Document: 521 U.S. 261117 S.Ct. 2028138 L.Ed.2d 438 IDAHO, et al., Petitioners,v.COEUR d'ALENE TRIBE OF etc., al. No. 94-1474. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Oct. 16, 1996. Decided June 23, 1997. Syllabus * Alleging ownership in submerged lands and bed Lake Coeur d'Alene various its navigable tributaries effluents lying within original boundaries Reservation (the lands), Tribe members (collectively, Tribe) filed this federal-court action against State Idaho, state agencies, numerous officials their individual capacities. The sought, inter alia, a declaratory judgment establishing entitlement to exclusive use occupancy right quiet enjoyment lands, declaration invalidity all Idaho laws, customs, or usages purporting regulate those preliminary permanent injunction prohibiting defendants from taking any violation Tribe's rights lands. District dismissed suit, but Ninth Circuit affirmed part, reversed remanded. As here relevant, latter court agreed with that Eleventh Amendment barred claims as well title officials. However, it found doctrine Ex parte Young, 209 123, 28 441, 52 L.Ed. 714, applicable allowed for injunctive relief proceed insofar they sought preclude continuing violations federal law. reasoned are based on Idaho's ongoing interference alleged rights, conceivable could prove facts entitling claims. Held: is case 42 F.3d 1244, part Justice KENNEDY delivered opinion respect Parts I, II-A, III, concluding suit may not court. Pp. ____-____, ____-____. (a) Because enjoy immunity suits by Indian tribes, Blatchford v. Native Village Noatak, 501 775, 782, 111 2578, 2582-2583, 115 686, present unless falls exception has recognized certain seeking officers capacities, see, e.g., supra. does question validity Young doctrine, acknowledges questions will arise proper scope application. In resolving these questions, must ensure sovereign remains meaningful, while also giving recognition need prevent commenced such officials, even if named served individuals, itself have interest litigation whenever policies procedures at stake. See, Pennhurst School Hospital Halderman, 465 89, 114, n. 25, 104 900, 915, 79 67. (b) avoid bar avail action. support Young's applicability, alleges an on-going property under law, seeks prospective relief, attempts rely plurality decision Florida Dept. Treasure Salvors, Inc., 458 670, 102 3304, 73 1057. helpful because there were acting beyond state-conferred authority, id., 696-697, S.Ct., 3320-3321, theory attempt pursue case. Moreover, although request allegedly federal-law ordinarily sufficient invoke fiction, unusual functional equivalent implicating special sovereignty interests. This especially troubling when coupled far-reaching invasive seeks, which would shift substantially benefits control vast areas Tribe, thereby entail consequences going typically real Furthermore, requested divest over underlying waters, historically been considered uniquely "sovereign lands,'' Utah Div. Lands States, 482 193, 195-198, 107 2318, 2320-2322, 96 162, conferred Constitution itself, see Oregon ex rel. Land Bd. Corvallis Sand & Gravel Co., 429 363, 374, 97 582, 589, 50 550. Indeed, law views terms. Under particular circumstances, inapplicable. dignity status statehood allows insist upon responding own courts, open hear determine KENNEDY, J., announced REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, SCALIA, THOMAS, JJ., joined, II-B, II-C, II-D, joined. concurring judgment, SCALIA SOUTER, dissenting opinion, STEVENS, GINSBURG BREYER, Clive Strong, Boise, ID, petitioners. Raymond C. Givens, d'Alene, respondents. THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins. 1 northern region close Mountains Bitterroot Range, lies tranquil d'Alene. One Nation's most beautiful lakes, some 24 miles long 3 wide. Spokane River originates thence flows west, turn fed other rivers streams, including east, forested Saint Joe begins high Bitterroots gathers waters along 130-mile journey. To south lake more populated Reservation. Whether extends banks instead vested dispute. We limited here, however, important, whether bars hearing claim. 2 streams form water system, federally tribe, together tribe sued no relevant distinction between who joined purposes issue we decide, refer them Tribe. consists 13,032 acres tribal land, 55,583 allotted 330 Government owned acres. Statistical Record North Americans 53 (M. Raddy ed. 1995). claimed beneficial interest, subject trusteeship beds watercourses "submerged lands'') Reservation, defined Executive Order November 8, 1873. 