Document: 483 U.S. 468 107 S.Ct. 2941 97 L.Ed.2d 389 Jean E. WELCH, Petitionerv.TEXAS DEPARTMENT OF HIGHWAYS AND PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION et al. No. 85-1716. Argued March 4, 1987. Decided June 25, Syllabus Petitioner, an employee of the Texas Highways Department, was injured while working on a ferry dock operated by Department. She filed suit against Department and State under § 33 Jones Act, which provides that any seaman in course his employment may maintain action for damages at law federal district court, which, effect, applies remedial provisions Federal Employer's Liability Act (FELA) to such suits. The District Court dismissed as barred Eleventh Amendment, Appeals affirmed. Although recognizing Parden v. Terminal Railway Alabama Docks Dept., 377 184, 84 1207, 12 233, held state-operated railroad bring FELA decision inapplicable light Congress' failure include unmistakably clear expression its intention abrogate States' Amendment immunity from court. court also had not consented being sued Act. Held: judgment is 780 F.2d 1268 (CA5 1986), Justice POWELL, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, WHITE, O'CONNOR, concluded bars state suing Pp. 472-495. 1 (a) Even though express terms Amendment's prohibition are limited federal-court suits "in or equity" citizens another foreign country, citizen own State, Hans Louisiana, 134 1, 10 504, L.Ed. 842, prohibits admiralty Ex parte New York, 256 490, 41 588, 65 1057, unless expressly waives consents Moreover, assuming Congress can when it acts pursuant Commerce Clause, must intent do so unmistakable language statute itself. Atascadero Hospital Scanlon, 473 234, 105 3142, 87 171. 472-474. 2 (b) has expressed statutory allow States be extends "[a]ny" seaman, this general authorization kind unequivocal sufficient marks constitutional distinction between other employers seamen. since both lower courts rejected petitioner's contention waived immunity, petition certiorari does address issue, need considered here. 474-476. 3 (c) To extent inconsistent with requirement abrogation language, overruled. 476-478. 4 (d) Hans, firmly established embodies broad principle sovereign long line subsequent cases reaffirmed principle, will overruled absence "special justification" departure doctrine stare decisis. argument bar citizens' federal-question actions persuasive several reasons. historical records show that, most, intentions Constitution's Framers Ratifiers were ambiguous subject. unquestionably "suits equity," plain refutes argument. Nor offer satisfactory explanation overwhelming rejection amendment would have allowed causes arising treaties. been deeply embedded our system inception, required because sensitive problems inherent making one appear another. That absent waiver congressional enactment necessary consequence their role dual sovereignties. 478-488. 5 (e) no application unconsenting directly contrary long-settled authority, including 1. suggestion latter case settled allowing supported earlier cited, balance, indicate immune suits, and, very least, demonstrate question "settled." 488-493. 6 SCALIA regardless correctness original matter, enacted incorporates assumption appears held, Article III Constitution contains implicit limitation brought individuals States. statutes cannot now read apply never existed. Thus, properly 495-494. 7 J., announced delivered opinion REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE JJ., joined. concurring opinion, post, p. ----. SCALIA, part judgment, BRENNAN, dissenting MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, joined, 8 Michael D. Cucullu, Colorado Springs, Colo., petitioner. 9 F. Scott McCown, Houston, Tex., respondents. POWELL O'CONNOR join. 11 whether ch. 250, Stat. 1007, 46 U.S.C. 688. * Public Transportation operates free automobile passenger Point Bolivar Galveston, Texas. Petitioner Welch, Highway Galveston. Relying 688, she Southern Texas.1 13 Amendment. 533 F.Supp. 403, 407 (S.D.Tex.1982). A divided panel Fifth Circuit reversed, each judge writing separately. 739 1034 (1984). On rehearing en banc, affirmed Court. 