Document: 335 U.S. 497 69 S.Ct. 201 93 L.Ed. 187 FRAZIERv.UNITED STATES. No. 44. Argued Oct. 15, 1948. Decided Dec. 20, Rehearing Denied Jan. 31, 1949. As Amended Feb. 14, See 336 907, 488. Mr. Edward Buckley, Jr., of Washington, D.C., for petitioner. Robert W. Ginnane, respondent. Justice RUTLEDGE delivered the opinion Court. 1 Petitioner's primary complaint is that he has been denied trial 'by an impartial jury' which Sixth Amendment guarantees. He was convicted violating Harrison Narcotics Act,1 By a jury composed entirely employees Federal Government. One juror, Moore, and wife another, Root, were employed in office Secretary Treasury, who charged by law with responsibility administering enforcing federal narcotics statutes.2 against objections based on these facts other matters, Court Appeals affirmed petitioner's conviction sentence. 82 U.S.App.D.C. 332, 163 F.2d 817. sought relief here application certiorari limited to issues relating jury's selection composition. To Review determination made them we granted certiorari. 333 873, 68 896. 2 comprehend attack upon entire panel prospective jurors, during course voir dire examination, effort have stricken; challenge as finally constituted, after petitioner had xhausted his ten peremptory challenges, examination completed, twelve jurors tried case qualified; and, either separately or conjunction objections,3 claim reversible error account inclusion Moore Root jurors. An adequate understanding thus raised requires condensed statement proceedings followed DistrictCourt jury. 3 Pursuant customary practice, those began seating box purposes dire. These chosen previously, accordance prevailing from lists maintained supply grand petit juries all divisions District Cf. D.C. Code § 11—1401 et seq. There no improperly up. The usual preliminary continued until noon recess, later noted, counsel raising question concerning constitution panel. 4 Petitioner inquired, among things, how many Government employees. Five original indicated they were. excused court. four, including remained unchallenged served seven remaining veniremen, two housewives, engaged private occupations. All challenged peremptorily 5 replace one court, others called time time, examined substantially same manner twelve. Altogether numbered thirteen, nine employees, employment, nature whose work does not appear. Of latter, court prosecution. both employment service. This exhausted challenges left eight join four like ones originally composing up chosen.4 6 Process interrupted shortly before noon, when still unused shortage veniremen. Anticipating would be available day, adjourned 2:30 p.m. On its reconvening, additional available. But then moved first strike alleged irregularity method used selecting it, asserted discovered through 'a little investigation' recess. motion, leave renew objection motion new if should convicted.5 material part colloquy disclosing grounds denial set forth margin.6 7 exercised inquired impaneled When were, cause. court's ruling it appear below.7 Although intermingle this previously panel,8 are distinct attacks must treated separately. 8 I. panel.—Apart came too late, cf. Agnew v. United States, 165 36, 17 235, 41 624, without merit. It consists exclusively counsel's statements, unsworn unsupported any proof offer proof. did explicitly deny statements. under necessity do so. burden moving party 'to introduce, offer, evidence support motion.' Glasser 315 60, 87, 62 457, 472, 86 680. also Smith State Mississippi, 162 592, 16 900, 40 1082; Tarrance Florida, 188 519, 23 402, 47 572; Martin Texas, 200 316, 26 338, 50 497; Brownfield South Carolina, 189 U.S 426, 513, 882. 9 itself failure tender require motion. even offered there showing sufficient contrary action. allegations, comprehended substance but things. very brief procedure followed, namely, subpoenaing about five hundred their equal division assignment branches each group wish serve 'told step side.' way facts. From vague general conclusion number, said picked, 'consisted mostly unemployed.' Counsel urged furnished basis applying decision Thiel Southern Pacific Co., 328 217, 66 984, 90 1181, 166 A.L.R. 1412, affording proper cross-section.' 