Document: 461 U.S. 190 103 S.Ct. 1713 75 L.Ed.2d 752 PACIFIC GAS AND ELECTRIC COMPANY, et al., Petitionersv.STATE ENERGY RESOURCES CONSERVATION & DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION al. No. 81-1945. Argued Jan. 17, 1983. Decided April 20, Syllabus Section 25524.1(b) of the California Public Resources Code provides that before a nuclear powerplant may be built, State Energy Conservation and Development Commission must determine on case-by-case basis there will "adequate capacity" for interim storage plant's spent fuel at time plant requires such storage. 25524.2 imposes moratorium certification new plants until finds has been developed United States through its authorized agency approved demonstrated technology or means permanent terminal disposal high-level wastes. Petitioner electric utilities filed an action in Federal District Court seeking declaration these provisions, inter alia, are invalid under Supremacy Clause because they were pre-empted by Atomic Act 1954. The Court, after finding issues presented two provisions ripe adjudication, held conflict with Act. Appeals agreed challenge to § was review, but found not it could known whether ever find capacity inadequate. court went hold designed provide protection against radiation hazards adopted uncertainties cycle make power uneconomical uncertain source energy, therefore section §§ 271 274(k) constituted authorization regulate powerplants purposes other than hazards. further as barrier fulfillment federal goal encouraging development atomic energy. Held: 1. is judicial questions concerning not. Pp. 200-203. (a) question ripeness turns "on fitness decision" "the hardship parties withholding consideration." Abbott Laboratories v. Gardner, 387 136, 149, 87 1507, 1515, 18 681. Both factors counsel favor adjudication. pre-emption predominately legal require industry proceed without knowing imposed valid would impose palpable considerable utilities, ultimately work harm citizens California. Moreover, if void hindering commercial delayed resolution frustrate one key 200-202. (b) Under circumstances where inadequate, where, this Court's holding, infra, law, unlikely behavior uniquely affected uncertainty surrounding provision, should stretch reach early, perhaps premature, decision respecting 25524.1(b). P.203. 2. Pp.203-223. From passage 1954, several revisions, present day, Congress preserved dual regulation nuclear-powered electricity generation: Government maintains complete control safety "nuclear" aspects energy generation, whereas exercise their traditional authority over economic need additional generating capacity, type facilities licensed, land use, ratemaking. This accepts California's avowed rather purpose rationale enacting 25524.2, accordingly statute lies outside federally occupied field regulation. 205-216. does waste disposal, Nuclear Regulatory (NRC) permissible continue license reactors, notwithstanding problem, Congress' recent Waste Policy 1982 directed problem. Because NRC's compel utility develop plant, compliance both possible. regulations aimed insuring safe, necessarily economical, interfere objective those regulations. And no attempt part enter developing licensing technology, Government, any more obligations themselves. Nor appear intended now sufficient commitment reactors resume. can interpreted being solving problem existing requiring future construction undertaken. 217-220. (c) Act's use power. Promotion accomplished "at all costs." given determine, matter economics, vis-a-vis fossil built. not, itself, constitute pre-emption. 220-223. 659 F.2d 903, affirmed. John R. McDonough, Long Beach, Cal., petitioners. Louis F. Claiborne, Washington, D.C., amicus curiae, supporting petitioners, special leave Court. Laurence H. Tribe, Cambridge, Mass., respondents. Justice WHITE delivered opinion 1 turning swords into plowshares symbolized transformation American society. To facilitate government relaxed monopoly fissionable materials place, erected complex scheme promote civilian while safeguard public environment from unpredictable risks technology. Early on, decided states role production. interrelationship state simple; regulatory structure frequently amended optimize partnership. 