Document: 511 U.S. 244114 S.Ct. 1483128 L.Ed.2d 229 Barbara LANDGRAF, Petitionerv.USI FILM PRODUCTS, et al. No. 92-757. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Oct. 13, 1993. Decided April 26, 1994. Syllabus * After a bench trial in petitioner Landgraf's suit under Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964 (Title VII), District found that she had been sexually harassed by co-worker at respondent USI Film Products, but harassment was not so severe as to justify her decision resign position. Because court employment terminated violation VII, entitled equitable relief, and because did then authorize any other form dismissed complaint. While appeal pending, 1991 (1991 or Act) became law, § 102 which includes provisions create right recover compensatory punitive damages for intentional discrimination violative (hereinafter 102(a)), party demand jury if such are claimed 102(c)). In affirming, Appeals rejected argument case should be remanded on pursuant 102. Held: Section does apply pending when enacted. Pp. ____. (a) Since President vetoed 1990 version ground, among others, perceived unfairness bill's elaborate retroactivity provision, it is likely omission comparable language congressional oversight unawareness, compromise made possible. That dispositive here establish precisely where struck. For example, reach only cases still those already finally decided, might explain Congress' failure provide Act, bill, certain sections would proceedings specified preenactment dates. (b) The text evince clear expression intent whether applies arising before Act's passage. Landgraf relies an expression—§ 402(a), states that, "[e]xcept otherwise specifically provided, this amendments shall take effect upon enactment," §§ 402(b) 109(c), prospective application limited contexts—cannot bear heavy weight place them negative inference: Her statutory require assume Congress chose surprisingly indirect route convey important easily expressed message. Moreover, relevant legislative history reveals little suggest Members believed agreement tacitly reached controversial issue understood intended interplay foregoing have decisive assigns them. Instead, conveys impression legislators agreed disagree about what extent conduct. (c) order resolve question left open must focus apparent tension between two seemingly contradictory canons interpreting statutes do specify their temporal reach: rule law time renders its decision, see Bradley v. Richmond, 416 696, 711, 94 2006, 2016, 40 476, axiom favored, Bowen Georgetown Univ. Hospital, 488 204, 208, 109 468, 471, 493. (d) presumption against founded elementary considerations fairness dictating individuals opportunity know conform conduct accordingly. It deeply rooted Court's jurisprudence finds several constitutional provisions, including, criminal context, Ex Post Facto Clause. civil prospectivity remains appropriate default unless has disrupt settled expectations. (e) Thus, implicates federal statute enacted after events giving rise suit, court's first task determine expressly prescribed statute's proper reach. If done so, there no need resort judicial rules. Where unambiguously conduct, conflict anti-retroactivity principle decision. Even absent specific authorization, new enactment unquestionably many situations. However, genuinely retroactive effect—i.e., impair rights possessed he acted, increase his liability past impose duties with respect transactions completed—the traditional teaches govern favoring result. displace presumption. (f) Application principles demonstrates guiding instructions from Congress, type provision enactment, instead subject retroactivity. 102(b)(1), authorizes circumstances, clearly presumption, since very labels given "punitive" "exemplary" damages, well rationales supporting them, demonstrate they share key characteristics sanctions, therefore raise serious Clause retroactively imposed. 102(a)(1) authorizing classified, also confers monetary relief persons like Landgraf, who were victims hostile work environment constructively discharged, substantially increases employers harms caused, thus operate "retrospectively" applied Although ordinarily procedural change sort trials conducted effective date regardless underlying occurred, option set out 102(c)(1) fall attached 102(c) makes available "[i]f complaining seeks damages." 968 F.2d 427 (CA5 1992), affirmed. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, SOUTER, GINSBURG, JJ., joined. SCALIA, filed concurring judgment, KENNEDY THOMAS, BLACKMUN, dissenting opinion. Eric Schnapper, New York City, petitioner. Drew S. Days, III, U.S., amicus curiae, special leave Court. Glen D. Nager, Washington, DC, respondents. Justice STEVENS 1 creates violations 1964. See Rev.Stat. 1977A(a), 42 U.S.C. 1981a(a), added Pub.L. 102-166, 105 Stat. 1071. further provides may sought.1 We granted certiorari decide these hold not. 2 From September 4, 1984, through January 17, 1986, employed Products (USI) plant Tyler, Texas. She worked 11 p.m. 7 a.m. shift operating machine produced plastic bags. A fellow employee named John Williams repeatedly inappropriate remarks physical contact. Petitioner's complaints immediate supervisor brought reported incidents personnel manager, investigation, reprimanded Williams, transferred him another department. Four days later quit job. 3 Petitioner timely charge Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC Commission). determined victim sexual creating 1964, 2000e seq., concluded employer adequately remedied violation. Accordingly, issued notice sue. 4 On July 21, 1989, commenced action USI, corporate owner, company's successor-in-interest.2 trial, causing suffer mental anguish. discharged. said: 5 "Although enough existed reasonable person felt compelled resign. This particularly true light fact resigned job, taken steps . eliminate working harassment. voluntarily reasons unrelated question." App. Pet. Cert. B-3-4. 6 petitioner's November 1991, while signed into 1991. Act. Its remand rested premise "a 'apply doing result manifest injustice direction contrary.' [v. Richmond School Bd., 476 (1974) ]." 427, 432 1992). Commenting 102(c), stated requiring defendant "to retry completed waste resources. rules cases, we invalidate procedures followed adopted." F.2d, 432-433. characterized seachange violations" unjust kind additional unforeseeable obligation occurring Ibid. Finding error factual findings, affirmed judgment 8 Rivers Roadway Express, Inc., --- ----, 113 1250, 122 649 (1993). Our law. 507 purposes our properly discriminatory findings correct. recovery even though injured. assume, arguendo, same occur today, find anguish injuries support award former employer. controlling 1992. II 9 primary submission requires enactment. argument, accepted, make entire (with narrow exceptions) applicable filed, date. case, preface analysis brief description scope 10 large part response series decisions Acts 1866 3(4) identifies one respond recent expanding adequate protection discrimination." section, finding 2(2), Wards Cove Packing Co. Atonio, 490 642, 2115, 104 733 (1989), gave concerns.3 "Burden Proof Disparate Impact Cases," direct Cove. Other obviously drafted "recent Court" mind. 101 (which Rivers, S.Ct., ----) amended prohibition racial "mak[ing] enforce[ment] [of] contracts," 1981 (1988 ed., Supp. III), Patterson McLean Credit Union, 491 164, 2363, 132 (1989); 107 responds Price Waterhouse Hopkins, 228, 1775, 268 setting forth standards "mixed motive" cases; 108 Martin Wilks, 755, 2180, 835 prohibiting challenges practices implementing consent decrees; EEOC Arabian American Oil Co., 499 244, 111 1227, 274 (1991), redefining term "employee" used include citizens foreign countries employers; 112 Lorance AT & T Technologies, 900, 2261, 961 employees' challenge seniority systems; West Virginia Hospitals, Inc. Casey, 83, 1138, 68 providing attorney's fees expert fees; 114 Library Shaw, 478 310, 106 2957, 92 250 (1986), allowing interest judgments States. 12 number however, responses decisions. enacts adjusting test scores "on basis race, color, religion, sex, national origin"; 117 extends coverage House Representatives employees Legislative Branch; 301-325 protect Senate discrimination. Among directly 13 Entitled "Damages Cases Intentional Discrimination," part: 14 "(a) Right Recovery. — 15 "(1) Rights.—In section 706 717 (42 2000e-5) engaged unlawful (not practice disparate impact) prohibited 703, 704, 2000e-2 2000e-3), provided cannot 1977 Revised Statutes 1981), addition authorized 706(g) respondent. 16 17 "(c) Jury Trial.—If 18 jury." 19 Before afforded "equitable" remedies. backpay.4 VII's back pay remedy,5 modeled National Labor Relations 29 160(c), "make-whole" remedy resembles some respects. Albemarle Paper Moody, 422 405, 418-422, 95 2362, 2372-2374, 45 280 (1975). "in to," replace duplicate, backpay allowed prior Indeed, prevent double recovery, "shall backpay, 1964." 102(b)(2). 20 significantly expands potentially plaintiffs discriminatorily discharged generally included "only amount equal wages earned discharge reinstatement, along lost fringe benefits vacation pension benefits." Burke, 504 1867, 1873, 119 34 (1992). Under 102, plaintiff wins seek "future pecuniary losses, emotional pain, suffering, inconvenience, anguish, loss enjoyment life, nonpecuniary losses." 