Document: 527 U.S. 41118 S.Ct. 1849144 L.Ed.2d 67 177 Ill.2d 440687 N.E.2d 53 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATESCITY CHICAGO, PETITIONERv.JESUS MORALES et al. No. 97 1121 [June 10, 1999] ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO ILLINOIS Justice Stevens announced the judgment of Court and delivered opinion with respect to Parts I, II, V, an III, IV, VI, in which Souter Ginsburg join. 1 In 1992, Chicago City Council enacted Gang Congregation Ordinance, prohibits "criminal street gang members" from "loitering" one another or other persons any public place. The question presented is whether Supreme Illinois correctly held that ordinance violates Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment Federal Constitution. 2 * Before was adopted, city council's Committee on Police Fire conducted hearings explore problems created by city's gangs, more particularly, consequences loitering members. Witnesses included residents neighborhoods where members are most active, as well some aldermen who represent those areas. Based evidence, council made a series findings text explain reasons for its enactment.1 3 found continuing increase criminal activity largely responsible rising murder rate, escalation violent drug related crimes. It noted many throughout city, "the burgeoning presence places has intimidated law abiding citizens." Ill. 2d 440, 445, 687 N. E. 53, 58 (1997). Furthermore, stated "establish control over identifiable areas intimidating others entering areas; . [m]embers gangs avoid arrest committing no offense punishable under existing laws when they know police present ." Ibid. further "loitering creates justifiable fear safety property area" "[a]ggressive action necessary preserve streets so may use such without fear." Moreover, concluded "has interest discouraging all members." 4 fine up $500, imprisonment not than six months, requirement perform 120 hours community service. Commission involves four predicates. First, officer must reasonably believe at least two "public place" membe[r]." Second, be "loitering," defines "remain[ing] place apparent purpose." Third, then order "all" disperse remove themselves "from area." Fourth, person disobey officer's order. If person, member not, disobeys order, guilty violating ordinance. Ibid.2 5 Two months after Department promulgated General Order 92 provide guidelines govern enforcement.3 That purported establish limitations enforcement discretion officers "to ensure anti-gang enforced arbitrary discriminatory way." Department, 4, reprinted App. Pet. Cert. 65a. confine authority violate sworn "members Crime Section" certain designated officers,4 detailed criteria defining membership gangs. Id., 66a 67a. addition, directs district commanders "designate demonstrable effect activities surrounding community," provides "will only within areas." 68a 69a. however, does release locations these "designated areas" public.5 II 6 During three years enforcement,6 issued 89,000 dispersal orders arrested 42,000 people ordinance.7 ensuing proceedings, trial judges upheld constitutionality ordinance, but eleven ruled it invalid.8 respondent Youkhana's case, judge "ordinance fails notify individuals what conduct prohibited, encourages capricious police."9 7 Appellate affirmed court's ruling Youkhana case,10 consolidated pending appeals accordance Youkhana,11 reversed convictions respondents Gutierrez, Morales, others.12 persuaded impaired freedom assembly non-gang violation First Constitution Article I Consti- tution, unconstitutionally vague, improperly criminalized status rather conduct, jeopardized rights guaranteed Fourth Amendment.13 8 affirmed. "that due process impermissibly vague face restriction personal liberties." 2d, 447, 59. court did reach contentions "creates offense, permits arrests probable cause overbroad." 9 support vagueness holding, pointed out definition drew distinction between innocent calculated harm.14 "Moreover, 'loiter' provided assist clearly articulating proscriptions ordinance." 451 452, 60 61. "not susceptible limiting construction would affirm validity."15 10 We granted certiorari, 523 ___ (1998) , now affirm. Like Court, we conclude vague. III 11 basic factual predicate dispute. As argues brief, very large collection obviously brazen, insistent, lawless hangers-on ways intimidates residents, become afraid even leave their homes go about business. That, turn, imperils residents' sense security, detracts values, can ultimately destabilize entire neighborhoods."16 motivated concerns. have doubt directly prohibited constitutional,17 this broadly covers significant amount additional activity. Uncertainty scope coverage basis respondents' claim too 12 confronted outset improper state courts invalid face. points imprecise attacked different doctrines.18 overbreadth doctrine facial invalidation inhibit exercise if impermissible applications substantial "judged relation statute's plainly legitimate sweep." Broadrick v. Oklahoma, 413 601, 612 615 (1973). enactment constitutionally protected because standards sufficient guard against deprivation liberty interests. Kolender Lawson, 461 352, 358 (1983). 13 While we, like courts, face, do rely doctrine. agree submission sufficiently impact render unconstitutional. prohibit speech. Because term "loiter" defined remaining "with purpose," also clear form apparently intended convey message. By terms, inapplicable assemblies designed demonstrate group's of, opposition to, particular point view. Cf. Clark Community Creative Non&nbhyph;Violence, 468 288 (1984); Gregory Chicago, 394 111 (1969). Its social contact impair "right association" our cases recognized. See Dallas Stanglin, 490 19, 23 25 (1989). 