Origins of empathy development in infancy
Creators: name: Crespo-Llado, Maria M.
Publisher: name: Lancaster University
Year: 2018

description: The current thesis examined the processes involved in the generation of
      empathy in infancy. This thesis endorses the combination of developmental
      and cognitive neuroscience techniques for a more comprehensive
      understanding of empathy. In support of this view, the current work has
      adopted a multi-method approach in which neuroimaging, psychophysiological
      and behavioral techniques have been used to examine the cognitive and
      affective aspects of empathy in infancy. Through a series of experimental
      studies, this thesis has addressed intertwined yet different aspects of
      the experience of empathy.
      
      Paper 1 investigated individual differences in 8-month-old infants’ neural
      responses to peers’ emotional non-verbal vocalizations by using
      event-related potential (ERP) method and parental reports of infants’
      temperament. Results showed that infants responded differently to peers’
      laughing and crying vocalizations, as indexed by modulations in the N100,
      P200 and late positive component (LPC). Of special interest, individual
      differences in negative emotionality were related to amplitude variations
      in the P200 and LPC components. Paper 2 expands on the previous results by
      examining frontal asymmetry patterns linked to infants’ affective and
      behavioral responses to a peer crying and a peer laughing. Eight-month-old
      infants underwent two assessment sessions on separate days, in which
      electroencephalography (EEG) and behavioral measures were respectively
      recorded in each day. EEG analysis showed that distinct neural patterns
      were related to the observation of a peer laughing and a peer crying, with
      greater right frontal activation being associated with the observation of
      a peer crying. Furthermore, correlational analysis suggested a positive
      relation between left frontal cortical activation and infants’ attempts to
      approach a peer crying or infants’ attempts to engage with a peer
      laughing.
      
      Following on from it, Paper 3 and 4 investigated potential neurocognitive
      mechanisms underlying affective and cognitive aspects of empathy. Paper 3
      examined the role of motor mimicry and affective evaluation processes in
      infants’ facial matching responses to others’ emotional facial expressions
      by measuring spontaneous facial reactions (SFRs). In particular, 4- and
      7-month old infants were presented with facial expressions of happiness,
      anger, and fear. Electromyography (EMG) was used to measure activation in
      muscles relevant for forming these expressions: zygomaticus major
      (smiling), corrugator (frowning), and frontalis (forehead raising).
      Results indicated no selective activation of the facial muscles for the
      expressions in 4-monthold infants. For 7-month-old infants, evidence for
      selective facial reactions was found especially for happy faces and
      fearful faces, while angry faces did not show a clear differential
      response.
      
      Paper 4 goes on to explore the ontogeneis of cognitive aspects of empathy
      by examining the neural correlates underlying false belief (FB) processing
      in 15-monthold infants. Using a passive non-verbal FB task, 15-month-old
      infants were presented with sequences of images depicting a character
      acting congruently (FBc) or incongruently (FBi) to her false belief about
      an object’s location, while EEG was continuously recorded. ERPs analysis
      revealed differences between conditions at frontal locations, as indexed
      by modulations in the N400 component. Specifically, a more negative N400
      waveform was recorded for FBi as compared to FBc trials.