1873, reprinted Kappler, Affairs: Laws Treaties 837 (1904). area dispute includes portions described. alternative, pursuant unextinguished aboriginal title. A forum was available, Code §5-328 (1990), brought Idaho. addition claims, further establish statutes, ordinances, regulations, customs purport regulate, authorize, affect way Finally, regulating, permitting occupancy, award costs attorney's fees deemed appropriate. 4 moved dismiss complaint grounds failure claim be granted. held agencies. It concluded equivalents damages State. merits, since rightful possession matter explained acquired 1890 equal footing doctrine. did discuss 798 F.Supp. 1443 (D.Idaho 1992). 5 1244 (1994). Appeals 714 (1908), reasoned, premised 1873 later ratified statute. See Act Mar. 3, 1891, ch. 543, §19, 26 Stat. 1026-1029. relief. Court's dismissal ordered remanded consideration granted certiorari, 517 ----, 116 1415, 134 541 (1996), consider purported proceed, now reverse part. 6 After issuance behalf approximately third land covered suit. 94-0328 (D. July 21, 1994). Government's separate still pending implicated here. II 7 grant judicial power cast terms reach extent. Article §2 provides "judicial Power shall extend'' cases enumerates, "all Cases, Law Equity, arising [and] States.'' Amendment, too, employs term "extend.'' provides: 8 "The Judicial construed extend equity, prosecuted one Citizens another State, Subjects Foreign State.'' 9 point commonality suggest like §2, jurisdiction, competence, so courts altogether disqualified interpretation, neither our tradition nor accepted construction Amendment's text. Rather, can waive protection allow decide it. words, enacts rather than nonwaivable limit judiciary's subject-matter jurisdiction. save where ""a surrender plan convention.''' Principality Monaco Mississippi, 292 313, 322-323, 54 745, 748, 78 1282 (1934) (quoting Federalist 81). 10 described text Amendment. broader concept immunity, implicit Constitution, regarded evidencing exemplifying, extended State's citizens. Hans Louisiana, 1, 504, 33 842 (1890). afforded designed protect, placed jeopardy diversity consequence, invoking federal-question jurisdiction III Seminole Fla. Florida, 1114, 252 (1996). 11 criticisms citizens recent last Term, ---------, 1138-1138 (Stevens, dissenting), 1153-1154 (SOUTER, opinions urged change direction. Atascadero Scanlon, 473 234, 247, 105 3142, 3150, 87 171 (1985) (Brennan, dissenting). Were abandon understanding reflecting principle might proceed. These proposed doctrinal revisions, acceptance majority Court. adhere precedent. 12 established principles, and, fortiori, members, 779-782, 2581-2583, 686 (1991), rejected contention only restricts individuals sovereigns, sovereigns sovereigns. Since convention tribes' benefit likewise tribes. therefore concluded, should accorded same foreign whom immunity. Id., 2582-2583. 13 accordingly, (1908). important jurisprudence adhered precedents face mentioned, Court, overruling Pennsylvania Union Gas 491 109 2273, (1989), Congress, exercise commerce abrogate supra, 14, 1131, 14. do not, then, Of course, 14 When commonsense observation escaped notice comment either before after Young. Osborn Bank Wheat. 738, 846-847, 204 (1824) (stating "direct'' "perhaps decree ought pronounced cause, until court'') (Marshall, C.J.); 67 (1984) (noting rests fictional official State); 685, 3315, 1057 (1982) (opinion Stevens, J.) (recognizing irony official's conduct ""state action''' Fourteenth yet Amendment). enjoin attorney general enforcing substantial U.S., 174, 459 (" [T]he manifest, indeed avowed admitted, object [the requested] [is] tie hands State'') (Harlan, agree observations. 15 interpret permit court-action every officer, his capacity, empty formalism undermine principle, reaffirmed just Term represents limitation court's interests sacrificed elementary mechanics captions pleading. Application reflect role system reflexive reliance obvious fiction. Pennhurst, 102-103, 909, 25 (explaining Edelman's represented refusal apply fiction circumstance). B 16 Putting aside acts plainly ultra vires 101-102, 11, 908-909, are, general, two instances applied. first available vindicate interests, placing obligation supremacy statutory constitutional application exemplified itself. 146, 448 ("The necessary effect result challenged] legislation resort (either Federal) purpose testing validity''). 