Document: 481 U.S. 279 107 S.Ct. 1756 95 L.Ed.2d 262 Warren McCLESKEY, Petitionerv.Ralph KEMP, Superintendent, Georgia Diagnostic and Classification Center. No. 84-6811. Argued Oct. 15, 1986. Decided April 22, 1987. Rehearing Denied June 8, See 482 920, 3199. Syllabus In 1978, petitioner, a black man, was convicted in trial court of armed robbery murder, arising from the killing white police officer during store. Pursuant to statutes, jury at penalty hearing considered mitigating aggravating circumstances petitioner's conduct recommended death on murder charge. The followed recommendation, Supreme Court affirmed. After unsuccessfully seeking postconviction relief state courts, petitioner sought habeas corpus Federal District Court. His petition included claim that capital sentencing process administered racially discriminatory manner violation Eighth Fourteenth Amendments. support claim, proffered statistical study (the Baldus study) purports show disparity imposition sentence based victim's race and, lesser extent, defendant's race. is over 2,000 cases occurred 1970's, involves data relating race, various combinations such persons' races. indicates defendants who killed victims have greatest likelihood receiving penalty. Rejecting constitutional claims, denied his insofar as it study, Appeals affirmed Court's decision this issue. It assumed validity but found statistics insufficient demonstrate unconstitutional discrimination Amendment context or irrationality, arbitrariness, capriciousness under analysis. Held: 1. does not establish administration punishment system violates Equal Protection Clause. Pp. 291-299. (a) To prevail Clause, must prove decisionmakers case acted with purpose. Petitioner offered no evidence specific own would an inference racial considerations played part sentence, any This has accepted proof intent discriminate State's selection venire statutory violations Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964. However, nature relationship are fundamentally different corresponding elements venire-selection cases. Petitioner's proffer be viewed challenge decisions heart criminal justice system. Because discretion essential process, exceptionally clear required before will infer been abused. 292-297. 1 (b) There merit argument proves State violated Clause by adopting statute allowing remain force despite its allegedly application. For prevail, Legislature enacted maintained because anticipated effect. legislature either further purpose, disproportionate impact suggested study. 297—299. 2 2. demonstrates Amendment's prohibition cruel unusual analyzed light prior Amendment. Decisions since Furman v. Georgia, 408 238, 92 2726, 33 346, identified constitutionally permissible range imposing First, there threshold below which cannot imposed, rational criteria narrow decisionmaker's judgment whether particular meet threshold. Second, States limit sentencer's consideration relevant circumstance could cause decline impose respect, channel discretion, allow consider information defendant. 299-306. 3 3. 306-313. 4 successfully argue sentences other On one hand, he base differs did receive imposed State. absent showing operates arbitrary capricious manner, demonstrating may similarly situated opportunities for discretionary leniency law render capricious. procedures focus "on particularized crime characteristics individual defendant," presumed "wantonly freakishly" thus within recognized meaning Gregg 428 153, 206, 207, 96 2909, 2940, 2941, 49 859. 306-308. 5 contention shows Georgia's do enters into factor case. prejudice shown constitute measure unacceptable risk prejudice. inherent lack predictability justify their condemnation. contrary, jury's function make difficult uniquely human judgments defy codification build equity, flexibility legal 308-312. 6 (c) At most, discrepancy appears correlate major systemic defect. Any mode determining guilt weaknesses potential misuse. Despite imperfections, guarantees met when surrounded safeguards fair possible. 312-313. 7 4. taken logical conclusion, throws serious question principles underlie entire easily extended apply types penalties claims unexplained discrepancies correlating membership minority groups even gender. Constitution require eliminate demonstrable correlates potentially irrelevant order operate includes punishment. arguments best presented legislative bodies, courts. 314-319. 8 753 F.2d 877 (11th Cir.1985), 9 POWELL, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, JJ., joined. BRENNAN, filed dissenting MARSHALL, joined, all Part I BLACKMUN, STEVENS, post, p. ----. MARSHALL IV-B 10 John Charles Boger, New York City, petitioner. 11 Mary Beth Westmoreland, Atlanta, Ga., respondent. 12 Justice POWELL 13 presents complex enter determinations McCleskey's 14 * McCleskey, two counts count Superior Fulton County, October 12, 1978. convictions arose out furniture store course robbery. indicated McCleskey three accomplices planned carried All four were armed. entered front while rear. secured rounding up customers forcing them lie face down floor. rounded employees rear tied tape. manager forced gunpoint turn receipts, watch, $6. During robbery, officer, answering silent alarm, through door. As walking center aisle store, shots fired. Both struck officer. One hit him him. 15 Several weeks later, arrested connection unrelated offense. He confessed had participated shot trial, introduced least bullets fired .38 caliber Rossi revolver. description matched gun also testimony witnesses heard admit shooting. 16 murder.1 hearing,2 appropriate sentence. Under law, unless beyond reasonable doubt accompanied circumstances. Ga.Code Ann. § 17-10-30(c) (1982).3 exist doubt: committed 17-10-30(b)(2); upon peace engaged performance duties, 17-10-30(b)(8). making conduct. 17-10-2(c). evidence. sentenced charge consecutive life charges. recommendation death.4 17 appeal, sentences. State, 245 Ga. 108, 263 S.E.2d 146 (1980). writ certiorari. 449 891, 101 253, 66 119 County extraordinary motion new trial. then Butts County. holding evidentiary hearing, relief. Zant, 4909 (Apr. 1981). application certificate probable appeal denial petition, 81-5523, again 454 1093, 102 659, 70 631 (1981). 18 next Northern Georgia. raised Amendments United Constitution. performed Professors David C. Baldus, Pulaski, George Woodworth, victim actually sophisticated studies examine 1970's. raw numbers collected Professor indicate charged persons received 11% cases, blacks only 1% reverse according defendant: 4% penalty, opposed 7% defendants. 