Document: 478 U.S. 501 106 S.Ct. 3063 92 L.Ed.2d 405 LOCAL NUMBER 93, INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF FIREFIGHTERS, AFL-CIO C.L.C., Petitioner,v.CITY CLEVELAND et al. No. 84-1999. Argued Feb. 25, 1986. Decided July 2, Syllabus The Vanguards, an organization of black and Hispanic firefighters employed by respondent city Cleveland, filed a class action in Federal District Court charging the various officials with discrimination on basis race national origin hiring, assigning, promoting violation of, inter alia, Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964. Petitioner labor union, which represents majority city's firefighters, was permitted to intervene as party-plaintiff. Over petitioner's objection, court adopted consent decree that provided for use race-conscious relief other affirmative firefighters. Appeals affirmed. Held: Section 706(g) does not preclude entry decree, such entered this case, may benefit individuals who were actual victims defendant's discriminatory practices; whether or § precludes from imposing certain forms after trial, it apply awarded decree. Pp. 515-530. (a) Congress intended voluntary compliance be preferred means achieving VII's objectives. Voluntary available employers unions seeking eradicate include reasonable benefits are discrimination. Steelworkers v. Weber, 443 193, 99 2721, 61 480. Absent some contrary indication, there is no reason why rendered impermissible simply because incorporated into No indication 706(g)'s last sentence, district entering order requiring hiring promotion individual refused employment any than Whatever extent limits placed sentence power federal courts impose obligations remedy violations VII, itself restrict ability enter agreements providing relief. Because nature its most fundamental characteristic, apparent decrees included among "orders" referred 706(g). party's agreement, rather force law upon complaint originally based, creates embodied 515-524. (b) A necessarily barred merely provides broader could have trial. Inasmuch remedial authority court—whatever these be—are implicated agreements, conflict when enters Firefighters Stotts, 467 561, 104 2576, 81 483, Railway Employees Wright, 364 642, 368, 5 349, distinguished. 524-528. (c) fact case without affect validity. While intervenor entitled present evidence objections heard at hearings approve block withholding consent. here bind petitioner do anything. It imposes legal duties purport resolve claims might under Fourteenth Amendment, 703 matter contract. Whether too late raise claims, or, if not, merit questions must presented first instance Court, has retained jurisdiction hear challenges. 528-530. 753 F.2d 479, BRENNAN, J., delivered opinion MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, POWELL, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, JJ., joined. concurring opinion, post, p. 530. WHITE, dissenting 531. REHNQUIST, BURGER, C.J., joined, 535. William L. Summers, Ohio, petitioner. 1 Bradford Reynolds, Washington, D.C., United States, amicus curiae, special leave Court. 2 Edward R. Stege, Jr., respondent, Vanguards Cleveland. 3 John D. Maddox, respondents, 4 [Amicus Curiae Information pages 503-504 intentionally omitted] Justice BRENNAN 6 question 1964, 78 Stat. 261, amended, 42 U.S.C. 2000e-5(g), practices. 7 * On October 23, 1980, Cleveland (Vanguards), City municipal (hereinafter collectively City) "in assignment within Fire Department." App. 6. sued behalf blacks Hispanics consisting already City, applicants employment, "all future will firemen Id., 8. 8 claimed had violated rights plaintiff Thirteenth Amendments States Constitution, 2000e seq., §§ 1981 1983. Although alleged facts establish work assignments, primary allegations charged "have . been discriminated against their awarding promotions 11.1 averred effectuated number intentional practices City. written examination used making discriminatory. effects test said reinforced seniority points manipulation retirement dates so minorities would near top lists positions became available. In addition, assertedly limited minority advancement deliberately refusing administer new promotional 1975, thus cancelling out increased resulted litigation commenced 1973. 9 As just noted, Vanguards' lawsuit defend charges civil services. 1972, police officers alleging Police Department promotions. See Shield Club 370 F.Supp. 251 (ND Ohio 1972). found plaintiffs issued enjoining establishing goals. 1977, goals adjusted established pursuant Thereafter, raising similar judicial finding unlawful quotas those ordered litigation. Headen C73-330 Apr. 1975). additional litigation, approved plan governing procedures Department. 