Document: 482 U.S. 656 107 S.Ct. 2617 96 L.Ed.2d 572 Charles GOODMAN, et al., Petitionersv.LUKENS STEEL COMPANY, al. UNITED STEELWORKERS OF AMERICA, AFL-CIO-CLC, Petitioners v. Nos. 85-1626, 85-2010. Argued April 1, 1987. Decided June 19, Syllabus In 1973, petitioners in No. 85-1626 (hereinafter petitioners), including individual employees of Lukens Steel Co. (Lukens), brought suit Federal District Court against and the employees' collective-bargaining agents (Unions), asserting racial discrimination claims under Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964 42 U.S.C. § 1981. The court held that Pennsylvania's 6-year statute limitations governing contract applied to 1981 claims, had discriminated certain respects, Unions were also guilty discriminatory practices failing challenge Lukens' discharges probationary employees, refusing assert instances as grievances, tolerating tacitly encouraging harassment. entered injunctive orders Unions, reserving damages issues for further proceedings. Appeals 2-year personal injury actions, rather than statute, controlled but affirmed liability judgment Unions. Held: 1. was correct selecting Pennsylvania period actions most analogous state govern all suits. Section speaks not only rights contract, sue, testify, equal laws security persons property; are be subject like punishments, taxes, burdens every kind. Cf. Wilson Garcia, 471 261, 105 1938, 85 254. properly concluded should retroactively here, even though overruled its prior 1977 1978 decisions refused apply involved those cases. Chevron Oil Huson, 404 97, 92 349, 30 296, advises nonretroactivity is appropriate circumstances, when decision overrules clear Circuit precedent on which complaining party entitled rely. However, until Appeals' decision, there been no authoritative specification an employee's hence could have relied they filed their complaint 1973. As other factors, applying here will frustrate any federal law or result inequity workers who charged with knowledge it unsettled question how far back from date filing would reach. Pp. 660-664. 2. courts below violated Because both agreed facts pertaining whether treated blacks whites differently intended discriminate basis race, this examine record, absent Unions' showing extraordinary reasons doing so. There merit contention rests erroneous legal premise if a union passively sits by does affirmatively oppose employer's racially employment practices. fact, case one more mere acquiescence, deliberately chose employer. Nor argument 703(c)(3)'s prohibition union's causing attempting cause illegal employer, supported record. Both found race way represented workers, deliberate choice process grievances 703(c)(1), plain language supports such conclusion. Furthermore, rejected explanation that, order antagonize did include claiming violations. A intentionally fails either avoid antagonizing employer thus improve chances success issues, deference desires white membership, liable 1981, regardless whether, subjective matter, leaders favorably disposed toward minorities. 664-669. 777 F.2d 113 (CA 3 1985), affirmed. WHITE, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., STEVENS, joined, Part I POWELL SCALIA, JJ., II BRENNAN, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, joined. concurring part dissenting part, MARSHALL post, p. ----. POWELL, Parts I, II, III, IV O'CONNOR, Robert M. Weinberg, Washington, D.C., United Steelworkers America, William H. Ewing, Philadelphia, Pa., Goodman, Justice WHITE Court. 1 employees1 Company (Lukens) behalf themselves others, 1964, 78 Stat. 253, amended, 2000e seq.,2 19813 agents, America two local unions (Unions).4 After bench trial, specified periods litigated; reaffirmed pretrial contracts, replevin, trespass5 respect after July 14, 1967, accordingly barred. On merits, others plaintiffs made out case.6 practices, specifically 580 F.Supp. 1114 (ED Pa.1984). separate appealed, challenging Court's conclusions well limitations, applicable injuries, measure 2 Appeals, differing 1985).7 petition certiorari challenged period. 85-2010 claimed error finding them We granted petitions, 479 982, 568, 93 573 (1986). address issue Union's II. * §§ 1982 1983, contain select limitations. 