2 case emerges intersection government's efforts ensure safe historic generation sale electricity. At issue 1976 amendments Warren-Alquist Act, Cal.Pub.Res.Code (West 1977), which condition findings adequate available waste, preempted 42 U.S.C. 2011, seq. 3 * A reactor periodically refueled "spent fuel" removed. intensely radioactive carefully stored. general practice store water-filled pool site. For many years, assumed reprocessed; accordingly, pools short-term holding limited capacities. As expectations reprocessing remained unfulfilled, accumulated pools, creating risk have shutdown. occur insufficient room also enough space entire core when certain inspections emergencies required unloading reactor. In taken urgency. Some 8,000 metric tons already accumulated, projected year 2000 some 72,000 fuel.1 studies indicate number forced shut down near due inability fuel.2 4 There second dimension Even water-pools safely produced during working lifetime reactor, needed wastes remain thousands years.3 long-term management strategies extensively examined. These range sinking stable deep seabeds, placing beneath ice sheets Greenland Antarctica, ejecting rocket. greatest attention focused disposing subsurface geologic repositories salt deposits.4 Problems how engendered scientific, political, debate. issue: first, properly stored, might leak endanger human health;5 second, lack option increases insufficiency lead reactor-shutdowns, rendering adventure.6 5 laws here responses concerns. 1974, 25000-25986 1977 Supp.1981). build including apply (Energy Commission).7 construction. 6 Two sections us. rods facility . storage." law each continuous, on-site, "full reserve order permit removed repairs short, addresses fuel. 7 deals solution "finds exists waste." "Disposal" defined "method disposition ." 25524.2(a), (c). Such reported legislature, nullify it.8 8 1978, petitioners Pacific Gas Electric Company Southern Edison requesting numerous challenged here, had standing 25524.2,9 statutes 489 F.Supp. 699 (E.D.Cal.1980). 9 Ninth Circuit affirmed ruling statutes, review. It concluded, however, "because we cannot know inadequate F.2d, 918.10 On merits, 2018 2021(k), Congressional "for hazards."11 hazards, "uncertainties energy." 925. provision granting 274(k), combined enactments, did intend costs," only consistent priorities subject controls traditionally exercised expressly statute.12 10 We granted certiorari --- ----, 102 2956, 73 1348 (1982). II 11 agree basic doctrine "is prevent courts, avoidance premature entangling themselves abstract disagreements administrative policies, protect agencies interference formalized effects felt concrete way challenging parties." 148-149, 1515-1516, 681 (1967). Laboratories, remains our leading discussion doctrine, indicated Id., S.Ct., 1515. 12 preemption predominantly legal, although useful benefit interpretation what constitutes await development. postponement likely substantial utilities. cogently reasoned, hopes that, came, either made struck down, expenditures millions dollars certainty recovery denied.13 advance planning—on 14 years.14 Thus, Rail Reorganization Cases, 419 102, 144, 95 335, 359, 320 (1975), "decisions short affected" act. "One consummation threatened injury obtain preventive relief. If certainly impending, enough." 143, 358, quoting Pennsylvania West Virginia, 262 553, 593, 43 658, 663, 67 L.Ed. 1117 (1923). correct hinders "delayed [Atomic Energy] Act." Duke Power Co. Carolina Environmental Study Group, Inc., 438 59, 82, 98 2620, 2635, 57 595 (1978). reasons, now.15 13 Questions constitutionality 25524.1(b), While operates statewide basis, determinations basis. explained, "we inadequate," consideration developments.16 Furthermore, today little likelihood whatever surrounds provisions. circumstances, III well-established within Constitutional limits preempt so stating express terms. Jones Rath Packing Co., 430 519, 525, 97 1305, 1309, 51 604 (1977). Absent explicit preemptive language, intent supercede altogether "scheme pervasive reasonable inference left supplement it," touch interest dominant system preclude enforcement same subject," object sought obtained character reveal purpose." Fidelity Savings Loan Ass'n de la Cuesta, ---- 3014, 3022, 664 (1982); Rice Santa Fe Elevator Corp., 331 218, 230, 1146, 1152, 91 1447 (1947). entirely displaced specific area, extent actually conflicts law. arises "compliance physical impossibility," Florida Lime Avocado Growers, Inc. Paul, 373 132, 142-143, 83 1210, 1217-1218, 248 (1963), "stands obstacle accomplishment execution full objectives Congress." Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 67, 61 399, 404, 85 581 (1941). 