102(b)(3). addition, shown acted "with malice reckless indifference [plaintiff's] federally protected rights," damages.6 21 allows forms workplace previously justified VII. As illustrates, proved, could concrete plaintiff's status, denied promotion, differential compensation, termination. supra, 1873-1874. ("[T]he circumscribed remedies [before Act] stand marked contrast tort antidiscrimination statutes, well"). circumstances "terms, conditions, privileges employment," 2000e-2(a)(1),7 involve pay. short, "central eradicating throughout economy making whole suffered discrimination," 421, 2373, effects major expansion 22 1990, comprehensive bill passed both Houses Congress. similar respects, differed contained calling including discrimination, (expected) enactment.8 legislation, citing "unfair rules" reason disapproval.9 narrowly failed override veto. 136 Cong.Rec. S16589 (Oct. 24, 1990) (66-34 vote favor override). 23 absence realistically attributed unawareness issue. Rather, seems compromises possible enact explicit command bill. 24 bill—which means source political controversy over legislation—is tell us struck Legislature might, less expansive unlike decided. n. supra. question, then, manifests arose went III 25 textual three Act: 402(b), 109(c). speaks us, states: 26 "Except enactment." 27 not, itself, us. statement will become arguably occurred earlier date.10 argue otherwise. contends introductory clause 402(a) superfluous refers contexts. 28 parties agree exempt single impact lawsuit Company. provides: "(b) Certain Cases. 30 Notwithstanding nothing complaint March 1, 1975, initial rendered October 30, 1983." 31 extending overseas employers, 32 Amendments.—The Act." 33 According petitioner, subsections "other provisions" contemplated together strong inference all declared addressing particulars observe places extraordinary comparatively minor long complex statute. Applying consequences, possibility retried liable antedating Purely application, hand, prolong life remedial scheme, constructions wanting. Given high stakes broad statute, prominent surprising chosen inferences drawn quite effect. 35 Petitioner, invokes canon give every avoid redundancy different provisions. See, e.g., Mackey Lanier Collection Agency Service, 486 825, 837, 11, 2182, 2189, 100 836 (1988). Unless word "otherwise" either contends, five words entirely superfluous. relying "[e]xpressio unius est exclusio alterius," Leatherman Tarrant County Narcotics Intelligence Coordination Unit, 509 1160, 1163, 517 (1993), argues (§§ 109(c) 402(b)), infer opposite remainder 36 emphasizes begins: provided." scan "specific concerning dates most candidates. decree prospectivity, tells exceptions, considered prescribing general force, unlikely carry critically meaning it. Had wished determinate meaning, surely reference predecessor legislation: 2104, 101st Cong., 1st Sess. 15(a)(4) (1990). 37 inserted "otherwise provided" "takes effect" assure timing prevail "take enactment" command. drafters complicated piece legislation containing more than 50 separate "except merely risk inadvertent statute.11 refer both, difficult understand why rather numbers. 38 unpersuaded duplicate cases. depends assumption treated uniformly based thesis, inevitable one. possible—indeed, highly probable —that, unable clarity viewed matter resolved courts. precedents doubts guidance, suggested others not.12 Compare 493 (1988) (1974). Bennett Jersey, 470 632, 1555, 84 572 (1985). matters courts specificity 402(b). Congressional doubt doctrine, coupled likelihood routine plausible explanation neither redundant. 39 Turning phrase ("Notwithstanding Act") meant immediately preceding subsection. contend issue, logic interpret mean "Notwithstanding 402(a)." assumes selected indefinite identify "any provision" 402(b)'s next-door neighbor—§ 402(a). Here again, message reinforces conclusion originally introduced bill.13 substitute omitted provisions.14 discloses frankly partisan statements final language, plausibly read reflecting agreement.15 evidence 41 passage indicate majority favored follows path charted Article I, 7, cl. Constitution. INS Chadha, 462 919, 946-951, 103 2764, 2781-2784, 77 317 (1983). unambiguous directive look elsewhere guidance case. IV uncommon "apparent tension" construction. Professor Llewellyn famously illustrated, opposites.16 labored reconcile intervening changes Each framed decision," Bradley, 2016. second "[r]etroactivity law," interpretive corollary "congressional enactments administrative construed result." Bowen, 471. 