Document: 447 U.S. 455 100 S.Ct. 2286 65 L.Ed.2d 263 Bernard CAREY, etc., Appellant,v.Roy BROWN et al. No. 79-703. Argued April 15, 1980. Decided June 20, Syllabus An Illinois statute generally prohibits picketing of residences or dwellings, but exempts from its prohibition peaceful a place employment involved in labor dispute. Appellees were convicted state court violating the when they picketed Mayor Chicago's home protest against his alleged failure to support busing schoolchildren achieve racial integration. Thereafter, appellees brought suit Federal District Court, seeking declaratory judgment that is unconstitutional on face and as applied, an injunction prohibiting appellant other local officials enforcing statute. The Court denied all relief, Appeals reversed, holding statute, both applied appellees, violated Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. Held : under Amendment since it makes impermissible distinction between picketing. Police Department Chicago v. Mosley, 408 92, 92 2286, 33 212. Pp. 459-471. (a) In public streets sidewalks residential neighborhoods, regulates expressive conduct falls within First Amendment's preserve, and, exempting general prohibition, discriminates lawful unlawful based upon content demonstrator's communication. On face, accords preferential treatment expression views one particular subject; information about disputes may be freely disseminated discussion issues restricted. permissibility thus dependent solely nature message being conveyed. 459-463. (b) Standing alone, State's asserted interest promoting privacy not sufficient save no attempt distinguish among various sorts nonlabor basis harms would inflict interest. More fundamentally, exclusion cannot upheld means protecting for simple reason nothing content-based labor-nonlabor has any bearing privacy. 464-465. (c) Similarly, providing special protection protests cannot, without more, justify exemption. Labor more deserving than are over issues, particularly important economic, social, political subjects which wished demonstrate. 466-467. (d) Nor can justified accommodate competing rights homeowner enjoy employee demonstrate disputes, such hinges validity these goals, latter which—the desire favor form speech others—is illegitimate. Likewise, prohibit impinge while permitting not. Numerous types have negligible impact interests, numerous actions might constitute "nonresidential" uses property serve vitiate right 467-469. (e) While well-being, tranquility, highest order, crucial question whether advances objective manner consistent with Clause. Because pickets subject matter their expression, answer must "No." 470-471. 602 F.2d 791, 7th Cir., affirmed. Ellen G. Robinson, Chicago, Ill., appellant, pro hac vice, by leave Court. Edward Burke Arnolds, appellees. Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion 1 At issue this case constitutionality Amendments bars "the dispute." 2 * September 6, 1977, several whom members civil organization entitled Committee Against Racism, participated demonstration sidewalk front Michael Bilandic, then protesting They arrested charged violation Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. 38, § 21.1-2 (1977), provides: 3 "It picket before residence dwelling person, except used business. However, Article does apply person peacefully own dispute meeting assembly premises commonly discuss interest."1 4 pleaded guilty charge sentenced periods supervision ranging six months year. 5 1978, commenced lawsuit United States Northern Illinois, defendants—various state, county, city officials—from did attack collaterally earlier state-court convictions, requested only prospective relief. Alleging renew neighborhoods inhibited doing so threat criminal prosecution challenged Act overbroad, vague, light exception picketing, restriction protected expression. ruling cross-motions summary judgment, Brown Scott, 462 F.Supp. 518 (1978). 6 Seventh Circuit reversed. 791 (1979). Discerning "no principled basis" distinguishing similar invalidated 212 (1972), concluded Act's differential could either peace character also "place employment." Accordingly, held Amendment.2 We noted probable jurisdiction. 444 1011, 658, 62 639 (1980). affirm. II 7 As observed first instance had occasion consider enactment selectively proscribing placard's message. supra, arose out challenge ordinance prohibited school "involved dispute."3 because impermissibly distinguished showing was "clearly disruptive" former. U.S., at 100, S.Ct., 2292. Like Appeals, we find present constitutionally indistinguishable Mosley. 