266-268, 1941-1943, 254 (1985); Runyon McCrary, 427 160, 180-182, 2586, 2599-2600, 49 415 (1976); Johnson Railway Express Agency, Inc., 421 454, 462, 95 1716, 1721, 44 295 (1975). Wilson, reach at case, three holdings: purpose characterizing claim asserted law, controlling; single selected 1983 suits; because essence injury, borrowed. (hereafter petitioner), agree first holdings cases, insist third not. Their submission deals primarily economic rights, execution enforcement borrow suits interference contractual six years. 4 submission. has much broader focus rights. section present Code Revised Statutes 1874. Its heading "Equal law" contained chapter "Civil Rights." Insofar declares right make enforce right, construed, may interfered grounds. provision asserts, effect, competence capacity shall depend upon race. It barring discrimination, which, said, fundamental person. Wilson's characterization equally particularly since action encroaches protected That far-reaching consequences change conclusion, impact flows guaranteeing engage economically significant activity free interference. actions. 5 adopted compliance case. usual rule cases decided accordance existing time decision. Gulf Offshore Mobil Corp., 453 473, 486, n. 16, 101 2870, 2879 69 784 (1981); Thorpe Housing Authority Durham, 393 268, 281, 89 518, 526, 21 474 (1969); States Schooner Peggy, Cranch 103, 109, L.Ed. (1801). But 296 (1971), defined circumstances. specifying another context rely, new occasioned substantive served retroactivity, retroactive application inequitable. argue same considerations here. disagree. 6 true, point out, Third Meyers Pennypack Woods Home Ownership Assn., 559 894 (1977); Davis Supply, Div. 581 335, 338, 341, 8 (1978), each 1977, later Al-Khazraji St. Francis College, 505, 512-514 (1986), longer statute. Distinguishing now before us, said: "In Goodman established indicate claims." F.2d, 512. obviously reason said "should given customary effect." 120. cited Smith Pittsburgh, 764 188 (1985),8 post-Wilson termination Circuits. 7 remainder wholly consistent Garcia general purposes statutes repose, Accordingly, case.9 This tried 32 days 1980. One-hundred fifty-seven witnesses testified over 2,000 exhibits introduced. February 13, 1984, findings conclusions. introductory discussing relevant principles, trial judge discussed, among things, nature "disparate treatment" impact" VII, recognizing former plaintiff must prove disparate treatment, trace intentional unnecessary element emphasized proof intent crucial cannot facially neutral conduct another. 9 proceeded find company several discharge during period, toleration harassment initial job assignments, promotions, incentive pay. these identical ways without concluding respects. 10 Similarly, grounds violation ways: employees; failure refusal ground grievances; tacit encouragement 11 What questions historical fact Rule Procedure 52(a) enjoins appellate accept unless clearly erroneous. So based Anderson Bessemer City, 470 564, 574, 1504, 1511, 84 518 Pullman-Standard Swint, 456 273, 287-288, 102 1781, 1789-1790, 72 66 (1982). set aside comes having facts, we inclined record ourselves some undertaking task. Nothing submitted indicates do "A is, correction errors factfinding, undertake review concurrent absence very obvious exceptional error." Graver Mfg. Linde Co., 336 271, 275, 535, 538, 672 (1949). See Ceccolini, 435 98 1054, 1058, 55 268 (1978). Unless inhering below, are, affirm it. 12 contend true declared passivity face renders and, animus inferrable, well."10 need discuss abstract observation, went say evidence proves "far more" passivity.11 court, 1965, express clause binding grounds; discriminating discharging aware anything about proffered otherwise; ignored indisputably nature; regularly assertions violations.12 13 affirming appeared hold affirmative duty combat workplace. 126-127. it, too, stronger acquiescence view knowing refusals victims heard. 14 submit 703(c)(3), provides Union "cause attempt section," 256, 2000e-2(c)(3), nothing accepted justifies prohibition. differ 703(c)(1) makes unlawful practice "exclude expel otherwise against, his color, religion, sex, national origin." 255, 2000-2(c)(1). (Emphasis added.) indeed expressly "[t]he VII." 127. 15 faulted stating fair representation, relevance understand rested affirmance ground, indicated above, 703. 