Document: 509 U.S. 312 113 S.Ct. 2637 125 L.Ed.2d 257 Leonard HELLER, Secretary, Kentucky Cabinet for Human Resources, Petitionerv.Samuel DOE, By his Mother and Next Friend, Mary et al. No. 92-351. Argued March 22, 1993. Decided June 24, Syllabus * permits the involuntary commitment of mentally retarded or ill individuals who present a threat danger to themselves, family, others, can reasonably benefit from available treatment, whom least restrictive alternative is placement in relevant facility. However, statutory procedures two groups differ respects at issue here. First, applicable burden proof mental retardation proceedings clear convincing evidence while standard illness beyond reasonable doubt. Second, guardians immediate family members subject proceeding may participate as if parties those proceedings, with all attendant rights. In this action, respondents, class involuntarily committed persons, claimed that distinctions are irrational therefore violate Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, granting close status violates Due Process Clause. The District Court granted them summary judgment, Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. Respondents' claim statutes should be reviewed under heightened scrutiny not properly presented, since it was raised below lower courts ruled only on ground rational-basis review. P. ____. 2. between consistent Pp. (a) Classifications neither involving fundamental rights nor along suspect lines do run afoul Clause there rational relationship disparity treatment legitimate governmental purpose. A legislature need articulate its rationale, State produce sustain classification's rationality. Moreover, compelled accept legislature's generalization even when an imperfect fit means ends. (b) has proffered more than adequate justifications scheme. Mental retardation, which developmental disability usually well documented throughout childhood, easier diagnose illness, have sudden onset adulthood. Thus, could assigned higher equalize risk erroneous determination condition question. Ease diagnosis also result accurate dangerousness retarded, relatively static well-documented record previous behavior. contrast, manifestations sudden, past behavior predictor future actions. justified general their much intrusive received by retarded. (c) There basis allow commit but ill. rationally conclude relatives intimate knowledge subject's abilities experiences provides valuable insights considered during process. arise after minority, afflicted person's ceased provide care support, proper course depend matters related observations made household setting. addition, adults previously sound health diagnosed privacy justifies confining smallest group possible. Whether chosen less-restrictive party achieving legislative end irrelevant 3. Allowing legal does due Consideration factors set out Mathews v. Eldridge, 424 319, 335, 96 893, 903, 47 18—the private interest will affected, deprivation such interest, government's compels conclusion. Rather increasing deprivation, allowing actually increases proceeding's accuracy putting information before court. It implements State's providing voice proceedings. And they favor commitment, participation undermine individual facing commitment. protected decision, favorable one. 965 F.2d 109 (CA6 1992), reversed. KENNEDY, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, SCALIA, THOMAS, JJ., joined. O'CONNOR, filed concurring judgment part dissenting part. BLACKMUN, opinion. SOUTER, opinion, BLACKMUN STEVENS, joined, Part II William K. Moore, Midway, KY, petitioner. Kelly Miller, Louisville, respondents. Justice KENNEDY Court. 1 Commonwealth Kentucky, civil commitments alleged governed separate procedures. Two differences these case. final hearing, based evidence, Ky.Rev.Stat.Ann. § 202B.160(2) (Michie 1991), doubt, 202A.076(2). unlike "[g]uardians members" "may . proceedings," rights, including right appeal. 202B.160(3). Respondents persons institutions. They argue Amendment. We reject contentions hold constitutional. 