1986). recognized 233 (1964), company Employers' (FELA), 53 1404, 45 §§ 51-60. relevant applied See 688(a). nevertheless "the sweep decision, although overruled, overtly later decisions full implications surfaced." F.2d, 1270. relied holding "Congress constitutionally secured only statute." 242, 3147, 171 (1985).2 found 1273-1274 (citing Lyons & M University, 545 S.W.2d 56 (Tex.Civ.App.1976), writ refused, n.r.e. We granted certiorari, 479 811, 58, 93 18 (1986), affirm. II provides: 14 "The Judicial power United shall construed extend equity, commenced prosecuted Citizens Subjects Foreign State." 15 significance "lies affirmation fundamental limits grant judicial authority Art. III" Constitution. Pennhurst School Halderman, 465 89, 98, 104 900, 906-907, 79 67 (1984) (Pennhurst ). Accordingly, discussed more fully Part V ago bringing citizen's even refer State. 10, 505, 842 (1890). Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 662-663, 94 1347, 1355-1356, 39 662 (1974); Employees Missouri Dept. Health Welfare, 411 279, 280, 1614, 1615, 36 251 (1973). For same reason, States, not, strictly speaking, equity." 497, 589, 1057 (1921) (Eleventh personam citizens); 2, 503, 592, 1063 rem vessel owned employed exclusively governmental purposes). Florida Treasure Salvors, Inc., 458 670, 683, n. 17, 102 3304, 3313-3314, 73 (1982) (plurality J.); id., 706-710, S.Ct., 3325-3327 (WHITE, part). infra, 2953-2954.3 16 certain exceptions reach If Clark Barnard, 108 436, 447, 878, 883, 27 (1883). But, "[c]onstructive consent commonly associated surrender rights," U.S., 673, 1360, find "only where stated 'by most text [will] leave room reasonable construction.' " Ibid. (quoting Murray Wilson Distilling Co., 213 151, 171, 29 458, 464, 742 (1909)). "[a] State's interest encompasses merely sued, but sued." II, 99, 907 (emphasis original). waive waiving courts. Id., 9, 907, 9. 17 "necessarily [is] enforcement Fourteenth Amendment." Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 456, 96 2666, 2671, 49 614 (1976). Consequently, without 'to enforce, appropriate legislation' substantive Const., Amdt. 14, 5). As noted case, we itself." 243, 3148. unwilling infer intended negate given vital system." supra, 907. reluctant expanded jurisdiction. American Fire Casualty Co. Finn, 341 6, 71 534, 541-542, 95 702 (1951) ("The jurisdiction carefully guarded expansion interpretation"). these principles note before us. Both regard fairly included questions granted.4 Indeed, oral counsel petitioner conceded "is . ." Tr. Oral Arg. 18. therefore occasion consider her brief merits Tort Claims Tex.Rev.Civ.Stat.Ann., 6252-19 (Vernon, 1970, amended 1973 Tex.Gen.Laws, 50) constitutes immunity. Brief 29-34. accept holdings not. 19 Petitioner's remaining abrogated assume, deciding intimating view question, subject confined County Oneida Indian Nation 470 226, 252, 1245, 1261, 169 (1985).5 fails event It true "[a]ny who suffer personal injury employment," added). But Because system, 246, 3149. Quern 440 332, 342, 99 1139, 1145-1146, 59 358 (1979). 285, 1618. In Scanlon 504 Rehabilitation 1973, 794, remedies "any recipient assistance," contain reasons, hold today authorize court.6 IV 20 state-owned could sue FELA. 186, 1210. reasoned evidenced applicable "every common carrier engaging commerce 35 65, 51. mistakenly Safety Appliance Labor 151 seq., made those States.7 "should presume say, provision contrary, [Congress] exclude particular group [railroad] workers benefits conferred Act." 190, 1211. above, sets them apart defendants. 3149-3150; 907; 1360-1361; 342-343, 1145-1146; supra. states: 21 "It should easily inferred Congress, legislating article Constitution, effect automatic compulsory rights Only clearly problem declared undertakes regulable conduct deemed thereby disallow invocation defense." 198-199, 1216 dissenting). 