17 known, ultimate enforce rate-setting scheme said objecting shareholders railroad companies unconstitutional. Attorney General enforcement rate scheme. Attempting show lack necessity intervention, maintained wait proceeding railroads then test law's raising defenses. argument, single bring prompt prosecution; second penalties severe without grave risk heavy fines imprisonment. added "undoubtedly convenient, comprehensive orderly parties properly, fairly adequately passed upon.'' 166, 456. 18 Where rule significance. instance providing justiciable controversy specific contemplates regime guarantees enforceable controversy. 80, p. 475 (C. Rossiter 1961) (A. Hamilton) [T]here always method efficacy provisions''). course express circumstances unavailability raise concerns current 19 isolated example unavailable. Osborn, 842-843 plaintiff make party "certainly [be] true'' barred, "real principal'' "exempt process'' officer proceed); Lee, 106 196, 240, 27 (1882) (permitting otherwise exist legal remedy trespass); Poindexter Greenhow, 114 270, 299, 903, 919, 29 185 (1885) statelaw Virginia's unconstitutional accept bond coupons satisfaction taxes was, fact, "no remedy''). early cases, expressing concern forum, basis. abandonment Osborn's record, Governor Georgia Madrazo, Pet. 110, 124, (1828), employed "the act complained of, apart authority justification, personal defendant, constituted entitled equity wrongdoer character.'' re Ayers, 123 443, 502, 164, 181, 31 216 (1887). liable common actions, regardless person's position. 221, 261-262 (common-law tort Belknap Schild, 161 10, 18, 445, 40 599 (1896) patent infringement); Tindal Wesley, 167 204, 221-222, 770, 777, 137 (1897) Scully Bird, 481, 483, 597, 899 (1908) injuring plaintiff's reputation sale products). line reasoning, committed common-law "stripped'' representative character. 159-160, 453-454; 288, 913. 20 With growth complex regulatory schemes, mode analysis somewhat obscured. Part significance respect, treatment threatened tort. 158, 453 (treating possibility "specific wrong trespass''), 167, 457 difference actual direct tangible enjoining act, radical nature''). Treatment statute Reagan Farmers' Loan Trust 154 362, 1047, 38 1014 (1894), Smyth Ames, 169 466, 418, 819 (1898). Currie, Sovereign Immunity Suits Against Officers, 1984 Sup.Ct.Rev. 149, 154, 35. By employing injury framework, underscored inadequacy vindicating 163-166, 455-457. raised obstacles vindication unusual. Willcox Consolidated 212 19, 53-54, 192, 200-201, 382 (1909) (discussing "enormous overwhelming'' violating challenged statutes); Western Telegraph Co. Andrews, 165, 30 286, 430 (1910) (penalties each included $1,000 fine); Herndon Chicago, R.I. P.R. 218 135, 151, 633, 636, 970 "in short time . amount many thousands dollars''); Oklahoma Operating Love, 331, 336, 338, 340, 64 596 (1920) "such deter boldest confident''). situations, above-cited equitable "excessive oppressive penalties, [the] [a] multiplicity causing irreparable damage, opportunities [state] review.'' Warren, Federal Interference, 43 Harv.L.Rev. 345, 377-378 (1930). 21 reluctance place much availability understood prevalence idea consented had consented, forum. Davis Gray, Wall. 203, 447 (1873); 391, 1052. Today, contrast, acknowledged vital preferring them, disregarded waiver presumed contrary fact. Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 673, 94 1347, 1360-1361, 39 662 (1974). case, warrant adopt device provide adequate process binding judgment. C 22 Even effective serve calls interpretation having vindicated lead expansive exception. Green Mansour, 474 64, 68, 423, 426, 88 371 furthers law); 105, 910 rights'') (citation omitted). difficult say types convention. Neither practice shown problematic resolved For Supremacy Clause, simply irrelevant all, 1875. Assuming due tribunals resolve cases. 