Document: 463 U.S. 992 103 S.Ct. 3446 77 L.Ed.2d 1171 CALIFORNIA, Petitioner,v.Marcelino RAMOS. No. 81-1893. Argued Feb. 22, 1983. Decided July 6, Syllabus At the guilt phase of respondent's state-court trial, jury returned a verdict on count first-degree murder, which is punishable under California law by death or life imprisonment without possibility parole where an alleged "special circumstance" (here commission murder during robbery) found true at phase. In addition to requiring instructions separate penalty aggravating and mitigating circumstances, requires that trial judge inform sentence may be commuted Governor includes (the so-called Briggs Instruction). judge's included Instruction. The death. Supreme Court affirmed conviction but reversed penalty, concluding Instruction violated Federal Constitution, remanded case for new Held: 1. Constitution does not prohibit instruction permitting capital sentencing consider Governor's power commute parole. Pp. 997-1009. (a) possible commutation impermissibly inject element too speculative jury's consideration. By bringing attention defendant society, invites assess whether someone whose probable future behavior makes it undesirable he permitted return thus focusing defendant's dangerousness. A consideration factor dangerousness was upheld in Jurek v. Texas, 428 262, 96 2950, 49 929. Nor giving result any diminution reliability decision kind condemned Gardner Florida, 430 349, 97 1197, 51 393, held imposed basis presentence investigation report containing information has had no opportunity explain deny. gives accurate both his counsel are aware, preclude from offering evidence argument regarding sentence. 1001-1004. (b) constitutionally infirm asserted ground deflects focus its central task undertaking individualized determination. sense focuses dangerousness, deliberation individualized. Also, system ensures will have before individual characteristics offense. simply places additional considered, along with many other factors, determining appropriate circumstances case. It affect guilt/innocence Beck Alabama, 447 625, 100 2382, 65 392, distinguished. Finally, informing merely statement potential alternative, corrects misconception conveyed phrase "life parole." 1005-1009. 2. unconstitutional because fails also Even assuming, arguendo, impermissible effect skewing toward imposing sentences as well would restore "neutrality" increase choice. fact, advising jurors theoretically modifiable, "final," incline them approach their less appreciation gravity choice moral responsibility reposed sentencers. Thus, disclosing operate distinct disadvantage. Moreover, alone impel voting This relevant factually properly jury, did emphasize role this decision. 1010-1012. 3. conclusion Eighth Fourteenth Amendments do sentence, override judgment state legislatures juries should such matter. States free provide greater protections criminal justice than requires. 1013-1014. 30 Cal.3d 553, 180 Cal.Rptr. 266, 639 P.2d 908 (1982), remanded. Harley D. Mayfield, San Diego, Cal., petitioner. Ezra Hendon, Francisco, respondent. Justice O'CONNOR delivered opinion Court. 1 us constitutionality instructing Finding constitutional defect instruction, we reverse remand further pr ceedings. 2 * On night June 2, 1979, respondent Marcelino Ramos participated robbery fast food restaurant employed janitor. As codefendant placed order, entered restaurant, went behind front counter into work area ostensibly purpose checking schedule, emerged gun. Respondent directed two employees working restaurant's walk-in refrigerator ordered face back wall. several times, inquiring one point about keys safe. When last time, instructed kneel floor refrigerator, remove hats, pray. struck head then shot them, wounding killing other. 3 charged robbery, attempted first degree murder. Defense presented all counts. Under law, phase.1 phase, extensive attempt mitigate punishment.2 circumstances,3 parole.4 following instruction: 4 "You State empowered grant reprieve, pardon, crime. 