Capra falconeri Wagner 1839
Creators: name: Don E. Wilson
name: Russell A. Mittermeier
Publisher: name: Lynx Edicions
Year: 2011
Subjects: Biodiversity
Taxonomy
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Artiodactyla
Bovidae
Capra
Capra falconeri

description: 179.
Markhor
Capra falconeri
French: Markhor / German: Markhor / Spanish: Marjor
Other common names: Astor Markhor, Flare-horned Markhor, Kabul Markhor, Pir Panjal Markhor, Straight-horned
Markhor, Sulaiman Markhor
Taxonomy. Aegoceros (Capra)falconeri Wagner, 1839,
Kashmir.
The Markhor is the most anatomically dissimilar species of Capra. Phylogenetic data based on mitochondrial genome fragments reveal that the genetic distance separating Markhor from other Capra species is small. Phylogenetic analysis of Y-chromosome data reveals that the Wild Goat (C. aegagrus) and the Markhor belong to one clade; the mtDNA data reveal support for the monophyly of all Capra species except for the Siberian Ibex (C. sibirica). The relationship of the Markhor to other Capra species remains unresolved. The so called “Chiltan Goat” population (chialtanensis), sometimes recognized as a separate subspecies, is most probably a population of Markhor x Wild Goat hybrids. Three subspecies recognized.
Subspecies and Distribution.
C.f.falconeriWagner,1839—NEAfghanistan,NPakistan,andNIndia.
C.f.heptneriZalkin,1945—STajikistan,SETurkmenistan,SWUzbekistan,NAfghanistan.
C. f. megaceros Hutton, 1842 — WC Pakistan, E Afghanistan.
Descriptive notes. Head-body 155-170 cm (males), tail 10-20 cm, shoulder height 65-104 cm; weight 80-108 kg (males) and 32-50 kg (females). Horn length 80-165 cm (males), rarely longer than 35 cm in females, horn basal circumference 15-34 cm (males). Females weigh about 50% less than males. There is great variation in the tightness of the horn twist and horn flare; Markhors have the greatest variation in horn configuration of all wild Capra. Horns either spiral upward and then flare, with the tips highly divergent, typical of subspecies falconeri and hepineri, or grow relatively straight in a tight spiral, typical of subspecies megaceros, but there can be variation within a population. General body color is reddish-gray, but with more yellow-buff tones in the summer coat of both genders and more gray in the winter coat. In males, a darker crest of longer hair extends from the withers down the spine. Long, white or gray shaggy hair develops on older males on the front of the neck, brisket, shoulder, upper part of the forelegs, and upper front of hindlegs. The long hair on the sides of the cheeks is continuous with the long, dark hair that forms the beard. Females also develop a beard. Neck and chest ruff in subspecies megaceros are not as well developed. The belly and legs are creamy, except for the front of the shanks, which are darker. A callosity surrounded by white hairs on the knee breaks the dark pattern on the front legs. The rump patch is small and whitish. The dark tail is short and not as bushy as that of ibexes. Males rarely live more than twelve years. Diploid chromosome numberis 60.
Habitat. Markhors occur at 600-3600 m above sea level. In the Himalayas, Markhors occur at higher elevations (1700-3600 m) than do southern populations. They are found in open, forested areas of oaks and conifers or in areas with tall shrubs and scattered trees interspersed with smaller shrubs in northern, higher elevations. Markhors can inhabit areas with a high percentage of canopy cover. In west-central Pakistan, they inhabit arid, almost treeless areas, largely denuded by human overexploitation, with temperatures of up to 45°C and average annual precipitation of 200-250 mm; prolonged droughts can occur. Females use open, steeper resting sites than males. In Turkmenistan, adult males occurred at elevations higher than 1800 m and females generally occurred below 1800 m in large rugged canyons. Markhors have the reputation of being the most agile climbers of all wild Capra in Asia, able to occupy the steepest and rockiest habitats. Major wild predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia).
