Simuliidae
Creators: name: Reeves, Will K.
name: Adler, Peter H.
name: Grogan, William L.
name: Super, Paul E.
Publisher: name: Zenodo
Year: 2004
Subjects: Biodiversity
Taxonomy
Animalia
Arthropoda
Insecta
Diptera
Simuliidae

description: Family Simuliidae
The Simuliidae, or black flies, are significant pests of humans and wildlife. Swarms of black flies are prohibitive to outdoor recreation because the flies bite and annoy people. Although the economic impact of black flies in the Park is unknown, the damage to local recreation­dependent businesses could be significant. For example, more than $27,000 was lost annually to the economy of South Carolina due to black fly activity at a single golf course (Gray et al. 1996). Some species are also vectors of pathogens to wildlife, including the filarial nematode of black bears, Dirofilaria ursi Yamaguti. Up to 90% of black bears in the Park are infected with this parasite (Linzey 1995). Black flies are the primary vectors of Leucocytozoon species to birds (Greiner 1991). The bite of adult simuliids can cause toxicosis in some animals, and although simuliotoxicosis is usually reported in large mammals, no study has examined the susceptibility of small mammals such as rodents to black fly bites. Wild­caught black flies have tested positive for arboviruses (DeFoliart et al. 1969) and might be important vectors of vesicular stomatis virus (Mead et al. 1999). With the recent introduction of West Nile virus, the vectorial capacity of ornithophilic black flies should be investigated. Ornithophilic black flies also transmit Trypanosoma species to birds.
Prosimulium magnum cytospecies 3
Collection: Tennessee, Blount Co., Abrams Creek in Cades Cove, 15 April 1992, larvae, coll. S. Traore.
Prosimulium magnum cytospecies 3 develops in the early spring. The paucity of records probably represents limited sampling during that time.
Prosimulium mixtum Syme & Davies
Collections: North Carolina, Cataloochee, roadside seepages and in campground, 14 March 2002, larvae; Cove Creek Gap, 3 May 2002, truck trap; Big Creek, 14 May 2002, adults; Swain Co., Oconaluftee/Ravensford, 8 January 2001, larvae; Clingman’s Dome, 10 May 2001, swarming on truck; Straight Fork, 10 May 2001, larvae; Beck's Branch (229 meters, 35.5461°N, 83.2995°W), 19 May 2001, larvae; Mingus Mill (705 meters, 35.5119°N, 83.3020°W), 19 May 2001, larvae; Lakeview Drive, 23 May 2001, truck trap; Canebrake Branch (732 meters, 35.4650°N, 83.4995°W), 22 December 2001, larvae; Deep Creek, 22 December 2001, larvae; Laurel Branch of Noland Creek (549 meters, 35.4582°N, 83.5365°W), 22 December 2001, larvae; Nettle Bald seepage (152 meters, 35.5666°N, 83.3816°W), 17 February 2002, larvae; Oconaluftee River, 17 February 2002, larvae; Kanati Fork of the Oconaluftee River (914 meters, 35.5844°N, 83.3665°W), 9 March 2002, larvae; source of the Oconaluftee River, 7 April 2002, larvae; Andrews Bald, 24 April–16 May 2001, Malaise trap, coll. Parker, Stocks, & Petersen; Tennessee, Blount Co., Abrams Creek in Cades Cove, 20 December 2001, larvae; Little River, 20 December 1991, larvae, (Traore 1992); Mill Creek, 20 December 1991, larvae, (Traore 1992); Tipton Place, larvae, 18 March 1992, larvae, (Traore 1992); Parson Branch (427 meters, 35.4994°N, 83.9321°W), 28 December 2001, larvae; Shop Creek (244 meters, 35.5306°N, 83.9887°W), 28 December 2001, larvae; Cades Cove, 28 February–13 March 2001, Malaise trap, coll. Parker, Stocks, & Petersen; Cocke Co., Cosby Creek, 23 March 2001, larvae; Sevier Co., LeConte Creek at Twin Creeks, 11 December 1996, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Clingman's Dome, 14 May 1953, (Snow et al. 1958); Little River above the Sinks, 12 January 1999, 10 January 2003, larvae; Roaring Fork gorge, 23 March 2000, adults; Tunis Creek, 30 November 2001, larvae; Newfound Gap on trail past monument, 9 May 2002, adults; Twin Creeks, 1–15 March 1999, Malaise trap, coll. Parker, Stokes, Petersen.
Prosimulium mixtum was one of the most commonly encountered black flies as adults during late winter and spring. It infrequently bites humans in the Park but can be a pest because it crawls into the nose, eyes, and ears. Larvae of P. m i x t u m are the dominant winter black flies in most Park streams.
