Document: 468 U.S. 841 104 S.Ct. 3348 82 L.Ed.2d 632 SELECTIVE SERVICE SYSTEM et al.v.MINNESOTA PUBLIC INTEREST RESEARCH GROUP al. No. 83-276. Supreme Court of the United States Argued April 23, 1984. Decided July 5, Syllabus Section § 12(f) to Military Selective Service Act denies federal financial assistance under Title IV Higher Education 1965 male students between ages 18 and 26 who fail register for draft. 12(f)(2) requires applicants file a statement with their institutions higher education attesting compliance implementing regulations. A Presidential Proclamation young men draft within 30 days 18th birthday. Failure this time is criminal offense. The regulations permit late registrants establish eligibility assistance. Appellee (hereafter appellees), have not registered draft, brought suits in Federal District seeking enjoin enforcement 12(f). granted requested relief, holding that making eligible aid were inconsistent statute, 1113 an unconstitutional bill attainder because it singles out identifiable group would be ineligible based on failure register. Alternatively, held also violated appellees' Fifth Amendment privilege against compelled self-incrimination. Held: 1. attainder. Pp. 846-856. (a) "a law legislatively determines guilt inflicts punishment upon individual without provision protections judicial trial." Nixon v. Administrator General Services, 433 425, 468, 97 2777, 2803, 53 867. 846-847. (b) does single nonregistrants make them past conduct, i.e., section require registration fixed by aid. contrary view 12(f)'s structure legislative history. clearly gives after receiving notice they are qualify history shows Congress' purpose enacting was encourage those must but yet done so. requirements irreversible can met readily either timely or registration. Cummings Missouri, 4 Wall. 277, L.Ed. 356, Ex parte Garland, 333, 366, distinguished. 847-851. (c) inflict meaning Bill Attainder Clause. It imposes none burdens historically associated punishment. even deprive appellees benefits permanently, since leaves open perpetually possibility qualifying 852-853. (d) intended further nonpunitive goals. Conditioning receipt plainly rational means improve requirements. promotes fair allocation scarce resources limiting willing meet responsibilities registering when required do 853-856. 2. violate Since student has bound know he denied aid, no sense any "compulsion" seek reason anyone as whether registered. As registrant, him disclose his educational institution late, incriminating information order become fact get thus reveal comply rights. They been opportunity disqualified asserting constitutional privilege. Lefkowitz Turley, 414 70, 94 316, 38 274, Appellees, having sought register, had occasion assert asked state dates birth, nor Government refused request immunity answers otherwise threatened penalties invoking Under these circumstances, will heard complain violates rights forcing acknowledge during process avoided late. 856-858. 557 F.Supp. 937 (1983), reversed. Sol. Gen. Rex E. Lee, Washington, D.C., appellants. William J. Keppel, Minneapolis, Minn., appellees. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 We noted probable jurisdiction decide Act, 96 Stat. 748, 50 U.S.C.App. 462(f), which attainder; compels elect incriminate themselves violation Amendment. 2 * 3 62 605, amended, 453, empowers President every citizen resident alien 12 On 2, 1980, Carter issued requiring 4771, CFR (1981). appellees) anonymous individuals before September 1, 1982. 8, Congress enacted Department Defense Authorization 1983, Pub.L. 97-252, 718. 1113(a) added Act. 12(f)(1) provides person fails so "in accordance proclamation" "shall form benefit provided title 1965."1 1113(f)(2) it. Sections 1113(f)(3) (4) Secretary Education, agreement Director Service, prescribe methods verifying such statements issue Regulations final 11, see 48 Fed.Reg. 15578, provide applicant may receive unless files certifying that, specified reason, 34 668.24(a) (1983). allow previously registered, although so, registering, filing compliance, and, if required, 668.27(b)(1). date registered.2 5 In November 1982 Minnesota Public Interest Research Group filed complaint operation dismissed lack standing allowed three intervene plaintiffs. 923 (1983); 925 intervenors alleged reside Minnesota, need pursue educations, intend apply assistance, legally failed This suit informally consolidated separate action other essentially same allegations intervenors. 