Document: 527 U.S. 471119 S.Ct. 2139144 L.Ed.2d 450 SUTTON v. UNITED AIR LINES, INC.(97-1943)130 F.3d 893, affirmed. SUPREME COURT OF THE STATES119 2139 No. 97 1943 KAREN and KIMBERLY HINTON, PETITIONERS INC. ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO STATES APPEALS FOR TENTH CIRCUIT [June 22, 1999] Justice O'Connor delivered the opinion of Court. 1 The Americans with Disabilities Act 1990 (ADA or Act), 104 Stat. 328, 42 U.S.C. § 12101 et seq., prohibits certain employers from discriminating against individuals on basis their disabilities. See §12112(a). Petitioners challenge dismissal ADA action for failure to state a claim upon which relief can be granted. We conclude that complaint was properly dismissed. In reaching result, we hold determination whether an individual is disabled should made reference measures mitigate individual's impairment, including, in this instance, eyeglasses contact lenses. addition, petitioners failed allege respondent "regarded" them as having disability within meaning ADA. 2 * Petitioners' amended dismissed could Fed. Rule Civ. Proc. 12(b)(6). Accordingly, accept allegations contained true purposes case. United States Gaubert, 499 315, 327 (1991). 3 are twin sisters, both whom have severe myopia. Each petitioner's uncorrected visual acuity 20/200 worse her right eye 20/400 left eye, but "[w]ith use corrective lenses, each has vision 20/20 better." App. 23. Consequently, without "effectively cannot see conduct numerous activities such driving vehicle, watching television shopping public stores," id., at 24, measures, glasses "function identically similar impairment," ibid. 4 1992, applied employment commercial airline pilots. They met respondent's basic age, education, experience, FAA certification qualifications. After submitting applications employment, were invited by interview flight simulator tests. Both told during interviews, however, mistake had been inviting because did not meet minimum requirement, 20/100 better. Due petitioners' interviews terminated, neither offered pilot position. 5 light proffered reason rejecting them, filed charge discrimination under Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). receiving sue letter, suit District Court Colorado, alleging discriminated "on disability, [respondent] regarded [petitioners] disability" violation 26. Specifically, alleged due myopia they actually substantially limiting impairment 23 26, thus Act. 6 A. 96 121 (Aug. 28, 1996), Pet. Cert. A 27. Because fully correct impairments, court held limited any major life activity stated Id., 32 36. also determined sufficient support limits activity. 36 37. observed "[t]he statutory substantial limitation indicates employer regards employee handicapped his ability work finding employee's foreclose generally type involved." A36 A37. But only unable satisfy requirements particular job, global pilot. working. Employing logic, Appeals Tenth Circuit affirmed Court's judgment. 130 893 (1997). 7 Circuit's decision tension decisions other Courts Appeals. See, e.g., Bartlett New York State Bd. Law Examiners, 156 321, 329 (CA2 1998) (holding self-accommodations considered when determining disability), cert. pending, 98 1285; Baert Euclid Beverage, Ltd., 149 626, 629 630 (CA7 disabilities mitigating measures); Matczak Frankford Candy & Chocolate Co., 136 933, 937 938 (CA3 1997) (same); Arnold Parcel Service, Inc., 854, 859 866 (CA1 Washington HCA Health Servs. Texas, 152 464, 470 471 (CA5 some impairments evaluated state), 1365. granted certiorari, 525 ___ (1999), now affirm. II 8 covered entities, including private employers, qualified disability. it provides no "shall discriminate regard job application procedures, hiring, advancement, discharge employees, compensation, training, terms, conditions, privileges employment." 12112(a); §12111(2) ("The term 'covered entity' means employer, agency, labor organization, joint labor-management committee"). "qualified identified "an who, reasonable accommodation, perform essential functions position holds desires." §12111(8). turn, "disability" defined as: 9 "(A) physical mental one more individual; 10 "(B) record impairment; 11 "(C) being impairment." §12102(2). 12 fall definition must actual (subsection (A)), (B)), (C)). 