6.  The first applicant was born in 1947 and lives in Dolyna, a city in the Ivano-Frankivsk Region.
In December 1996 her mother obtained a share of land in the village of Kopytkove in the Zdolbunivsky district of the Rivne region (see paragraphs 11 to 14 below concerning the nature of shares of land and their subsequent conversion into plots). Following her mother’s death in November 1999, the first applicant inherited that share and obtained a certificate confirming that she had become its new owner on 25 May 2000. On 10 January 2006 the Zdolbuniv District State Administration allocated a plot of land to her measuring 2.5917 hectares, zoned for use as an individual smallholding (особисте селянське господарство, see paragraph 18 below for a description of zoning categories of agricultural land under Ukrainian law).
The applicant obtained a property certificate in respect of that land on 13 August 2007. She rented out 2.0917 hectares to a company under a lease registered on 30 May 2015 and due to expire on 10 November 2021, and 0.5 hectares to another company under a fifteen-year lease registered on 10 August 2016. According to the applicant, she receives rent in kind, either in grain or sunflower oil, depending on the crops grown on the land in a given year.
7.  The second applicant was born in 1939 and lives in Ternopil.
On an unspecified date his mother obtained the right to a share of land in the village of Rakovets in the Zbarazh district of the Ternopil region. In November 2004 he inherited it from her. On 27 March 2008 the Zbarazh District State Administration allocated 3.41 hectares of agricultural land to him, zoned for commercial agricultural production (товарне сілськогосподарське виробництво). He obtained a property certificate on 22 July 2008.
The land is rented by a limited liability company. Since 2010 the second applicant has received rent in the following amounts:
Year
UAH
(in total)
UAH
(per hectare)
Approximate equivalent in EUR
(per hectare)
2010
8.  The applicants’ land is subject to legislative restrictions on alienation and change of designated use, which are described in “Relevant domestic material” and, as regards their current state, in paragraph 22 below.
9.  Under the laws of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, prior to the enactment of the Land Code of 18 December 1990 (hereinafter “the Land Code”), individuals and non-State entities could not own land and all land was owned by the State.
10.  Under Article 17 of the Land Code, local councils were authorised to transfer land to individuals and non-State entities. However, for a period of six years, those who acquired land could not sell or otherwise dispose of it (except in cases of inheritance). They could only transfer the property back to their local council. The courts could shorten this period if there was a valid reason for such a decision.
11.  In the 1990s a large proportion of the country’s agricultural land was held by the former Soviet collective and State-owned farms which, under the Law of 14 February 1992 were renamed “collective agricultural enterprises” (hereinafter “CAEs” or “collective farms”).
12.  Presidential Decree no. 720/95 of 8 August 1995 provided for a programme of gradual reform of the CAEs through the issuance to their current and former members of shares of land, that is to say land entitlements in the form of shares of the whole land mass of the CAE expressed as a number of hectares but without a specific physical location or defined boundaries. The decree provided that the shares were to be distributed to current and former members of CAEs as well as to certain categories of workers employed in the social sector (education, medicine and so forth) in rural areas. While the decree gave members of the CAEs the ability to withdraw from their CAEs with their shares, the large-scale process of dissolving the CAEs through the issuance of shares did not actually start until 1999 (see next paragraph).
13.  Presidential Decree no. 1529/99 of 3 December 1999 accelerated the land reform by requiring the dissolution of all CAEs by April 2000, through the distribution of shares of land and other assets to their members. In the process of dissolving the CAEs, a large proportion of the rural population acquired shares of land.
14.  A large-scale process of converting the shares into physical plots of land (defined on the ground) was then organised. As a result of this process, millions of new owners were issued with ownership certificates relating to specific plots of land.[1] The land owned by the applicants underwent this process (see paragraphs 6 and 7 above).
15.  According to Parliamentary Resolution no. 882-IV of 22 May 2003 summarising the provisional results of the land reform, during the process 6.87 million Ukrainians obtained shares of land and 3.17 million had them converted into plots of land. Parliament noted some difficulties in the issuance of shares of land and their conversion into plots of land, with some regions falling behind: only 13% of share owners obtained property certificates to plots of land in the Zhytomyr Region, while this figure stood at 96% in the Kirovograd Region. Some 107,000 shares were sold or otherwise disposed of by their new owners, which, according to Parliament, showed that they had not been adequately informed about the land reform and their rights and duties.[2]
Parliament observed that, due to a lack of funding, the Cabinet of Ministers was only planning to complete the share conversion and titling work by 2006, which made it impossible to introduce the land sales market from 1 January 2005, as the Land Code provided at the time (see paragraph 19 below).
