Document: 542 U.S. 692 SOSAv.ALVAREZ-MACHAIN ET AL. No. 03-339. Supreme Court of United States. Argued March 30, 2004. Decided June 29, 2004.* The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) approved using petitioner Sosa and other Mexican nationals to abduct respondent Alvarez-Machain (Alvarez), also a national, from Mexico stand trial in the States for DEA agent's torture murder. As relevant here, after his acquittal, Alvarez sued false arrest under Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA), which waives sovereign immunity suits "for . personal injury caused by negligent or wrongful act omission any [Government] employee while acting within scope office employment," 28 U.S.C. § 1346(b)(1); violating law nations Alien Statute (ATS), 1789 giving district courts "original jurisdiction civil action an alien tort only, committed violation .," 1350. District dismissed FTCA claim, but awarded summary judgment damages on ATS claim. Ninth Circuit affirmed judgment, reversed claim's dismissal. Held: 1. FTCA's exception waiver claims "arising foreign country," 2680(k), bars based suffered country, regardless where tortious occurred. Pp. 699-712. (a) its face seems plainly applicable facts this action. Alvarez's was said be "false," thus tortious, only because, extent that, it took place endured Mexico. Nonetheless, allowed proceed what is known as "headquarters doctrine," concluding because abduction direct result planning direction agents California, claim did not "aris[e] in" country. Because will virtually always possible assert activity occurring States, such analysis must viewed with skepticism. Two considerations confirm Court's skepticism lead reject headquarters doctrine. 700-703. (b) first consideration applies cases like one, harm arguably both country Proximate cause necessary connect domestic breach duty headquarters' behavior sufficiently close ultimate injury, important producing it, make reasonable follow liability back that behavior. A proximate connection itself sufficient bar exception's application, since given may harm's exclusive cause. Here, example, assuming officials' abduction, so were actions others Thus, at most, recognition additional causation leaves open question whether 703-704. (c) second rooted fact occurred soil. There good reason think Congress understood This common usage under" contemporary state borrowing statutes used determine State's limitations statute applied transjurisdictional facts. And language interpreted just same way reads today. Moreover, there specific believe refer central object. When passed, generally cases, would have been plaintiff injured However, application substantive intended avoid exception. Applying doctrine thwarted object recasting arising some negligence. Nor has outgrown tension traditional approach choice lost favor, many still use analysis. And, least Circuit's treat headquarters, even later methodologies point law. no merit argument should permitted when choice-of-law apply injury. write applied. Rather, written time meant occurred; odds are simply phrase. 704-712. 2. entitled recover ATS. 712-738. limited, implicit sanction entertain handful international cum authority recognize right asserts here. Contrary jurisdictional creating new causes does mean, contends, stillborn relief required further expressly authorizing adoption inference history practice practical effect moment became law, understanding provide modest number violations thought carry time: offenses against ambassadors, safe conducts, piracy. Sosa's objections view unpersuasive. 712-724. While correct assume First private certain torts development last two centuries categorically precluded federal recognizing element reasons restrained conception discretion court exercise considering In deriving standard assessing particular suffices look historical antecedents, persuade norm less definite content acceptance among civilized than 18th-century paradigms familiar 1350 enacted. 724-738. (i) Several argue great caution adapting rights. First, prevailing changed 1790. enacted, accepted found discovered, now understood, most asked formulate principle context, made created. Hence, judge deciding reliance find substantial discretionary decision. Second, along with, part driven by, conceptual come equally significant rethinking courts' role making Erie R. Co. v. Tompkins, 304 64, 78, denied existence "general" largely withdrew havens specialty, general being legislative guidance before exercising innovative over Third, decision create better left cases. E.g., Correctional Services Corp. Malesko, 534 61, 68. Fourth, potential implications relations particularly wary impinging Legislative Executive Branches managing affairs. Fifth, congressional mandate seek out define debatable nations, modern indications judicial field affirmatively encouraged greater creativity. 725-731. (ii) limit adopted here fatal contends prohibition arbitrary attained status binding customary authorized it. He invokes detention defined officially sanctioned exceeding positive authorization detain government. he cites little rule broad certainly nothing justify taking predicate lawsuit, breathtaking. It seizure Fourth Amendment, supplanting 42 U. S. C. 1983 Bivens Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 403 388, violations. arrests officers who exceed their failure marshal support underscored Restatement (Third) Foreign Relations Law refers prolonged detention, relatively brief excess authority. Whatever principle, expresses aspiration specificity requires. 731-738. 331 F. 3d 604, reversed. SOUTER, J., delivered opinion Court, Parts I III unanimous, Part II joined REHNQUIST, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., IV GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ. filed concurring joined, post, p. 739. 