10 rightly held Thied inapplicable, reasons systematic exclusion attempt exclude particular occupational groups otherwise eligible service, statements conclusions disclosed such attempt. Beyond this, moreover, seems highly doubtful statement, proved, constitute irregularity. Nothing stated numbers stepped side, classifications, whether or, any, many, whom what For could know stepping side may included ten, these, half more service claiming exemption seeking excuse. stated, therefore, taken light pertinent omitted lay foundation whatever conclusions, inferentially selected only standing aside, number obviously insufficient valid 11 II. Composition jury.—The essence 'Now, I my decide defendant's case, violation statute, being brought Court, prosecuted prosecutor, presented agents.'9 So put, sound plausibility. Possibly himself responsible, deliberate choice, final 12 Given arbitrary choices twenty-two disqualified cause, thirteen privately engaged, knowingly, own right, rejected latter knowledge full opportunity secure accepted former. seem ordinarily anxious representative public community Washington,10 particularly avoid overweighting well might found effective utilizing achieve objectives. 13 right given, course, party's sole discretion so here. We privilege utilize did. given aid interest fair jury, creating ground t partiality exercise exist.11 follow using pleases, obtains further repudiate consequences choice. 14 Here fairly lawfully cause excused. fully qualified evently distributed persons publicly employed. own, chose eliminate retain uninformed one. need draw purpose now objecting composition.12 Rather take having exactly afford beyond minimum requirements express preference properly sit judgment case. note 11. Any view convict him abusing privilege. unwilling do. 15 token willing repudiating selection. at word expressed repeated choices. fact did, frequently consistently hardly can give defect respect. Nor prosecution utilized bring constituted them. going far say circumstances shown record deprived, fact, indeed community. If deprivation was, sense,13 result imperfection tendered th procedures afforded. In judge assessed situation follows: 'Chance resulted list chance mixture employees.14 Even took place, complain. well-settled rule that, panel, free taint invalid exclusions excused, arises merely happens community.15 is, circumstances, composition representation jury.16 Finally, phase States Wood, 299 123, 57 177, 81 78, goes toward precluding objection. That sustained Act Congress August 22, 1935, D.C.Code 1940, 11—1420, removing (with specified exceptions) disqualification existing Columbia criminal cases party. arisen 1908 virtue decision, common-law grounds, Crawford 212 183, 29 260, 53 465, Ann.Cas. 392. 18 Owing large increasing proportion District, effect 1935 create difficulties securing meet statute adopted.17 exemptions existing, executive judicial officers directed presently part: 'All persons, according government * shall exempt *.' 11—1420. 19 Wood theft corporation. Three fede al ground. sustaining 'undertaken preclude ascertainment actual bias,' issue 'implied bias, bias attributable juror regardless partiality.' pages 133, 134, 179, 180. 'The enactment tantamount legislative declaration prior (under ruling) artificial necessary impartiality.' Id., 148, 149, page 186. judgment, added account: 20 'In prosecutions acting simply instrument penal laws protection society. enforcement citizens interested. difficult see why governmental employee, interested less than good citizen be. think imputation regard growing out cases, rests assumption rational foundation.' Ibid. 21 confronted exact here, purport mere more, statute's mandate disqualify juror. Implicit conception insofar alone effective, put limitation, explicit implied, group.18 rulings, think, make subject, manner, 'actual bias'19 ordinary challenge. view, absent challenge, whole arise turns wholly fortiori, employment. 22 however, careful stress once prescribes specific tests determining impartiality. 179. afforded assurances, Art. III, 2, par. 3, inrespect speed, publicity, impartiality, etc. 142, 183. respects 'the forms common law.' 143, 184. emphasized especially 'Impartiality technical conception. state mind. mental attitude appropriate indifference, Constitution lays down chained ancient formula.' 