Document: 533 U.S. 483121 S.Ct. 2381150 L.Ed.2d 500 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.NEW YORK TIMES COMPANY, INC., et al., PETITIONERSv.JONATHAN TASINI al. No. 00-201 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES June 25, 2001Argued March 28, 2001 Syllabus Respondent freelance authors (Authors) wrote articles (Articles) for newspapers and a magazine published by petitioners New York Times Company (Times), Newsday, Inc. (Newsday), Time, (Time). The Times, Time (Print Publishers) engaged Authors as independent contractors under contracts no instance secured an Author's consent placement Article electronic database. Print Publishers each licensed rights copy sell petitioner LEXIS/NEXIS, owner operator NEXIS. NEXIS computerized database containing text-only format from hundreds periodicals spanning many years. Subscribers access through computer, search using criteria such author subject, view, print, download article yielded search. An article's display identifies its original publication, date, section, initial page number, title, author, but appears isolation without visible link stories originally same periodical edition. does not reproduce publication's formatting features headline size placement. also has licensing agreements with University Microfilms International (UMI), authorizing reproduction materials on two CD-ROM products. One, OnDisc (NYTO), presented essentially way they appear LEXIS/NEXIS. other, General Periodicals (GPO), image-based system reproduces Times' Sunday Book Review Magazine exactly appeared printed pages, complete photographs, captions, advertisements, surrounding materials. products searchable much LEXIS/NEXIS; both, retrieved users provide links appearing publications. filed this suit, alleging their copyrights were infringed when, permitted facilitated Publishers, LEXIS/NEXIS UMI (Electronic placed Articles NEXIS, NYTO, GPO (Databases). sought declaratory injunctive relief, damages. In response Authors' complaint, Electronic raised privilege accorded collective work copyright owners §201(c) Copyright Act. That provision, pivotal case, reads: "Copyright separate contribution distinct whole, vests initially contribution. absence express transfer it, presumed have acquired only reproducing distributing part particular work, later series." District granted summary judgment, holding, inter alia, Databases reproduced distributed works, §201(c)'s words, "as [a] work" which had first contributed. Second Circuit reversed, granting judgment ground among works covered §201(c), specifically, "revisions" appeared. Held: Section 201(c) authorize copying at issue here. sheltered because distribute standing alone context, contributed, revision" thereof, Pp. 8-21. (a) Where, here, contributed author. §201(c). (here, Publisher) extends creative material "the preexisting employed work," §103(b). Congress enacted provisions 1976 Act address unfair situation prior law, whereby risked losing when work. recast bundle discrete "exclusive rights," §106, "may transferred owned separately," §201(d)(2). provided, §404(a), "a single notice applicable whole sufficient" protect contributors. Together, §404(a) preserve author's Under terms, publisher could reprint one magazine, edition encyclopedia revise itself include it new anthology entirely different Essentially, adjusts publisher's accommodate freelancer's her If there demand collection, allows freelancer benefit demand; after others. Cf. Stewart v. Abend, 495 207, 229, 230. It would scarcely contemplated if publisher, permission, copies within works. 8-12. (b) Publishers' view inclusion lies "privilege [Articles] unacceptable. determining whether been of" "revision," focuses to, perceptible by, Database user. See §§102, 101. Here, three present clear context provided either editions those editions. prompt universe contents: thousands millions files individual (i.e., editions), series (the NYTO) scores sundry titles GPO). When user conducts search, item result. graphics, formatting, was published. GPO, pages periodical. circumstance, "revision" viewed parts compendium namely, entirety Database. Each periodical, however, represents miniscule fraction ever-expanding massive recognizable version every small part. Furthermore, larger all, simply individually. bears marks origin suggests previously currently Databases' distribution invade core exclusive rights. analogy between microfilm microfiche wanting: Databases, unlike microfilm, disconnected context. Unlike conversion newsprint represent mere intact (or revisions periodicals) medium another. offer articles, periodicals. concept "media-neutrality" invoked should therefore rights, Publishers'. result changed can manipulate generate results consisting question assemble database, perceptibly presents accomplished these Databases. 