751. 760. CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT. Deputy Solicitor General Clement argued 03-485, Rule 12.6 With him briefs Olson, Acting Assistant Attorney Schiffer, Kneedler, Katsas, Gregory G. Garre, Jeffrey A. Lamken, Douglas N. Letter, Barbara L. Herwig, Robert M. Loeb, William H. Taft IV. Carter Phillips Joseph Guerra, Marinn Carlson, Maria T. DiGiulian, Ryan D. Nelson, Charles Leeper. Paul Hoffman Erwin Chemerinsky, Ralph Steinhardt, Mark Rosenbaum, Steven Shapiro, E. Mirell, W. Allan Edmiston.† JUSTICE SOUTER Court. 1 issues Alvarez-Machain's allegation instigated criminal supports Government (FTCA Act), §§ 1346(b)(1), 2671-2680, We hold remedy either statute. 2 * considered underlying before, Alvarez-Machain, 504 655 (1992). 1985, agent (DEA), Enrique Camarena-Salazar, captured assignment taken house Guadalajara, tortured course 2-day interrogation, then murdered. Based eyewitness testimony, officials came Humberto physician, present acted prolong life order extend interrogation torture. Id., 657. 3 1990, grand jury indicted murder Central California issued warrant arrest. 609 (CA9 2003) (en banc). help getting into requests negotiations proved fruitless, plan hire seize bring trial. planned, group Mexicans, including Jose Francisco Sosa, abducted house, held overnight motel, brought plane El Paso, Texas, arrested officers. Ibid. 4 Once American custody, moved dismiss indictment ground "outrageous governmental conduct," S., 658, violated extradition treaty between agreed, affirmed, we reversed, id., 670, holding forcible affect court. case tried 1992, ended Government's case, granted motion acquittal. 5 1993, returning Mexico, began us citizen operative Antonio Garate-Bustamante, five unnamed civilians, four agents. 3d, 610. So far matters sought FTCA, alleging arrest, ATS, nations. former authorizes suit employment." 1346(b)(1). latter provides entirety "[t]he shall original States." 6 $25,000 three-judge panel dismissal 266 1045 (2001). 7 divided en banc conclusion. 641. called own precedent, "that [the ATS] subject matter jurisdiction, creates alleged nations." 612. relied upon "clear universally recognized prohibiting detention," 620, conclusion amounted On "the had Mexico," 608, liable 640-641. 8 certiorari these companion clarify 540 (2003). reverse each. 9 seeks reversal principal grounds. argues could 21 878, setting DEA, says event asserted falls 2680(k). decide ground. 10 "was designed primarily remove and, exceptions, render individual circumstances." Richards 369 1, (1962); see 2674. accordingly gives "caused employment, circumstances if person, claimant accordance occurred." But limits ways. See 2680 (no to, e. g., "[a]ny loss, miscarriage, transmission letters postal matter," imposition establishment quarantine States," activities Panama Canal Company"). 11 Here limitation Act's provision view, once borders 636-637; appellate suggested rested solely however, Mexico.1 naturally kernel "claim barred immunity. 12 Notwithstanding straightforward exception, doctrine." Some Courts Appeals, reasoning entire scheme focuses government occurred," Sami 617 2d 755, 761 (CADC 1979), concluded exempt acts omissions another country." 762 (refusing 2680(k) communique sent enforcement officer resulted plaintiff's Germany).2 Headquarters "typically involve allegations employees damage take Cominotto 802 1127, 1130 1986). instances, suit. 13 located "Alvarez's fits glove." 638. 14 "Working offices Los Angeles, [DEA agents] kidnap gave [their intermediary] precise instructions whom recruit, how Alvarez, treated during trip Washington, C., details operation. After according plan, supervised transportation telling team land obtaining clearance Paso landing. particular, served command operation carried Mexico." 638-639. 15 16 sort flashes yellow light. "[I]t [abroad] consequence faulty training, selection supervision—or lack careful supervision—in Beattie 756 91, 119 1984) (Scalia, dissenting). Legal malpractice claims, Knisley 817 Supp. 680, 691-693 (SD Ohio 1993), medical care, Newborn 238 145, 148-149 (DC 2002), slip-and-fall Eaglin Dept. Army, 794 981, 983-984 (CA5 1986), can all repackaged train, warn, offering bad advice, policy. If approve "`headquarters claim' [would] become litigation" potentially implicating Beattie, supra, threatens swallow whole, pleadings stage. 17 need borne considerations. One them pertinent well States; B 18 Although every explicit causation, notion (at headquarters) (in this) necessary, words, conclude home Only properly seen rest §2675. See, Cominotto, ("[A] exists proximately country"); Eaglin, 983 (noting require "a plausible nexus resulting country"). 19 Recognizing not, resting consequence. enough be, frequently harm. 57A Am. Jur. 529 (2004) (discussing proper involving multiple causes); 121 dissenting) ("[I]n ordinary several points chain causality" enquiry). surely causes, well. legal eliminates arose At C 20 Not fail eliminate reason, is, country" sense Act, operated rule, set various statutes, laws [also] courts." 41 4th 1025, 1029, (1985). These typically restricted express terms situations State "where [the] arose, accrued, originated." 