6 March 1983 preliminary injunction restraining System from enforcing After finding demonstrated threat irreparable injury, court likely succeed merits. First, thought Attainder. interpreted statutory bar applicable Thus interpreted, statute "clearly ascertainable conduct" "legislatively group." Doe System, 937, 942, 943 viewed denial Clause "deprives practical achieve necessary many vocations our society." Id., at 944. Second, found Court's view, confess nonregistration, crime. 462(a). 7 June 16, entered permanent, nationwide 1113. concluded 8 29, we stayed 16 pending docketing disposition appeal. Doe, 463 1215, 103 3574, 77 1401. December 464 1006, 522, 78 707 reverse. II 9 falls category congressional actions Art. I, 9, cl. 3, Constitution bars providing "[n]o . shall passed." most recently described 867 (1977); O'Brien, 391 367, 383, n. 30, 88 1673, 1682, 20 672 (1968); Lovett, 328 303, 315, 66 1073, 1078, 90 1252 (1946). argues satisfy requirements, specification affected persons, punishment, trial.3 10 forbidding bills attainder, draftsmen prohibit ancient practice Parliament England punishing trial "specifically designated persons groups." Brown, 381 437, 447, 85 1707, 1714, 14 484 (1965). Historically, generally named punished. However, "[t]he singling prescribed constitutes called name terms conduct which, operates only designation particular persons." Communist Party Subversive Activities Control Board, 367 86, 81 1357, 1405, 625 (1961). When activity serves point reference ascertainment ineluctably legislature" id., 87, S.Ct., See 324, 356 (1867). 11 struck down Missouri post-Civil War Reconstruction barred various professions stated oath given comfort engaged armed hostility never " 'been member of, connected with, order, society, organization, inimical government States.' 279. recognized "as ascertaining parties qualified" professions, 320, rather effect Confederacy. Although State did mention groups take name, creating qualification possible relation fitness chosen "to reach person, calling." Ibid. day decided Cummings, similar admission courts. 366 Like considered "operate[d] decree perpetual exclusion" law, 377, affiliation Confederacy prevented attorneys taking perjuring themselves. supra, 327. both defined entirely acts committed them. 13 case comparable provisions laws declared singled made To understand analysis, turn its construction statute. disqualifies proclamation [§ Act]," 4771 born January 1963, court's language 12(f), coupled Proclamation's 30-day requirement, precluded Having construed precluding registration, read retrospective, group—nonregistrants—based conduct. acknowledged 668.27(b)(1) void conflicted what requirement 4771. reject That Subsection (f)(4) "any person" whom proposes deny proposed "not less than thirty days" "establis[h] complied requirement." U.S.C. 462(f)(4). undermine allowing notification requirement. grace period. 15 ignored relevant so.4 Proponents legislation emphasized failing late.5 account purpose. Heckler Edwards, 465 870, 1532, 79 878 (1984). Nor give adequate deference views helped Miller Youakim, 440 125, 144, 99 957, 968, 59 194 (1979); 128 Cong.Rec. ---- (1982) (remarks Rep. Solomon). function destroy can, construe it, consistent Congress, comport limitations," CSC Letter Carriers, 413 548, 571, 93 2880, 2893, 37 796 (1973).6 17 Because allows distinguishable Garland.7 Garland dealt absolute barriers entry into certain could loyalty oaths; one served possibly comply, status irreversible. By contrast, far irreversible, filing. "Far attaching ineradicable actions," ineligibility "is continuingly contemporaneous fact" wants public correct. U.S., 1406. B Even specificity element deemed satisfied necessarily implicate proscription reaches statutes group. determining holdings recognize severity sanction determinative character Flemming Nestor, 363 603, 616, 80 1367, 1375, 1435 (1960). placed citizens authority 470, 2804; 1083 (Frankfurter, J., concurring).8 Conversely, intent merely legitimate regulation Punishment limited solely retribution events, involve deprivations inflicted deter future misconduct. 458-459, 1720-1721. apparent though governing criteria indicated, "each turned own highly particularized context." 1375. 