14 On hand, United States recognizes, loiter purposes part "liberty" Amendment.19 expressly identified according inclination" "an attribute liberty" Williams Fears, 179 270, 274 (1900); see Papachristou Jacksonville, 405 156, 164 (1972).20 Indeed, individual's decision remain his choice much movement inside frontiers "a heritage" Kent Dulles, 357 116, 126 (1958), right move whatsoever one's own inclination direct" Blackstone's Commentaries. W. Blackstone, Commentaries Laws England 130 (1765).21 15 There need, decide alone suffice challenge Aptheker Secretary State, 378 500, 515 517 (1964) (right travel); Planned Parenthood Central Mo. Danforth, 428 52, 82 83 (1976) (abortion); U.S., 360, nn. 3, 9. For makes appropriate. This "simply regulates business behavior contains scienter requirement." Hoffman Estates Flipside, Estates, Inc., 455 489, 499 (1982). mens rea requirement, Colautti Franklin, 439 379, 395 (1979), infringes rights, id., 391. When permeates law, subject attack.22 16 Vagueness invalidate either independent reasons. fail kind notice will enable ordinary understand prohibits; second, authorize encourage enforcement. 357. Accordingly, first consider fair citizen discuss potential IV 17 "It established meet requirements standardless leaves uncertain Giaccio Pennsylvania, 382 399, 402 403 (1966). recognized common accepted meaning, 451, 61, purpose" not. difficult imagine how standing group he she had "apparent were talking purpose? frequently checking her watch looking expectantly down street, purpose?23 18 Since cannot conceivably meant criminalize each instance stands member, dooms product uncertainty normal meaning covered emphasized law's failure distinguish threatening harm.24 followed precedent set number ordinances combined overt act evidence intent.25 However, uniformly invalidated join second specific element crime.26 19 principal response concern adequate loiterers sanction until failed comply disperse. "[W]hatever problem criminalizes normally solved receive actual expected do."27 find unpersuasive 20 purpose conform law. "No required peril life, speculate penal statutes." Lanzetta New Jersey, 306 453 (1939). Although true loiterer sanctions unless prohibit.28 fact harmless innocent, itself unjustified impairment liberty. able arbitrarily disperse, becomes indistinguishable Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 87, 90 (1965).29 issue already occurred, advance protect putative being ordered Such retroactively give warning boundary permissible law.30 21 terms compound inadequacy afforded "shall 61a. phrasing raises host questions. After issues, long apart? How far move? walks around block again same location, merely again? here, statute exacerbated "neighborhood" "locality." Connally Constr. Co., 269 385 (1926). remarked "[b]oth elastic and, dependent upon circumstances, equally satisfied measured rods miles." 395. 22 Lack clarity description loiterer's duty obey might forbidden clear, buttress conclusion permitted. permit legislature "set net enough catch possible offenders, step say could rightfully detained, should large." Reese, 214, 221 (1876). therefore requires comprehensible normative standard, standard specified all." Coates Cincinnati, 611, 614 (1971). V broad sweep " 'the minimal enforcement.' 358. stand sit company apparent. mandatory language making inquiry purposes. matters reason father, example, near Wrigley Field rob unsuspecting fan just get glimpse Sammy Sosa leaving ballpark; event, nearby officer, indeed, "shall" them 24 Recognizing then, determine "necessarily entrusts lawmaking moment-to-moment policeman beat." 359 (internal quotation marks omitted). discussed context notice, supra, 12, source vast conferred case interprets definition, "provides absolute constitute loitering." 457, 63. construe narrowly given State's highest court.31 "The power carries prescribe extent method shall determined." Smiley Kansas, 196 (1905). 26 Nevertheless, disputes Court's interpretation, arguing limits ways. anyone moving along purpose. believes gang. 27 Even putting side defer local enactment, insufficient. apply is, address enjoy deciding stationary ordinance.32 Similarly, been disobeyed guidance issue. "no inherently subjective application depends "apparent" scene. 28 Presumably treat perhaps engage idle conversation simply cool breeze warm evening frivolous suspected ulterior motive. conscious enacting ignore though illicit actually 29 true, argues, limit dispersal. limitation applied harmful effect,33 possibly believed But explained council, applies members.34 everyone observing them. Friends, relatives, teachers, counselors, total strangers unwittingly happen member. 30 Ironically, extends encompass perverse consequence excluding enactment. demonstrate, publicize gang's dominance territory, thereby nonmembers, conceal ongoing commerce illegal drugs. placed assume means says whose relative importance magnified inapplicability 31 Finally, striking refused accept general department "vast discretion" agree. Smith Goguen, 415 566, 575 (1974). adopted internal rules defense elsewhere. Nor knowingly loitered well-known anywhere safely matter be. VI 32 judgment, constitutional definiteness clarity."35 459, 64. recognize serious testified citizens led "We mindful preservation maintenance order." Houston Hill, 482 471 472 (1987). affords little wish streets. 33 34 Affirmed. 35 Opinion O'Connor, J. 36 whom Breyer joins, concurring judgment. 37 Chicago's Municipal Code §8 015 (1992) (gang ordinance) A void "define prohibited" prevent "arbitrary enforcement" Of these, important aspect 'is (quoting 574 (1974)). share Thomas' violence, degree allow peacekeeping responsibilities satisfactorily." post, (dissenting opinion). policemen, prosecutors, juries 'a pursue predilections.' 575). provides: 38 "Whenever observes persons, area. Any promptly section." 39 To "[l]oiter," declined adopt vested "absolute officers." 63 (1997) (emphasis added). bound Terminiello 337 1, (1949). 40 construed court, lacks guide officers. particular, individual "purpose" choose permissible. Under "threaten[ing] peace" (Thomas, J., dissenting). free, whim Further, hundreds thousands members, sidewalk park, coffee shop, bar, "other location open public, publicly privately owned." 