23 true, play indispensable maintaining structural integrity design. assures peaceful resolution disputes South Dakota Carolina, 192 269, 48 (1904), initiated Texas, 143 621, 488, 36 285 (1892). While assume well, reason conclude less questions. inherent forums run counter basic principles federalism. Stone Powell, 428 465, 3037, 49 1067 (1976), expressed "emphatic reaffirmation uphold [our] expression confidence ability so.'' Allen McCurry, 449 90, 101 411, 420, 66 308 (1980). Interpretation proprietary state, federal, courts. duty judiciaries, follow laws enacted it, litigant's review body external enforced comity. Nation, ties intimate National bound cause preserving whole order. "together jurisprudence.'' Claflin Houseman, 93 130, 137, 833 (1876). error bypass solicitous sole rationale inadequate principal define maintain balance hand, administrative agencies other. States. explained, " [e]verywhere citizen turns-to life-sustaining public benefit, obtain license, respond complaint-it [administrative law] governs contact government carried out.'' EchoHawk, Introduction Administrative Procedure Issue, L.Rev. 261, 261 work elaborate rules traditions concerning respective discretion. An instant features instruct enrich elaboration primary responsibilities judiciary. Where, challenge action, strong integrating sources Our teach us, nevertheless, right, bar. Willcox, 40, 195. consistently Last Congress' provision alternative mechanism. presumption favor type controlling depend context. What really stake desire litigant choose versus background federalism comity ignored conflicting preferences. "upset embodies.'' Papasan Allain, 478 265, 277, 2932, 2940, 92 (1986). "tailored conform precisely possible situations rights.'' Ibid. internal quotation marks omitted); 104, 13, 910, 13. indicates wisdom considering, determining applicability affront allowing Ford Motor Department Treasury Ind., 323 459, 65 347, 89 389 (1945): nature determined essential proceeding.'' 464, 350. "when essence recovery money real, though nominal defendants.'' cited approval stated "conclusive [State] defendant. party, sense prohibition presented record.'' 492, 176. New York, 256 490, 500, 41 588, 590, (1921) (Young's "is mere names titular proceeding, appears entire record''). almost extent statements cite "that promote accommodated 910. D illustrate careful balancing accommodation applies given (1974), required release remit benefits. district order goal deterrence compensation, rights. reaching conclusion, "we judge actually made differently tailored different case.'' 665, 1357. There court, prospectively failing abide requirements, conceded purpose. 664, 1356. came Quern 440 332, 99 1139, 59 358 (1979), saying "simply inform[ing] class end, existing Petitioner raises objection expense preparing sending what gathered sitting courtroom.'' 349, 1149 Milliken Bradley, 433 267, 2749, 745 (1977), consistent approach. Although authorizing undeniably obviate suit's impact. concerned Michigan resulting requiring Detroit Board, pay education program school children subjected past de jure segregation. gravamen plaintiffs' civil liberties, resources funds. lawsuit "official racial discrimination both Board Michigan'' 2751-2752. If Congress §5 remedial powers goes constitutionally necessary, Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 2666, 614 (1976) (concluding Title VII's authorization employment violate exercising powers), follows substantive provisions themselves offer powerful similar reasons, Tenth 291, 2762-2763. short, [t]he theme thus emerges [our cases] interests.'' 27, 2288 (STEVENS, concurring). case-by-case approach evident start. Before Larson Domestic Commerce Corp., 337 682, 69 1457, 1628 (1949) (a case), above, torts, 692-695, 1462-1464, importance again There, holding inapplicable relied Schweiker Chilicky, 487 412, 108 2460, 370 (1988). turn, addressed Bivens stemming Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 91 1999, 619 (1971), applied alleging denial Social Security disability unavailable, Chilicky held, analogy instructive. Both lines sensitivity varying contexts, "special factors counselling hesitation,'' 396, 2005, theory. range answering inquiry broad. 407, 2010 disputes, line-drawing. why cannot drawn clarity certainty appropriate jurisdictional inquiry. 32 "difference permitted day night,'' Edelman, 667, 1357, side line, controls. contravention argues able points Salvors J.), commanding artifacts (mainly treasure sunken Spanish galleon) Marshal despite 34 allegation implicates think us. examine impact applicable. 35 ground parties, stage litigation, absent consent. Tindal, 223, 777-778. Despite prohibition, typical stakes effect, determination governmental disputed waters. diminish, extinguish, integral territory. pass off little offense standing ignore realities demands. Any manner immediate belied defendants, Commissioners Director Higginson, include: Cecil Andrus, Chairman trustee §67-4304 (1989); Pete Cenarrusa, Secretary State; Larry General; Jerry Evans, Superintendent Public Instruction; J.D. Williams, Auditor; Keith Water Resources. disposition Commissioners. Const., Art. IX, §7 (Supp.1996); §§58-101, 58-104(9) (1994 Supp.1996). 