Document: 472 U.S. 749 105 S.Ct. 2939 86 L.Ed.2d 593 DUN & BRADSTREET, INC., Petitionerv.GREENMOSS BUILDERS, INC. No. 83-18. Argued March 21, 1984. Reargued Oct. 3, Decided June 26, 1985. Syllabus Petitioner credit reporting agency sent a report to five subscribers indicating that respondent construction contractor had filed voluntary petition for bankruptcy. The was false and grossly misrepresented respondent's assets liabilities. Thereafter, petitioner issued corrective notice, but dissatisfied with this notice brought defamation action in Vermont state court, alleging the injured its reputation seeking damages. After trial, jury returned verdict favor awarded both compensatory or presumed damages punitive But trial court believed Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 418 323, 94 2997, 41 789, controlled, granted petitioner's motion new on ground instructions permitted it award lesser showing than "actual malice." Supreme Court reversed, holding inapplicable nonmedia actions. Held: judgment is affirmed. 143 Vt. 66, 461 A.2d 414, Justice POWELL, joined by REHNQUIST O'CONNOR, concluded that: 1 1. fact question referred "malice," "lack of good faith," malice," did not require find as contends, where failed define any these terms. Consequently, correctly satisfy Gertz. Pp. 753-755. 2 2. Permitting recovery cases absent malice" does violate First Amendment when defamatory statements do involve matters public concern. 755-763. 3 (a) In light reduced constitutional value speech purely private concern, opposed interest compensating individuals injury their adequately supports awards damages—even Cf. 755-761. 4 (b) Gertz, supra, apply case. Petitioner's concerned no issue solely individual speaker specific business audience. This particular warranted special protection wholly damaging victim's reputation. Moreover, since made available only subscribers, who, under subscription agreement, could disseminate further, cannot be said involved strong free flow commercial information. And here, like advertising, being motivated desire profit, hardy unlikely deterred incidental regulation. event, market provides powerful incentive accurate, use creditors. 761-763. 5 Chief case, because allegedly expression relate matter other reason needed dispose 763-764. 6 White should applied case either overruled publication deal importance. P. 774. 7 Gordon Lee Garrett, Jr., Atlanta, Ga., petitioner. 8 Thomas F. Heilmann, Burlington, Vt., respondent. 9 POWELL announced delivered an opinion, which O'CONNOR joined. 10 789 (1974), we held restricted obtain from publisher libel More specifically, circumstances prohibited unless plaintiff shows is, knowledge falsity reckless disregard truth. presented whether rule applies 11 * Dun Bradstreet, agency, financial related information about businesses. All confidential; terms agreement may reveal anyone else. On July 1976, respondent, contractor, That same day, while discussing possibility future financing bank, president told bank received report. He immediately called regional office, explained error, asked correction. addition, he requested names firms order assure them company solvent. promised look into refused divulge those who 12 determining indeed false, August initial stated one former employees, itself, bankruptcy "continued usual." Respondent again list seen Again names. 13 then court. It alleged sought established error been caused 17-year-old high school student paid review pleadings, inadvertently attributed employees. Although representative testified routine practice check accuracy such reports businesses themselves, try verify before it. 14 $50,000 $300,000 moved trial. argued at 349, S.Ct., 3011, ruled broadly "the States permit damages, least liability based truth," judge's showing. indicated some doubt "non-media cases," "[b]ecause . dissatisfaction charge conviction interests justice require[d]" App. 26. 15 reversed. 414 (1983). recognizing "in certain instances distinction between media defendants difficult draw," "no difficulty agencies, are selling limited number have substantial fees services." Id., 73, A.2d, 417. Relying distinguishing characteristic firms, type worthy contemplated New York Times [Co. Sullivan, 376 254, 84 710, 686 (1964),] progeny." 