8 There doubt preserve. See, e. g., Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 60 736, 84 L.Ed. 1093 (1940); Gregory 394 111, 112, 89 946, 947, 22 134 (1969); Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 147, 152, 935, 939, 162 (1969). "Wherever title parks rest, immemorially been trust use time mind, purposes assembly, communicating thoughts citizens, discussing questions." Hague CIO, 307 496, 515, 59 954, 964, 83 1423 (1939) (opinion Roberts, J.). " '[S]treets, sidewalks, parks, places historically associated exercise access them purpose exercising broadly absolutely.' Hudgens NLRB, 424 507, 96 1029, 1034, 47 196 (1976) (quoting Food Employees Logan Valley Plaza, 391 308, 315, 88 1601, 1606, 20 603 (1968)). 9 seriously disputed "peaceful dispute," communication.4 disseminated, conveyed.5 10 critical respects, then, identical suffers same constitutional infirmities. When government regulation speech-related activities forum, mandates legislation finely tailored substantial justifications offered distinctions draws carefully scrutinized. 98-99, 101, 2291-2292; see O'Brien, 367, 376-377, 1673, 1678-1679, 672 (1968); Williams Rhodes, 393 23, 30-31, 5, 10, 21 24 Dunn Blumstein, 405 330, 342-343, 995, 1003, 31 274 (1972); San Antonio Independent School Dist. Rodriquez, 411 1, 34, n. 75, 93 1278, 1297, 36 16 (1973). explained Mosley: "Chicago vindicate preventing disruption wholesale preferred subject. Given what tolerates excesses some controlled broad violent Such 'can narrowly drawn statutes,' Saia New York, 334 [558], 562 [68 1148, 1150, 1574], focusing abuses dealing evenhandedly regardless matter." 101-102, 2293. Yet here, guise preserving privacy, flatly even though permits equally likely intrude tranquility home. 11 Moreover, determines statute's blunt prohibition.6 What said Mosley equal force case: 12 "The central problem describes permissible terms matter. Peaceful school's labor-management permitted, prohibited. operative sign. . Any activity completely undercut 'profound national commitment principle debate should uninhibited, robust, wide-open.' York Times Co. Sullivan, [376 254], 270 [84 710, 720, L.Ed.2d, 686]. 13 "Necessarily, Clause, mention itself, grant forum people whose finds acceptable, deny those wishing express less favored controversial views. And select worth debating facilities. 'equality status field ideas,' afford points view opportunity heard. Once opened up speaking groups, others assembling intend say. Selective exclusions reference alone." Id., 95-96, 2290. (citations footnote omitted).7 III 14 Appellant nonetheless contends distinguishable He argues interests here especially compelling well served explore turn each furthered A. 15 explains whereas sought prevent schools, concededly "substantial" "legitimate" governmental concern, id., 99, 2292, enacted ensure home, paramount our scheme.8 For reason, he invalid context case. unnecessary, however, outranks quiet schools hierarchy societal values. most legitimate goal advanced manner. agree certain where adequate alternatives exist distinction—if way furthering objectives, cf. Schenck States, 249 47, 39 247, 63 470 (1919), 17 First, generalized classification suggests itself determined transcendent objective: notwithstanding disturbances undoubtedly engender, apparent overinclusiveness underinclusiveness seem largely undermine appellant's claim maintaining domestic tranquility.9 18 whatsoever point inherent make disruptive broader social concern. B 19 second protests. maintains federal10 state11 law long exhibited unusual concern activities, solicitude exemption difficulty argument forthrightly presupposes wish reject proposition. Cf. T. Emerson, System Freedom Expression 444-449 (1970) (suggesting akin pure fewer restrictions). Public-issue "an basic pristine classic form," Edwards South Carolina, 372 229, 235, 680, 683, 697 (1963), always rested rung values: maintenance free end responsive will changes obtained means, essential security Republic, fundamental system." Stromberg California, 283 359, 369, 51 532, 536, 75 1117 (1931). See Meiklejohn, Free Speech Its Relation Self-Government (1948). motivation employees commendable, factor, C