015(c)(5) (1992). 41 sure, there But, decides make antecedent decision. "reasonably believ[e]" includes cure ordinance's aspects. cured directed manner specifying issued. ante, 19. limited. 454, 62. 42 consideration ground affirming decision, Part opinion, discusses consideration. ("[T]hat issue"); ("It effect, members"). need issues briefed parties addressed plurality. express 43 legislatures alike characterize narrow today's holding. comes reasonable alternatives combat real threat posed intimidation violence. properly distinguishes require "harmful 18, target ibid., incorporate area enforced, here unlike "directly prohibit[s]" 'presence ways,' 'intimidates residents.' Ante, Brief Petitioner 14). plurality notes, several exactly this. 8, n. 17. provision "enables fulfill traditional functions," including "preserving peace." Specifically, disorderly allows "provoke, aid breach 010 44 my view, narrowly. limited fashion mean areas, intimidate activities." consistent Council's Court. 60a above, restricted penalties carefully delineated circumstances nongang 45 relied precedents, particularly 156 (1972), requiring hold intentionally drafted manner, misapplied precedents. 458 never intent drafters determines impose supreme adopt. Kolender, 355 356, (noting '[f]or determining indefinite valid legislation take read precisely State interpreted it' (citations omitted)); York Ferber, 747, 769, (1982) "dealing direct review state-court statute[,] [s]uch binding us"). concur Kennedy, 46 47 Stevens' opinion. 48 concerns expresses sufficiency range conduct. necessarily saved before violation. 49 often examined types orders. 87 (1965). assumed, commands prosecution disobeying knows why given. Illustrative examples include tell pedestrian enter building impeding rescue team, crime scene, secure protection official. follow, unexplained obeyed lawfulness eliminate doubts regarding adequacy citizen, while engaging wide array likely based knowledge identity affiliations congregating; nor assess mightconceive citizen's lack 50 Breyer, 51 52 us "minor free nature." Post, (Scalia, dissenting) authorizes himself "location owned," i.e., sidewalk, front stoop, square, lakeside promenade, hotel, restaurant, bowling alley, barbershop, sports arena, shopping mall, etc., two, limitations: accompanied (or be) someone remained 015(c)(1). save Though individuals, alike, strictures. way prohibit. Stevens, ante 2, out, all. always purpose, so-called invites, requires, interpret words except And delegation open-ended fill blank lies. grant virtually close off major portions create major, "minor," "limitation 54 "our governing challenges," dissenting), forbid unconstitutional case. explains so. said, delegates on, circumstances. another. unconstitutional, wisely poorly enjoys every represents unlimited discretion, applications. validly defendants light defendants, behaved, (imaginary) wrong," worst murderers. (1939) ("If challenged repugnant clause, specification details charged serve validate it"). 55 Scalia's examples, 11, invalidity. statute, many, defendant still aware engaged. Cf., e.g., Parker Levy, 417 733, 756 (1974) ("[O]ne received criminality [not] entitled attack similar literal ambit. One successfully vagueness"). insufficient "sufficient (O'Connor, judgment). 56 concede "overbreadth" permitted challenge. falls nonetheless declared facially (whose speech otherwise chilled). assert, unchecked own. 57 resembles 611 (1971), among grounds, assembled "conduct[ing] annoying passing by." explained: said so, is. blocking sidewalks, obstructing traffic, littering streets, assaults, countless forms antisocial through specificity toward prohibited. entirely depend annoyed." (citation 59 indisputably "annoying" sort different, differently. differently) here. anyone. Scalia, dissenting. 61 once drive whatever speed wished. At Chicagoans Illinoisans) decided do, imposed prophylactic assure safe operation average subaverage) driver vehicle. infringed the"freedom" citizens, 62 gawk scene accident. discovered obstructed traffic caused accidents. They practice unlawful, crowd refusal Again, measure "freedom" Until today engage, appeared loitering. recent years, afflicted reflected record us, congregated deal drugs, terrorize demonstrating "turf." Many inner felt prisoners homes. Once again, worth restricting enjoyed. took mild, example above first: Loitering occupied known authorized unlawful. minor nature arrangement seemed (and seems me) small price pay liberation 64 majority invalidates perfectly ignoring challenges, elevating right, discerning where, usual standards, none exists. 65 Respondents' appeal presents Ordinance grounds. successful, unenforceable applications, party suit. truth, highly questionable federal declaration. rationale constitutionality, expressed Marbury Madison, Cranch 137 (1803), us. party, 66 fully grasped Tocqueville, famous chapter judiciary American society: characteristic judicial pronounces special cases, principles. judge, point, destroys principle tends reject inferences principle, consequently annul it, remains functions. attacks having circle nations agreed authority; assumes important, useful influence, magistrate; ceases power. 68 69 holds invoked tribunal States, refuse admit rule soon immediately loses portion moral force. Those prejudicial learn exist overcoming suits multiplied, powerless. political Americans entrusted justice immense; evils considerably diminished impossibility attacking justice. [W]hen contests obscure debate concealed notice; bears individual, slighted incidentally. although censured, abolished; force diminished, taken away; final destruction accomplished reiterated functionaries." Democracy America 73, 75 76 (R. Heffner ed. 1956). 70 Sutherland described system unanimous Massachusetts Mellon, 262 488 (1923): 71 per se acts Congress considered justification injury suffered threatened, presenting justiciable issue, rest act. Then exercised ascertaining declaring applicable controversy. amounts negative disregard legal right. preventive relief enjoins, execution official, notwithstanding." 