16 violations contract. followed practice, urged, resolved making allegations "get up" bias charged, thereby difficult prevail. judge, although initially impressed seemingly press ultimately "unacceptable" violating covenant violate provision. noted complain terminations group though, found, knew being discharged disproportionately higher rate whites. virtual file race-bias lawsuit started, practicing what prevented, rendered unconvincing.13 17 suggestion denigrated generally. Rather, agent not, follow policy grievable however strong might sure blacks. categorized unworthy pursuit while pursuing thousands legitimate blacks, Such conduct, concluded, seeking remedy treatment avoids so perceived [VII] minorities." F.Supp., 1160. 18 our view, construed Those provisions permit refuse presented black person looks disfavor resents grievances. less violative pursue rejecting disparate-treatment solely troublesome process. 19 85-2010, 20 ordered. whom BLACKMUN join, part. 22 join opinion, engaged 1964. dissent, however, characterizes tort holds injury. original conception current application, proscription execution, administration, contracts. Our analysis (1985), requires us hold, therefore, governed relations. 23 determine 1871, codified 1983. First, action, matter law. U.S., 268-271, S.Ct., 1943-1944. then interest "uniformity, certainty, minimization litigation" required receive broad statute-of-limitations purposes. Id., 1947. For stated today concludes agree. goes characterization, 24 history determination best characterized resulting observed originally known Ku Klux Act, enacted "specific catalyst" "the campaign violence deception South, fomented Klan." 276, highlighted legislative Congress stop wave murders, lynchings, whippings eliminate refuge authorities extended authors outrageous incidents." Ibid. From this, atrocities concerned 1871 plainly sounded tort." 277, More specifically, determined many types "action recovery injuries" common-law action. 25 Performing conclude 1866,1 presently provides: 26 "All within jurisdiction State Territory parties, give evidence, full benefit proceedings property enjoyed citizens, punishment, pains, penalties, licenses, exactions kind, other." 27 Clearly, "full benefit" "punishment" clauses guarantee numerous sense broadly status 'person.' " supra, 1947-1948 (emphasis original). intended, frequently utilized, narrower category 28 main targets 1866 "Black Codes," Southern Thirteenth Amendment passed.2 correctly Black Codes poorly disguised substitutes slavery: 29 "They status; forbade occupations professions (e.g. skilled artisans, merchants, physicians, preaching license); owning firearms weapons; movement systems passes; residence; prohibited congregation groups blacks; restricted residing areas; etiquette whites, as, example, prohibiting directing insulting words whites." Hyman & W. Wiecek, Equal Under Law 319 (1982).3 addition, "formidable hand custom," id., 321, interposed itself between independence, forcing move private, state-sanctioned discrimination. generally Kohl, 1866, Hour Come Round At Last: Jones Alfred Mayer Va.L.Rev. 272, 279 (1969).4 31 Obviously, longstanding custom imposed number prohibitions noneconomic, 39th therefore concerns lay outside realm. Nonetheless, often acknowledged,5 Legislature's central revolved around taken private parties consigned Americans lives perpetual subservience masters. These denominated "civil rights" because, mid-19th century, commonly defined, especially lawyers, economic." 299.6 believed freedom empty men women assured opportunity business, work, bargain sale labor. debates, emerged again sought identify enable sustain independent unit (a family) once master-slave relation dismantled: "[Section 1981's] object secure poor, weak class laborers contracts labor, power payment wages, means holding enjoying proceeds toil." Cong.Globe, Cong., 1st Sess., 1159 (1866) (Rep. Windom). 33 "It idle citizen life, yet deny him whereby he alone can live. mockery live, privilege rewards worse clothed authority character stripped citizens exist." 