Document: 517 U.S. 1116 S.Ct. 1091134 L.Ed.2d 167 WISCONSIN, Petitioner,v.CITY OF NEW YORK et al. OKLAHOMA, Petitioner, v. CITY DEPARTMENT COMMERCE, al., Petitioners, Nos. 94-1614, 94-1631 and 94-1985. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Jan. 10, 1996. Decided March 20, 1996.* Syllabus** The Constitution's Census Clause vests Congress with responsibility to conduct an "actual Enumeration" American public every 10 years, primary purpose providing a basis for apportioning congressional representation among States. That has been delegated Secretary Commerce, who determined that would best be achieved in 1990 census by not using postenumeration survey (PES) statistical adjustment designed correct undercount initial enumeration. In this action brought several respondents others, District concluded Secretary's decision statistically adjust violated neither Constitution nor federal law. reversing remanding, Appeals looked line precedent involving judicial review intrastate districting decisions, see Wesberry Sanders, 376 1, 84 526, 11 481, its progeny, held, inter alia, heightened standard was required here because impacted fundamental right have one's vote counted had disproportionate impact upon certain identifiable minority racial groups. Held: Because it reasonable conclude could without PES-based adjustment, use well within constitutional bounds discretion over is provided Federal Government. Pp. __-__. (a) subject scrutiny. two recent Department Commerce Montana, 503 442, 112 1415, 118 87, Franklin Massachusetts, 505 788, 2767, 120 636, rejected application Wesberry's "one person-one vote" Congress, concluding wide apportionment decisions census, appropriate examines determine whether "consistent language goal equal representation," Franklin, supra, at 804, S.Ct., 2777. Rather than strict scrutiny applied adopted Appeals, established Montana applies here. text virtually unlimited conducting Enumeration," Art. I, § 2, cl. 3 (Congress may "in such Manner as they shall Law direct"), there no thinking more limited provides. Through Act, 13 U.S.C. 141(a), broad authority Secretary. Hence, so long limits. (b) conformed applicable statutory provisions. light grant need bear only relationship accomplishment actual enumeration population, keeping mind census' representation. based three determinations, each which his discretion. First, he held purpose, distributive accuracy—i.e., getting most nearly proportions people different areas—was important numerical accuracy. A preference accuracy (even expense some accuracy) inconsistent Representatives Second, determination unadjusted data should considered distributively accurate absent showing contrary on well-founded understanding historical practice experience, consideration context. See, e.g., 465, 1429-30. Respondents misplace their reliance adjustments were used 1970 1980 censuses, since those entirely type one issue took place dramatically smaller scale, first time history States' counts other Third, respondents' contention de novo conclusions point fundamentally misapprehends deference determination, arises from highly technical nature decision, but bestowed him. conclusion improve accuracy, extensive research recommendations advisers, choice area where experts disagree. 34 F.3d 1114 (C.A.2 1994), reversed. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion unanimous Court. On Writs Certiorari Second Circuit. Drew S. Days, III, Washington, DC, petitioners. James E. Doyle, Attorney General, Madison, WI, state Robert Rifkind, New York City, respondents. CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST 1 Census, decided particular Circuit effect individual equally. We hold scrutiny, 2 * requires population years direct."1 3. seq., take "a decennial . form content ." 141(a). assisted performance Bureau head, Director Census. See 2; 21 ("[The] perform duties imposed him law, regulations, or orders Secretary"). provides results apportion Members House ("Representatives apportioned according respective Numbers "); Amdt. XIV, numbers, counting whole number persons State "). determines part allocation votes election President, also affects members electoral college. II, ("Each appoint Number Electors, Senators entitled ."). Today, consequences delineated Constitution: Government considers dispensing funds through programs States, drawing political districts. 4 There 20 censuses Although accomplishing recognized having wholly successful achieving goal.2 Cf. Karcher Daggett, 462 725, 732, 103 2653, 2659, 77 133 (1983) (recognizing "census are perfect," "population localities outdated before completed"); Gaffney Cummings, 412 735, 745, 93 2321, 2327, 37 298 (1973) (census "are inherently less absolutely accurate"). Despite consistent efforts quality count, errors persist. Persons all wrong location; (whether died born after date, citizen country, did exist) counted; once twice. It thought these resulted net "undercount" census. 1970, instance, 2.7% lo wer population.3 Brief 12. 5 spread consistently across population: Some segments "undercounted" greater degree resulting phenomenon termed "differential undercount." Since least 1940, ethnic groups extent does whites. example, when entire 5.4%, blacks estimated 8.4%, (and whites 5.0%). problem differential persisted even come provide numerically count population. overall 1.2%, 4.9%. 