72 Brennan Raines, 362 17, (1960): 73 foundation declare Acts lies controversies 'has jurisdiction pronounce void, irreconcilable Constitution, called adjudge litigants controversies. jurisdiction, rules, rigidly adhered, one, anticipate necessity it; formulate broader precise facts applied'. Kindred heard impliedly applying situations delicate pronouncing Act reference hypothetical thus imagined." 74 me fundamentally incompatible content reasoning suggest much, holding advisory all, Hayburn's Case, Dall. 409 (1792), especially regard question, seek nonadvisory opinions, see, Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 347 (1936) (Brandeis, concurring). think quite improper, short, ask claimant us: Do you want broke try pronounced applications? acknowledge, century done recently, least, free-speech overbreadth, 769 773 go-for-broke proposition. say, (something doing place), litigant eminently (I know, conducting as-applied analysis, occasion undertaking place.1) Salerno, 481 739, 745 (1987): 77 "A legislative course, mount successfully, since challenger exists valid. [a Act] operate conceivable wholly invalid, 'overbreadth' outside Amendment." (Emphasis added.)2 78 proposition originate line prior opinions. See, Members Los Angeles Taxpayers Vincent, 466 789, 796 (1984) (opinion J.) (statute implicating "it application"); Schall Martin, 467 253, 269, 494 495, 497 (1982); National Dairy Products Corp., 372 29, (1963); 21. reaffirmed opinions since. Anderson Edwards, 514 143, 155 (1995) (unanimous Court); Babbitt Sweet Home Chapter Communities Great Oregon, 687, 699 (facial asserts regulation "in circumstance"); Reno Flores, 507 292, 301 (1993); Rust Sullivan, 500 173, 183 (1991); Ohio Akron Center Reproductive Health, 502, (1990) J.); Webster Health Servs., 492 490, 524 (1989) judgment); Club Assn., Inc. York, 487 (1988).3 Unsurprisingly, jurisprudence Courts Appeals Salerno adjudicating challenges.4 am aware, facial-challenge has, attempt explanation, irrational exceptions "unconstitutional application" rule, statutes concerned hot-button "informed opinion" zealously united. Romer Evans, 620, 643 (1996) (homosexual rights); Southeastern Pa. Casey, 505 833, 895 (abortion rights). lend "political correctness" exception which, illogical, predictable. la mode favor associated beleaguered law-abiding city. 79 challenges applied, Justices transposed burden proof. Instead respondents, challenging show petitioner Both concurrences display lively imagination, creating (in view) ambiguous. creative role usurped petitioner, defeat conjuring single My contribution something this5: Tony, Jets gang, alongside chatting fellow staking turf Promontory Point South Side Chicago; flashing signs displaying distinctive tattoos passersby. Officer Krupke, speculative discussion (probably irrelevant here) depraved deprived, Tony break statement coherent, evidently rude "Gee, krup you." tense standoff ensues Krupke failing assuming (as not) obedience objects issuance, justifies hard coming. settle Ordinance's vagueness. 80 course ultimate demonstration inappropriateness invalidity doubtful sustain majority's criteria. instance, Jose Renteria admitted Satan Disciples observed arresting corner returned minutes later, friends, whereupon arrested. Daniel Washington Vice Lords yelling vehicles, stopping preventing pedestrians using sidewalks. later move, finally later. 81 Gregorio Gutierrez previously Latin Kings men. drove block, men finding return. 7, 5; Amicus Curiae 16, 11. assumption object ex improbable sustained. Much less plurality's explanation departure seemingly contained following statement: "[This] attack." forth assurance suppose repeats well-accepted formula jurisprudence: (Criminal requirement) + (infringement right) (vagueness) = (entitlement invalidation). formula; absence citation demonstrates. matter. None factors relies anyway. turn or, favorably describes "remain choice." thinks Fundamental Freedom Loiter, contrasts lesser, unprotected, (ugh!) business: "This requirement. rights." (Poor Alexander Hamilton, seen "commercial republic" devolve, eyes plurality, into "indolent republic," Federalist 6, p. 56; pp. 84 91 (C. Rossiter 1961).) activity, scratching head, "constitutional right" nothing are) Equal Protection Clause, singled "rational basis." FCC Beach Communications, 508 307, 313 (1993). utterly impoverishes discourse. new religious worship rational basis. 85 tosses renegade sense, slightest existence genuine loiter. Thomas recounts historical tradition criminalizing maintainable regarded essential time framing adoption Amendment. practices bump road "right" result. blithely proclaims: "Neither history scholarly compendia dissent, 9, persuades both Clause." 20. add judicially favored democracy Bill Rights (usually rubric "substantive process") view usurpation. have, recently sought damage tethering courts' "right-making" objective criterion. Glucksberg, 521 702, 720 721 (1997), "established method" substantive analysis: describing asserted examining manifested "[o]ur Nation's history, traditions, practices." Collins Harker Heights, 503 115, 125 (1992); Michael H. Gerald D., 491 110, 122 123 (1989); Moore East Cleveland, 431 494, 502 (1977). ignores limitation, leaps beyond substantive-due-process atrocity ever committed, placing proof "fundamental liberty." marshal contenting (transparently inadequate) banning positively contradict proposition,6 erroneous) assertion appears conceded point.7 "history [fails to] persuad[e] Clause," added); unnecessary anything persuade is.8 86 unfair, criticize saying concurrences. attempt. concurrences, pretense attaching "vagueness invalidates" interest. O'connor's Breyer's affecting insignificant (except, perhaps, unprotected class "gang members") issuance precise. No mod- ern urban society probably London got big sewers function rule. innumerable im- portant constable "move on" list known, unpredictable. Hence (entirely reasonable) Rule reads: fail, neglect lawful direction command Officer, Urban Park Ranger, Parks Enforcement Patrol [Parks Recreation] employee, indicated gesture otherwise." RCNY §1 03(c)(1) (1996). thing uphold "as applied" unreasonable asserting (holding rally, instance) unexplained. permitting "lawful orders" demands orderly deliver. 