Document: 390 U.S. 474 88 S.Ct. 1114 20 L.Ed.2d 45 Hank AVERY, Petitioner,v.MIDLAND COUNTY, TEXAS, et al. No. 39. Argued Nov. 14, 1967. Decided April 1, 1968. Lyndon L. Olson, Waco, Tex., for petitioner. Francis X. Beytagh, Jr., Cleveland, Ohio, the United States, as amicus curiae, by special leave of Court. W. B. Browder, and F. H. Pannill, Midland, respondents. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion 1 Petitioner, a taxpayer voter in Midland County, Texas, sought determination this Court that Texas Supreme erred concluding selection County Commissioners from single-member districts substantially unequal population did not necessarily violate Fourteenth Amendment. We granted review, 388 905, 87 2106, 18 1345 (1967), because application one man, vote principle Reynolds v. Sims, 377 533, 84 1362, 12 506 (1964), to units local government is broad public importance. hold petitioner resident has right equal weight every other resident. 2 about 70,000. The composed five members. One, Judge, elected at large entire county, practice casts only break tie. four are chosen districts. those districts, according 1963 estimates were relied upon when case was tried, respectively 67,906; 852; 414; 828. This vast imbalance resulted placing single district virtually city County's urban center, which 95% county's resides. 3 assigned Constitution various statutory enactments with variety functions. According commentary Vernon's Statutes, court: 4 'is general governing body county. It establishes courthouse jail, appoints numerous minor officials such county health officer, fills vacancies offices, lets contracts name builds roads bridges, administers welfare services, performs duties regard elections, sets tax rate, issues bonds, adopts budget, serves board equalization assessments.'1 5 court also authorized, among responsibilities, build run hospital, Tex.Rev.Civ.Stat.Ann., Art. 4492 (1966), an airport, id., 351 libraries, 1677 (1962). fixes boundaries school within 2766 (1965), may establish regional housing authority, 1269k, § 23a (1963), determines election its own members, Tex.Const., V, 18, Ann.St. 6 Petitioner sued members District Court, alleging disparity violated Amendment he had standing resident, taxpayer, largest population. Three commissioners testified trial all telling (as indeed statistics established demonstrated) major factor districting process. ruled made no explicit reference Amendment, but said apportionment plan effect 'for convenience people,' standard Constitution. ordered defendant adopt new each precinct would have 'substantially same number people.' 7 Civil Appeals reversed judgment entered respondents, 397 S.W.2d 919 (1965). held neither federal nor state law created requirement courts be districted 8 Appeals, 406 422 (1966). under 'the requirements States Constitutions' present scheme impermissible reasons stated court.' S.W.2d, 425. However, disagreed court's conclusion precincts must populations, stating factors 'number qualified voters, land areas, geography, miles taxable values' could considered. 428. decreed redistrict 'This responsibility accomplished constitutional we delineate.' 428—429.2 9 In supra, Equal Protection Clause applied legislatures. Every determined, ballot legislators infringed question now before us whether likewise forbids disparate As almost addressed itself question,3 it does.4 10 reaches exercise power however manifested, exercised directly or through subdivisions State. 11 'Thus prohibitions extend action State denying protection laws; whatever agency taking * *.' Cooper Aaron, 358 17, 78 1401, 1409, (1958). Although forms functions relationships matters concern, beyond State's political comply Amendment.5 actions A city, town, more deny laws than abridge freedom speech, official religion, arrest without probable cause, due process law. 13 When apportions legislature, Clause. Similarly, delegates lawmaking provides specified statute, ordinance, charter, insure equally effective voice If voters residing oversize denied their participate legislators, precisely kind deprivation occurs council, board, senators representing legislature ranging size 50,000 500,000, permissible elect council either case, votes some residents greater theose others; both cases been denied. 