6 significant problems, past devoted substantial effort toward reduction. Most recently, preparations initiated inquiry into various means overcoming undercount. As effort, created task forces: Undercount Steering Committee (USC), responsible planning policy development; Research Staff (URS), conducted methods improving addition, consulted local governments outside organizations. 7 Largely result efforts, variety measures reduce rate error enumeration, including advertising campaign, easily completed questionnaire, increased automation, things facilitated development maps geographic files Pet.App. 321a-322a.4 implemented improvements specifically targeted eliminating undercount; included campaigns developed directed traditionally undercounted populations expanded questionnaire assistance operations non-English speaking residents. Id., 321a-322a. 8 preparing forces possibility large-scale compensate previously (most recently 1980), always instead rely traditional methodology r esults Cuomo Baldrige, 674 F.Supp. 1089 (S.D.N.Y.1987) (noting census). 1985, preliminary investigations URS suggested promising method "capture-recapture" "dual system estimation" approach. 9 variations purposes opinion, example serve make understandable. Imagine wanted DSE order pumpkins large pumpkin patch. choose section patch representative subset "recapture" phase will applied. Let us assume exactly 1/10 size selected. Then, next step—the "capture" stage —one fairly quick patch, making sure record both selected section. imagine 10,000 1,000 Next, stage, exacting we now 1,100 By comparing section, possible estimate approximately 100 actually missed phase. Extrapolating 11,000. context (the "capture") followed post-enumeration "recapture") geographical areas. then compare PES areas PES, (i.e., areas). extrapolated thus promise correcting called post-stratification. Thus, person placed one, post-strata defined five categories: geography; age; sex; status housing unit (rent own); race (including Hispanic versus non-Hispanic origin).5 post-stratified able rate, post-strata. reflect differences 12 mid-1980's, series field tests studies measure utility tool ad justing adopt June 1987, informed superiors decision. disagreed Director's adjust, however, October announced adjusted. November 1988, plaintiffs case) suit Eastern York, arguing against unconstitutional parties entered interim stipulation providing, reconsider adjustment. 14 July 1991, issued 135a-415a. began noting "abandon hundred year tradition how people." 138a. Before taking "step magnitude," necessary "certain better distribution accurate." Ibid. Emphasizing "the criterion is, areas." 146a-147a. 15 After reviewing advisors voluminous compiled, although (at national level) might improved confident census—particularly level —would adjustment.6 140a-141a, 200a-201a. particular, noted, adjusted figures became increasingly unreliable focused subdivisions. 142a. 16 stated buttressed concern present problems future. 143a. small changes apportionment—an chosen—the found open door tampering noted diminish incentive leaders assist id., 143a-144a. conclusion, continue future maintain inclusiveness 145a. 17 returned court. Dept. 822 906 (E.D.N.Y.1993). 18 appealed, adop ted claim,7 reversed divided vote. (1994); 1a-40a. majority see, (1983); 481 (1964), right, viz., counted, 33a. court shown failed good-faith achieve districts possible, 38a, therefore defendants must burden proving deviations legitimate goal, 39a-40a. remanded show essential achievement governmental objective. 40a. 19 dissenting judge affirmed ibid. He majority's conflict Courts Appeals. Detroit 1367 (C.A.6 1993), Tucker 958 F.2d 1411 (C.A.7 1992). Wisconsin, Oklahoma, filed petition certiorari. granted petitions, consolidated them argument. 515 ----, 116 38, 132 919 (1995). reverse. II twice challenges 87 (1992), officials, Montana's Government, challenging entitled. three-judge principle numbers seats Noting variance between single district "ideal district," Congress' chosen Wesberry, voided statute apportionment. 22 revisiting case disparities drawn Georgia. 459-460, 1426-27. Wesberry—" 'equal people' "—had evolved though cases strictly enforced requirement " 'make precise mathematical equality' 460, 1426, quoting Kirkpatrick Preisler, 394 530-531, 89 1225, 1228-29, 519 (1969) (disparities Missouri unconstitutional); (1% disparity Jersey unconstitutional). Returning challenge involved voting State's redistricting whereas challenged interstate actions Congress. 23 difference beyond simple fact due area. equality" Kirkpatrick, 1228-29. While "theoretical incompatibility entailed minimizing absolute relative differences" sizes districts, observed direct trade-off size. 461-462, 1427-28. Finding demanded inequality "[n]either analysis interpretation provide[d] conclusive answer" base choice. 463, 1429. 24 further itself, guaranteeing minimum State, made impossible Wesberry. pedigree apportionment, reemphasized "good-faith 'according Numbers' commands far capable being reviewed under relatively rigid standard." 464, 25 636 reiterated our Massachusetts registered voters sued employees serving overseas (among things) unconstitutional. Restating examined representation." 2777; 459, 1426. area, met "make equal." U.S., 806, 2778. Concluding reflected "judgment, consonant with, dictated by, .," limits 26 case, apply protection principles distilled same relied asserted equally—and th e affected classes—"certain groups" —required given drew Court's "implicit" findings: equality power practicable; "that [the PES-based] original census; lessen undercounting minorities." 