88 Kennedy recognizes this, acknowledges "some given," including, "tell[ing] building" team." 1. interference loiter" fall follows: idea means. follow-up explanatory sentence, showing rescue-team demonstrated substituting references (shown italics) brackets): [order building] congregating [what going building]; conceive [the team]." 89 next plurality'facial-challenge consists analyzing actus reus, supposed attached, of. (indeed, essence of) proved conviction obtained. 13, 15, (plurality opinions); (Kennedy, (Breyer, provides. refers addresses, defendant, observe disperse; doing, doing. (i.e., purpose), him Someone (waiting friend, waiting bank) (assuming conditions met), likely, come heavily (those really are); condition mentioned "promptly obey" reus wrongful must. prosecuted hear paralysis rendered compliance impossible. willful enough. last formula: ersatz (1983), reaches conduct," definitive (1) apprise intelligence (2) Grayned Rockford, 408 104, 108 (1972). primarily Since, reasons, prohibit," occurred," 14, conduct." What counts "designed subjects penalty. earlier, suggestion specify (!), scarcely response.9 Presidential proclamations President, militia Armed Forces enforcement, proclamation ordering insurgents U.S.C. § 334. President Eisenhower's relating obstruction court-ordered enrollment black students schools Little Rock, Arkansas, "I engaged cease desist therefrom, forthwith." Proclamation 3204, CFR 132 (1954 1958 Comp.). 3645, 103 (1964 1965 Comp.) (ordering civil march Selma Montgomery, Alabama, "disperse forthwith"). Boos Barry, 485 312, 331 (1988) (rejecting overbreadth/vagueness allowing congregations foreign embassies disperse); Cox Louisiana, 379 536, 551 (1965) dispersal-order prong breach-of-the-peace "narrow specific"). 93 determination vagueness, secondarily O'Connor's exclusively doctrine, (majority opinion); discussing meets hide behind artificial construct restraint. 94 Illinois' loitering," protest wrong court. statement, characterization achieved do) fairly contain. (to bound) assuredly bound). 95 hardly clearer. member." probable-cause Department's explicit.10 Order, substantiated "experience alleged offenders" "specific, documented reliable information" witness testimony admission colors, tattoos, signs, markings worn 67a 69a, 71a 72a. 96 "any place," distortion. "standing," "remain[ing]" "[to] endure persist," Heritage Dictionary 1525 ambiguity margin, temporary stop, represented 12. phrase purpose": O'Connor distorts adjectival phrase, separating word modifies. "[A]ny street," concurrence says, 'purpose' stand," permissible." 2. enforcing (who regrettably oversupply); there. perceive.11 98 produces peculiar 'no purpose' disperse] 'apparent' scene." 18. person's staying presumably factor, factor. glass, opposite true. 99 Elsewhere, indeed paint unfair: 100 "By encompasses great behavior. 'shall' disperse." 16. 101 Quite instruction "encompasses behavior" invalidating abridgment, religion. Remaining protected, discussed) trade-off it. 102 contradiction passage quoted the"apparent test de minimis "violations" notwarranting enforcement.12 matter, ultra vires criminal-justice system. Bordenkircher Hayes, 434 357, 364 (1978)), enforce when. Whren 806, 818 (1996), "we code expansive commonly violated infraction longer enforcement." tries impossible feat unquestioned inadequate violators covered, citing 733 (1974), "delegates officer" uses "wisely," causes "too lodged officer. Put way: gives well. Thus, takes away other. "because case," ibid. contrary case-law, supra.13 104 unlawful gang-related at. problem, Council, watchful eye officers, return away. solution, concluded, customers, associates. 105 proffers empty solace useless seeks helpful suggesting measures constitutional. could, enact prohibit[s] ways, residents." Ibid., (If considers fun members.") prescription answers concurrence's pointing opinion) (citing extant "intimidation," "streetgang conspiracy," "mob action"). lawlessness occur sight. 106 cure: "If issued." (the agrees cure, 19). specifies issued: unbridled controlling non-gang-members, surpasses understanding alone. Surelygang decreed outlaws, merest 107 application, full intent, vests authorizing peace safety. suggested tortured analyses, solutions bear quarrel requires) proscribed. disapprobation, public." 109 democratic system, proscribe courts. So affected, proscription basis, sorts millions riding motorcycle helmet, starting campfire national forest, selling effective yet approved FDA. All themselves, risk harm entail, abridged. depriving "hang out" pervasive elimination second-guessing fairness trade. 110 dissent Thomas, dissenting Chief Scalia join, 112 duly elected larger effort establishing dominion unnecessarily sentenced lives terror misery. fool category [its] reach." 370 (1983) (White, Clause. "freedom purposes," 'deeply rooted tradition,' v.Glucksberg, dissent. 113 human costs exacted inestimable. cities, "[v]irtually overtak[en] neighborhoods, contributing economic decline causing lifestyle changes Dept. Justice, Office Programs, Bureau Assistance, Monograph: Street Gangs daily poorest vulnerable consideration, relegating Attorney General's Report Coordinated Approach Challenge Violence: Progress (Apr. 1996) ("From owner literally crippled refuses 'protection' money neighborhood families hostages homes, living predatory trafficking violence physically psychologically debilitating"). 