Document: 505 U.S. 504 112 S.Ct. 2608 120 L.Ed.2d 407 Thomas CIPOLLONE, Individually and as Executor of the Estate Rose D. Cipollone, Petitionerv.LIGGETT GROUP, INC., et al. No. 90-1038. Argued Oct. 8, 1991. Reargued Jan. 13, 1992. Decided June 24, Syllabus * Section 4 Federal Cigarette Labeling Advertising Act (1965 Act) required a conspicuous label warning smoking's health hazards to be placed on every package cigarettes sold in this country, while § 5 that Act, captioned "Preemption," provided: "(a) No statement relating smoking health, other than [§ 4] . ., shall any cigarette package," "(b) [such] advertising packages which are labeled conformity with" 4. 5(b) was amended by Public Health Smoking 1969 (1969 specify: "No requirement or prohibition based imposed under State law with respect promotion [lawfully] labeled." Petitioner's complaint his action for damages invoked District Court's diversity jurisdiction alleged, inter alia, respondent manufacturers were responsible 1984 death mother, smoker since 1942, because they breached express warranties contained their advertising, failed warn consumers about hazards, fraudulently misrepresented those consumers, conspired deprive public medical scientific information smoking, all derogation duties created New Jersey law. The Court ultimately ruled, among things, these claims pre-empted 1965 Acts extent relied respondents' promotional, relations activities after effective date Act. Appeals affirmed point. Held: judgment is reversed part part, case remanded. 893 F.2d 541, 1 Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Parts I, II, III, IV, concluding did not preempt state actions, but superseded only positive enactments federal rulemaking bodies mandating particular warnings labels advertisements. This conclusion section's precise narrow cautionary "statement[s]"; strong presumption against pre-emption police power regulations; fact does its own effect foreclose additional obligations law; there no general, inherent conflict between requirements continued vitality common actions; Act's stated purpose regulatory context, establish passed prevent multiplicity pending diverse "regulations," word most naturally refers rather actions. Pp. 517-520. 2 STEVENS, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, WHITE, O'CONNOR, concluded V VI pre-empts certain petitioner's failure fraudulent misrepresentation claims, pre-empt such warranty conspiracy. 520-530. 3 (a) broad language extends pre-emptive reach beyond include some statutory phrase "requirement prohibition" suggests distinction law, but, fact, easily encompasses take form rules, "imposed law" clearly contemplates well statutes regulations. mean, however, nor statute indicate familiar subdivision pre-empted. Instead, must fairly but—in light pre-emption—narrowly construed, each examined determine whether it central inquiry straightforward: legal duty predicate satisfies 5(b)'s terms, giving terms fair reading. Each within section limits universe statute. 517-524. (b) Insofar either theories—i.e., respondents negligent manner tested, researched, sold, promoted, advertised cigarettes, provide adequate consequences—require showing post-1969 promotions should have included additional, more stated, warnings, rely promotion" meaning 524-525. (c) To petitioner has viable claim breach warranties, While general arises manufacturer's liability derives from, measured by, warranty. A remedy contractual commitment voluntarily undertaken regarded 5(b). 525-527. 6 (d) Because "prohibition[s]" "requirement[s]," supersedes first theory, predicated promotional statements tending minimize alleges neutralized federally mandated labels. However, second theory—which intentional fraud both false representation concealment material facts—are allegations, insofar disclose facts through channels communication promotions, do involve an obligation "with to" meaning. Moreover, arise "based health" obligation—the deceive. 527-529. 7 (e) alleging conspiracy misrepresent conceal concerning pre-empted, conspire commit underlies properly construed. P. 530. 