19 deciding forbidden inquiries: (1) challenged historical punishment; (2) "viewed type imposed, reasonably said purposes"; (3) record "evinces punish." Nixon, 473, 475-476, 478, 2805, 2806-2807, 2808. conclude punitive At common often imposed death penalty; lesser punishments pains penalties. proscribes well imposing death. Wall., 323. Historically used times rebellion "violent political excitements," ibid., commonly imprisonment, banishment, confiscation property. 474, 2806. country, list expanded include participation specific employments professions.9 21 617, 1376, "the mere noncontractual governmental benefit. No affirmative disability restraint imposed," "nothing approaching 'infamous punishment' imprisonment" disabilities punishment.10 22 permanently; simply "carry keys prison pockets." Shillitani States, 384 364, 368, 86 1531, 1534, 622 (1966). fall 23 Our inquiry end determination sense. ensure Legislature created impermissible penalty determine 2806-2807. 24 reflects represents decision aware more half million requirement.11 legislators primary purposes so.12 25 overlaps large part aid,13 strong tonic nonregistrants. furthers Senator stated: 27 "This amendment seeks increase insure just usage benefits. 28 During extreme budgetary constraints, worthwhile programs cut back drastically, obligation dollars spent prudent manner possible. If want expense cannot expect accepting share Government."14 29 Certain aspects belie measure. innocent willful Yet ordinarily whose willful. Thus, stressing unintentional violators, (July 28, 1982) Solomon); Simon); 9666 Sen. Stennis), proponents indicated regulate all nonregistrants, intentional spirit, instead choosing punish denying belatedly. therefore convincing support sought, anyone,15 promote fairness resources. C 31 Clause, hold erred striking III 32 Appellees compelling confronted schools law. Pointing offense punishable §§ 12(a) (b), contend them—since registered—to act 33 compulsion aid; nonregistrant application denied, He could, course, obtain school them, law; registrant. supra. registrant 35 registers appellants concede untimely makes Service; card dated contain registrant's birth. 1615.4 raises question 83-84, 325, 274 (1973), very risk 36 Turley plaintiffs' [architects'] disqualification contracting five years violative rights." 83, 325. position potential contractors Turley. An 18-year-old refuses is, subject prosecution comply. Only registers—including registration—will birth None Unlike architects "for privilege." settled ordinary case, witness testify disclosures claiming privilege, 'compelled' himself," Murphy, 420, 427, 1136, 1142, 409 (1984); "[a]nswers regardless there use testimony fruits connection testifying," Gardner Broderick, 392 273, 276, 1913, 1915, 1082 (1968). appellees, birth; late.16 39 raised cognizable claim Amendment.17 judgment 40 Reversed. 41 BLACKMUN took case. 42 POWELL, concurring judgment. 43 I disagree or, indeed, opinion. however, should disposed ground legislation. 44 Unless effect, 472, (1977). term "punitive" connotes Young knowingly crime itself punishment.1 punitive; authorizes normal general acceptance familiar term. Rather, taxpayers There minority disfavored disparate treatment. 45 applies broadly equally attaining age Service.2 clear, leaving observes adopted "rational means" Ante, 854. encouragement only; compulsion. Moreover, interest Government—indeed people country—in national security compelling. earliest Republic.3 Preamble declares Framers' "provide defence."4 46 find neither unnecessary my arguments addressed issue.5 add, reasoning, except extent relies Secretary's "interprets" Government, constitutionality depend interpretation. 47 sum, join Parts II-B, III, opinion, BRENNAN, dissenting. 49 For reasons Part MARSHALL's dissenting too affirm fashion thereby MARSHALL, 51 5-year suspension, reinstituted military service. Proclamation, 1960, birthday.1 implement method offends guarantees pass muster two grounds. self-incrimination, right equal protection guaranteed Due Process 52 enactment today, understood draft-eligible population 9,039,000 men, some 674,000 current mailing addresses.2 Explanations widespread dereliction legal duty varied proposals full compliance. Testifying oversight hearings, officials told "uninformed unaware importance registration,"3 while relatively small number 'knowingly' neglected duty."4 Private organizations testified noncompliance grounded registration's conscience infringement religious freedom";5 oppose "massive