114 devastation wrought tragedy. Last year, curb plummeting attendance, Public Schools hired dozens adults escort children school. youngsters terrified Martinez, Parents Paid Walk Line Between School, Tribune, Jan. 21, 1998, children's fears unfounded. 1996, estimated Criminal Information Authority, Research Bulletin: (Sept. 1996). 1987 1994, involved 63,141 incidents, 21,689 nonlethal crimes 894 homicides. Id. 5.1 incidents homicides result "turf battles," grave danger. Programs Institute C. Block & R. Block, (Dec. 1993); Juvenile Delinquency Prevention, Journal, Howell, Youth Drug Trafficking Homicide: Policy Program Implications, 1997); Testimony Steven Wiley, Chief, Violent Crimes Major Offenders Section, FBI, Hearing S. Senate Judiciary, 105th Cong., 1st Sess., ("While specialize entrepreneurial drug-dealing, lethal grow conflicts"). 115 extensive Concerned testify poignantly disrupt lives. Ordinary Ms. D'Ivory Gordon struggled walk work: 116 "When door, guys live. leave, home. carry meat cleaver work don't hurt anyone, hurt. clean corners up. Clean communities back them." Transcript Proceedings (May 1997) (hereinafter Transcript). 117 Eighty-eight-year-old Susan Mary Jackson echoed sentiments, testifying, used nice neighborhood. anymore scared daytime can't pass standing. store. store afraid. age look hard, ready holler." 95. Another long-time resident testified: 118 feel everyday windows broken out. guns pulled me. threatened. it's well, today. put ax briefcase. dressed bum rich that." 124 125. 119 Following hearings, mere "intimidate[s] citizens" ills asked deleterious effects sensibly basics. confirm well-established maintain peace, necessary, groups threaten concludes commonsense scrutiny separate members' "loiter endorses latter conclusion. respectfully disagree. 121 reconfirmed crucial 'guideposts decisionmaking' restrain exposition (1977) opinion)). Only infringe "those fundamental liberties are, objectively, tradition' offend 721. 'liberty' Yet "antiloitering existed country." 20; 450, (case below). ("Loitering vagrancy utilized removing 'undesirable persons' opportunity activity"). derogation framework articulated Terms ago "persuad[e] clause." Apparently, antiloitering anachronistic throwback sophisticated, era. antivagrancy carried penalty slavery. analysis involve carrying imposes modest penalties, $500 prison sentence months. sweeping Amendment's withers exposed relevant history: prohibiting fixture Anglo-American Norman Conquest. generally Ribton-Turner, History Vagrants Vagrancy Beggars Begging (reprint 1972) (discussing English laws); 161 162 (1972) (recounting laws). colonists modeled laws, founding, governments customarily vagrancy.2 decades preceding ratification Amendment,3 books after.4 Tellingly, cites purposes." 10. those, validity Papachristou, dicta asserts.5 undertake now-accepted define careful reading reveals antiquarian employed 163. assuming, original compel protects calls mind "[t]he nearest illegitimacy deals judge-made cognizable roots design [We] extremely reluctant breathe strike promote welfare." Moore, 544 Judiciary unavoidably pre-empts governance country authority." B because, confines disagree counts. 127 outset, note se. Rather, penalizes loiterers' along. scheme Nothing truth. Far enables been, enforcers wear hats importantly, responsibility preserving peace. O. Allen, Duties Liabilities Sheriffs (1845) ("As conservator county, calm irresistible minister Sheriff great"); Freund, Power §86, (1904) ("The offenses aims prevention partly needs authority"). quaint anachronism. jurisdictions, continue obligated, peace.6 128 1887 Manual provided: 129 hereby Force times day night, thereunto empowered, crime, detect suppress riots, mobs insurrections, dangerous assemblages, assemblages obstruct parks places." Containing Rules Regulations 414 Crocker, Sheriffs, Coroners Constables §48, (2d rev. 1871) ("Sheriffs officio, conservators respective counties, duty, constables, coroners, marshals assembly, affray riot presence") continues play commonplace operations, areas.7 ABA Standards "[i]n day-to-day experience congregate place, suspect considering undesirable temporarily frustrated 'move on.' Standard 3.4(d), 1.88, comments 1980, Supp. 1986).8 131 peace-keeping satisfactorily, inevitably discretion. empowering responsibly sound police, constrain action. directing "observes strikes appropriate balance extremes. Just trust expertise spur-of-the-moment determinations amorphous "probable cause" "reasonable suspicion," gangs) determined Ornelas 690, 695, 700 ("Articulating 'reasonable suspicion' 'probable cause' possible. commonsense, nontechnical conceptions practical considerations life prudent men, technicians, [O]ur draw exists") sum, 'necessarily beat,' reconciled longstanding practice, jurisprudence. illogic position opines "would 18-19. judgment) (endorsing proposal). With respect, written, problem. mitigate complainant proscribed," (footnote omitted), alternative proposal prohibition external appearance, mind. Black's Law 1345 (6th 1990) (scienter "is signify defendant's knowledge"). reason, proposed neither satisfy channel ascertain less. 133 current contain Currently, multiple times. 134 concluding adequately channels mistake. overlook possibility acting bad faith, way. decisions event rare. Instances best if) arise, prophylactically disfavored mechanism (1987) ("A valid"). 135 "fails permitted," similarly untenable. "vague" disperse.9 expect mathematical certainty language," difficulty comply. 136 Assuming obligated weighty subscribe retired White unmistakable core face." 371 certainly recognized, "persons 'loiter.' E.2d, predicated erroneous proscribes and/or explained, 5-9, anomalous "innocent" history. consistently criminalized, "innocent." describe "more stringent test" 499, dissipates, trap unwary. "fraud," "bribery," "perjury." grasp despite arguably imprecise.10 138 notice.11 imagine," posits, "how 'apparent purpose.' 12-13. underestimates intellectual capacity Chicago. Persons capable evaluating outsiders perceive "[i]t self-evident whole semblance [loitering] statute." 