2 This case long complicated history. began 1982 respondents suit against petitioner, Secretary claiming Kentucky's failure certain procedural protections institutionalizing people violated Constitution. amended several times 1982, each new statute being attacked court As incarnations lawsuit little effect issues currently we limit our discussion current round litigation. See Doe Cowherd, 770 F.Supp. 354, 355-356 (WD Ky.1991) (recounting history). 3 At here elements procedures, enacted 1990, many governing parallel. recognize large petition individual's whether grounds illness. 202B.100(3) 1991) (mental retardation); 202A.051 illness). Upon filing petition, trial must appoint counsel represent question, unless he retains counsel. 202B.210 202A.121 examine person and, probable cause believe committed, order examination qualified professionals. §§ 202B.100(5), (6)(c) 202A.051(5), retain professional own choosing, "witness any examination" him. 202B.140 202A.066 cases retained "parent guardian" permitted witness examination. 202B.140. 4 If both professionals certify meets criteria conduct preliminary hearing. 202B.130 202A.061 receive reports other statute. 202B.160(1) 202A.076(1) whose sought testify call cross-examine witnesses. hearing one, law particular members: 5 "Guardians respondent shall allowed attend hearings, conferences similar proceedings; represented counsel, desired; hearings witnesses standing appeal adverse decision." 202B.160(3) 6 202B.230. determines proceeds 202B.100(8) 202A.051(9) 7 State, through county attorney lives, prosecutes 202B.019 202A.016 illness); Tr. Oral Arg. 33-35, defends institutionalization, id., 31, 34, 54. "[t]he manner rules same criminal proceeding." 202A.076(2) 202B.160(2); For four propositions proven evidence: "that: (1) person; (2) presents self, others; (3) mode presently requires [a residential center]; (4) Treatment center]." 202B.040. substance identical, requiring doubt "is person: Who others illness; treatment; hospitalization available." 202A.026. taken appeals 202B.230 202A.141 8 After enactment 1990 modifications, moved pending argued, among things, ill—the different standards ill—violated Clause's prohibition lack basis, Western accepted arguments here, 354 (1991), Sixth Circuit affirmed, (1992). certiorari, 506 ----, 373, --- ---- (1992), now reverse. 9 contend that, evaluating constitutionality drawn statutes, apply review, some form scrutiny. Brief 23-32. presented. argued scheme ground. Indeed, conceded pressed argument first time merits brief Id., 23 ("[R]espondents did ."). Even were correct applies, would inappropriate us Both been litigating years theory which, noted below, see infra, ____, require place record, let alone extensive evidentiary showing required survive imprudent unfair inject stage Tennessee Dunlap, 426 312, 316, n. 3, 2099, 2101, 48 660 (1976); Ernst & Hochfelder, 425 185, 215, 1375, 1391, 668 (1976). decide presented judgments reviewed. III 10 said, weeks ago repeated, review equal protection analysis license judge wisdom, fairness, logic choices." FCC Beach Communication, Inc., 508 - 2096, 2100-2101, (1993). also, e.g., Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 486, 90 1153, 1162, 25 491 (1970). Nor authorize "the judiciary [to] sit superlegislature wisdom desirability policy determinations areas affect proceed lines." New Orleans Dukes, 427 297, 303, 2513, 2517, 49 511 (1976) (per curiam). reasons, classification accorded strong presumption validity. See, Communications, supra, U.S., S.Ct., 2098; Kadrmas Dickinson Public Schools, 487 450, 462, 108 2481, 2489, 101 399 (1988); Hodel Indiana, 452 314, 331-332, 2376, 2386-2387, 69 40 (1981); Massachusetts Bd. Retirement Murgia, 307, 2562, 2567, 520 Such cannot Nordlinger Hahn, 505 112 2326, 2331-2332, 120 (1992); 2516. Further, creates categories "actually purpose rationale supporting classification." Nordlinger, 2334. United States R. Fritz, 449 166, 179, 453, 461, 66 368 (1980); Allied Stores Ohio, Inc. Bowers, 358 522, 528, 79 437, 441, 480 (1959). Instead, "must upheld challenge conceivable state facts ,S.Ct., 2101. 