75 203, 211 (1931) (emphasis original). Critically purposes, variations theme read commentator noted 1962 purposes unanimously sounding arises establish occurred"; i. e., received." Ester, Borrowing Statutes Limitation Conflict Laws, Fla. Rev. 33, 47. moreover, referring Any causing outside requires determination source govern liability. dominant lex loci delicti: 11-12 ("The conflict-of-laws followed vast majority rights parties" (footnote omitted)); (First) Laws 379 (1934) (defendant's determined wrong");3 377, Note (place wrong bodily harmful force takes body" original)); ibid. (same fraud property).4 For then, presumptive tortfeasor's Day & Zimmermann, Inc. Challoner, 423 (1975) (per curiam) Texas Cambodian wrongful-death explosion Cambodia artillery round manufactured States); Thomas FMC Corp., 610 912 (MD Ala. 1985) (applying German manufacturer's negligently designing manufacturing Howitzer killed decedent Germany); Quandt Beech Aircraft 317 1009 (Del. 1970) Italian manufacture Kansas airplane crash Italy); Manos Trans World Airlines, 295 1170 (ND Ill. 1969) corporation's crashed also, Dallas Whitney, 118 Va. 106, 188 766 (1936) (Ohio blasting operations West Virginia highway property Ohio); Cameron Vandegriff, 53 Ark. 381, 1092 (1890) (Arkansas rock Indian territory inflicted Arkansas). 22 exemplified was, 1942, House Committee Judiciary early draft exempted behalf alien." 5373, 77th Cong., Sess., 303(12). bill revised, suggestion General, omit words. explaining amendment Judiciary, Shea 23 "[c]laims bill, 6463, alien. Since situs wise restrict desirable Otherwise, deal difficulty." Hearings 5373 et al. 35 (1942). 24 amended version, enacted constitutes current text codified Congress's "unwilling[ness] liabilities depending power." Spelar, 338 217, 221 (1949). 2d, Spelar's explanation attempting recast behind exception); Leaf 588 733, 736, n. 1978). 25 evidently modifier trigger That object, addressed quoted phrase, obviously thwarted, applying doctrine, displaced negligence cause.5 turn, jurisdiction. 26 Nor, matter, true Simson, Choice-of-Law Revolution States: Notes Rereading Von Mehren, 36 Cornell Int'l J. 125 (2002) methodology receded importance, approaches concepts interest analysis, relationship, center stage" (footnotes omitted)).6 employ essentially exemplified. Symeonides, Choice Courts, 51 Comp. 4-5 (2003) ("Ten states continue adhere method conflicts"); see, Raskin Allison, 30 Kan. App. 1240, 1242, 1241, 57 P. 32 (under "traditional principles reflected Restatement," boating accident waters injuries sustained waters"). 27 Equally Appeals's Second itself, encouraging shift toward flexible balancing inform law,7 includes default approach: "[i]n local determines parties, unless more relationship occurrence parties." 146; Comment e ("On occasion, conduct occur different states. usually tort"). practice, dispensation leads e.g., Dorman Emerson Elec. Co., 1354 (CA8 1994) Canadian saw design Missouri Canada); Bing Halstead, 495 517 (SDNY 1980) Costa Rican letter mailed Arizona mental distress Rica); McKinnon Morgan 170 Vt. 422, 750 1026 (2000) defective bicycle sold Vermont Quebec). sum, flexibility assurance experience noted, expectation very avoid.8 29 Before word needed answer selective ought re "Agent Orange" Product Liability Litigation, 580 1254 (EDNY purpose litigation hand implicated). taken, course, said. Its phrase position occurs; language.9 Finally, stretch equate "implicating law," accepting ensue vary State, benefiting penalizing plaintiffs accordingly. idea variety too implausible drive grafting onto itself. therefore (as supporting him) vest neither nor without agree jurisdictional, enactment enabled hear limited category do believe, 31 Judge Friendly "legal Lohengrin," IIT Vencap, Ltd., 519 1001, 1015 (CA2 1975); "no one know whence came," ibid., years provided case. passed 1789, providing "shall cognizance, concurrent circuit courts, sues Sept. 24, ch. 20, 9, Stat. 77.10 parties amici advance radically interpretations terse provision. grant, creation reading implausible. "cognizance" action, term bespoke grant power mold Federalist 81, pp. 447, 451 (J. Cooke ed. 1961) (A. Hamilton) (using "jurisdiction" interchangeably "cognizance"). placed otherwise exclusively concerned federal-court strictly nature. distinction elided drafters those voted Fisher Ames put "there difference rules decision." Annals Cong. 807 (Gales 1834). unsurprising, origins "section clearly statutory action," contrary "simply frivolous." Casto, Courts' Protective Jurisdiction Torts Committed Violation Nations, Conn. 467, 479, 480 (1986) (hereinafter Nations); Cf. Dodge, Constitutionality Statute: Observations Text Context, 687, 689 (2002). addressing subject. 33 raises question, about interaction ambient era. Amici professors tack, books, time. Brief Vikram Amar Curiae. give edge position. 34 "When declared independence, they bound receive purity refinement." Ware Hylton, Dall. 199, 281 (1796) (Wilson, J.). Republic, comprised elements, covering norms governing national each other: science teaches subsisting states, obligations correspondent rights," de Vattel, Preliminaries Chitty transl. 1883) Vattel) omitted), code public instruction defines prescribes duties intercourse other," James Kent Commentaries *1. aspect occupied executive domains, judicial. Blackstone, England 68 (1769) Commentaries) ("[O]ffences against" "principally incident whole nations"). included second, pedestrian element, fall sphere, body judge-made regulating individuals situated boundaries consequently carrying savor. To implicated "in mercantile questions, bills exchange like; marine relating freight, average, demurrage, insurances, bottomry .; [and] disputes prizes, shipwrecks, hostages, ransom bills." 67. merchant emerged practices traders admiralty transnational regulation. our precursors spoke explained coast fishing vessels wartime grew "ancient beginning ago, gradually ripening ." Paquete Habana, 175 677, 686 (1900). finally, sphere benefit overlapped relationships. Blackstone referred mentioned three England: infringement An assault ambassador, impinged sovereignty nation adequately redressed rise issue war. Vattel 463-464. narrow admitting threatening serious consequences affairs, probably minds men drafted reference tort. 37 distinctly preoccupation hybrid shape owing distribution political independence through period confederation. Continental hamstrung inability "cause infractions treaties, punished," Madison, Journal Constitutional Convention 60 (E. Scott 1893), 1781 implored vindicate words echo resolution legislatures "provide expeditious, exemplary adequate punishment" conducts passports, hostility amity immunities ambassadors ministers "infractions treaties conventions party." Journals 1136-1137 (G. Hunt 1912) Congress). recommended "authorise party injured, compensation done citizen." 