22 overrule Parden, they doubt discussion longer good law. Welfare emphasized "Parden premised conclusion [the State] 281, 1616, refused reasoning "infer grown vast proportions applications, desired silently deprive enjoyed Constitution." consistently override 3147; 342-345, 1145-1147. Railway, overruled.8 23 Today, fourth time little than two years, see Papasan Allain, 478 265, 293, 106 2932, 2948, 92 209 (1986) (BRENNAN, part); Green Mansour, 474 64, 74, 423, 429, 88 371 (1985) dissenting); 247, 3150 dissenting), four Members urge (1890), followed it. rule depends large adherence "a natural evolution nature institutions." Lile, Some Views Rule Stare Decisis, Va.L.Rev. 95, (1916). follows decisis demands special justification." Arizona Rumsey, 467 203, 212, 2305, 2311, 81 164 rigidly observed cases, "[w]e unmindful, involved, decisis, whose circumspect observance wisdom institution transcending moment alone bear difficult confront us." 355 215, 78 221, 238, 199 (1957) (Frankfurter, Despite time-honored principles, dissenters—on basis evidence—would flatly number major Court, cast others. 27, infra. Once again, dissenters placed issue system.9 24 foundation well described MARSHALL separate (1973): 25 widely understood prior ratification III, concerning 'Controversies State' provide mechanism defendants Chisholm, however, meaning controlling. 26 served effectively reverse generally, restore understanding, see, e.g., Louisiana. despite narrowness spirit guided interpreting 'it become repeated entire embrace entertain private parties given: subjects Amendment; citizens, exemplification.' 291-292, 1621-1622 (MARSHALL, result) (citations omitted). dissent rejects Court's reading record, there ample support rationale, provided many important decisions. 28 BRENNAN argued length close examination records" demonstrates "[t]here simply immunity." 259, 3156 (dissenting opinion). today, he repeats expands Post, 504-516. concedes, must, three prominent supporters Constitution—Madison, Hamilton, Marshall—took position court.10 statements past. 660-662, 1354-1355, 9; Monaco Mississippi, 292 313, 323-325, 54 745, 748-749, 1282 (1934); 12-14, 506-507. presented, 504-509; 268, 276-278, 3164-3165, themselves suggest limitation.11 delicate enforcing judgments raised Federalists anti-Federalists, arisen presenting cases. true, 506-507, opinions differed during debates. Among disagreed Madison, Marshall, Edmund Randolph James Wilson, whom ratification.12 Opponents ratification, Patrick Henry, George Mason, Richard Henry Lee, feared make strong rhetoric dissent, fall far short demonstrating consensus representations Marshall did essential ratification.13 example, York Convention appended resolution declaration understanding Power party, criminal Prosecutions, Suit Person Documentary History America 194 (1894).14 At then, materials that—to debated—the ambiguous. 30 No doubts nullified Chisholm Georgia, Dall. 419, (1793). assumpsit, South Carolina executor estate, recover money owed estate Georgia. over Iredell, reaction swift hostile. passed Houses majorities 1794. Within years ratified States.15 31 observing itself based solely fact argues question.16 states "[t]he (Emphasis added.) Federal-question equity"; thus argument.17 rejection, margin, offered Senator Gallatin treaties.18 32 unanimous alleging pay bonds violated Contract Clause. substantially unanimously Bradley's observed: "Suppose proposing proviso nothing therein contained prevent laws States: imagine adopted States? supposition almost absurdity face." 15, 507. 34 Harlan agreed eight extends, 21, 509. Contrary 519, enunciated among stable jurisprudence. wrong asserting lacks 519. "inherent other," 294, 1622 result), plays system. contours determined structure requirements rationale set out completely per Chief Hughes, (1934). First, Constitutional plan." 329, 750. Absent provision, 'the permanence Union might endangered.' Oklahoma Texas, 258 574, 581, 42 406, 409, 66 771 (1922)). Second, forum "essential peace Union." 328, Third, states, "[c]ontroversies involve international relation prerogative." 331, 751. Fourth, "an absolute bar" states. 750-751. Finally, "[p]rotected [of immunity], consent, citizens. questioned basic framework Mississippi. unsupported 'pernicious' assertedly protects consequences illegal prevents 'tak[ing] steps deems proper achieve national goals within authority.' 591 302, 3178 dissenting)). Of course, dissent's assertion construing some question-begging. 