2334; Sullivan Stroop, 496 478, 485, 110 2499, 2504, 438 (1990); 174-179, 459-461; Vance Bradley, 440 93, 111, 99 939, 949, 59 171 (1979); 484-485, 1161-1162. 11 moreover, no obligation rationality classification. "[A] choice courtroom factfinding speculation unsupported empirical data." 2098. 949; Hughes Alexandria Scrap Corp., 794, 812, 2488, 220 Locomotive Firemen Chicago, R.I. P.R. Co., 393 129, 139, 89 323, 328, 21 289 (1968). presumed constitutional, one attacking arrangement negative every might support it," Lehnhausen Lake Shore Auto Parts 410 356, 364, 93 1001, 1006, 35 351 (1973) (internal quotation marks omitted), foundation record. Finally, generalizations fail because " 'is mathematical nicety practice results inequality.' 1161, quoting Lindsley Natural Carbonic Gas 61, 78, 31 337, 340, 55 L.Ed. 369 (1911). "The problems government practical ones justify, require, rough accommodations illogical, be, unscientific." Metropolis Theatre Co. 228 69-70, 33 443, 57 730 (1913). Burlington Northern Ford, 504 2184, 2187, 119 432 108, 26, 948 26; 2516; Schweiker Wilson, 450 221, 234, 1074, 1082, 67 186 (1981). applied Cleburne Living Center, 473 432, 105 3249, 87 313 (1985); supra. purport just described. 12 True, so often defined find footing realities addressed legislation. That requirement satisfied A. 13 argues follows fact proposition surprise, becomes apparent American Psychiatric Assn., Diagnostic Statistical Manual Disorders 29 (3d rev. ed. 1987) (hereinafter Disorders); Assn. Retardation, Retardation: Definition, Classification, Systems Support 5, 16-18 (9th 1992) Retardation); S. Brakel, J. Parry, B. Weiner, Mentally Disabled Law 16-17, 37 1985) Disabled); 202B.010(9) 1991). reaches 18 age documentation accumulated years. hand, occur, manifest itself, until 190 (onset schizophrenia occur adulthood); 220, 229 depression adulthood). Furthermore, recognized earlier case, difficult. Addington Texas, 441 418, 430, 1804, 1811, 60 323 (1979). 18. basic premise sufficient fact. 16; Ellis Luckasson, Retarded Criminal Defendants, 53 Geo.Wash.L.Rev. 414, 438-439 (1985). 14 difference conditions decision assign assigning proof, determining "risk error" faced 423, 1807. difficult instances former tends risks question.1 G. Keppel, Design Analysis 65-68 (1973). From diagnostic standpoint alone, differential burdens (as distinction issue, ____) rational. 15 is, "reasonably facts," 2098, second prerequisite commitment—that others," 202B.040 1991)—is established easily, rule, Previous violent important indicator tendencies. Monahan, Clinical Prediction Violent Behavior 71-72 (1981) Monahan); Kozol, Boucher, Garofalo, Diagnosis Dangerousness, Crime Delinquency 371, 384 (1972). permanent, condition, 37, deal only, almost definition year upon rely. 16 Manifestations difficulties inherent Developments Law—Civil Commitment Ill, Harv.L.Rev. 1190, 1242-1243 (1974). thus surprise psychiatric predictions inaccurate. Steadman, Employing Predictions Dangerous Behavior: Policy vs. Fact, Problem Health 123, 125-128 (C. Frederick 1978); Monahan 47-49. plausible 17 fails 'rests wholly achievement objective.' Holt Civic Club Tuscaloosa, 439 60, 71, 383, 390, 58 292 (1978), McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 425, 81 1101, 1105, (1961). McDonald Board Election Comm'rs 394 802, 809, 1404, 1408, 22 739 (1969); Kotch River Port Pilot Orleans, 330 552, 556, 910, 912, 91 1093 (1947). Because ease inquiries, "wholly irrelevant" objective, survives event, found purposes acceptable error, most critical appropriate tied them. further, far-reaching justifying proof: prevailing methods less invasive given subjected medical involve inquiries into patient's innermost thoughts, Meissner Nicholi, Psychotherapies: Individual, Family, Group, Harvard Guide Modern Psychiatry 357-385 (A. Nicholi 1978) Guide), use psychotropic drugs, Baldessarini, Chemotherapy, 387-431; Berger, Medical Illness, 200 Science 974 (1978); 327-330; Psychological Association Amicus Curiae Washington Harper, O.T. 1988, 88-599, pp. 10-11. treatments. Rather, 'because learning training impairment rather illness,' Youngblood Romeo, 457 309, 1, 102 2452, 2454, 73 28 (1982), 1981, 80-1429, p. 4, provided "habilitation," consists education aimed improving self-care self-sufficiency skills. Youngblood, 1; M. Rosen, Clark, Kivitz, Habilitation Handicapped 47-59 (1977); 332. 