Document: 521 U.S. 399117 S.Ct. 2100138 L.Ed.2d 540 Daryll RICHARDSON and John Walker, Petitioners,v.Ronnie Lee McKNIGHT. No. 96-318. Supreme Court of the United States Argued March 19, 1997. Decided June 23, Syllabus * Respondent McKnight, a prisoner at Tennessee correctional center whose management had been privatized, filed this constitutional tort action under 42 U.S.C. §1983 for physical injuries inflicted by petitioner prison guards. The District denied petitioners' motion to dismiss, finding that, since they were employed private firm, not entitled qualified immunity from lawsuits. Appeals affirmed. Held: Prison guards firm are suit prisoners charging violation. Pp. ____-____. (a) Four aspects Wyatt v. Cole, 504 158, 112 1827, 118 504-in which found no defendants charged with invoking state replevin, garnishment, attachment statutes later declared unconstitutional-are instructive here. First, §1983-which deters actors depriving individuals their federally-protected rights-can sometimes impose liability upon individuals. Second, distinction exists between an suit-which frees one whether or he acted wrongly-and other legal defenses-which may well involve essence wrong. Third, history purposes underlying determine enjoy protection suit. Fourth, holding was limited narrow question before is applicable all (b) History does reveal firmly rooted tradition privately While government -employed have enjoyed kind defense arising out status as public employees common law, see Procunier Navarette, 434 555, 561-562, 98 855, 859-860, 55 24, functions never exclusively public. In 19th century both entities itself carried on activities. There conclusive evidence historical parties carrying these functions. (c) doctrine's also do warrant Mere performance governmental function support person, especially who performs job without supervision direction. Petitioners' argument contrary overlooks certain important differences that critical perspective. most special immunity-producing concern-protecting unwarranted timidity part officials-is less likely present when company subject competitive market pressures operates prison. A too aggressive will face damages raise costs, thereby threatening its replacement another contractor, but timid firms safer more effective records. Such marketplace here, where systematically organized, independently, statutorily obligated carry insurance, must renew first contract after three years. And provide incentives avoid overly-timid performance. To extent, differ employees, act within system responsible through elected officials voters often characterized civil service rules providing employee security limiting departments' flexibility reward punish individual employees. privatization helps meet immunity-related need ensure talented candidates deterred threat suits entering service. Comprehensive insurance coverage increases likelihood indemnification extent reduces employment-discouraging fear liability. Since freed many restraints, it, unlike department, offset increased risk higher pay extra benefits. while lawsuits distract duties, distraction alone cannot be sufficient grounds immunity. Tennessee, has decided extend sovereign operators, can, moreover, understood anticipated amount distraction. (d) closes caveats. focus immunity, answered narrowly, in context it arose, and, thus, briefly associated body, serving adjunct essential activity, acting close official supervision. opinion expressed issue petitioners might assert, good faith defense. 88 F.3d 417, BREYER, J., delivered Court, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, SOUTER, GINSBURG, JJ., joined. SCALIA, dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., KENNEDY THOMAS, Charles R. Ray, Nashville, TN, petitioners. David C. Vladeck, Washington, DC, respondent. Edwin S. Kneedler, amicus curiae leave Court. Justice BREYER 1 us violation §1983. We hold not. 2 Ronnie Tennessee's South Central Correctional Center (SCCC), brought federal against two guards, Darryl Richardson Walker. He says injured him placing extremely tight unlawfully "subject[ing]'' "to deprivation of'' right "secured Constitution'' States. Rev. Stat. §1979, Walker asserted lawsuits, Harlow Fitzgerald, 457 800, 807, 102 2727, 2732, 73 396 (1982), moved dismiss action. noted "privatized'' number facilities, consequently government, See Tenn.Code Ann. §41-24-101 et seq. (1990 Supp.1996); generally Cody & Bennett, Privatization Institutions: Experience, 40 Vand. L.Rev. 829 (1987) (outlining State's services). court held because worked rather than law did grant It therefore guards' dismiss. appealed Sixth Circuit. Mitchell Forsyth, 472 511, 530, 105 2806, 2817-2818, 86 411 (1985) (permitting interlocutory appeals determinations); Johnson Jones, 515 304, 115 2151, 132 238 (1995); Behrens Pelletier, 516 ----, 116 834, 133 773 (1996). That ruled them. McKnight Rees, 425 (C.A.6 1996). conceded courts reached varying conclusions about whether, which, sector immunities sort provides defendants. See, e.g., Eagon Elk City, 72 1480, 1489-1490 (C.A.10 1996); Williams O'Leary, 320, 323-24(CA7), cert. denied, 527, Frazier Bailey, 957 F.2d 920, 928-929 (C.A.1 1992). But concluded, primarily reasons "public policy,'' provided counterparts. F.3d, 425. granted certiorari review holding. now affirm. II 3 take Court's recent case, (1992), pertinent authority. there considered defendants, "invoking statutes'' unconstitutional "entitled suit.'' Id., 159, S.Ct., 1827. 169, 1834. find four relevant 4 noted, basically seeks deter using badge authority deprive federally guaranteed rights'' related relief. 161, 1829-1830 (emphasis added) (citing Carey Piphus, 435 247, 254-257, 1042, 1047-1049, 252 (1978)); Owen Independence, 445 622, 654, 100 1398, 1417, 63 673 (1980). imposes only person acts "under color'' "statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, usage.'' Nonetheless, reaffirmed can individual. U.S., 162, 1830; Lugar Edmondson Oil Co., 922, 924, 2744, 2746-2747, 482 (1982). 5 reiterated Harlow, supra, reformulation doctrine, Anderson Creighton, 483 635, 645, 107 3034, 3042, 97 523 (1987), "immunity suit'' kinds defenses. 166-167, 1832-1833; Mitchell, 526, 2815-2816. As concurrence pointed out, "the wrong,'' enjoys lawsuit wrongly. 171-172, 1835-1836 (Kennedy, concurring). 6 specified source immunities. although ""creates species admits immunities,''' id., 163, 1831 (quoting Imbler Pachtman, 424 409, 96 984, 989-990, 47 128 (1976)), nonetheless accorded 7 ""tradition so supported such strong policy "Congress would specifically wished abolish doctrine.''''' 164, 637, 1408-1409, (1980)). 8 majority, deciding looked concerns involved suing officials.'' 167, 1833; 2815-2816; 2732; 424, 992. respect-the sources law-both dissent seemed agree. Compare 169-171, 1834-1835 (KENNEDY, concurring) (existence depends "historical origins'' policy'') 175-176, 1837-1838 (REHNQUIST, dissenting) ("immunity'' recognized "similarly situated defendant law'' "when suggest immunity''). 9 consider answer individuals-irrespective nature relation position, issue. Rather, explicitly what called "narrow'' "private persons . conspire officials,'' 168, 1834, stating "faced statute'' 168-169, 1833-1834. 10 Wyatt, then, us, respondents-two firm-enjoy tell however, look underlie order answer. 1831; Newport Fact Concerts, Inc., 453 259, 101 2748, 2755-2756, 69 616 (1981); Owen, 638, 1409; Imbler, B 11 "firmly rooted'' services undergone various transformations. D. Shichor, Punishment Profit 33, 36 (1995) (Shichor). Government law. 24 (1978) (extending guards). Shichor 36. Private operated local jails 18th century, G. Bowman, Hakim, P. Seidenstat, Privatizing System 271, n. contractors heavily during century. 12 During time, some states, including southern states like leased entire systems companies frequently took complete control over management, inmate labor discipline. Institutions (1993); B. McKelvey, American Prisons: Study Social Prior 1915, pp. 172-180 (1968) (describing system); 34; de Beaumont A. Tocqueville, On Penitentiary Its Application France 35 (1833) contracting Massachusetts Pennsylvania). lease agreements (like suits) seem prevalent §1983's enactment, M. Mancini, One Dies, Get Another (1996), we mistreated leasing remedies mistreatment those lessors. Dade Coal Co. Haslett, 83 Ga. 549, 550-551, S.E. 435, 435-436 (1889) (convict recover contractor sustained company); Boswell Barnhart, 521, 522-523, 23 414, 415 (1895) (wife chain-gang-related death husband); Dalheim Lemon, 45 F. 225, 228-230 (1891) (contractor liable convict injuries); Tillar Reynolds, Ark. 358, 360-361, 365-366, 131 S.W. 969, 970, 971-972 (1910) (work farm owner beating death); Weigel Brown, 194 652 (C.A.8 1912) (prison unlawful whipping); Edwards Pocahontas, 268 (CC Va. 1891) (inmate municipal corporation caused poor jail conditions); Hall O'Neil Turpentine 56 Fla. 324, So. 609 (1908) (private subcontractor municipality escaped agreement); supra (discussing abuses system). Yet, gave purely any suits. Almango Board Supervisors Albany County, 32 N.Y. 551 (1881) (no cause designated instrumentality statute). case rests argument, Adams, 85 Mass. 171 (1861) (which could not-without more-prove existence not, clearly operator) actually supports our point. suggests exist type intentional conduct case. Williams, (were "battery'' issue, different "character'' responsible''); 176 (making clear involves claim ordinary negligence lack heat items, "gross negligence,'' "implied malice,'' "intention bodily injury''); compare Tower Glover, 467 914, 921, 104 2820, 2825, 81 758 (1984)(concluding defenders established). 