1137; cf. 463-464 ("Whoever offends minister punished ., should, expense delinquent, full satisfaction offended person minister"). Apparently recommendation, Public Records Connecticut, 1782, 82, 83 (L. Larabee 1982) (1942 compilation, exact date unknown), signal commitment enforce 38 Appreciation incapacity class intensified so-called Marbois May 1784, French adventurer, De Longchamps, verbally physically assaulted Secretary Legion Philadelphia. Respublica 111 (O. Phila. 1784).11 again legislation matters, concern inadequate vindication persisted Convention. 1787, (M. Farrand 1911) (speech Randolph). During fact, New York City constable produced reprise affair Jay reported Dutch Ambassador's protest, "`the appear vested Powers competent Cognizance Judgment Cases.'" Nations 494, 152. 39 Framers responded vesting "all Cases affecting Ambassadors, Consuls." Const., Art. III, 2, through. reinforced diplomats, 80, 13, created alienage 11, 9. Randall, International Claims: Inquiries Statute, Y. Pol. 15-21 (1985) Randall) affairs Act); Early Republic 27-53 (1995). 40 modified Warren, Light History Harv. 49 (1923), hardly changes provisions aliens, 498. record discussion might provision, remedies; debate section. Given poverty drafting history, commentators necessarily concentrated text, remarking "tort," Sweeney, Hastings 445 (1995) (arguing "tort" prize), statute's mixture expansive ("all suits"), 500, restrictive ("for only"), Randall 28-31 (limiting torts, opposed commercial actions, especially British plaintiffs).12 scholarship competition federalist antifederalist forces relations. 22-23 (nonexclusiveness reflect compromise). despite considerable scholarly attention, fair say consensus proven elusive. Still, tend propositions. suppose pass convenience shelf future legislature might, day, authorize actionable foreigners. anxieties preconstitutional cannot ignored easily effect. Consider draftsman apparently Oliver Ellsworth,13 previously member Connecticut Legislature request. Brown, Life Ellsworth (1905). Consider, too, attentive criminal, Blackstone. Punishment Certain Crimes Against 8, 113-114 (murder robbery, capital crimes, punishable piracy high seas), 28, (violation assaults imprisonment fines described "infract[ions of] passing strange aliens whatever until much leave lying fallow indefinitely. drawn furnish Uppermost mind appears 118; actionable, prize captures contemplated, 113-114. rate, assumed claims. "offences [of nations] principally nations," seeking 43 sparse contemporaneous materials inferences, some, few, Bolchos Darrel, Cas. 810 (No. 1,607) (SC 1795), doubt privateer mortgagee slave ship assuaged basis court's Moxon Fanny, 942 9,895) (Pa. 1793), contrary, owners privateer. dictum vehicle "[i]t property, supposed trespass, for." 948. intimation damages. 44 Then 1795 Bradford, prosecution available Americans plunder colony Sierra Leone. Op. Atty. Gen. 57. Bradford uncertain, clear growing episode: 45 "But company 59. 46 conceivable (who prosecuted incident, 503, 201) treaty, Gen., 58, obvious, likely 47 underwrite derived main objections. makes recommendation suits. thinks "absurd," Reply Petitioner 5, remedies available. juxtaposes Blackstone's treatise mentioning occasions remedies, evidence Neither convincing. 48 absurd recommend duplicate already rests misunderstanding late 18th century, reinforce expression "brooding omnipresence"14 discoverable reason. clarified relation "those parliament, universal facilitate execution [its] decisions, introductive merely declaratory old fundamental constitutions kingdom; cease world." Indeed, undermined relies. undisputed Blackstone) afforded effect, same, 719.15 convinced conferring rubric "public wrongs," whereas uses word, uncommon vernacular day. deemed discussing sanctions, observing sovereigns "to animadvert becoming severity, peace world maintained," 68.16 explicitly linked requirement state, "at minister." Stephens, Individuals Enforcing Law: Comparative Historical 52 DePaul 433, 444 (observing "mixed violations, encompassing suit, founding generation"). goes step showing diplomatic General's Letter 1795, precedents prevalent assumption intend sit enact legislation. 50 although best having correct, though suspect examples beyond corresponding primary offenses: assume, birth line Filartiga Pena-Irala, 630 876 1980), law; kind. Accordingly, present-day character comparable features recognized. series kinds implement conferred counsels restraint judicially internationally generated norms. transcendental obligatory statute." Black White Taxicab Transfer Brown Yellow 276 518, 533 (1928) (Holmes, Now, discovered Holmes famously 1881 substance growth [because t]he judges rarely mention, apology, secret root draws juices life. expedient community concerned." Common 31-32 (Howe 1963). 54 accept Holmesian acknowledge 55 64 (1938), watershed devise directly, Textile Workers Lincoln Mills Ala., 353 448 (1957) (interpretation collective-bargaining agreements); Evid. 501 (evidentiary privileges federal-question cases). Elsewhere, interstitial areas interest. Kimbell Foods, Inc., 440 715, 726-727 (1979).17 competence importance relations, Banco Nacional Cuba Sabbatino, 376 398, 427 (1964), remarkable aggressive remained shadow prior centuries. 