73-74, 417-418. balance plaintiff's right recover without fault rights "nonmedia" speakers "must struck defamed defendant." 75, 418. Accordingly, "that federal law, protections outlined actions." Ibid. 16 Recognizing disagreement among lower courts apply,1 certiorari. 464 959, 104 389, 78 334 We now affirm, although reasons different relied upon Court. II 17 As matter, contends need determine instructions, taken whole, required awarding damages.2 instructed libelous per se, "to prove actual damage loss [are] conclusively presumed." 17; accord, id., 19. also if found 20. Its relevant instruction showed "malice lack faith part Defendant." 18. references truth—the Co. (1964)—before 18 reject claim adequately. not, example, provide definition term fact, defined simple "malice."3 definitions included formulation concepts "bad faith" "reckless [statement's] possible consequences." thus court's conclusion correct, Court's determination necessary decision erred granting therefore must consider us. III 19 first time limits reach laws. official's advertisement criticizing police conduct civil demonstration. noted, "one major issues our time." U.S., 271, 721. Noting "freedom questions secured Amendment," 269, 720 (emphasis added), "debate uninhibited, robust, wide-open," 270, 721 official falsehood proves statement " 'actual malice'—that not," 280, 726. later cases, all involving issues, extended libels figures, e.g., Curtis Publishing Butts, 388 130, 87 1975, 1094 (1967), suggested plurality opinion extend so long "matter general interest," Rosenbloom Metromedia, 403 29, 44, 91 1811, 1820, 29 296 (1971) (opinion BRENNAN, J.). 20 far suggested. article appearing magazine American Opinion, monthly outlet John Birch Society. discussed prosecution policeman Chicago Communist campaign discredit local law enforcement agencies. plaintiff, neither nor figure, lawyer tangentially prosecution. chief architect "frame-up" officer linked him activity. Like every has laws, undoubted 21 itself entitle defendant Times. These protections, found, were "justified reference press broadcast immunity liability." 343, 3008. Rather, they represented "an accommodation [First Amendment] concern[s] present context actions persons." persons competing different. Largely voluntarily exposed themselves increased risk generally effective opportunities rebutting statements, 345, 3009, State possessed "strong legitimate reputation." 348-349, 3011. Balancing stronger against stake Times, allow Nothing however, would regardless involved.4 IV 22 never considered obtains To make determination, employ approach approved State's protecting expression. identical weighed There legitimate." 348, A lightly abandon it, 23 "for, Mr. Stewart reminded us, individual's his own name 'reflects more basic concept essential dignity worth human being—a root decent system ordered liberty. personality, life left primarily Ninth Tenth Amendments. .' Rosenblatt Baer, 383 92 [86 669, 679, 597] (1966) (concurring opinion)." 341, 24 interest, hand, less important recognized equal importance.5 'matters concern' "at heart Amendment's protection." National Bank Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 776, 98 1407, 1415, 55 707 (1978), citing Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 101, 60 736, 743, L.Ed. 1093 (1940). Connick Myers, 138, 145, 103 1684, 1689, 75 708 (1983), "special concern [for issues] mystery": 25 "The 'was fashioned unfettered interchange ideas bringing political social changes desired people.' Roth United States, 354 476, 484 [77 1304, 1308, 1498] (1957); 269 [84 720, 686] (1964). '[S]peech concerning affairs self-expression; essence self-government.' Garrison Louisiana, 379 64, 74-75, [85 209, 215-216, 125] frequently reaffirmed occupies ' "highest rung hierarchy values," entitled protection. NAACP Claiborne Hardware Co., 458 886, 913, [102 3409, 3425, 73 1215] (1982); Carey Brown, 447 455, 467 [100 2286, 2293, 65 263] (1980)." 26 contrast, 146-147, 1689-1690. courts, including below, recognized, role Constitution regulating concerns activated absent.6 "[t]here threat robust debate issues; there potential interference meaningful dialogue self-government; causing reaction self-censorship press. facts struggling." Harley-Davidson Motorsports, Inc. Markley, 279 Or. 361, 366, 568 P.2d 1359, 1363 (1977). 