8 BLACKMUN, KENNEDY SOUTER, modified exhibit necessary congressional intent common-law therefore concurred petitioners 533-534. 9 SCALIA, THOMAS, ordinary principles construction, failure-to-warn 548. 10 J., announced REHNQUIST, C.J., KENNEDY, JJ., joined, VI, WHITE joined. filed concurring dissenting 11 Laurence H. Tribe, Cambridge, Mass., Marc Z. Edell, Short Hills, N.J., petitioner. 12 Bartow Farr, Washington, D.C., respondents. 13 Court, except VI. 14 "Warning: Surgeon General Has Determined That Is Dangerous Your Health." enacted requires (or variation thereof) appear place United States.1 questions presented us statute, predecessor less alarming label, manufacturers. 15 Petitioner son who began 1942 died lung cancer 1984. He Cipollone's smoking. held statutes, 541 (CA3 1990), courts agreed analysis.2 highest States Minnesota Jersey, similar claims.3 manifest importance issue, we granted certiorari resolve conflict, 500 ----, 111 1386, 113 443 (1991). We now reverse affirm part. 16 On August 1, 1983, Cipollone her husband invoking Court. Their alleged developed she smoked manufactured three After 1984, complaint. trial, he also died; son, executor estates, maintains action. 17 third several different bases recovery, relying theories strict liability, negligence, warranty, tort. These divide into five categories. "design defect claims" allege defective use safer alternative design products social value product outweighed dangers (Count 2, App. 83-84). "failure "defective result [respondents'] consequences smoking" 3, 85) "were [that] advertised" 4, 86). "express had "expressly warranted present significant consequences" 7, 88). "fraudulent wilfully "through attempted neutralize [federally mandated] warnin[g]" 6, 87-88), possessed, "ignored act upon" data indicating "cigarettes hazardous consumers" 89). Finally, "conspiracy defraud 18 As one defenses, contended 1965, successor, 1969, protected them from conduct 1965. In pretrial ruling, intended uniform would prevail throughout country protect being "subjected varying state," v. Liggett Group, Inc., 593 F.Supp. 1146, 1148 (N.J.1984), Id., at 1153-1170.4 Accordingly, court motion strike defense entirely. 19 accepted interlocutory appeal pursuant 28 U.S.C. 1292(b), reversed. 789 181 1986). rejected contention expressly actions Relying statutes,5 Congress' "carefully drawn balance purposes protecting interests national economy" upset noncompliance "warning, advertisement, prescribed [federal] Act." 187. held: 20 "the damage[s] challenge adequacy propriety party's cigarettes. [W]here success necessarily depends assertion party bore addition Congress packages, conflicting Ibid. (footnote omitted). 21 not, identify specific asserted 22 denied petition certiorari, 479 1043, 107 907, 93 857 (1987), returned trial. Complying mandate, warn, misrepresentation, barred January 1966 (the Act). 649 664, 669, 673-675 (N.J.1986). ruled grounds.6 669-672. Following extensive discovery four-month jury answered series special interrogatories awarded $400,000 husband. brief, found before 1966. It found, "voluntarily unreasonably encounter[ed] known danger cigarettes" 80% responsibility injuries attributable her. See F.2d, 554 (summarizing findings). For reason, estate. compensate losses caused 23 cross-appeals final judgment, rulings remanded new trial issues relevant our decision. consider statutes. II 24 Although physicians suspected link illness centuries, studies connection until 1920s. Dept. Human Services, Report General, Reducing Consequences Smoking: 25 Years Progress (1989). ensuing decades saw wide range epidemiologic laboratory Thus, time convened advisory committee examine issue 1962, 7,000 publications examining relationship health. 5-7. 1964, issued report, conclusion: "Cigarette hazard sufficient warrant appropriate remedial action." Health, Education, Welfare, General's Advisory Committee, 33 (1964). Trade Commission (FTC), long regulated unfair deceptive practices industry,7 promulgated trade regulation rule. rule, established violation "to fail disclose, prominently, pack, box, carton, container [of cigarettes] dangerous may cause diseases." 