56 recently repeatedly (2001); Alexander Sandoval, 532 275, 286-287 mere entailing, permit check imposed prosecutorial discretion. purely conduct, reluctant infer intent supply expressly. absence equivocal statute, collateral privately caution. thing constitutional Governments' power, quite consider go governments citizens, transgressed limits. 431-432. Yet apt stimulate calls vindicating interests attempts craft raise risks adverse policy consequences, undertaken, all, Tel-Oren Libyan Arab 726 774, 813 (Bork, concurring) (expressing "our [to] countries respect citizens"). 58 fifth light four. Torture Victim Protection 1991, 106 73, "establish[es] unambiguous for" extrajudicial killing, Rep. 102-367, pt. (1991). affirmative confined remark "remain intact exist ripen 4, promote times, indeed, Senate declined task interpreting human ratification Covenant Civil Political Rights document self-executing. 138 Rec. 8071 59 739 (opinion judgment), concludes hospitable, summarize focus today's ever legitimately All Members jurisdictional. agree, SCALIA dispute, 739, 744, originally small enforceable concludes, subsequent developments preclude today, absent understand reflection but, positivistic way, product choice. expressed reorienting diversity derive Whereas sees door independent norms, exercised ajar vigilant doorkeeping, rules, circumstances, post-Erie identified enclaves way. recognizes ("[I]t appropriate circumstances");18 700 ("International ascertained administered justice often questions duly presented determination"); Nereide, Cranch (1815) (Marshall, J.) ("[T]he land"); Industries, Radcliff Materials, 630, 641 (1981) (recognizing "international nations" "narrow areas" "federal law" continues exist). avert gaze entirely protect individuals. 61 attempt unconvincing bearing intersection powers. Congress, framing generation Framers, identify unreasonable expected lose capacity metaphysical cachet road realism. Later Congresses seem shared view. today years, decided disagreement focused Edwards Bork 774 1984). notable instance enacting supplementing detail. 728 Act). 62 welcome obvious shut entirely. (explicitly, implicitly occupy field), modify cancel such.19 63 still, standards raises, antecedents. criteria 1350, persuaded Smith, Wheat. 153, 163-180, (1820) (illustrating piracy). consistent faced reached Filartiga, 890 ("[F]or liability, torturer — pirate trader hostis humani generis, enemy mankind"); Tel-Oren, 781 (Edwards, (suggesting "limits section 1350's reach" heinous violates definable, norms"); Estate Marcos Human 1467, 1475 ("Actionable specific, universal, obligatory"). action20 (and, inevitably must) litigants courts.21 gauged looking sources long, albeit cautiously, 65 "[W]here controlling decision, resort customs usages nations; these, works jurists commentators, labor, research experience, themselves peculiarly acquainted subjects treat. Such resorted tribunals, speculations authors concerning trustworthy really is." 700. 66 begin well-known agreements moral authority, utility opinion. "arbitrary arrest" meaning Universal Declaration (Declaration), Res. 217A (III), Doc. A/810 (1948). traces Declaration, article nine (Covenant), Dec. 16, 1966, 999 171,22 party, not. impose Humphrey, UN Charter Rights, 39, Luard 1967) (quoting Eleanor Roosevelt calling "`a statement up achievement peoples nations'" "`not agreement impos[ing] obligations'").23 bind ratified self-executing courts. 728. instead show 67 useful examine complaint presently cross-border feature abduction.24 finding across border Appeals rejected requisite border. Instead, lacked extraterritorial Criminal Procedure 4(d)(2) States."25 now: forbidden infringed prerogatives it.26 "arbitrary" government, circumstances. Whether accurate Covenant, today.27 His anywhere world, unauthorized place, 1979, 1983, 388 (1971), authority; assumes broader still. 69 proposed (1986), "state if, policy, practices, encourages, condones detention." 702. explain requirements policy" "prolonged" implication clear. credible invocation accepts factual Even Restatement's enquiry, easy policies detentions enemies race, harder cross certainty offenses. event, label never fit reckless policeman botches warrant, pay municipal Groh Ramirez, 551 (2004).28 70 advances, present, imperfect exceeds require.29 Creating residual exercise.30 single illegal transfer custody lawful authorities prompt arraignment, remedy. 71 72 Reversed. Notes: Together 03-485,United al., &#x2020; Briefs curiae urging 03-339 National Association Manufacturers Friedman, John Townsend Rich, Sheehan, Jan Amundson, Quentin Riegel; Trade Council Daniel Petrocelli, Oppenheimer, Walter Dellinger Pamela Harris, Robin Conrad; Pacific Foundation Anthony Caso; Washington Donald B. Ayer, Christian Vergonis, Popeo, Richard Samp; Samuel Estreicher Stephan Mr. Estreicher, pro se. affirmance Friends Representing Hungarian Jews Bougainvilleans Interests Steve Berman, Brent Walton, Jonathan Cuneo, David Stanley, Michael Waldman, Dubbin; Amnesty Beth Stephens; Center Justice Accountability Laurel Fletcher, Peter Weiss, Jennifer Green; Women Policy Studies Rhonda Copelon; Presbyterian Church Sudan Carey D'Avino, Stephen Whinston, Lawrence Kill; Jewish Bill Lann Lee, Stanley Chesley, Marco, Burt Neuborne, Hausfeld; Wendy Adams Aceves Weissbrodt; Mary Robinson Harold Hongju Koh, Townsend, Stein. Commonwealth Australia I. Baker Todd Miller; Labor Fund Terrence Collingsworth Natacha Thys; European Commission Cunard; Akins Bishop; Nicholas van Aelstyn; Barry Amundsen Penny Venetis. critical "DEA execute Angeles." 640. arrived supervening mechanism met procedural requisites due process."Id., 637. alsoCouzado 105 1389, 1395 (CA11 1997) ("`[A] occurs country'" Donahue Justice, 751 45, 1990))); Martinez Lamagno, 93-1573, 1994 WL 159771, *2, judgt. 