27 Accord, Rowe Metz, 195 Colo. 424, 426, 579 83, (1978); Denny Mertz, 106 Wis.2d 636, 661, 318 N.W.2d 141, 153, cert. denied, 459 883, 179, 74 147 (1982). 28 While totally unprotected Amendment, see 147, 1690, stringent. "substantial" view effect core relative remedies significantly interest. rationale common-law rules experience history "proof will impossible great many where, character words publication, serious harm resulted fact." W. Prosser, Law Torts § 112, p. 765 (4th ed. 1971); Colo., 425-426, P.2d, 84; Note, Developments Defamation, 69 Harv.L.Rev. 875, 891-892 (1956). result, centuries allowed juries presume occurred utterances publications. Restatement 568, Comment b, 162 (1938) (noting Hale early 1670). furthers providing ensuring effective. hold malice."7 V remaining context, "[w]hether addresses determined [the expression's] content, form, revealed whole record." 147-148, 1690. factors indicate issue.8 Central Hudson Gas Elec. Corp. Public Service Comm'n York, 557, 561, 100 2343, 2348, 341 (1980). warrants when—as case—the clearly 566, 2351; Virginia Pharmacy Bd. Citizens Consumer Council, 425 748, 771-772, 96 1817, 1830-1831, 48 346 (1976). involves information." 764, 1827. simply credible argument requires ensure [will] wide-open." 720. 30 See 1830-1831. which, force likely others. Arguably, here objectively verifiable deserving greater ibid. Thus, incremental "chilling" suits decreased significance.9 VI 31 conclude permitting affirm 32 ordered. 33 BURGER, concurring judgment. 34 contrary well-established common prevailing states, divided published negligent publishing falsehood. further can "presumed" receive "punitive" 666 35 I dissented that, insofar "ordinary citizen" concerned, 355, 3014, "abandon[ed] traditional thread," 354-355, theme country up time. preferred area continue evolve [had] [then] respect citizens rather embark doctrinal theory jurisprudential ancestry." land, until overruled, must, principle stare decisis, 36 single today holds because, unlike challenged agree importance, relates essentially extent two indicated. No 37 believe, ill-conceived, WHITE overruled. WHITE's observations Sullivan. equates truth" malice; malice shown material exercise reasonable care, untrue. literal language way, reexamined. guaranteed carry responsibilities well. 38 Consideration inevitably recalls aphorism journalism "too much checking ruined news story." WHITE, 39 Until (1964), almost exclusively legislatures. Under written subjected hatred, contempt, ridicule. Truth defense; given circulation, presumed; pecuniary emotional distress, recovered; shown. General subtle indirect directly trace effects thereof person defamed." 621, a, 314 (1938). show reputational injury; very least, nominal actionable se. performed 40 "a vindicatory function enabling publicly brand false. salutary preventive often permits expose groundless rumor therefrom." Id. 569, 166. Similar slanderous se.1 42 Sullivan step what proved seemingly irreversible process constitutionalizing entire slander. suing longer out proving publication. establish actually proved, knowing Given proof, usual available, overturning 200 years deemed implement "uninhibited, wide-open" issues. Three later, plaintiffs officials, termed figures. 155, 1991, (1967). 43 1971, four Justices took wherever manner even though person. 296. command majority. dealt individuals, statement, how might They "fault," negligence. 347, 350, 3012. Even proved. Furthermore, proof malice. decision, purported values, limitations. 44 decisions extending standard situations. came increasing doubts soundness assumptions underlying join Rosenbloom, asserting retained plaintiffs. remain convinced erroneously decided. become improvident public's fully informed officials vindicating 45 ours, people purport able govern through elected representatives, adequate government transcendent intelligence deserves full Criticism assessment performance subject penalties imposed law. values served circulating officials. contrary, erroneous frustrates values. disserved falsely impugn honesty men women hence lessen confidence government. Gertz: "[T]here fact. Neither intentional lie careless materially advances society's 'uninhibited, wide-open' issues." 