19 divided combination defendant victim. assessed 22% involving victims; 8% 3% victims. Similarly, prosecutors 70% 32% 15% 19% 20 subjected extensive analysis, taking account 230 variables explained disparities nonracial grounds. models concludes that, after 39 variables, 4.3 times likely blacks. According model, 1.1 Thus, defendants, kill penalty.5 21 held petition. Although believed foreclosed Fifth Circuit's Spinkellink Wainwright, 578 582, 612-616 (1978), cert. denied, 440 976, 99 1548, 59 796 (1979), nevertheless care. concluded "statistics prima facie victim, concern." 580 F.Supp. 338, 379 (ND Ga.1984). methodology flawed several respects.6 these defects, "fail[ed] contribute anything value" claim. Id., 372 (emphasis omitted). Accordingly, 22 Eleventh Circuit, sitting en banc, carefully reviewed (1985). itself addressed merits claims. That is, "showed systematic substantial existed homicide less rate factors work County." 895. Even assuming study's validity, "insufficient context, [and] arbitrariness kind analysis." 891. noted: 23 "The very exercise means exercising reach results exact duplicates. Assuming each result correct eyes law. sense facially constitutional, same time hold where achieved what appear duplicates, reasons difference. . 24 approach take contended duplicate facts, differences otherwise explained, conclude alone. ignores realities. are, fact, duplicates crimes type research submitted here tends directed effective, restricted use undirected control discretion." 898-899. concluded: 25 "Viewed broadly, seem here, confirms rather than condemns marginal state's working far differently [v. 346 (1972) ] condemned. pre-Furman days, rhyme reason got not. But now, vast majority difference well documented. they so small percentage declare unconstitutional." 899. 26 judges We granted certiorari, 478 1019, 106 3331, 737 (1986), now affirm. II 27 first Amendment.7 argues infected ways: whites more blacks, murderers murderers.8 discriminated against broadest form, extends every actor prosecutor allows effect agree Appeals, challenge,9 fail. 28 Our analysis begins basic principle alleges equal protection burden proving "the existence purposeful discrimination." Whitus 385 545, 550, 87 643, 646, 599 (1967).10 A corollary "had effect" Wayte States, 470 598, 608, 105 1524, 1531, 84 547 offers Instead, relies solely study.11 compels rests discrimination. sufficient discrimination, without regard facts case, extend black. 29 certain limited contexts. district. normally present "stark" pattern sole Constitution,12 Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 429 252, 266, 97 555, 563, 50 450 (1977), "[b]ecause jury-selection task, we permitted finding [such] extremes." n. 13, S.Ct., 13.13 form multiple-regression Bazemore Friday, 385, 400-401, 3000, 3009, 315 (1986) (opinion concurring part). 30 decision, Most importantly, made petit selected properly constituted venire. Each unique composition, requires rest innumerable vary Hitchcock Dugger, 393, 398-399, 1821, 1824, 347; Lockett Ohio, 438 586, 602-605, 98 2954, 2963-65, 57 973 (1978) (plurality Burger, C.J.). drawn general simply comparable venireselection those relate fewer entities,14 challenged decisions.15 31 Another important between contexts, decisionmaker opportunity explain disparity. U.S., 552, 647; Texas Dept. Community Affairs Burdine, 248, 254, 1089, 1094, 67 207 (1981); McDonnell Douglas Corp. Green, 411 792, 802, 93 1817, 36 668 (1973). Here, practical rebut "[C]ontrolling public policy," McDonald Pless, 238 264, 267, 35 783, 784, L.Ed. 1300 (1915), dictate jurors "cannot called testify motives influences led verdict." Chicago, B. & Q.R. Co. Babcock, 204 585, 593, 326, 327, 51 636 (1907). policy behind prosecutor's traditionally "wide discretion"16 suggest impropriety our requiring defend seek penalties, "often years made."17 Imbler Pachtman, 424 409, 425-426, 984, 992-993, 47 128 (1976).18 Moreover, stronger proof, unnecessary rebuttal, legitimate unchallenged explanation apparent record: act laws permit penalty.19 32 Finally, challenge. challenges "[O]ne society's most tasks protecting lives citizens ways achieves task murder." 226, 2949, 859 (1976) (WHITE, concurring). Implementation necessarily judgments. demand issue counsels clearly B suggests whole " '[d]iscriminatory purpose' implies volition awareness consequences. decisionmaker, legislature, reaffirmed action 'because of,' merely 'in spite adverse effects identifiable group." Personnel Administrator Massachusetts Feeney, 442 256, 279, 2282, 2296, 60 870 (1979) (footnote citation 608-609, 1531-1532. supra, neutral manner. then, none purpose.20 34 Nor demonstrated maintains legislatures wide choice adopt maintain punishment, see 183-187, 2929-2931 (joint Stewart, JJ.), purpose Georgia.21 reject III Amendment.22 begin reviewing restrictions established prohibits infliction "cruel punishments." early examined "particular methods execution determine too pass muster." 170, 2923. re Kemmler, 136 436, 930, 519 (1890) (electrocution); Wilkerson Utah, (9 Otto) 130, 345 (1879) (public shooting). Subsequently, punishments "is fastened obsolete acquire becomes enlightened humane justice." Weems 217 349, 378, 544, 553, 54 793 (1910). Weems, second Amendment, "that should graduated proportioned offense." 367, 549. 37 Chief Warren, writing plurality Trop Dulles, 356 86, 99, 78 590, 597, 630 (1958), acknowledged constitutionality view, "basic concept underlying Amendment" area accord dignity man." 100, 597. applying mandate, guided statement "[t]he draw evolving standards decency mark progress maturing society." 101, 598. informed "contemporary values concerning sanction," 173, 2925. assessing contemporary values, eschewed subjective judgment, instead ascertain "objective indicia reflect attitude toward given sanction." Ibid. First among legislatures, "because weighs heavily ascertaining" standards, id., 175, 2926. juries, "a significant reliable objective index values," 181, 2928. recent rested examination values. E.g., Enmund Florida, 458 782, 789-796, 3368, 3372-3376, 73 1140 (1982) (felony murder); Coker 433 584, 592-597, 2861, 2866-2867, 53 982 (1977) J.) (rape); 179-182, 2928-2929 (murder). 38 Two principal guide resolution (1972), irrationally excessive. statutes Furman, basis proportionate crime: "[T]he [was] exacted great infrequency atrocious meaningful distinguishing few many not." 313, 2764 Gregg, specifically left open Furman—whether "under circumstances, 'cruel unusual' Constitution." 168, 2922. noted "has long history acceptance both England." 