29 Fed.Reg. 8325 Several moved regulate labeling See, e.g., N.Y.Laws, ch. 470; see Cong.Rec. 13900-13902 (1965) (statement Sen. Moss). Upon request, FTC postponed enforcement six months. July Act.8 effectively adopted half FTC's regulation: (§ 5(a)), 5(b)).9 26 declares statute's two purposes: (1) adequately informing (2) economy burden diverse, nonuniform confusing regulations.10 furtherance purpose, made unlawful sell distribute unless stating: "Caution: May Be Hazardous 5, provided part: 27 package. provisions took 1966, affecting terminate 1969. 30 termination approached, authorities prepared further regulations advertising. reinstitution 1964 proceedings 34 7917 (1969). Communications (FCC) "a proposed rule ban broadcast commercials radio television stations." 1959 regulating advertisements.11 31 context 1969,12 ways. First, strengthened requiring "is dangerous" "may hazardous." Second, banned "any medium electronic subject [FCC] jurisdiction." Third, related, provision replacing original reads: 32 directed "take 1971, proceeding advertising," narrowing prohibit restrictions cleared way extend warning-label print advertisements so 1972. re Lorillard, 80 F.T.C. 455 (1972). III Article Constitution provides laws "shall supreme Law Land; Thing Laws Contrary notwithstanding." Art. cl. 2. decision M'Culloch Maryland, (4 Wheat.) 316, 427, L.Ed. 579 (1819), been settled conflicts "without effect." Maryland Louisiana, 451 725, 746, 101 2114, 2128, 68 576 (1981). Consideration arising Supremacy Clause "start[s] assumption historic powers [are] [is] clear Congress." Rice Santa Fe Elevator Corp., 331 218, 230, 67 1152, 91 1447 (1947). " '[t]he ultimate touchstone' analysis. Malone White Motor 435 497, 504, 98 1185, 1189, 55 (1978) (quoting Retail Clerks Schermerhorn, 375 96, 103, 84 219, 222, 179 (1963)). 35 "explicitly implicitly structure purpose." Jones Rath Packing Co., 430 519, 525, 97 1305, 1309, 51 604 (1977). absence command, if actually Pacific Gas & Elec. Co. Energy Resources Conservation Development Comm'n, 461 190, 204, 103 1713, 1722, 75 752 (1983), thoroughly occupies legislative field 'as make reasonable inference left room supplement it.' Fidelity Savings Loan Assn. De la Cuesta, 458 141, 153, 102 3014, 3022, 73 664 (1982) U.S., S.Ct., 1152). 36 persuaded encompassed claims.13 185-186. revealed exert exclusive control over aspect 186. Nevertheless, reading whole considering potential interest uniformity, impliedly challenging activities. 37 opinion, scope governed entirely When considered legislation explicitly addressing when "reliable indicium authority," 505, 1190, "there need infer substantive provisions" legislation. California Guerra, 272, 282, 683, 690, 613 (1987) (opinion Marshall, J.). Such reasoning variant principle expression unius est exclusio alterius: enactment defining implies matters case, offer look Therefore, domain sections. differ substantially, turn. IV 38 regarding 5(b)), spoke precisely narrowly: [properly labeled] cigarettes." 5(a) used same ("No health") regard labeling. clear, referred sort set forth verbatim determined appropriate. face, merely prohibited rule-making 5(a)) 5(b)). 39 Beyond words provisions, reasons. discussed above, construe reinforces appropriateness 5. automatically field. McDermott Wisconsin, 228 115, 131-132, 431, 434-435, 57 754 (1913). example, Comprehensive Smokeless Tobacco Education 1986,14 local imposition "statement smokeless tobacco time, preserved products. 4406. All considerations best read having legislatures administrative agencies mandate labels.15 40 comports expressed avoid "diverse, nonuniform, health." Read backdrop activity response term "regulation" bodies, 41 supports noted consideration catalyst passage animated reflected efforts pertaining packages," H.R.Rep. 89-449, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., (1965), "pre-empt [all] Federal, State, authorit[ies] (emphasis supplied).16 42 reasons, conclude actions.17 43 Compared plain much broader. later bars simply "statements" "requirement[s] prohibition[s] law." reaches "in advertising" 44 Notwithstanding substantial differences language, contend materially alter law.18 