37 Not block portion unique infused trust respect. stressed 162 (1987), lands.'' "considered attribute sovereignty.'' 195, 2320. date people Thirteen Colonies independence "became sovereign; character hold absolute soils use, surrendered government.'' Martin Lessee Waddell, 367, 410, 997 (1842). Then, Pollard Hagan, How. 212, 565 (1845), entering 1789 "equal footing'' 228-229. consequence rule, arises "conferred itself.'' 550 (1977). explains longstanding commitment territory future disposals during territorial period lightly inferred, intended intention definitely declared very plain.'' Holt Bank, 270 49, 55, 46 197, 199, 70 (1926). underlies implicate ancient doctrines. Institutes Justinian, Lib. II, Tit. (T. Cooper transl. 2d 1841) ("Rivers ports public; hence fishing port, common''). English Bracton's time. He [a]ll public, fish therein persons. river banks, public.'' H. Bracton, De Legibus Consuetudinibus Angliae (S. Thorne trans.1968). Magna Carta provided Crown remove fish-weirs Thames Medway throughout England, except sea coast.'' M. Evans R. Jack, Sources Legal Constitutional History (1984); 410-413 (tracing tidelands back Carta). Shively Bowlby, 152 548, 552, 331 summarizing stated: "In Lord Hale, treated settled soil sea, arms below ordinary mark, King; far corporation grant, prescription usage title, jus privatum, King subject, publicum, navigation fishing.'' surprisingly, American adopted respecting Arnold Mundy, N.J.L. (1821). prominent Illinois Central Illinois, 146 387, 1018 (1892), Legislature vest private proviso authorize obstructions harbor, impairment navigation, exemption regulating rates wharfage dockage charged harbor. attempted transfer legislature amounted abdication improve, secure individual. 455-460, 119-121. "necessarily statement law,'' Appleby City 271 364, 395, 569, 578, 992 (1926), invoked recognizing weighty ways, enhanced aspects waterways ebb flow tide large enough accommodate boats (royal rivers) nontidal (public highways). royal rivers, retained passage fish. highways, name suggests, passage, party. J. Angell, Treatise Common relation Water-Courses 14-18 (1824). riparian proprietor stream center thread (usque ad filum aquae) him fishery compensation caused construction. liability. Shrunk Schuylkill, Serg. Rawle 71, 80 (Pa.1826). Pennsylvania, Alabama, Carolina presumptively waterway tide. Carson Blazer, Binn. (Pa.1810); Cates' Ex'rs Wadlington, McCord 580 (S.C.1822); Bullock Wilson, Port. 436 (Ala.1835); Collins Benbury, Ired. 277 (N.C. 1842); Hooker Cummings, Johns. 90 (N.Y.1822). And describing requirement affected tides. Barney Keokuk, 324, 337-338, 224 (1877); cf. Propeller Genesse Chief Fitzhugh, 1058 (1852). moreover, recognize sovereign's (jus privatum) existed public's publicum). instance, hunt "grand fishes,'' whales sturgeons, sea. Right Property Tide Waters Soils Shores Thereof 18-19 (1847). aversion Crown's privatum seize structures shores marshes reclaimed tidewaters. Gould, Riparian Rights, Private Rights Tidal Inland §32 (2d 1891). All developments natural outgrowth perceived perception informs tied sovereignty. 44 "Water being industrial prosperity agricultural development which, equally guard involved. flowing channels state.'' §42-101 (1990). capacity ensuring used benefit. Poole Olaveson, 82 496, 503, 356 P.2d 61, (1960). "preservation [Lake d'Alene] scenic beauty, health, recreation, transportation commercial [being] desirable inhabitants hereby water.'' (1989). "lands belonging low mark devoted connection preservation lak[e] [its] condition health recreation §67-4305 (Supp.1996). 45 recitation sovereignty, severance diminishment granted, derogation perhaps so, right. us merit party's claim, asserts. apparent, prevail, degree fully intrusive retroactive levy funds Treasury. find 47 proceedings opinion. ordered. THOMAS join, precluding interfering beneath Invoking pursuing I go forward 51 actions immune recognizes violates he stripped personally conduct; cloak 454. end officer's 289-290, 2761-2762, limitations. retrospective 668, 1358, (1974); 68-69, 425-426, (1985). unlike respects. First, concedes, asks declare invalidate statutes ordinances consent, good reason: summon interest. 699-700, 3322, (plurality opinion); 350-351, (1945). Second, merely seek possess remain regulation, into compliance eliminate issue-to property, all. repeatedly emphasized Control critical 2320, (1987). heavily that, my view, But fact advance plurality's conclusion view lacked colorable basis claiming artifacts. 