15 Petitioners, States, amici, three major lines argument why preempted. First, submit statute—because regulates allegedly predicated concerns—ignores division between created falls own exclusive control. Second, statute, judgments underlie it, decisions Commission. Third, frustrates consider contentions turn. 16 brief perusal reveals despite comprehensiveness, point construct authorize prohibit deciding, absolute conditional matter, reactors. Instead, argue preserve sole regulator matters nuclear, scope impliedly field. But view issue, Congress, passing 1954 subsequently amending radiological involved operation retain responsibility regulating electrical determining need, reliability, cost related 17 Need facilities, feasibility, rates services, areas characteristically governed States. Brandeis once observed "franchise operate privilege withheld pleasure State." Frost Corporation Commission, 278 515, 534, 49 235, 242, 483 (1929) (Brandeis, J. dissenting). "The nature private approval practices business regulated less detail free institute body." Jackson Metropolitan 345, 357, 449, 456, 477 (1974). See Central Hudson Corp. Service New York, 447 557, 569, 100 2343, 2353, 65 341 (1980) ("The concern fair efficient represents clear governmental interest.") With exception broad pricing transmitted interstate commerce, see 824 (1976), years great states.17 noted Vermont Yankee NRDC, 435 550, 1197, 1215, 55 460 (1977), "There doubt commissions similar bodies empowered initial regarding power." "Congress legislated start assumption police powers superseded unless manifest supra, U.S., 1152. read, another background. Enrico Fermi first 1942, application 1946, Aug. 1, ch. 724, 60 Stat. 755, (AEC) created. Until ownership monopoly. 30, 1073, 68 919, amended, 2011-2281 grew out determination national best served encouraged sector become peaceful program licensing. H.R.Rep. 2181, 83d Cong., 2d Sess., 1-11 (1954). implemented policy providing construction, ownership, 63, 2625. AEC, jurisdiction transfer, delivery, receipt, acquisition, possession materials. 2014, (e), (z), (aa), 2061-2064, 2071-2078, 2091-99, 2111-14 (1976 Supp. IV 1980). Upon subjects, states. 19 particular Yankee, Commission's prime area context, security, health, safety." Reactor International Union Electrical, Radio Machine Workers, 367 396, 415, 81 1529, 1539, 924 (1961) (utility's investment considered decisions). (NRC), exercises AEC's authority, purport based considerations, CFR 8.4, recently repealed financial qualifications capabilities proposing plant. 47 Fed.Reg. 13751. notice rule repeal, NRC stated health safety.18 almost inconceivable vacuum; judgments. Any ratemaking plant-need hands 271, provided: 20 "Nothing chapter shall construed affect Federal, local respect sale, transmission licensed 21 legislative reports accompanying do restate statutory S.Rep. 1699, Sess. 31; 31 (1954), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News p. 3456, statements floor confirm government, production otherwise displaced.19 22 1959 Amendments reinforced fundamental authority. 1959, "clarify respective responsibilities byproduct, source, materials." 2021(a)(1). 870, 86th 1st 8, 10-12 (1959), 2872. planning issue. Indeed, heighten states' role. 274(b), 2021(b), NRC, agreements governors discontinue conditions.20 programs permitted amendment "coordinated compatible" NRC. 2021(g); 11. 274(c), 2021(c), that: 23 24 (1) utilization facility; 25 26 (4) material determines should, potential thereof, disposed Commission." 27 Although reserved 274(c) exclusively exercise, 870 9; 1125, cutback preexisting jurisdiction.21 2021(k) states: 28 activities hazards." 29 effect "this section," is, 274, represent affirmative grant permitting hazards" underscored distinction drawn spheres activity respectively 30 unchanged, purposes, 1965, following proviso added 271: "Provided, deemed confer upon regulate, control, restrict 32 report Joint Committee makes detract facilities.22 overrule allow municipality necessary activities. Maun 347 970 (CA9 1965). indication broader limitation companies. debates 1965 Amendment 271's "was absolutely disturb status quo then State, 111 Cong.Rec. 19822 (statement Sen. Hickenlooper).23 33 account indicates generation; ratemaking, like.24 34 above particularly controversial. deciding classified difficult proposition. outset, emphasize seek powerplant. clearly impermissible so, regulation, even enacted non-safety concerns, nevertheless directly operation. Respondents concede much. broadly argue, forbidden, completely concerns satisfied government. reject line reasoning. Rather, except ceded states.25 When occupies identifiable portion done test asserts right act government." 236, 1155. grounded squarely prohibited judgment countervailing see, 218-219, extant disposal. prohibition reasons teeth insure widespread use—and reason. Infra, 221-222. 