primary support sentence Committee states amendment "clarified" version S.Rep. 91-566, p. reject parties' incompatible origins amendments. another "[i]nferences history cannot rest slender reed. views subsequent basis inferring earlier one." Price, 361 304, 313, 326, 332, 334 (1960). worked changes law: rewriting warning, banning allowing revisions wording, accept 5(b).19 45 next contends 5(b), however broadened offers limiting argues impose prohibition[s]" trump "state statute[s], injunction[s], executive pronouncement[s]."20 disagree; analysis odds understanding "[n]o sweeps broadly contrary, encompass rules. "[state] can exerted award preventive relief. pay compensation be, indeed designed potent method governing controlling policy." San Diego Building Trades Council Garmon, 359 236, 247, 79 773, 780, 775 (1959). 46 portions suggest primarily concerned localities, 12, plainly enactments. "We give good reason believe restrictive meaning." Shaw Delta Air Lines, 463 85, 97, 2890, 2900, 77 490 (1983). "good believe" meant what said; indeed, narrowness said amending 47 raised premised existence difficult say "requirements prohibitions." W. Prosser, Torts (4th ed. 1971); Black's Dictionary 1489 (6th 1990) (defining "tort" "always [involving] owing plaintiff"). differs predecessor: Whereas normally require vendor advertisements, essence enforce affirmative negative prohibitions. argument agencies. 48 excluding rules hinges fails well. At least Erie R. Tompkins, 304 64, 58 817, 82 1188 (1938), recognized Indeed just last Term, "all including municipal "does admit [a] liability." Norfolk Western Train Dispatchers, 499 1156, 1163, 95 might narrowly identical construction explained face; obviously broader extended reach. Senate promotion," 16, Conference replaced "State promotion." situation, limited 49 mean claims. concede, generally "state-law marketing manufacturing defects demonstrably cigarettes."21 piece. 50 Nor follow passing suggestion omissions acts, unintentional torts torts. Instead pre-empted.22 ask constitutes clause below, category doing so, matter assume arguendo are. Failure Warn 52 show reasonably safe, suitable fit use," proximate injury. Tr. 12738. offered closely related warn: first, cigarettes; second, "adequate smoking." 85-86. 53 theory solely testing research unrelated promotion. Breach Express Warranty 54 N.J.Stat.Ann. 12A:2-313(1)(a) (West 1991), provides: "Any affirmation promise seller buyer relates goods becomes bargain creates conform promise." 56 evidence consists largely 574, 576; 683 1487, 1497 (N.J.1988). Applying Appeals' ruling "damage[s] cigarettes," 187, "inevitably brings question activities, pre-empted" F.Supp., 675. demonstrated sweep broadly: challenges "propriety" promotion, "requirements" law," warrantor.23 If, manufacturer promised smoker's bills contracted emphysema, honor could understood itself. [of] short, 5(b).24 separate documents irrelevant (though possibly valid enforceable) although respondents, Fraudulent Misrepresentation 59 misrepresentation. state-law materials tend associated prohibition, converse materials. prohibitions; theory. 60 Regulators prohibitions downplays FTC, promulgating initial criticized "associated attributes contentment, glamour, romance, youth, happiness suggesting consistent physical well-being." concluded: 61 "To impression innocuous, represents pleasures satisfactions serious risks life involves." Fed.Reg., 8356. 62 Long-standing Food Drug Administration "negates disclaims" warnings: "A substance deemed met [federal labeling] appears statements, designs, graphic negates disclaims [the warning]." CFR 191.102 (1965). seems quite inextricably already 63 construed "false [and by] conceal[ment of] fact." 12727.25 facts. Our proscribed 64 concealed obliged agency, fulfill obligation. 65 (most notably allegedly advertisements) misstatement sign wished insulate longstanding fraud. reserved authority punish practices—an exercised continues exercise. 