43 noted expressions. Kaiser Aluminum Chemical Corp. Bonjorno, 494 827, 110 1570, 1577, 842 (1990); Bennett, 639-640, 1560. unnecessary seeming "because view, clear, governs," prejudgment evinced "clear intent" "not entered date." 837-838, 1577. 102's must, therefore, espoused handling problems instruction 44 begin noting holdings unanimous Relying decision—Thorpe Housing Authority Durham, 393 268, 89 518, 474 (1969)—we held successful Department Health Human Services lacked authority promulgate private hospitals refund Medicare payments services promulgation rule. purport overrule limit light, turn mindful unquestionable vitality, "maxim disregarded expressions, opinion, connection expressions used." Cohens Virginia, Wheat. 264, 399, L.Ed. 257 (1821). A. JUSTICE SCALIA demonstrated, jurisprudence, embodies legal doctrine centuries older Republic.17 Elementary dictate accordingly; expectations lightly disrupted.18 reason, "principle assessed took timeless universal appeal." Kaiser, 855, 1586 (SCALIA, concurring). free, dynamic society, creativity commercial artistic endeavors fostered gives people confidence consequences actions. 46 antiretroactivity flatly prohibits penal legislation.19 10, passing laws "impairing Obligation Contracts." Fifth Amendment's Takings prevents (and government actors) depriving vested property except "public use" payment "just compensation." prohibitions "Bills Attainder" Art. 9-10, prohibit legislatures singling disfavored meting summary punishment Brown, 381 437, 456-462, 85 1707, 1719-1722, 484 (1965). Due Process protects interests fair repose compromised legislation; justification sufficient validate "may suffice" warrant application. Usery Turner Elkhorn Mining 428 96 2882, 2893, 49 752 (1976). 47 These particular concerns. Legislature's unmatched powers allow sweep away suddenly without individualized consideration. responsivity pressures poses tempted use retribution unpopular groups individuals. Marshall observed Weaver Graham, 450 960, 67 (1981), ensures "fair warning" "restricts governmental power restraining arbitrary vindictive legislation." Id., 28-29, 963-964 (citations omitted).20 48 Constitution's restrictions, course, scope. Absent potential fail scope.21 Retroactivity often serve benign legitimate purposes, emergencies, correct mistakes, circumvention interval passage, simply considers salutary. requirement intention helps ensure itself outweigh disruption unfairness. disfavored, deciding operates "retroactively" always simple mechanical task. Sitting Circuit, Story offered influential definition Society Propagation Gospel Wheeler, F.Cas. 756 (No. 13,156) (CCDNH 1814), construing Hampshire Constitution broadly "retrospective" civil.22 notion bars explicitly i.e., "statutes anterior passage[.]" 767. Such construction, concluded, "utterly subversive objects" prohibition. ban retrospective embraced "all which, affect transactions." "Upon principle," elaborated, "every takes impairs acquired existing laws, obligation, imposes duty, attaches disability, past, deemed retrospective. ." (citing Calder Bull, Dall. 386, 648 (1798) Dash Van Kleek, Johns. 477 (N.Y.1811)). 51 Though formulas varied, functional conceptions "retroactivity" voice elsewhere.23 52 Republic Nat. Bank Miami States, 506 554, 556-557, 121 (1992) (THOMAS, judgment), upsets law.24 ask comes end process nature degree operation event. Any room disagreement hard classify enormous variety perfect philosophical clarity. judges tend "sound instinct[s]," Danforth Groton Water 178 Mass. 472, 59 N.E. 1033, 1034 (1901) (Holmes, J.), familiar notice, reliance, offer sound guidance. 53 early declined burdening intent. Heth, Cranch 479 (1806), refused reducing commissions customs collectors collections "clear, strong, imperative" id., 413 (opinion Paterson, J.). consistently explained imposing burdens fact. common contrary removed burden repealing (whether civil); repeals preclude acts repeal. Chambers, 291 217, 223-224, 54 434, 435-436, 78 763 (1934); Gulf, C. F. R. Dennis, 224 503, 506, 542, 543, 56 860 (1912); Tynen, Wall. 88, 93-95, 153 (1871); Norris Crocker, How. 429, 440-441, 210 (1852); Maryland Baltimore Ohio 534, 552, 714 (1845); Yeaton 281, 284, (1809). But (repealing common-law rule). largest category involved affecting contractual rights, predictability stability prime importance.25 At Chew Heong 536, 255, 770 (1884), "Chinese Restriction Act" 1882 barring Chinese laborers reentering certificate prepared exited country. bar reentry laborer certification promulgated. Harlan's accorded re-enter certificate, invoked "uniformly" accepted "giv[ing] operation, whereby injuriously affected, positive legislature." 