Food and Feeding: Markhors eat equal proportions of graminoids and forbs (26% each) and 48% browse. They prefer graminoids and forbs in summer and browse in winter. In northern Pakistan, oak leaves constituted 88% of their winter food; they also actively seek oak acorns. They actively climb trees to browse on leaves and twigs during winter. On one occasion, 27 out of a group of 40 were feeding in trees. Females in northern Pakistan spent 37% oftheir total feeding time foraging in trees, usually at a height of 1-5 m, but up to 9 m. They are agile climbers, capable ofjumping from limb to limb. Males older than three years of age do not climb trees because of their weight and the hindrance of their horns. They feed on leaves on the ground, especially those that fall when others are foraging in trees. In some regions, trees are not a major habitat component, and they spend considerable time feeding on steep slopes and cliffs. In Tajikistan, adult females consumed 7-11 kg and kids 2.4-4 kg of forage per day based on fresh forage weight.
Breeding. In northern Pakistan, Markhors mate in mid-December to early January. In southern subspecies megaceros populations, mating occurs in October-November. Females first give birth at 2-3 years old. Older males actively court individual females and do most of the mating. After a gestation period of 165-175 days, females give birth to one or two neonates in late April to earlyJune.
Activity patterns. Moving and feeding are most common in the morning and late afternoon. Resting is common at noon and early afternoon. Markhors prefer southern slopes in summer and winter. During winter, at midday, after valley bottoms warm, Markhors descend and forage on the slopes until after dark.
Movements, Home range and Social organization. Markhors move around considerably during the course of a year. Distance between winter and summer range can be 10-15 km; total annual range is 80 km ®. Detailed home range studies have not been conducted. In northern Pakistan, in a population of about 100 Markhors, 31% were adult females, 8:-5% yearling females, 40% young, and 20-5% males. Of the males, 7-9% were yearlings, 2-4% were 2-5 years old, 4-2% were 3-5 years old, and 6-1% 4-5 years old or older. The sex ratio was about 50 males:100 females. Female herds consisted of 2-18 individuals, with a mean of nine. In Tajikistan, in a population of about 50 Markhors, 26% were adult females, 40% were kids, 24% were yearlings, and 10% were adult males. In a strictly controlled hunted population in west-central Pakistan, 14% of males were six or more years old.
Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Most populations are unmonitored and population numbers are not documented. The total number of subspecies falconeri probably does not exceed 8500 and the total number of subspecies megaceros probably does not exceed 3500. Populations of subspecies heptneri greatly declined recently due to a disease outbreak in Tajikistan; the total number throughout its range probably does not exceed 800. Populations in Afghanistan are unprotected and particularly vulnerable: there are probably fewer than 200. The threat throughout the Markhor’s range is illegal commercial and subsistence hunting. There has been widespread extirpation; habitat degradation and fragmentation have relegated the Markhor to marginal habitats. Most populations are isolated and disjunct because of increasing agricultural development, excessive grazing of rangelands, and other human intrusions. Livestock and wildlife-coordinated grazing management and incentive-driven community-based conservation programs need to be developed and implemented. Population monitoring and enforcement of game laws are also urgently needed. Successful trophy-hunting programs for subspecies falconeri and megaceros have been developed in Pakistan, and have generated more than US $ 2 million for community development. Markhors are protected by local game wardens paid by funds generated through sport-hunting programs, and populations have increased. Of the US $ 35,000 trophy fee charged per Markhor, 20% goes to the government and 80% to the local community. These populations are periodically monitored. Under the protection of local Pathan tribesmen, the Markhor population increased from 700 in 1994 to 2500 in 2005.
Bibliography. Baskin & Danell (2003), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1966), Fedosenko et al (2000), Fox & Johnsingh (1997), Frisina & Tareen, (2009), Grubb (2005), Habibi (1997a, 2003), Heptner et al. (1988), Hess (1990a, 2001), Hess et al. (1997), Ishunin (1961), Johnson (1997), Kuzanskaya et al. (2007), Lux et al. (2004), Lydekker & Dollman (1924), Manceau, Després et al. (1999), Mishra et al. (2001), Pidancier et al. (2006), Ranjitsinh et al. (2005), Roberts (1997), Schaller (1977), Schaller & Khan (1975), Schaller & Mirza (1971), Sokov (1993), Valdez (2008a), Weinberg et al. (1997), Woodford et al. (2004).
description: Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Bovidae, pp. 444-779 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 675-676, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484