5(c) Act; 7(b) nn. 9, supra. indicates "relating (which essentially unchanged narrowly, proscribe advertising.26 66 wholly create confusing" standards. Unlike render "reasonably safe," proscriptions single, standard: falsity. statements. Act.27 Conspiracy Misrepresant Conceal Material Facts smoking.28 underlying reasons claim, claim. summarize holding: neutralization inclusions promotions; 69 accordingly opinion. 70 ordered. "governed language" statutes' provisions. Ante, 517. Where, here, addressing—and entitled—pre-emption, task interpretation—only "identify provision. An interpreting 'begin employed accurately expresses purpose.' FMC Corp. Holliday, 498 403, 407, 356 (1990), quoting Park 'N Fly, Inc. Dollar 469 189, 194, 105 658, 661, 83 582 (1985). Coastal Comm'n. Granite Rock 480 572, 591-593, 1419, 1430-1431, 94 577 (1987); resort implied is, inquiring occupied supplant English Electric 496 72, 79, 110 2270, 2275, (1990)—only silent pre-emption. 71 I agree find unambiguous result. ante, 516. describes reluctance ambiguous cases "presumption regulations." 518. many displacement involved pre-emption, see, Florida Lime Avocado Growers, Paul, 373 132, 146-152, 1210, 1219-1222, 248 (1963); 236-237, 1155-1156, (1947), often speaks without reference nature given scheme. 2129, (1981) ("Consideration starts basic intend displace law"); 146-147, 1219-1220 ("[W]e legislated ouster [state] effect"); Bethlehem Steel York Labor Relations Bd., 330 767, 1026, 1033, 1234 (1947) ("Any indulgence favor States, speak drastic clarity whenever chooses assure full authority, completely displacing States") Frankfurter, 72 federalism sovereignty underlie where spoken directly apply equal force spoken, though ambiguously. cases, regulation, extent. absent evidence, language.1 unwillingness 'the Congress.' 516 B application foregoing concludes none my view, Act") bear meaning: "mandating advertisements." recognizes, interpretation avoiding 'diverse, regulations' 519 1331(2)). thus apparent text, correspondingly impossible divine "clear purpose" 74 My agreement ceases Given proper analytical focus here acknowledgement little short baffling. 1334(b) Act"), "clearly" "manifestly" exhibits Nonetheless, conclusion, warrants scrutiny. A. premises "substantial changes" wrought 520, notably, rewording (as opposed "statement") matter, disagree ----. disagree, all-inclusive reference. intention selecting actions—any prohibition"—that specifically described under" Morton, 467 822, 828, 104 2769, 2773, 81 680 (1984) ("We phrases isolation; whole. [in question] immediately following phrase"); Jarecki G.D. Searle 367 303, 307, 1579, 1582, 859 (1961) ("The maxim noscitur sociis, company keeps, inescapable wisely applied capable meanings order unintended breadth Congress"); 1160-1161, (1991) (STEVENS, dissenting) (declining broadly). 76 flatly "no "sweeps broadly" "easily encompass[es] rules," 521, reality far dictionary definitions suggest, anything, disallowed formal authority. Webster's Third International 1929 "require" authoritatively imperatively: right authority" demand essential comply satisfy regulation)"); 1212 "prohibition" "[a]ct prohibiting something"; "interdiction"). More important, analogous enactments—an crucial actions—is significantly complicated brief quotation (1959), suggest. 78 tort behavior indirect. very attaches conduct, course (e.g., adoption label) required. liable on, respond number decide awards cost business way. Goodyear Atomic Miller, 486 174, 185-186, 108 1704, 1712-1713, 100 158 (1988) (corporation choose disregard safety additional" employee injured violation). Or, contrast, future dispensing variety mechanisms, inserts, service educational programs. level choice defendant retains shaping distinguishes indirect Dewey J. Reynolds 121 N.J. 69, 90, A.2d 1239, 1249 (1990); Garner, Dependency Civil Liability: Modest Proposal, S.Cal.L.Rev. 1423, 1454 (1980). function—compensating victims sets apart direct forms regulation. Ferebee Chevron Chemical 237 U.S.App.D.C. 164, 175, 736 1529, 1540, cert. denied, 1062, 545, 432 (1984). Despite acknowledgement, conception actions," 518,2 apparently finds Garmon's "regulation relief," extinguishing case. 521. am persuaded. Not previously distinguished Garmon,3 declined recent occasions effects enough