340, 3007. Yet complaint dismissed alleges makes Absent kind favor, admittedly stand, misinformed matters. recurringly happen putative burden exceedingly discharged expensive litigation. sues, loses summary gets insufficient If wins jury, verdicts overturned appellate failure loses, return foundation reality.2 true after all. Their chance accurately measured ability himself counter lie, unaided courts. decidedly weak reed depend vindication interests—"it rare denial overtakes original charge. Denials, retractions, corrections 'hot' news, rarely prominence 46-47, 1821 J.); 363-364, 3018-3019 (BRENNAN, J., dissenting). 46 Also, leaving uncorrected, plainly leaves remedy observed consideration system, reflecting 'our liberty.' 3008, quoting 92, 597 (Stewart, concurring). upshot suffer injury, get identifying little, any, countering 47 countenances evils: first, stream polluted remains information; second, professional defeated destroyed falsehoods avoided effort investigate facts. stake, seem perverse results. Of course, unaware realities. Despite ringing endorsement "wide-open" "uninhibited" debate, literally protect kinds, fairly accused giving such, went overriding justification decision. thought strong, discovering truth difficult, best efforts. considerations heavily write speak breathing room—that err misinform act unknowingly recklessness. faced possibly sizable mistaken injurious reputation, result unacceptable degree self-censorship, prevent occasional libel, timely readily verified. privileged spread information, negative severely encourage truth, otherwise withheld. 49 similar observations. rejecting nevertheless deprived remedies, making margin error. doing so, negligence, damaged most outrageous remediless, go uncorrected. shown, impossible, discharge. For reason, impose 50 talk unfairness presuming this, done purportedly shield others writing intimidating liability. lead excessive timidity driving behind evident engaged severe overkill cases. 51 instead escalating level, achieved goal limiting recoverable level unduly threaten Punitive scrutinized Harlan 77, 1836, perhaps entirely forbidden. Presumed prohibited, limited, Had course retained, official, falsity, effect. His vindicated; possible, misinformation circulated countered. recovered modest amount, enough pay litigation expenses. At clear name. better served. 52 talking mere criticism misstatements seriously another, lowering estimation community deter third associating dealing him. 559 room ensured limitations damages; depriving figures vindicate reputations sullied large awards, defendants' communication chilled having defame. enterprises disseminating cause cost business, argue vigorous announced. formulated chilling danger numerous awards. central demands absolute misstatement figure 53 still believe figure. undervalued come easy assumption muzzle accepting premise parties, modify requirements establishing increase satisfied secure authorizing additional sums within set.3 54 interesting declines follow intended privately implicates distinguishes element here. Wisely, my view, rest application drawn defendants. issue, BRENNAN gives exercising freedom speech. None affords distinction; rejected turn.4 again, particularly sense give publishers readers pollute channels distinguished deals member disseminator privately. speaks inapplicability requirement this. said, measurable contribution announcement. Nor am sure saved money. meet invites complicated discovery detailed investigation workings press, story developed, mind reporter publisher. Herbert Lando, 441 99 1635, 115 (1979). expensive. suspect worse off financially judiciary careful insist kept bounds. legislative solution problem appropriate. interested clearing recoveries unfair them. assume successful intimidated withholding journalistic standards believes true. 56 us reasons, not. First, unreconciled Second, indicates, concur 57 whom MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS join, dissenting. 58 proper reporting—a remove gave rise explicit restrictions law—and produced diversity opinions, none POWELL's affirming below case; rather, three joining malice—a convincing truth—should extremely Establishing exception, reaffirms ante, 756-757, Ante, 755. affirm; 774 judgment).1 THE CHIEF JUSTICE apparently agrees WHITE. 764 judgment). reverse "central meaning 273, 722, nonetheless restraints consensus idiosyncratic obscure solid allegiance principles jurisprudence Bose Consumer's Union 466 485, 1949, 80 502 (1984). 