1833 Lawrence).7 34 origins demonstrate dominant concern preeminence clearer conjunction 1982, simultaneously enacted. squarely exclusively "[a]ll Territory, thereof inherit, purchase, lease, sell, convey real property." derived 1866; wording led construe similarly. Runyon, 171-173, 2595-2596; Tillman Wheaton-Haven Recreation 410 431, 440, 1090, 1095, 35 403 (1973).8 Looking tandem, apparent primary thrust matrix quasi-contractual relationships form sphere. maintains "part discrimination," "a person." Ante, 661. If reasoning completely superfluous. Any act racism doubtless inflicts core, violence—a denial another's dignity.9 contexts, acts civil laws. availability forum obscure type inflicted vary. Discrimination overlap almost categories embrace one. An assault, breach infliction emotional distress, unjust discharge, hire promote—all motivated claim. Bringing alter fact. differentiate results interferes relations.10 36 acknowledged theme 1981: meant, terms, proscribe favor of, race." McDonald Santa Fe Trail Transportation 295, 2574, 493 (1976). recognize requires, reflect claims. 37 Even inconsistency Congress, wrong practical matter. overwhelming Comment, Developments Law—Section Har.Civ.Rights-Civ.Lib.L.Rev. 29, (1980) ("Plaintiffs predominantly statute's discrimination"); see Brief pp. 18-19. different, usually sounding tort.11 Personal single, dramatic event, physical eyewitness testimony becomes accessible trustworthy passage time. contrast, relations involve relationship documentary evidence. See, e.g., Harv.Civ. Rights-Civ.Lib.L.Rev., 225, 228. occur traumatic moment, but, rule, legislatures evidentiary foundation greater life expectancy, warrant period.12 38 length allowed instituting inevitably reflects value concerning interests protecting valid outweighed prosecution stale ones." 463-464, 1722, Today "value judgment" reached regard torts. Inevitably, henceforth used time.13 III 39 "it fate swallowed up (or generalized theory obligation)," G. Gilmore, Death Contract 94 (1974), happened yet. obligation treat dignity undeniably prohibits Yet still system classifies obligations, distinguishes obligations reasonable person's care. to, do, vindicate related them. respectfully dissent. 40 SCALIA joins, O'CONNOR joins through IV, 41 concur arising ruling opinion. affirms ambiguous Circuit, provide adequate support conclusion members. Neither animus, members alternative impact. remand clarify additional necessary. Close examination essential proper understanding plaintiffs, employed Company, sued (Unions) alleged VII. plaintiffs' directed handling steady increase grievance filings year produced corresponding grievance-processing handle complaints." 1114, 1158 Consequently, gave priority "[s]erious grievances"—that "those involving four-day suspension, discharges." effort reduce backlog serious simply withdrawing seek relief proceeding. "no hard inference inadequacies disadvantage extent incomplete suggests percentage proportional work force. Of relatively few arbitration, Moreover, slightly arbitration 1158-1159. sum, "plaintiffs' perceptions inequities more, establish prima facie . ."1 1159. 43 "on firmer ground" "repeated failures, complaints company." Beginning agreements employee, permanent probationary. undisputed "were reluctant grievance." reluctance reasonable. likely obtain framed agreement require animus. faced allegation tended 'to get up' resist [the] charge." nevertheless explanation, reasons. "virtually ignored" "numerous harassment, nature, collective bargaining agreement." Second, "vigorous focused attention compelled attitudes," "unwillingness non-discrimination dead letter." despite employers probationary, adhered policy, "knew Finally, failed written tests administered members, certainly chargeable notorious regard." objected "tests kinds," unfair advantage younger recently completed formal education. 45 (CA3 1985). "deliberate grievances" "because representation." district court's well." 46 recognizes, recover 665-666; General Building Contractors Inc. Pennsylvania, 458 375, 382-391, 3141, 3146-3150, 73 835 recognizes grounded claim, purpose. Teamsters States, 431 324, 335-336, 15, 97 1843, 1854-1855, 52 396 (1977). course, '[d]iscriminatory purpose' implies volition awareness consequences." Personnel Administrator Mass. Feeney, 442 279, 99 2282, 2296, 60 870 (1979) (citation omitted). "at least 'because of,' merely 'in spite adverse effects identifiable group." (footnote concedes "there generally." 