surveillance system" collects, stores exchanges data rights;6 matter adjudicating conscientious objector prior induction.7 Both agency crafted strategies increasing publicity programs, declaring period fear prosecution, posting lists local post offices.8 identify locate collected Social Security numbers forms, located through computer bank sharing Health Human Services mail forwarding Internal Revenue Service.9 Several prosecuted names others forwarded investigation prosecution; attendant seen effective communicating seriousness so.10 54 context Court, introduced floor Representative Solomon Hayakawa rider 1983. new subsection "Offenses Penalties" 462(f). creates (20 1070 seq.) 462(f)(1), post-secondary "statement compliance" 462(f)(2). holds penalize System. 55 tempting succumb comfortable conclusions majority draws glancing review all, explicit defense. "[I]n free society," declared, obligations privileges serving forces reserve components thereof shared generally, system selection just. ." 451(c). something promoting allocating event reinstitution involuntary induction. Much rhetoric seems unexceptional: youth accept democracy.11 Nevertheless, mindful "[i]t courts watchful citizen, stealthy encroachments thereon," Boyd 116 634-635, 524, 534, 746 (1886), dissent. 56 prohibition depends construing ante, 849-851, emphasizes "nonpunitive spirit" implicit "allowed late." 855. not, grant Absent grant, 57 coerced self-incrimination extends gathering. 77, 322, (1973); Murphy Waterfront Comm'n, 378 52, 90, 84 1594, 1623, 678 (1964) (WHITE, concurring); Counselman Hitchcock, 142 547, 562, 195, 198, 1110(1892). regulatory state, line permissible conditioning Government's taxing spending power coercion presents real easy identify. But am confident crossed here.12 58 majority's conclusion, 856-857, divulge institution.13 neutrality verification central permissible, stop there. coerce hence reporting self-incriminatory directly Government. now submit schooling, still for, submitted 453. 462(f)(1). one's birthday felony, imprisonment up and/or fine $10,000. 60 crucial links chain evidence prosecute criminally. Cf. Marchetti 390 39, 48, 697, 703, 889 supplies proof elements violation: perhaps importantly, calls attention technical Armed data, prove "knowingly" conviction. students, awareness App. 11-12, 24-25, commission felony. 61 little doubt "real appreciable" hazard incrimination "so improbable reasonable man suffer influence conduct." Brown Walker, 161 591, 599-600, 644, 648, 819 (1896). brief example, explicitly "failure [30 birthday] disqualify (& Supp. V) 462." Brief Appellants 17, 7. appears obtained leverage withholding basis prosecution. Communications convey message. "Registration Form," SSS Form "Acknowledgement Letter," 3A, mailed advise "may furnished Justice—for processing suspected violations [and the] Bureau Investigation—for location Act." Finally, recent realistic Reagan "grace period" first months 1982, penalty.14 obvious implication declaration once expires, prosecuted. All confirm serious inherent registration.15 established act, exercised powers way deprives freedom refrain Garrity New Jersey, 385 493, 496, 87 618, 562 (1967); Malloy Hogan, 1489, 1493, 653 (1964). extracts penalties, including "threat substantial economic sanction," 82-83, volunteered. cases extracted termination employment, supra; Uniformed Sanitation Men Assn., Inc. Commissioner Sanitation, 280, 1917, 1089 (1968), exclusion profession, Spevack Klein, 511, 625, 574 (1967), contracts, 63 coercion, ambit cases. received coercive force curtail studies, forfeiting investment abandoning hopes obtaining degree. Five six category. 24-25. Students trades education. afford education, foreclosing employment opportunities. career plans complete college Ibid.; 29. 64 postsecondary levies burden coerces forms. 497, "option lose livelihood pay antithesis choice speak remain silent." completely agree mechanism Amendment's previous cases, strike alone.16 65 today dispute problems. concedes now. 857. furthermore strongly suggests exercise cf. Garner 424 1178, 370 (1976), compel immunization. 858.17 incorrectly assumes, raise lawsuit. What fill exercising privilege.18 barrier prosecuting violators much inability discover difficulty identifying "takes Fifth" himself as, than, marks related Grosso 62, 709, 906 faced situation, complying equivalent confessing business wagers occupational excise tax. Compliance exempt gambler conducting business, widely prohibited available assist authorities Petitioners forms feared gambling revealed activities Government; convicted reversed convictions, invalid "statutory utilized pierce anonymity activity." 