16.  Law no. 2242-III of 18 January 2001 prohibited, until the enactment of a new Land Code, the alienation of shares of land, except in cases of inheritance and expropriation for public needs.
17.  On 25 October 2001 a new Land Code was enacted. It entered into force on 1 January 2002.
18.  Article 22 § 3 of the new Land Code defines the following categories of designated use for agricultural land: (i) individual smallholdings; (ii) land for fruit and vegetable growing; (iii) land for pasture and hay harvesting; (iv) land for commercial agricultural production; and (v) individual farming enterprises, that is to say commercial entities owned by individual farmers engaged in commercial agricultural production.
19.  Article 15 of the Transitional Provisions of the new Land Code provided that until 1 January 2005 individuals and non-State entities could not sell or otherwise transfer title to two categories of land in their ownership: (i) plots zoned for individual farming enterprises or for other commercial agricultural production and (ii) shares of land. Swap transactions, inheritance cases and expropriation for public needs were exempt from the ban. The ban, which has been subsequently extended and modified (see the Table in paragraph 21 below) is commonly referred to in Ukraine as the “the land moratorium” (земельний мораторій).
20.  According to the Government, the transcript of the parliamentary session at which the new Code was passed shows that the moratorium was introduced in view of the need for additional time to form a land market with “adequate” prices and enact legislation necessary for the creation of such a market. In particular, according to the transcript, at the opening of the debate Member of Parliament V. Asadchev expressed his concern that, if rules of the Code concerning the transfer of land into private hands were to be adopted, this would create a few large landowners (десять латифундистів) and transform the rest of the population into hired agricultural labour (батраки). In presenting the draft Code for the vote, Ms K. Vashchuk, Chairwoman of the Parliamentary Committee for Land Affairs and Agriculture, stated that, in order to address concerns such as those expressed by the MP, the draft suspended the operation of all provisions concerning the sale of land until 2005, until laws on the creation of a land cadastre, land registration and others were passed and a State land bank was established.[3]
21.  The Land Code was amended on a number of occasions as to both the duration and scope of the original ban, as summarised in the Table below:
Table Key legislative developments concerning the land moratorium
No.
Date of the law 
End date of the ban
Changes in the scope of the moratorium and other related changes
Summary of the reasons given in the explanatory note to the draft law
1
06/10/2004
01/01/2007
Swap transactions involving land, including swaps of land for equity in companies, prohibited
Legislation governing the land market had not yet been developed by the Cabinet of Ministers; technical work was needed to prepare the administrations for processing land transactions. The “extension” was needed to prevent “ impoverishment of the Ukrainian people” and the buying up of land by Ukrainian and foreign tycoons (магнати)
2
09/02/2006 
 
Contracts and powers of attorney envisaging future (after expiry of the moratorium) transfers of land subject to the moratorium declared invalid
Legislation aimed at preventing circumvention of the moratorium through the issuance of powers of attorney by land owners to third parties authorising them to dispose of the land subject to the moratorium[4]
3
19/12/2006
01/01/2008
Moratorium extended, in addition to land for commercial agricultural production, to individual smallholdings (see paragraph 18 above); any change of designated use of the land subject to the moratorium forbidden; swap transactions involving a swap of one land plot for another allowed again
Develop private land ownership, ensure the unrestricted exercise of owners’ rights, and ensure free circulation of land except in the cases provided for by law. The creation of a land market would allow transfers of land to more efficient users but in order to do so the market had to be subject to reasonable regulation. Such regulation should include: limits on changing the designated use, the imposition of criteria to qualify as a buyer of land, limiting the maximum plot sizes of certain land and the concentration of land in the hands of a single person and family etc.