5 "Under modify lesser include Tr. 1189-1190.5 6 7 appeal required Cal.Penal Code Ann. § 190.3 Constitution. People Ramos, (1982). court flaws instruction. First factors foreign deciding live die. According Court, instead assuring rests "consideration character record offender particular offense," Woodson North Carolina, 280, 304, 2978, 2991, 944 (1976), render eligible if vote execute him injects entirely Second, concluded possesses leaves mistaken belief only way keep off streets condemn Accordingly, phase.6 8 We granted certiorari, 459 ----, 49, 74 56 now remand.7 II 9 challenging Instruction, presses upon arguments advanced He contends (1) consider8 commutation, (2) unconstitutionally misleads selectively choices Respondent's raises related, concerns—viz., so unacceptable level unreliability determination, mandated basing nature address these points Parts IIB C, infra, second Part III, infra. Before turning specific contentions argument, however, examine general principles guided Court's pronouncements proper range considerations sentencer 10 opinions majority Justices, recognized qualitative difference punishments correspondingly scrutiny determination.9 ensuring meted out arbitrarily capriciously, principal concern been more procedure imposes substantive lays death, once determined falls within category persons penalty. Gregg Georgia, 153, 2909, 859 companion cases,10 reviewed schemes five determine those cured defects identified Furman 408 238, 92 2726, 33 346 (1972). itself, joint Justices Stewart, POWELL, STEVENS Georgia scheme met concerns providing bifurcated proceeding, meaningful appellate review each U.S., 189-195, S.Ct., 2932-2935 (opinion STEVENS, JJ.). Satisfied procedural safeguards "suitably limited" discretion "so minimize risk wholly arbitrary capricious action," id., 189, 2932, undertake dictate deemed Indeed, observed: "It seems clear problem [of channeling discretion] alleviated given guidance crime State, representing organized deems particularly decision." Id., 192, 2934 (emphasis added). See 176, 2926 ("The deference owe decisions our federal . enhanced specification concerned, 'these peculiarly questions legislative policy' ").11 11 erroneous suggest, limitations appropriate. itself suggested excessively vague standards might lead patterns Furman. 195, n. 46, 2935, 46.12 plurality must structure permit crime.13 principle individualization extended Lockett Ohio, 438 586, 98 2954, 57 973 (1978), "the require [in case] precluded considering, factor, aspect offense proffers death." 604, 2964 original) (footnotes omitted).14 393 (1977), 12 Beyond limitations, noted above, deferred State's view, run afoul constraints. B 13 Addressing arguments, find unpersuasive suggestion irrelevant15 point, 929 controlling. 14 Texas limits homicides intentional knowing murders committed situations. 268, 2954. Once finds guilty categories answer three statutory questions.16 If concludes proved beyond reasonable doubt question answered affirmative, imposed. approving scheme, rejected contention question—requiring dangerousness—was involved prediction human behavior. 15 is, course, easy predict fact determination difficult, mean cannot made. conduct essential rendered throughout system. And authority convicted person's when engages process what punishment impose. For sentenced prison, same predictions made authorities. perform answering issue basically different performed countless times day American justice. What fate determine. clearly assures adduced." 274-276, 2957-2958 omitted). 16 undesireable society. Like challenged Texas' then, dangerousness.17 approval explicit defeats that, speculativeness involved, commutation.18 17 there supra. Gardner, part confidential portion disclosed either counsel. Because rested inaccurate deny, need dictated reversed. provides support sentence.19 C 18 Closely related to, yet task. argues diverts "a indispensable inflicting 19 already noted, supra, 1003, unctional matter society desirable. sense, much some do, himself released 20 Any injecting deliberations constitutes departure implicitly Jurek. after noting inquiry common system, "What 276, 2958. offense, including character, background, history, mental condition, physical condition. (West Supp.1983).20 21 relies 392 (1980), undermines make non-capital verdict. disapproving Alabama statute charge cases, chief flaw "is interjects irrelevant factfinding process, diverting satisfied burden proving crime." 