145, 146, 185. contemplate implicitly broad duty reside subject solid score though possibly working lawful factors within framework choosing it. Such arise, all, rarest most extraordinary combination circumstances. possibility conceded, already presents problem. 24 III. Jurors Root.—Considered independent individual bias,'20 come late. Treasury messenger. Root's employee. knew inquire where employed, known employment's nature.21 connected Bureau remotely functions relation them.22 25 stated: resources inquiry remain instance ascertain although exempted prevent serving dealing employee Government, solicitous discover whether, activity matters involved prosecution, otherwise, had, him.'23 27 neither nor fullest legally factually doing After accepting trial, successfully trial. Queen Hepburn, Cranch 290, 297, 348; Raub Carpenter, 159, 72, 119; Gale, 109 65, 1, 857. Kohl Lehlback, 160 293, 299-302, 304, 306, 307, 432. Whether outside bias,'24 connections affecting obvious inherently prejudicial matter law, absence suggestion afterward verdict aside grant 28 stands better considered, belated bias' each, buttressing whole. Apart sorts therefore dealt separately, ruled special reference bases objecrtion them.25 Those references, record, appeared assignments Appeals. They considered forming adding anything weight technically broader, nontechnical impartiality mind, believing receive assured him. 30 Affirmed. 31 JACKSON, dissenting. 32 proposition expect lawyers nearly unanimous: every member hire litigants, lacks something A system produced objectionable always tends repeat should, opinion, disapproved supervisory power over courts. 33 Were employer individual, railroad, industrial concern, state, readily implied; existence probable. adversary proceeding, nominal litigant. patron benefactor plus juror's measure. At plea convict, upper hand pay promotion. late years, never pry into lives thoughts slightest suspicion complete trustworthiness. demands probity unquestioning ideological loyalty. cannot today disinterested unconcerned appearance faithful enthusiastic depart ents prestige are, somewhat, little, stake And prosecutors seldom fail stress, exaggerate, importance social, cosmic, order. reason believe acquitting subjected embarrassments reprisals, clerk messenger great bureaucracy feel dependence doubt class possess normal independence fortitude. assume human weakness, displayed leads men '* crook pregnant hinges knee thrift fawning.' reject spurious differs psychological pressure dependency gaining favor, tend predetermine mastery ambition position. dismissed phantasy, one-sided outlook problems leverage blemish name justice Columbia. 34 Because semblance reflects courts, prejudice defendant am disposed labor argument done protest soon apparent happening him, me face adverse rulings. defective, deserves neutral appearances, deserve demand 35 overloading beholden mystery accident. due will continue operate direction long practice followed. While prove oath, Attorney learned Trial Judge, facts, questioned asked evidence. this: drawn, appears serving. 36 amiable concession some jurisdictions produce distortion panel; certain just because dual standard dubious compensation. non-government receives $4 per day,1 present conditions inadequate compensatory gainfully paid specially; instead, while jury.2 induced financial loss, former considerable disadvantage. 37 condition makes virtually voluntary allowed decline option, become loaded undue concentration accomplished device excluded nongovernment unquestionably condemned resort doctrine prevailed Ballard 329 187, 67 91 181; 1412; 38 Is letting themselves, stimulated incentive compensation? 39 enable assigning excuse sit. talesmen hinted packed himself. Judge suggestion, able detect tactics. blamed 'chance.' fickle goddess seen cards stacked beginning. plainly contrast unequal advantages parties get challenges. occasion use rid adversary's was. try dismiss incur probability getting another. effort, futile, claims enough displace all. wise tactics show disapproval anyway. Moreover, go dislodge servants, helpless reason. disadvantage ranks walks life. Whatever excusing one, price probably another's place. vacate seat talesman unwelcome results. short thing is: intervened revise systems inevitably litigants our noses. 