10 By time complaint, then, unsuccessfully contested many basic factual issues lawsuits. Naturally, influenced City's view case. expressed counsel oral argument Court: 11 "[W]hen eight years point litigating types cases, having judges rule 12 "You don't beat us head. We finally learned what we try comply law, intent fully. ." Tr. Oral Arg. 41-42. 13 Thus, commence another round futile "serious settlement negotiations" Vanguards. Letter dated December 24, Mark I. Wallach Hon. Thomas J. Lambros. 14 April 27, 1981, Local Number 93 International Association Firefighters, AFL-CIO, C.L.C. (Local Union), Cleveland's moved Rule Procedure 24(a)(2) granted motion Union submit intervention 30 days. 15 subsequently submitted three-page document "Complaint Applicant Intervention." Despite title, did allege causes assert either "[p]romotions based criterion competence, racial quota system, deny capable residents maintaining best possible fire fighting force," asserted "Local # 93's interest maintain well trained properly staffed [Local 93] contends should made demonstrated competency, measured competitive examinations administered accordance applicable provisions Federal, State, laws." 28. "complaint" concluded prayer form injunction award examinations. 16 meantime, negotiations between continued, proposed November 1981. This proposal "interim procedures" implemented "as two-step temporary remedy" past 33. step required fixed planned reserved minorities: specifically, 40 Lieutenant, 20 Captain, Battalion Chief, Assistant Chief 33-34. second involved establishment "appropriate goal[s]," id., 34, ranks Chief. also forgo using factor 32-33. remain effect nine years, extended mutual application parties 6-year period. 36. 17 held 2-day hearing beginning January consider fairness objected 9-year life protested negotiations. latter objection particularly troubled Judge. Indeed, although support Judge stated he "appalled leading intervenors .," pass circumstances. 134 (Jan. 7, 1982). Instead, concluded: "I am going defer proceeding until day I mandating [Vanguards] engage Fighters discussions, dialogue. Let them know on, particular problems." 151. At same time, Lambros explained make more specific accomplish anything: think able win position that, 'Well, Judge, you know, there's something inherently wrong about quotas. You it's fair.' need that." 153. 18 27. continued oppose action. Witnesses all testified concerning testimony revealed while dealt only Lieutenant actually authorized up 66 offers; similarly, hire 32 Captains Chiefs. After testimony, alternative high over relatively short period time. Lieutenants 40, "plug substantial leadership can start influence operation department" still nonminority obtained existing system. 147-148 (Apr. Additional approach led amicable resolution Atlanta, Georgia. persuaded revamping along lines Atlanta plan. proceedings therefore adjourned Magistrate. 19 Counsel three participated hours intensive Magistrate's supervision agreed revised modified version 79 (Report Magistrate). However, submission contingent approval membership 93. supervisory members overwhelmingly rejected proposal.2 11, 1983, lodged amended approval. "patterned very closely negotiated [the] Magistrate Pet. Cert. A31, central feature creation opportunities races. Specifically, immediately These during initial evenly split since qualified 52 upper-level positions, promoted. further June 1984 1985. Promotions produced specified "goals" terms percentages different each rank. list 1985 two expire. shortened four. except where necessary implement requirements restored ranking candidates promotion. A29-A38. 21 mentioned twice proposal. Paragraph progress reports both A36. paragraph exclusive respect applications "any party, including Intervenor." A38. imposed 22 19, notify persons wished object writing. following formal decree: 23 consistently steadfastly maintained equitable, fair, way correct problems caused [City]. Many alternatives hopefully soon unnecessary 'remedial' methods explored utilized. 24 reiterates [sic] absolute total cause serious polarization Service. Since problem obviously concern collective representative service, Intervenors, respectfully urge Decree." 98. 25 Apart expressing wisdom necessity failed City.3 26 31, "[t]he documents, statistics, 1982 reveal historical pattern Brief Opposition A3-A4. He then observed: 27 "While concerns articulated valid, system four unreasonable light history neither nor unfair require non-minority who, they committed wrong, benefited bear burden remedy. Furthermore, less burdensome nine-year originally." A5. 28 overruled Union's reasonable, adequate raised action." Ibid. purposes enforcement, modification, amendment th[e] Decree party. 29 appealed overruling objections. panel Sixth Circuit affirmed, one judge dissenting. 