 1.5 m due to earthquake induced liquefaction. Of equal importance are the ground failures due to liquefaction-induced lateral spreading. It occurs on gently sloping grounds and sometimes on almost flat grounds, but usually occurs over a very wide area. Although this type of earthquake-induced ground movement does not involve a flow failure where the static shear stresses exceed the residual strength of soils, it is potentially damaging and it has caused over one hundred million US dollars worth of damage in United States alone since the 1964 Alaska earthquake. The prediction of earthquake induced displacements of earth dams involving soils whose properties change markedly during cyclic loading is a difficult problem. The difficulty mainly arises from modeling the stress-strain relations of soils, particularly when pore pressure rise and liquefaction occur. The strains required to trigger liquefaction are generally small (&lt;1%). Once liquefaction is triggered, however, large but limited deformation may occur on soils whose undrained residual strengths are greater than the driving stresses. Such soils strain harden, and regain stiffness and strength as they deform, so the displacements are limited. For soils whose residual strengths are less than the driving stresses, unlimited deformation leading to catastrophic failures may occur. Complex effective stress dynamic analyses procedures have been proposed to predict such deformations but they are essentially research tools and not generally appropriate for analysis of most earth structures in geotechnical engineering practice. It is important, therefore, to develop a simple reliable method for predicting such displacements, and this is the objective of this thesis. The deformation analysis proposed here is essentially an extension of Newmark's method from a rigid-plastic single-degree-of-freedom system to a flexible multi-degreeof- freedom system. It takes into account the effects of inertia forces from the earthquake, the softening of the liquefied soil, and the settlement following liquefaction. The method is based on the concept that the deformations prior to liquefaction will be small and can be neglected compared to those that occur after liquefaction is triggered. A key aspect of the method is the post-liquefaction stress-strain response for which there is now considerable laboratory data available. The proposed method employs a pseudo-dynamic finite element method in which the additional displacements due to liquefaction and inertia forces are accounted for by applying additional forces that satisfy energy principles. The procedure has been validated by applying it to field case histories involving both one-dimensional sloping ground as well as two-dimensional cases. These case histories include the Wildlife and the Heber Road sites, the Lower and Upper San Fernando dams, the Mochikoshi tailings dams, the La Marquesa and La Palma dams in Chile. It was found that the predicted and observed results in those case histories are in reasonable agreement in terms of both the magnitude and pattern of displacements.