Appellant's final contention combination preceding objectives. This fashioned two different levels. elemental formulation, posits simply uniquely suited legislative preserved greatest extent possible compromising owing short, viewed reasonable disputes.12 But already complex formulation position characterizes drafted essence, asserts contravene unique By "inviting" worker into converting employment, goes, resident diluted entitlement total words, "waived" respect arising relationship, thereby justifying narrow locations.13 23 flaw proves too little. interests,14 example, who prominently decorates windows yard posters qualifications candidate office "invite" counter-demonstration supporters opposing candidate. county chairman meet district captains expect deeply concerned decision ultimately reach want known demonstrating outside during meeting. And, regard facts instant case, borders frivolous suggest invites repairman fix television set union,15 official voluntarily chosen enter arena likewise significant economic policy.16 IV therefore conclude successfully understood imply, beyond uniform nondiscriminatory regulation. communicate limitless. E. Cox Louisiana, 379 554-555, 85 453, 464, 471 (1965); 559, 563-564, 476, 480, 487 (1965).17 Even interferes operation vital facilities, see, ibid. (picketing parading near courthouses); Adderley Florida, 385 39, 87 242, 149 (1966) (demonstrations jailhouse grounds), directed toward illegal purpose, Teamsters Vogt, Inc., 354 284, 77 1166, 1347 (1957) (prohibition achieving "union shop" law). 25 often declared "[a] municipality protect individual enacting time, place, regulations applicable irrespective content." Erznoznik City Jacksonville, 422 205, 209, 95 2268, 2272, 45 125 (1975) (emphasis supplied). Hampshire, 312 569, 61 762, 1049 (1941); Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 69 448, 513 (1949); Poulos 345 395, 73 760, 97 1105 (1953); 554, 464; Grayned Rockford, 104, 2294, 222 (1972). sum, mandate Constitution leaves units powerless pass laws kind boisterous threatening disturbs spots selected homes, wherein escape hurly-burly business world, buildings require carry functions, courts, libraries, hospitals." 118, 950, (1969) (Black, J., concurring). 26 Preserving sanctity retreat men women repair tribulations daily pursuits, surely value. Our decisions reflect lack "to let alone" "sometimes last citadel tired, weary, sick." 125, 953 Stanley Georgia, 557, 1243, 542 Rowan Post Office Dept., 397 728, 90 1484, 736 (1970); FCC Pacifica Foundation, 438 726, 98 3026, 57 1073 (1978); Payton 445 573, 1371, certainly order civilized society. 'The question, [the Illinois' statute] command Clause.' Reed Reed, 404 [71], 76 [92 251, 254, 30 225 (1971)]." 27 Affirmed. 28 STEWART, concurring. 29 Court's 212, invokes decision. actually stake meaning speech: "[W]hile impose purposes, forbid altogether facilities; do discriminate expression." 520, 1036, 196. (Citations omitted.) It understanding I join 32 REHNQUIST, THE CHIEF JUSTICE BLACKMUN join, dissenting. address merits first, although appellees' standing assert grounds invalidity apparently relies.1 One reads probably left impression reads: "All prohibited." entirely understandable; indeed, created phrasing throughout opinion. "in 'peaceful dispute,' CONDUCT BASED UPON CONTENT. added.) ante, 460. states "information restricted." Ante, 461. "solely conveyed." Ibid. (Emphasis again "Illinois picketing" "broadly permi[t] picketing." 462, 465. 34 Dissenting opinions quarrel exposition law, my initial accuracy paraphrasing selective quotation complete language accurately text opinion, reveals scheme quite described narrative enactment.2 35 provides prohibited, goes exempt four categories ban. if business" allowed. Second, "hol[d] interest" Third, employment" dispute, labor-related Finally, Thus clear "freely disseminated" restricted category residences. "flatly allows business, places, individual's residence. Only through mischaracterization fit rule "content 96, 2290, sole determinant speech. today aptly observes, warrants exacting scrutiny. contrast, principal person's content, suggests, rather picketed. Content relevant established legislature. 