12-19. (c) warning ruling will "devastating" consequences, punching gaping holes record history, unavailing. hardly follows decision injunction against (much less all databases) must issue. enter into agreement allowing continued works; they, necessary courts Congress, draw numerous models copyrighted remunerating distribution. event, speculation about future harms basis shrink authorial created Congress. leaves remedial issues open airing Court. 19-21.206 F.3d 161, affirmed. ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR SECOND CIRCUIT Ginsburg, J., delivered Court, Rehnquist, O'Connor, Scalia, Kennedy, Souter, Thomas, JJ., joined. Justice Ginsburg 1 case concerns presumptive publishers. litigation initiated six relates (two magazine). periodicals' publishers, freelancers' consent, computer companies along databases. Whether written staff member, retrievable isolation, presented. 2 authors' complaint alleged response, relied them Act, provides: 3 17 U.S.C. § 201(c).Specifically, publishers maintained that, i.e., publications, merely exercised privilege" accords "reproduc[e] distribut[e]" discretely 4 Circuit, we hold conclude, databases Both rule, authors. 5 * A 6 Respondents Jonathan Tasini, Mary Kay Blakely, Barbara Garson, Margot Mifflin, Sonia Jaffe Robbins, David S. Whitford (Authors). Between 1990 1993, 21 dispute centers. Blakely 12 daily newspaper (Times). eight another paper, (Newsday). Sports Illustrated, weekly registered Articles. (freelancers) Author database.1 7 At time published, (formerly Mead Data Central Corp.), stores information format. contains journals (newspapers text licenses portion texts. 8 Pursuant agreements, regularly batch Publisher codes facilitate retrieval, then transmits file. After further coding, places central discs 9 accessing headline, key term, words text, criteria. Responding command, scans informs number meeting user's includes (e.g., Times), date (September 23, 1990), section (Magazine), (26), title ("Remembering Jane"), (Mary Blakely). separate, isolated "story" contain pictures size, above below fold newspapers), location continuation pages. 10 (but Newsday Time) (UMI). products, (NYTO) (GPO). 11 Like NYTO system. name suggests, Times. three-way agreement, provides transmitted special codes. index NYTO. identifying (author, etc.), accompanying images. approximately 200 publications sections image-based, rather than text-based, facsimile Magazine. "burns" images onto CD-ROMs. CD-ROMs show abstracts GPO. 13 accessed enters query similar date). program searches available indexes abstracts, retrieves list matching query. result, disc. publications.2 B 14 On December 16, civil action Southern York. 201(c). discovery, both sides moved judgment. 15 holding shielded reproductions. 972 F. Supp. 804, 806 (1997). conferred transferable, court concluded, conveyed Publishers. Id., 816. Next, determined, To qualify "revisions," according court, need "preserve some significant aspect [collective works] selection arrangement." 821. criterion met, Court's preserved "selection articles" assembled issues. 823. "highlight[ed]" connection periodicals, observed, showing numbers. 824 ("[T]he technologies defendants' 'selection' tag remains evidentonline."). 16 appealed, reversed. 206 161 (1999). Appeals 167-170. Just "permit hard directly public even offered sale edition," reasoned, so allow "achieve goal indirectly" 168. Circuit's effectively achieved providing multitudes "individually retrievable" articles. Ibid. As stated Appeals, might fairly described "new antholog[ies] innumerable" do 169. Having concluded "does permit Publishers," acting "to license individually databases," did reach transferable. 165, n. 2. We certiorari determine privileged 531 978 (2000). conclude override copyrights, Accordingly, again like find unnecessary II 18 amended 1976, "[c]opyright protection subsists authorship fixed tangible expression perceived, reproduced, otherwise communicated." 102(a). When, "collective see §101 (defining work"), statute recognizes works: ." (emphasis added). "vests contribution" freelancer). publisher) Feist Publications, Rural Telephone Service Co., 499 340, 358 (1991) (copyright "compilation" term works," 101 limited compiler's "selection, coordination, arrangement"). 