76, 717 (BRENNAN, concurring). incomplete form, itself, petitioners informing involved illegal activities. ruled 'claim' silence," 659, 1184 refraining 67 Marchetti-Grosso information-gathering scheme directed "inherently suspect activities." 47, 702. Here, say laws. blush, might seem like inquiries income tax returns, "neutral face large." Albertson 382 79, 194, 199, 165 661, 1186, great returns disclosing anticipate responses citizens' self-reporting neutral inquiries, put speaker, silence available. 68 adopt analogy, ignore actual controversy passed focus assuredly prospective. explains, forged link bring existing 849-850, 4. correct return (neutral (male) large), 12(f)-compelled inherently activity, squarely presenting issue. 69 therefore, substantially aimed, entitled "claim silence" Grosso. forgo scheme. defect withhold identities silence, penalized disclosures, incriminated 70 claims ripe review. suggesting wait until adjudication claim, "is, relieve claimants necessity risking refusing so." 383 197. Albertson, where members merits suffering penalty. nonregistrant's efficacious simultaneously compromising challenge anonymously, 71 correctly cured immunity. 429, 435-436, 7, 1143, 1146-1147 (1984) (opinion Court); 442, 1150 (MARSHALL, dissenting). passing validly insist questions long recognizes proceeding eliminates incrimination." 436, 1147, cited therein. 564-565, 585-586, 198-199, 206-207. assure accurate "capable forbids," Cunningham, 431 801, 806, 2132, 2136, (1977), absence disclosures. registrants, fulfilled implicating students' 72 aspect doubly troubling discrete subgroup bears brunt guarantee Rostker Goldberg, 453 57, 101 2646, 478 (1981); Bolling Sharpe, 347 74 693, 98 884 (1954). duty. 73 superficial, indeed cavalier, rejection argument, 858, demonstrates again "callous indifference realities life poor," Flagg Bros., Brooks, 436 149, 166, 1729, 1739, 185 (1978) dissenting), inadequacy analytical area look classification question, relative class discriminated receive, asserted [or federal] interests classification." Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 521, 1153, 1180, 491 (1970) San Antonio Independent School Rodriguez, 411 98-99, 1278, 1330, (1973) noted, acting authority, transgressed limits conferred," labels facile abstractions justify result." 2654. factually incorrect states treats alike. "Only low-income middle-income caught trap," pointed debate Moffett). awarded need. (need analysis) accompanying significant segment four dependent family incomes $6,000 Dept. Office Student Financial Assistance, OSFA Program Book 1981) (hereinafter Book).19 8% families over $30,000 Education-funded Basic Educational Opportunity Grant (now known Pell Grants), 83.1% recipients $12,000. 27. Incentive Program, 69.4% (figures fiscal year 1977). absurd "treats alike, poor wealthy." 859, 17. wealthy require, applying facts registration.20 distinction. 75 argued linking de facto wealth,21 laid unequal hand precisely Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 373-374, 1064, 1072-1073, 220 (1886). Further, individuals' access "provides basic tools lead economically productive lives us all." Plyler 457 202, 221, 102 2382, 2397, 786 (1982). Many stressed extraordinary nature individual's See, e.g., 234, 236, 2404, 2405 (BLACKMUN, Vlandis Kline, 412 441, 459, 2230, 2240, judgment). continue believe fundamental relationship values. Martinez Bynum, 461 321, 346, 1838, 1851, 879 (1983) (dissenting opinion); 230-231, 2402 (concurring opinion). written length explain position, 110-117, 1336-1340, repeat analysis here.22 76 Declining how actually works, disfavor classification, rationally objectives encouraging fairly resources." admittedly important unleashing dual enforcement? While fine, subjected loss overlook "understandable indignation" 856, 15, focused subgroup. then consider fit object. universe men. offer "[t]hose offered." 854, 13. Tr. Oral Arg. (Government aid). suggestion putative age-group overlap pursuing sufficient justification true Equal Protection legislatures resolve problem, Railway Express Agency, York, 336 106, 110, 463, 465, 533 (1949), opens door arbitrary effectively pick choose few escape visited larger affected." 