Simulium aranti Stone & Snoddy
Collections: North Carolina, Haywood Co., Big Creek, 19 July 2001, Malaise trap, coll. J. Cooper; Tennessee, Blount Co., Little River at the Sinks, 8 September 1999, larvae; Sevier Co., Little River near Elkmont, 2 September 1999, larvae.
Simulium aranti is a member of the S. jenningsi group and is present as larvae and adults during the summer. It was not previously known from Tennessee or North Carolina.
Simulium bracteatum Coquillett
Collections: North Carolina, Haywood Co., Cataloochee, spring in field, 9 January 2002 and 4 July 2002, larvae.
Simulium bracteatum is an ornithophilic black fly that develops in small streams. The larvae are usually present in the summer and fall. The collection in January was unexpected, but the relatively mild winter until that date might explain the presence of these larvae.
Simulium decorum Walker
Collections: North Carolina, Swain Co., Oconaluftee /Ravensford, 4 May 2001, CDC light trap, 5 June 2002, biting human; Tennessee, Sevier Co., W. tributary of Porters Creek, 27 July 1999, Malaise trap, coll. J. Cooper.
In the Park, S. decorum occasionally bites humans and will enter vehicles to feed. The bites of S. decorum can be irritating and cause localized swellings. Lok et al. (1980) demonstrated that S. decorum supports the development of Onchocerca lienalis Stiles and O. volvulus Leuckart in the laboratory. Simulium decorum has been implicated as a vector of leg worm, O. cervipedis Wehr & Dikmans, in deer and moose (Pledger et al. 1980).
Simulium fibrinflatum is an occasional pest of humans but is not known to bite (Gordon 1984; Adler & Kim 1986). The larvae occur in large slightly acidic streams (Gordon 1984).
Simulium gouldingi Stone
Collections: North Carolina, Haywood Co., W tributary of Palmer Creek, (1000
meters, 35.633oN, 83.0001oW), 16 April 1997, larvae, coll. P.H. Adler; Swain Co., Beck's Branch, 9 May 2002, larvae.
Simulium gouldingi develops in seepages and springs. The adults are ornithophilic and might be involved in the transmission of Leucocytozoon species and Trypanosoma species to birds in the Park.
Simulium impar Davies, Peterson, & Wood
Collections: North Carolina, Haywood, seepage at Palmer Place, 3 May 2002, larvae; Swain Co., Beck's Branch, 10 May 2001, larvae; Tennessee, Blount Co., Whistling Branch, 14 May 1991, larvae, coll. S. Traore; Little River, 15 May 1992, larvae, (Traore 1992); Mill Creek, 15 May 1992, larvae, coll. S. Traore.
Simulium impar is primarily active during the early spring. It is common and feeds on birds (Adler & Kim 1986).
Simulium infenestrum Moulton & Adler
Collection: North Carolina, Swain Co., Oconaluftee River at Oconaluftee/Ravensford, 7 August 2002, larvae.
Simulium infenestrum is a member of the S. jenningsi group. Adults can be pests of humans (Moulton & Adler 1995). Females of the S. jenningsi group that might have been S. infenestrum were feeding on humans and a feral cat in the Oconaluftee/Ravensford area. Other females collected in the same area were infected with mermithid nematodes. Our collection represents a new state record for this black fly.
Simulium jenningsi group
Collections: North Carolina, Haywood Co., Cataloochee, 9 January 2003, female (head only) in ear debris of elk; Purchase Knob, 31 July 2003, biting feral dog; Swain Co., Oconaluftee/Ravensford, 15 August 2002, biting feral cat, 9 May 2001, biting human; Clingman’s Dome parking lot, 22 July 2001, biting human; Tennessee, Cocke Co., Cosby, 22 July 2002, biting humans; Blount Co., Cades Cove, 4 August 2003, biting llama.
Most females of the S. jenningsi group cannot be identified to the species level. The unidentified females collected from the Park are probably S. aranti, S. fibrinflatum, S. infenestrum, or perhaps S. jenningsi sensu stricto. At least some members of the group are biting and nuisance pests of humans and livestock in North America and some are vectors of the filarial nematode O. lienalis of cattle (Adler & McCreadie 2002). This nematode often is covert and causes no apparent illness in most infected animals.
Simulium loerchae Adler
Collections: North Carolina, Haywood Co., Cataloochee spring in field, 19 March 2002, larvae; Swain Co., Beck's Branch, 10 May 2001, larvae; Sevier Co. unnamed tributary to the Pigeon River, 1 August 1991, larvae (Traore 1992).
Simulium loerchae develops in seepages and springs throughout the year. The females are ornithophilic and might be involved in the transmission of Leucocytozoon species and Trypanosoma species to birds in the Park. They also might be involved in the transmission of West Nile virus.