692-697, 3318-3321. Put way, arguably rested post, __-__ quite violated theory, guidance addition, sound identified __, reasoning explicitly offered narrowed subsequent 106, 911, (plaintiff solely 25. invokes series plaintiffs successfully pursued wrongfully possessed property. (1882); (1897). Lee clear bind possible, found, distinguish 222, 262-263; possession, conveying incidents plaintiff, formally divesting noted, parcel nevertheless retains uses land. Here, Whatever reason, analogous ruling favor, practical indistinguishable granting properly 55 dismissed, believe flawed several reasons engage case-specific number concerns, dispute, implicates, counse[l] hesitation'' Ante, __-__, (internal unnecessarily recharacterizes narrows jurisprudence. briefed warranted. not. 56 examining concludes principally __-__. cites expressly absence applying Instead, language suggesting 163, 445; 838-846, (1824); 213, 219, 254-255, 259-260. prerequisite That remedies unsurprising, opinion's broad conclusion. 57 fail 153-155, 451-452. Smyth, involved challenges rates. authorized clear, waived Discussing Reagan, "This [language court] [federal court], irrespective (although enjoined), prohibited [Eleventh] [A]mendment Each force. '' 153, 451 (emphasis added). Similarly, court; rather, "was 451. 58 event, ultimately [e]ven forum.'' __. poses Milliken, 2761-2762. Yet finding "difficult court.'' frequently sort awarded gives life Clause. Remedies assuring law''); responsible supreme decisions (citations call rights- particularly means serving uniformity-to Nor acknowledging interpretive function casting doubt lays groundwork central conclusion: bar, clearly characterizes modern fitting model. true decided retrospective. Compare Green, 425-426 (Eleventh 911 1358 law). 60 notes lower Edelman-an benefits-barred __; 1358. states propriety below-an requirements-because improper concession. surely established. proposition 289, focusing 1149, members' procedures, ante, implies upheld invasive. suits, disallowed Edelman. 1148-1149. stand inconsequential, adjudged prospective. -which segregation-by strong. Again, evaluate 61 import context, implied exists violation, declined hesitation.'' 2005. likening places great weight citation relying 2467-2468, (1988), noted created supplement judicially remedy. is, prescribes detailed lift "its full powers'' inconsistent legislative 1132-1133. establishes 62 sum, replaces straightforward characterized vague purports account "broad'' unspecified factors. relies characteristics invoked, supply deciding Every never doubted falling squarely interpretations 63 subscribe reformulation reaches correct premise lands-in lands-it narrow Accordingly, join GINSBURG, BREYER dissenting. implemented Constitution's doing congressional entertain individual's belongs prays halt regulation law.1 response today's deny obligation. redefine discretion odds foundational rests. O'Connor charts wisely rejects contingent balancing, sets forth denying leave opportunity (or less) prior imposed O'Connor's one, reduce substance substance, form, stake, comes heels Term's fundamentally erroneous Consequently, enter derived 68 respectfully dissent. inferred meant avenue consideration. left tenets untouched, nn. 17, 1131-1132, remained free invocation successive petitioners displaced conditions met. allege law,2 (1984), address past. (1985); 346-349, 1147-1149, (1979); 664-671, 1356-1360, satisfies condition. 71 President Grant issued reservation Territory Order, 1026-1029, gave reservation, Complaint &Par;19, 24.3 complaining petitioner authority; happens valid d'Alene's Petitioners point, conveyed ratification became 1890. Brief petitioners, board commissioners, implementing recreational resort, §§58-104(9) (Supp.1996), 67-4304 67-4305 controlled asked "taking members] deprived privileges courses boundaries.'' ¶35. 72 perfect cognizable officials' [as] illegal attempting enactment void impart responsibility 453-454. Later 698-699, 1465-1466, (1949). Such amounting sure, differs respects, affects combined executive Constitution. admission statehood, devoid unconstitutionality 675-676, 5, 695-697, 3309-3310, (officer Larson, 1465-1466. 74 turns governing property; government's assumption out have. involves otherwise. render rival claimant, (1882), possessory posture 773, [I]t meaning States.''). 