13 parties agree authority issue regulations implement split primarily among three Government agencies. According parties, EEOC carry out provisions Title I ADA, §§12111 12117, pursuant §12116 ("Not later than year after [the date enactment Act], shall accessible format subchapter accordance chapter title 5"). Attorney General respect II, subtitle A, §§12131 12134, relates services. §12134 promulgate part"). Finally, Secretary Transportation pertaining transportation Titles III. §12149(a) regulations, format, necessary carrying subpart (other section 12143 title)"); §12164 (substantially same); §12186(a)(1) §12143(b) final section"). §12204 (granting Architectural Barriers Compliance Board guidelines supplement existing Minimum Guidelines Requirements Accessible Design). Moreover, these agencies authorized offer technical assistance regarding administer. §12206(c)(1) ("Each Federal agency responsibility paragraph (2) implementing may render institutions rights duties respective subchapters responsibility"). 14 No given applicable §§12101 12102, outside I-V. Most notably, delegated interpret "disability." Breyer's contrary, imaginative interpretation Act's delegation provisions, post, (dissenting opinion), belied terms structure has, nonetheless, issued provide additional guidance proper term. restating statute, 29 CFR 1630.2(g) (1998), define elements disability: (1) "physical "substantially limits," (3) "major activities." §§1630.2(h) (j). Under impairment" includes "[a]ny physiological disorder, condition, cosmetic disfigurement, anatomical loss affecting following body systems: neurological, musculoskeletal, special sense organs, respiratory (including speech organs), cardiovascular, reproductive, digestive, genito-urinary, hemic lymphatic, skin, endocrine." §1630.2(h)(1). limits" means, things, "[u]nable average person general population perform;" "[s]ignificantly restricted manner duration compared manner, same activity." §1630.2(j). "[m]ajor [l]ife [a]ctivities caring oneself, performing manual tasks, walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning, working." §1630.2(i). valid, validity decide case, occasion consider what deference due, if any. 15 interpretive aid implementation regulations. For time promulgated above "Interpretive Guidance," case basis, medicines, assistive prosthetic devices." pt. 1630, §1630.2(j) (1998) (describing §1630.2(j)). Department guideline. 28 35, §35.104 question assessed availability modification auxiliary aids services"); 36, B, §36.104 (same). Although dispute persuasive force guidelines, need due. III 16 With regulatory framework mind, turn first subsection (A) definition, is, possess activities. 12102(2)(A). "is better," 23, measures. our turns 17 maintain argue that, does directly address hand, defer interpretations embodied Justice. These specifically direct §1630.2(j); (1998); §36.104. 18 Respondent, maintains limit corrected. It argues cited conflict plain phrase activities," explains, requires limitations presently exist. argues, disregarding taken defies command examine effect "of individual." And even statute ambiguous, claims, guidelines' directive ignore reasonable, it. 19 approach adopted persons hypothetical impermissible Looking whole, apparent taking for, mitigate, effects those positive negative into account judging limited" "disabled" dissent relies legislative history contrary proposition examined state. (opinion Stevens, J.). its read ADA's history. 20 Three separate concert, lead us conclusion. defines "a activities" individual. §12102(2)(A) (emphasis added). appears present indicative verb form, think language requiring potentially hypothetically order demonstrate exists where activity, "might," "could," "would" taken. whose corrected medication To sure, still limi[t]" 21 "with individual" based Thus, individualized inquiry. Bragdon Abbott, 524 624, ____ (declining HIV infection per se ADA); necessarily name diagnosis rather individual"). 22 judged unmitigated runs counter inquiry mandated would often require courts speculate about person's condition would, many cases, make information how usually affects individuals, condition. view, almost certainly find all diabetics disabled, monitor blood sugar levels administer insulin, diabetic illness impair daily therefore simply he she diabetes. create system treated members group people individuals. This letter spirit anomalous result side suffered resulting very severe. Johnson, Antipsychotics: Pros Cons Antipsychotics, RN (noting antipsychotic drugs cause variety adverse effects, neuroleptic malignant syndrome painful seizures); Liver Risk Warning Added Parkinson's Drug, FDA Consumer (Mar. 1, 1999) (warning drug treating disease liver damage); Curry Kulling, Newer Antiepileptic Drugs, American Family Physician (Feb. (cataloging serious new antiepileptic drugs). inconsistent 24 critically, findings enacted part conclusion Congress intend bring statute's protection conditions amount found "some 43,000,000 disabilities, number increasing whole growing older." §12101(a)(1). figure pressed petitioners. 