261, Pacific, strong minority wanted upset system, offensive fundamental consideration spelled process clause Fourteenth Amendment, brazen unfairness practice. People New York, 565, 705; Fay 332 1613, 2043. 42 precedent leans heavily, weak crutch. absolute declared 392, constitutionally removed Congress. considering three beneficiaries individually, cause; excusable hold few emplo ees holding fill chairs retiring everyone else. Furthermore, larceny offense such, except prosecuting crimes concern jurisdiction. us aspect; policy; exclusive nationwide involved. 43 admit premise, Court's leaves unexplained unjustified. power, sitting almost stone's throw sit, operation likely again Approval written juries, lofty pronouncements hollow. 44 reverse rather insignificant end builds scandalous reversal really significant conviction. 45 FRANKFURTER, DOUGLAS MURPHY opinion. U.S.C. 2553, U.S.C.A. 2553. indictment charged, statutory language, wilfully, unlawfully feloniously 'purchase, sell, dispense distribute' narcotic drugs 'not there, from, stamped package.' 2606, delegated Commissioner investigation, detection prevention violations marihuana laws.' C.F.R., 1946 Supp. 206.1. TheBureau Narcotics, created Department, 282, Secretary's 'general supervision direction,' Supp., 206.3, decisions review 282c, 282c. 87,830 Department September 30, 1947, 19,645 Monthly Report Employment, Executive Branch Civ. Serv. Comm'n, September, 1948, Table V. Published figures Bureau, diversity Department's comprised comparatively small fraction total. Part III infra. summary, twenty-five examined. twenty-two, work, exhausting resulted. Prior selected. Root. renewed motions arrest instance. 'Mr. Buckley. your Honor please, investigation impaneling panels month, respectfully submit irregular, move inquiries made, subpenaed—that individually subpenaed 'If hundred, divided groups, fifty another desire raise hands, hands told picked consisted unemployed. 'I Your read Supreme Company (328 1412). cross-section. holds type persons. holds, here.' ago, find myself different Tuesday Clerk says fifty, whichever be, individuals summoned pick serve, batch housewives. agents. people request you later, verdict, sound. Chance employees.' 7; 6. Note 7. infra text. privilege, variable allowed, withheld altogether impairing constitutional guaranties 'an Stilson 250 583, 586, 28, 29, 63 1154, quoted 185, 78. Except treason capital offenses, existed trials June 8, 1872, Stat. Rev.Stat. 819 (now 1870), unless applicable provision allowing noncapital cases. April 1790, 112, Randall, Fed.Cas., 16,118; Cottingham, 14,872; McPherson, 15,703; Krouse, 15,544. (However, spoken 'one important rights secured accused.' Pointer 151 396, 408, 410, 414, 208; Lewis 146 370, 376, 136, 138, 1011). affords guaranties, option. Columbia, occupations; words, impossible 4; meant imply text authorities cited 15. Ruthenberg 245 480, 168, 414; Thomas 278, 393, 394, 512; Virginia Rives, 100 313, 322, 323, 667; Higgins 371, 222; 223; 284, 285, 1625, 1626, 2043; 220, 985, 1412: Akins 325 398, 403, 404, 65 1276, 1279, 89 1692. 132, 178, quoting Appeals, App.D.C. 330, 83 587, 589. House Rep. 1421, Sen.Rep. 1297, 74th Cong., 1st Sess.; 79 Cong.Rec. 13,401, bill became Government's relying assembled various official sources, probable 353,949 156,874, 44.3 cent, receipt benefits law. Since defective. Great Atlantic & Tea Co. 502; 222. Fifth Circuit Canal Zone tenants constituted. Schackow Zone, 108 625. phrase conclusively presumed pointed 'Challenges array, respect polls, Challenges polls 'principal' favor,' disqualification, bias.' 135, portion 23, regarded favo ' subjective sense thought 'in otherwise.' notes 8. discovery inquiry, panels, name, age, address, occupation prepared request. 2. supra, speaking said: 'It observed department affairs conspiracy related. broader range rest possible distinction.' 140, 182. least relationship wife, coming ultimate departmental supervision, timely attention circumstance excess caution, venireman. Code, title 11, 1513 (1940). §§ 1421—23

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