19 Prior revision, recognized, F.3d, 168; Supp., 815, Pre-1976 law recognized name. 1909, §18, 35 Stat. 1079. exercising superior bargaining power over authors, declined notices contributor's name, put jeopardy. A. Kaminstein, Divisibility Copyrights, Study 11, Law Revision Studies Nos. 11-13, prepared Senate Committee Judiciary, 86th Cong., 2d Sess., p. (1960). option assign right periodical; partial assignment blocked doctrine "indivisibility." id., 11. Thus, fall domain, unless copyright, entirety, passed publisher. 18. Such contract, perhaps easily enforced, retransfer back 20-22. Or, absent specific tacitly entire turn deemed "trust" benefit. 18-19; generally M. Nimmer, §10.01[C][2], pp. 10-12 10-14 20 acted "clarify improve [this] confused frequently legal respect contributions." H. R. Rep. 94-1476, 122 (1976) (hereinafter Rep.).3 rejected indivisibility, recasting 106 (1994 ed. V),4 §201(d)(2).5 And codified domains "copyright whole." bear requiring unqualified work." 122. describes circumscribes "privilege" acquires regarding work: 22 "In (Emphasis added.)A thus contract providing, all) categories "that "any accord Congress' prescription, "publishing company 1980 it; 122-123. 23 229 (1990) ("[w]hen produces commands higher price market bargain [i.e., renewal former 24] designed negotiate realized value work"); 230 (noting "inalienable termination right" current 203 302). 122, Gordon, Fine-Tuning Tasini: Privileges Distribution Reproduction, 66 Brooklyn L. Rev. 473, 484 (2000).6 III 24 instant several gave permission publish certain magazines. undisputed and, therefore, Articles.7 clear, moreover, least §106 assigns exclusively Authors: LEXIS/NEXIS' UMI's "reproduce copies" Articles, §106(1); UMI, selling CD-ROMs, Database, "distribute sale," §106(3); production "authorize" §106.8 25 Against charge infringement, here contend entered supra, 3, 1. Nor assert "fair use" 107 ("fair use infringement"; four factors identified relevant fair determination). Instead, rest agree. They contend, lie encompassing construction unacceptable, diminish 26 issue, focus §102 "from communicated"); (definitions "copies" "fixed"); Haemmerli, Commentary: Tasini Colum.-VLA. J. & Arts 129, 142-143 (1998). cannot how distributes " 27 One compendium, more constitutes constituent 400-page novel quoting sonnet passing poem. "Revision" denotes "version," is, setting, "distinct form something regarded creators others Webster's Third Dictionary 1944, 2545 (1976). 28 Alternatively, (less vivid GPO) But markings mean §106.9 29 press hand, microfiche, other. wanting. Microforms typically continuous photographic reproductions miniaturized film. microforms, writ very small, precisely position newspaper. example, beginning Blakely's "Remembering Jane" September 1990, edition; film position, Magazine, True, roll multiple editions, adjust machine lens Article, exclusion material. Nonetheless, encounters contrast, sees "Jane" apart remainder 26. 26, 27, day's short, thereof.10 30 Invoking "media neutrality," urge "transfer media" "alte[r] character purposes. Brief Petitioners 23. indeed true. 102(a) "fixed expression"). media neutrality extent now individually, outside media.11 31 For purpose hand imaginary library instructive.12 Rather maintaining article. Perhaps derive (if model GPO); typescript characters, still indicate periodical's well NYTO). store folders file room, indexed based diverse criteria, vast numbers patron requests, inhumanly speedy librarian room patron-specified 32 Viewing strange library, not, consistent ordinary English usage, characterize substance, differ aggregate packages CD-ROMs), while spatially files. crucial fact hypothetical retrieve separately domain storage retrieval overrides control 106(1), (3). Ryan Carl Corp., 1146 (ND Cal. 1998) (holding shop violation §201(c)). 33 claim By logic, cover if, request, library's expert However, third party produce noninfringing document infringing. 34 finally invoke Sony Corp. America Universal City Studios, Inc., 464 417 (1984). decision, genuinely aid argument. held "sale equipment" constitute contributory infringement equipment "capable substantial uses." 442. suggest liable theory end-user conduct, plead. "equipment"; And, explained, themselves, manipulation users, scope privilege. IV warn consequences. 49. note, easy texts going decades. Authors, suggest, punch history. echoed historians, Ken Burns Amici Curiae, discounted Ellen Schrecker Curiae; Guild, Jacques Barzun Curiae. 