37 cases appropriate analysis establishing limits authority restrictions activities. Under rubric, taking account limited made readily satisfied obligation draft statutes conformity principles. fact, very cavalierly invalidates hailed commentators excellent model" delicate balance protection. Kamin, Residential Picketing Amendment, Nw.U.L.Rev. 177, 207 (1966); Comment, U.Chi.L.Rev. 106, 139 (1966). legislators Nation greet today's exasperation befuddlement. Time after assured properly promote reduced. To sure, adopted virtual laundry list "Don'ts" adhered process. Heading course legislatures curtail "least restrictive means" accomplishment avoid standards vague capable discretionary application. somewhere, says (with reassuring pat head legislatures), there pot gold rainbow litigation. 38 Here, avoiding outright ban reliance standards, State resident's substantially reduced response confronts "Catch-22" less-restrictive infirm principles approach today, fare better adopting judicial incentive thought hesitate afford. Either that, found categorical exceptions result mean hymns praise prior celebrating sympathetic clucking, fact damned doesn't. Equally troublesome methodology difficult questions reached. figuratively walked country mile potential application primarily nullification rests. Just relieve duty decide concrete controversy presented discussed below, think action engaging employing facially overbroad clearly permitted themselves seek circumstances speculating group invalidate it. speculation indulge nullifying acts branch. 40 41 Repeatedly, restrict speech, "protect unrelated suppression expression" tailored, limiting reasonably necessary Glines, 348, 354, 594, 599, 540 (1980); Village Schaumburg Citizens Better Environment, 620, 826, standard measuring regulation, echoed opinions, 42 seeks demonstrated legislature's statement purpose. 8. exclusively recognizes Bilandic's fell purposes. nevertheless publicizing integration outweigh 43 construction 81, 450, (1949), interference "social [city residents] engaged like enjoy" warranted sound trucks streets. 1490, (1970), "[t]he every 'to alone' placed scales communicate." recognized "very sights, sounds, tangible want" These ability absolutely preclude delivery unwanted mail address. 748, 3040, (1978), offensive broadcast banned airwaves "confronts citizen, public, alone plainly outweighs intruder." authorities, 44 fully absolute permissibly furthers presence solitary intolerable intrusion "negligible interests," intimating satisfy regulating hours numbers pickets. 469. camped unacceptable. State, legislates evils citizens unescapable, limitations Constitution. Unlike trucks, just distraction noise issue—it unwelcome visitor Wisconsin Wauwatosa King, 49 Wis.2d 398, 411-412, 182 N.W.2d 530, 537 (1971): "To inside becomes something WHILE PICKETING CONTINUE[S]. [the] tensions pressures psychological physical, not, inimical family truly tranquility." 46 Whether noisy silent, accompanied others, sidewalk, few us feel comfortable knowing stranger lurks easier previously mailings broadcasts Rowan, Pacifica, least short-circuited annoyance throwing away turning off radio. alternative redress, authorities intrusion. Where, recourse whatsoever, justifiably afforded seems necessary. secure invalidation urging engage has, course, plaintiff's "sweeps prohibitions punished Amendmen[t]." 114-115, 2302, 48 satisfies overbreadth challenge. arguable nonresidential reduces interest, effectively airing grievance relates courts considered circumstances. Walinsky Kennedy, 94 Misc.2d 121, N.Y.S.2d 491 enjoined "[A] raised [resident's] suitable confronted picket's viewpoints heard." 132, N.Y.S.2d, 498, 15. 50 Hibbs Neighborhood Organization Rejuvenate Tenant Housing, 433 Pa. 578, 580, 252 A.2d 622, 623-624 (1969), slumlord operated situs available air intimated dicta Senn Tile Layers, 301 468, 857, 81 1229 (1937). laborers employer upheld, went say "[m]embers union might, statutory authorization freedom guaranteed Constitution." 478, 862. permit would, found, complaint overbreadth. forestalled challenge, groups required exemptions violate enforcement supra. Since particular, available, excluding rational policy, mandated succeed here. 52 protected, survive hurdle choosing less-restrictive-means concludes sustained review. 