Non-nulling protocols for fast, accurate, 3-D velocity measurements in stacks
Creators: name: Shinder, Iosif I.
name: Johnson, Aaron N.
name: Filla, B. James
name: Khromchenko, Vladimir B.
name: Moldover, Michael R.
name: Boyd, Joey
name: Wright, John D.
name: Stoup, John
Publisher: name: Taylor & Francis
Year: 2023
Subjects: subject: Biophysics
subject: Space Science
subject: Physical Sciences not elsewhere classified
subject: Medicine
subject: Marine Biology
subject: Plasma Physics
subject: Hematology
subject: Plant Biology
subject: FOS: Biological sciences

description: The authors present protocols for making fast, accurate, 3D velocity measurements in the stacks of coal-fired power plants. The measurements are traceable to internationally-recognized standards; therefore, they provide a rigorous basis for measuring and/or regulating the emissions from stacks. The authors used novel, five-hole, hemispherical, differential-pressure probes optimized for non-nulling (no-probe rotation) measurements. The probes resist plugging from ash and water droplets. Integrating the differential pressures for only 5 seconds determined the axial velocity <i>V</i><sub>a</sub> with an expanded relative uncertainty <i>U</i><sub>r</sub>(<i>V</i><sub>a</sub>) ≤ 2% of the axial velocity at the probe’s location, the flow’s pitch (α) and yaw (β) angles with expanded uncertainties <i>U(α)</i> = <i>U(β)</i> = 1 °, and the static pressure <i>p</i><sub>s</sub> with <i>U</i><sub>r</sub>(<i>p</i><sub>s</sub>) = 0.1% of the static pressure. This accuracy was achieved 1) by calibrating each probe in a wind tunnel at 130, strategically-chosen values of (<i>V</i><sub>a</sub>, <i>α, β</i>) spanning the conditions found in the majority of stacks (|<i>α</i>| ≤ 20 °; |<i>β</i>| ≤ 40 °; 4.5 m/s ≤ <i>V</i><sub>a </sub>≤27 m/s), and 2) by using a long-forgotten definition of the pseudo-dynamic pressure that scales with the dynamic pressure. The resulting calibration functions span the probe-diameter Reynolds number range from 7,600 to 45,000. <i>Implications</i>: The continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS) that measure the flue gas flow rate in coal-fired power plant smokestacks are calibrated (at least) annually by a velocity profiling method. The stack axial velocity profile is measured by traversing S-type pitot probes (or one of the other EPA-sanctioned pitot probes) across two orthogonal, diametric chords in the stack cross-section. The average area-weighted axial velocity calculated from the pitot traverse quantifies the accuracy of the CEMS flow monitor. Therefore, the flow measurement accuracy of coal-fired power plants greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions depends on the accuracy of pitot probe velocity measurements. Coal-fired power plants overwhelmingly calibrate CEMS flow monitors using S-type pitot probes. Almost always, stack testers measure the velocity without rotating or nulling the probe (i.e., the non-nulling method). These 1D non-nulling velocity measurements take significantly less time than the corresponding 2D nulling measurements (or 3D nulling measurements for other probe types). However, the accuracy of the 1D non-nulling velocity measurements made using S-type probes depends on the pitch and yaw angles of the flow. Measured axial velocities are accurate at pitch and yaw angles near zero, but the accuracy degrades at larger pitch and yaw angles. The authors developed a 5-hole hemispherical pitot probe that accurately measures the velocity vector in coal-fired smokestacks without needing to rotate or null the probe. This non-nulling, 3D probe is designed with large diameter pressure ports to prevent water droplets (or particulates) from obstructing its pressure ports when applied in stack flow measurement applications. This manuscript presents a wind tunnel calibration procedure to determine the non-nulling calibration curves for 1) dynamic pressure; 2) pitch angle; 3) yaw angle; and 4) static pressure. These calibration curves are used to determine axial velocities from 6 m/s to 27 m/s, yaw angles between ±40°, and pitch angles between ±20°. The uncertainties at the 95% confidence limit for axial velocity, yaw angle, and pitch angle are 2% (or less), 1°, and 1°, respectively. Therefore, in contrast to existing EPA-sanctioned probes, the non-nulling hemispherical probe provides fast, low uncertainty velocity measurements independent of the pitch and yaw angles of the stack flow.