559, 266-267. 55 result," step line cases.26 paradigmatic agency sought recoup, cost regulations funds paid earlier, 207, 471; search consistent approach spanning centuries. force era tended view interference contract circumspectly. century, come supply dominant ordering, circumspection way greater deference judgments. 15-16, 2892-2893; Home Bldg. Loan Assn. Blaisdell, 290 398, 436-444, 231, 239-242, (1934). impediments now modest, accords widely intuitions how operate, coincide public Requiring assures affirmatively acceptable price countervailing benefits. allocates responsibility fundamental policy virtue predictable background legislate. B 57 retroactivity, just recognized situations, "apply suit. There is, unambiguous. Chief Marshall's Schooner Peggy, 103, (1801), illustrates point. treaty 1800, appeal, restoration captured yet definitively condemned," (emphasis original), reversed 23, condemning French vessel seized waters. "the Peggy 109. 58 When affects propriety retroactive. Steel Foundries Tri-City Central Trades Council, 184, 72, 66 189 (1921), Clayton governed injunctive labor picketing. remanding "relief injunction futuro," "vested right" court. 201, 75-76. also, Hall Beals, 396 45, 48, 90 200, 201-202, 214 (1969); Duplex Printing Press Deering, 254 443, 464, 172, 175, 65 349 (1921). regularly conferring ousting jurisdiction, jurisdiction lay filed. Bruner 343 112, 116-117, 72 581, 584-585, 786 (1952), "consisten[t]" practice, ordered jurisdictional (properly) subsequently repealed.27 Hallowell Commons, 239 508-509, 202, 203-204, 60 409 (1916); Assessors Osbornes, 567, 575, 748 (1870). Conversely, Andrus Charlestone Stone 436 604, 607-608, 6, 98 2002, 2005, 570 (1978), eliminated amount-in-controversy allege $10,000 commencement "now moment." Alabama, 362 602, 80 924, 926, 982 (1960) (per curiam ); Stephens Cherokee Nation, 174 445, 478, 722, 734, 1041 (1899). usually substantive tribunal hear case." Hallowell, 508, 202. Present normally governs situations "speak obligations parties," Miami, 565 Changes suits raising concerns parte Collett, 337 55, 71, 69 944, 952-953, 93 1207 (1949), 1404(a) transfer instituted diminished reliance procedure. 952-953.28 procedure regulate secondary Cf. McBurney Carson, 99 569, 378 (1879).29 61 principally (1969), Thorpe ordinary Thorpe, circular local housing evicting tenant eviction proceeding regulation issued. shares much "procedural" "prospective-relief" hearing party's lease 279, 524-525, and, vacated," saw significance "decided evict issued," 283, 527. "essential remove impediment rights." 527.30 Youakim Miller, 425 237, 1399, 1402-1403, 701 (1976) ) applying avoiding necessity constitutionality old one). 62 holding similarly compatible disfavoring "retroactive" statutes. awarded costs, principles, parents prevailed seeking desegregate schools Virginia. Appeals, 718 Education Amendments 1972, prevailing school desegregation fee. fee amendments. reversed. rely claim fees, resting contrary." 63 suggests categorical alter well-settled class Like resemble Attorney's determinations, observed, "collateral main cause action" "uniquely separable proved trial." White Dept. Security, 455 451-452, 1162, 1166, 71 325 (1982). Hutto Finney, 437 678, 695, 2565, 2576, 522 (1978). 718, exercised) principles. imagine stronger costs desegregating children's schools. 2019-2020 (noting board "into compliance mandate") Brown Board Education, 347 483, 494, 74 686, 691, 873 (1954)). availability award, pre-existing theories, "did obligation" board. 721, 2021. 64 approving distinguished, criticize, canon. 720, 2020-2021 Greene 376 149, 160, 615, 621-622, 576 (1964); Claridge Apartments Commissioner, 323 141, 185, 139 (1944), Union Pacific Laramie Stock Yards 231 190, 199, 101, 179 (1913)). authorities relied lend intend liabilities, 849-850, 1583-1584 involving 713, 2017, (citing, inter alia, Freeborn Smith, 160 (1865)),31 decisions, 713-714, 294 600, 607, 578, 79 1082 (1935)),32 altering (1960)), repeal Chambers (1934)). none cast truly statute.33 When, contains express command, effect, completed. retroactively, V whether, ____, think diverse purposes. To contrary, evaluate each pre-enactment Two readily classified according plainly introduce presumably tried occurred.34 damages," 102(b)(1) side line. subsection shows "engaged aggrieved individual." sanctions. Retroactive imposition question. Elkhorn, 2893 (Court "hesitate approve theory deterrence blameworthiness"); De Veau Braisted, 363 144, 1146, 1155, 1109 ("The mark ex post facto can fairly designated acts"). Louis Vuitton S.A. Spencer Handbags Corp., 765 966, 972 (CA2 1985) (retroactive treble Trademark Counterfeiting 1984 "would present problem"). entertained confronted classified. lawful occurred; noted, 1490-1491, reaches Concerns lack muted (although one) backpay. Nor anyone seriously smack "retributive" suspect purpose. reflects desire afford complete redress established generation ago least objections grounds greatest force. 