How Misfolded Proteins Act as Prions: A Detailed Mechanism Explained
Creators: name: Hussain, Zahid
Publisher: name: Zenodo
Year: 2025
Subjects: Misfolded Proteins
with Enzymatic Activity:
A Theoretical Basis?

description:  

Abstract

Protein misfolding is a hallmark of numerous diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and prion diseases. While the prion-like propagation of misfolded proteins is well-established, the notion that misfolded proteins could acquire enzymatic activity and catalyze the misfolding of other proteins remains an intriguing hypothesis. This review explores the theoretical basis of such phenomena, providing evidence from known protein misfolding disorders, potential mechanisms of enzymatic activity in misfolded proteins, and the implications for disease progression and therapeutic interventions. By integrating current research, this article highlights gaps in knowledge and suggests future directions for studying this concept (Aguzzi & O'Connor, 2010; Prusiner, 1998).




Introduction

Protein folding is a critical cellular process that ensures proteins achieve their functional conformations. However, errors in folding can lead to the formation of misfolded proteins, which are often implicated in disease states. While extensive research has focused on understanding the pathological effects of aggregated misfolded proteins, less attention has been given to their potential gain-of-function capabilities, such as acquiring enzymatic activity (Chiti & Dobson, 2006).

The hypothesis that misfolded proteins may actively catalyze the misfolding of other proteins introduces a paradigm shift in our understanding of disease mechanisms. Such a process could amplify pathological cascades, explaining the rapid progression of certain diseases. This review explores the theoretical and experimental basis for this idea, focusing on mechanisms, evidence, challenges, and potential therapeutic approaches (Knowles et al., 2014).




Background: Protein Misfolding and Disease

Protein Folding and Misfolding

Proteins are synthesized as linear chains of amino acids, folding into three-dimensional structures that determine their function. Misfolding can occur due to mutations, environmental stresses, or errors in cellular quality control systems. Misfolded proteins are often degraded via the ubiquitin-proteasome system or autophagy. However, some escape degradation and form aggregates, which can be toxic (Soto, 2012).

Diseases Associated with Protein Misfolding

Numerous diseases are linked to protein misfolding and aggregation, including:



Neurodegenerative Disorders: Alzheimer’s disease (amyloid-β and tau), Parkinson’s disease (α-synuclein), and Huntington’s disease (huntingtin protein) (Knowles et al., 2014).

Prion Diseases: Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) (Prusiner, 1998).

Systemic Amyloidoses: Involving transthyretin or immunoglobulin light chains (Chiti & Dobson, 2006).


These diseases are often characterized by the formation of toxic aggregates and the progressive spread of pathology across tissues.




Hypothesis: Misfolded Proteins with Enzymatic Activity

The idea that misfolded proteins could acquire enzymatic activity and catalyze the misfolding of other proteins builds on the concept of prion-like propagation. Here, we outline the theoretical basis for this hypothesis and its implications.

Theoretical Foundations



Structural Rearrangements Misfolding may expose previously hidden amino acid residues or create novel active sites capable of catalysis. Such structural rearrangements could enable enzymatic-like functions (Aguzzi & O'Connor, 2010).

Autocatalytic Behavior Similar to prions, misfolded proteins might act as templates, inducing misfolding in native counterparts. However, enzymatic activity would imply a more active role in accelerating these processes (Prusiner, 1998).

Post-Translational Modifications (PTMs) PTMs such as phosphorylation, ubiquitination, or glycation might enhance or create catalytic properties in misfolded proteins (Chiti & Dobson, 2006).

Interactions with Cellular Components Misfolded proteins may interact with molecular chaperones, proteases, or membranes, further facilitating enzymatic activity (Soto, 2012).





Evidence Supporting the Hypothesis

Known Mechanisms of Protein Propagation

Prion diseases provide a precedent for protein-based pathogenic propagation. The misfolded prion protein (PrP$^{Sc}$) induces the misfolding of its normal counterpart (PrP$^{C}$) in a templated process. This phenomenon has inspired investigations into whether similar mechanisms might involve enzymatic activity (Prusiner, 1998).

Cross-Seeding Between Proteins

Studies have shown that misfolded proteins can induce misfolding in other, unrelated proteins (e.g., tau and α-synuclein). This cross-seeding suggests a catalytic-like mechanism (Knowles et al., 2014).