Simulium parnassum Malloch
Collections: North Carolina, Haywood Co., Big Creek, 17 May 2001, truck trap; Cataloochee, 22 July 2002, biting human; Purchase Knob, 21 July 2002, biting human, coll. P. Super; Swain Co., Bee Tree, 30 August 1994, fogged, coll. unknown; Mingus Mill, 19 May 2001, larvae; Laurel Branch of Noland Creek, 23 May 2001, larvae; Noland Creek, 25 May 2001, larvae; Clingman’s Dome, 22 July 2001, biting human; Oconaluftee/ Ravensford, 16 May 2002, biting human; Twentymile Creek, 16 May 2002, larvae; Tennessee, Blount Co., Tipton Place, 14 April 1992, larvae, (Traore 1992); Tremont Institute, 26 May 2001, adult, coll. P. Super; Bull Sink, 17 June 2001, adults; Cocke, Co., Cosby Creek, 29 May 2001, larvae; Sevier Co., Gatlinburg area, 15 June 1947, in hemlock forest, coll. R.H. Whittaker; Grotto Falls Trail (1064 meters, 35.6805°N, 83.4620°W), 26 June 1983, adult, coll. D. DeFoe; Rock Creek, 1 June 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Siler Creek, 13 June 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; seepage at US 441, 7 June 1998, larvae, coll. E.S. Paysen.
This species ranges throughout the Appalachians from Canada to Alabama. Paysen & Adler (2000) reviewed the taxonomy and polytene chromosomes of this species, and determined that it is not a species complex. Simulium parnassum is a univoltine, mammalophilic black fly that bites humans, causing irritation and local swelling.
Simulium pictipes Hagen
Collections: Tennessee, Blount Co., Little River, 17 June 2001, larvae; Sevier Co., Little River at the Sinks, 12 August 1999, larvae.
Simulium pictipes is one of the largest black flies in the Appalachians. The larvae live on bedrock and waterfalls in fast­running rivers. The only collections in the Park were made on the cascades that form the Sinks of the Little River. Similar habitats on the Middle Prong of the Pigeon River were examined but no larvae were discovered. Lok et al. (1983) demonstrated that S. pictipes is a competent experimental vector of O. lienalis and of a Guatemalan strain of O. volvulus. However, it typically does not feed on humans.
Simulium quebecense Twinn
Collections: North Carolina, Haywood Co., Cataloochee, 3 May 2002, larva; Swain Co., Deep Creek, 23 May 2001, larvae; Tennessee, Blount Co., Crib Mountain Road, 23 April 1982, (Adler & Kim 1986); Little River, 18 March 1992, larvae, (Traore 1992); Mill Creek, 15 March 1992, larvae, (Traore 1992); Sevier Co., Little River, 15 March 1992, larvae, (Traore 1992).
This black fly is usually found in streams 9 meters or more in width (Adler & Kim 1986). Collections from the Park support this observation. Fallis et al. (1974) implicated S. quebecense as a vector of L. bonasae Clarke (= L. lovati Seligman & Sambon) and L. dubreuili Mathis & Leger.
Simulium tuberosum (Lundström) cytotype A
Collections: North Carolina, Swain Co., Oconaluftee River, 4 May 2001, larvae; Tennessee, Blount Co., Little River, 1992, larvae, (Traore 1992).
Females of the S. tuberosum group feed on small mammals such as voles, squirrels, and rabbits (Malmqvist et al. 2004; Adler et al. 2004). No feeding records exist for the Park.
Simulium tuberosum cytospecies CDE
Collections: North Carolina, Haywood Co., Cataloochee Creek, 17 August 2001, larva; Swain Co., Oconaluftee River, 14 September 2000, larvae; Deep Creek, 22 December 2001, larvae; Tennessee, Blount Co., "Park", larvae, coll. M.T. Quinn; Tipton Place, 12 January 1992, larvae, (Traore 1992); Little River, 19 June 1992, larvae, (Traore 1992); Tabcat Creek (35.5227°N, 83.9869°W), 27 September 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Sevier Co., Shutts Prong, 23 August 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Little River, 14 September 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols.
Simulium tuberosum cytospecies CDE probably feeds on small mammals and is more common than S. tuberosum cytotype A in the Park. Reeves & Nayduch (2002) reported a bacterial pathogen from a larva of the S. tuberosum group collected near Deep Creek. The most probable host species was S. tuberosum cytospecies CDE.