25 exact source 43 million clear, corresponding 1988 precursor drawn report prepared National Council Disability. Burgdorf, Act: Analysis Implications Second-Generation Civil Rights Statute, 26 Harv. Lib. L. Rev. 413, 434, n. 117 (1991) (reporting, article authored drafter original bill introduced 1988, quoted versions 1988). That detailed difficulty estimating varying operational definitions Disability, Toward Independence (1986). explained estimates ranged overinclusive 160 "health approach," looks health normal functional abilities individual, underinclusive 22.7 "work focuses individuals' reported work. 11. noted 35 [was] most commonly estimate." 10. included bill's clearly reflects defining closer approach. background clues likely Roughly two years issuing 1986 report, Disability updated report. On Threshold (1988). settled concrete 37.3 "difficulty "seeing, using stairs, lifting carrying, getting around outside, inside, bed." 19. study drew data took explicitly evaluating Dept. Commerce, Bureau Census, Functional Limitation, Insurance Coverage: 1984/85, p. measured "functional limitation" using, questionnaire put it, "special aids," hearing aids, used aids. 47. provided noninstitutionalized who over age 15. 5.7 gap between probably effort include excluded figure. Institute Rehabilitation Research, Data Interview Survey 1983 1985, pp. 61 62 (1988) (finding approximately 943,000 illness; 947,000 retardation; 1,900,000 limitation); Statistical Abstract 106 (1989) (Table 168) 1,553,000 resident patients nursing related care facilities (excluding hospital-based homes) 1986). 27 Regardless source, understanding largely devices estimate consistent numbers produced studies performed period Mathematica Policy drawing Center Statistics, 31.4 civilian "chronic status" 1979. Digest Persons (1984). 1989 data, well 32.7 "activity 1985. Abstract, supra, 115 184). limitations" relative age-sex "usual" activities: attending preschool, keeping house, living independently. Human Services, Vital Current Estimates Survey, 1989, Series 10, (1990). By contrast, nonfunctional approaches produce significantly larger numbers. As above, estimated there approach." Independence, 10; (arriving Census data). Indeed, alone 100 million. Advisory Eye Council, Vision Research Plan: 1999-2003, ("[M]ore lenses properly"). "It impaired hearing." Institutes Health, Strategic Hearing Impairment v (1996). 50 high pressure (hypertension). Tindall, Stalking Silent Killer; Hypertension, Business 37 (August ("Some pressure"). text, gives content Had intended Act, undoubtedly much higher findings. evidence coverage mitigated 30 dissents suggest viewing will exclude "disab[led]" limbs, J.), Breyer, take medicine epilepsy pressure, 14, suggestion incorrect. device not, itself, relieve one's Rather, if, notwithstanding device, example, limbs wheelchairs mobile capable functioning society walk run. lessen symptoms so function nevertheless remain limited. Alternatively, "cured" entity, C definition. nonuse determine disabled; depends faces fact limiting. 31 Applying reading correctly resolved favor. 20/20, Amended Complaint ¶36, ¶37e. concede "do itself demonstrates Brief 9, below IV Our end (C), "regarded as" §12102(2)(C). Subsection (C) "being having," §12102(2)(C), individual," §12102(2)(A). There ways definition: entity mistakenly believes activities, actual, nonlimiting entertain misperceptions believe either when, fact, "resul[t] stereotypic assumptions truly ability." 12101(7). School Nassau Cty. Arline, 480 273, 284 (1987) ("By amending 'handicapped individual' physically impaired, acknowledged society's accumulated myths fears handicapping flow impairment"); §1630.2(l) (explaining purpose prong cover "rejected 'myths, stereotypes' associated disabilities"). 33 impaired. do obvious argument seeing. contend claim, allegedly myth stereotype. Further, requirement engage working precluding obtaining pilot, "class ¶38. reply, class jobs 34 Standing alone, allegation place establish Post-Argument Respondent (advancing argument); al. Amici Curiae ("[U]nder EEOC's characteristics"). allows prefer attributes others criteria. An afoul makes real imagined, free characteristics medical rise level height, build, singing voice preferable others, just limiting, less ideally suited job. Considering tandem, "substantially" suggests "considerable" "specified large degree." Webster's Third International Dictionary 2280 (1976) (defining "in manner" "substantial" "considerable amount, value, worth" specified degree main"); Oxford English 66 67 (2d ed. 1989) ("substantial": "[r]elating proceeding essence thing; essential"; ample considerable quantity dimensions"). codified interpreting mean perform" restricted." §§1630.2(j)(1)(i),(ii) When consideration working, requires, minimum, plaintiffs broad jobs. Reflecting uses specialized referring working: "significantly range various classes comparable skills abilities. inability single, constitute §1630.2(j)(3)(i). 