distinguished, analysis, "direct regulation" incidental effects" workers' 185, 1712. Silkwood Kerr-McGee 464 238, 256, 615, 625, (1984),4 "Congress pressure acceptable, whereas not." 186, Even recently, 86, 2279, emotional distress nuclear energy that, former employees attach "additional retaliatory employer lead employers conditions complaining, ibid., "neither enough" 2278. jurisprudence unambiguously "prohibitions" impart it. text revised manifestly expand acknowledges itself perceived mere "clarifi[cation]" existing provision, 520 (1969) (hereinafter S.Rep.)), dismisses 'views wrong factual matter—for contemporaneous, "subsequent," accords "great weight" Red Lion Broadcasting FCC, 395 367, 380-381 n. 89 1794, 1801-1802 371 Viewing nonsubstantive makes sense. By "statement" slightly term, "requirement," adding ensure advertising) forbidden statements), sought "clarif[y]" precautions S.Rep., 12.5 Just nonsubstantive, admits "portions localities." Indeed, report explains "intended ordinances political subdivisions State," list remarkable 12. Compare, §§ 1144(a) (c)(1) (ERISA defines laws" laws, decisions, regulations, law") added). simple observation [positive] enactments." Yet, ("requirement prohibition") "plainly" errs placing weight fragile textual hook. 85 effort 19. relegates footnote, significant, particularly reliance (concluding "most [state agencies], actions"). 86 absolutely leave plaintiffs manufacturers' remedies; yet regrettable today past hesitated comparable remedy. Rabin, Sociolegal History Tort Litigation, Stan.L.Rev. 853, 869 (1992) (noting "rather tradition deference competing compensating injury victims"). Silkwood, note "Congress' remedy" persons, "difficult would, comment, remove means judicial recourse illegal conduct." 251, 623. id., 263, 629 (BLACKMUN, ("[i]t inconceivable all"). 87 eased bite establishing "comprehensive" civil schemes, Ingersoll-Rand McClendon, 478, 485-486, 474 (1990) (discussing 502(a) ERISA), barren remedies. empowers (15 1336), establishes minimal criminal penalties (misdemeanor fine exceed $10,000) violations 1338), authorizes courts, upon Government's application, enjoin 1339). unwilling Congress, mention dramatically eliminated conduct. 88 mandates Act.6 Stepping back specifics view reaches, disturbed. ready analysis," (1978)), proceeds crazy quilt implicated surely intended. 90 obvious problem frequent shift generality examines individual (at involving "not 'based health' deceive," 528-529. Yet claims—which "more obligation" inform risks—implicitly declared 524. goes hold 525. acknowledge, ibid. added); State's penalize creation action, exist. perceive principled distinctions hodge-podge allowed 1970. "indicate pre-empted," 523, ignores simplest explanation silence: never cull today. speculate difficulty lower will encounter attempting implement 92 finding eliminates critical component States' traditional ability citizens. radical readjustment federal-state precedents neither evidences respectfully dissent parts threshold description accurate enough: Though 'assum[e] Congress,' traditionally thought text. Where actual "stands obstacle accomplishment execution objectives Congress," Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 67, 399, 404, 581 (1941), even Congress's scope, convinces it," Rice, supra, declaring yield. framed inquiry, intent, structure, purposes, involved. 78-79, 2274-2275, 95, 2898, principles, announce ones. says narrowest possible construction. consequence oft-repeated convincing pre-empt, superseded,' But me dissolves once conclusive itself, remaining be. Thereupon, think, done. Less month ago, Morales Trans World Airlines, 374, 2031, 119 157 (1992), Airline Deregulation pre-empting [airline] rates, routes, services," U.S.C.App. 1305(a)(1), fare despite availability plausible constructions. "plain statement" usual 'assumption statutory] purpose. ' Morales, 383, 2036 57, (1990)) And American Dispatchers Ass'n, 117, (1991), interpreted preemption well-respected canon supported narrower 129, 1163; 136, 1167-1168 dissenting). preemption," 518, 96 willingness explicit notion exist, "plain-statement" somewhat odd. sure, abounds