176, 2926 STEWART, JJ.). marked indication endorsement response Furman." 179, 4-year period reenacted Congress authorized aircraft piracy. 179-180, 2928.23 "actions juries" "fully compatible judgments." 182, 2929. might unconstitutionally severe if inflicted penological justification, "Considerations federalism, respect ability evaluate, terms moral consensus social utility sanction, us conclude, absence convincing evidence, justification severe." 186-187, 2931. 40 embodied statute. fundamental "where afforded body matter grave determination spared, suitably minimize wholly action." 189, 2932. Numerous features concerns articulated Furman.24 bifurcates proceedings can influence narrows class murders subject finds doubt. Conversely, introduce 163-164, 2920. inquiry 'the offense together character propensities offender.' 2932 (quoting Pennsylvania ex rel. Sullivan Ashe, 302 51, 55, 58 59, 60, 82 43 (1937)). "while some still exists, exercised controlled produce non-discriminatory application.' 197-198, 2936 Coley 231 829, 834, 612, 615 (1974)). adds "an additional safeguard caprice" provision automatic 198, 2936. review passion prejudice, supports circumstance, generally similar aid court's review, judge answers questionnaire about including detailed questions quality representation role trial." 167, C 41 decided number requirements ensure individualized contemplated Gregg. Woodson North Carolina, 280, 2978, 944 (1976), invalidated mandatory system, "respect humanity record offender indispensable inflicting death." 304, 2991 JJ.) (citation "narrow punishment," 196, 2936, providing "specific guidance" sentencer.25 Proffitt 242, 2960, 2967, 913 42 contrast defined limits sentence.26 sentencer [cannot] precluded considering, factor, aspect proffers 604, 2964 C.J.) original; footnote Skipper South 476 1, 1669, 90 (1986). exclusion "compassionate stemming diverse frailties humankind" fail treat "uniquely beings." 2991. centered stopped statute, probed example, Godfrey 446 420, 100 1759, 64 398 (1980), interpretation "outrageously wantonly vile, horrible inhuman involved torture, depravity mind, aggravated battery victim." 27-2534.1(b)(7) (1978).27 adequate limiting definition phrase, broad vitiated guiding discretion. 44 community applied substantive limitations rape adult woman. (1982), prohibited felony possessed sufficiently culpable mental state. recently, Ford 477 399, 2595, 91 335 prisoners insane. D 45 sum, imposed. societal prevents IV A. 46 precedents "disproportionate traditional sense." Pulley Harris, 465 37, 43, 104 871, 876, 79 (1984). deny determined 187, disproportionality sort." 876. supported conclusion appendix containing citations murders. 17-10-35(e) (1982). adequately proportionality required. 50-51, 879. 48 confronted processing law," 199, 2937, leniency, rendered rejected contention: stages determinative issues us. makes remove candidate contrast, dealt Nothing afford mercy capriciously group offenders, authority defendant." Ibid.28 lawfully presume facial foreclose argument, contends application, therefore excessive, address 52 evaluate challenge, exactly show. contend statisticsprove case.29 Statistics decisions. course, influencing risks kinds trials. infra, 315-319. point unacceptable," Turner Murray, 28, 36, 1683, 1688, asks accept do. "unceasing efforts" eradicate Batson Kentucky, 79, 85, 1712, 1716, 69 (1986).30 efforts recognition inestimable privilege vital principle, justice," Ex parte Milligan, Wall. 2, 123, 281 (1866). Duncan Louisiana, 391 145, 155, 88 1444, 1450, 491 (1968).31 "protection liberty color prejudice." Strauder West Virginia, (10 303, 309, 664 (1880). Specifically, representative assures 'diffused impartiality,' Taylor 419 522, 530, 692, 697, 690 (1975) Thiel Southern Pacific Co., 328 217, 227, 989, 1181 (1946) (Frankfurter, dissenting)), "express[ing] conscience ultimate death," Witherspoon Illinois, 510, 519, 1770, 1775, 776 (1968).32 Individual bring deliberations "qualities varieties experience, unknown perhaps unknowable." Peters Kiff, 407 493, 503, 2163, 2168, 83 J.). collective surprising often explain. "buil[d] system." H. Kalven Zeisel, American Jury 498 (1966). 55 allowed antithetical Discretion benefits Not convict choose Whereas interest reversed exercises final unreviewable.33 capacity prosecutorial provide "firmly entrenched law." W. LaFave D. Israel, Criminal Procedure 13.2(a), 160 noted, charge, offer plea bargain,34 supra. Of power lenient [also] discriminate," K. Davis, Discretionary 170 (1973), acts "would totally alien notions 200, 50, 50. 56 Apparent inevitable system.35 cry defects Furman," 54, 881.36 recognized, misuse." Singer 380 24, 35, 85 790, (1965). Bordenkircher Hayes, 434 357, 365, 663, 669, 604 (1978). "there 'no perfect procedure deciding governmental used death.' Zant Stephens, 462 862, 884, 103 2733, 2746, 77 235 (1983) 605, 2965 C.J.)). consistent rule [for punishment] possible." 790. Where involved, assume invidious. designed bias value provides affecting process.37 V inform applies penalties. Solem Helm, 463 277, 289-290, 3001, 637 (1983); Rummel Estelle, 445 263, 293, 1133, 1149, 63 382 (1980) (POWELL, dissenting). impermissibly tainted soon faced penalty.38 groups,39 gender.40 relates equally sex actors defense attorneys41, judges.42 Also, need sexual bias. If touchstone could—at theory—be variable, characteristics,43 physical attractiveness victim,44 influential decisionmaking. examples illustrate, brought McCleskey.45 stated "plac[e] unrealistic conditions use." bodies. responsibility—or indeed right—of crimes. elected representatives people, "constituted respond consequently people." 383, 2800 (Burger, Legislatures better qualified weigh "evaluate local available courts," 186, Capital two-thirds States. duty courts case-by-case consistently wide-ranging basically multiracial society, 283-285, applied. Circuit correctly done VI affirm Circuit. ordered. 61 whom joins, BLACKMUN STEVENS join I, dissenting. 62 Adhering my view forbidden Amendments, vacate undisturbed 2950, (BRENNAN, observes Gregg-type imposes unprecedented special "ensure degree care described unique." Ante, 325, 37. Notwithstanding efforts, Exhibit DB 82. convey powerfully intractable reality penalty: effort sanction plainly doomed failure it—and penalty—must abandoned altogether." 