4
28/12/2007 and 03/06/2008[5]
Until entry into force of the Land Cadastre Act and Land Market Act
No notable changes
The amendments were incorporated in omnibus bills covering mostly budgetary matters and containing a wide range of changes; there were apparently no specific comments made on the moratorium issue[6]
5
19/01/2010
Until entry into force of the Land Cadastre Act and Land Market Act, but not before 01/01/2012 
No notable changes
Legislation regulating land relations had not yet been developed; technical work was needed to prepare administrations for processing land transactions. The “extension” was needed to prevent “impoverishment of the Ukrainian people” and the buying up of land by Ukrainian and foreign tycoons
6
07/07/2011
and 01/01/2013
 
 
Land Cadastre Act was enacted and entered into force 
 
7
09/12/2011
 
Parliament approved the draft Land Market Act at the first reading (see paragraph 40 below). It appears that no further progress on the bill was made
In the course of the parliamentary debate it was proposed to rename the Land Market Act the Circulation of Agricultural Land Act (“the CALA”).[7]
8
20/12/2011
Until entry into force of the Land Market Act, but not before 01/01/2013
No notable changes
The Land Cadastre Act would enter into force on 1 January 2013 and the end of moratorium should be set for that specific date
9
02/10/2012
 
Change of designated use was allowed where land was allocated to an investor under a production-sharing agreement
Encourage investment under production-sharing agreements, particularly in the field of the exploration and extraction of hydrocarbons
10
20/11/2012
Until entry into force of the CALA, but not before 01/01/2016
The law extending the moratorium instructed the Cabinet of Ministers to produce the draft CALA and submit it to Parliament within six months. 
Even though the draft Land Market Act had been approved at the first reading on 9 December 2011, it had not yet been passed into law. A change to the concept of that bill was envisaged, with the name changing to the CALA. An “extension” of the moratorium was needed to develop an effective mechanism for sales and overseeing sales of land and to prevent possible abuses
11
10/11/2015
The same as in row 10, but not before 01/01/2017
The law extending the moratorium instructed the Cabinet of Ministers to produce the draft CALA and submit it to Parliament by 01/03/2016
Lifting the moratorium in times of war and economic crisis would be a threat to national and food security and the threat of a loss of land, as an important national resource. A step-by-step roadmap for introducing agricultural land into circulation, which would be clear to the public, needed to be developed. The moratorium created difficulties in obtaining finance for agricultural production, and led to depopulation of the countryside. In order to solve these and other problems created by the moratorium, the CALA had to be passed and the land eventually introduced into circulation 
12
06/10/2016
The same as in row 10, but not before 01/01/2018
Draft CALA to be submitted by 01/07/2017 Apparently no such draft was submitted by the Cabinet of Ministers by this or the previously set deadlines, although two drafts of the CALA were submitted in 2016 by certain MPs (see paragraph 43 below)
While the creation of a land market was a necessary element of the development of a market economy, the market had to be transparent and fair, competitive and efficient, and be able to prevent shadow transactions. Therefore the “extension” was needed to develop legislation regulating the land market[8]
13
07/12/2017
The same as in row 10, but not before 01/01/2019
Draft CALA to be submitted by 01/07/2018
Abolition of the moratorium in times of war and economic crisis without having in place legislation regulating the circulation of agricultural land would create risks for national and food security. A lifting of the moratorium had to be preceded by legislative work to encourage the creation of a network of strong farmers’ enterprises and cooperatives. The prohibition on the sale of agricultural land was a barrier for attracting investment in the agricultural sector since land could not be used as security for loans, but its lifting could not be the end in itself and needed to be thought of as a measure to encourage investment in the agricultural sector without, at the same time, leading to landlessness among the rural population[9]
22.  As at today’s date, the Transitional Provisions of the Land Code prohibit alienation in any form of most agricultural land, including of the categories owned by the applicants, except in cases of inheritance, swap transactions and expropriation for public use. They also prohibit any change in the designated use of such land, except where it has been allocated to an investor under a production-sharing agreement. Currently the Transitional Provisions state that those restrictions are to remain effective until the entry into force of the Circulation of Agricultural Land Act (“the CALA”), but in any case at least until 1 January 2019.
23.  Article 13 § 1 of the Constitution of 1996 provides that land, its subsoil, air, water and other resources are the property of the Ukrainian people (є об’єктами права власності Українського народу). Article 13 § 4 requires the State to ensure protection of the rights of all property owners and economic players and social orientation of the economy. Article 14 § 1 provides that land is the main national asset, and is under the special protection of the State. Article 14 § 2 guarantees the right to land ownership and provides that land ownership may be acquired and exercised by citizens, legal entities and the State in accordance with the law.
24.  Article 22 provides that human and citizens’ rights and freedoms are guaranteed and may not be diminished by the enactment of new laws or the amendment of laws that are already in force.