13 England consistently public, 22 Encyclopedia Brittanica, "Prison'' 361-368 (11th ed.1911); Webb Webb, English Prisons Under Local (1922) (Webb), indicate relied jailers manage detention Middle Ages until into 21; 4-5; E. Coke, Institutes 43 (1797). forbade ""their pain torment,''' harsh confinement leg irons, otherwise. re Birdsong, 39 599, 601 (S.D.Ga.1889); 315, 316, 381; Addison, Treatise Law Torts §1016, 224-225 (1876); Geo. IV., ch. 64, §X Twelfth. apparently authorized damages. §1016. Apparently doctors lawyers performed behest sovereign. Tower, 2825; J. Bishop, Commentaries Non-Contract §§704, 710 (1889). indication general applied working profit. 14 Our research, cited, reveals (and earlier) significant claim. Briscoe LaHue, 460 325, 330-334, 103 1108, 1112-1115, 75 (1983) (immunity witnesses); Pierson 386 547, 554-555, 87 1213, 1217-1218, 18 288 (1967) judges police officers); Tenney Brandhove, 341 367, 372-376, 71 783, 786-788, 95 L.Ed. 1019 (1951) legislators). C 15 Whether presents closer question. consistent earlier precedent, described protecting "government's ability perform traditional functions'' "necessary preserve'' serve service.'' 1833. Earlier precedent by, example, "encouraging vigorous exercise authority,'' Butz Economou, 438 478, 506, 2894, 2911, 57 895 (1978), contributing ""principled fearless decision-making,''' Wood Strickland, 420 308, 319, 992, 999, 214 (1975)(quoting Pierson, 554, 1217-1218), responding concern threatened would, Judge Hand's words, ""dampen ardour resolute, irresponsible''' officials. 814, 2736 Gregoire Biddle, 177 579, 581 (C.A.2 1949) (L.Hand, J.), 339 949, 70 803, 94 1363 (1950)); 2815 (lawsuits "distrac[t] duties''). 16 argue employer Brief Petitioners 35-36. same work say, require similar degree. say this, misread precedents. functional approach cases, decide immunity-absolute qualified-a officer should receive. Buckley Fitzsimmons, 509 113 2606, 125 209 Burns Reed, 500 111 1934, 114 547 (1991); Forrester White, 484 219, 108 538, 555 (1988); Cleavinger Saxner, 474 193, 106 496, 507 (1985); 2728-2729. mere make difference unlimited see, 922-923, 2825-2826, Indeed bristles difficulty, particularly since, areas, industry engage fundamentally activities, ranging electricity production, waste disposal, even mail delivery. 17 overlook perspective, critical. concern-unwarranted timidity-is present, least special, Competitive mean replacement, threats records demonstrate job. These large, multistate firm. Thomas, Bolinger, Badalamenti, Adult Facility Census (10th ed.1997) (listing Corrections Corporation America largest States). organized major administrative task Cf. Tenn.Code. §41-24-104 (Supp.1996) (requiring successful operation facilities). relatively ongoing direct §41-4-140(c)(5) (exempting monitoring) §41-4-116 inspectors examine publicly county once month more) §41-4-140(a) Institute inspect facilities annual basis report findings inspections). buy compensate victims rights torts. §41-24-107. And, firm's expires years, §41-24-105(a), disciplined, review, §§41-24-105(c)-(f), 41-24-109, pressure potentially competing try place. §41-24-104(a)(4) State, notice, cancel time year operation); §§41-24-105(c) standards renewal contract). 19 overly timid, insufficiently vigorous, unduly fearful, "non-arduous'' contract's provisions-including permit civil-service restrictions-grant freedom respond rewards penalties operate directly §41-24-111. resemble 20 This efforts limits, always, often, sacrifice otherwise duties. typically system. They who, vote, rarely subdepartments servants detail. multidepartment security, limit departments supervisors flexibly reward, punish, Hence judicial determination "effectiveness'' immunity-type respect latter (governmental) prove former. Consequently, encourage 21 "privatization'' candidates'' "not 2815-2816 816, 2737). comprehensive insurance-coverage requirements just mentioned. potential applicants face. Because prison-management §41-24-111 (1990), permits second government-immunity-related purpose difficult firms; typical department. ""distrac[t]''' ""from duties''' 2737), "distraction'' cases contemplate elimination lawsuit-based distractions. 