442, 1772, (MARSHALL, judgment). position, however, While Parts IV-A BLACKMUN's discussing write separately emphasize how conclusively precisely irrationality condemned jurisprudence. doubtless asked lawyer die. candid reply disturbing. counsel tell details past fact white. Supplemental Exhibits (Supp. Exh.) Furthermore, feel bound addition, frankness compel disclosure sentence: person black, Supp. Exh. while, McCleskey's, die 54. assessment complete featuring story told variety ways, grasp narrative line: chance play prominent lived died. 65 today holds fault lawyers clients casts large shadow process. arrives stating "prove case." 308 original). Since, say "to certainty" influenced ante, 308, 29, identify decisions," race." 312. "likelihood" "discrepancy," violation. reaches placing scales opposite evidence: desire encourage "statutory safeguards" scheme, fear encouraging widespread decisions, judicial role. evaluation significance odds concern rationality sentencing, invokes discount ignoring force. outset observation evaluating Since concerned proven one. "may create manner." 427, 1764. O'CONNOR observed Caldwell Mississippi, 472 320, 343, 2633, 2647, 86 (1985), "creat[e] [may been] meted arbitrarily capriciously' 'whim mistake' added) California Ramos, 992, 999, 3446, 3452, 1171 (1983)). emphasis acknowledges difficulty divining motivation reflects focuses whole, probability impermissible regarded rational.1 said looks (as today)": plaintiff "pattern sentencing." 195, 46, 2935, result, Godfrey, instance, vagueness heinous created decision. vacating ask Godfrey's reflected operation irrational considerations. demonstration Roberts 974 rely Such arise, said, reluctant refuse return conviction, recreate unbounded Furman. Roberts, 334-335, 3006-3007 opinion); Woodson, 2990 opinion). rejection factors. juries 68 Defendants challenging never posed occurrence. differ, earlier cases: speculation operate, empirical documentation operate. assumes plays ----, 7. Nonetheless, concern. Close reveals intolerable imaginable standard. legitimately sentencer, spared distinguishes (1) virtually strength weakness usually outcome appropriate;2 (2) reflecting "intermediate" level aggravation, considerable choosing sentence.3 falls intermediate range. 34% white-victim 14% black-victim crimes, 139% words, just 59%—almost 10—defendants black.4 71 factoring little sentencing. accounts six comparably 5%. 120% greater Put another way, half—55%—of 200 powerful variation rates—as conviction acting planner homicide.5 72 These adjusted figures conservative Data unadjusted pronounced almost 47. nearly victims, 56. upholding executed seven persons. whites, black.6 especially striking encompassed 9.2% homicides 60.7% product patterns aggregate, though able reconstitute certainty goes pattern. Multiple-regression particularly suited pattern.7 decisionmaking complex, massive compilation 1964 last term include conceivable variable party's conducted regression analyses criticisms suggestions confirmed, strengthened, original conclusions. 74 relentlessly documents acceptable, shaped infecting proceeding finality sentence," "[i]t importance be, caprice emotion," Gardner 430 358, 1197, 1204, 393 (1977). defendant, error Surely, willing person's gravity stake, jurisprudence 75 Evaluation themselves. consonant understanding experience. legacy race-conscious persistent danger attitudes affect proceedings, fanciful mere artifice. 76 years, operated openly formally dual effectively place. expressly differentiated distinctions whose lineage traced back slavery. colonial period, slaves regardless self-defense another, automatically executed. Higginbotham, Matter Color: Race Legal Process 256 (1978).8 By War, Ga.Penal Code (1861). code contained separate sections "Slaves Free Persons Color," Pt. 4, Tit. 3, Ch. persons, Divs. 1-16. provided, Art. II, 4704, declared anyone else imprisonment founded circumstantial recommended. Div. 4220. free female "shall be" punishable death. 4704. prison nor years. "by fine imprisonment, court." 4249. assaulting put court, 4708, slave free, classified "minor" lay "extend life, limb, health." III, §§ 4714, 4718. Assault 4258. provocation reduce manslaughter, provided "[o]bedience submission being slave, much necessary voluntary prescribed persons." 4711. times, ago, Gunnar Myrdal's epochal relations produced findings mirroring "As Negroes disturbed, ordinarily reduced Negro. 80 81 "For offenses involve actual punished severely whites. "On quite common set Negro." G. Myrdal, An Dilemma 551-553 (1944). portions specter cited suggesting fashion, standardless "pregnant 257, 2735 (concurring pointed indicating "Negroes [have proportion population. Studies higher partially due crime, 364, 2739 Stewart declined proved, "[m]y Brothers discerned die, 310, 2762 dissent, Burger "suggest, historical matter, frequency interracial rape." 289, 2752, 12. intimated "who members singled others 449, 2833. although Maxwell Bishop, 138 (1968), vacated remanded grounds, 262, 1578, 221 (1970), "tend[ed] disproportion parts Arkansas elsewhere South." troublesome scheme. Five rape. explicitly mention observations men rape, women, considerably rapists. 1977 Government began compiling 1930. men, Brief O.T. 1976, 75-5444, 56; Wolfgang Riedel, Rape, Race, Death Penalty Am.J. Orthopsychiatry 658 (1975). Three vague, resulted "standardless unchanneled uncontrolled uninstructed jury. ." 429, 1765. disgraceful distorting poverty continue painfully visible sentences." 439, 1770 intended bill indictment calling transgressions. Citation practices condemnation current ones. ignore plausible implications "[A]mericans share experience individuals culture ubiquitously attaching outside awareness." Lawrence, Id, Ego, Protection: Reckoning With Unconscious Racism, Stan.L. Rev. 327 (1987). 328-344 (describing psychological dynamics unconscious motivation). Rose Mitchell, 443 558-559, 2993, 739 (1979). "[W]e 114 close War Between Strauder, forms society whole. Perhaps takes subtle before. real pernicious." 89 ongoing acknowledged, observes, 'unceasing efforts' 309 signify elimination problem persistence. realization myriad proceedings: peremptory challenges, supra; grand jury, Vasquez Hillery, 474 617, 598 (1986); (1967); (1985); Donnelly DeChristoforo, 416 637, 94 1868, 431 (1974); conscious jurors, Ristaino Ross, 589, 1017, 258 (1976). creates opportunities. No guidelines govern list factors, standard balancing another. Once identifies death, articulate selecting imprisonment. considerations, however unconscious, charging decisions.9 History continuing buttress probative statistics. Formal longer effect, intentional prominent. Turner, "subtle, consciously attitudes" concern, gives room conclusions lessons misreads concluding raise core mechanical foremost irrevocable, qualitative scrutiny determination." 