statement," "narrow construction" variously extraordinary constitutional invoked, important protections eliminated, seemingly inequitable doctrines applied. Mitchell, 445 535, 538, 1349, 1351, 607 (1980) (waivers sovereign immunity "unequivocally expressed"); Will Michigan Police, 491 58, 65, 109 2304, 2308, (1989) (clear compel entertain suits themselves courts); Atascadero Hospital Scanlon, 473 234, 243, 3142, 3147, 171 (1985) (abrogation unmistakable language"). exists alongside doctrine whereby prophylactically careless achieved sheer implication, all. novel regime constructs results seem odder still takes account announces: "When [that provision]." Once words, eliminated. proposition correct "field" concerned: tends contradict occupy defines. "conflict" pre-emption—i.e., execution" Hines, 404—the works mischief. If taken seriously, consumer protection agency assert workplace standard effect, then operating dealing protection) contrary law—forbidding, equipment requires. knowledge, before, prior inconsistent it, 540-543, 1317-1318, novelty combined extraordinary: anything everything; great exactitude, ambiguity preserving power. sporting congresses dare me, customary general: 407; 2900. broadly, 96-97, 2899-2900. bespeaks judgment. Fort Halifax Coyne, 482 7-8, 2211, 2215-2216, (1987). niggardly (not surprisingly) misrepresentation—is save think error. 99 With plurality Part agree—that [1969] enactments," 521; tort-law invokes companies can, ibid.; embraces 523. plurality, Its produce partial rests misperceptions discuss turn, headings erroneously permitted apply. Pre-1969 Failure-to-Warn Claims According Court,1 labels," 518-519 essence, reads required" required." risks, survive element "particularity." pre-emption," import why similarly Act—so requirement, noncigarette-specific divergent treatment justified which, notes, concern regulations," 1331(2) untouched believes one.2 (during period force) addition, explain, infra, health-related outside enjoins "statement[s]" accepted, survive. breach-of-express-warranty concur respect. Post-1969 Breach-of-Express-Warranty embodies unhealthy. Making civilly actionable certainly this, "[R]ather," says, itself." 526. agree. representation, making voluntary commission tort, background occurs, supplies Home Blaisdell, 290 398, 429, 231, 413 (1934); 12A:2-313(1), 12A:2-714, 12A:2-715 1962) (providing warranties). Of course, Jersey's sense, suppose, "undertaken manufacturer." logic Jersey; or, generally, volitional cites curious doubt Term Assn., exemption "from antitrust 11341(a), contract obligations. observed, plurality's today, "[a] binding character." 1164. Compare 1168-1169 C 106 Fraud survives understand reasoning, implicit deriving "smoking health," uniquely crafted address putative victims, fall amended. "duty one, applicable commercial actors kinds commerce, follows breaches duty. suspect, begin with, consistently. BLACKMUN cogently explains, 543 part), fact—as companies' behavior—is product's dangers. transcends smokers; eye toward None arguments advances persuasive. preserved, Acts, Commission's practices, 529, excluded regulation), suggested true standards, "concerning 'reasonably safe' ad featuring glamorous, youthful pearly-white teeth "misrepresentative" almost differently State. 527 rules). forced select methodology evaluating source law) application. Use "ultimate source" approach (i.e., health) gut inviting regulations" avoid. 1331(2). Requirements well, authorizing supervision "commercial "unfair practices." books. E.g., 56:8-1 seq. 1989); N.Y.Gen.Bus.Law 349 (McKinney 1988 Supp.1992); Texas Bus. Com.Code Ann. 17.01 (1987 Supp.1992). called "proximate application" determining invoke health"—I ask, whether, whatever duty, imposes basis, flaw systemic infects otherwise disposition proscribes 'with promotion,' covered. 