34a. 27 instant case: first, involves rather government; second, requirements nationwide. 34a-35a. But nondeterminative, deciding owed Executive Branch question "impossibility excuse Government] [the] mandated effort." 35a. prima facie violation increase virtue plainly foreseeable foreseen." 38a-39a. vacated unless remand "(a) furthers objective legitimate, objective." 28 think erred holding progeny hand. For reasons, translate possible. understated significance case. recognize pursuant delegation direct.") undervalued makes before, "[t]he exceed 30,000 persons; Representative; boundaries cross lines." 447-448, 1419. 29 can requisite effort" formula, way Government's regarding "would equality," understood mean doing, implicitly prohibited preferring accuracy—which adjustment—was constitutionally preferable 39a (". accu racy practicable, shifted justify adjust. .") equality, ground gross itself real instruction point, extrapolation equally unhelpful. Quite simply, polestar sufficient guidance allow discern permissible course." 30 "apparently numbers' With mind, difficult why census—a removed concerning "commands standard."8 31 Enumeration,"9 3, notwithstanding plethora lawsuits inevitably accompany census,10 Baldrige Shapiro, 455 345, 361, 102 1103, 1113, 71 199 (1982) scope Secretary.11 141(a) (Secretary determine. 2777, Constitution. 32 1990, extraordinary 98.4% 58 Fed.Reg. 70 (1993); Petitioners 28. consider derived PES. determinations. contrary. And finally, advisors, Each determinations 33 already seen, __, focus Indeed, seem follow do dispute point. 54 ("Distributive judging calls attention uses put"). Rather, improperly "regarded evidence superior numeric 'not relevant' accuracy." 39 (quoting 201a); 51-54. support argument, note rest too much statement refer. When quoted full, reads: "[w]hile preponderance leads me believe total falls figures, relevant Pet App. 201a. (in addition 157a. Even if subordinate correlate closely require 35 Turning second dispute, importance 803-806, 2776-2779 experience census); cf. 1430 ("To potentially divisive complex issues associated narrowed adoption procedural substantive rules year, served. Nevertheless, flawed. According respondents, assumed via "headcount," thereby ignoring 4-5. 36 tarry reasonably change refer here, scale. F.Supp., 1107 (rejecting argument PES-like finding "none remotely similar types wholesale presently suggested. Moreover, 251a-252a. Here, well-founded, establishment rebuttable presumption accurate. ultimately available "tends enumeration," 185a, brunt attack. contend They argue sort "highly technical" administrative normally deference, regardless complexity, presents deserves deference. dubious validity admittedly "not statistician," 139a, odds carefully comb novo. 38 Respondents' Our Regardless expertise, whom sa reason, mere overruled views subordinates moment any finally supported reasoning F.2d, 1418 (Plaintiffs seeking asking [courts] sides statisticians, demographers, officials desirability headcount"). Under Economic Affairs Administrator Economics Statistics Administration voted 59a, 140a. recommended favor compelled evidence: Bureau, whose recommendation heavily rely, her report "[a]djustment about men women statisticians demographers disagree." 73. principal Dr. Fay, 'told differ' 91a. Therefore, find prior reasonable, "consonant III 40 confers reasonable. Therefore judgment 41 Reversed. Together No. 94-1631, Oklahoma City 94-1985, certiorari court.CI ** syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Lumber Co., 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 50 L.Ed. 499. full: "The Enumeration Years Meeting subsequent Term ten Years, direct." escape criticism. Thomas Jefferson, oversaw 1790 significantly young Nation's C. Wright, History Growth 16-17 (1900). One wonder Specifically: what measured? all, known, redundant. part, told, definite estimates demographic data. pp. 158a-168a, 366a-369a. procedure make-up undercount, infra. All references appendix 94-1614 otherwise noted. Examples include: female ages owned home either Chicago; non-black females, age 45-64, living rented non-metropolitan Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, Mexico, Utah, Wyoming; male Asians Pacific Islanders, 65 above, renting Los Angeles-Long Beach another central city metropolitan Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, Washington. distinction becomes clear example. somehow definitely million If "persons" added allocated improved, almost certainly impaired. appeal treatment claims. Nor reason. Strict classification affecting protected class properly invoked plaintiff intentional discrimination Washington Davis, 426 229, 239-245, 96 2040, 2047-2050, 48 597 (1976). argued intent discriminate race. include minorities 78a, 321a-322a, tough row hoe set out prove decide prohibit Wisconsin 0-42. 790, 2770, (1992) ("As season follows another, again generated reapportionment controversies."); National Center Homelessness Poverty Brown, pending, 94-5312 (CADC) (argued Oct. 6, 1995) (challenging Bureau's procedures homeless persons); Carey Klutznick, 637 834 1980) (seeking directing processes Borough Bethel Park Stans, 449 575 (C.A.3 1971). Act. party has, Secretary, constrained commensurate Petitioner p. n.19 (stating "Congress enact legislation compel adjustment" Census.) argues 195, resolve

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