19 true loss liberty following respects; greater needed acts nature extent imposed. 423-424, 1807-1808. example, confinement prison punitive hence onerous hospital, 428, 1810, subjects re Winship, 358, 1068, (1970), whereas latter treatments confined. post, ____ (SOUTER, dissenting). Nonetheless, from, than, subjected. "States convince correctness judgments." Minnesota Clover Leaf Creamery 456, 464, 715, 724, 659 'the question debatable,' Southern Life. Ins. Equalization, 451 648, 674, 2070, 2086, 68 514 (1981), Carolene Products 304 144, 154, 778, 784, 82 1234 (1938), sort generalization. 20 These explain, too, existed Anglo-American law. English common "marked distinction" "idiots" (the retarded) "lunatics" ill). F. Pollock Maitland, History 481 (2d 1909) Pollack Maitland). Blackstone explained, became ward King, had duty preserve estate him "necessaries," King profit wardship. "provide custody sustentation [the ill], lands profits them," prohibited profiting thereby. W. Blackstone, Commentaries *302-*304. Maitland 481; Herr, Rights Advocacy People 9-10 (1983). Ancient lineage concept give immunity attack lacking basis. treated classes distinct, however, suggests commonsense differentiation continues day. majority laws groups,2 seq. (Supp.1992) Alaska Stat.Ann. 47.30.700 (1990) Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 36-533 (1986 Supp.1992) Ark.Code Ann. 20-48-404 (1991) 20-47-207 Calif.Welf. Inst.Code 6500 (West 1984 Supp.1993) 5200 Colo.Rev.Stat. 27-10-105 (1989 Conn.Gen.Stat. 17a-274 (1993) 17a-495 Del.Code Ann., Tit. 16, 5522 (1983) 5001 illness) (1983 Supp.1992); D.C.Code 6-1924, 6-1941 (1989) (mentally retarded); 21-541 Fla.Stat. 393.11 394.463, 394.467 Ga.Code 37-4-40 37-3-40 (1982 Haw.Rev.Stat. 334-60.2 (1985 Idaho Code 66-406 66-329 (Supp.1992); Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. 911/2, ¶ 4-500 3-700 Ind.Code 12-26-7-1 (Burns Iowa 222.16 (1987) 229.6 Kan.Stat.Ann. 59-2912 Supp.1990) 202B.040, 202B.100 202A.026, La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 28:404 1989) 28:54 1989 Supp.1993); Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., 34-B, 5474 (1988) 3864 Md. 7-502 10-613 Mass.Gen.Laws Mich.Comp.Laws 330.1515 330.1434 Mo.Rev.Stat. 632.300 Mont.Code 53-20-121 53-21-121 Neb.Rev.Stat. 83-1020 (1987 Nev.Rev.Stat. 435.123 433A.200 N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 171-A:10(II) 135-C:34 N.J.Stat.Ann. 30:4-27.10 N.M.Stat.Ann. 43-1-13 43-1-10 N.Y. Hyg. 15.27 (McKinney 1988) 9.27 N.D.Cent.Code 25-03.1-07 Ohio Rev.Code 5123.71 5122.11 Okla.Stat., 43A, 5-401 (Supp.1993) Ore.Rev.Stat. 427.215 426.070 Pa.Stat.Ann., 50, 4406 (Purdon 1969 7301 R.I.Gen.Laws 40.1-22-9 40.1-5-8 S.C.Code 44-20-450 44-17-510 (1985) S.D. Codified Laws 27B-7-1 retardation) 27A-10-1 Tenn.Code 33-6-103 Tex. Safety 593.041 (1992) 574.001 Utah 62A-5-312 62A-12-234 Vt.Stat.Ann., 18, 8822 7612 Va.Code 37.1-67.1 (1984 Wyo.Stat. 25-5-119 (1990 25-10-110 But Minn.Stat. 253B.07 Miss.Code 41-21-61 N.C.Gen.Stat. 122C-261 Wash.Rev.Code 71.05.150 (1992 W.Va.Code 27-5-2 Wis.Stat. 51.20 (1989-1990) agencies addressing needs.3 scheme, then, explained prediction Each rationales, own, suffice establish B 24 challenged respondents: allows noted, definition, period. furthermore, "deficits impairments adaptive functioning," say, effectiveness social skills, communication, daily living how personal independence responsibility expected her cultural group." 28-29. Retardation 5-6, 15-16, 38-41. Based facts, concluded guardians, likely experiences, itself suddenness support. far dependent severe conducted experts field. 1811. compatible help trier justify additional complications status. To sure, short parties. That, least-restrictive end. San Antonio Independent School Dist. Rodriguez, 411 51, 1278, 1306, 36 "rationally advances identifiable disregard" existence furthering objective "that we, individuals, perhaps preferred." 