998-999, 3451-3452. reason, demanded high true nuance statistically captured, plumbed absolute certainty. Yet always illumination knowledge induce paralysis confront literally Sentencing data, history, assurance heightened life. cites shrinking desirability abuse consequences broader contours underscore sober deliberation, rejecting presented. 311. states "[w]here invidious." 313. Reliance rationale granting means, end. bestowed "trea[t] uniqueness individual." 2965, "particularized aspects 2990. Failure "treats designated beings, faceless, undifferentiated mass blind Considering completely evaluated being. categorical worth beings color, insensitive whatever qualities possess. Enhanced willingness diminished devaluation When demands act—for end serve undermined. lead inconsistencies outcomes. reducible mathematical formulae, alike. presumption responsible comport ideal suspect. rebuttable. arena afforded, challenges. Those whatsoever grounds doing so. deference belief prospective prosecution defense, cause. therefore, justified occasion related individuals, Batson, "crippling proof," 92, 1721, presumption. apparently seeks that. rejects ever performed, infects position converts rebuttable conclusive declines find [capital sentencing] process." upheld WHITE "simply assertion faith" fashion "unsupported facts," duties "[a]bsent contrary." 225, 2949. permanent approval otherwise. adopted provisions colleagues compiled 2,500 1973-1979. They using multitude itself, significantly average her speculative theoretical; empirical. discounting effectiveness calls question. hope model procedural fairness curb "we works intended; critique results." Hubbard, "Reasonable Levels Arbitrariness" Patterns: Tragic Perspective Punishment, U.C.D.L.Rev. 1113, 1162 unwillingness door Taken face, seems justice. surely acknowledge groups, blond hair, disproportionately affairs repugnant deeply rooted conceptions fairness. prospect dismaying, abdication framed bulwark power, preventing governed law.10 fairness, invitation descend slippery slope humanly exhibit imperfection. qualitatively repugnance unusual." fails refinement hardly needs reiteration "Death, finality, 100-year year two. difference, reliability punishment." 305, relative interests differ dramatically context. accruing obtaining prison. tolerating scant believe continuation satisfactory high. unusual" invalidate What degrees here; majority's wholesale invalidation unfounded. accepting pose threat correlation outcomes personal characteristics. Again, indifferent proscribed. expressed commitment, characteristic allotting burdens benefits. amendments, numerous prompted racism. "Over repudiated '[d]istinctions ancestry' 'odious people institutions doctrine equality.' Loving 388 11, 1823, 1010 (1967) Hirabayashi 320 81, 1375, 1385, 1774 (1943)). illegitimacy 885, 2747, (1983). prospect, modest levying enough characterize Certainly, morally irrelevant, hair theoretically associated extent above, statistics, Nation deprivation Recognition expansive ramifications unfounded recognize away refined assembled readily replicated casual effort. depicts arguable tendencies, correlations, explanations eliminated. Acceptance remarkably stringent unlikely satisfied frequency. projection apocalyptic greatly exaggerated. indulge demanding highest intertwined—an sensitive let stand fears define punishments. baseless. 108 justifies cautioning usurpation legislatures' devising monitoring intervention sparingly employed. "[c]apital thirds States", 319, diminish awesome perform. judiciary's extinguish elicit scrutiny. Yet, Alexander Bickel wrote: 109 "It premise deduce written constitution ultimately good government conceive immediate material enduring meant Least Dangerous Branch (1962). 110 commitment fidelity temptation them. apt arise matters, menacing opprobrious. sympathetic way saying, 'You fit world, your elsewhere.' 290, 2752 concurring) Stephen, Punishments, Fraser's Magazine 753, 763 (1864)). 111 reasons, employ enforcement aptly measures civilization judged." Coppedge 369 438, 917, 923, banish speak faint voice above hear voices, declares majoritarian chorus alone fulfills, disrupts, scheme separation powers closely scrutinizing deserving "sober thought." Stone, Common Law Harv.L.Rev. (1936). 112 ago year, century inferior order, altogether unfit associate political relations; inferior, rights man respect." Dred Scott Sandford, How. 407, 691 (1857). Only 130 relied citizenship generations sanctioned segregation, "[i]f socially, plane." Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 1138, 1143, (1896). 113 ourselves history. scarcely generation barely decades domains national honorable steps, pretend escaped grip spanning centuries. confronts past. message disturbing racism, frustrating accustomed regarding destiny will. peril, imprisoned present. tempting minorities row fate connected own, treatment sounds echoes chambers illusion corrosive, reverberations injustice confined. destinies races country indissolubly linked together," 560, 1147 (Harlan, dissenting), depth living. 115 change attorneys McCleskeys chances execution. soften harsh convey, alter undoubtedly topic discussion. obtained acceptance, row. However today's rendered, painful conversations eloquent dissents all. 116 join, BRENNAN joins IV-B, 117 sanctions presentation establishes leading am disappointed individually, departure me well-developed 118 thoroughly demonstrated, valid, Appeals' assumption,1 exists acute degree, 2991, BRENNAN's opinion. raises central Analysis guarantee protection. protections courtroom Hill Texas, 316 400, 406, 1159, 1162, 1559 (1942). Lee Washington, 390 333, 994, 1212 (1968) (per curiam ). abhorrent: "Discrimination odious aspects, pernicious 2999, Disparate "destroys appearance thereby integrity 555-556, 2999-3000. And Term 'a stimulant impediment securing [black citizens] aims secure others.' 87-88, 1718, quoting 120 reminds States' drafters. introductory remarks Report Congress, Joint Committee Reconstruction, reported Resolution proposing "This deep-seated leads cruelty, oppression, authorities pains prevent punish." H.R. Comm.Rep. 30, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., XVII Witnesses testified violence prosecuted identity perpetrators.2 121 122 give different. Rather correspondingly determination," 3451-3452, (1983), "legitimate" outweigh explains weak rebuttal penalty." 297. 298—299. 