475, limit enforce 2671. statement "protect[s] conduct" erroneously suggests aggrieved left remedy harmful actions. Relief often obtained through officials rather itself, injunctive prospective remedies. (1974). Municipalities local government agencies 1983. Monell City Social Services, 436 658, 98 2018, 611 (1978). addition, relief state-law claims.19 liable circumstances denies 'required system,' 520 Atascadero, 3177), inception. B 37 fallback position, 497-504. This recognition affirms immunity," 906; 38 (1921), citizens.20 Today asserts "did attempt justify obliteration" traditional equity. 500. distinction, holding: "That jurisprudence having bearing upon construction exemplification." 40 adhered re '[t]o permit creditor seize sell [a government-owned vessel] collect debt him degree destroy itself.' 511, 593 Klein Orleans, (9 Otto) 149, 150, 430 (1879)).21 More recently, (1982), seeking paid treasury. 698-699, 3321-3322 (opinion sure, STEVENS' "we decide exercising property adjudicate claimants sovereigns voluntarily assert claim res." 697, 3321. personam, Welch's Act.22 decided 1921, concedes 'did pass applicability admiralty' 1921. 499 (citation dicta Peters, Cranch 115, (1809), Governor Georgia Madrazo, Pet. 110, (1828), "holding" Bright, Fed.Cas. 1232 (No. 14,647) (CC Pa.1809), admiralty. early considerable position. Peters heirs David Rittenhouse, treasurer Pennsylvania Revolutionary War. While Rittenhouse treasurer, seized British sold prize war. deposited proceeds account, turned death. Marshall's facts instituted state, executrixes Rittenhouse," "had neither possession of, nor right to, property." Cranch, 139-141. Amendment: 43 [eleventh] provides, state. defendant individual; remains duty all different necessarily defendant." 139. 44 dissenters' position.23 reliance misplaced. Spanish subject, obtain cargo slaves sale. "where chief magistrate name, style office, entirely official character." 123-124. Madrazo admiralty, avoided question. Instead, applied.24 then proceeding again action, mere possession." Madrazzo, 627, 632, 808 (1833). strained concerned" maritime nature. Currie, Supreme 1789-1888, 105, (1985). 47 admiralty.25 errs suggesting amenability "settled," 499.26 decline precedents squarely reject C 48 yet write clean slate. exception century. urges ignore unbroken series reaffirming principle. precedents, reconsidered.27 stated, ----, importance 2311. arguments justifying drastic repudiation decisions.28 VI reasons 50 ordered. 51 concurring. 52 stops addressing affords seamen ante, 476, 6. already Petty Tennessee-Missouri Bridge Comm'n, 359 275, 282-283, 785, 790, 804 (1959). disturbed construction, I understand it, purport so. judgment. reversing wrongly decided. introduced amicus, addressed briefly respondents' brief, touched lightly feasibility, if wrong, correcting distorting what done tacit complex enough am presentation focused matters. 55 unnecessary event. Regardless think assumed nearly During time, statutes—including incorporates—on individuals. interpret (through incorporation FELA) carriers water, agree Whether virtue universal "understanding" underlay STEVENS join, dissenting. 57 overrules Ala. continues aggressively expand adhere my belief "rests flawed premises, misguided history, untenable vision needs purports protect." 248, 3150, view, Welch independent nation. diversity present (FELA). dissent. 58 "judicial power" assigned "Cases Law Equity," "to Cases Jurisdiction."1 instant "plaintiff admiralty." 404 (SD Tex.1982). "Judicial equity."2 Therefore, citizen, reveals Jurisdiction." leading relationship century written Bushrod Washington. Washington acknowledged issues, believed himself bound Furthermore, usually possesses matter (i.e., ship) proceeding, avoids "delicate" confronting decree commanding relinquish property. 1236. controversial day. tenure opportunity dictum (1828),3 Bright. 