818-819, 2738-2739 (officials violations established rights). reserves discretionary tasks-those discipline, parole, time-for §41-24-110 (1990). Given continual deterring sense tasks enormously importance firms, persuaded distracting workers duties enough virtually justify Moreover, operators arguably appreciated decision increase prices degree), §41-24-107, examination thus nothing organizational structure might, perform; shows normally help adjust behavior response provide-pressures necessarily departments. significantly favoring extension makes automatically immune (i.e., follow liability), conclude 224, 542, (1988) (Officers "who seek exemption personal burden showing justified ''); Butz, 2910-2911. III focused questions addressed though assumed, decide, liability, color law.'' 25 arose. assume lengthy (managing institution) undertakes profit competition firms. 26 stated "good faith'' said 27 "d[id] foreclose possibility faced affirmative based and/or probable private, governmental, plaintiffs additional burdens.'' 28 issues fairly left "them day.'' Ibid. Similarly, 29 "may appropriate balance struck here officers assert defense, However, appeal.'' 30 Like express view last-mentioned 31 For judgment Affirmed. 33 whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE, THOMAS join, dissenting. 34 officials, supervisory subordinate officers, Today declares unavailable state-employed palpable form power, sued neither common-law nor policy, contradicts settled practice determining being performed. doctrine actions assumption statute traditionally available 268, 2612-2613, (1993). I agree therefore, resolve defeated if actual antedating contemporaneous enactment §1983, successfully guard. absence explicit rejection court, relies upon. observes existed prisoners. easily show government-employed mention possible Schellenger, Civil sheriff keeping injury prisoner, A.L.R.2d 353 (1950) (annotating numerous sheriffs liable). Indeed, far my research disclosed, case-law private-jailer government-jailer context. pre-§1983 jailer-immunity am aware (1861), years became acknowledged jailer "novel,'' ibid, appears conferred independent contractor.1 truth tell, trouble history, opinions done, 489-490, 1940-1941, 2824-2825, (1984), simply set forth prescription. At stage jurisprudence irrational, productive harmful consequences, rely create artificial limitation scope (prison-guard immunity) case-support. limitation, principles based, reflected jurisprudence, plainly cover guard nonprivate. Those two: (1) determined function, status, (2) specifically, disqualifying. 37 " [O]ur analysis categories, defendant.'' 342, 1119, (1983). Immunity "flows rank title "location Government,' responsibilities official.'' 201, 501, (1985), quoting (1978). "Running fair consistency, "functional' approach, particular class lawfully entrusted, evaluate effect exposure forms functions.'' (1988). also, Buckley, 269, 2613-2614; Burns, 484-486, 1938-1939; Malley Briggs, 475 335, 342-343, 1092, 1096-1097, 89 271 (1986); 810-811, 2734-2735, (1982); 420-429, 990-994, (1976). concede prototypically (enforcement state-imposed liberty), gives rise 38 point governs demonstrated prison-guard Alamango Cty., Sup.Ct. (1881), maintaining penitentiary Although formally emphasized irrelevance fact: "The duty punishing criminals inherent Sovereign power. committed agencies selected purpose, agencies, engaged duty, stand place State political authority, capacity.'' 552.2 regularly qualifies. long absolute grand jurors, noting prosecutors "exercise presented them.'' 423, 20, 991, 20. "It comparability [grand jurors'] judgments judge resulted [their] termed "quasi-judicial' well.'' Likewise, witnesses testify proceedings regardless [T]he law,'' observed, "provided subsequent persons-governmental otherwise-who integral parts process.'' Briscoe, 1115-1116 added). think highly unlikely deny prosecutorial attorneys increasingly jurisdictions country high-visibility criminal prosecutions. Kaplan, Hires Lawyer Bryant Family Trial, Los Angeles Times, Apr. 28, 1993, p. B4, col. 2; Estrich, Building Strongest Possible Prosecution Team, July 10, 1994, M1, 1. reason treating differently. 