123 undermines inconsistent unbroken line occasions established, setting aside remedy. See, e.g., 559, 3001; 549-550, recently propriety invalidating vindicate federal rights. Invalidation preclude retrial resentencing 1162. per se reversal harmless-error "strikes whole." 556, 3000. "in infect" phases "and, consequently, come." 623. Hence, infect steps 124 reliance Legislature's enactment likewise inappropriate. reasoning relevance dealing reasoning: look 'protection administrative officers effecting discrimination.' 88, Norris Alabama, 294 587, 579, 580, 1074 (1935). 125 analyzing responsibilities establishment Castaneda Partida, 482, 493-494, 1272, 1279-1280, points out: "In application." 292. Having complexity proceeds element treats actions bodies—the legislature. 294-295, 297-298. self-imposed restriction enables distinguish applicable framework review. joined Members entirety, fits framework. affected vote primary intervening prosecutor, quintessential proceeding.3 "two levels [McCleskey], 379-380 capital-sentencing certainly alternative step concentrate office particular, proceeded phase conviction. strong, 56, 57; Transcript Habeas Corpus Hearing C81-2434A (Tr.) 894-926, ignored 126 alleging Washington 426 229, 239-240, 2040, 2047, 597 (1976); 646. case4 totality rise purpose." 94, 1721.5 shifts assertions officials official duties." 'permissible criteria.' Ibid., 405 625, 632, 1221, 1226, 536 (1972). 127 Kentucky three-factor member recognizable, distinct class, treatment." 494, 1280. differential treatment.6 Third, susceptible neutral. dispute requisite prong acknowledges, must, person. 286. White-victim yield 46. 129 prong, Hunter Underwood, 471 222, 228, 1916, 1920, 222 877, 895 (CA11 1985). remaining become unacceptable. Recognizing yields authors presence independent factors.7 introducing multipleregression distribution attributable death—20 midrange category 54.8 persuasive explaining prime mover homicide. 82.9 race-of-victim crucial crime.10 17-10-30(b) 284—285, attach 'aggravating' label example religion, affiliation language de facto 131 focusing proceed possibility statewide level, 57, Tr. 897-910, tried sentenced, 978-981. black-defendant/white-victim advanced five black-defendant/black-victim (70% 15%), white-defendant/black-victim 19%). level. 905. 60.11 132 Individualized disposition well. 1973-1979 alone, 61-63; 1050-1062. 133 showed pursue throughout abuse. deposition Lewis R. Slaton, who, date deposition, Attorney county sentenced. Deposition 84-8176 Aug. 1983, 5; 377, (1984); 1316. Mr. Slaton charges Atlanta Judicial comprises 7-8. office, informing Assistant Attorneys handled stage prosecution. charges, 10-11; recommend guilty reduction dismissal postindictment-preconviction stage, 25-26, 31; 31. saw fit. 24-25, 37-38. 134 Slaton's prosecution, guidance "on-the-job training." 20. Addressing bargaining, "through training assistant DA's get, think pretty alike suggest." 25. consistency periodic pulling files random check 28-29. knew, aware checking. 28. why attorney 19, plea, 29-30.12 report 34-36, 38, 41. 135 questioned directly listed thought atrociousness 59. existed. 38-39. took 1965, except 60. addition abuse, detail opinion, 328-334, background source" Development 564, (1977); Rogers Lodge, 613, 618, 623-625, 3272, 3278-3279, 1012 "official ago" disagree irrelevant. 298, 137 above-described conjunction outlined 325-328, discussed opinions F.2d, 919 (Hatchett, part); 920-923 (Clark, part), 239-242, 2047-2048. exclusion, 6, magnitude yielded 1280, 13. burden, selections. skewed result. expert thesis aggravation F.Supp., 373. "one one, prevalent other, cases." suggestion plausible. concluded, disprove case; yet reasoned theory "stands contradict wrong erroneous. 139 test hypothesis treated. 1613-1614, 1664. experts, data. 1297, 1729-1732, 1756-1761. 72; 1291-1296; 92. meager unsophisticated withstand evidence.13 "demonstrate th[e] organized accounted disparity" 403-404, 14, 3010, 14. Castaneda, unsupported countervailing 500, 1283. "unexplainable 563. 140 well-established persuasive. "each jury" "application 294—295. because, latter situations, entities." 141 commissioners employers selection, promotion, discharge employees. rational, irrational. comment employment "made Certainly personnel business structure. disregards screens pretrial decides lends actions. 10, (1985) (applying selective sanction). ordinary standards. 1531. 142 treating disparity," instant 296. verdict improper "prosecutors 'often made.' 425, 143 examining tension accorded 323. refusal actions, longstanding precedents. Pachtman. scope entitled immunity U.S.C. 1983 damages. damages harassing litigation avoid civil undermining independence judgment. specified, compelled mean answer availability professional ethical discipline. 994. Prosecutors allocate resources offices fulfill enforce place constraints Cf. 339, 676 (1880) (upholding discriminating jurors). 144 attempts prosecutors' unreviewable. 296, 17. "quite different" irony burdensome Swain 202, 824, 759 (1965), having placed proof." 1721. exhaustive 145 necessity 297, inferring misses Its conclusory 'firmly law,' 311 312, J. (1984), helpful. concedes, authority. Prosecutorial 'deliberately unjustifiable classification.' 668, Oyler Boles, 368 448, 456, 501, 505, "[m]ore subtle, influence" "sensitive inquiry" mandated Granting That, grant closer hence benefit. come play, enhanced. significant, evenhanded sanctions. 147 Like Post, 367. extremely minimized. narrowing death-eligible price pay consistency. ease minimized." 1688. dissent. 148 149 hence, case.' 884-885, 2746-2747, "vital emotion." "[A]lthough imperfection deliberative sufficient, state-court severity mandates careful colorable error." 2747. 150 claimed—and elaborate valid distorted strong community's outrage—its lost entitlement live," Spaziano 468 447, 469, 3154, 3167, 340 (1984) (STEVENS, dissenting) white, outrage generated sort intolerable. flagrantly "insistence fairly, consistency, all." Eddings Oklahoma, 455 104, 112, 869, 875, 151 sound knell (one "for only") all, plain. categories seek, impose, offender. categories, decreased, eradicated. restructuring pay. 152 Appeals. believe, aside. decide valid. persuaded orderly decisive 153 respectfully revised renumbered changes substance convenience, references sections. contains murder. commits "when unlawfully malice aforethought, express implied, causes being." 16-5-1(a) life." 16-5-1(d). 