292-293, 3172-3173 60 "Although until later, bench meantime Bright correctly reasoned." J. Orth, (1987). Joseph Story wrote 1833 that: 61 "[T]he is, equity.' equity; spoken contradistinction both." Story, Commentaries 560-561 (1833) original), citing supra; 62 Nineteenth-century commentators regarded matter. Peter du Ponceau, lectures Academy Philadelphia 1834 stated: restriction [by Amendment] jurisdiction." P. View 37-38 (1834). Fletcher, Historical Interpretation Narrow Construction Affirmative Grant Jurisdiction Rather Prohibition Against Jurisdiction, Stan.L.Rev. 1033, 1080-1081 (1983).4 63 disapproved least part, (1921). involved libel capacity connection vessels York. individual consent. 64 obliteration referred passing 497-498, 589-590.5 Merely plainly inadequate justification. moreover, primarily justified 2965-2968. extension ordinary equity casual technical viewpoint Admiralty highly significant, perhaps important, subject-matter area end 18th "Maritime jugular vein Thirteen body throughout nation every shade Convention." Frankfurter Landis, Business (1927). Alexander Hamilton Federalist 80: bigoted idolizers shewn disposition deny judiciary cognizance causes." 80, 538 (J. Cooke ed. 1961). Outside ignored legal instance interpretation. See, Romero Interna- tional Operating 354, 368, 468, 478, 368 (1959); Atkins Disintegrating Wall. 272, 302-303, 841 (1874); Waring Clarke, How. 441, 459-460, 226 (1847); Insurance Canter, 545-546, 242 (1828). Cf. Parsons Bedford, 433, 446-447, 732 (1830) (neither Seventh jury provision). prepared distinguished contrast, seeks statute, satisfy use "unmistakable language" explicitly statute. specifically indicated seaman"6 "[j]urisdiction employer resides principal office located." Whatever place resting mentioned Amendment.7 involving legislation, implied common-law inapplicable.8 narrow consistent precedent Congress,9 further erosion difficult, impossible, rationalize. patently improper further.10 68 affected Controversies State" "between Subjects" uses identical "against congruence above-referenced III. aliens. 69 480-484, assessment record debates surrounding conventions confirms 263-280, 3158-3167 relies remarks Virginia Ante, 404-484. context. Convention, Virginia's liability debts arose law, into Elliott, Debates Several Conventions Adoption (2d Ed. 1861) (hereafter Elliot's Debates) (Madison) ("[Federal] controversies much objected reason .") added); 81, 548 1961) (Hamilton) ("It suggested assignment public securities another, enable prosecute amount 555 (Marshall) ("With respect disputes decried unusual vehemence 70 delegates objecting initiated State; concerned majority spoke Pendleton, Randolph, believe protection 264-280, 3159-3167. attending evidently persuaded cited endorsed denied 660-661. felt shows States.11 There evidence Madison12 Hamilton13 failed know Justice, Cohens Virginia, Wheat. 264, 257 (1821), interpreted review appeal involving, parties, error challenged conviction appeal. [federal-question cases] whatever, condition party." 378. whether, face III's implied. He concluded: 72 "From [in cases], party. When situation other; constitution; subordination governments great purpose constitution confided department; liberty insert grant, party? Will control words? cognizable Courts Union, whoever case" 382-383.14 revealed After concluding alternative 74 "But mistaken, affect sense 11th amendment, State.' governed originally framed, seen, origin, extended parties." 412 75 Osborn Bank 738, 857-858, 204 (1824): 76 construed, aliens." 77 chooses speculation few otherwise. available views Madison best ambiguous, nn. 13, runs counter demonstrates, type suit—an parallel ("to Subjects") ("any State") supports view. Since restrict controversy recognizes immediate impetus adoption 484. cause Carolina. Louisiana Ignoring fact, cases.15 misunderstood materials.16 particular, heavily sources: Chisholm. 12, 13-14, 18-19, 506, 508-509. sources indicates serve today. 80 quotation Hans. Compare 12-13, 480—481, 10. used proof barred, 14-15, passage, discussing jurisdiction, jurisdiction: securities. following considerations prove foundation." 82 ensuing discussion, began 83 sovereignty amenable practice mankind; exemption, attributes sovereignty, union." 548-549. surrendered retained state-created action. "Unless, therefore, plan convention, remain danger intimated ideal." 