36 Notwithstanding dire predictions quarters, post, (Stevens, dissenting), today's 502(a) (court "may" enjoin infringement); Campbell Acuff-Rose Music, 510 569, 578, (1994) (goals "not always best served automatically relief"). parties (Authors See, e.g., 118(b); Broadcast Columbia Broadcasting System, 441 1, 4-6, (1979) (recounting history blanket music regimes decrees governing operation).13 established Agreeing leave 37 38 manner authorized place aiding endeavor. affirm Appeals. 39 ordered. 40 (FNStevens, dissenting opinion, Breyer, 41 1). contended freelancers who ruled Newsday's defense waived, Time's argument merits. Neither presses contention where begins, 78, continues ends. etc.). nor 79, page. wishes "flip" them. She conduct Two Registers Copyrights observed represented break two-hundred-year-old tradition closely author." Letter Peters McGovern, reprinted 147 Cong. Rec. E182 (Feb. 14, 2001) Letter) (quoting Ringer, First Thoughts N. Y. 477, 490 (1977)). intent enhance vis-a-vis evident Act's work-for-hire provisions. Community Creative Non-Violence Reid, 730, 742-750 (1989); 203(a)(5) (inalienable revoke transfer). adjustment author/publisher balance permissible "economic philosophy behind [Copyright Clause]," conviction encouragement effort [motivated] personal gain advance welfare." Harper Row, Nation Enterprises, 471 539, 558 (1985) Mazer Stein, 347 201, 219 (1954)). amended, "Subject 121, following: "(1) phonorecords; "(2) prepare derivative upon work; "(3) phonorecords ownership, rental, lease, lending; "(4) literary, musical, dramatic, choreographic pantomimes, motion audiovisual perform publicly; "(5) pictorial, graphic, sculptural including picture "(6) sound recordings, publicly means digital audio transmission." repetition 7, neither decide transferred. today maintain, enhance, "valuable protection." Post, 16-17 (opinion Stevens, J.). certain. reader obtain enable out buying years past, books compiling journalists Janet Flanner Ernie Pyle sold freely permanently line. present, collections reviews, commentaries, reportage prove popular Register reports "freelance experienced economic loss" due "digital revolution given [new] opportunities exploit works." E182. More point, dissent correct long-run, helped, hurt, reproductions, brought us asserted our conception interests "work[s] hire." 201(b). employer person whom treated write "employee[s]" "commissioned" instrument signed [both parties]" indicating shall considered ed., V) "work hire"). Satisfied Author, resolve score. argued vigorously. maintains "display" §106(5); "display," urges, shield E182-E183. takes starting point "what sent Databases." 6-11. ultimately what intermediate step production; general 14. Those characterization conclusion infringing partly "almost nothing copyrightable aspects [Print] 168 (CA2 1999). pass suffices distributed. apparently concludes banner "media-neutrality," considerably changed, long changes "necessitated medium." 9. lack dissent's confidence attributable nature media, grounding "medium-driven" necessity defense, 9, claims. reminder throughout private contractual arrangement. referred "electronic libraries." come coverage "libraries" used "libraries," authorizations libraries 108(a)(1) (reproduction "without direct indirect commercial advantage"); §108(b)(reproduction "solely purposes preservation security deposit research use"); §108(c) replacement phonorecord damaged, deteriorating, lost, stolen, existing stored become obsolete"). Courts nations, applying domestic laws, Internet violate freelancers. Union Syndicale des Journalistes Franais SDV Plurimdia (T.G.I., Strasbourg, Fr., Feb. 1998), Lodging Federation Journalists (IFJ) Amicus Station Association Generale Professionnels de Belgique (CA, Brussels, Belg., 9e ch., Oct. 1997), transl. Colum.-VLA 195 (1998); Heg De Volskrant B. V. (Dist. Ct., Amsterdam, Neth., Sept. 24, Arts, 181. French journalists' union newspaper-defendant compensating FR3 Syndicats Colmar, 15, IFJ Norway, reported, reached. Curiae 42 Breyer joins, dissenting. 43 raises impression concerning meaning word 1909 (1976 Act). Ironically, seems unwilling acknowledge far extensive merit characterization. 44 explain my disagreement I identify principal goals discuss analytically questions blended together discussion revisions. versions publishers) "revision[s]" definitely are. second aggregation Databases) equation. think not. Finally, consider implications broader policy case. 45 majority correctly observes, perilous one. Although pre-1976 included lost refused Nimmer (2001). 46 harsh rule was, exacerbated "indivisibility," prevented assigning herself.1 indivisibility combination danger protection, pressure seeking trust. 