59 shields unrestrained judgments unintentionally official. governmental regulation content speech, "can talismanic [and] drew developments, n. 20, 726 20.2 unquestioned principles, 273-274, formulate now-familiar test. Because "erroneous inevitable [it] protected freedoms 'breathing space' 'need survive.' 271-272, 721, Button, 371 415, 433, 83 328, 338, 405 (1963); Corp., 513, 1966. solidly accepted today. Our last decades measure explore ramifications principles. Building extension "public figure" (1971), focused largely defining mandate settled requiring prerequisite 344-346, 3009-3010.3 significant law's chill range broader pure Time, Hill, 385 374, 388, 534, 542, 456 (1967) ("The guarantees preserve comment affairs, healthy government"); cf. Abood Detroit Board Education, 431 231, 97 1782, 1797, 261 61 proceeded deters Amendment. differ efforts control obscenity, Miller California, 413 15, 23-24, 93 2607, 2614, 419 (1973), loyalty, Speiser Randall, 357 1332, 1460 (1958), consumers, (1976), oversee professions, Zauderer Office Disciplinary Counsel Ohio, 471 626, 2265, 85 652 (1985), pursue welfare goals content-based "When complex strands web operation method restrained close analysis critical applied." 520, 1339. proscription unnecessarily broad permeates jurisprudence. 62 regulate finer instruments space Electric 565, 2350, (1980) (restriction "may serves"); Lowe SEC, 181, 234, 2557, 2586, 130 (1985) (WHITE, judgment) ("[T]he narrowly tailored advance interest"). ready availability unconstrained too blunt regulatory instrument principle, implicate precisely point Rosenbloom: 63 "At minimum, area, think construed limit imposition situations typical employed assessing anyone's aim compensate caused, conceivable justify imposing harsher Amendment." 1834 (dissenting opinion) added). 64 65, 1830; Harlan's perception formed cornerstone Requiring farther involved," "necessary restrict compensation injury." conferred "largely uncontrolled discretion" assess unpredictable amounts bearing relation caused." 349-350, "wholly irrelevant interest" "[t]hey 3012 specifically means achieve purpose persons: approach, Court, "unnecessarily compounds inhibit freedoms." 3011 added).4 66 nurture coalesce recovery. When falls outside especially categories, leeway reputation.5 measures, always mandates proscribes remained comprehensive two-tiered structure accommodates guarantee States' 67 narrow. parties Greenmoss Builders constitutionally permissible. forthright answer. therefore, opinions cut away protective mantle A. 68 urged pruning accomplished restricting applicability "media" entity. Such irreconcilable fundamental "[t]he inherent capacity informing identity source, corporation, association, union, individual." 777, 1416, (1978). difficulties lurk definitional generate.6 born anachronism.7 Perhaps importantly, misapprehends vitality guarantees.8 solicitude implies deserve "In realm legislature disqualified dictating address issue." 784-785, 1420. Bridges 252, 277-278, 190, 201, 192 (1941). each citizen self-expression participation self-government. See, 459-463, 2289-2291, 263 (1980); Police Department Mosley, 408 212 (1972); Cohen 24, 1780, 1787, 284 (1971); Whitney 274 357, 375-377, 641, 648-649, 71 1095 (1927) (Brandeis, protects listeners widest dissemination diverse antagonistic sources." Associated Press 326 1, 1424, 89 2013 (1945).9 six Members (the JUSTICE) institutional enjoyed organizations activities. 773 judgment).10 B 70 Eschewing media/nonmedia distinction, focus Arguing "deals importance," 773, explanation, decides category. offers virtually garnish substantive analysis. Purporting "employ Gertz," 757, balances weaker receives 759-760, willing concede protection, finds restrain 760-761. Without explaining concern," proceeds serve smorgasbord why 761-762, basis affirms courts' 72 professing protests much. observes, departs completely analytic framework case: "Gertz [they] implicat[e] importance." 