75 ejectment Lee's son oust seized nonpayment War. defending "absolute asserts branch government, however power,'' 220, 260 original), lost. sufficed immunize citizen.4 seen today wholly dealing Fifth 697, 1465. 76 illustrates amenable necessarily government. 676, 3310, 3320-3321 (like involving 777.5 assumed Marshall's Peters, Cranch 115, 139-140, (1809), "it certainly alleged, suggestion individual, arrest looking suggestion, title.'' "sanctio[n] tyranny existence monarchies Europe, well-regulated liberty 261. Thus foresee turned envious eyes old monarchs toward 77 prospective, retrospective, recompense mistakes. 664-66, 1356-1357. sport covering infringement asserted accounting previously collected oversight. would, significant prevail applies. unable collect violators, defendant create charge treasury. cease looking, transformed burden "necessary officers'] determination.'' 337, 1143 "federal requirements ancillary treasury''). However burdensome stop cost such, counts. Quern, 347-349, 1148-1149; 288-290, (1977); 664-668, 1356-1358.6 comparable approved Edelman: success (including fee income) behalf. shows, precedent confirms. already assertion defeat rid 685-690, 3314-3317 J.); 221-223, 777-778; Stanley Schwalby, 255, 270-271, 754, 760-761, 960 (1896); 210, 252. parity quieting (which directly putative title-holder officers) limiting "It former question, withhold plaintiff.'' 777; 262-263. dissatisfied officers, subsequently "bring protect whatever premises dispute.''7 262 ("the liberty, notwithstanding person, artificial, rights''). 688, 3316 J.).8 This, lost subject. restitution compensate ask rescission says committing halted officers. "precisely permissibly fashioned 282, 2942, displacing pierces __ ("Tribe's interests''); 2040 (relief "functional title''); ("suit title''). argument begin with, holdings example, (as interpreted 1464-1465).9 aspersion alternatives shows rightly fair price generally. settling compelling appear 1121-1122; Alabama Pugh, 781, 98 3057, 3057-3058, 1114 (1978); Chandler Dix, 194 591, 766, 1129 other, leaving powerless deplete Framers possibly intended, history liability riding tandem extending Middle Ages. Jaffe, Governments Officers: Immunity, Harv. (1963); Erlich, XII: Proceedings (1216-1377) pp. 28-29, Oxford Studies (P. Vinogradoff ed.1921). represent extreme, curse formalistic cursed somewhere unacceptable extremes. cited, settle choosing litigate once all; permission —(As note consent nothing hardly inequity viewed historically. infra). via media 81 significant, finally, equivalent'' functionally imposing officer; withholding welfare timely payment; locking up prisoners wardens told release. about joint commands something prevail. puts State,'' "uniquely implicate[s] interests,'' "dignity status,'' O'CONNOR J.). She longer "within jurisdiction.'' 83 correct, bearing enquiry, accordingly authority. indisputably legitimate located outside borders. 84 If, indeed, contesting suffice rest. threatening violators sanctions. difficulty imagining activity economic expressive fines. obliged affairs punish offenders (knowing more) lake. Implications therefore, displace 85 remaining understand, confined 86 suggests dissolved accordance administration land: unauthorized discerning defense precious few suits. characteristic circumstance 655, 1351-1352, mavericks start official, rendering obviating encroachment 454-454; 910-911; 1143; Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 237, 1683, 1687, (1974) shield confronted color law''). allusion conformity doubly misplaced, judged posed, 701-702, 1467, essentially outcome next impermissibly [I]f Treasury.'' assumption, intrusiveness retrospectivity, equation false customary antithetical extant probably original. "intrusive,'' exactly States' authorities intend do. expected percent salvaged galleon Florida; admiralty threat expectations affairs. 678-679, 694, 3311-3312, 3319 So federally-mandated limits 656-659, 1352-1354; get Arlington Cemetery 220-221, 241-242, 260-261; barring rail 132, habeas Brennan Stewart, 834 F.2d 1248, 1252, (C.A.5 1988). terminal.10 supposedly supplemental entree sought. mistaken practice. matter, job wish avoid; addresses adequacy supposed 426 Haring Prosise, 462 306, 103 2368, 2377-2378, 595 (1983) (rejecting relegate §1983 statute's policy rights).11 Thus, surprising hint thought unavailable Minnesota entertained 451-452 (citing (1894) (1898)). Railroad Commission Commission's recover violation. exercised, notes, reflects then-prevalent 392, 1052; contra Smith Reeves, 178 436, 921, 1140 (1900) view), point. remarking "cannot Likewise, historic constitutionality railroads, 518, 423. Had enough, explain "did base section [of enforcing, indictment, right.'' 