70 Nonetheless, Unlike quintessentially backward-looking. Compensatory sanction wrongdoers whole, mechanism liabilities defendants. They "compensate" distributing coffers, caused. introduction parties' planning.35 event relates respondents' agent Williams; here, attach conclude, one, seen action, especially pronounced. novel prospect employers. 102(a) recoverable, increasing preestablished action. would, date, undoubtedly "new disability" events. Gospel, F.Cas., liability, context criminal, consequence ignored.36 Neither nor spoken, Winfree Northern 227 296, 301, 273, 273-274, 518 (1913) (statute wrongful death inapplicable "explicit words" implication"); Fidelity Guaranty rel. Struthers Wells 209 306, 314-315, 537, 539-540, 804 (1908) (construing restricting subcontractors' contractors retroactivity).37 frequently true, amici forcefully vindicate purpose fully.38 consideration, rebut seldom crafted pursue goal, necessary adopting effectively goal. legislator supported reasonably oppose believe version's factor reading render ineffective. 73 shared usual legislation. satisfied conclude ordered. 75 dissenting. 76 Perhaps eagerness tension," (1990), (1974), University (1988), rejects "most logical reading," 838, 1071 (Act), resorts me insufficient fidelity "starting point interpretation 'is itself,' " 835, 1575, quoting Consumer Product Safety Comm'n GTE Sylvania, 447 108, 2051, 2056, 766 (1980), beyond historical straightforward indicates attendant begins 1099: "settled possible, fashion operative effect," Nordic Village, 503 1011, 1015, 181 (1992), Menasche, 348 528, 538-539, 513, 519-520, 615 (1955), 402(a)'s qualifying clause, provided," mere surplusage "insurance policy" future interpretation. Gersman Group Ass'n, 975 886, 890 (CADC logically "specifically providing" enactment: 1099, provides, 1078, protections Self-evidently, "entirely redundant." Kungys 485 759, 778, 1537, 839 (plurality opinion). implication provisions—including —do.1 'Absent [this] regarded conclusive.' (1980). featuring welter conflicting "some partisan" floor statements, ante, committee report, evinces intent.2 I dismiss "unlikely," natural embrace "possible," ibid. answer cases.3 well-established serves expectations, grounded rights. Smead, Rule Against Legislation: Basic Principle Jurisprudence, Minn.L.Rev. 774, 784 (1936) (retroactivity developed "inhibition construction violate rights"). proscribe legal. Sampeyreac 222, 238, 665 (1833) ("Almost remedy, causes passed"); Hastings Earth Satellite 628 85, (CADC) ("Modification adjusts extent, method enforcement, instances known"), cert. denied, 449 905, 137 (1980); J. Kent, Commentaries Law *455-*456 (1854) (Chancellor Kent's objection "affecting changing rights" nature, contracts, disturb absolute within last engage permit harassment; 'there thing wrong.' 922 (1865). N. Singer, Sutherland Statutory Construction 41.04, p. (4th ed. 1986) (procedural presumed actions). employee's basic free employer's corresponding duty. responsible caused illegal almost years. respectfully dissent. syllabus constitutes Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. 1977A(c), 1981a(c), simplicity, conformity parties, (c), respectively. Respondent Quantum Corporation owned there. Bonar Packaging, purchased operation. 2(2) "has weakened effectiveness Federal protections," 3(2) expresses codify" concepts enunciated "Supreme 642 [109 733] (1989)." note references reliance. infra, decided trial. Lytle Household Mfg., 545, 549 1331, 1335 (1990) (assuming trial); Teamsters Terry, 558, 572, 1339, 1348-1349, 519 (same). pre-1991 again address "If intentionally charged complaint, affirmative appropriate, include, to, reinstatement hiring employees, deems appropriate. Back accrue years filing Commission. Interim earnings amounts earnable diligence discriminated reduce allowable. 706(g), amended, 2000e-5(g) III). 102(b)(3) limits, varying size employer, individual plaintiff. sum exceed $50,000 employees; $100,000 $200,000 500 $300,000 employees. Harris Forklift Systems, 510 367, 370, 126 295 (1993) (discrimination employment" actionable "is 'economic' 'tangible' discrimination") internal quotation marks omitted). provided: "Sec. 15. Transition Rules. June 5, 1989 [the Antonio, 2115]; "(2) May 1775]; "(3) 12, 2180]; "(4) 7(a)(1), 7(a)(3) 7(a)(4), 7(b), [providing discrimination], 9, Act; "(5) 7(a)(2) 2261]; "(6) 15, 2363]. General.