14 That properly apportioned does exempt While legislatures extensive over constituents government, universally much policy decisionmaking governmental subdivisions. Legislators enact many do attempt reach countless concern left wholly partly who govern level. What more, providing governments cities, counties, towns, characteristically provide representative government—for level representatives people. And, infrequently, delegation contained provisions home rule immune legislative interference. word, institutions always aspect our system, responsible responsive operation today increasing importance quality life citizens. therefore see little difference, terms principles between counties.6 15 urged permit on ground sufficiently 'legislative.' parties devoted effort urging alternative labels 'administrative' versus 'legislative'—be brief description above amply demonstrates, unit cannot easily classified neat categories favored civics texts. tasks normally thought 'legislative,' others typically 'executive' departments, still 'judicial.' Comissioners most bodies American villages.7 One knowledgeable commentator written states' varied, pragmatic approach establishing government.' R. Wood, Politics Government 891—892 (A. Westin ed. 1965). produced staggering units—the preliminary calculation Bureau Census 1967 hat there 81,304 'units government' States8—and even diversity. Nonetheless, while special-purpose organizations abound allocation results instances overlap vacuum, lives what his neighbors affairs. citizens reside subject two governments, 16 unit. found Court's 'negligible,' 426, make decisions having range impacts equalizes assessments, bonds. then prepares budget allocating funds, given statute wide discretion choosing subjects spend. adopting makes long-term judgments way should develop—whether industry solicited, improved, recreation facilities built, set aside schools—and immediate choices competing needs. 17 concluded work actually done 'disproportionately concern(s) rural areas,' Were performance affecting definable groups constituents, confront ways give influence affected organization's question, however, presented authorities concentrate attention roads, relevant fact powers include authority substantial affect citizens, they inside outside limits Midland. maintain buildings, administer determine city. taxes imposed fall property Indeed, mere coincidence three voting area surrounding devotes rpoblems area, paying expenditures live And might point out decision function power—a decision, example, airport library, food stamp program—is just affirmative not, course, require never distinguish distinctions arbitrary invidious. Sims bases acceptable grounds distinguishing determining used permits variation drawing geographic served body. 19 aware immense pressures facing greatly varying problems deal. uniform straitjacket bind devising mechanisms suitable needs efficient solving problems. Last Term, upheld procedure placed boards component though populations. Sailors Board Education Kent 387 105, 1549, 650 (1967). rested administrative nature board's essentially appointive form employed. Dusch Davis, 112, 1554, 656 permitted Virginia Beach choose included at-large candidates, whom particular residence varied widely demonstrate roadblocks path innovation, experiment, development government. will bar Professor Wood called emergence ideology structure bodies, equipped capacities motivations 1400 Governments, 175 (1961). Our imposes arrangements government: 21 below vacated remanded disposition inconsistent opinion. 22 so ordered. 23 Judgment remanded. 24 MARSHALL took part consideration case. 25 HARLAN, dissenting. 26 I disagree disregards limitations appellate jurisdiction again betrays insensitivity appropriate dividing lines judicial system. I. 27 believe lacks because, analyzed, seen rest adequate wanting 'finality.' history proceedings, related opinion, ante, 477-478, clearly reveals disallowing rests well ground. ground—Art. support result. suffice defeat jurisdiction. See, e.g., Department Mental Hygiene Cal. Kirchner, 380 194, 85 871, 753; Herb Pitcairn, 324 117, 125 126, 65 459, 462—463, 89 L.Ed. 789. 28 Nor review statement reapportioning future take into account holding obviously amount '(f)inal judgment' meaning U.S.C. 1257.1 traditional test finality leaves ministerial act done. Pope Atlantic Coast Line Co., 345 379, 382, 73 749, 751, 97 1094; Republic Natural Gas Co. Oklahoma, 334 62, 68, 68 972, 976, 92 1212. clear acts performed order bring very far character, conceivably result satisfying petitioner's demands further litigation. For since regarding nonpopulation merely advisory mandatory, reapportion solely basis population, thus leaving nothing complain. Since unwaivable condition jurisdiction, see, Market St. Railroad Comm'n Cal., 548, 551, 770, 772, 1171, consider us. 29 On these scores, dismiss writ improvidently granted. II. 30 merits, so, extends 506, estimated 80,000 throughout land, unjustifiable ill-advised. 31 continue think adventures realm science powers, forth length my dissenting Reynolds, U.S., 589, S.Ct., 1395 seq. decided otherwise, self-discipline requires me follow dogma constitutionally embedded consequence decision. am foreclosed, remonstrating against extension areas At juncture content myself propositions which, view, stand strongly today. first 'practical necessities' justify profound 1962 Baker Carr, 369 186, 82 691, 663,2 here. second notwithstanding 'one vote' formula structuring units. A. 32 argument generally heard justifying entry field failed correct serious mal-apportionments structure, means redress proved available throgh process, entitled step picture.3 reject thesis furnishing excuse judiciary's straying proper role, bodes ill country system if firmly face loose short-sighted important thing purposes justification can brought bear instance. 