235, 1083. IV 26 turn respondents' aspect note outset violative process provisions comprehensive members. 202B.140, 202B.160(3), interests possible "skews balance" imposes 32-36. apparently argument, without explanation. F.2d, 113; F.Supp., 358. view, merit. 27 evaluate sufficiency rule held dictates consideration three factors: "First, affected official action; second, used, value, any, substitute safeguards; finally, Government's function involved fiscal administrative entail." 903. think application Eldridge conclusion parents, members, said "adverse [those of] commitment," 113, simply understand formal deprivation," interest. reasons above, placed court, increase decision. law, intervention stake outcome adjudication. Guardians further wards, parents person, caring more, welfare acknowledge. Parham J.R., 442 584, 602-603, 2493, 2504-2505, 61 longer cared child face changed circumstances resulting advancing age, physical, emotional, financial costs adult become too burdensome child's best served home. whatever tradition "statist notion," 603, expertise concern superior slam courthouse door interested enough intervene. parens patriae powers citizens unable themselves," "authority police power protect community" dangerous persons. Addington, 426, 1809. 30 chances commit. fact, beside point. adopt procedure over another to" challenging existing Medina California, 2572, 2580, 353 process, embodied Constitution, realm factfinding, minimize decisions. broad spectrum concerns term apply, flexibility necessary gear need; quantum quality situation serve minimizing error." Greenholtz Inmates Nebraska Penal Correctional Complex, 13, 2100, 2106, 32 Fuentes Shevin, 407 67, 97, 92 1983, 2002, 556 (1972) (due functions "prevent mistaken deprivations"). action So adjudication unaffected, therefore, prevent Neither amici suggested suffer above quite opposite true. undermining "We unusual delicacy, area where regarding desirable constantly rapidly changing. context, restraint called adjudicate Constitution." Smith Organization Foster Families Equality Reform, 431 816, 855-856, 97 2094, 2115, (1977). V 34 sum, rationales assumptions underlying [are] erroneous, very 'arguable' sufficient, 'immunize' [legislative] constitutional challenge." 2104, 112, 950.4 Reversed. 38 I agree SOUTER committing join conclude, permitting points out, sufficiently area. Like my colleagues, reach 39 dissenting. SOUTER's write separately continuing adherence view discriminate City 455, 3262, (opinion Marshall, joined Brennan JJ.), infringe Foucha Louisiana, 1780, 118 437 (plurality 41 STEVENS join, O'CONNOR joins II, 42 provision institutionalization supported justification, respectfully dissent. 43 begin with, declines address Doe's employ strict assessing here.1 While disagree Court's "properly pre- 44 later prove dangerous. Criminals completed terms, about so, obvious category th[e] [of criminals dangerous] merely dangerousness. Freedom physical right, particularly reason, put forward, discrimination insanity acquittees ill." Foucha, 1788 JJ.); 1790 (O'CONNOR, judgment) ("Although unnecessary us, permissibility holding acquittee convicted crimes imprisoned open serious question"). 'massive curtailment liberty' undoubtedly Vitek Jones, 445 480, 491, 100 1254, 1262, 63 552 (1980) (quoting Humphrey Cady, 405 504, 509, 1048, 1052, (1972)), applies denied afforded "obvious category" potential committees, 45 scrutiny, retardation. Although recognizes 1985 quasi-suspect class, 442-447, 3255-3258, (1985), subsequently Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) amounts exercise Congress's Amendment secure guarantees disabled. Katzenbach Morgan, 641, 651, 86 1717, 1723, 828 (1966). ADA includes findings disabilities (among included include U.S.C. 12102(2)(A) (1988 ed., Supp.III)) "are discrete insular minority restrictions limitations, history purposeful unequal relegated position political powerlessness society. ." 