528 preserves (somewhat fanciful) relation (one imagine public-health agency), complied taking realm elsewhere. if—as Jersey—a advise products' dangers, indifferent how "advertising otherwise), unprepared instructed zero deficiencies normal communicates prospective customers, economical means. implausible compelled convey means, allow onerous still. practical "tell-the-consumers-any-way-you-wish" compels relinquish accorded test setting compulsion, i.e., practically engage prescribing directly. Cf., Ray Atlantic Richfield 151, 173, 25, 988, 1002, (1978). hypothetical disclosure test, meet standards "fair warning" 114 Like "I [today's] decision." 543-544 part). Must really III), V)? Are ignore contains continue them, past? acts Co.), today)? today's fill law-books years come. raises answers serve Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 287, 499. Pub.L. 91-222, Stat. 87, amended, 1331-1340. four rotating basis. 98-474, 2201. arose relies initially Other Pennington Vistron 876 414 (CA5 Roysdon R.J. 849 230 (CA6 1988); Stephen Brands, 825 (CA11 1987); Palmer 620 (CA1 1987). Forster 437 N.W.2d 655 (Minn.1989); 1239 (1990). explained: "However, claiming greater indicates, inadequate. recognizes extremely plaintiff prove inadequate proof preclude opportunity heard, affording undermine 1148. "It policy chapter, comprehensive program deal whereby— "(1) informed inclusion "(2) commerce (A) maximum (B) impeded 1331 (1982 ed.). Brown Williamson 956 (1960); Myers 354 (1958); Philip Morris Ltd., (1955); 682 (1952); London 282 (1943). 89-92, 283. total "California Votes Ban Advertising," Washington Post, 26, A9. distinguish Acts; latter, believing court's reflects 99-252, 30, codified, 4401-4408. Cf. Banzhaf 132 14, 405 1082 (1968), 396 842, 50, 51, (holding FCC's fairness advertising). SCALIA statement." His criticism, artificially severed context. 5(a), turn statement. acted, contemporaneous participated litigation beginning 1950's, defense. Brief 23-24; Respondents 21-23. 2) "regulations" enactments, amend retention portion rejecting added 20. 14. 5's reach, 1144(c)(1); 1715z-17(d). savings again, 301. Under perfect sense: saving whole—it others. Thus sound "tort": "There always operation parties" ) 322 "contract": "An persons ). therefore, "liability suggests, post, ----); instead "contract character," Railway 1164, dictates enforceable "imposed" state, contracting "consists elements: 1) [by concealment]; knowledge falsity .; 3) upon; 4) justifiable 5) resultant damage." 1499 emphasized "preemption phrased affect taxation sale minors, buildings, supplied). Both consistency, risks." 543. again deceive Admittedly, positions conceptual attraction. ambition theoretical elegance, analyze do) amendments meaningless too reworking hand, lowest preserve "police States. 25. Misrepresent follows: "Evidence [petitioner], [respondents] themselves, indicates. industry entered sophisticated organized refute, undermine, coming community. ." 1490. whom SOUTER join, craft compromise position bringing divided holding versions unsatisfactory. language. kind join exposition, recognition construes inroads contexts, repeatedly waive suit court, "unmistakably statute." 242, (1985); Dellmuth Muth, 223, 228, 2397, 2400, other, 1986, 34, 4401 seq.; Occupational Safety 1970, 1590, 651 seq., Gade National Solid Wastes Mgmt. --- 2374, ---- (1992). pre-emption" Board. Hotel Employees, 468 491, 502, 3179, 3185, (1984); 86-87, punitive explaining: negligence sense plant threatened something willing accept." 625. part" remedies field, English, Silkwood's discussion instructive cases. Goodyear, reported construing FCC—a aware, 7—the Columbia Circuit "affirmative requirements" describe "statement[s]." 22, 1082, 1090 sub nom. Institute, small step requirement" converse, "negative ("prohibition"), and, there, single explanatory phrase, prohibition." Every question, 181, 185-186 1986), 414, 418 234 620, 625 1247 655, 658 (Minn.1989). THOMAS joins, Today's announces what, unprecedented construction: life-span blessedly inasmuch gives birth V, adjudging merit newly Clause, Const., job interpret decrees accordance find, claims; complete. Justices thinks imposing package-labeling "itself Besides complete non sequitur, proves much: prescription likewise confine specific, prescriptive (which, presume, dangers). leaving free health-labeling requirements. purposes.

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