53 requirements measured. identified "crucial question" "whether suitably treatment" 95, prevention schools. categorized disruptive. relating race discrimination (and topics), forms 54 differentiating "things treated same." Tigner Texas, 141, 879, 882, 1124 (1940). voice publicize dispute.3 All fall category, be, integration, housing, recognition Red China alike respect. differentiated meetings, occupied himself. categories, waived measure voluntary 55 design relation building put. stated 116, 2303: 'the pattern normal dictate kinds reasonable'. basically incompatible time." areas classified grounds, restrictions. noted: "Different considerations, single-building high class inappropriate many open college campus ." 120, 45, 2308, 45. differentiate far nonsensical arbitrary legislature another Paris Adult Theatre Slaton, 413 49, 61, 2628, 2637, 446 (1973), stated: "From beginning societies, judges acted unprovable assumptions. assumptions underlie much commercial affairs." 56 Despite treating differently improper element scheme. focus subcategory "places employment," related hires perform services greatly compromised struck embodied waiver allowing involving arisen choice using employment. closely permitted. Surely interrupting orderly council housing orate vices virtues nuclear power. accurately, topics forum. confined one—residences employment—and topic. 58 differentiation supported (1965). courthouse presumed intent influence judiciary. invoked, determinative. mayor individuals topic mayor, judiciary, permissible. Stevens plurality Young American Mini Theatres, 427 50, 2440, (1976), context" determinants. Cox, need treat fashion, (1975); therefore, share characteristics devotes page purports determinative question. sentence differences litigants picketing: "And, 'waived' union, policy." unclear construed type example employee.4 how residence—the relevance Legislature. Further, tend improperly process, harassment official's family. democratic society traditionally part Bill Rights. repairman, publicized Mayor's dispute; unavailability failed establish rationally little effort Instead, fulcrum property, warranting additional exceptions. am persuaded justification forwarded State,5 flaws fundamental. someone similarly irrelevant believes license import relaxed challenges. This, law. Precedent supports rationale underlying expanded inapposite realm. Grayned, plaintiff otherwise allowed stand until later "deter privileged activity." 114, 2302. context, conduct. minimal one, jurisprudential considerations declining applications loom large. 64 Barrows Jackson, 346 249, 256, 1031, 1035, 1586 (1953), ordinary "even party suffer direct injury unless show allegedly infringed." rule, stating: "One court, faced construe obliterate objectionable feature, declare provision separable. ex rel. Hatch Reardon, [204 152], 160-161 [27 188, 190, 415]. indeed undesirable conceivable situation possibly arise comprehensive legislation. ready frustrate expressed Congress legislatures. Southern Pacific Gallagher, 306 167, 172 [59 389, 391, 586]." 256-257, 1035. 66 recently Craig Boren, 429 193, 451, 455, emphasized "designed minimize unwarranted intervention controversies ill-defined speculative." Sound entertain 58-59, 60, 2446, 2447; Broadrick Oklahoma, 601, 2908, 830 consideration originally prosecuted chose plead instead, denying system authoritatively limit so. 67 take cognizance identifiable encompassed picket, entire framework. Califano Jobst, 434 53-55, 99-100, 228 uphold rules inevitably produce seemingly consequences cases," judged typical affected classes selected, atypical examples." review, employed lead invalidation, able conceive hypothetical accounted categories. given opportunity, tools correct minor deficiencies. soundly room error drafting allows. Ginsberg 390 629, 642-643, 1274, 1282, 195 (1968), "[w]e demand 'scientifically criteria legislation,' Noble Bank Haskell, 219 110 [31 186, 187, 112]." recently, allow "a experiment solutions admittedly serious problems." 71, 2453. 68 dissent apt words Frankfurter concurring 97, 458: "[I]t supervise safeguarding steadily narrowing opportunities serenity reflection." A "Class B" misdemeanor punishable fine $500 imprisonment months. §§ 21.1-3, 1005-8-3, 1005-9-1 (1977). antiresidential Ark.Stat.Ann. 41-2966 41-2968 (1977); Conn.Gen.Stat. 31-120 (1979); Haw.Rev.Stat. 379A-1 (1976); Md.Ann.Code, Art. 27, 580A (1976). Connecticut's area conducted Anonymous, Conn.Cir. 372, 897 (App.Div.1970); DeGregory Giesing, 910 (D.C.Conn.1977) (three-judge court). Maryland Schuller, 280 Md. 305, 1076 People Acting Through Community Effort Doorley, 468 1143 (CA1 1972) (invalidating municipal virtually statute); 530 (1971) (upholding ordinance). severable remainder entirety. Md., 318-321, A.2d, 1083-1084. unnecessary 795, (7th 1979). defective principles, barring Amendments. Municipal Code, 193-1(i) provided: "A commits disorderly knowingly: "(i) Pickets demonstrates 150 feet primary secondary session one-half hour concluded, provided subsection supplied.) courts. Throughout litigation, parties below interpreted dispute" embodying requirement ongoing premised construction. 