549. 85 "A recurrence us color pretend would, plan, divested privilege paying way, constraint flows obligations faith. contracts binding conscience sovereign, pretensions compulsive force. They confer will. owe? How recoveries enforced? evident, waging war contracting state; ascribe courts, implication, destruction pre-existing governments, consequence, altogether forced unwarrantable." 86 careful passage case. Iredell thereafter "vehement speed," displacing ruling. Larson Domestic Corp., 337 682, 708, 1457, 1470, 1628 (1949). generally embodying broadly construe 508-509; Stan.L.Rev., 1077; Field, Other Sovereign Immunity Doctrines: One, 126 Pa.L.Rev. 515, 541 Nevertheless, Iredell's conception notion delegated Government entering agreeing 89 "Every powers surrendered. actually Each reserved." Dall., 435. 90 defined Executive Branch. 91 Government, either Legislative executive nature, particularly concern Treaties Powers, (if wholly) individuals, require aid authority. old articles confederation, constitution." peculiar kind" hybrid His centered delineated portion indeed commensurate Legislature government, concerns treaties." category matters wholly sovereignty. describing cases.17 power] goes further." implicated. dealing realm instead providing neutral issues up "Where concerned, relate objects wherein sovereignties blended mass supremacy, Authority controversy, give effect. So legally sure subordinate limited. farther execution requires." 435-436. authority" exercise [Judiciary Act], competent act passed." 436-437. "If new (as case), consequently govern pre-existent [state] laws, force till superceded others, incumbent enquire, previous like maintained shown applicable. could, maintainable here: think, stands present, maintainable. 437. rested sovereign-immunity traditionally key underlying 506. Yet result Amendment.18 repeat exhaustive presented buttresses 247-303, 3150-3178. barred. overrules, (1964). concludes language. 100 normal rules frustrates Congress. past decades. FELA, person suffering commerce," "action States." 51, 56. legislative history meant scope "all carriers. 187, 5, 1210, 5. 101 comprehensively reviewed regulating railroads interstate commerce, similar terminology. railroads. 188-189, 1210-1211, quoting California, 297 175, 185, 421, 424, 567 (1936) (" 'No convincing advanced why persons receive whenever privately-owned carrier, brings statute' "); California Taylor, 353 553, 564, 1037, 1043, chose phrase coverage all-embracing it"). confirmed determination (1959): "In [Taylor ] legislation governing employer-employee relationships said, 'When wished employees, provided.' 282, 790 repeatedly bare defendants." 2961. contexts, sphere commerce. plenary area. Gibbons Ogden, 196-197, (1824), 103 "If, always understood, congress, specified objects, nations, vested congress absolutely single restrictions regulate workers, make: "While said rooted sovereignty,' 'If dangers work difficulty recovering injuries existing rules, created 189-190, Until approach test 26, (POWELL, 452, 2669, "[B]y business withdraw commerce." 326 572, 582, 310, 314, (1946). incorporated Sound produce progeny experience wisdom. Tested standard, proved unsound. unstable, textual anchor, foundation, rationale.19 forget irrationality costs. led development avoid unfair results.20 Young, 123, 714 (1908) (Amendment plaintiff names official, defendant); (1974) prospective, retrospective, relief). doctrine, kingship, intrudes impermissibly law-making power. 109 pernicious. era legislatures anachronistic remnant feudal scope. enhance people accordance protections, Framers, current ideal protecting conduct. And obstructs sound operation limiting ability take authority." 3177-3178 opinion) 110 By clinging erases decision. minimum confine domain. fundamentally, begin fresh weight mistaken precedent. Section part: "Any may, election, trial jury, modifying extending railway employees apply. makes retroactive monetary 244-245, 3149, officials. An are: "1. employee/seaman "2. forth R.R. (1964) still viable." Cert. i (parallel citations starts proposition authorizes Clause Necessary Proper Robertson, Federalism 142-145 (1970). ratifying runs, enactments "partakes jurisdictional bar," 678, 1363, (1974), additional intend afford observed, issue. 