Experimental Observations



In Vitro Studies Aggregates of amyloid-β, tau, and α-synuclein have been shown to promote the misfolding of native proteins under experimental conditions (Chiti & Dobson, 2006).

Structural Analyses Advanced techniques such as cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) have revealed structural changes in misfolded proteins that could theoretically support enzymatic activity (Soto, 2012).

Animal Models Injection of misfolded protein aggregates into transgenic animals can replicate disease pathology, implying a propagative mechanism (Aguzzi & O'Connor, 2010).





Proposed Mechanisms of Enzymatic Activity

Proteolytic Activity

Misfolded proteins may acquire protease-like activity, cleaving native proteins to expose aggregation-prone domains (Knowles et al., 2014).

Structural Seeding

Misfolded proteins could act as nucleation centers, lowering the energy barrier for the misfolding of native proteins (Prusiner, 1998).

Interactions with Quality Control Systems

Enzymatic activity could target molecular chaperones or proteasomes, impairing the cell’s ability to manage misfolded proteins and thereby promoting further misfolding (Soto, 2012).

Membrane Disruption

Misfolded proteins might catalyze the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) or disrupt lipid bilayers, creating conditions that favor protein misfolding (Aguzzi & O'Connor, 2010).




Implications for Disease Progression

Accelerated Pathology

Enzymatic activity in misfolded proteins could explain the exponential progression of neurodegenerative diseases, where early pathology rapidly expands (Knowles et al., 2014).

Selective Vulnerability

Tissues with high concentrations of specific proteins (e.g., amyloid-β in the hippocampus) may be particularly susceptible to enzymatic propagation (Chiti & Dobson, 2006).




Therapeutic Implications

Targeting Enzymatic Activity



Small Molecule Inhibitors Drugs could be designed to block enzymatic active sites on misfolded proteins (Prusiner, 1998).

Antibody Therapies Antibodies targeting enzymatic regions of misfolded proteins could neutralize their activity (Aguzzi & O'Connor, 2010).

Stabilizing Native Proteins Compounds that stabilize native conformations may prevent misfolding (Soto, 2012).


Enhancing Cellular Clearance



Autophagy Activators Boosting autophagic pathways may help clear misfolded proteins (Chiti & Dobson, 2006).

Proteasome Modulators Enhancing proteasome function could mitigate the effects of enzymatic misfolding (Knowles et al., 2014).





Challenges and Future Directions

Challenges



Structural Complexity Demonstrating enzymatic activity in misfolded proteins requires detailed structural and functional analyses (Soto, 2012).

Causation vs. Correlation It remains difficult to establish whether enzymatic activity drives disease or is a secondary consequence (Aguzzi & O'Connor, 2010).

Model Systems Current animal and cellular models may not fully capture the dynamics of misfolded protein propagation (Prusiner, 1998).


Future Directions



Advanced Imaging Techniques Real-time tracking of protein misfolding and enzymatic activity using cryo-EM or super-resolution microscopy (Knowles et al., 2014).

Multi-Omics Approaches Integrating proteomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics to uncover pathways influenced by misfolded proteins (Chiti & Dobson, 2006).

Synthetic Biology Engineering synthetic proteins to mimic misfolding pathways for experimental validation (Soto, 2012).





Conclusion

The hypothesis that misfolded proteins could acquire enzymatic activity provides a novel perspective on protein misfolding diseases. While substantial evidence supports prion-like propagation, further research is needed to explore the enzymatic capabilities of misfolded proteins. This line of inquiry could uncover new mechanisms underlying disease progression and pave the way for innovative therapeutic strategies (Aguzzi & O'Connor, 2010; Prusiner, 1998).




 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References



Aguzzi, A., & O'Connor, T. (2010). Protein aggregation diseases: Pathogenicity and therapeutic perspectives. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, 9(3), 237-248. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd3050

Prusiner, S. B. (1998). Prions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 95(23), 13363-13383. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.23.13363

Knowles, T. P., Vendruscolo, M., & Dobson, C. M. (2014). The amyloid state and its association with protein misfolding diseases. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 15(6), 384-396. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrm3810

Soto, C. (2012). Transmissible proteins: Expanding the prion heresy. Cell, 149(5), 968-977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2012.05.007

Chiti, F., & Dobson, C. M. (2006). Protein misfolding, functional amyloid, and human disease. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 75(1), 333-366. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.75.101304.123901