642, 2392. failure give "diverted" ways: convict crime, or, mandatory acquit think warrants 642-643, respondent, like removal option Beck, predisposes act regard called facts it. 22 unconvinced constrains manner Beck. Restricting alternatives acquittal—in essence artificial jury. unavailability "third option" thereby created unwarranted conviction. contrast, limit choices, neither Instead, 23 More fundamental between life/death vice Alabama's deflecting 2392 returning conviction, satisfy necessary elements doubt. fixing similar "central issue" diverted.21 legislatively defined truth special circumstance, myriad punishment. "But ignore selecting defendants who actually Zant Stephens, --- 2743 (footnote calculus akin scheme. p. 1003 weighed seeking defendant." 2755 (REHNQUIST, J., concurring judgment).22 24 short, directly translatable deliberative single determinative apart tailored 25 alternative. To describe parole" when, supplies sentence.23 18, III 26 Having prohibited commuted.24 essence, complains creates misleading impression can prevent biasing favor therefore "[i]f considered basic fairness full disclosure respect commutation." Brief 35-36. 27 according permits commuted. puzzling.25 If, assume, objection impact skew fail see how restores situation "neutrality." Although "neutral" complete power, "balance" even assuming arguendo current effect. Disclosure eliminate concerned preventing inclined learning 28 precisely perception prejudiced led Morse, 60 Cal.2d 631, 36 201, 388 (1964), instruction.26 time Ramos' "other half" required.27 29 convinced impels prosecution impact. II, entitled juror "did place emphasis [this factor] ultimate decision."28 2733, 2749, 75 L.ED.2D ---- (1983); CF. ID., AT - s.ct., 2748-2749.29 IV sum, violate precedents process. determinations nor deliberation. infirm. Therefore, defer identification 31 Our intended contrary sentence.30 elementary sit judges, legislators, wisdom best left States. hold 32 reversed, proceedings inconsistent opinion. ordered. MARSHALL, whom BRENNAN joins, BLACKMUN joins parts II-V, dissenting. 34 I accepted prevailing view certain could agree tip balance eventually executed. my reasons. misleading. speculation guesswork. bears relation offender. 35 continue adhere cruel unusual forbidden Amendments. 231, 2973, (1976) (MARSHALL, dissenting); 358-369, 2787-2792, (1972) dissenting) vacate alone. However, accept de th Apart permissibility ever scope clemency power. upholding authorizes "state-sanctioned fraud deceit most serious actions: taking life." 597, 21, 291, 908, 933, ibid. (if were "part contractual negotiation, arguably constitute tortious fraudulent misrepresentation"). 37 mislead believing indicates parole, erroneously suggests assure permanent whereas alternative not. Haskett, 841, 861, 640, 653, 640 776, 789 38 Presented choice, impose governor exercising parole.1 359, 1205, (1977) J.) ("we assume cases [the instruction] decisive"). Yet based grotesque mistake, mistake deliberately injected "stac[k] deck" against manner. Witherspoon Illinois, 391 510, 523, 88 1770, 1777, 776 (1968). Adams 448 38, 43-44, 2521, 2525-2526, 581 (1980). 39 assumes "balanced" cure defect. Ante, 1011. seriously prejudicial event since law. 1011-1012.2 analysis misunderstanding issue. balanced advantageous defendants, unconstitutional. 40 indeed misleading, never denies they wrongly ensure released, hardly defended prejudicial.3 out, ante, 3458, compelling reasons sentences, solution altogether concerning commutation. eluded majority. inexplicable reason unavailable, One searches vain explanation inability powers possibly justify incomplete 41 thought reliable, rational mistakes humanly possible. upholds disputing substantial mislead. "cros[s] line neutrality" encourage deceiving Witherspoon, 520, 1776. 42 down imposition mere speculation. concedes, 998 8, through subsequent speculate release decide wishes foreclose invite ad hoc likelihood release. 43 Instead confronting contention, actions board. characterizes proxy 1033, 1005-1006. controlling," 1002, constitutional. 44 reduced functional equivalent ven finding provided base finding.4 importantly, whatever else incidentally consider, thing expressly speculations 45 Individual represent "sheer speculation." Godfrey 446 420, 429, 1759, 1765, 64 398 (1980) (plurality opinion). assessing indulge ask foretell numerous imponderables: policies adopted unnamed governors officials, change decisions. "no mind rest events unpredictable." 643, 208, 33, (1964). inevitable standardless. 