452. tantamount (principal opinion). include observations aggrieved comply criminal hefty remarks severity sanctions supported conviction appropriate, 148, 449, 455-457; 918-919, (1885), preemption.12 notion principles. strike Oil Crain, 211, 475, 754 reviewed Tennessee dismissing corporation's construing sovereign. reversible error,13 Oil, 226-228, 480-481. conferring excuse exceeding unconstitutional.14 Cf. Martinez California, 444 284, 100 553, 558, 481 (1980) (state court). supports prohibits declination grounds. Insofar state-court count case,15 presumably IV 95 None considerations weigh questioning justifies majority's guarantee claimant syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Timber Lumber 200 321, 287, 499. originally 1254 (C.A.9 1994), denied certiorari dismissal. 1416, 542 Convention'' rest founding below, generally Oneida Nation N.Y. County Oneida, 414 661, 772, law; makes 1466-1467. be, decide; question. 222-223, embody "careful case,'' opinion), effort demarcate "balance (1986), mean doctrine's balanced strikes requisite met, additional "balancing'' liberties undeniable protecting Milliken. enquiry regard 2761-2762 "fits prospective-compliance Edelman''). Given reaffirmed, 1124-1126, (1996) option condemn outright. prevents eminent domain acquiring Rev. §2116, U.S.C. §177. Efforts local governments acquire exact taking. Tribes sue N.Y., 470 226, 235-236, 1245, 1251-1252, precludes Quiet Act, §2409a, bringing issue, consents (i.e. defendant) plaintiff. independent (even assuming convertible doctrines equity) justification foreclosing suit: congressionally fault practice, D. Dobbs, §2.4(2) ed.1993), bears Congress's enact inapposite discussion there, her focused limited, salvage company retain recovered Submerged §2(b), 29, §1301(b), 425 791, 1840, 388 (1976). 5. treasure, 692-693, 3318-3319, disagree "narrowed'' (1984). partial answer statute, §2254, §1979, §1983; directed §2243; persons §1983, Will Police, 58, 2304, 2312, Many nondiverse reasonably expected. Section 1983, "grave deficient 98-99, 417, citations Patsy Regents Fla., 503-507, 2557, 2561-2563, 172 (1982); Institute, Study Division Jurisdiction Between Courts 168 (1968). suing readiness perfect. Kagama, 118 375, 384, 1109, 228 (1886) ("Because ill feeling, Indians] often deadliest enemies.''); Comment, Oneida: Tribal Action Trade Intercourse Colum. 1852, 1858-1859 ("State hostile plaintiffs, rights.''); Clinton Hotopp, Enforcement Restraints Alienation Land: Origins Eastern Claims, Me. 42-49 (1979) (describing evasions restraint alienations response). misreading (1824), prohibited. Marshall suggested "would barred'' named. absence. wrote subversive best afford agent wrong, him, suit.'' Wheat., 843. "more complete give,'' 845, absent, attached reached unreviewed meritless. 231, 482. Oil's 480, ensured Oil. Fallon, Ideologies Law, Va. 1141, 1209, 312 (1988) (sentences surrounding references crucial obligations nonavailability relief; "between invalid determining' behave unconstitutionally, protected immunity; decline basis'') 480); Monaghan, Third Party Standing, 294, ("if concomitant well''). overruled "abandoned'' R.R. Banking Musgrove, 335 435 (1949), appeal asserting 16B Wright, A. Miller, E. Cooper, Practice §4024, 363-364 ed.1996). one-paragraph per curiam Musgrove nonfederal identify involved; regarding timing remedies. 1211, 317. read require redress Collins, Duties, Madisonian Compromise, 1995 Wis. 39, 359, particular, relevance same, well. 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Representation Tawes, 423-427, 439-440, 180 656, 662-663, 671 (1962); Apkin Treasurer Receiver 401 Mass. 427, 428-430, 141, 141-142 (1988); Wicks Mississippi Valley Univ., 536 20, (Miss.1988); Orozco Day, 934 1009, 1017 (Mont.1997); Northern Nevada Injured Workers Industries Insurance System, Nev. 108, 115-116, 728, 733 York Lefkowitz, N.Y.2d 305, 309-310, 239 N.Y.S.2d 342-344, 189 695, 697 Owner-Operator Independent Drivers Anthony, 879 847-848 (Okla.App.1994); Retired Adjunct Professors Rhode Island Almond, 690 1342, 1348 (R.I.1997); Riggs Burson, 941 (Tenn.1997); Sanders 472 179, 183-184 (Ct.A pp.Tex.1971), dism'd (1972); H.L. Matheson, 604 907, 907 (Utah 1979), aff'd, 450 398, 1164, Elections Forb, 214 264, 265-266, (1973).

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