18-22 (1960) (herinafter Kaminstein).2 often mercy tried reclaim copyright. 21.3 47 whose writings First, legislative unambiguously reveals, most aims Rep.) (discussing Indeed, states 48 change effected clarified While effect encouraging creates opposite incentive, stating contrary, series."4 intended limitation give away primarily keep "revis[ing] includ[ing] 122-123.5 49 surely approach attempt 'clarify situation' existed regime. undoubtedly true drafters hoped "enhance patron." Ante, 3. follow, efforts contribution," honored finding favor respondent 50 petitioners' actions lawful fully impact status respondents' contributions.6 virtue respondents remain Moreover, modified contributions nor, Part II, 122-123 Because obvious reaches clearly disagree "shrink rights" "Congress [has] established." 51 Not provision distribut[e] then, argue various "reproduc[tion] distribut[ion] [of] revision[s] [the original] work[s]" agree form, transmission once receive anything deprive 52 proper analysis benefits incremental approach. begin discussing largely ignores: collection periodically send paper. exist "part "revision"? majority, believe inquiry "context" 16. enough. 53 indicates (with exception Disc (GPO)) ASCII representing editorial content day.7 App. 73a. additional coding help readers searches. article, adds "headline, byline title," paper appeared," appeared." 75a-76a.8 54 compelling reason why corresponding alone, argued, do, presentation own makes impossible amounts "revision." 34. overall itself, question. hallmarks policy, recognizes, ante, 17, principle neutrality. 53. 55 No doubts Braille, foreign language, microform, though look feel quite original. differences, being employed. Similarly, convert explained little reflects medium. divided "sections" "pages" reader's navigation large batches newsprint, too subdivide facilitates information. bare-bones make trying wade exercise frustration.9 56 groups sends "revision[s]," reasoning strongly accept emphasis differences admittedly qualifies §201(c).10 article-files, microform necessitated principles implicitly criticizes ASCII-text inability "in edition." 16.11 57 files, edition, explicitly refers substantially time, readily accessible disputes pieces looking appeared, labeling insufficient establish exists 15. group 58 addition labels, day. coded characterized say because, noted, process, process decides "All News That's Fit Print," important element contribute publish. 823 (SDNY 1997).12 superficial column width format, all-important wholly article-files 59 up ACSCII suppose instead transmitting making saves floppy disk, labels disk "New October 31, 2000," sells creative, reader, his finger tips explicit reference tags remind 2000. work"; Yet essential lacking. contained none unable flip 60 Once accepts premise 2000, treat differently set folder republished 61 next question, strips status. heart respect, understand received processed data points editions." already addressed concerns. Second, unrelated commingling ibid. Even could, say, contain, day 2000 (and years) disagree. 62 book store. reminds he viewing fingertips.13 63 surrounded content, conceptualized database). 14-15. becomes ability conceive revision. 201(c)'s requirement compel answer cease shelf counterintuitive choose rolls year's Herald-Tribune. alter relationship it. 64 media-specific necessities reasonable interest. microfilm. intrinsic dictates she copy, little) print. employ product infringes violates third-party behavior attributed database.14 417, 434 65 My reading possible complex nevertheless, statutory faithful statute's Respect policies motivating enactment, turn, wrong reject likely anticipate developments occurred 1980s rise practices challenged litigation. Miller, Protection Computer Programs, Generated Works: Is Anything Since CONTU?, Harv. 977, 979 (1993) (in decided avoid grappling technological obviously required study willing them").15 resolving ambiguities statute, mindful underlying law. 67 Macaulay tax giving bounty writers." T. Macaulay, Speeches (A. Thorndike 1915) restricts dissemination writings, insofar encourage production, bounty's basic objective. Const., Art. I, §8, cl. 8. "[t]he primary reward secure 'the derived labors authors.' §1.03[A] (2001) Fox Film Doyal, 286 123, 127 (1932)); Uneasy Case Copyright: Books, Photocopies, 84 281, 282 (1970) twin protecting desire ideas incentives them). majority's unnecessarily subverts fundamental narrow "authorial rights." 