46 predictive becomes hazardous if, suggests, considers pose threat released. mistake. expected forecast authority, armed contemporaneous contents guess at, misjudge him. 47 Sentencing groundless capricious. Tennessee put it, product "mere guesswork."5 reflect little wild speculation, differences among caprice reason. die while another perceived meaningful, principled distinguishing 188, quotingFurman 313, 2764 (WHITE, concurring). 433, 1767; 601, 2963, (1978) 48 sheer unknowables prior stressed heightened rationality 305, J.); 2964; 1205 (1977). unreliability, uncertainty, arbitrariness "that tolerated case." 2392, call guesswork, independent introduces 50 eventual generally justification Since decisive (Opinion J.), just factor. Rather, rather 2747, (1983) (noting race, religion, political affiliation, suggesting truly sentence). forbids considering unrelated penological objective establish proceeding "[I]n order capriciously selected group offenders, [must] particularized 199, 2937 appropriateness depend "relevant facets offender." 2991. nsiderations extent premeditation, activity requirement designed "tailored defendant's] personal guilt." Enmund 102 3368, 3378, 73 1140 52 sharp utterly to"6 "not remotely to"7 blameworthiness. That absolutely individual. Whether turn occur."8 53 relationship purposes said Capital justified criminals streets. Whatever retribution deterrence justifications punishment, insulate public likely commit crimes future. Life and, necessary, solitary confinement fully accomplish aim incapacitation. 236, 14, 2975, 355-359, 2785-2787 incapacitation acknowledged Gregg, relied 183, 2929, mentioned passing "[a]nother discussed." 183 28, 2929 28.9 54 altered California's guarantee confinement. inappropriate, provided, open release, inadequate An analogy usefully drawn guilty. necessarily f ct all. Presenting acquittal induce receives Such "would seem inevitably enhance conviction." 637, 2389. Similarly, use something severe. "That inflicted abhorrent thought." White, N.J. 158, 178, 142 A.2d 65, 76 (N.J.1958). 55 desire duly authorized restricted standards, least exercised unjustly Roberts Louisiana, 325, 350, 3001, 3014, 974 joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST, JJ., dissenting). very subject application believe application.10 am aware cites none, proposition judicial body decision, individual, immunize own reexamination.11 V shared nearly every jurisdiction question. consistently sought "guidance country's present judgment" schemes. Coker 433 584, 593, 2861, 2866, 982 See, e.g., Solem Helm, 3010, 3013-3014, Enmund, 1140; 3385 (O'CONNOR, U.S , 2389; 179-182, 2928-2929; 294-299, 2986-2987. With scarcely word explanation, today's dismisses overwhelming weight establishing informed propriety allowing board jurisdictions California.12 Of jurisdictions, concluded, case, commutation.13 allow cases14 decided Only post-Furman approved commutation,15 recommends embraced almost uniformly rejected, states formerly trend renounce decisions.16 58 impressive consensus "weigh heavily balance" 3376. breezily terse "States requires." 1014. observation suffices Coker, looked guidance. 59 majority's "due regard," 592, contemporary judgments jurisdictions. "Eighth Amendment draw meaning evolving decency mark progress maturing society," Trop Dulles, 356 86, 101, 78 590, 598, 630 (1958) opinion), "[c]entral infliction punishment." 288, 2983 unless "informed maximum extent," "merely subjective views Justices." 2866 VI interest obviously calculated inviting 61 BLACKMUN, 62 join MARSHALL's dissent. 63 understood instruct governor's involves probability action incumbent governors. own, redefines terms ommit acts violence 1002-1003. 1018-1019, post, 1030, forcefully relate Neither dissenter ventured argument. important one, supportive chooses none. approves substituting intellectual sleight hand legal analysis. compounds original unfairness rule disservice. 66 No hear certiorari four Members determined—as discretion—that wise scarce resources. 67 unique: "Only sentences." Further, informed, accurately, number comment whatsoever commute. followed half-page list citations Opposition Pet. Cert. 6-7. 3465-3467 (Justice These shed illuminating light exercised. 68 rights, nevertheless fair harm done administration courts undisturbed omission conceivably prejudice prosecutor's legitimate interests. Surely scales otherwise evenly balanced, why given—not existence rarely nothing culpability capacity rehabilitation. circumstance legitimately 1012. you remember people names begin initial "S" letter. 