17-10-2(c) convicts shall resume presentence jury." subsection considers practice, hearings affirmatively not, receives Comparative Review Sentences: Empirical Study Experience, J.Crim.L. 661, 674, following "(1) felony; "(2) commission battery, burglary arson degree; "(3) offender, knowingly weapon device hazardous person; "(4) himself money thing monetary value; "(5) former district solicitor, solicitor duties; "(6) caused commit agent employee "(7) kidnapping outrageously horrible, victim; "(8) corrections employee, fireman "(9) in, from, lawful custody confinement; "(10) avoiding, interfering with, arrest confinement, another." 17-10-30(b). made, 17-10-31. Baldus' 230-variable eight ranges, estimated argued "[W]hen tremendously everybody we're going get it, go away. It's mid-range makers there's [racial] role." App. 36. 14.4% 34.4% 90, reprinted midrange. 45-46. hearing. "was impressed learning experts." 353 Nevertheless, respects incomplete. questionnaires obtain failed capture full 356. criticized researcher's variables. 357-358. researchers discover trials undercutting 359. lacked multiple bargain, credibility problems witnesses. 360. preponderance trustworthy. numerically mirrors reality. mirror reality, inferences empirically arrived untrustworthy." methodology. tried. assumption "questionable." 361. instability models. drop undermined persuasiveness disparity, 39-variable model. 362. weight entitled. 363-364. inability predict statisticians "r2 portion variance dependent (death rate, case) perfectly predictive r2 1.0. 0. .46 .48. half flawed, reached issues. factual standing suffers "standing assert third persons," 562, right general. Rather, classification power," 41, "necessary accomplishment objective." (1967). McGowan Maryland, 366 1101, 1104, (1961) (statutory "wholly achievement objective"). violate classification." Cleveland Bd. Ed. Lafleur, 414 652-653, 791, (1974) standing. Shaw Martin, 733 311-314 (CA4), 469 873, 230, 159 Adams 709 1443 1983) ), 464 1063, 745, 203 Smith Balkcom, 660 573, 584-585, modified, 671 858, 859-860 (CA5 Unit 1981) 459 882, (1982); 1978), 265, 563; 240, testified: "Models developed talk average. depict single individual. say, [is] average, increases (that) given. "Whether answer, statistics." 372. Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 125, (1960), Yick Wo Hopkins, 356, 1064, 220 (1886), rare Gomillion, Fifteenth altering boundaries city "from square uncouth twenty-eight-sided figure." 340, 126. alterations excluded 395 400 voters excluding voter. Wo, ordinance 310 laundries housed wooden buildings, operations operator government. laundry operators permits operation, applicants permits, Chinese successful. warrant require," 373, 1072, "conclusion [that was] irresistible, tantamount purposes demonstration," 341, 127, 495, (2-to-1 Mexican-Americans population summoned duty); Fouche, 396 359, 532, 539, 567 (1970) (1.6-to-1 lists); 647, (3-to-1 eligible venire). limited, 485, 1275 ("A juror citizen county, voter 'of mind character,' literate, pending 'or accusation theft felony' "); 354, 537 (jury exclude "upright" "intelligent" service); 548, 645 (same). uniform subjective, objectively verifiable. employee's qualifications perform job Identifiable assess employee. background, character, refer entities display employer fairly employer. Therefore, decisionmaker. "policy" studying combined hundreds composition. incomparably entities. questionable derived prosecutors. county. Const., ¶ prosecute infinite variations, coordination across relatively meaningless. doubtful relevance. represent gleaned sample limited. 607, 1530, Goodwin, 457 368, 380, 2485, 2492, ABA Standards 3-3.8, 3-3.9 (2d ed. 1982). Requiring analyzes scores contemporaneous acts. prosecutors, well: "[I]f wrongdoing, energy attention diverted pressing enforcing 992. statement. bears motivation. weighed motivated "historical evidence" War. 564. reasonably value. 228-233, 1920-1922, (relying statute). undeniable, intent. "reliance inappropriate [because] 349 dissent suggests, II-A, addressing here. entirely legislature's enacting maintaining Due Robinson California, 370 660, 667, 1417, 1420, 758 Thirty-seven Thirty-three statutes. NAACP Defense Educational Fund, Row, U.S.A. (Oct. 1986). amended 1974, authorizes piracy occurs. 1472(i)(1)(B). follows ALI Model Penal 201.6 (Proposed Official Draft 1961). 194, 44, 44. "can function," 2966, (citing (1968)), [in case] required." 2966. Florida Proffitt, advisory. determines Unlike recommends channeled judge's like "satisfie[d] deficiencies 2967. narrowly inmate serving parole Shuman Wolff, 791 788 (CA9), sub nom. Sumner Shuman, 479 948, 431, 381 section substantially identical 17-10-30(b)(7) offended inconsistency crime. guilt. link suspect found, charged. capability agency widely. remains bargain Witness availability, credibility, memory prosecutions. discretionary, foregoing varying Baldus: "McCleskey's [a] grey you bear type, obviously can't that." repeatedly 1531; Batchelder, 114, 2198, 755 (1979); More generally, juries. 628-629, 1224, (1972); 646; (1935); Neal Delaware, (13 370, 394, (1881); (1880); Other deliberation Widespread venue Irvin Dowd, 717, 1639, 751 (1961). biased arguments. 1871, (1974). questioning 596, 1021, advocating adoption Constitution, Hamilton stated: friends adversaries plan convention, nothing else, concur jury; them, consists this: valuable liberty, palladium government." Federalist 83, (J. Gideon 1818). Witherspoon, Stewart. qualms "broad discretion" proper penalty' case," noting juror's views decision." 1775 composed capable expressing "conscience referred "maintain penal 15. background. general, previously 23, conform thereunder. abandoned. Double Jeopardy bars reprosecution acquittal, acquittal 'based egregiously erroneous foundation.' DiFrancesco, 117, 129, 426, 433, Fong Foo 141, 143, 671, 672, 629 (1962)). Powell, Trial Crimes, Wash. L. 7-8 (1966) (Despite founding fathers, balance favor individual"). "unless verdict, 17-10-31 Bullington Missouri, 451 430, 1852, 270 (1981), asking plea. attorney: Prosecutor concrete didn't want So talking it." 4909, (Jan. sentences, 1984 Commission develop guidelines. unwarranted records conduct, warranted guidelines." Fed.Reg. 3920 (1987) added). guidelines, -type Anglo-American system—to uniformity sorts highly unlikely, leaving predictable. 35-36. 5, repeated opposition views, shared principled respect. Neverthe- less, meticulous thrust progeny overruled. call overruling relying Justices system: have. satisfy "discretion system" creating "opportunities proceedings." 