25.  Article 41 of the Constitution reads:
 “Everyone shall have the right to own, use, or dispose of his or her property and the results of his or her intellectual or creative activities.
...
No one shall be unlawfully deprived of the right to property. The right to private property shall be inviolable...”
26.  On 17 February 2017 fifty-five Members of Parliament lodged an application with the Constitutional Court seeking to have the Law of 6 October 2016 reaffirming the moratorium declared unconstitutional.[10] They invoked Articles 13, 14, and 41 of the Constitution set out above as well as Articles 8 (the principle of the rule of law), 24 (non-discrimination), 42 (the right to enterprise), 48 (the right to a sufficient standard of living), and 64 (general provision concerning the restriction of constitutional rights) of the Constitution.
On 14 February 2018 the Constitutional Court rejected the application without examining it on the merits. It found the arguments presented in support of that application for abstract review insufficiently developed to permit the opening of the constitutional review proceedings and its substantive examination. It concluded that the application failed to meet the requirements of section 51 § 3 of the Constitutional Court Act which sets out the details an application must contain, namely the reasoning as to why the applicant considered a given provision unconstitutional.
According to the information on the Constitutional Court’s web site, as of 6 April 2018, which appears to be the most recent information publicly available on the date of examination of the case by the Court, there was no new application for constitutional review of the matter in question pending.[11]
27.  Article 281.3 of the Tax Code of 2010 exempts from property tax land rented to commercial agricultural producers benefitting from the simplified taxation regime.[12] Article 281.1.3 exempts old-age pensioners from the payment of land tax.
28.  Article 78 § 1 defines ownership as the right to possess, use and dispose of land.
29.  Article 81 § 2 and Article 82 §§ 2 and 3 provide that foreign nationals, stateless persons, foreign legal entities and legal entities with foreign capital can only own non-agricultural land of certain categories.
30.  Article 91 requires land owners to use land according to its designated use category, respect environmental rules, improve land fertility, respect neighbours’ rights, and so forth. Article 143 provides that a court may order expropriation of land without compensation in cases of failure to respect the designated use of the land or rectify a serious breach of land protection rules despite a warning from the land protection authorities.
31.  Article 130 provides that land zoned for commercial agricultural production can only be acquired by a Ukrainian national with sufficient educational qualifications or experience to engage in agricultural production or by a Ukrainian legal entity which has agriculture listed in its articles of association among the types of business it can engage in. The municipality where the land is located, as well as its permanent residents, have a right of first refusal in respect of the land sold.
32.  Item 13 of the Transitional Provisions of the Code, as in force in 2001, provided that a single person or entity could not acquire more than 100 hectares of agricultural land. The Law of 6 October 2004 (the first extension of the moratorium – see row 1 of the Table in paragraph 21 above) extended that limitation to 1 January 2015. It expired on that date. However, given that most agricultural land could not be sold throughout the period, it would appear that the restriction never had much practical application.
33.  The Land Lease Act (section 21) provides that rent is set by agreement of the parties. However, Presidential Decree no. 92/2002 of 2 February 2002 instructed the Cabinet of Ministers and local executive authorities to take operational measures to ensure that the level of rent under land leases would be at least 3% of the land’s estimated value. According to the statistics published by the State Land Cadastre Agency, in 2013 74.4% of leases provided for rent of at least 3% of the value.[13]
34.  Section 19 of the Land Lease Act provides that for the main categories of agricultural land, the term of lease cannot be less than seven years and, for any lease, cannot exceed fifty years.