402 (CA4 (unpublished opinion) ("A country"), rev'd grounds, 515 417 (1995); 736 1978) `arises', loss place"); 1986) (assuming, arguendo, valid). (Second) 412 (1969) 2d) stated minor governed `place wrong.' `the actor place.' follows `last event' occurred") precisely garden-variety mind. 1400, 79th (1946) ("With expansion recent becomes sue vehicles"); generallyFeres 340 135, 139-140 (1950) (Congress "would corporation"). nonetheless avoided instructed occurred, transpired. inRichards (1962), (including rules) [allegedly federal] 3, 11. overseas. Rydstrom, Modern Status Substantive Parties Action Governed Place Wrong, 603, §2[a] (1970) ("[M]any [are] abandoning orthodox wrong" omitted)). relative merits questions; indicate how, Under Restatement, "by parties," account domicil, residence, nationality, incorporation business any, centered." 145 believing intimated emphasis, act, acknowledged possibility function Richards's provisions) Leaf, 3. attempted defuse 763 1979) (believing forum overcome conflict). resolve short shrift embodied Act: Renvoi Revisited, 641, 659-660 (1992) totality consulted undermine exception). difficult reconcile exceptions specifically "act omission." 2680(a) (exempting Government, regulation"); 2680(e) ("Any administering [certain portions Trading Enemy 1917]"). request knew specify omission" wanted runs afoul usual "when another, meanings intended." 2A Singer, Statutory Construction 46:06, 194 (6th rev. 2000) slightly enactment. entirety: "The plenipotentiary lodged formal protest 478, threatened Pennsylvania "unless Longchamps Case satisfaction." Hardy Gov. Benjamin Harrison Virginia, Letters 558, 559 Burnett 1934). resolutions, approving state-court proceedings, directing Affairs apologize "explain difficulties arise nature union," 314, representative Louis XVI "many allowances young Nation, restriction putting foreigners notice longer able prosecute Compare,e. 160 (victims start prosecutions) (creating attorney). 41, (1794) (British consul himself initiate prosecution, jury). Ellsworth's handwriting version Archives. 498, 169 SeeSouthern Jensen, 244 205, 222 (1917) Being sensibly politics, program assure observe day legislatures, received confidential report, detailing representatives Versailles. 1137-1140. King capture shipMarquis la Fayette Boston, 1139, "expresse[d] desire appointment consuls digested adopted, France wished arrangements 1140. for, calculated powers concerns chosen. lawyers, Helmholz, Use Post-Revolutionary Jurisprudence, Tulane 1649 (1992), written, end writing fix conceive established [be] free frame pleased Domat, Natural Order 108 (W. Strahan Cushing 1861). fallen impressing continental readership. animadversion "an archaic ofpunishment." somewhat exaggerated, however. "turn[ing] attention judicially, tak[ing] cognizance anything deserving chastisement censure; hence, punishment censure." Oxford English Dictionary 474 (2d 1989). context Of man disturbed enjoyment "qualified property" hereon injury." 395. Papers Madison 349 (R. Rutland 1975) ("As yet rigorous animadverting us" nations). Fallon, Meltzer, Hart Wechsler's System, (5th 2003); Friendly, Praise ofErie Law, N.Y. 383, 405-422 (1964). Sabbatino directly 421-423, endorsed continued 425 (citing Jessup, Doctrine Railroad Tompkins Applied 740 (1939)). Our suggests, imply carries opportunity develop (so 1350), seepost, 745, Section entertaining extended assumption. Further, division responsibilities Erie, 726, 729-730, related 1331 be. extends perpetrator sued, defendant corporation individual. CompareTel-Oren 791-795 (insufficient 1984 actors law), Kadic Karad&#x17E;i&#x0107;, 232, 239-241 1995) (sufficient 1995 genocide law). definition limiting availability disposes asamicus basic asserting forum, exhausted system, perhaps forums tribunals. Amicus Curiae Brownlie, Principles 472-481 2003)); §2(b), 73 (exhaustion requirement). Another case-specific deference branches. pending corporations participated in, abetted, regime apartheid formerly controlled South Africa. African Apartheid 1379 (JPML 2002) (granting Southern York). Africa interfere Truth Reconciliation Commission, "deliberately `victors' justice' crimes chose confession absolution, informed reconciliation, reconstruction, reparation goodwill." Penuell Mpapa Maduna, Minister Development, Africa, reprinted 7a, ¶ 3.2.1 deleted). agreed. IV, Adviser, Shannen Coffin, Asst. Oct. 27, 2003, 2a. strong weight Branch's case's impact Austria Altmann, 541 701-702 Department's statements Sovereign Immunities 1976, 1602 seq.). Article "[n]o subjected deprived liberty except grounds procedure "[a]nyone victim unlawful compensation." 175-176 nevertheless indirect Brownlie,supra, 535 (calling "good example informal prescription significance authoritative decision-makers"). contains footnote incorporate arguments abductions Appeals. Respondent 47, 46. fairly, executed "anywhere else arrest." Crim. Proc. 4(c)(2) occasion 878 Specifically, relies survey constitutions, Bassiouni, Context Justice: Identifying Procedural Protections Equivalent Constitutions, Duke 235, 260-261 (1993); Justice,United Iran, 1980 42; 49, 50. None suffice. Bassiouni level generality. Iran consular staff involved problem passing; harsher Alvarez's. 42, 91 ("detention [United States] armed militants" lasted months"). position, reflects assertive privileged citizen's us, discern simultaneous conclusions violate recovery logically foreclose CfFilartiga 876, 884, honored diminish law"). Nevertheless, realization urges clearer claimed. cites, 49-50, working Report Working Group Arbitrary Detention, E/CN.4/1994/27, (Dec. 17, 1993). addressed, demanding definition, wishes group's finding, address CHIEF THOMAS join, judgment. add detailed opinion, subtract: reservation international-law-based join I, II, consolidated lawmaking invites commit suited perform. respondent) money claimed detention. States."Ibid. challenge posed ascertain felicitous phrase) era." Ante, 714. describing guide enactment, "violation Young, Sorting Debate Over Customary 365, 374 (2002); Bradley Goldsmith, Critique Position, 110 815, 824 (1997); 12-13. Supremacy Clause, Constitution, treaties. VI, cl. adjudicating respectively neither. Clark, Structural Reinterpretation, 144 Pa. 1245, 1279-1285 (1996). nonfederal explains Ins. Hendren, 92 286 (1876), review regarding sectional war [a] contract insurance." war, case," question. concluded: below alone, nowhere appearing constitution, laws, proclamations, jurisdiction." 