Defying the Nomadic versus Sedentary Dichotomy: The Rise and Fall of Zunghar Self-Strengthening Campaigns in Central Eurasia (17th-18th Centuries)
Creators: name: Haines, Spencer
Publisher: name: The Australian National University
Year: 2022

description: In the 17th century, an aggressive form of imperialism appeared in both Europe and Asia, resulting in appallingly high levels of violence, bloodshed, and warfare. During this time, the Russian and Qing empires employed advanced gunpowder weapons in large numbers to expand their territorial reach over Central Eurasia. As a result, steppe-based polities in the region were increasingly hemmed in and appeared to be anachronisms lacking the political will and technological know-how to avoid being conquered. However, overlooked in these narratives of decline was the Zunghar branch of the Oirat, whose leaders transformed their society and reconciled long-held traditions with the changing world around them. Discovering that their established institutions were no longer fit for purpose, the Zunghar pursued a mix of technological innovation and reform, allowing them to create two powerful and prosperous empires. The Zunghar stand out as a clear exception to the received wisdom of classical scholarship in regard to so-called 'nomadic empires'. Destructive and enduring crisis in Central Eurasia had led to a proliferation in the number of military leaders on the steppes and widespread militarisation amongst the Oirat. A number of junior nobles used the severe crises unfolding within their region to their advantages by creating alternate centres of political power that were in direct opposition to the traditional Oirat governing elites. Disregarding the traditional rules of seniority, these leaders took power for themselves and then implemented an impressive number of self-strengthening reforms in the military, economic, and diplomatic spheres. Using a mix of traditional and unorthodox methods, the Zunghar successfully transformed their lands and society. Experimenting with advanced military and manufacturing technology and new kinds or political and economic structures, the leaders of the Zunghar displayed a strong determination to meet the challenges posed by colonial powers head on. The Zunghar pioneered the local manifestation of the 'Military Revolution' in Central Eurasia after perfecting a process of manufacturing indigenously created gunpowder weapons. The Zunghar also created a mixed agro-pastoral economy, as well as complementary mining and manufacturing industries on their lands. Additionally, the Zunghar managed to enact an empire-wide system of laws and policies to boost the use of the Oirat language, which proved useful for governing their society and exerting control over members of the local elites. As a result, the Zunghar improved their overall capabilities in warfare, financial management, and administration, all of which allowed them to compete more effectively with neighbouring gunpowder empires. The self-strengthening reforms implemented by the Zunghar open the door to wider comparisons with other empires and polities that pursued similar initiatives when faced with the threat of European expansion and colonisation during the 18th and 19th centuries. Yet, the era of Zunghar hegemony over Central Eurasia ended abruptly in the mid-18th century after a highly contagious strain of smallpox spread rapidly throughout their lands. Infecting a large percentage of the population, the deadly disease crippled both the domestic economy and the military apparatus of the empire. Growing internal disorder then gave rise to a series of power struggles, causing the realm to fragment permanently. Left in a weak and desperate situation, the Qing and Russian empires began openly undermining Zunghar independence by intervening more assertively in their internal affairs. In 1755, the Zunghar Empire ceased to exist, which brought the history of independent steppe-polities to an end. Although the ambitious reforms pursued by Zunghar leaders ultimately failed, they left an indelible mark on the history of the Central Eurasia that is still evident today.