94, 2, 2289, (statutory applies dispute). read creating separate classifications: "residences," content-neutral location recognizing demonstration, 4, lacked benefitted determination unconstitutional. 518, 534-535 reversing refused adopt lower court's interpretation Rather, divide "residences dwellings" categories—those (i. e., disputes) dwellings). F.2d, 793-794. accept Appeals. permission denial premised. Indeed, Appeals' Tr. Oral Arg. 13, concedes content-based, 21. is, speaker's viewpoint, hostility extends viewpoints, topic." Consolidated Edison Public Service Comm'n, 537, 2326, 2333, 319. neither nor pronouncement 581, 470, (1965) concurring): "Standing, patrolling, marching back forth conduct, regulated specifically publication views, Louisiana attempting pick choose willing trying prescribe matters assemble discuss. me censorship odious form, discrimination, subjects, amounts, think, invidious forbidden Amendment." 215, 2275, Madison Joint Employment Relations 175-176, 421, 426, 376 National Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 784-785, 1407, 1420, 707 536-538, 2332-2333. importance attaches reflected Legislature's finding accompanying statute: Legislature declares enjoyment homes; stability community life maintained sense respected encouraged; however cause inspiring it, disrupts communal life; society, jealously guarded others. reasons necessary." 21.1-1 Kalven, Concept Forum: 1965 Sup.Ct.Rev. (quoted 67, 2451, STEVENS, J.)): "If exempted parades pickets, fatally impeached." 2292; Villiage 638-639, 837, U.S.C. 141 seq.; AFL Swing, 321, 568, 855 (1941). go preempts disputes. dubious merit. Machinists 136, 2548, 2551, 396 48, 2a "No restraining shall granted growing concerning conditions enjoining persons, singly concert, peaceably threats intimidation street, thoroughfare highway obtaining information, persuade persons work abstain working, employ cease recommend, advise, do." note respect, protects employer, third employee, individuals. counsel oral argument: "[T]he wasn't you condominium employs non-union janitors janitor perfectly happy there, conceivably traditional case." 14. statute—one pressed appellant—is intended insofar accomplished peculiarly exercised elsewhere. occurring carried continue, forums exist, barred. assuming Schneider 308 163 ("one liberty abridged plea place"), underinclusive singles all. Protests landlord-tenant relationships, zoning historic preservation demonstrations bear neighborhoods. Picketers Doorstep, Harv.Civ.Rights Civ.Lib.L.Rev. 106 (1974). effective desired neighborhood audience. site 461-462. 12, Gertz Robert Welch, 418 323, 2997, 789 Goldberg's still everyone beliefs time. guarantee implies existence organized lost anarchy." 464. "concessions" persisting 461, 5. "[W]e loath attach conclusive weight relatively spontaneous responses questioning argument." Moose Lodge 107 Irvis, 407 163, 170, 1965, 1970, 627 argue concede desiring dissimilar explicitly conduct: "I urge plaintiffs, plaintiffs in. 17. implicated infra, 486-489. simplistic supposed argument. Appellant, never suggested labor, nonlabor, aired admitting differentiation, "place" regulation; homes review Juris. Statement 4. If reach, shown hall. parks. now countered availability highly factor determining balance. Pell Procunier, 417 817, 823-824, 2800, 2804-2805, 495 determine repairmen "employees" covered employee. importantly, them. 488. identifies examples successful attack. indicates ground issues. 468-469, 13. written. residence, appear tenant (which happens landlord operates tenants believe classifications, Zoning respects. relationship (other own, picket) interests. theoretically include responsible decisions. citation lawn decorations odd act involve admission strangers purposes—a characteristic shared attributes "nonresidential use" found. obtain

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