668. "refuse[d] grievances," ante, 669, "pursue[d] process," ibid. my description fit 47 offered nondiscriminatory lengthy suspension. According face, using inadequate assist harm. pretext permitted lose. processing nonracial grounds—to swiftest complete possible claimant, 1159—was invidious. opposed use ground. obtained App. 237. base opposition animus.2 Absent unjustified. B 48 Although raised disparate-impact 1119, specific nor theory. Indeed, limited amount statistical discussed procedures neither considered validity potential defenses theory, justified doctrine business—or union—necessity. Griggs Duke Power 401 424, 91 849, 853, 158 (1971). arguments justifiable bona fide seniority system.3 Ford Motor EEOC, 219, 239-240, 3057, 3069-3070, 721 consider theories passed lower courts, Furnco Construction Corp. Waters, 438 567, 580-581, 2943, 2951-2952, 57 957 theory.4 "mere passivity" agrees shows 665—666. disagree imposes 50 starting statutory always, itself. Kelly Robinson, 36, 43, 353, ----, 216 703(c), unions, suggest take steps discrimination.5 "to exclude 2000e-2(c)(1). subsection parallels 703(a)(1), applies employers. 2000e-2(a)(1). parallelism, reference direct members; impose 703(c)(3) addresses interaction outlawing efforts section." 2000e-2(c)(3). hardly chosen ill suited "[t]o 'causes' allowing stretch meaning word beyond limits." A. Larson L. Larson, Employment Discrimination, 44.50, 9-40 (1985). haec verba 8(b)(2) National Labor Relations (NLRA), 158(b)(2). NLRA passive wrongdoing enactment inducing sufficient incur 8(b)(2). Electrical Workers NLRB, 341 694, 703, 71 954, 959, 1299 (1951). 51 statement intent, read disrupt basic policies labor Trans World Airlines, Hardison, 432 63, 79, 2264, 2274, 53 Unquestionably disruption. union, unlike democratically institution constituents, representation. Like representative entities, balance competing constituents. choices goals eliminating workplace, removing health safety hazards, providing better insurance pension benefits, increasing wages. recognized satisfaction expected." Huffman, 345 330, 681, 686, 1048 (1953). afforded discretion Foust, 42, 51, 2121, 2127, 698 (1979); Vaca Sipes, 386 171, 191-194, 87 903, 917-918, 842 (1967). members' deplete treasuries, induce frivolous settlement offers. 51-52, 2127; 191-193, 917-918. employee remedy, directly Alexander Gardner-Denver 1011, 147 (1974). vacate 54 light uniform State's 280-287, 1949-1953, (1985) (O'CONNOR, dissenting). doubt adhere announces Stovall Denno, 388 293, 301, 1972, 1199 85-1626. POWELL's Political Action Committee Chester County 2000e-2(c), "(c) organization organization— "(1) origin; "(2) limit, segregate, classify membership applicants fail refer individual, deprive tend opportunities, limit opportunities adversely affect applicant employment, individual's "(3) reads follows: certified agent. locals behalf. Pa.Stat.Ann., Tit. 12, (Purdon 1931), repealed Judiciary 1976, 142, 1976 Pa.Laws 586. 27, 1978. Judge Garth dissented workers' 130. He same; three-part test Chevron, remarked: "We where erratic inconsistent, reasonably rely waiting suit, subsequent Supreme past litigants relied." 194-195. note ruled definitively particular there. giving effect reexamination determinations shorter addressed impact, motive 391, 3150, eventually exactly way, rest commented substantial events occurring "casts unions' total commitment equality." 1157 company, pressed nondiscrimination agreement. never took segregated locker facilities company. approached president 1962, dissuaded agency. "inconclusive" overall company's tests, done grounds, tests" control assignments. hired, protection agreement, clause: "To continue paying desirable jobs, units disparately black, (and, VII). clear, defendant avail mechanism members." reenacted, minor changes, May 31, 1870, 144, recodified 168-169, 8, 2593-2594, B. Schwartz, Confederation Nation: American Constitution 1835-1877, 191 (1973) ("The explained Lyman Trumbull, chairman Senate Committee, introducing proposed legislation, carry into destroying Negro existed southern states, emancipation"); 193 ("Before Amendment, slaves own property, emancipation states perpetuate disability. 