200, 1217, dissenting, Douglas, Harlan, Stewart, JJ.). (1957), National Railroad Adjustment Board reserved 568, 16, 1046, award case"). (1936), entitled 380 128, 140-141, 808, 814-815, 717 (1965). 280-282, 789-790, (1959), compact permitted bistate corporation sued. discussed, validity engaged dissent: 480-488, took response suggestions "father Constitution," first Convention: "[The Court's] reason. call Clause] have, wish me [Clause] this—to heard courts; condescend it." Elliot, 1861). day, John "I hope gentleman called Is present? Are legislature sued? rational suppose dragged claims residing contend warranted words. defendant, plaintiff." 555-556. Later year, Federalist: sense, Union. [T]here pp. 548-549 382-383, 412, (1824). possibility changed after ratified, espoused broader secure imply disregarded. event, places too Osborn. Cohens, proceedings Cohenses. convicted crimes appealing. error, continuation suit," Wheat., 409. 19, 508-509, 327, 749-750, (1934), quoted today's Cohens. Osborn, 509, dictum. Committee Detail added member sided Attorney General historian Judiciary summon liabilities deep apprehension active debate Constitution; existence disclaimed eminent advocates largely owing successful dissispation fear finally adopted." C. Warren, (1923). Power, right, departments thereof, People respective Governments same." 191 (1894). embodied Tenth reserves people, Thus President Adams notify three-fourths January 1798. Richardson, Messages Papers Presidents 260 (1899). "generally 513. observes, 515—516, rests conferring Chisholm's. recent Court: "So much, intimate strongly admit, circumstances, recovery money." 449 explain remarks, except observe similarity State-Citizen Diversity Clauses 286-287, 3170 predicated citizenship. reads accomplish less suggests. recognized, speed vigor Nation's interests misapprehended explaining Party." analogous extreme conclusion. effort Gallatin's enumerated heads 287, 40, 3170, 40. speculates, shred evidence, Senate proposed giving impression barring treaty. observes 1789. implies unimportant time. unpopular resulted convention. concession hardly practical significance. remedy: file workers' compensation 292, 1969 Tex.Gen.Laws 874, 50, 77. Respondents 34-35. Pitney Justices Holmes Brandeis. White, died days announced, presumably concurred reasoning. insists holding. 500—501, 473, 3, recently thought JUSTICE Burger JUSTICES BLACKMAN, explains holds: "[A]n action—otherwise State—cannot seizure Otherwise, circumvented; attaching belonged rem." 699, 3322. WHITE's broadly, "sovereign process res hands officers." 709, 3327. exist advances favor "admiralty 502. observation—as immunity—applies perceived occurred Peters. possibly "supported" approval endorsement. officer militia defended home soldiers attempting Washington's characterizes 498, charge jury. statements, lacked hear Bright's conviction. 1789, 73, 80. "if Court," Pet., 124, surprising 20, original, exclusive, 76-77. 394-402, 257, exclusive. Story's treatise (1833)). "[i]t doubted eleventh] jurisdiction," 560, above. expansive De Lovio Boit, 418 3,776) Mass.1815); Note, Am.L.Rev. 911, 916 (1903) late bucket water corn cob floating once accords applying belonging seized. E.g., Schooner Exchange McFaddon, 116, 287 (1812); L'Invincible, (1816); Santissima Trinidad, 283, 454 (1822). 709-710, 3327, J.). slate ago. exceptionally Courts. challenges arise rejected, addition Twelve principles. (1986); (1985); (1979); (1973); Ford Motor Treasury Indiana, 323 459, 347, (1945); Fiske, 290 18, 145 (1933); (1921); Duhne Jersey, 311, 154, 280 (1920); Fitts McGhee, 172 516, 269, 535 Four determining Great Northern Life Read, 322 47, 873, 1121 (1944); (1909); Smith Reeves, 178 919, 1140 (1900). Repudiation reconsideration variety treatment Rehabilitative Services Nursing Home Assn., 450 147, 1032, 132 (1981); (1978); Hopkins Clemson Agricultural College, 221 636, 654, 890 (1911). Apart rhetoric, arguments: (i) "historical record," (ii) "pernicious[ness]" noted, fragments supportive immaterial removed events Not calls justifies ignoring "pernicious" protect "unlawful conduct," above bundle possible 488, 19. Cases, Equity, Laws made, Authority;—to affecting Ambassadors, Ministers Consuls;—to Jurisdiction;—to Party;—to States; State;—between States;—between claiming Lands Grants Subjects." None casts Pa.1809). 