584 staring blankly space, passersby challenge, ability hypothesize unable actions appear analysis. Here, "vague applications." 497. answer unquestionably no. 139 140 Today, focuses extensively "rights" companions. live neighborhoods. suffer lofty pronouncements Jackson; destroyed good, decent struggle overcome desperate situation, odds, raise families, earn living, good citizens. described, "There maybe percent maybe, keeping houses shop." Tr. 126. focusing imagined percent, denied elevates else movement." shame. Notes 141 Illinois. Some supporting 4. 142 states pertinent part: "(a) Whenever section. (b) affirmative section "(c) section: "(1) 'Loiter' "(2) 'Criminal gang' organization, association formal informal, commission enumerated paragraph (3), individually collectively pattern "(5) 'Public place' owned. "(e) Section $100 both. "In addition instead service pursuant Code." (added June 1992), 61a 63a. 143 3. noted, during "representatives departments informed counsel developed policy, itself." 144 Presumably, 145 5. Oral Arg. 23. 146 6. began date August 1992 stopped December 1995, Youkhana, 277 3d 101, 660 (1995). 43. 147 7. 5,251 1993, 15,660 22,056 1995. Daley T. Hillard, Narcotic Related Crime: 1993 1997, (June 1998). resulted notes year homicide rate fell 26%. rose 11%. 19% suspension Given myriad influence levels evaluate probative value statistical firm efficacy. Harcourt, Reflecting Subject: Critique Social Influence Conception Deterrence, Broken Windows Theory, Order-Maintenance Policing Style, Mich. L. Rev. 291, 296 (describing "hotly contested raging experts nationally"). 148 8. Poulos, Ban Loitering: Making Sense Overbreadth Laws, Cal. 384, 149 Nos. MCI 293363 (Ill. Cir. Ct., Cook Cty., Sept.29, 1993), 45a. overbroad Art. §5, 59a. 150 151 Ramsey, 4125 App., Dec. 1995), 39a. 152 4039 Dec 37a. 153 13. 3d, 106, 38; 112, 41; 113, 42. 154 14. 'to 015(c)(1) 1992). People hail taxi, resting job, stepping doorway evade rain shower scenarios; rarely observer." 15. stated, "Although unambiguous. pubic menace adept avoiding commit. crafted exceptionally intolerable objectionable streets." 458, Comp. Stat. ch. §§5/12 (Intimidation); 570/405.2 (Streetgang conspiracy); 147/1 seq. (Illinois Streetgang Terrorism Omnibus Prevention Act); 5/25 (Mob action). Deputy Superintendent Cooper, representative hearing that, kinds hearing, "90 instances people, fact, arrested." Record, Appendix plaintiff's memorandum Motion Dismiss 182 (Transcript Proceedings, Fire, May 157 23: interests sidewalks places, traveling, moving, associating others." agree, "social gatherings." proposition, incorrectly 44) identification obvious impacted equivalent process. 35, infra. 158 recognizing loiter." country, pedigree constitutionality. 16th-century England, 'Slavery acts' 2-year enslavement period 'liveth idly loiteringly, space days.' Note, Homelessness Modern Setting, Fordham Urb. 749, 754, patterned "Elizabethan poor laws." 162. These went unchallenged attorneys became widely available indigent Gideon Wainwright, 335 (1963). Recent Developments, Constitutional Attacks Stan. 782, 783 (1968). Civil War keep former slaves quasi 1865, Alabama broadened 'any runaway, stubborn servant child' laborer loiters time, contract cause.' Wilson, Black Codes Reconstruction-era harsh African-American women children. Kerber, Right Ladies: Women Obligations Citizenship (1998). Neither 159 freewheeling character epitomized "free city" wished, ones adopting limit. tells story. 1903, Legislature passed, "An regulate automobiles horseless conveyances roads, highways Illinois." exceptions, miles hour. Christy Elliott, 216 31, 1035 1900, 1,698,575 Twelfth Census 430 (1900) (Table 6), 8,000 cars (both private commercial) registered States. Ward's Automotive Yearbook 230 (1990). increased 77,400 1905, pedestrians, drivers, 160 22. He lauds "clarity jurisprudence" assessing import successful plaintiff valid." 7; formulation, decisive factor (even them, 745, nevertheless entertained challenge). resolve viability Salerno's dictum, vindicate adversely question. threshold species third (jus tertii) standing, prudential mandated Md. Joseph Munson 947, 955 (1984). reached merits claim, "invoking respondent's] jus tertii functional Revere Gen. Hospital, 463 239, 243 Whether notions ASARCO Kadish, 605, 618 restrictive incorrect law; moreover contradicts "essential principles federalism." Dorf, Facial Challenges Statutes, 235, 284 (1994). Solicitor General, argument constitutional, invoking intractable "[T]he ordinance; were, 24. gave illustration: "Suppose playing basketball delivery. Their park ball. loitering, innocently sitting futures arrested, 'basketball players' awaiting delivery left alone." Sept. 163 25. Tacoma Luvene, Wash. 826, 827 P.2d 1374 (upholding drug-related activities); Superior 381, 395, 758 1046, 1052 soliciting lewd act). 26. Richard, Nev. 626, 629, 836 622, 624, (striking "for prowl occupant thereof"). 27. 31. 165 28. way, differs Colten Kentucky, 407 There, illegality underlying clear. "Any highway investigating attention issuing summons convicted Kentucky's on." 166 29. "Literally read. Birmingham vice demonstration." 381 90. 167 30. context: petitioners Georgia worded punish punished Wright Georgia, 373 284, 292 168 critical 329 330 (1988). literally, discretionary found, "provided narrowing alleviates difficulties." 169 32. speaks "shall." argument, flies ordinances. 170 33. overlooks 171 34. Not admits prove Morales knew Reply 23, document accused 34, 58. 172 35. 5, mistaken analyzed 702 173 words, attack, unconstitutionality presumes presently 495 engages proscribed complain others. examine complainant's law"); ("One con- duct 739 (1987), footnote, "entertained" absolutely valid," footnoted ("Nor claimed 3) making, 174 repudiated 359, succeed "even statute] application." confused articulation 494). specialized justified chill expression. 