—Any orders described inconsistent 7(a)(2), vacated if, year request made. Final Judgments.—Pursuant paragraphs (1) (2), thereto fixed vested, review expired title Code, Rules Procedure, Appellate justice 60(b)(6) Procedure authority, requirements due law." President's Message Returning Without Approval Weekly Comp.Pres.Doc. 1632-1634 22, 1990), reprinted S16418, 16419 1990). veto referred briefly; Attorney General's Memorandum expansive, reopening judgments, 8, covering General (October ("And unfairly 2104 ") added). Brief A-13. "effective-upon-enactment" formula inapt "The charges thereafter." 92-261, 14, 86 113. contrast, amending pregnancy 1978, (b), amendment 2(a), 2076. Courts consider 1978 Schwabenbauer Ed. Dist. Olean, 667 305, 310 1981); Condit Air Lines, 631 1136, 1139-1140 (CA4 1980). Jensen Gulf Refining Marketing 623 406, 410 1980) (Age Discrimination enactment); Sikora Can 622 1116, 1119-1124 (CA3 cf. Cannon Chicago, 441 677, 698-699, 1946, 1958-1959, 560 (1979), choice imply non-retroactivity. devote attention "effective date" 110, directs "Technical Assistance Training Institute" assist complying regulations, 110(b). unavoidably diminishes "expressio unius" argument. Once abandons unsupported expected alike, account uncertainty rule, draws anything rejecting covered plain language. H.R. 102d H3924-H3925 (Jan. 3, 1991). proviso 119(c) H3925-H3926 (June introduced, proposals foundered. S3021, S3023 (Mar. 1991); H3898, H3908 "interpretive memorandum" behalf seven Republican sponsors 1745, Senator "[t]he specified, retroactively." S15485 1991) Kennedy responded "will up claims (1974)). history. put it, advised grain salt debate placed Record us." S15325 29, Llewellyn, Remarks Theory Decision Canons How Construed, Vand.L.Rev. 395 (1950). Llewellyn's article identified "[a] penalty forfeiture, having effect; "[r]emedial liberally promote ends justice, receive construction." 402 842-844, 855-856, 1579-1581, 1586-1587, Kleeck, *477, *503 (N.Y.1811) ("It English ancient omnipotent parliament, effect") (Kent, C.J.); 775 (1936). Motors Romein, 1105, 1112, 328 ("Retroactive presents posed deprive upset transactions"); Munzer, Legislation, Texas L.Rev. 425, 471 (1982) defeasible entitlement behavior publicly advance"). L. Fuller, Morality 51-62 (1964) Fuller). Clauses, directed (§ 3), 1). Clauses 390-391, Chase, Croson 469, 513-514, 706, 732, 854 (1989) ("Legislatures primarily policymaking bodies bills attainder reflect valid concern punish characterize citizens. system, process, best equipped conditions wrong committed") (STEVENS, judgment); James 366 213, 247, 81 1052, 246 (1961) measures dangerous classes persons"). Madison argued opportunities powerful obtain improper Madison, "[b]ills attainder, impairing contracts" "contrary social compact, legislation," invited "influential" "speculat[e] measures," detriment "more industrious informed community." Federalist 44, 301 (J. Cooke 1961). Hochman, Constitutionality Harv.L.Rev. 692, 693 (a exact knowledge benefit it"). adjudication questions counsel challenged regulatory supports necessarily sustain Pension Benefit Gray 467 717, 730, 2709, 2718, 601 (1984); ample Bill "Retrospective injurious, oppressive unjust. No made, offenses." possessors land, being ejected rightful compensation improvements land. impaired owner's Fed.Cas., 766-769. Miller Florida, 482 423, 430, 2446, 2451, 351 (1987) ("A 'changes date' (quoting 31, (1981)); Yards, quality contemplate performed"); Sturges Carter, 511, 519, 1014, 1018, 240 (1885) disability"). Black's Dictionary 1184 (5th 1979) Story's 41.01, rev. 1993) terms 'retroactive' 'retrospective' synonymous usage. describe act"). uncontroversially unsettle conduct: tax zoning prompted affected acquire property; banning gambling begun construct casino law's spent learning count cards. Fuller ("If man arranging affairs, secure rules, body ossified forever"). antecedent facts operation." Cox Hart, 260 435, 154, 157, 332 (1922). Reynolds 292 444-449, 800, 801-803, 1353 Chicago Alton Tranbarger, 238 67, 73, 680, 204 (1915). Security Industrial Bank, 459 70, 79-82, 407, 413-414, 235 (1982); (1944); St. Louis, S.F. T.R. 270 182, 183, 435 (1926); Holt Henley, 232 637, 639, 459, 460, 767 (1914); (1913); Twenty Percent Cases, 179, 187, 339 (1874); Sohn Waterson, 596, 599, 737 (1873); Carroll Carroll's Lessee, 275, 936 (1854). great fell government. Magnolia Petroleum 276 236, (1928); 191 171, (1903). (1903); Moore, 760, 762, 588 (1878); Murray Gibson, 755 (1854); Ladiga Roland, 589, 387 (1844). Bruner, noted: "This required implication. [46 435] (1926), Smallwood Gallardo, 275 56, [48 23-24, 152] (1927)." 