Rusa unicolor
Creators: name: Don E. Wilson
name: Russell A. Mittermeier
Publisher: name: Lynx Edicions
Year: 2011
Subjects: Biodiversity
Taxonomy
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Artiodactyla
Cervidae
Rusa
Rusa unicolor

description: 19.
Sambar
Rusa unicolor
French: Cerf sambar / German: Sambar / Spanish: Sambar
Taxonomy. Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792,
Sri Lanka.
Deer of this genus are characterized by deep lachrymal pits, robust rugose threetined antlers, dark coat, and relatively long tail. Current Sambar originated in early to middle Pleistocene, possibly from R. hilzheiment. Five subspecies are recognized.
Subspecies and Distribution.
R.u.unicolorKerr,1792—India,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andSriLanka.
R.u.brooketHose,1893—Borneo.
R.u.cambojensisGray,1861—mainlandSEAsia,fromSChina(includingHainanI)andMyanmartoMalayPeninsula.
R.u.equinaG.Cuvier,1823—Sumatra,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs.
R. u. swinhoer Sclater, 1862 — Taiwan.
Introduced to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and USA.
Descriptive notes. Head-body 160-210 cm, tail 25-33 cm, shoulder height 110-160 cm; weight of males 180-270 kg (up 350 kg) and of females 130-230 kg (90 kg in Taiwan). Large-sized deer with relatively large ears, bushy, blackish long tail; males with short pedicles and long, massive, and rugose antlers. The coat is brown with shaggy and coarse hairs. The belly is darker than the back. Females have paler coats. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Both sexes have a throat mane. Preorbital, metatarsal, and caudal glands are present. The preorbital gland is conspicuous and eversible. There is a “sore spot” on the throat, presumably a dermal gland associated with rut. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 2-30 months. Antlers of adults are three-tined, with a long, acutely angled brow tine and a high second point that with the main beam forms a terminal fork. Antlers are generally 70-100 cm long (45 cm in Taiwan), but records of 120-128 cm are known. The first antler set develops in yearling stags and consists of two spikes. Subadults 2-3 years old have two-tined antlers consisting of the main beam and a brow tine; the surface is smooth. Maximum antler size is attained at 7-10 years of age. The peak of antler casting occurs in January-February in Taiwan, in April-May in Bandipur (India), and in summer in Rajastan. In Nepal stags in hard antlers are seen during any month of the year.
Habitat. It occurs in a variety of forest habitats, from arid, dry, and moist deciduous forests, to pine and oak forests and evergreen forests at tropical latitudes, and also in montane woodlands of temperate latitudes. It seems to prefer well-watered moist deciduous forests on hilly terrain. It occurs up to 3800 m above sea level.
Food and Feeding. It is basically a grass-roughage feeder and tends to graze green grass, but itis very flexible and may switch to browse leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. In India it has been recorded eating 130-180 species of plants.
Breeding. Females attain puberty at 18-24 months of age; in captivity, with high levels of nutrition puberty can occur at seven months of age. Males begin to reproduce at four years of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. After a gestation of 248-259 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 5-9 kg. Mating occurs at least seven months of the year, with a peak in October-December. In Taiwan, at temperate latitudes, the rutting season is from June to January with a peak in August—October. Stags do not defend a harem of hinds; groups of males aggregate temporarily with female groups, establishing a hierarchy of access to receptive females, with subadults at the periphery. Males thrash vegetation with their antlers, wallow, rub their necks on trunks, scrape large stomping grounds, and urinate. Calves remain hidden in thick vegetation for their first three months. Sambar live to a maximum of 17-24 years of age, in captivity up to 26-28 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators. Sambar readily face wild predators defensively, exhibiting a low-head posture, stomping, and barking.
Activity patterns. It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal and spends a total of 4-6 hours per day feeding.
Movements, Home range and Social organization. Males have home ranges of about 4-15 km?, females of 2-3 km? males are more mobile, especially during the long rutting season, when they visit different female groups. In mountainous areas deer may descend in winter to lower elevations. The Sambar is a barely social species. Females form small family groups, often consisting of a mother, the young-of-the-year, and a female yearling. Adult males are mainly solitary. Subadult males sometimes form small groups close to females. Aggregations of more than ten animals are seen during the monsoon season in foraging areas and in summer near waterholes. In Sri Lanka, with higher food availability, groups of 30-40 animals are regularly observed.
Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List for the rapid decline of the last thirty years. It is rare in Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and it is decreasing in Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. More stable in India and Nepal and slightly increasing in Taiwan, where hunting has been banned since 1989. Habitat encroachment and overhunting continue to represent the main threats.
Bibliography. Acharjyo (1982), Geist (1998), Johnsingh & Sankar (1991), Leslie (2011), Ngampongsai (1987), Sankar & Acharya (2004b), Schaller (1967).
description: Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Cervidae, pp. 350-443 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 417, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377