41 Later establish denying ones. indicated above, believe judicially analyzed matter-but own terms attempted unconvincing. preclude "special'' give "unwarranted timidity'' concern, them If maintain proper level order, reasons, replaced one-so facilitate maintenance order. wrong several reasons. First all, fanciful speak consequences "market'' regime purchaser, people's money medium payment. Ultimately, replace made contract. §§41-24-103 (Supp.1996). decision, choice. turn strict reviewing cost managed prisons ones, chosen so. process come choice resemblance-that is, willing attention services, among vying attention, considerations quality ahead friendship, alliances, in-state ownership etc. Secondly importantly, assumes bent emulating purchase almost certainly short mismanagement severe provoke riot, price (not discipline) predominating factor regime's selection contractor. contractor's depend costs; costs3; "fearless'' discipline incentive down-play exist, politicians' zeal market-emulation budget-cutting waned, automatic: cautious fewer profits. sum, seems "market-competitive'' managers greater "helps service'' Ante, __ (internal quotation marks omitted). brings (or us) statutory requirement civil-rights claims, assertedly "increases indemnification,'' liberation "from restraints'' prevent "offset benefits,'' ibid. former (civil-rights insurance): surely availability protection, presence hand, decreases (if decrease, doubt) protection. —(Otherwise, required so, immunity; government-run immunity.) course employers. factor-liberation limitations-is interesting one. philosophical matter fascinating learn prime justifications phenomenon (civil-service laws) enacted created. Also matter, poetic justice revenge) use principal economic benefits "prison out-sourcing''-namely, avoidance salary tenure encrustations-as justification rule rendering out-sourcing expensive. Of savings attributable wholly lost result today's holding; transferred prisoner-plaintiffs lawyers. Bar Association Federation Employees love. apart fascination, objection first: governments encrustations exempt them); hence governments, employers, 44 rationale worth discussing, albeit briefly. theory implausible avoids mentioning primary given affirms. 424-425 violate prisoners' motive, added degree deterrence needed keep line. offered bald assertion hint how possibly employers' profits violating rights. managers, pockets, compared purse, anything, careful training infractions. fact, having experimented commonly overall caliber improved quality. Matters Relating Federal Bureau Hearing Subcommittee Crime House Committee Judiciary, 104th Cong., 1st Sess., 110 (1995). *** 46 concluding, observe apparent reason, making hinge precise remain obscure. Is privity separates categories-so paid "public'' immune, "private'' immune? Or "employee'' versus "independent contractor'' status- compensation supervised official? perhaps (without payment) confer immunity? (as characterization Alamango, 2, suggests) formal designation employer, "state instrumentality'' difference? Since, public-private distinction, precisely consists of. Today's sets indistinguishable ultimate prisoners, powers possess owe towards treated quite differently financial sure decision-and tell-is artificially privatizing prisons. prohibitively expensive, instead divert funds saved spent taxpayers suffer consequence. Neither foundations policies result. 48 respectfully dissent. syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Timber Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 50 499. master house correction. officer'' head running governing his expenses supporting employing them, event default indebitatus assumpsit sum due, "which shall deemed debt.'' Gen.Stat., 143, §15 (1835). failed distribute "rations articles food, soap, fuel, necessaries'' directed commissioner mayor aldermen Boston), fine. §45. [t]he correction officer, relations confined therein deputy writ serve.'' Mass., 173. cites proposition "no [a] [the] [is] statute.'' __. cite instrumentality,'' identify "a State,'' Sup.Ct., 552, corrections 1, supra). accept distinguishing change outcome pointless formality designating instrumentality''-hardly rational resolution us. true defended insured against. thinks currently discussing "must torts,'' ante, Belief relevance traceable, ultimately, belief free lunch. Obviously, claims increase, increases.

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