772 judgment).11 notion analyses fail Both, virtue propose impoverished "matters concern" surely sufficient Were appropriately characterized moreover, elimination requirements. (1) voting provided guidance constitutes concern." nothing all, turns conditions 773. adumbrates appear matter.12 relies "solely audience," 762 Analogizing explicitly states "hardy" profit." strains suggest excluding predominantly economic evaluating expression, consistently diminished Joseph Burstyn, Wilson, 343 495, 501-502, 780, 1098 (1952); Federation Labor Swing, 312 321, 325-326, 569-570, 855 (1941); 101-103, 743-744, (1940); 231-232, 28, 1797-1798, 28. "[O]ur philosophical, social, artistic, economic, literary, ethical matters—to take nonexhaustive labels—is 1797. breadth evinces recognition tyranny foster self-government intrinsic liberty instrumental search Consumers 503-504, 1961; 375, 648 76 Speech matters, implicating discourse. labor relations supra: 77 "It satisfactory hours wages working industry bargaining position importance concerned. health generation yet unborn practices factory repercussions region affect widespread systems marketing. merest glance legislation demonstrates Free discussion causes disputes appears indispensable intelligent processes popular shape destiny modern industrial society." 102-103, 744. suggests, choices booth well products learned myriad daily phenomenon surround 102, 744 ("Freedom discussion, fulfill historic nation, embrace appropriate enable members society cope exigencies period").13 79 Bradstreet consistent precedents. reliance publishes "for profit," 792, unwarranted. Time "even carried form 'sold' Bd., 761, 1825. Smith 361 150, 215, 217, 205 (1959); 501, 780. announcement potentially residents located; dispute Thornhill, region." solvency prevalence certainly inform invocation judicial mechanisms effectuate record. Cox Broadcasting Cohn, 420 469, 95 1029, 328 (1975). balancing employs properly actions.14 (2) 81 considered—in POWELL—as discourse, fall valuable Much diminution afforded category "Commercial speech"—defined advertisements "[do] transaction," Pittsburgh Human Relations, 376, 385, 2553, 2558, 669 (1973)—may closely regulated types (1985); 1827 ("So enterprise economy, allocation resources decisions. end, indispensable"). Credit "commercial speech" term. considered, Zauderer, 637, ----; 657-658, ---- dissenting part). 82 predicated improved decisionmaking. respect, distribution accurate comports sources public." 1424-1425. disseminates discourse well-being. Douglas point: except directed Certainly regarded immersed sector decisionmaking institution various governments furthering obtaining resources. data fabric national communication." Grove, 404 898, 905-906, 204, 175 (Douglas, certiorari). noted "[p]resumably facilitate price improvement recent arising squabble over vendor sold obscene magazines." 905, 9, 9. bear few earmarks somewhat rigorous extensive advertising—an offer buy sell goods services encouraging buying selling.15 service proposal product. chary doctrine beyond circumscribed advertising vitally uttered profit motive dissipates rapidly advertising. Compare (1980), Consolidated Edison 530, 2326, 319 noting regard Vermont, 76, recognizes qualified privilege Maurer, Common Defamation Fair Reporting Act, Geo.L.J. 95, 99-105 typically precludes bad malice, according formulation. Datacon, 465 F.Supp. 706, (ND Tex.1979). quite susceptible libel's chill; accumulated learning respect. 88 characterization entirety, demonstrate equivalent analogy hardy, relatively verifiable. 752. abide chosen avoid unnecessary supra; supra.16 "unnecessarily" broad, 3012, interests. Indeed, designed compensate, irrelevant" furtherance valid conclusions weighing strength measures asserted. recognizes, What "irrelevant" irrelevant, applicable run afoul guarantees.17 90 (3) self-government," 216, 125 welfare. motivation diminish value. Whether sufficiently liability, awards.18 Bradstreet's consumers transactions," Ohralik Ohio Bar Assn., 436 447, 460, 1912, 1920, 444 Bolger Young Drug Products 463 60, 81, 2875, 2888, 469 (1983) (STEVENS, harms inaccurate reports, sophistication access contain verification, losses reports.19 fault. Any deterring case-by-case exacts toll negligently report, accordance remand proceedings inconsistent opinion. (1982) (Gertz defendants); Stuempges Parke, Davis 297 252 (Minn.1980) (same); (1978) 1359 (1977) (same), Antwerp Diamond Exchange, Better Business Bureau, Ariz. 523, 637 733 (1981) situations); Jacron Sales Sindorf, 276 Md. 580, 350 688 (1976) (same). argues seek preserved review. Since decided bar Orr Orr, 440 268, 274-275, 1102, 1109, 306 reads follows: "If you Defendant acted towards Plaintiff Erroneous Report, injure willful, wanton Plaintiff, maliciously destroyed. Further, Report consequences, 18-19 dissent "[a]t several points perfectly [that] cases." Post, 758, 11. "perfectly clear" concedes ." 