479 (1985). claim "unreasonable," justified statistical express admission engaged "fair firefighters," emphasizing "relatively modest set forth plan," "the unqualified discharge "does create bar employees," duration 485. before Appeals, decided 483 (1984). "Concerned potential impact Stotts," supplemental briefs, F.2d, 485-486, but ultimately Stotts outcome noted layoffs reasoned even holds discrimination, involves makes decision inapplicable." 486.4 31 petitioned writ certiorari. sole issue petition VII.5 argues disregards prohibition "[n]o shall reinstatement member reinstatement, employee, payment him back pay, admission, suspended, expelled, suspended discharged account race, color, religion, sex, section 2000e-3(a) title." 2000e-5(g) (emphasis added). 33 According employer's plain language provision court" provide extends limitation orders addition Consequently, concludes invalid if—like case—it utilizes preferences themselves supported curiae.6 34 answer important law. 474 816, 59, 88 48 today Sheet Metal Workers EEOC, 421, 3019, 344 (1986), may, appropriate decide however. For hold decree.7 affirm judgment Appeals. II 35 numerous occasions recognized objectives VII. Alexander Gardner-Denver Co., 415 36, 44, 94 1011, 1017, 39 147 (1974); Albemarle Paper Co. Moody, 422 405, 417-418, 95 2362, 2371-2372, 45 280 (1975) (quoting N.L. Industries, Inc., 354, 379 (CA8 1973)) (Title sanctions " 'to self-examine self-evaluate endeavor eliminate, far possible, vestiges unfortunate ignominious page country's history' "). Teamsters 431 324, 364, 97 1843, 1869, 396 (1977); Ford Motor 458 219, 228, 102 3057, 3063, 73 721 (1982); W.R. Grace & Rubber Workers, 461 757, 770-771, 103 2177, 2185-86, 76 298 (1983). shared Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), promulgated guidelines setting understanding "Congress strongly encouraged act modify systems constituted barriers equal opportunity. CFR 1608.1(b) EEOC: 36 "The principle nondiscrimination origin, person subject take prevent awaiting mutually consistent interdependent addressing social economic conditions precipitated enactment improve women protected carry Congressional VII." 1608.1(c) (footnote omitted). 37 equally clear holding 480 (1979). employer union bargaining reserve employees 50% openings in-plant, craft-training program percentage craftworkers plant commensurate local force. considering legislative history, "[i]t ironic indeed triggered Nation's centuries injustice lot 'been excluded American dream long' voluntary, private, efforts abolish traditional patterns segregation hierarchy." 204, S.Ct., 2728 (citation Accordingly, permits voluntarily action, left task "defin[ing] detail line demarcation permissible plans." 208, 2729. 38 Of course, Weber purely private contractual agreement But, least blush, seem distinguish taken entirely outside context litigation.8 Carson Brands, 450 79, 88, n. 14, 101 993, 998, 67 59 (1981), Court's denying appealable 1292(a)(1) undermines Congress' "strong preference encouraging claims" Moreover, EEOC's "Affirmative Action Appropriate Under 1964," pt. 1608 (1985), plainly contemplate See, e.g., 1608.8.9 True, General Electric Gilbert, 429 125, 141, 401, 410, 50 343 (1976), 'constitute body experience informed litigants resort guidance.' 142, 411 Skidmore Swift 323 134, 140, 65 161, 164, 89 L.Ed. 124 (1944)). Therefore, absent find indicator 706(g), governs courts' They contend establishes independent courts—as opposed unions—can do, prohibiting "order nonvictims. argue treated "order" meaning possesses character decreed rely conclusion several characteristics decrees: first, looks like judgment; second, retains circumstances signatory, see 286 106, 114, 460, 462, 999 (1932) (Swift II); third, noncompliance enforceable citation contempt court, Miami, 664 435, 440, (CA5 1981) (opinion Rubin, J.). To sure, earmarks judgments arrived through parties, resemble contracts. ITT Continental Baking 420 223, 235-237, 926, 933-35, 43 148 (1975); Armour 402 673, 91 1752, 256 (1971). More accurately, previously recognized, attributes contracts decrees," dual treatment purposes. supra, U.S., 10, 934, 10. label "contract" "judgment," both. whether, given hybrid nature, implicate treating provision. 41 cases treat respects purposes, clearly voluminous phrase require" unmistakably refer decrees. features, verb "require" suggests coercive aspect mind. turn settle matter. chose forbid action" enacted largely shows concerned avoid undue interference managerial discretion. 