21. certainly laudable sentiment,16 demands "private motivation serve cause promoting broad availability literature, music, arts." Twentieth Century Music Aiken, 422 151, 156 (1975) 68 discounts comprehensive databases, 19-21, am confident. amici persuasively difficulties locating potential exposure damages forcing archives purge databases.17 "The omission collections, scale occasional basis, undermines historians efficiency, accuracy comprehensiveness."18 13. 69 deprives retrospective victory today).19 Imagine, John Keats' Ode Grecian Urn, Keats retains valuable protection. matter ode be, unlikely although marketed stand-alone art. ode, candidate romantic poets, poems [poem] passing," compensation use. 228 works). enhanced, decreased, accessibility readership ready subsequently benefit, injury, poem's identification piece, database's indication poem prestigious date. He care whit indicated What overwhelmingly maximizing remaining uses. 70 prospective counsel oral argument, since 1995, grant Tr. Oral Arg. 7. receive. understandable freestanding probably reflect "demand alone," greedily helping themselves. 1146, 1150-1151 added significant"). 71 quickly comments historian Douglas Brinkley instructive respect: 72 'As historian, want biography, I'm biography Bill Clinton, thing [the] get Clinton's ever I'd that. So you'd boxes month, here's Clinton month. You fill Foreign Affairs Policy Yorker, start getting your Clinton.' Panel Discussion: Observer's View (D. Brinkley, Frankel, Sidey), White House Historical (Nov. 2000) (C-SPAN Archives 160577) (quoted 17).Users go score Tasini.20 Rather, (intact) ("The accuracy, reliability, comprehensiveness immediacy full-text few researches reaped advancement technology information"). 73 drafting purposes, better reading, reverse know effects certain, little, any, readers. NOTES: Contractual attempts create licenses, failure accompany allowed domain. §10.01[A], 10-5; Goodis Artists Television, 425 F.2d 397 1970) (creating fiction trust "beneficial owner," author). "Usually, perfectly return everything except enumerated serial There allegations smaller sometimes entitled share subsidiary refuse reassign, insist sharing profits sales picture, television dramatic users. cases, undertake burden proving demonstrating capacity sue." Kaminstein Garson Robbins completely nontransferable. 26-29. properly 815-816 which, supported prohibits farming mundane task printing reached 7; 2000), further. representatives objected earlier draft read contributions. 'as it.' 819. Harriet Pilpel, prominent representative," expressed following concern: "I wording, wording end subsection ' 'any work' terms changing contributions, order, writers photographers object. implication, ambiguity, somehow consequently absolutely clear.' 1964 Discussions Comments, 89th 1st pt. 5, (H. Comm. 1965), quoted retained republish drain value. infra, 17. retain Only respondents, topical anthologies (American Standard Code Information Interchange) standard storing textual data. unique binary code letter alphabet, numbers, punctuation, characters. convey graphical MacKenzie, Coded Character Sets: History Development 211-213 (1980). Substantially publication. 74a. 287 Conversely, memory-intensive graphics underpowered computers appropriate divide manageably sized subfiles. logical unit. April 1996, neighborhood megabytes memory file, whereas range megabytes, depending length 4-5, reliance 2, "appear context," criticism medium-driven down smaller, unwieldy article-units. supra. paradigm, epitome sufficient originality gather conducting simple "library": "date(is 10/31/2000)." finds "cop[ying]" "distribut[ing]" public. accurate copies. wisely §106. 13, 116. quarter century became [in existence] grown factor . 1975, 301 existence million records. 11,681 1999 nearly 12.86 billion records growth 242." Williams, Highlights Online Industry Internet: Proceedings 21st Annual National Meeting (Williams 2000). 286-290 (criticizing rights). perverse consequence turns full circle situation. problem congressional entirety. least, fashion remedy courts. Compare 108(d)(1). remember prospect payment stimulate presumably awareness assuming, does, 12, 6, adverse compilations fail how, microform. With difference speed desired bar conceivable innovation 'give[] works.' insurance carefully struck society ideas. promote inventors enjoy Right[s]," "for Times" added)); incentive comes expense equally (at perspective policy) single-minded lead cites 'economic Clause]' adjusted balance" types uses embodied But, 14-15, begs established," added), amount "diminish[ing]" "rights" "our interests." 12-13,

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