112-113, 467 (Jackson, lays offense, discrimination invidious. Skinner Oklahoma ex rel. Williamson, 316 535, 541, 1110, 1113, 1655 (1942). adverse consequences inevitable, inference desired. Personnel Massachusetts Feeney, 442 256, 279, 25, 2282, 2296, 870 (1979). inference. House sponsor Solomon, criticism disadvantaged. "Now, maybe discriminating poor. And are, going come tomorrow next session amendments funds being Job Training unemployment compensation insurance kind taxpayers' money registered." ----(1982).23 "They" poor—a animus rationalized away argument Entitlement greater scope aid—for farm price supports—confer broader spectrum interests, law—oil depletion allowances, accelerated depreciation, capital gains, property-owners' deductions—favors advantaged. imagine resistance follow rich persons' entitlements. think constitutionally valid advantaged special attention. other, enforce laws, invidious among subclasses law-breakers. basic, discriminate tenuous hide behind screen test misuse nondiscriminatory policy unrelated goals "turns enforced, manner." 950 above, Amendment, due respectfully 1965, seq., qualified programs. colleges universities, numerous kinds trade, schools. 1085(b), (c), 1088. model satisfies (1983): "STATEMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE/REGISTRATION COMPLIANCE "____ certify because: "______ female. services active (Note: Members Reserves National Guard duty.) reached 1960. permanent Trust Territory Pacific Islands Northern Mariana Islands. Service. "Signature: ______ "Date: "NOTICE: You you your 668.25 constitute argue dispense trial, noting hearing disagreement about 12(f)(4), Appellants' meritless. Whitehurst); ____ Stratton); 9664 Hayakawa); Jepsen). Montgomery); Stratton). Stennis "I proposition here youngster overlooked signing misunderstood informed, control situation. automatically restriction concerned." 9666. Solicitor points out, avoids problem contingent manner, time, proclamation. (1981) ("Persons procedures rules Service"). enacted. 18-year-olds August 1982—30 12(f)—the prospective; deprivation addition liability "The harm Figuratively speaking discomforting enjoyed. deprivation." 1083. (1965), offices labor unions; (1946), off salaries employees; (1867), priest practicing clergyman; lawyers underpinnings removed Goldberg Kelly, 254, 262, 1011, 1017, 287 (1970), Mathews Eldridge, 319, 332, 893, 901, (1976). "benefits entitlement them," affords pretermination evidentiary guard erroneous termination. factor resolution recipient live waits." 264, 1018 (emphasis original). conclusion respect covered employee "fall[s] afforded Clause," 611, 1373, deportees 1376. Stennis); ibid. males Those offered. broad range colleges, vocational 1085(a); 9664-9665 Mattingly); Montgomery). Applying third test, relied opposed punished Edgar); Goldwater); Durenberger). These little, any, weight, opponents Schwegmann Bros. Calvert Distillers Corp., 341 384, 394-395, 745, 750-751, 95 1035 (1951). several isolated expressing understandable indignation show defiance 9665 Hayakawa). unmistakable Congressional down." 619, 1377, dissent reads create exception rule assertion Grosso, wagering call himself; admitted activity. facts. 73, 716 Sullivan, 259, 263, 607, 1037 (1927). discriminates wealthy. sustained interest. Harris McRae, 448 297, 322-324, 100 2671, 2691-2692, 784 (1980). standard easily here, provides, part: "[A]ny evades service neglect refuse perform execution title, rules, regulations, directions pursuant shall, conviction district competent jurisdiction, $10,000, imprisonment. major countries world North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), following compulsory service: Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, West Germany. Switzerland do—of course—all countries. International Institute Strategic Studies, Balance 1983-1984 Federalist Papers, essays arguing favor adoption Constitution, replete emphasis defense raising maintaining forces. John Jay's prescient Paper, 4, observed: "safety America dangers foreign [our] forbearing causes war nations, placing continuing situation invite hostility. true, however disgraceful human nature, nations whenever prospect getting anything it; [and] monarchs nothing pp. 18-19 (J. Cooke ed. 1961) union armies peace." Responding Alexander Hamilton answered "United exhibit spectacle