205-207, 2728-29. enacted, regulated enterprises; liberal Republicans Southern Democrats whose crucial obtaining passage bill misgivings Government intrusion decisions beyond 206, Their votes assurances "management prerogatives, freedoms undisturbed greatest possible." H.R.Rep. 914, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., (1963) U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 2355. also, 110 Cong.Rec. 1518 (1964) (remarks Rep. Celler); 11471 Sen. Javits); 14314 Miller); 15893 McCulloch). commentator out, outlaw conservative proponents balance 1964 "were business autonomy rigid color-blind standard entail." Note, Preferential Relief Va.L.Rev. 729, 771, 224 207-208, 2729, MacGregor)) (Congress legislating 'preferential employment' believed 'the controversial handled governmental level closer people communities themselves' pertaining specifically drafted mind and, fact, principal purpose protect prerogatives unions.10 1, (first preserving defense "cause"); 2567-2571 (amending substitute discrimination" place 2567 Celler, amendment's sponsor, "to specify cause"); 6549 Humphrey "that fire, promote refuse reason, good bad" violate substantive VII). whatever places compel actions otherwise take, 706(g).11 44 From this, readily characteristic. 933-35; (1971); Hughes 342 353, 72 306, 96 394 (1952); Atlantic Refining 360 944, 1054 (1959); Ashley Jackson, 464 900, 902, 255, 257, 241 (1983) (REHNQUIST, denial certiorari). observed Co.: "Consent careful negotiation precise terms. waive right litigate save expense, inevitable risk reached normally embodies compromise; exchange saving cost elimination risk, give won proceeded cannot purpose; generally other, resultant much opposing respective skill achieve." 681-682, 1757 original) 46 parties' serves source court's all. Ward 376 327, 84 763, 743 (cannot party consented); 257 importantly, limitations created 47 features designated result. trial limiting unilaterally kinds decisions. true conditional decree; mere existence unexercised contained alter court.12 Finally, reject enforced contempt. There availability enforcement obligation, obligation itself, focus congressional concern. collective-bargaining (as ) different. But difference remedies significant relevant sense choice scheme—whether decree—is parties.13 unwanted institute place; surrendered achieve satisfactory compromise. III Relying (1984), 349 (1961), 93—again joined Solicitor General—contends general greater directly invalidate nonetheless void "would powerless [such injunction] gone trial." 17. 49 above adoption nonvictims hard understand canon "common law" anyway. "a recorder contracts" whom purchase injunctions; "an organ government 1B Moore, Lucas, T. Currier, Moore's Practice ¶ 0.409[5], 331 (1984) Moore). spring serve dispute subject-matter jurisdiction. requirement, "com[e] scope pleadings," Pacific Ketchum, Otto 289, 297, 932 (1880), EEOC Safeway Stores, 611 795, 799 (CA10 1979), cert. denied sub nom. Courtwright 446 952, 100 2918, 64 809 (1980); Citizens Better Environment Gorsuch, 231 U.S.App.D.C. 87, 90, 718 1117, 1125, 1128 (1983), Carbide Corp. Natural Resources Defense Council, 1219, 2668, 373 claim, animates supra; U.S.App.D.C., 89-90, 1127-1128; Consent Judgment Instrument Compromise Settlement, Harv.L.Rev. 1314, 1317 (1959). 295-297; 276 311, 327-331, 315-16, 587 (1928) (Brandeis, J.); 799-800; 89-91, 1127-1130; Sansom Committee Lynn, 735 1535, 1538-1539 (CA3), denied, 469 105 431, 83 358 (1984); Turner Orr, 759 817, 825-826 1985). say agree conflicts violates statute based. above, consented render immune attack ground Amendment. inasmuch shown unlawful, lack 51 Wright underlying statute. railroad representing discriminating nonunion Labor Act, 151 seq. prohibited, things, shop, restriction When later permit shops, railroad. reversed motion, refusal abuse discretion sound discretion" call modification "if circumstances, issuance changed, ones arisen." 646-647, 371. viewed intervening rendering incompatible regarded "established" represented modification. 648-650, 371-72. "th[e] result [is] affected dealing decree." Citing proposition litigated "must free change brings statutory objectives." 650-651, 373. statute, Memphis year, budget deficits forced lay off Memphis' "last hired, fired" undo gains sought rules employees. reversed. upheld enforcing 572-576, 2585-2586. argued brought proper argument, reasoning wholly dependent decree," 576, 9, 2586, 9. Noting "held entered, bound reasoned: "By token, disputed resulting inconsistent statute." 2587, precluded issuing 577-583, 2587-90, plaintiffs' granting objection" modifying 576-577, 53 relief, inconsistency ordering IV 54 challenge validity Union. right, misconceives 55 primarily disputes financial costs litigating. never supposed party—whether original later, intervenor—could settling own thereby withdrawing Zipes Trans World Airlines, 455 385, 392, 400, 1127, 1131, 1136, 71 234 Kirkland New York State Dept. Correctional Services, 711 1126 (CA2 1983), 465 1005, 997, 230 Here, took full advantage opportunity participate air reasonableness introduce evidence; carefully considered rejecting them. gave process [it] due. Zipes, 1136. 