38 further identifies several factors geographical area access, "the types utilizing knowledge, abilities, area, disqualified." §§1630.2(j)(3)(ii)(A), (B). then, precluded choice. If (but perhaps unique talents) available, Similarly, host different 39 note, conceptual work, seems "to circle say excluded, [an others] . then exclusion constitutes you're asking handicap." Tr. Oral Arg. Co. O. T. 1986, 85 1277, (argument Solicitor General). expressed reluctance suggested viewed residual considered, last resort, "[i]f added) ("If working" added)). 40 Assuming deciding adequately poor eyesight holding positions "global pilot." ¶38f. single impairment. 1630.2(j)(3)(i) working"). skills, regional instructor few, available them. Even Interpretative Guidance, ask defer, minor co-pilot courier service, §1630.2. 41 assume carriers requirements, 44 45. assuming sake adoption represent flawed. enough criteria imputed imputation. otherwise valid height become invalid opportunities way employers. alleged, demonstrate, belief affirming disabled. reasons, ordered. Ginsburg, J., concurring 45 46 47 concurring. 48 12102(2)(A) reach legions correctable strongest Congress' perception domain (ADA), disabilities," §12101(a)(1), "individuals discrete insular minority," "subjected purposeful unequal treatment, relegated political powerlessness society," §12101(a)(7). declarations enormously embracing urge. demonstrates, ante, inclusion extend far people. poor, rely well-being, every social economic class; cluster politically powerless, nor coalesce historical victims discrimination. short, sensible rank diverse "discrete minority." constitutional presumptions doctrines apply insular" minorities contexts relevant here; dimension phrase, telling indication intent restrict confined, historically disadvantaged, class. dissenting 49 51 52 Breyer joins, dissenting. 53 1990, Air Lines hire unsafe unqualified Nor, likelihood, view wears member foreseen might theoretically encompass, Americans," 12101(a)(1), times number. Nevertheless, customary tools construction, quite clear threshold and, therefore, entitled assurances affords past mitigation resulted rehabilitation, self-improvement, devices, medication. One reasonably rule merely nearsighted wear glasses. faithful remedial give generous, miserly, construction. 54 really parts construction presented unquestionably focus answer eight nine issue,1 Executive bulletins construing namely, ameliorative characterized "minor, trivial 866, determinative suggesting "might result" simple, inexpensive remedy," eyeglasses, "that total relatively permanent control symptoms"). Servs., 464 (same), surely mind before turning facts 55 "As cases task words statute] sought serve." Chapman Houston Welfare Organization, 441 600, 608 (1979). expressly "purpose is] comprehensive national mandate elimination disabilities." 12101(b)(1). end, "discriminat[ing] employment. 12112(a) 56 "almost verbatim" 1973, C. §706(8)(B). 631 (1998). provides: 57 "The 'disability' 58 59 60 12102(2). identify mutually exclusive, categories. furnish overlapping formulas aimed ensuring have, ever had, example common illustrates point: lost industrial accidents, service country places like Iwo Jima. prostheses, coupled courageous therapy, hardy efficiently couch potato. concerned participate society, solely themselves majority lack prostheses. 63 sweep three-pronged pellucidly persons. artificial leg, restored inapplicable. Nor considers himself (or is) "cured," prospective him employable, subsections (B) emphasis form" (A), presumably apply. "presen[t] potentia[l] hypothetica[l]" ibid., "precluded jobs," 18, 64 my refuses "because of" prosthesis, prosthesis sheds revelatory status "[a] where" "present" "actual" protected once recovered. plainly covers previously since completely cured. 281 (1987). Still, understand opinion, continues worn cured covered, treatable ones not. text bizarre result. 