69 trivial be, fundamentally wrong presiding trial—who personify evenhanded justice—to tell indirectly sure, resolved method walking again. 70 solemnly "sit States." Why, du respect, voted judges prevail California, especially taken position consistent Arkansas, Colorado, Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Tennessee, Virginia, Washington, West Wyoming? 71 repeat, commanded certiorari. follow precedent stand. Nothing facilitating exercise interest, opinion, sufficient warrant validity plainly 72 stated disagree merits. But correct merits, still firmly respectfully 190.2 Supp.1983). course robbery. Ibid. 190.2(a)(17)(i). offered show, inter alia, adoptive parents died young, came bad influence codefendant, mild congenital brain damage, low intelligence quotient, borderline schizophrenia, alcohol drugs offenses, "graze" victims them. "shall [it] outweigh circumstances" impose" circumstances. referred hereinafter "Briggs Instruction," incorporated Penal 1978 voter initiative popularly known Initiative. gave over legislation. 718. dissent Richardson harmless nonprejudicial informs knowledge. consider: addition, instruction's held, supervisory powers, type Morse. testimony defense psychiatrist inadmissible Over objection, prosecutor allowed elicit cross-examination psychiatrist, indicated years "he probably built up feelings anger frustration take revenge anyone district attorney prosecuted presided him." Cal.3d, Cal.Rptr., 292, P.2d, 934 ruled abused admitting admission outweighed probative value. Cal.Evid.Code 352 1966). reach issues raised above ruling represents adequate bar reaching questions. quite reversal solely 562, 600, 270, 294, 912, 936. evidentiary question, error warranted "should admitted retried." 934, 22. adequacy addressed court. Michigan Long, 3469, (1983). reversing declined independently violates provisions 24, 936, 24. issue, remand. construed 599-600, 293-294, 935-936. accordingly. Eddings 455 104, 117-118, 869, 877-878, concurring); 637-638, 2389-2390, BURGER, C.J., BRENNAN, JJ.); 2964, 357-358, 1204, 363-364, 1207 judgment); Proffitt 242, 2960, 913 (1976); opinion); (Stanislaus) substitute chosen narrow class example, examined ten specified defendant. 164-165, 2920. narrowing "While serves purpose." 2955. Cf. (reversing broad construction circumstance). "[W]e humanity underlying Woodson, 2932 (quoting Pennsylvania ex rel. Sullivan Ashe, 302 51, 55, 59, 60, 82 L.Ed. (1937)). ---, 2751, 3383-3386 110-112, 874-875, 1; 118, 878 121-122, 879-880 (BURGER, 596, 933 ("[The Instruction] ."); 933. are: " '(1) caused deceased expectation result; '(2) continuing society; '(3) evidence, unreasonable response provocation, any, deceased.' Art. 37.071(b) (Supp.1975-1976)." 269, matters jurors' minds "intellectual hand." Post, 1029 (BLACKMUN, avoid engenders deliberations. thoughts Nevertheless, alone, inextricably linked desirable evaluating reform counsels desirability ABA Standards Criminal 18-2.5(c)(i) (2d ed.1980) (giving example total "confinement protect defendant"). observe relevance language used choices—i.e., reasonably description MARSHALL given, 1017-1018. incorrect First, discussed below, 27, suggest infirmity note contrary, available Although, 296, 938, awareness availability generate dispels misunderstanding. offer closing 1161-1162. accomplishes occur described statutorily Surely, argue prohibits accurately characterizing choices. not, contend directive (1978). show assurance informational Estelle Smith, 451 454, 101 1866, 359 (1981), expert psychiatric prove "[U]nder procedure, resolution confined province experts. While bearing holding recognition resort medical experts." 472-473, 1877-1878. Consequently, evaluation lay background inferences therefrom. "[S]entencing far-reaching proof does." 2756 judgment). Consideration undermine weigh former latter. enters weighing figure presents problem. prohibition "scheme unbridled i member statute." 2742. ALI, Model 210.6 (Proposed Official Draft, 1962) (providing besides account relevant"). stage imposed, implication wide-ranging equally here: "We wisely unnecessary restrictions [presentence] hearing approve far-ranging So long introduced defendant, preferable restrictions. 