175 Court." this: rejecting contented identifying situation several. remarkable, casts enunciated. resist mentioning one. 176 contends third-party wrong. Disagreement disagreement "standing" parties: can. relates win: rights), "many." notion (a totally applications), altered alteration gently possible, remarkable. Abdullah Commissioner Ins. Commonwealth Mass., F.3d (CA1 1996); Deshawn Safir, 340, (CA2 1998); Artway 1235, 1252, (CA3 Manning Hunt, 254, 268 (CA4 Causeway Medical Suite Ieyoub, 1096, 1104 (CA5), cert. denied, 522 943 (1997); Aronson Akron, 804, 809 (CA6 Government Suppliers Consolidating Bayh, 975 F.2d 1267, 1283 (CA7 506 1053 Woodis Westark College, 435, 438 (CA8 Roulette Seattle, 300, (CA9 Lands Babbitt, 1287, 1293 (CA10 1999); Dimmitt Clearwater, 985 1565, 1570 1571 (CA11 Time Warner Entertainment Co. FCC, 957, 972 (CADC 178 apologies taking license Messrs. Bernstein, Sondheim, Laurents. West Story, copyright 1959. severe Reconstruction era, "harsh children." regrettable, lessen harshness increase) 180 bases concession footnote petitioner's brief "Of regulating gatherings affect interest, below." 22, careless reader inclined confuse gatherings" confusion eliminated pursuing introductory paragraph: "[A]s below, novel secures speech, protection." 39. 181 20, procedural process, "under Glucksberg." framework. reasoning) Clause" ("liberty") startling Board Regents Colleges Roth, 564, 572 procedural-due-process cases). august sets, high case-law "liberty," substituting, instead, "harmless innocent" call "suggestion" "compound notice," "might clear." ("Disperse!") somehow contribute mystery suspending, does, metaphysical confer possess (nemo dat qui non habet). "Administrative interpretation implementation [vagueness] '[i]n agency proffered.' Ward Rock Against Racism, 781, 795 added) 5). 504 (administrative regulations clarify scope"). 184 "one "interpret .'" rest, simple usually) rest. state, move. reads "wandering aimlessly" (which worthy note) "sitting remarkable all). synonym "motive": 185 speculates viz., "without implication referred approvingly statutory "lawful" routine. forced interpretive inanity mention giving "limiting" everything meaning. 186 police. inadequate-notice inadequate-enforcement-standard implicated. ground, implicate Amendment, 187 1996 alone, 225 homicides, committed Crime, Chicago: 1997 Nationwide, officials estimate 31,000 846,000 exist. Highlights Survey (OJJDP Fact Sheet, 86, Nov. 188 Restraint (1784) (reprinted North Carolina 509 (J. Cushing comp. 1984)); restraining, correcting, supressing punishing Rogues, Vagabonds, Beggars, lewd, idle, dissolute, profane Persons; setting Connecticut 206 210 1982)); suppressing (1788) 349 1981)); better securing payment levies restraint vagrants, provisions (1776) Virginia Town Providence, Work-House (1796) Rhode Island 367 1983)); Promotion Industry, Suppression Other Idle Disorderly (1787) Carolina, 433 An punishment vagabond (1764) Colony 1021 (1756); DLV (1767) (An mischiefs arising vagabonds, province); Vermont, §10 (1797). 189 Kan. 161, (1855); Ky. Stat., CIV, (1852); 664 §V (1853); Y. XX, (1859); 30, §CXXXVIII (1857). 19th century, acknowledged States' occasions. Mayor Miln, 102, (1837); Passenger Cases, How. 283, 425 (1849) Wayne, Prigg Pet.539, 625 (1842). 190 Tiedeman, Limitations (1886) vagrant appropriately chrysalis criminal. wanderer land, home ties, support, person? combated infractions reduced surprisingly number; wondered vagrancy"). I. 232, §24 (1872); 38, §270 (1874); Conn. §7 (1875); §17 (1878); Penal §647 (1885); Tit. §§6994, 6995 (1886); Colo. 36, §1362 (1891); Del. 92, Vol. 962 (1861); 132, §4758 (1894); (1895); Ala. Code, 199 §5628 (1897); Ariz. §599 (1901); Crim. §887 (1902); §§21409, 21410 (1920); (1922); 244, §5571 (1923); §21 2402 Ann., 606 (1924); 111, §4868 (1928); Pt. (1929); §2032 (Purdon 1945); Ann. 2409 (1949); (1952); §40 (1954); (1953); §578 §436.520 1953); §437 (1959); 1963); (1964). 191 distinct interstate international travel. 275 (1958). claims movement, Williams, 274; Kent, 125, supports rejected tax importing out-of-state labor impeded transit, undermines, travel; deny passports. approach stretching level generality 127, 192 Ark. §12 106(b) (Supp. Arkansas peace"); IX, §1902 ("All appointed kept"); 65, §5 2(a) 1998) ("Police municipalities La. §40:1379 ("(West) employees order"); §85.561 ("[M]embers active vigilant city"); §105:3 virtue appointment, constables Ore. §181.110 crime"); 351 §5.5 200 statutes, thereto"); Texas Proc. §2.13 (Vernon 1977) jurisdiction"); Vt. 24, §299 sheriff suppress, strong disorder"); Va. §15.2 1704(A) detection apprehension criminals, safeguard property, regulations, ordinances"). 193 order: §13A (1994); §13 2902(A)(2) 207(a)(6) §727 (West 1985); §18 107(b) §1321 (1995); Ga. §16 (1996); Guam §61.10(b) Haw. §711 1102 (Michie 1994); Idaho 6410 §5/25 1(e) §§525.060, 525.160 (Baldwin 1990); Me. 17A, §502 (1983 Mass. §2 §750.523 Minn. §609.715 1987); Miss. §97 7(1) §574.060 1995); Mont. §45 §203.020 §§644:1, 644:2(II)(e) §2C: 1(b) §240.20(6) (McKinney 1989); §14 288.5(a) (1999); D. Cent. §12.1 04 §2917.13(A)(2) Okla. §1316 1983); §166.025(1)(e) Cons. §5502 (1983); §11 10(a) (1985); Codified §22 (1998); Tenn. §39 305(2) Tex. §42.03(a)(2) Utah §76 V. §4022 §901 §18.2 §9A.84.020 1988); §61 Wis. §947.06(3) 1982). 194 Ind. §36 shall, city: peace; offenses; (3) criminals; (4) mobs, insurrections; (5) parks, "); §516 quiet affrays, riots insurrections "). 195 suggests, nature, purports condemnation principled logical gawkers 1764 "all bodied wandering abroad betaking employer honest labor, deemed adjudged vagabonds," county wandering, strolling, about." 376 377 1981)). also, Digest Pennsylvania 829 (F. Brightly ed., 8th 1853) liable vagrants loitering"); §1, (1852) rambling about, vagrant, misdemeanor"). 197 second-guess 'provides loitering,' "did strictly speaking, [ordinance] phase. characterized 'practical effect' assessment bind us." Wisconsin Mitchell, 476, 484

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