56 choose dispose third fortiori agreement. valid nonconsenting intervenors; raised, intervenor. 3B Moore 24.16[6], 181; Steel EPA, 614 843, 845-846 (CA3 1979); Wheeler Home Products Corp., 563 1233, 1237-1238 1977). And, (1964); certiorari); 326, 2. all; failure 676-677, 1754-55. Wygant Jackson Board Education, 476 267, 1842, 90 260 McDonald Santa Fe Trail Transp. 427 273, 2574, 493 (1976); (1979), contract, despite persuade so, claims. now or—if not—whether approving not. 57 Affirmed. 58 concurring. join opinion. write separately emphasize narrow one. conform court-ordered be. Rather, assessed consistency 703, 703(a) 703(d), public employer, explains, measures contemplated violative Even face racially preferential refrains deciding "what showing [an] prior part defeat 703." Ante, 373, 60 clear, suggest "necessary predicate favoring another," ---- - (WHITE, dissenting), union. If indicates union's "prior conduct" "predicate ----, leaves requirement undisturbed. open 703. posture grounds, remand. 62 reasons, unable judgment. 63 forbids proscription discriminate whites An violating balanced displace room race. displacing employees, reserving every vacancy black, white And untenable conduct adopt putative disfavoring pays scant attention practices, judicially adopted, another. seeks deals whatsoever doing, ignores restricted adopts unduly purports my There, company craft blacks. Hence, company's almost totally white. contract break pattern, effort hierarchy, 2728, attempt overcome barriers. predicate, alone current litigates lose unless proved conclude, does, nevertheless themselves, concluding desires applicant employee grounds objects. harm discriminatee same, justification practiced involved. deprecate one-way street, disserving goal ending country. REHNQUIST BRENNAN's 344, rule, being egregious cured injunctive alone. disagree, however, conforms 706(g); reasons below, convinced exceeds recited consonant beside concedes visit non-minorities, ante, 520-521, limits, run parallel exceeded 68 Reciting promotions, identifying eligible divided lists, comprising eligibles eligibles. proceed roster. names ranked results. evident, conceded, promoted merged; is, below displaced strictly basis. kind leapfrogging senior better laying excessive Protection Clause layoff teachers part: 69 "If finds engaging practice enjoin practice, appropriate, include, to, pay (payable agency, organization, be, responsible practice), equitable deems appropriate." 2000e-5(g). 70 None victim none burdens inequitable, grounds. THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, challenges expense beneficiaries allegedly policies. One thought governed our Terms ago 578-579, 2588, said: demonstrate rightful Franks Bowman Transportation 424 747 [96 1251, 444] [431 324 [97 396] (1977)]. Teamsters, disadvantaged insufficient warrant award; prove him. Nor formulating purported identify listed exhibits attached seems adjunct existed." 74 whereas apparently views structured though enforces authorize indeed, prohibit 75 distinction "consent decree" decrees, implicitly repudiate point—Stotts, favor citations speak presently us, deal it. City; suggestion Part anything," 529-530, verges pharisaical; received injured. 77 '[T]he comes enforce,' 651 [81 373] (1961)." observations Harlan's understood fully Stotts: "In enforce. Frequently course accepted adopting court. agreed-upon furtherance objectives, short, incidentally served us." 651, 80 statements bare commentator. ask precisely "other cases" virtually nothing. requires effective lawsuit. 998-999, (1981); 933-935, excerpt Practice, 525, aid conclusions, quite misleading fails include; reads thus: "But remains partes contract; contracts, adjudication." pp. 330-331 82 principally relied (1928). quoted explain 525. Ketchum equity receivership diversity citizenship, policy show long discussion paragraphs objectionable challenged appeal, defendants lost appeal." 328, 315. intervened 24(a), decree.* Thus abandons repeated recognizing impose, determined reach adhere well-considered observations, restrain implementation entered. regard above-quoted controlling, conclude—just five Members —that bars critical 706(g)—which authority—is: 85 "No origin. 86 ----. rests premise overriding behind interfering unions. Focusing single policy, natural conclude consents. construction flies quoted, cited protecting innocent evil court-sanctioned 579-582, nn. 12-15, 2588-2590, 87 "Our ruling beneficiary illegal affects litigation.12 That make-whole repeatedly sponsors debates. Opponents legislation discrimination.13 Responding "12 provides: 'If appropriate. 