35 That case, 25524.2. maintained, agreed, problems, Assembly Resources, Land Use, Energy, proposed package bills "largely result poor planning, related." Reassessment California: Analysis Proposition Alternatives (1976) (Reassessment Report) (emphasis original). explained method "clog" cycle. Storage continuously produced. Without critical unpredictably high costs contain or, worse, shutdowns "Waste safety," Report notes, addressed bills, ask [of disposal] chosen accepted 156 36 reading Relying Report, concluded: 37 "[S]ection towards judge leaves concerned adequacy method, existence." 38 Our place confidence interpretations reached courts appeals. Cf. Mills Rogers, 2442, 2452, Bishop Wood, 426 341, 346, 96 2074, 2078, 48 684 (1976). Petitioners amici upset ways. maintain evinces economics "development" "existence" authorities lift moratorium; considering selected. overly myopic. Once selected demonstrated, Utilities able estimate costs; estimates settled satisfactory fears having close operating largely evaporate. 39 suggested California, banned building state. objection carries force. contemplating construction; legislature obligated address purely hypothetical facets 40 note body, grounds constructed.26 foreclosed reaching judgment, applicable cases. problems vary readily lends itself generalized decisionmaking faulted pursuing course. 41 Fourth, 15, initiative arose, companion so-called laws, written mind.27 shares common heritage presumed purposes. answer indeed, passed; pedigree taint parts indicia varying interpretation, embroiled attempting ascertain true motive. inquiry motive often unsatisfactory venture. O'Brien, 391 367, 383, 88 1673, 1682, 672 (1968). What motivates legislator vote scores others enact it. pointless us engage allowed easily inclined halt refusing certificates convenience individual proceedings. up misused hands. Therefore, accept Accordingly, regulation.28 B 44 Petitioners' itself. contended legislation 45 Pursuant 2071-2075, 2111-2114, later promulgated extensive detailed handling relevant case. receive license, analysis report, includes "radioactive system." 50.34(b)(20)(i), (ii). 150.15(a)(1)(i). specify design criteria requirements stored Part 50, App. A, Criteria 60-64, 412. addition, governing away 72. procedural covering applications repositories. 60. 46 gave Department establishment temporary storage, management, ultimate wastes." 7133(a)(8)(C). No yet sites water. 1977, asked Natural Defense Council determined waste. concluded progress toward availability Council, 528 166, 168-169 (CA2 1978). imprimatur, plants, economically wise so.29 standards field, After Appeals, piece puzzle. closing week, 97th passed 1982, Pub.L. 97-425, 2201 (1982), bill multi-faceted attack Inter authorizes fuel, expansion research development, financing. convince resume, and, seems Act,30 legislation. Senator McClure attempted precisely Senate existence 128 S4310 (April 29, 1982). During subsequent House hearings, strongly urged language omitted Disposal Policy, Hearings Before Subcomm. Power, Commerce, 356, 406, 553-554 emerged omit manager, Rep. Ottinger, deleted "to preemption." H8797 (December 2, signed followed language. correctly reluctant draw inferences failure act, would, improper give rejected. possible interpret C 50 Finally, well established (1941); Growers 1217-18, (1963); 3022. primary was, continues be, promotion encourage participation maximum defense security public." 2013(b). Reports confirmed "a States" involvement "speed uses 883, 89th (1965); (1954); (1934). Price-Anderson 2210, liability accident. "in industry. 2012(i). 63-67, 2625-2627. 52 Appeals' suggestion since 1974 "change congressional outlook" unconvincing. reorganized dividing promotional giving former Research Administration31 (ERDA) latter 1233, 5801, evident desire compromised translate abandonment promoting drafted, fact, avoid anti-nuclear sentiment.32 continuing reflected extension coverage 1987, 94-197, 2-14, 89 1111-1115, preclusion reliance natural gas petroleum sources Powerplant Industrial Fuel 92 3291, 8301(b)(3), 8311, 8312(a). true, course, simultaneously alternative sources, steps retreated oft-expressed generation. 53 right, elaborate continued preservation belie that. determine—as economics—whether preemption.33 force, reality slowed stopped reasons. Given scheme, rethink light undercut objective. assume assigns Congress.34 54 Affirmed. BLACKMUN, whom STEVENS joins, concurring judgment. 