203-204, 2939. V, implementing sections, 4800 et seq. 1982), Supp.1983), preceded 1189-1190 ambiguous oral argued ambiguity quoted interpreted Oral Arg. 10, 18. significantly, interpret affirmatively "jury modified." original). point. Wolfe 364 177, 196, 80 1482, 1492, 1650 (1960); Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co. Wood, 344 157, 160, 204, 206, 168 (1952). requested Based Morse reduction tended reduce Cal.2d, 652, 214, 46. Given imprisonmen "consider applicable received case" "any extenuate though excuse 1188-1189. MARSHALL'S claims encourages assumption ---. satisfies "[w]hat determine." emphasized 1008, "does advise reliance information." 295, 937 (Richardson, Ga.Code 17-8-76 (Michie 1982) (prohibiting clemency). Many improper informed—through instruction—of ases always clear—i.e., often appear court's principles. instances, appears interpretation division authorities effected Walker, 91 Ill.2d 502, 515, Ill.Dec. 531, 537-538, 440 N.E.2d 83, 89-90 (1982) ("Our may, paroled imposed") added); Lindsey, 404 So.2d 466, 486 (La.1981) ("Nowhere entire [state code procedure] offender's [G]iving carte blanche permission factual consequences allows legislature, versus undermining legislature court") Poole 295 Md. 167, 453 1218, 1233 (Md.1983) ("[T]his disregard duty statute]. irrelevant. .") Atkinson, 253 S.C. 172 S.E.2d 111, 112 (S.C.1970) (" 'The Legislature instance agency shall executed") 177-178, (1958)). Sukle People, 107 Colo. 111 233, 235 (Colo.1941) (consideration outside fixed statute); Jones, 296 N.C. 495, 502-503, 251 425, 429 (1979). compensate harsher sentences. Farris 535 S.W.2d 608, 614 (Tenn.1976); Smith 317 20, 25-26 (Del.1974); footnote notes request 1011, 25. plain: waived event, articulated majority, presumably forbid 615 (Tenn.1976) "tends breed irresponsibility premised corrective others later date"); 501, (N.C.1979) (jury's executive review). 1004-1005, 19. anomalous indeed, "to sentencers." force choose being misinformed unlikely requisite responsibility. release; says "deserve" reenter basis. although assured "all information" introduced. rare exceptions Murtishaw, 733, 767-775, 175 738, 758-763, 631 446, 468-471 cert. denied, 922, 1280, 464 613-614 (Tenn.1976), quoting Graham 202 Tenn. 423, 304 622, 624 (1957). Accord, Leland, 190 Or. 623, 227 785, 796 (Ore.1951) ("purely speculative"); Jones Commonwealth, 194 Va. 273, 279, 693, 697 (Va.1952) (results "speculative elements"); 487 ("unquantifiable factor"). (Tenn.1976). (La.1981). 537, 89 goal petitioner attack ground, contended procedures prescribed 268-276, 2954-2958 278-279, 2959 judgment), criterion well. omits mention acknowledges, 1011-1012, exist wish forced bring attention. 3, circumvent branches government pre-emptive Murray 1178 (Ala.App.1978) subverts assigned role); Andrews Ark. 290, 472 (Ark.1971) takes "far afield prerogative"); Broyles 267 73, (Ky.1954) (when anticipates branch "circumvents infringes [their] prerogatives"); 486-487 (jury improperly preempt power); (Va.1952). arisen inquired Most cases. harmless, none harmless. Grady 1095 (Ala.1980) (non-capital); Westbrook 265 736, 580 702 (1979); 146 40, 360 686 (1961); Paramore 229 855 (Fla.1969) (prosecutor reversible error), vacated grounds, 935, 2857, 751 (1972); Gilreath 247 Ga. 814, 279 650 456 984, 2258, 862 (1982); Szabo, 94 277, 193 Farmer 450 494 (Ky.1970); Brown, 414 689 (La.1982); 1218 Thomas, 625 115 (Mo.1981); Grandsinger 161 Neb. 419, N.W.2d 632 (1955) (prosecutorial 880, 81 (1956); Summers 467 98, (Nev.1970) (reaffirming Serrano 84 Nev. 676, 497 (1968), means exactly that); Conklin, 540, 547, 258 (1969); 425 McKee 576 (Okl.Cr.App.1978) 785 (1951), aff'd, 343 790, 1302 (1952); Commonwealth Aljoe, 420 Pa. 198, 216 (1966); Goolsby, 275 110, 268 31, 449 1037, 616, 500 (1980); 608 Clanton 528 250 (Tex.Cr.App.1975); 223 41, 86 Todd, Wash.2d 362, 474 542 (1970); 233 734 (W.Va.1977) Carroll, Wyo. 29, (1937). Contrary suggestion, 1013-1014, 30, broader grounds statutes. Massa Ohio App. 532, N.E. 219, 221-222 (Ohio 1930); Jackson, Ariz. 91, 412 (1966). Brewer 417 889 (Ind.1981). 1955, instance, overruled enacting forbidding 27-2206. Strickland 209 710 (1952) (cases therein). 1958 Jersey (1958). 1976 invalidated felony (1976). (disapproving earlier judge, asked jurors,

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