704(a) title.' 107, "13 2nd 72-73 (minority report); 4764 Ervin Hill); 5092, 7418-7420 Robertson); 8500 Smathers); 9034-9035 Stennis Tower). charges, Senator powers follows: 'No membership, anyone fired, forbidden title. expressly 707(e) [enacted 706(g)]. Contrary opponents nothing firing meet "quota" balance. bugaboo dozen times, nonexistent.' (1964). "An interpretative memorandum Record Senators Clark Case14 likewise [Title VII]. [706(g)]. .' 7214. "Similar supporters throughout process. example, House, Republican House published describing bill. Referring bill, stated: 'Upon en- "14 Case bipartisan 'captains' authoritative memorandum. Tobacco Patterson, 456 63, [102 1534, 1539, 748] 352 1863, (1977). practicing acceptance member. title businesses 6566 manner, Senate sponsors, newsletter attempted filibuster supporting '[u]nder Commission, backpay 14465. "15 dissent abandoned 1972 'any relief' [467 U.S.], 619-620 [104 2608-09]. notes victims. observes section-by-section analysis 'in areas intention indicated, assumed developed continue govern applicability VII.' 118 7167 (1972). "We rejected, contention codify brief statement. U.S.,] 1864, 39]. statement refers sections changed amendments. discerning changes amendment. importance, portion analysis, 'The subsection wide exercising fashion complete possible. stressed whole, attainment objective complained aggrieved consequences discrimination.' Cong.Rec., 7168 "As Franks, amendments 'emphatic confirmation empowered restitution, whole insofar 764 1264] added)." repeats arguments dissenters command ago, narrowly construed because, limit hinder cases. sensible Norris-LaGuardia undoubtedly conciliation arising commands. Legislative mustered interpretation fairly apportioned sides, statutes clear. receive prohibited Here record advance "on origin." entire text sort case; incredible existence. Surely become court; words (1984): "[T]he Just adjudication, order, definition prohibitions six officers. lowest highest rank, are: obtain promotion, firefighter satisfy minimum examination. difficult; approximately 80% assigned eligibility list. rankings scores, seniority. separate practical matter, ordinarily 2-year vote 660 89. rejection anticipated Report "Acceptance always touch go proposition. was, favorable recommendation Mr. Summers [counsel Union] Executive consideration membership. Unfortunately, recent events bearing lawsuit, closing stations, again strained relations fear feelings rebound negative issue. hoped realize voting down getting delay stand together, pursue common interests wasting resources, otherwise, intramural battles. Realistically, little optimism time." 78. voiced personal letters Union's. A3 (memorandum Court). distinguished "had direct abrogating detriment workers," "[i]n assured integrity system." 486. certiorari sets questions: "1. May purporting trial? "2. scheme duly elected represent adversely awards regardless discrimination?" asks conceivably read embody respecting rights, merits discusses "reasonable," decided, retention press infra, deem exactly opposite O.T. 1978, Nos. 78-432, 78-435, 78-436, 26-38. holding, apply. addressed 444-479, 3034-3052. Unlike strictures Amendment occasion address any, regarding Cf. (1986). event, instances interpreted pursuance legitimate purpose. assuming, arguendo, instances, States' Attorney General, responsibility 2000e-5(f)(1), capacity 2000e-16. expanded cover municipalities Pub.L. 92-261, 103. reflect evident sector, latitude sector enacted. Subcommittee Public Welfare, History 92d 2d Sess. (Comm.Print ambit nonminorities. terms, courts, unions, focuses management courts. nonminorities delineated 2000e-2, involving discussed exercise Infra, Parties reasons. "[p]ublic settlements often complicated documents designed carried out-of-court suffer decisive handicap continuing oversight court." Schwarzschild, Law Private Bargain: Decrees Fairness Negotiated Institutional Reform, Duke L.J. 887, 899. advantage, National League Cities joining amici add: "A advantages easier ordinary maintains flexible repertoire measures. likely channel implications forum—the decree—thus avoiding waste resources conflicting obligations." Amici 25. widely devices facilitate settlement. doubt substantially difficult asserts three-party ended refuses tender his cites (1982), 1117 1005 novel anywhere broad cited. "permitted" commenced, liability reached. 388-391. permissive 24(b), 1124, raises significantly right. becomes disposition impair impede interest," Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. typically ward stare decisis. unresolved right; called order.

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