56 I join opinion, suggests motivated about plants. Since motivated, unnecessary holding. More important, believe dictum wrong respects. takes position State's safety-motivated distinct States." Ante, 212. disposal." Ibid. believes "be use." summarized below, moratorium, grounds. 58 "nuclear concerns," narrower constructed operated hazards.1 possessed choose technologies rely meeting needs. Nothing intimates exercising features distinguish sources. contrary, 960, 2018, continue, power, manner meet evidence "clear purpose," (1947), force blind dangers posed 59 States' decide create vacuum. Wiggins, Federalism Balancing Burger Court: Law Preemption Case Study, U.C.D.L.Rev. 3, 64 (1979). making choices kinds suited needs, ignore undeniable fact entails risks. evaluate balance risks, costs, benefits necessity. Professor Wiggins noted: "If like prevented evaluation social, ideological policy, ironic jurisdictional large heavy state, freed oversight promises persons time." important threshold belongs State; Note, May Say "No" Power? Legal Foundation Gives Disappointing Answer, Envir.L. 189, 199 (1979) (criticizing case). 62 suggesting proceed. flat ban impossibility." (1963). expressed neither nor mandated so.2 ante, 205. 63 standard well. 213,221-222.3 merely States; source. Envir.L., ("Congress evidenced dictatorial every powerplants"). thus technological practical bringing being,"4 much history, 221, simply reflect preference eventual product peculiar associated product. U.C.D.L.Rev., 78. very preventing choosing considers safer 5801 seq., separated functions perform 5841, Administration "develop, increase efficiency reliability of, sources." 5801(a).5 history expresses pro-nuclear bias demonstrates "place greater relative emphasis nonnuclear 93-980, (1974), 5480.6 66 prohibiting borders. refuse necessity They establish siting stringent Authorization Fiscal 1980, 96-295, 108(f), 94 783 (1980). Clean Air air emissions emission 7416, 7422 ed., IV). used altogether. Consolidated (Indian Point Station, Unit 2), ALAB-453, N.R.C. 31, 34, n. sum, "go nuclear," whole part. twin goals reserves reads too types utilize. available, decline Rather rest elusive motive, therefore, conclude my view, authors fear meltdown catastrophe. Office Technology Assessment, Managing Commercial High-Level Waste, 1982) (hereafter OTA Study). "For past predecessors warning annually imminent closure expanded capacity." H.Rep. 97-785, Sess (1982) 47; Assessment's "reactors running space, mid-1990's timely basis." 27. Affidavit Terry L. Lash (staff scientist Council) ¶ 10, 419; Dale G. Bridenbaugh (nuclear engineer) &Par; 28-30, 478-480. stage refers long lived highly products detoxify sufficiently longer environmental hazard. presently chemical render toxic, 6, 1204 generally Status Reprocessing, Spent Disposal, Draft Cycle Committee, (1978), (App. 173-373); President Interagency Review Group Management 37, 47, 61. Alternative Systems, Nat'l National Academy Sciences, Transition 1985-2010 314-316. Yellin, High Courts, Harv.L.Rev. 489, 534 (1981). 1979 engaged proceeding reassess evidentiary considerations developed. 61373 (1979); Minnesota 195 U.S.App.D.C. 234, 241, 602 412, (CADC 1979). entail significant expenditures, affecting attractiveness option. applicant file intention certification, conducts review process months. approved, exceed Unless granted, constructed; specifications monitor process. days elapsed disaffirmance house Legislature, disaffirmed re-adhered Legislature fails renewed retransmittal 25524.1 coupled findings, "an unreasonable risk." invalid, reactivate plans F.Supp., 700-701. unripe challenges various 25500, 25502, 25504, 25511, 25512, 25514, 25516, 25517, 25519, 25520, 25523, 25532, acquire rights, 25528, 25524.1(a). requirement propose least alternate sites, 25503, applied 915-918. Commission: Provided, discussed 208-211. appeal, consolidated brought engineer hired who lost his job project abandoned. Comm'n, 472 191 (S.D.Calif.1979). disagreed reversed. 911-914. denied certiorari. 2959, 1350 Electric, example, $10 million filing certification. (E.D.Calif.1980) (Finding Fact 15). 13). contend petitioners' injury—being plants—will fully redressed inasmuch suggest redressability rises level Article concern. arguments statement reply support petition "unless reviewed invalidated, again undertake California." Reply Brief 6. statement. main, information gathered variety 25532. presume informational exert chilling moratorium. concurs. "[A] delay adjudication cause undue parties. general, 'immediate impact' Gardner Toilet Goods Association, 167, 171, 1526, 1528, 704 (1967); [Pacific Electric] [So.Calif. Edison] pending, threat burdens someday remote best." 916 (footnote omitted). Respondents' "fears" pursue option, favorable litigation, greatly exaggerated. draft recommended specified amount 113 (ERCDC 11, 1978), ripe. views five members 1978. Not change future, cautions final action. 