287. signaled elaboration repudiated Swift Tyson, Pet. (1842), "express opinion" law." 19, 18. canvassing problems province accorded `general law' judgment," 75, extirpated famous declaration "[t]here 78. affected turned "law merchant," subset 1280-1281. death pronounced developed law) "few restricted" uniquely interests, 640 (internal quotation marks citations omitted). Unlike preceded self-consciously "made" rather "discovered," falling sway Holmes's hyperbolic language) fallacy illusion" (dissenting opinion). made, possess federal-common-law-making undertaking "Federal unlike common-law Milwaukee Illinois, 304, 312 (1981). formulated 640-641, applications displace Industries petitioner's unsuccessful contribution assessed antitrust laws. 639-646. Northwest Transport Workers, 77, 99 (declining federal-common-law Equal Pay Title VII). delegation others. firmly entrenched Constitution. maritime well-developed venerable sea custom seafaring men." Titanic, Haver, 171 943, 960 1999) (Niemeyer, extreme Amendment. `arising States.'" (2001) 1331). stands, eroded. past "we consistently refused context." relic heady days action." (SCALIA, concurring). mind, turn presented. exegesis conclusively establishes 724. persuasive why respondent's interpretation, wrong. 713. endorses views scholar interpretation "`simply frivolous.'" (1986)). alone dispose favor Sosa. apply. closest analogy. shaky best, proliferated command. [customary law], viewing Affairs, 513, Benthamite terms, (federal norms," constructing nonsense stilts. departs my respect: ante, 724, addresses length action" 725 added). By "discretion," skips antecedent neglects "lesson Erie," "grants alone" (which be) "are grants authority." 541. point, observes 1789) "has turns jurisprudence head. prevents peculiar Erie's exist. "district discussed above, Erie. "watershed" heralding avulsive change, wrought "conceptual [and accompanied an] it." 726. insight, unadorned "common pre-Erie lapse crucial, positivist mindset utterly tradition century. Post-Erie (all courts) removed general-common-law adjudication anachronistic enable latter.* discretion-only suggests. Framers' old-school adjudication. masks novelty suggests "close "on doorkeeping." 729. door. deed Supra, 740-741. ajar, fundamentally disagree discretion-based framework employed accord questionable enterprise. that: &#x2022; "[T]he [in area relations]. centuries." caution." 727. "It limits." "[M]any consequences." 727-728. "Several them, circumspect extant general-common-law-making They possibly given, possess, regard sure, precipitate confrontation lower (1) granting 713, (2) understands 728, (3) supplies so, countenances occupation domain belongs people's representatives. crystal ball predict long coming, Court," Circuits. 732. reverses Perhaps decisions "reflects today." 27. verbal formula endorses. Compare 732 1994), proposition "`specific, obligatory'"), 621 banc) (finding "universal, obligatory, specific"); 619 ("[A]n [ATS] obligatory" Endorsing led recipe future. Circuit, started down path tries hedge indicator us: 232 1995), point. forth Prevention Crime Genocide, 1948, 78 278. 238-239, 241-242. something perfectly logical truly remarkable: determination, inscribed Genocide Implementation 1987, 1091 seq., signed President attaching penalties genocide. said, "be construed proceeding." 1092. Undeterred, reasoned "decision remedy" repealing supplied 242 Does wish encourage jurisdiction-granting section," 718, override indication branches "specific, enforced action? Today's perilous path. Though deserves mention: Despite change Nations" 10, Constitution system described, terrified "discretion" portion dealings (treatment etc.) seas hostile territorial jurisdictions (pirates). Those part, entirety, insofar demise inconsequential. redefined mean subject, control sovereign's treatment citizens 20th-century invention internationalist human-rights advocates. Rev., 831-837. would, am confident, appalled peoples' democratic penalty, Tex. Penal Code Ann. 12.31 (West 2003), nullified disapproving us. elect Houses approval President, elect. decades now, unelected usurping converting approves process restrained. incapable matters—any matters—are none business. Rasul Bush, 466; INS St. Cyr, 289 latest victory Never Say ignores wags finger going far, repeating ambitious try again. conversions perceived (Though ourselves eminently reasonable, self-awareness eminent reasonableness substitute election.) illegitimate endeavor, actors; tiny fraction decisions. reasonable. democratically elected disapproved automatically simple announced. BREYER joins, disposition pursuant Seeante, Act) 699-712, reasoning, adopt construction call comparison versus newer methodologies. 708-710. Kay, Theory Practice: Mercer 521, 525-584 (1983). illuminates undue prominence jurisdiction-selecting abandoned. 2002: Sixteenth Annual Survey, 5-6 (lex delicti abandoned States). renders manner "exclusive ... sovereign-immunity waiver. Relevant litigation, excepts seeante, foreign-country in," "place injury," 707-708, 711, 9.1 face, cover litigation. predicated "false" there. notes, kernel" 701. inside borders, observed, tortious. 