777 (original emphasis). incorrectly "specifically held," post, 779, 793, .," "unrestrained 'unnecessarily' interests," 793-794. controls "not tailored" broad" necessarily issue. Properly understood, occasions kinds Obscene "fighting words" accorded 483, 1498 Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 571-572, 766, 769, 1031 (1942); Harisiades Shaughnessy, 342 591-592, 512, 519-520, 586 (1952) (advocating violent overthrow Government speech); Near Minnesota ex rel. Olson, 283 697, 716, 625, 631, 1357 (1931) (publication troopship sailings during wartime enjoined). prominent example "subordinate scale values." 456, 1918, easily ways impermissible noncommercial Ohralik, 1918; 562-563, 2349, Other areas examples. "[n]umerous examples communications offending exchange securities, corporate proxy production competitors, employers' threats retaliation activities employees." 1918 (citations omitted). scrutiny. Brown Hartlage, 45, 52-53, 102 1523, 1528, 732 279, 19, 725, (1964); Buckley Valeo, 424 14, 612, 632, 659 Likewise, power license lawyers, psychiatrists, teachers—all living—is unquestioned, licensing union organizers unconstitutional Collins, 323 516, 315, 430 (1945); J.) ("the determinant utterance concern"). commentator remarked supplier defames applying credit"—the today—"If amendment apply, something wrong Gertz." Shiffrin, Economic Regulation: Away From Theory Nw.U.L.Rev. 1212, 1268 dissent, purporting test today, concludes 786. "balance," rests misinterpretation. particular, believes, "irrelevant." 794. say outweighed belied circumstances. indicates today's dissent's libels—no attenuated woman impeccable branded "whore" jealous neighbor recourse she evidence. ordinary sense, demanding would, effect, constitutionalize libel. suggests incorrect. depends report's "content, context" matter. hold, do, 787, discuss along Appeals Fifth Circuit thriving transactions inhibited. Hood 486 F.2d 25, 415 985, 1580, 882 (1974). cited empirical study comparing Boise, Idaho, privilege, Spokane, Washington, one. F.2d, 32, slander, se narrow statements: imputing criminal offense, venereal loathsome communicable disease, improper lawful unchastity woman. 570 actionable, distress. loss. 575 pp. 185-187. succeeds bring separate tend set record organs government, trusted discern is. logical consequence forbids slander suits, suit, factually forum perfect, classes redress realistic opportunity entrust responsibility affecting persons. bodies incompetent inquire decree false—a already published. unresponsive suggestion 391-392, 3032, Branzburg Hayes, 665, 2646, 626 (1972) informative asserted representatives organized press" privileges "performed lecturers, pollsters, novelists, academic researchers, dramatists." 705, 2668. inception, n., 286, 729; Henry 380 356, 992, 892 (1965); plain monopoly enlighten. 782, 1418, Pell Procunier, 417 817, 2800, 495 (1974) (press independent prisons). 48-49, idea elements enhance voice foreign" Amendment). ventures proposals restructuring currently democratic impermissibly threatened remarks. 770-772 expressed 1788 Pennsylvania Court: "What bill rights, Pennsylvania, declare, 'That shall restrained,' 'that printing presses undertakes examine government?' [T]hey investigating entrusted amply man publish opinions; due peace enquire motives publications, distinguish meant reformation, eye good, merely delude latter description, afford impunity." Respublica Oswald, Dall. 319, 325, 155 (footnotes irrespective status plaintiff. 43, 1819 plurality's approach. unacceptably impair rough treatment entering arena rebut charges. 344-345, 3009. "occasion forcing judges decide ad hoc publications 'general interest.' 