25, adopt committee's recommendations on-site P.L. 133, directs Secretary 1,900 135; influence findings. early 1920, empowering Jones, Origins Certificate Convenience Necessity: Developments 1870-1920, 79 Colum.L.Rev. 426, 454-455 Today, body assuring service rates. Service, Utility Sector: Concepts, Practices, (Subcomm. Print 1977). description framework states, Bar Choice Technologies: Decisions Facilities Safety Licensing Appeal Board, re Consol. N.Y., (1978): "States face issuance permit, bases unacceptability site." 12015, 12196-202 (1954) (remarks Hickenlooper); id., 10559 (statements AEC Chairman Strauss). Particularly instructive exchange Representatives Yates Cole. inquired duty institutions purposes?" Cole responded imposition licenses "That," he said, authorities. respect." 11689 Authority shifted byproduct material, quantities form mass." 274 agreement. Cal.Health 25875-25876 addition 274(l ), 2021(l advisory 274(g), 2021(g), cooperate formulation "Because unique pertaining produce electricity, feeling uneasiness among drafters agencies—Federal, local—having recognized law; involving facilities." "Nevertheless, licensees though appropriate effected clarification meaning originally enacted." 567 4, (1965), 2775, 2779. expressions thought ascertaining earlier Hickenlooper, sponsor Amendment, figure drafting He elaborated: "We conscious desired trying keep birth 271. provided nothing supervising authority's manufacture generated (1965). summary affirmance Northern Minnesota, 1143 (CA8 1971), aff'd, 405 1035, 1307, 576 (1972), Minnesota's effort discharges fell invalidation retraction And, affirmances, read adoption reasoning review." Zobel Williams, 13, 2309, 2315, 72 Mandel Bradley, 432 173, 176, 2238, 2240, (1977) (per curiam ). opportunity specifically pollutants 122, (Supp. 1979), Year 780 25524.1-.3 submitted voters June 1976. (By terms, operative adopted. Historical Note proposition rejected.) Like things, barred developed, reason people Similarly, 25524.3(b) Supp.), study underground placement berm containment techniques "enhancing cite Perez Campbell, 402 637, 651, 1704, 1712, 233 (1971) mind frustration. Perez, unlike actual Arizona uninsured motorists them failed pay settlements accidents prove drive again. contrary Bankruptcy obligation discharged bankruptcy. preempted, deter irresponsible driving aid collection debts. Only adherence impossible frustrated objective, apposite. Council's claimed off-site petition, examine decisions. 34391 reliable investments unresolved question, raised 582 166 stated, prior licenses, Act] permanently safely." 170. addressing assessments factored ramifications prolonged pending 547 633 1976); reversed, sub nom. remand, 685 459 1982), cert. 443, 74 599 111(b), enumerates purposes: "(1) schedule siting, assurance adequately protected "(2) responsibility, definite fuel;" 59-60 (purpose "reasonable methods needed."); H8162 (Sept. Udall); H8166 Winn) (the "demonstrates fulfilling dispose waste.") ERDA's transferred Energy. 577, 7151(a) included "giving unwarranted priority single source" ERDA "may detriment competing technologies." 980, 93d 27, 5470, 5489. "unwarranted priority" 93-707, (1973). Conference enacted, Senate's prohibitory instead promoted. 93-1445, rejected claim coal adverse coal. Commonwealth Montana, 453 609, 633, 101 2946, 2962, 69 884 controlled First Iowa Hydro-Elec. Cooperative FPC, 328 152, 906, 90 (1946). Iowa, secure hydroelectric project. Allowing veto "destroy effectiveness subordinate 'comprehensive' depend [the government]." 164, 911. manner, reduced size engineering handicap success comprehensive responsibility. constructed. pose different recognizes role, 205, describes expansive 212-213. exist, chose go ahead 1218. 213. affects indirectly ensuring highlight perception accomplished, achieve goal. apparently maximize satisfy Nation's goal, but, incorrect attributing Congress. degree hampers achievement motives framers. Address Congressman Cole, Jt. Comm. Engineering (June 24, 1954), quoted Lemov, Local Control Over Location Reactors N.Y.U.L.Rev. 1008, 1018 (1964). See, e.g., Use 8301 IV) (encouraging fuels lieu petroleum); Policies 210, 3144, 824a-3 V) cogeneration small facilities).

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