636-637 analyzed false-arrest Just accrued abroad. 636-637. Critical 640; 700-701, Fermino Fedco, Cal. 701, 872 559, 567 (1994) (defining nonconsensual, intentional confinement privilege, appreciable time, however short" added internal Cert. 184a (same). process." 637; Accepting, did, depended location furnished territory, 626-631, Had officers, authorities, tenable. Similarly, viable Honduran seized suspects Honduras; unique cooperation police consent government." 623, 23. short, yielded entangled Subjecting sovereign, 2680(k)'s aimed exclude. construe harmony waiver, 1346(b), (urging prohibited committed");id., ("the together [§]1346," wrongful] occurred" omitted emphasis deleted)). Interpretation 1346, maintains, grounded precedent. construing "foreign "draw[n] [FTCA]." Smith 507 197, 201 (1993) "based Antarctica" 198-199. Were "§ 1346(b) instruct [i. Antarctica] States—surely bizarre result." 201-202. presumed coincided ar[ose]" 122 `arises' [standard-of-care] (attributable inaction) nearest injury...."); 761-762 (looking complained 2680(k)). Harmonious accords Congress' "unwilling U.S., 221. entailing risk foreign-law application. Francis Shea, finally emphasized country: "Since (1942) added); 707.2 appears, aligned block States' 752-753, True, renvoi 1346(b)(1)'s of." (1962) [FTCA] added)).3 That, resist defining liability-creating elsewhere. explore make.4 true, reasonably anticipated methodology, Conflicts, mechanically Conflicts 377 place."); Richards, [wa]s 705-707, 708, Generally, always, coincides injury.5 Looking ordinarily 711-712 (adopting place-of-injury "involve[d] supervise countries." holding, doctrine,'" whereby Circuit. Appeals' employment inapplicable whenever authorization, support, "it [or intentional] dissenting); 702-703 Hence considers steps commission swallowing Furthermore, failed Both multistate tort] place." 10. count. "Neither state. sheds problem." Gould Electronics 220 169, 181 (CA3 2000); Raflo 157 2001) appeals varying Simon 341 193, 202 (listing 1346(b)(1)); Electronics, 181-183 (same).6 Having canvassed approaches, Third Becker "clarity virtue crafting [a would] choose Simon, 204. Eschewing "vague overlapping" "indeterminate" results, "appl[ied] [under 1346(b)(1)] salutary avoiding completely incidental contact,' conjecture [alternative] inquires entail." agree. "last advanced preserves genuine instant controversy arose. concur conjures illusion common-law-making continuity ignoring differences. places federal-law footing unknown Congress. ATS's wasnot supreme 739-740. contrast, reserves "arise Illinois Milwaukee, 406 99-100 (1972). demonstrated unnecessary (so-called) law-of-nations transformed combined (from nobody knows) effectively superfluous 1875, $500 amount-in-controversy requirement, Mar. 470, 1980, eliminated Pub. 96-486, 94 2369. listed arising" formulation. 2680(b), (c), (e), (h), (j),(l), (m), (n). terminology. §2680(a) (exception regulation performance perform ..."); defense]"). apparent, (e) 1346(b). of" omission. 2680(b) matter"); 2680(h) assault, battery, imprisonment, malicious abuse process, libel, slander, misrepresentation, deceit, interference contractual rights"). usage, employee" complex feasible. 762, ("We meaningful exemption shifted resultant injuries."). colloquy hearing Judiciary. correctly "any whocommitted FTCA]." yes resorting adopts law's principles, forum." Black's 1300 (7th 1999). Readingrenvoi questionable. 679 ("It employee's intended. simplicity preferable complexity manipulation [Richards'] construction."). Enacting quotidian "wrongs corporation,"Feres (1950), vehicular accidents, (1946). 706, 4. almost cataloged are: "(1) theories liability; choosing allegedly-wrongful omission; determining wrongdoing injury; (4) physical prevented (5) `relevant' occurred."Simon, 202. Ducey 713 504, 508, 1983) (considering "physical acts" occurred); Hitchcock 665 354, 359 1981) "relevant" omission); Bowen 570 1311, 1318 (CA7 alternatives causal effect," place); Hitchcock's relevance test "most occurred"); Kohn 591 568, 572 act-by-act basis). GINSBURG'S concurrence (ATS) qualify as, widespread characterized piracyAnte, type (e. actor) sue. 732, 20. norm, occupying field. 731. exhaustion apply, "serious weight" permitting 21. conditions important. consideration. nation's implies nations' ask notions comity reach enforcement. ensure conflicting "work harmony," increasing interdependent worldF. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd Empagran A., 164; Murray Schooner Charming Betsy, (1804). promote. 715-718. normally (or mitigated) involves country's national—where, say, diplomat brings 402(1), Restatement) (describing bases nationality jurisdiction). arise, persons abroad asking kind norm. similar similarly, workable harmony, depends uniformity appropriate. him. 162 (referring punishing persons, natives foreigners, [piracy] whatsoever, amity"). Today sometimes similarly condemned 404, a; Association, Final Exercise Respect Gross Offences (2000). torture, genocide, humanity, crimes. 5-8; Prosecutor Furundzija, IT-95-17/1-T, ¶¶ 155-156 (International Tribunal Prosecution Persons Responsible Serious Violations Humanitarian Territory Former Yugoslavia 1998); Israel Eichmann, 277 (Sup. Ct. 1962). comity. allowing adjudicate significantly threaten protect. threatening. b. combine represented, damages, proceeding 21, Donzallaz, La Lugano du septembre 1988 concernant compétence judiciaire l'exécution des décisions matière civile commerciale, 5203-5272 (1998); EC Regulation 44/2001, 2001 O. (L 12/1) (Jan. 2001)). contemplates degree Taking account, here— another.

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