12101(a)(7). findings, together expressions contained Act, amount indication Congress disabilities, class." Respondent 29-30. sented," ante, decline contention applies. wrought purpose, disability, 446-447, 3257-3258, searching Cleburne's applied.2 recent instance enquiring justifications, examining light forward it. 3259. cites once, overrule it, day left uncertain. follow 46 Obviously distinct conditions, manifestations, forms differs. permissible treat differently disparate imposition lesser observes, specific institutionalized retardation: [t]he state-run institution]; [t]reatment institution]." shown be. full anyone else. deemed precious prerequisites "beyond doubt." 202A.076(2).3 allegation deprived high proof. whether, alleged, something protection. upholding relies assertion concludes lessened 'risk error' 1807, (1979)), understood offset "ris[k] question" essentially respect prerequisite, himself others. (a "more accura[cy]" concluding, demands minimal rise misunderstands principal object setting burdens. coincidence garden variety preponderance evidence. reason error allocated reflect mere difficulty avoiding importance judged thorough respective allocation. 50 proceeding, side balance, protecting society posing dangers helpless incapacities. On side, "[i]n civil, '[t]he [at minimum] reflects value places liberty,' 1809 (brackets original citation encompasses freedom stigma impose person. Id. 425-426, 1808-1810. 51 justified, turns public imposing retarded.4 answer clearly not. interpretation legitimately satisfy (thereby effectively thwarting efforts protection, care, treatment), id. 429, allegedly easy raise difficult.5 cut dangerous, seemingly strength cases. No varies somehow depending lose institution counterpart, "choos[e] friends companions, selec[t] activities, decid[e] what eat, retai[n] level privacy," things. (AAMR), Amici (AAMR Br.). presume disabled still "strong," legally cognizable liberty. Cf. judgment). assuming, degrees (an record), lends shred allocating 52 rests "it tha[n] subjected." Ante, Nothing cited demonstrates belief legislature, render now. Railroad (under "plausible reasons"). One example invasiveness refers (and administration of) drugs. take exception extensively used treating (citing authorities drugs except characteristic response kind necessities known "habilitation." describing training). tells mind-altering medication prescribed responding plausibility suggestion th[is] treatmen[t]," dissipates moment readily material subject, studies institutional practices affecting comparable concerning institutions neighboring Missouri, 76% type psychoactive drug fully 54% Intagliata Rinck, Psychoactive Drug Use Community Residential Facilities Persons, Psychopharmacology Bull. 268, 272-273 Another study, national scope, 38% residents Hill, Balow, Bruininks, National Study Prescribed Drugs Institutions People, 279, 283 "Surveys within [for retarded] generally prevalences range 30% 50% receiving time." Aman Singh, Pharmacological Intervention, Handbook 347, 348 (J. Matson Mulick eds., 2d Retardation). 54 Psychotropic according material, misused. North Carolina, nearby show hospitals, 73% antipsychotic Less half Thomas Flaherty, 699 1178, 1187 (WDNC 1988), aff'd, 902 250 (CA4), cert. denied, 498 951-952, 111 335 (1990). plaintiffs "have seriously endangered injured drugs." 1186. Halderman Pennhurst Hospital, 446 1295, 1307-1308 (EDPa.1977), aff'd 612 84 (CA3 1979), rev'd grounds, 1531, 694 (discussing 51% though one-third monitored determine treatment); Bates, Smeltzer, Arnoczky, Appropriate Inappropriate Psychotherapeutic Medications Institutionalized Am.J. Deficiency 363 (1986) (finding 39% medications diagnosed). study employed observed reduction staff sedating promoted despite "frightening effects [including suppression intellectual development." Plotkin Gill, Invisible Manacles: Drugging Stan.L.Rev. 637, 638 nothing suggest free practices, assume assumption main way 56 enquiries thoughts. Again, therapy. therapy, demonstrates. modification therapy correct, anxiety disorders, phobias, hyperactivity, antisocial behavior, aversive conditioning