33 No claim avenues open any malapportionment elective units, difficult envisage how situation arise. Local creatures reformed legislatures, required amendment constitutions.4 circumstances, practical necessity force. then, withhold hand until supposed arise, intruding business restructuring across country. 34 There another reason why least wait period applying governments. feasibility yet demonstrated. significant questions remain unanswered,5 burden substantial. outcome 50 seems unwise time whose bewildering sure multiply already arisen cast burdens, imponderable dimension, courts. frankly astonished ease proceeded fasten lowest levels strong arm judiciary, let alone debate differences beginnings Nation.6 35 convincing functional apply all. read long debated theory majority themselves population—into Constitution, thereby foreclosing experimenting rationally formed ways. Even assuming justified level, identity asserted necessities interference referred above, surely hazardous generalization noted previously, necessity' More important, implies flexibility depriving needed adaptability goals Reynolds. 36 affords example especially inappropriate matter law: 37 'Theoretically, represent residents, rural, But developments during years narrowed scope limited responsibilities nonurban come pass dwellers administration affairs dwellers.' 422, 38 Despite specialized role court, undertaken ambit simply classifying 'a affairs.' See 483. intended afford 'equal protection' seem discriminates inhabitants. City limits. Therefore, interest activities dweller. Yet majority's dominant proportional numbers, allowance stake inhabitants 39 problem trivial confined County. stems unlike often function.7 Application prevents adoption apportionments specialization, denial treatment impact. Under today's apparent classify 'general' responsibility, thereby, presumably, avoiding rule. Neither satisfies Reynolds' avowed purpose: assure 'equality' voters. deprives localities desirable option slightly specialized, Texas' constituencies favor affects most. explicitly rejecting solution allowed reflect 'land values,' 428, 40 declaration imposing 'straitjacket' 485, likely undesirable 'freezing' effects readily foreseeable crucial metropolitan common pattern Nation's less affluent migrate central wealthy move suburbs work.8 impose relatively heavier taxpayers fragmentize services area.9 An oft-proposed institution integrated encompassing area.10 instances, suburb.11 matter, suburbanites reluctant join unless receive share benefits them numbers.12 ready concede much, return ability suburbs. pronouncements, rational compromise forbidden: 41 These considerations reinforce belief rule, possesses simplistic defects inherent judicially complex social problem,13 entirely country's 42 better demonstration proposition afforded admirable analysis Brother FORTAS. But, respect, Brother's projected unsatisfactory. bid fair plunge avalanche reapportionment firmer anchors notions constitutes 43 With deference, sure-footed avoiding, hand, inequities other, morass pitfalls FORTAS' approach, decline experiment where belongs. 44 FORTAS, unlawful redistricting. delicate await redistricting final product invalidated.1 46 argues (ante, 478, n. 2) contemplates proceedings courts, although holds redistrict. point. 47 superimpose disagrees states. directed values.' produce find acceptable. know advance melange emerge mixing machine deal problem. extreme prevailing eliminated, unconstitutional. substitute finally worked laws. After all, last Term accepted passing scrutiny less-than-mathematically perfect plans 48 plunges adjudication midstream, apparently rejects deviates literal thrust vote. believes say save labor answer. 49 fundamental disagreement. believe, shall discuss, circumstances achieved—and perhaps achieved—by takes values factors, arithmetic simplicity equals one. wisely prudently decided. They reasoned, conservative, empirical intricate complexities abandon reasonable moderate suffrage absolute inflexible potentially destructive values. insist units—that drawn powerful resons why, insisting population-suffrage ratio, rigid, theoretical, authoritarian involved careful conservative imperatives, powerful. Constitutional commandments surgical instruments. tendency hack deeply—to amputate. doubt that, growth suburbia exurbia, urgently attention, persuaded call hatchet duty value individual ignore realities bypass alternatives alteration provide. 51 agree stop Of course commands 1408, easy. slights, is: demand units? 