'incident slavery' aimed at, relying Amendment"); C. Fairman, History States: Reconstruction Reunion, 1864-1888, 110 (1971) ("Eight session December 1865. Each Negro. spoken, felt moment assembled. major aspect, problem economic"); K. Stampp, Era 1865-1877, 123 (1965) ("This condition helplessness enabled landholders, aid Codes, re-establish bondage form. congressional heard great deal convincing vagrancy various extra-legal coercive devices force Negroes agricultural strict discipline. suggested close securing political establishment independence other"). "attenuated counterparts" Northern "prohibiting ingress state, imposing Jim Crow public facilities, voting." 320 pointed told story" prevent controlling (1969). Joint demonstrating apart restrictions access land markets severely limited, compulsion freedmen sign low rates, cartels plantation owners fixed wages sell 279-283; Report Schurz, S.Exec.Doc. 2, (1865) negro's carrying business independently account—in word, working benefit—showed variety ways"). banned relations, individuals constructively denied provided lesser favorable terms unequal discouraging entry Assn. 386, 3147-3148, (1982) principal legislation eradicate range disabilities freedmen"); 172, 2595 (racial education "classic 1981"); (1976) (Section "discrimination contracts"); 459, 1720, (1975) relates cf. 392 409, 443, 88 2186, 2205, 1189 (1968) (the "paper guarantee[s]" "assure dollar hands purchase thing man"). 300 ("There How many, knew, lawyers neatly economic, relationships"); 301 enjoyed[,] enter limitless relationships, gain lose involvements precious right. underlay Republicans meant labor"). passages similar effect. 1151 Thayer): "Sir, competent new-formed Legislatures rebel enact oppress large people dependent Government, retain servitude; practicable pass bondmen; enjoyment citizenship; declare, purchasing home families; impair ability manner virtually declare vagrants homes employment; say, laws, demand know, amendment abolishing slavery States?" 1160 Windom): "[Blacks] shelter families, arrested sold business. "Planters combine together compel masters dictate, hiring consent master; impossible elsewhere, enforced. Do you call man choose name work? freeman sacred possessions, home? Is bring defense rights? Sir, liberty, none ever know is." previously histories hand, other, interpretations. Columbia Carter, 409 418, 602, 613 (holding "State Territory" 1982). Monroe Pape, 365 167, 205-206, 81 493-494, 492 (1961) (Frankfurter, part) ("Different problems enactments deriving different constitutional sources"). tortious aspect Curtis Loether, 189, 196, 10, 1005, 1009, 260 (1974) (citing Gregory Kalven, Cases Materials Torts 961 (2d ed. 1969)), "dignitary appears "§ 1981," 661, important demonstrated merit: nucleus operative sometimes and/or [a were] variations, commonplace run-of-the-mill automobile accident rise warranty tort—each thought 'bizarre result,' possibility causes 'bizarre.' 113, 136 actually litigation. Fair 1968, 3601 seq. (1982 Supp. III), seq., short imposed, forced exhausting administrative remedies, fear running 282, 1950, dissenting) ("[A] legislature's selection defamation evaluation characteristics realistic expectancy adversary's expectations repose"); 138 (statement rehearing) ("Most arise patterned well-documented courses choices, differences differences"); 894, 1977) (quoting Dudley Textron, Burkart-Randall Division, 606 Pa.1975) normally 'patterned-type behavior, proof' "; accordingly, '[t]he impede facts' "); Dupree Hertz 419 764, 767 Pa.1976) ("[T]he interfere memories action"); ("[Section] typically irregular sudden nature. By pursuant consist patterned-type records. appropriate"). formerly 5527 1981). "where gist bodily caused workers," 131 (Garth, dissenting), "actively participated" meetings affairs. 1157. member committee, committee. 7; 714-715. shop stewards, representatives process, exceeded unit. 634-640. objective inevitable foreseeable practice. 25, Arlington Heights Metropolitan Dev. 429 252, 266, 555, 450 essentially unavoidable consequence always deemed legitimate, ripen proof." 25. drawn policies. acted, act, harming justification employer-discrimination (citations stated: "Moreover, unions. distinction lethargy inefficiency perceive inattentive solution (in arguably, inaction connection race) protect interests." Far inferring inaction, passivity—whether inadvertent—is intent. appear surprising consideration supporting 1971. vacated classwide 1971 amounted isolated 121 explicitly alleging 412, 422, 491, 657, 659, 684. 658—659,

Category: 1