117, 584, 8. strictly punishments fact, upheld operated defendant's disadvantage Dobbert 293-294, 97 2290, 2298-2299, 344 (1977); Collins Youngblood, 497 37, 2715, Beazell Ohio, 269 167, 68, 216 (1925). Of regime, appellate common-sense applicability posture Order Amending Criminal 495 969 (amendments "insofar practicable"); 456 1015 (same); Bankruptcy Forms, 421 1021 (1975) feasible injustice"). Contrary SCALIA's suggestion, post, 1524-1525, restrict (Neither quoted restricted.) principle, analogous accord grace disadvantaged adopts generous DeGurules INS, 833 861, 862-863 (CA9 1987). twice cited (1934), dismissal prosecutions Prohibition repealed. 38, 526, 38; 40, 40. "current law" called 712, 16, (describing obligated convention," recited vessels "definitively condemned") convention). truism announced came down. 1974, substantial measure discretion, guided resembling "manifest injustice" itself. Chevron Huson, 404 97, 106-107, 349, 355-356, 296 (1971); Linkletter Walker, 618, 636, 1731, 1741, accurate 1974 say presumptively firm Harper Taxation, 2510, 125 (1993); Griffith Kentucky, 314, 708, (1987). Treasury Employees Von Raab, 489 656, 661-662, 1384, 1388-1389, 685 (considering challenging agency's drug testing Fourth Amendment) Thorpe); Goodman Lukens 662, 2617, 2621, (applying "usual accordance decision"); Saint Francis College Al-Khazraji, 481 608, 2022, 2025, 582 (in rule"); 694, 2575, (relying "general practice" uphold pending); Youakim, 1403 (remanding reconsideration state regulations) Cort Ash, 66, 77, 2080, 2087, (stating warranted transferring relief); Hamling 418 87, 101-102, 2887, 2899-2900, 590 (reviewing obscenity conviction subsequent First Amendment Court) Bradley); California Bankers Shultz, 49, 1494, 1511, 812 enforcement banking disclosure proposition suit); Diffenderfer Baptist Church, 412, 414, 574, 567 (1972) exemption church "inappropriate" Establishment Clause); Citizens Preserve Overton Park, Volpe, 401 402, 419, 91 814, (1971) (refusing record review); (1969) election considering statute). recognized, retrial judge. customary suggest, unfair surprise upsetting attenuated generation. illustrate. USI's management, apprised coworker, problem. imposed corrected victim's constructive discharge. Assessing respondents respondeat superior entail element surprise. morally reprehensible illegal, inherent whenever past. Weaver, 28-30, 963-965 (Ex restraint, "an individual's punishment"). managers incentive preventive ward off subordinates occurs, served regime abolishing limits actions intent, Dempsey State, 451 A.2d 273 (R.I.1982) ("Every elements damage wrongful-death remedial, prospectively"); Kleibrink Missouri-Kansas-Texas Kan. 444, 581 P.2d 372, (1978) (holding, "great authority," increase, decrease maximum recoverable retroactive" enactment) original); Knutson, Wis.2d 432, 436, 215 N.W.2d 369, 371 cap misconduct date; "statutory damage[s] limitations actually changes"); State Louis-San Francisco Buder, 515 S.W.2d 409, 411 (Mo.1974) removing limitation conduct; act transaction, ascribed transpired, cogent reasons, thereafter thereto"); Mihoy Proulx, N.H. 698, 701, 313 723, 725 (1973) ("To increased accident enlarge retrospectively. legislature application"). Fann McGuffy, 534 770, (Ky.1975); Muckler Buchl, Minn. 490, 150 689, 697 (1967). sometimes said "remedial" ones, ("Clearly, actions"); Beazell, "legislative control modes substance"). holds kinds remedies, (discussing relief), introducing "Retroactive modification" "normally harbo[r] mischief liability," (CADC), nevertheless significant. Franklin Gwinnett Pub. Schools, 1028, 208 "where invaded, sue invasion, good wrong,' 1033 Bell Hood, 327 684, 773, 777, 939 (1946)), IX 1972 damages. position because, remediless despite adjudged "traditional remedies." 1034. sue" "circumscribed 1873. Until amendment, scheme extend. Northwest Airlines, Transport Workers, 1571, 1583-1584, 750 (1981). "unexceptional" implicitly [application]." 223, 479, (concurring opinion) Virtually reliable 886 1992); Mozee Commercial Marine Service 963 929 (CA7 4000, 2d Sess., 15(b)(3) (providing requires" permits), instructive alone. Significantly, H6747 (daily Aug. (Michel-LaFalce Act."); H6768 rejected); Mar. (Sen. Dole's 611, provision); H3908-3909 (introduction defeat Michel Directly compensate represents squarely addressed

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