52 stands debasement offensive allegedly debased relates Legislature, remedy adjudicate debasement, deviation, basis. carefully emphasizes appropriateness allowing latitude meet conditions, 577 581, 1389—1391, insistence need correspondence rights rule.2 53 Legislature. people similarly Its comprehensive pervasive. specially concentrated parts separate group said, citizen relation' Accordingly, variations equality elections Legislature away mandates. citizen's citizenship.3 54 certainly primarily light missions. Residents interests Commissioners. reality segments treated alike, regardless stark difference impact them. 'Equal substance citizens' interests. adapted substance; upon, permit, prescription wrongly assumes same. 55 judgment, departs holds, broadly generally, population.' Ante, 478. holding, literally commands, completely ignores States—complexities states, prescription. ruling comport lack characterizes miscellany 56 beginning 1967, 81,253 States. figure includes 3,049 18,051 municipal 17,107 township 21,782 21,264 districts.4 vary function. usually several overlapping 57 concedes 'special-purpose government,' certain others. cases. 483 484. says here implications situation. agree. 58 submit many, most, (and particular) arising boards, slight direct different geographical jurisdictions drastically ways.5 59 Study impressions: great; currently flux.6 differ way: governed,7 county,8 form, board,9 provided,10 independent officials,11 sources revenue.12 60 Some generalizations First, counties perform basic delegated State: assessment property, collection taxes, recording deeds documents, maintenance poor relief, enforcement, electoral begun assumption policy-making functions.13 largely instrumentalities State.14 61 Second, '(t)he absence chief executive diffusion independently characteristics States.'15 Those invariably pointed region countywide organized specific tasks. Often organs great county.16 62 force chiefly area.17 rule,18 relative autonomy contrast, like convenient collect peace-keeping functions, improve ordinary strictly provision.19 listing authorizing statutes indicate power, impression somewhat illusory grant circumscribe detailed limitations. 63 cites VIII, 9, Article 2352 Statutes granting levy taxes. Yet, suit provided excess 80¢ $100 valuation. allocated 'constitutional purposes' mentioned (not 25¢ purposes, 15¢ jury fund, permanent improvements).20 64 Another issue true, notes, authority. Title up code concerning bonds issued. Significantly, 701 'shall issued purpose' bond submitted property-taxpaying limitations, reflected does. record briefs complete picture workings concerned affairs, particularly roads. Commissioner item bridges.21 Commissioner, streets quite handle 'The is, mayor business, whole stated: 66 legislative, branches, 67 Moreover, specifically provision, sometimes decisions. Within departments controlled control. view road commissioners. department heads really department. approve salary. hire anyone except employees.'22 stated, charged management control *. (T)he spheres interfere usurp.' officials, direct, vote, basis, Assessor Collector Taxes, Attorney, Sheriff, Treasurer, Clerk, Surveyor.23 presiding officer basis.24 Other employees appointed Court.25 69 probably preponderant 'Every (except commissioners), back years, Midland.' 150 lived precincts. limits.26 noted, fifth member Chairman, Judge county.27 indicate. Many collection, large.28 70 sum, limited, defined restricted primary residents. extent limited. To respects, hands viewed appears them, respect exercises interested. 71 this, 'no variation' involved. denies—it implement—substantive rights. stockholder corporation $1 $1,000. it. 72 fact, shown, insists 'general powers.' superficial sense. impressed reality. Substance, shibboleth, admittedly subtle area; meaning. focus True, revenues rate legislature. spend percentages fixes. Taxes assessed collected, it, reduce load spent area. matter. presumably fairly represented 'Reynolds Sims), wishes load, so. position Federal taxing aid neighbors, pay composition use sole controlling distribution. including taken arrangement recognition Certainly, few rendered compel vest practically virtual dependent welfare, essential services. III. 74 decide chance intolerable. show 67,906 representative, 828 respectively. regarded suggest errs opposite direction: Only represented, eliminated look kills purports serve. devise tolerance, eliminates gross underrepresentation adequate, nonurban, urban, peoples.29 75 STEWART, 76 HARLAN 77 add thorough author's unquestioning endorsement doctrine 506. misapplied sovereign State, too complicated resolved sixth-grade arithmetic. My views score, elsewhere,* closely parallel expressed FORTAS Interpretive Commentary, Ann.Tex.Const., (1955). Benton, Texas: 360—370 (1966); Municipal (J. Claunch 1961); C. McCleskey, determined apportioning refusal award relief requested contemplated lower 'final Mercantile Nat. Bank Dallas