346, 3010 (citation reasoning excess Electrical Workers Foust, 442 42, 48-52, 2121, 2125-2127, 698 (1979); Newport Fact Concerts, 453 247, 270-271, 101 2748, 2761-2762, 616 (1981). recognize deterrence costs—such encouragement desirable conduct—flowing rule, ill-defined." Wade, 30, 59, 1625, 1642, 632 (REHNQUIST, 1635-1636 (Court 'conduct outrageous, defendant's evil indifference others,' (Second) 908(2) (1979) deleted)); 93-94, 1658 (O'CONNOR, dissenting); Silkwood Kerr-McGee 238, 244-245, 615, 619-620, 443 (1984); 260-261, 627-628 (BLACKMUN, 276, 635 (POWELL, times cost, enhanced 3009-3010. supra. alternative justification. defaming problems evaluation An attempt characterize illustrates point. account newspaper, magazine, broadcast, event conveyed collect Thus obvious print electronic media. [its] added consumption specialized selective, finite audience." line criteria. "specialized" "substantial fees" hardly articles side seeks draw. Few universal distributed fare metropolitan audience pays fee. treat differently widely subscribers." paradoxical size audience, injure, grows. Keeton Hustler Magazine, 770, 781, 1473, 1481-1482, 790 Owing transformations technological industry, convergence labeled "nonmedia." Pool, Technologies: Promise Abundant Channels Lower Cost, What's News: Media Society I. Technologies Freedom (1983); Federal Trade Commission, Policy Session: Technology Legal Change Subcommittee Telecommunications, Protection, Finance House Committee Energy Commerce, Telecommunications Transition: Status Competition Industry, 97th Cong., 1st Sess. (Comm.Print 1981). Minneapolis Star Tribune Comm'r Revenue, 460 575, 585, 1365, 1372, 295 Columbia System, FCC, 367, 395, 2813, 2829, 706 (1981); Miami Herald Tornillo, 241, 2831, 730 (1974); 707, 2669, 713, 2140, 822 Mills 384 214, 218-219, 1434, 1436-1437, (1966); Grosjean 233, 250, 444, 449, 660 (1936). 180-199, 1650-1660, part); Saxbe Washington Post 843, 850, 2811, 2815, 514 393, 2562, (1973) (BURGER, C.J., Red Lion 395 390, 1794, 1806, (1969); (1967); Stewart, "Or Press," Hastings L.J. 631 "increasingly mass society, awesome placed hands select few," 402, 3037 dissenting), perspectives. J. Barron, Whom? (1973). "[U]ninhibited, fostering development Klapper, Effects Mass Communications (1960). expressly decline resolve One searches vain word support proposition obtained grounded premise. Distrust placing offered 3010. incongruous circumscribe 3010, 3011-3012. read embracing deciding imposed, stringent plurality. plurality, rely confidential. 762. decipher exactly nature plays understood infra, 791-793, confidentiality crucial outcome words, thinks contribute factor suffice save 18, infra. Similarly, arguments denying affected formation [our economic] ought altered." 1827, Bigelow Virginia, 421 809, 822, 2222, 2232-2233, 600 (1975) ("Viewed entirety [abortion] audience—not offered"). aspect attempts influence consumer preferences recognized. San Diego, 490, 538-539, 2882, 2908, 800 ("May city Automobile billboard message 'Be patriot Japanese-manufactured cars' 'commercial' forbid it?"). latitude "greater objectivity hardiness." 772, 1830, 24. purports draw perpetuates accord precedents understanding concept. 165, 5, 1699, "context" employment situation. 148, 8, 1691, 8. (contraceptive advertising); re R.M.J., 455 191, 929, (lawyer (commercial (advertising electricity); Friedman Rogers, 887, (optometrist (lawyer's solicitation business); Bates Arizona, 433 2691, 810 advertising). Indeed inept urging Though notions dignity, 757-758, concurring); Paul Davis, 693, 714, 1155, 1166, corporation. undercuts prove. viewed easy. instance, bank's customer raise rate charged customer. anything reduces harm. worst ascertain tort Russell City Wildwood, 428 1176, 1181 (CA3 1970) (future earnings); Seffert Los Angeles Transit Lines, Cal.2d 498, 509, Cal.Rptr. 161, 168, 364 337, 344 (1961) (Traynor, dissenting) (pain suffering). fails tailored. reads: "This [in reporting] point, intrinsically 3007, burdening unintentional chills truthful resulting vindicated deleterious result. circulation confidential disseminated, linchpin (because "it 'strong information' ") (plurality 12, assertion dubious flatly Givhan Western Line School Dist., 439 410, 619 doubtless thousands pursuant strictures recipients systemic diminishes reticent subscribers. Geo.L.J., 126 (1983): "Under compensated defendant; Sections 1681o 1681n [of Act] Section presumably satisfies authorizes willful violation Act. section Gertz's willfully procedures manifest fine unworkable categorical test, harmonious Act doctrine"

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