65 prongs rather, plausibly together inquire currently "functionally" existence limits, limit, amelioration. avoids counterintuitive safeguards vanish employable ascertaining overcome limitations. extent doubt concerning ambiguity easily removed looking then-Justice Rehnquist Garcia States, 469 70 (1984): "In surveying repeatedly authoritative Legislature's lies Committee Reports bill, 'represen[t] collective Congressmen involved drafting studying proposed legislation.' " 76 (quoting Zuber Allen, 396 168, 186 (1969)). became abundantly help originated Senate. Senate Report states "whether accommodations aids." S. Rep. 101 116, (1989). explained, discussing prong: 68 "[An] important goal third [disability] ensure control, conditions. controlled diabetes denied qualified. Such denials attitudes misinformation." 24. 69 legislation House Representatives, Committees reiterated Senate's coverage, modification: clarified "correctable" "controllable" definitional well. Judiciary states, prong, considering accommodations, less-than-substantial limitation." H. R. 485, III, epilepsy, test," "even aid." 29. Education Labor likewise "[w]hether 52. matters perfectly plain, adds: 71 "For hard though through aid. Likewise, diabetes, medication." Ibid. 72 All Reports, indeed, replete references ordinarily treatment. 74 (citing approval Straithe Transportation, 716 F.2d 227 1983), "handicapped" aid); ("[t]he term" "epilepsy, heart disease, diabetes"); (listing impairments); (same).2 73 charged consistently interpreted mandating presence traditionally accorded views here, "played pivotal role setting statutory] machinery motion." Ford Motor Credit Milhollin, 444 555, 566 (1980) (brackets original; internal quotation marks citation omitted). At least, "constitute experience informed judgment [we] resort" guidance. Skidmore Swift 323 134, 139 140 (1944). Bragdon, U.S., 642 (invoking maxim Commission's (EEOC) ADA). Interpretive Guidance explains: 75 "[A]n legs walking devices. insulin lapse coma reached Its services." regulation adopting 77 judgment, uniform confirm message conveyed least insofar applies limb, hear, protects unjustified impairments. question, protecting minority" Americans" construe mind. 78 allegiant purpose, always takes ameliorate Amicus 6. "[T]here nothing vision," interprets justify case." 79 narrow avoid danger pilots endanger lives passengers, good "43,000,000 confine coverage. prevail unless prove 12112(a), can, functions" liability shows "job-related business necessity" (even 20/20) pose safety hazard. §§12113(a) (b). 80 words, genuinely posing undue risk. raises asks lets door Age Discrimination 1967 old, 631(a), VII 1964 force. Inside irrational characteristic beyond control. Hence, core, whether, "qualified," duty come forward legitimate explanation refusing eyesight, leaves decline acting purely fear 81 wrong adheres method benefit numbers" 13, long "familiar canon construed broadly effectuate purposes." Tcherepnin Knight, 389 332, 336 (1967). sought, enacting "provide seeks encouraging replace reflexive reactions perceived handicaps actions medically sound judgments." 285. pick choose meant mandate, so. 82 faced core prohibitions anti-discrimination statutes, statutes evils evil immediate concern passing legislation. Congress, focused entirely problem African-Americans 1964. Steelworkers Weber, 443 193, 202 203 possibly Hispanic-Americans Asian-Americans decided (ironically enough, relying according "great deference" "interpretation"), Caucasians. McDonald Santa Fe Trail Transp. 427 279 280 (1976). 83 unanimously well-accepted Term claims same-sex sexual harassment. Oncale Sundowner Offshore 523 follows: 84 observed, male-on-male harassment workplace assuredly principal VII. go evils, ultimately laws concerns legislators governed. 'discriminat[ion] sex' 'terms' 'conditions' kind meets requirements." 80. context J. Inc. Northwestern Bell Telephone 492 229 (1989), rejected Racketeer Influenced Corrupt Organization (RICO) "organized crime" preamble emphasizing problem. Pub. 91 452 §1, 941. RICO's history, concluded combat organized crime, cogent reasons chose enact which, although crime focus, crime." 248.3 86 followed standard controllable nature character accordingly. 87 me eminently policy hiring firing clarify why having, better requirement. So widely shared rare seriously misunderstood. Either way, stereotypes disparate treatment basis. 88 suggest, course, prohibit of, say, blue eyes, deformed fingernails, heights six feet. Those "impairments," us. While enhanced significant hindrance. Only percent suffers myopia.4 precludes driving, store, computer screen distance. Uncorrected vision, limiting" unmedicated be. obviously latter class, protection. 