Langdeau, 371 555, 83 520, 523 (1963); 438 Construction & General Laborers' Union, AFL—CIO Curry, 542, 531, 514 Radio Station WOW Johnson, 326 120, 1475, 2092 (1945). Cases highest Miller Supervisors, etc., Cal.2d 343, 405 P.2d 857, Cal.Rptr. 617, 857 (1965); Montgomery Council Garrott, 243 Md. 634, 222 A.2d 164 Hanlon Towey, 274 Minn. 187, 142 N.W.2d 741 Armentrout Schooler, 409 138 (Mo.1966); Seaman Fedourich, N.Y.2d 94, 262 N.Y.S.2d 444, 209 N.E.2d 778 Bailey Jones, 81 S.D. 139 385 ex rel. Sonneborn Sylvester, Wis.2d 43, 132 249 Newbold Osser, 425 Pa. 230 seemed assume opposition Brouwer Bronkema, Mich. 616, 141 98 eight justices Michigan divided evenly question. Among Hyden Baker, 286 F.Supp. 475 (D.C.M.D.Tenn.1968); Martionolich Dean, 256 612 (D.C.S.D.Miss.1966); Strickland Burns, 824 (D.C.M.D.Tenn.1966); Ellis Mayor Baltimore, 234 945 (D.C.Md.1964), affirmed remanded, 352 F.2d 123 (4th Cir. precedent frequently cited Tedesco So.2d (La.Ct.App.1949), appeal dismissed want 339 940, 797, 94 1357 (1950). points invoked Tedesco, New Orleans challenged Privileges Immunities realistic answer 663 (1962), severely undermined succeeding concluding, Delozier Tyrone Area School Bd., 247 (D.C.W.D.Pa.1965). 16, 1408 (1958); Seattle, 541, 1737, 943 (1967); Thompson Louisville, 362 199, 80 624, 654 (1960); Terminiello Chicago, 337 894, 93 1131 (1949). Inequitable offends adopted State—by referendum, accurately representatives—can place minority deprive altogether, paid situated majority. Government—National, local—must laws, opportunity lawmakers, wishing small object mistreatment. Lucas Forty-Fourth Colorado Assembly Colo., 713, 1459, 632 square principles. untypical 'On figures, coupled rough samplings situations percent elected, part, or, large, schemes requirements.' Brief Amicus Curiae 22, 31, filed 1966 Dept. Commerce, Census, Governments Governmental Units (prelim. rept. Oct. 1967). 1257 provides: 'Final decrees had, reviewed follows magnitude irrefutably demonstrated Frankfurter 266, 300—323, 737, 755—767. concurring Clark 251, 258—259, 727, 732; Auerbach, Reapportionment Cases: Person, Vote—One Vote, Value, 1964 Sup.Ct.Rev. 68—70. Advisory Commission Intergovernmental Relations, Statutory Restrictions Upon Structural, Functional, Personnel Powers 23—61 (1962); Weinstein, Effect Decisions Counties Forms Government, Col.L.Rev. 21, 23, changes occur decennial censuses. Cf. Rhodes, 389 212, 416, 423 (dissenting writer). degree permissible. Swann Adams, 440, 569, 501; cf. Rockefeller Wells, 421, 578, 651 300—324, 755 767. Anderson E. Weidner, 85—103 (1951). 171—174; Relations House Committee Operations, 87th Cong., 1st Sess., Structure, Organization, Planning Metropolitan Areas (Comm. Print 1961). Alternative Approaches Reorganization 8—9 15—16 (Comm.Print 174—179; 38, 44—53 Factors Affecting Voter Reactions Hart Sacks, Legal Process 662—669 (tent. 1958). prove troublesome, bound anticipate job otherwise put house radical use. mainstream relationship differently mark inferior, 'implying inferiority civil society' (Strauder West Virginia, 100 303, 308, 664 (1880)), 'inferiority status community' (Brown Education, 347 483, 494, 686, 873 (1954)). treat were, somehow, 'Since enacting governed, collectively popular will. concept traditionally requiring persons relation questioned challenged. representation, live. debased, citizen.' 565, 567, 1383. exist (that jurisdiction), councils, miniature co-extensive reasonably homogenous areas. Adrian, 210—217 Snider, Rural America 119—139 (1957) (hereafter Snider); International Union Authorities, (1961) Government); National League, Model Charter xi—xxxviii (1956). S. Duncombe, (1966) Duncombe). Duncombe 3—5. Governments: 1962, Table 17. Governing Boards 1965. 70—102. 41—63. Finances 11. 13—14. 30—31 (1951); Snider 131—134. 14. ibid.; 41—63; 44—45, 252—254. 67,717. 62,000 governed Organization 186. XI, 5; Young, Place System Elections (Institute Public Affairs, University 1965) 38. 360—362 Benton); MacCorkle D. Smith, 339—340 (1964) MacCorkle); Patterson, McAlister, G. Hester, 384—385, Patterson); 113—114 Gantt, Dawson Hagard (eds.), Documents Readings 254 303—304, 305 McCleskey). home-rule provision applies IX, 3. unworkable and, 1966, operating Benton 372—375. McCleskey 304, 341. maintains limitation speaks purposes.' provides, though, 'may' money fund purpose source tax. discussion revenue, 367—368. testimony typed transcript portions printed parties. supra. Commentators 344—345; 307, 310; 369. 14; 21; 23; XVI, 44; 20; 44, §§ 15, 306—310, 335—339, Patterson 390—392. Elective Offices 117—118 Aug. Note 24, judge tie self-imposed. enjoys commissioners' motion not.' Opinions Attorney 453 (No. 0—1716, 1939). 27. large. 117 adjust Collector's indicated sits hear complaints days year. go rendition sheets sends notices taxpayers. 40—49 Colorado, 744, 1477, opinion).

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