seen—that nation incapacitated constitution prepare defence invaded." p. 1961). spoke danger "expos[ing] property liberty mercy invaders invit[ing] weakness [to attack country]." (A. Hamilton). Article expressly clause, Debts Welfare States." contention cite each 'a exclusion' vocation" "punishment" 1079. inapposite here. restrict right. wish Registration consists completing office. sex, social number, address, telephone affirmation affirmation. postal clerk date-stamps initials indicating produced identification. notify changes data. Oversight Hearing Prosecutions Subcommittee Courts, Civil Liberties, Administration Committee Judiciary, 97th Cong., 2d Sess., Hearing) (statement Maj. Thomas Turnage (Reg.)) Turnage); Attachment 95-105 (Report Accounting Office). day, estimated 93% 700,000 Hearing, Kenneth Coffey, Associate Director, (Military) Compensation Division, Turnage). Delton Franz Interreligious Board Conscientious Objectors). understands integral conscription war. 47-48. 68, 2653, ("Congress specifically linked consideration induction, see, S.Rep. 96-826, 156, 160 judgments concerning operations [combat] needs ."). David Landau, Legislative Counsel, American Liberties Union, D.C.) (expressing concern purposes, promise confidentiality, exemptions Privacy 1974, prohibits data-matching agencies). infra. 34-35 Landau) (contrasting permitting immediately presumptively classifying 10-day induction). 1624.5(a), 1633.2(h), 1633.3 42-43 (testimony Rev. Barry Lynn, President, Draft Action). 81-82 successfully note 552a (statutory authorization collect numbers), amended numbers. 97-86, 916, 1129, Wolman 542 (DC 1982). 97-86 authorized furnish address 462(e). cooperation nonfederal systems, drivers' licenses, private systems fee basis. 84. 13-14 Lawrence Lippe, Criminal Justice) (159 self-identified reported others, referred Attorneys "keeping close touch" begins program records). certiorari Wayte 1214, 2655, 362 (1984), First investigating identified vocal opposition Of "rights stature [government] condition exaction price," 500, 620, posture appeal places 1985, contains "Date Record," appear 668.26(b), (d)(1) Weekly Comp. Pres.Doc. extended February N.Y. Times, Jan. 21, 14, col. 3. Turnage, correlation extending 80-81 ("we run clear chart"). 5-6 (400,000 result 2-month period). speculative implicated rests (but concededly "immutable") policy, unlikely. Reply 15-16; 14. Just Term, "policy choices administration, reevaluated another administration." Mendoza, 154, 161, 568, 573, 379 Considering limitations 31, 462(d), unpredictability wide noncooperation course history, expects references policy. hard nonregistration: affirmatively waived Kordel, 7-10, 763, 766-769, inapplicable classic [which excuses] 435, 1146, 443-446, 1150-1152 choices: form. prosecuted, evidence, proving whatever 206-207, 1110 claimed card, good faith better aims. always draw usual has, subpoenaed testify, already him. Whether chooses appear, invokes knows refusal cooperate. Therefore, invocation different quality information. published annually, 1981 edition statistics distribution ethnic figures 1978-1979 academic year. especially reliant training beyond high school. 56.7% recipients, 52.1% 46.4% Work Study grants minorities, 27, 65, 74, percentage body. 14.3% minorities. Commerce, Statistical Abstract Table 258 penalizes students. (1981), gender differences combat roles male-only disagreed "thereby categorically excludes women civic obligation," 2662, joined protest extension irrelevant objectionable. similarly situated funds. principle undermined co-opting defects wealth heightened youth. responsibility careful scrutiny. forging independence. enfranchised, able vote transience frequently, burdening voter N.Y.Elec.Law 5-104 (McKinney 1978). mind, "relegated powerlessness command majoritarian process." 1294, Carolene Products Co., 304 152, 778, 783, 1234 (1938). Where particularly elementary secondary distinctions disadvantage Postsecondary prerequisite pursuit countless vocations, professional technical. Deprivation (1967). Partnership 97-300, 504, 1399, 1504. "new job drop-out prepared welfare dependency, disadvantaged compete market help," dislocated workers. 97-469, 1504 Labor "insure participating Act" registering. Turnage) (positing compensation, Veterans' dependency benefits, survivor's Comprehensive Employment programs).

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