35.  The State Land Cadastre Agency published certain statistics concerning the land lease market in Ukraine on which the parties relied in their submissions:
(i)  as at 2013 there were 4,741,400 leases concerning shares of land in former CAEs or plots converted from former shares, covering 17.5 million hectares. Of them 35.5% were with entities which were successors of former collective farms, 14.2% with individual farming enterprises (see paragraph 18 above) and 50.3% with other entities. The national average rent was UAH 563.50 (around EUR 48 at the time). 52.2% of landlords were pensioners;[14]
(ii)  as at April 2015 the number of leases rose to 4.8 million, the national average annual rent was UAH 727.6 per hectare (about EUR 29 at the time) and the average rent for the Rivne and Ternopil regions, where the first and the second applicant’s land was located, were UAH 1068.80 and 546.10 per hectare (EUR 42 and 21 respectively).[15]
36.  On 31 May 2002, in his annual address to Parliament on the state of the nation, the President of Ukraine stressed the need to create the structure for an efficient and transparent land market by 2005, when the moratorium would expire. Important aspects were the creation of a transparent property registration system, introduction of the ability to use land as security for mortgage financing and completion of the conversion of shares of land into plots and the issuance of property certificates.[16]
37.  Coalition Agreements of 22 June 2006 and 29 November 2007[17] and an action programme of the Cabinet of Ministers of 16 January 2008[18] stated, in nearly identical terms, that the coalition and government had the following priorities: creation of the conditions for the functioning of the land market (issuance of ownership certificates, demarcation of boundaries of plots of land, putting the land cadastre into operation, land valuations, introduction of the mechanism for land market regulation) and then revocation of the moratorium.
38.  On 17 June 2009 the Cabinet of Ministers approved the outline of a State programme for the development of land relations until 2020. It noted a number of problems in land relations and listed a number of measures to resolve them, including the gradual introduction into circulation of land and rights to it and the creation and development of a land market.
39.  On 7 April 2011, in his annual address to Parliament on the state of the nation, the President of Ukraine stated that the moratorium was preventing the transfer of land to efficient owners, thus slowing down the development of the agricultural sector. Steps in order to introduce a regulated land market had to be taken urgently.[19]
40.  On 9 December 2011 Parliament approved the draft Land Market Act at the first reading (see paragraph 21 above).[20] The draft law provided that only citizens of Ukraine, municipalities and the State could acquire agricultural land. A single citizen would not be permitted to own more than 100 hectares of land zoned for commercial agricultural production or rent more than 6,000 hectares of such land in any one district or more than 5% of the land in any one region. The caps would also apply to those associated with the individual. The bill provided that owners of neighbouring land would have a right of first refusal in the event of alienation of agricultural land and that such land could not be sold for less than the price determined by an expert, a procedure to be regulated by law. Rezoning of formerly publicly owned agricultural land would be prohibited for ten years after acquisition. The bill also contained a number of other rules aimed at safeguarding the efficient use of agricultural land.
41.  On 3 July 2012, in his annual address to Parliament on the state of the nation, the President of Ukraine stated that that year, before revocation of the moratorium, a mechanism for the effective protection of the interests of agricultural producers and of food security of the country needed to be created and their effective functioning secured.[21]
42.  In his annual addresses to Parliament on the state of the nation in 2016 and 2017, the President of Ukraine made the following remarks concerning the land moratorium.
On 6 September 2016 he said:
“The inability to freely sell and buy agricultural land unquestionably inhibits investment in agriculture, reduces and breaches the rights of the rural population, among other things, lease rights, taking the last remaining kopeks out of their pockets. This is axiomatic. However, I am also aware of public opinion on this matter and the position of the majority of parliamentary groups. I value and respect that. But how can we resolve this problem, my dear legislators? This is within your purview. Either to stick your head in the sand and change nothing or to work to create a land market in Ukraine with all the possible safeguards against any possible negative impact.”[22]
On 7 September 2017 he said:
“.. In Estonia they have privatised everything: ports, telecommunications, aviation and even the railways. In Poland out of 8,500 State companies the State has kept only 41. And, by the way, their land has not been bought up by foreigners, despite the fact that the residents of those countries can easily buy and sell agricultural land.
Until now, Ukrainians have been deprived of that right. Millions of people formally own land but it has been decided for them that they are unable to handle it and an unconstitutional moratorium was introduced. Why then do we allow people to sell their flats? Because you know, by this logic, someone could come along and buy them all up.
As a statesman, in making decisions I must have regard to public opinion. For now, unfortunately, it has been formed by the populists. I am not going to put pressure on Parliament to adopt the land reform, I will not do it. But I am asking you to make a resolution, for now at least a silent one, in your minds, in favour of such a reform. Enact such laws which would assuage the phobias, which would remove all the objections, introduce all the necessary safeguards, introduce minimum prices, make registers transparent, protect the rural population but also give them freedom. I am asking you to set, I invite you to set, a specific date when all of this could be launched, even if not today.”[23]
43.  On 3 April 2017 the Cabinet of Ministers approved its mid-term action plan for up until 2020 and its priority action plan for 2017. The 2020 plan describes the continuing maintenance of the moratorium as one of the main problems in the agricultural sector that deprives a large number of Ukrainian citizens of the opportunity to exercise their constitutional right to property and obstructs the development of the agricultural market. The plan provides that the problem created by the moratorium could be resolved through nationwide discussion and the introduction of a land market based on a model acceptable to the population. The 2017 plan stated that the draft CALA would be submitted to Parliament in the second quarter of 2017. However, it appears that no such bill has been introduced.[24]
44.  The Government submitted information about protest actions led by farmers in early October 2016 in a number of regions, including highway blockades. The farmers called for the restoration of tax benefits for the agricultural sector. One of their demands was also to reaffirm the land moratorium.