forced exposure objects trigger reactions. McNally, Anxiety Phobias, 413-423; Mulick, Hammer, Dura, Assessment Management Antisocial Hyperactive Behavior, 397-412; Gardner, Therapy Retarded, Approaches 250-275 (F. Menolascino 1970). Federal "aversive seclusion restraints were] inappropriately problem[,] plac[ing] clients extreme maltreatment." Lelsz Kavanagh, 673 828, 850 (NDTex.) unrelated 824 372 (CA5 1987). Invasive 397-412. sorts published relies, refute ____.6 literature indicates routinely administered ill, therapeutic regimes plausibly explain rigorous ill.7 involvement holds "has period," minority." "ceased support" connection son daughter, "proper treatment" "observations setting." distinctions, true, obligations estates wards seem other. although automatically seeking retardation,8 completely aspects objects: "as parties" them, "adverse" institutionalize Where third supports someone advocate prosecutor capacity witnesses, obtain expert testimony otherwise taken, theoretical difference, finds period middle 1985, achieved consent guardians. Record, Answers Plaintiff's First Set Interrogatories 2, 17. decided assumed regular why assuming privacy, limited "to process," prosecutor? answer.9 62 Without draw resting anything stereotypical "perpetual children," historically disrespect "grotesque mistreatment" Cleburne, 454, 3261 (STEVENS, concurring) omitted). "all pattern immediately evident for." 442, 3255. times, responsibilities citizenship, jurisprudence seemed analogy nondisabled children. Penry Lynaugh, 492 302, 338, 2934, 2957, 106 256 (controlling J.) (not virtue apart individualized inevitably cognitive, volitional, moral act degree culpability associated death penalty"); 2958 ("reliance measure capabilities Eighth disempowering law"). cf. (1979), parents' minor children). When sets up schemes obliged analogy, rest reason. absence justification either affirm Appeals. conclusion, validity syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 321, 282, 287, 499. description inconsistent His reasoning, conception circumstances. minimum contexts, exceeds select choice. seek, balance calibrate effort level. Ala.Code 22-52-50 22-52-1 Jersey 7, 1a. Under version relating guardian center voluntary requirements inapplicable. Supp.1986). admitted involuntarily. Austin, 848 1386, 1391-1392 1988). certiorari 488 967, 495, 531 (1988), remove provision. brief, again attacks prior Petitioner 20-28. mooted repeal see, Department Treasury Galioto, 477 559-560, 2683, 2685-2686, 459 (1986); Kremens Bartley, 119, 128-129, 1709, 1714-1715, 184 (1977), "fairly included" questions Rule 14.1(a). Pet. Cert. i. first, stake, citing last Term Louisiana authorizing continued sane convicts terms so. kept incarcerated La.Code Crim.Proc.Ann., Art. 657 Supp.1991), "Louisiana law," WHITE wrote, "not approach complies "two cardinal federal courts: never anticipate advance necessity deciding it; formulate broader precise applied," Brockett Spokane Arcades, 472 501, 2794, 2801, (citations, internal marks, brackets practice. Hooper Bernalillo County Assessor, 612, 618, 2862, 2866, (declining failed test); Mississippi University Women Hogan, 458 718, 9, 3331, 3336, 1090 (1982) scrutiny). notes, substantially identical [w]ho [f]or 202A.026 addition mentioned text, beneficial method treatment. lowered indeed, (1979) discuss diagnosing 429-430, 1811-1812, created supposed "serious ever dangerous." Of course, determined standard. point excursion historical so-called "idiots," "lunatics." Surely intend scientifically beliefs pre-19th-century England today. time, "[s]een demonically possessed products parental sin [and] punished perish." primary "idiocy" appears "depriv[e] [an individual] [his] property profits." 10. Those wealth "were dealt like destitute vagrant workhouses houses correction." 11. permanent lifetime care. 31. petitioner permanence regime (accepting factually stereotype) cuts way. possibility once thought regain standards, stricter around. already limitations relevance develops desire

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