89 disagree logic Instead umbrella, decides, companion, expel "measures [to] [their] impairment[s]," able Court, hypertension "disability," Murphy remarkably (directly 7) treatments either, 90 "speculate" "hypothetical" preserve making "individualized inquiries" Ante, asserts rejection prevents distorting scope "much number" And, suspect, cowed persistent tidal wave lawsuits. None reasoning, justifies deprive beneficiaries legal affords. agencies' approach, contends, "would [which] ADA." mantra fails holding. designed deter stereotypes, people's Viewing "unmitigated" examining state, shares easy individually test off.5 92 Ironically, condones groups. misdirected permits dismiss hand specific qualifications seem allow refuse medication, limb. 93 apparently 15, group-based "exception" perverse still. Since dismantle barriers fears, 12101(a)(8); 283 284, especially ironic deny corrected, employable. Insofar assumes "notwithstanding device," respectfully empirical matter. course "stereotypic in, contribute to, society." 12101(a)(7). 94 treat "disabilities" ordinary expedient wearing flood litigation ensue. misguided. critical importance pilots, segments economy matter complete indifference difficult envision situations needs fired of," 12112 ridiculous garden-variety accounting firm, guideline incoming accountant or, token, seizures invidious 95 quality qualification Presumably insist justification doing (an today). glasses, fair will, file lawsuits claiming Yet already race, sex, religion, old age. never seen antidiscrimination providing baseless vexatious practice draws distinctions attributes, anxiety addressed presents employers' affirmative defenses. tenacious grip 12101(a)(1) figure's extrapolated law review "article 1988." "statement congressional thin reed base" Women, Scheidler, 510 249, 260 (1994). so, readily (although lofty estimates, inflated appear limiting). equally undeniable, "43 million" fixed cap class: "record categories, expected protect lack, counted What more, mining depths reports predate case's controlling acknowledge denying sizeable portion understood even, footnote margin shows, figure.6 Given fit word "disabled," wiser follow mention documents reflecting contemporaneous term: 99 Occupational hazards characterize trades. farsighted trouble seeing instrument panel near sighted identifying safe land. appellate judges sometimes subconsciously obscured legalize issues best sphere magnify already-overburdened judiciary. Jackson Virginia, 307, 326, 337 339 (1979) (Stevens, dissenting). explain chart own marked overwhelming consensus circuit judges, officials administering crabbed territory statute. express ultimate merits am persuaded dissent. Notes 1. 1998), 1365; 1998); Matcza 1997); Doane Omaha, 627 (CA8 Harris H W Contracting 102 516, 520 521 (CA11 1996); Holihan Lucky Stores, 362, 366 (CA9 1996). Sixth expressing rule, Gilday Mecosta County, 124 760, 766 768 (1997) (Kennedy, part); (Guy, part), sole line affirms today. 2. House's seems, retrospect, deliberate wise. Much borrowed Report; consciously move discussion adjustment prudent refuses, animus fear, knows controlled, "regards" 103 3. notable exception occurred Elec. Gilbert, 429 125 (1976), heavy weight federal appeals pregnancy-related swiftly "overruled" Pregnancy 1978, 2076, 2000e(k), submit opinions 146 Brennan, 4. Roberts, Binocular Visual Acuity Adults, 1960 1962, (National 11, Welfare, 1968). 105 5. reason, "lead "negative measures," misplaced. examples psychosis, presumption. "mitigating fairly said contagiousness symptomatic "contagiousness [may result] underlying condition," 282 (1987), (1986) (hypertension); (hypertension, diabetes); (epilepsy, hypertension); 114 (Tables 115) (diabetes, (1984) diabetes). 107 108 109 110 111 draw category wanted (those eyeglasses), want successfully prostheses epilepsy). Faced dilemma, language, structure, purposes, former line, Stevens (whose join) explains. add generous choice led too proved merit attention away protect, remedy. (EEOC), regulation, finer lines, excluding (say, lenses), thereby cabining overly extension fears. 112 questions uncertain possesses typical regulation-writing definitions. 7. poses 12116 says regulations" subchapter" (namely, §12111 §12117, subchapter); contains precedes "this subchapter," subchapter, refers. (Emphasis 113 Nonetheless, i.e., provision forbids disability." elaborate last-mentioned provision, elaboration needed "carry out" substantive subchapter." elaborated "this" places. power earlier enforcement location reflect stylistic, substantive, objectives. subchapter['s]" inhibit development coherently

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