45.  It appears from the material available to the Court on the legislation of member States of the Council of Europe that none of the thirty‑two member States surveyed has a general ban on the sale or any other form of alienation of agricultural land. The same can be said about the two non‑member States surveyed, Canada and the United States of America.
46.  Although twenty-two of the thirty-two member States surveyed have undergone a land-reform programme since 1990 (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Germany (after unification), Greece, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, the Republic of Moldova, Montenegro, Poland, Romania, the Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia), none of those States have since that time imposed such a general ban, even though some used to impose time-limited restrictions on the resale of land acquired as a result of privatisation, for example three years in Armenia and ten years in Russia (according to pre‑2001 legislation).
47.  However, in many of the member States surveyed transfers of agricultural land are subject to a number of restrictions and conditions.
48.  Thus, in seven of the member States surveyed (Austria, France, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Norway and Sweden), the transfer of ownership of agricultural land must be authorised by a special government body. Generally speaking, the authorisation procedure is normally aimed at preserving the effective use of the land for agriculture, so that for example in Austria for the authorisation to be issued the buyer needs to provide assurances that he or she will actually cultivate the acquired land. In another example, in Norway a typical condition on which authorisation is granted may be that the buyer must move onto the land and live on it for five years. In a further three member States (Poland, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia) some categories of buyers, notably those already engaged in farming or their family members, are exempted from the authorisation procedure.
49.  In seven of the member States surveyed (Austria, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia), qualifications or prior experience in the agricultural sector on the part of the buyer are required for the transfer of ownership of land or to confer priority over other buyers. Some States, such as Estonia, Poland and Sweden, generally authorise only individuals, and not legal entities, to acquire agricultural land of a certain size and subject acquisition by legal entities to additional conditions, such as the need to obtain a permit.
50.  More than half of the member States surveyed – eighteen out of thirty-two, namely Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Czech Republic, Finland, France, Georgia, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, the Russian Federation, Serbia, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia – have pre-emption laws, securing a right of first refusal mostly to co-owners, close family members, neighbouring or other farmers, tenants, agricultural enterprises, municipalities and in some cases the State.
51.  In nine of the member States surveyed (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Georgia, the Republic of Moldova, Montenegro, the Russian Federation and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia), agricultural land cannot generally be sold to foreign persons. In addition, the majority of the surveyed former Soviet Union and other Central and East European member States make a distinction between European Union nationals, who generally can acquire agricultural land subject to compliance with other restrictions and after the expiry of certain time-limited transitional periods, and third-country nationals, for whom restrictions are more severe (for example, the requirement to obtain a special permit in Estonia and a ban on ownership by third-country nationals in Hungary). However, these restrictions are subject to exceptions, notably in cases of inheritance and where more liberal rules are provided by international agreements. A special regime may thus be in place with member States of the European Economic Area and of the Organisation for Economic Co‑operation and Development.
52.  In eight of the member States surveyed (Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Russian Federation, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey) there are restrictions on the size of agricultural land that can be disposed of. Generally, these States impose caps on the maximum amount of land which can be owned by the same person (ranging from 300 hectares in Hungary to 10% of the agricultural land area in a territorial unit in Russia) although some also limit the minimum size of land parcels, seeking to prevent excessive subdivision of land below a certain size.
53.  Certain States have particular procedures in place for the sale of agricultural land. For instance, Bosnia and Herzegovina requires land most suitable for agriculture to be sold at public auctions. States, such as Italy, which have pre-emption laws, also have in place detailed procedures aimed at ensuring the effective exercise of pre-emption rights.
54.  Special restrictions also exist in certain sensitive areas such as border areas and areas adjacent to military installations (for example, in Greece and Serbia).