333. "[n]o [that] judgmental imagine sacrificing Indeed, reference curious. forth prejudicial speculate dissent's anomalous. "any factor," list. 875. attempt harmonize criticism principle. standard, workable treated beings," essential. emphasizes 335. "rationality" include: (i) bifurcated proceeding; (ii) requirement circumstances; (iii) pursuant interpreting unique. Given already reiterate, length Spohn, Gruhl, Welch, Effect Sentencing: Reexamination Unsettled Question, Soc.Rev. (1981-1982); Unnever, Frazier, Henretta, Differences Sentencing, Sociological Q. 197 Regents University Bakke, 295, 2750, 750 J.), "majority" hands private individuals." 292, 2749 Otto), (Celtic Irishmen) (dictum); (1886) (Chinese); Truax Raich, 239 33, 41-42, 7, 10-11, (1915) (Austrian resident aliens); Korematsu 323 214, 216, 193, 194 (1944) (Japanese); Hernandez 347 475, 866 (1954) (Mexican-Americans)). Uniform Guidelines Employee Selection Procedures CFR 1607.4(B) (employer keep "following ethnic groups: Blacks, Indians (including Alaskan Natives), Asians Islanders), Hispanics Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central American, Spanish origin race), (Caucasians) Hispanics"); Bureau Census, 1980 Census Population, Vol. ch. (PC80-1-B), 1986 Statistical Abstract (dividing "race origin" White, Black, Indian, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, origin, races); Supplementary Report, series PC80-S1-10, (listing ancestry themselves belong groups). composition ever-shifting. Crawford Board Los Angeles, 527, 3211, 948 illustrates demographic increasingly country, namely, populations short time-spans. 1968 went [Los Angeles] 53.6% 22.6% 20% Hispanic, 3.8% Asian other. 1980, altered radically: 23.7% 23.3% 45.3% 7.7% other." 3214, Increasingly becoming larger cities. arguably heterogeneous lower ethnicity determine. Shaare Tefila Congregation Cobb, 785 523 granted, 812, 62, Al-Khazraji Saint Francis College, 784 505 (CA3), (argued Feb. 25, 1987) (presenting Jews Arabs, respectively, "races" covered 1981 Chamblin, Sex Imposition (speech symposium Psychological Association, "Extra-legal Attributes Affecting Sentencing," Sept., 1979); Steffensmeier, Effects Judge's Defendant's Offenders, Psychology, Journal Human Behavior, (Aug. 1977). Johnson, Black Innocence White Jury, Mich.L.Rev. 1611, 1625-1640, Cohen Peterson, Bias Courtroom: Juror Verdicts, Social Behavior Personality (1981)); Hodgson Pryor, Discrimination Attorney's Gender Credibility, Rep. 483 Kerr, Bull, MacCoun, Rathborn, attractiveness, disfigurement judgements British mock Brit. Psych. 1638, Shoemaker, South, Lowe, Facial Stereotypes Deviants Judgments Guilt Innocence, Forces 427 (1973)). Some physically attractive unattractive offenders harsher Hed, Offenders' Age Attractiveness Mock Juries, Beautiful Blameless: Victim Responsibility Jurors' Psych.Bull. Baumeister Darley, Reducing Biasing Perpetrator Simulation, 286 Schwibbe Schwibbe, Judgment Treatment People Varied Attractiveness, Weiten, Attraction-Leniency Research: Examination External Validity, Applied overrule infirmities alleged remedied offender." proposed solution unconvincing. "consistently" term, shift borderline boundaries. explain, arbitrary. identified, STEVENS' proposal basis. Whenever take—in weighing customary considerations—before prosecute? current, Baldus-type focused committed, standard? Would jurisdiction race? statistics? feasible, unlawful factors? conscientiously suggestion, best, outcomes, runs arbitrarily. immaterial intentional. forbids critical successful provision, focus: comports decency. proscribed provision. mean, superseded viable typically sees leeway Cases feature minimal eighth extreme 88% period. characterized intermediate, ranged 41%. overall 326 20%. rates "liberation hypothesis" Zeisel landmark work, disagreement, closeness possible sentiment liberating discipline evidence." 165. teeth resolving doubts revolt etiquette fact." neither nine "prime mover" planning Fisher, Multiple Regression Proceedings, Colum.L.Rev. 701 "grievously wound[ed], maim[ed], bruis[ed] person," person, attempted run province. willfully murdered until offense, restitution owner. willful oath 253-254, 190. latitude "[w]e Constitution," 314, "no 'rationality' true, systems account. persuasively utilize sought. chosen effective abstract, insists doing, empirically, done. job, once achieving devise wishes Maitland Magna Carta regulating fines, "[v]ery clause grateful F. Maitland, Pleas Crown Gloucester xxxiv (1884). underscored Patrick Henry's Bill Rights: "Congress, powers, fully legislation. legislate, treason lowest offence—petty larceny. prescribe trust wise ought by. punishments, left, dependence virtue representatives." Elliot's Debates 447 (1854). remand procedure. pt. (1866) (testimony Tucker, Virginia attorney) ("They idea prosecuting colored people; appreciate idea"); 209 Dexter Clapp) ("Of thousand maltreatment freedmen me, known exhibited inclination redress wrongs protect persons"); 213 J.A. Campbell) (although identities suspected known, occurred); Brev. Maj. Gen. Wager Swayne) ("I months' residence instance hung sent penitentiary negro, warranting me"); IV, Custer) ("[I]t weekly, daily, occurrence murdered. [S]ometimes perpetrators are; law"). Brown Education, 483, 686, 873 (1954), education target, aimed eradicating sanctions, allegations cognizable. (allegations "[e]xclusion service constitutes evil cure"). refers import future recognizes phase. 284, lists 307—308, notes "found victims," 287. reviewed, 296-297, 311-312, concedes 30. nowhere limitation method structure "progressively sharpen[s] elusive 255, Kemp, 912 1985) (Johnson, part) (where "prosecutor bounded irreducible discretion," mask indirect 241-242, 2048, (1977)). explained: persuasion, undertake direct available.' 266 [97 563]. Circumstantial invidious impact. 242 [96 2048]. 'may unconstitutionality grounds.' Ibid." 93, attempting "rule exclusion" proof. large, accident, class-related discussion disagreement reasoning. Writing panel espoused today. (CA8), remanded, sua sponte, below, incomplete, insufficient. sophistication Maxwell, contain jurisdiction. universe 1973 total 2,484 part, convinces Dr. Franklin M. Fisher et al. Amici Curiae 19. increase 2.3 kidnaping bodily injury 4.9. killings, 581 indictments. 60; retained risking Russell Parker, contradicted 34, negotiations Parker McCleskey. 16, 1981, discovery testimonial officials. recall office. 78. later recalled began, involved. 79-80. 631-632, 1225-1226, 551-552, indirectly "Since prosecutions allocations scarce resources, expensive treatment. choices community, tend homicides." Gross Mauro, Patterns Death: Racial Disparities Homicide Victimization, Stan.L.Rev. 27, 106-107 Decision Detain Suspect, Yale L.J. 214 317

Category: 0