Simulium vandalicum Dyar & Shannon
Collections: North Carolina, Haywood Co., Beech Creek, 11 July 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Lost Bottoms Creek, 12 July 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Cataloochee, 8 September 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Big Creek, 30 November 2001, larvae; Swain Co., Forney Creek, 23 June 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Straight Fork, 23 August 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Bunches Creek, 31 August 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Taywa Creek, 13 September 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Twentymile Creek, 13 September 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Oconaluftee/Ravensford, 4 May 2001, 14 February 2002, larvae; Mingus Mill, 19 May 2001, larvae; Deep Creek, 23 June 2001, larvae; Noland Creek, 23 May 2001, larvae; Collins Creek (792 meters, 35.5656°N, 83.3456°W), 20 June 2001, larvae; Tennessee, Blount Co., Little River, 1992, larvae, (Traore 1992); Sams Creek, 16 June 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Panther Creek, 21 September 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Shop Creek, 28 September 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Abrams Creek in Cades Cove, 25 May 2001, larvae; Parson Branch, 28 December 2001, larvae; Cocke Co., Cosby Creek, 29 May 2001, larvae; Sevier Co., Rock Creek, 1 June 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Sams Creek, 16 June 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Ash Camp Creek, 14 July 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Road Prong, 18 July 1994, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; Little Dudley Creek, 16 September 1996, larvae, coll. B. Nichols; LeConte Creek at Twin Creeks, 10 August 1999, larvae; Roaring Fork gorge, 16 July 2001, larvae; Tunis Creek, 30 November 2001, larvae; Brushy Mountain, 5–21 June 2001, Lingren funnel, male, coll. Parker, Stocks, & Petersen.
Simulium vandalicum was the most frequently collected black fly in the Park. The larvae are present throughout the year and develop in almost all of the Park streams regardless of size. The females probably feed on small mammals such as rodents.
Simulium venustum Say sensu stricto
Collections: North Carolina, Haywood Co, tributary of Palmer Creek, 16 April 1997, larvae, coll. P.H. Adler; Cataloochee, 20 May 1992, coll. S. Traore, larvae; Big Creek, 17 May 2001, adults; Swain Co., Deep Creek, 23 May 2001, larvae; Laurel Branch of Noland Creek, 23 May 2001, larvae; Oconaluftee River, 4 May 2001, larvae; Tennessee, Blount Co., Cades Cove, 14 April 1992, 15 May 1992, larvae, (Traore 1992); Little River, March 1993, larvae; Cocke Co., Cosby, 14 May 2002, biting human.
Simulium venustum feeds on mammals. It was erroneously reported as the vector of L. simondi Mathis & Leger to ducks (Fallis & Bennett 1961). Addison (1980) demonstrated that S. venustum is a vector of Dirofilaria ursi (Yamaguti), a filarial nematode of black bears, Ursus americanus Pallas. Simulium venustum has been implicated as a vector of leg worm, O. cervipedis, in deer and moose (Pledger et al. 1980).
Simulium verecundum Stone & Jamnback
Collections: North Carolina, Haywood Co., Cataloochee, 3 May 2002, larvae; Purchase Knob well spring, 14 May 2002, larvae; Swain Co., Oconaluftee River, 10 May 2001, larvae; Oconaluftee/Ravensford, 11 June 2003, biting horses.
Simulium verecundum is widespread throughout the USA. Adler & Kim (1986) noted that S. verecundum does not bite humans. Two females were collected as they fed on the groin of a horse. This record represents the first host association for S. verecundum.
Simulium vittatum complex
Collections: North Carolina, Haywood Co., 19 March 2002, Cataloochee, swarming around elk; Swain Co. Oconaluftee/Ravensford, 9 June 2001, biting horses. Adults of the two species in the S. vittatum complex cannot be identified; either or both species might occur in the Park. These black flies feed on mammals, including horses and elk. Simulium vittatum is a laboratory vector of L. smithi (Laveran & Lucet), a blood parasite of wild and domestic turkeys (Cupp 1987), but its role as a vector in nature is unknown. Simulium vittatum is a potential vector of vesicular stomatits virus (Mead et al. 1999).
Stegopterna diplomutata Currie & Hunter
Collections: North Carolina, Haywood Co., Cove Creek Gap, roadside seepage, 14 March 2001, larvae; Cataloochee, 3 May 2002, larvae; Purchase Knob, 27 April–15 May 2001, Lingren funnel, adult male, coll. Parker, Stocks, & Petersen; Swain Co., Clingman's Dome, seepage, 10 February 1999, larvae; Oconaluftee/Ravensford, 8 January 2001, larvae; Tennessee, Blount Co., Tipton Place, 15 February 1992, larvae, (Traore 1992); Sevier Co., seepage at 35.38o N, 83.81o W, 10 February 1999, larvae.
Stegopterna diplomutata is an early­season black fly. The larvae live in seepages and small streams. Females were not found on Park animals, but further trapping should determine what this black fly attacks. A parthenogenic triploid species, Stegopterna mutata (Malloch), might be present in the Park. Only S. diplomutata has males (Currie & Hunter 2003).
description: Published as part of Reeves, Will K., Adler, Peter H., Grogan, William L. & Super, Paul E., 2004, Hematophagous and Parasitic Diptera (Insecta) in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, USA, pp. 1-44 in Zootaxa 483 on pages 24-31, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.157582