139-141, 53, viewpoint. cites, taken state." focusing identity plaintiff. 487. Read context, rendered indicated, acceptance accorded status equal 19th 136, (1812) territory exclusive absolute. susceptible imposed itself"). 493, countries court's intervention. 337, 455 (1822) (Story, J.) civil Spain colonies, avowed asylum hospitality intercourse"). cites "property revenue government] machinery exempt sale city. 593. J.), four-Justice plurality issued artifacts [was] ruling warrant, dissented ground 705, 706, 3325 "status 'seaman' issue." 1268, 1269 depart determine regarding exercises contemplates limitations 452-453, 2669-2670, (1976), fortiori, seems odd impose especially interpretation words there. Departing inevitably frustrate enacted, prevailing seaman" discusses, 517-519, hesitant incorporate concept grants Government. obviously rejecting commerce: "We perceive canon presumptively named it] carried otherwise purpose, capable obstructed Language objectives thwarted resort resolve doubts, artificial." 186-187, 425. employees: 'Any may' etc." disturb 495 concurring). Johnson, 481 681, 692, 2063, 2070, 648 (1987) (SCALIA, dissenting) (arguing Feres (Feres 340 135, 153, 152 (1950)) order "limit unfairness bred"). Similar proposals submitted North Carolina, Rhode Island urged amendments depriving alien. Jacobs, (1972). Madison's clear. Clyde Jacobs concluded, "[w]hether possess foreigners conjecture; direct all. 12. Professor noted: "Madison nationalists armed supremacy ramifications. power—the maintenance domestic harmony—would necessitate faith vis-a-vis engaged. If, qualified avenue open defeat futile or, negligible." 13-14. Hamilton's writings Federalist, esteemed union, privileges immunities states.' just ought means executing follow, inviolable equality union entitled, preside opposed evasion subterfuge, committed tribunal, attachments, likely impartial feel bias inauspicious founded." 537-538 (first emphasis original; second explained detail III: Counsel [State] laid down proposition, suable "This controverted. requisite portion, instrument made. instrument, parted judging justice pretensions, entrusted tribunal impartiality confides." 380. significant measure Supremacy surrender. 380-381. "no 382-383. Federation Industrial Organizations Amicus Curiae 11-23. historian, Hans: Bradley rewrote half dozen before, [New Hampshire 76, 176, 656 (1883),] Waite Bradley, accepted correct stood. "How suddenly attain unhedged certitude about Amendment? discoveries decade 1880s. rehashed familiar quotations Hamilton. With declaimed: 'In manner received thing, prefer views. .' manhandled. Attributing confusion prevails "Nothing change past—except pressing result. existed, invent was, rewrite history." 74-75 (Orth). drew Iredell: class warrant distinction. place, arriving constitution, treaties Here ordinarily afterwards them; requires ordained ambassadors, ministers, consuls All enter policy, rights, compromise policy reference Martin Hunter's Lessee, 304, 334-335, (1816). Amar, Neo-Federalist Separating Two Tiers B.U.L.Rev. 205 committing diversity, Nonetheless, conceded, "[t]his hold, reserve one, according sentiments extra-judicial." 450. advocate Three factors continued misinterpreted Michelin Tire Corp. Wages, 423 276, 297-298, 535, 546, (1976) (overruling Low Austin, 29, 517 (1872), Import-Export misread precedent). produced erratic irrational results. sovereigns, 486—487, inexplicable (by sought) instances countries, retrospective sought). recital crazy-quilt pattern doctrine. creates inconsistencies distinguishable (1830). ignores Orth concludes: "By twentieth exhibited baffling complexity. 'The eleventh replete anomalies, internal inconsistencies, senseless distinctions.' Marked branches arcane specialty lawyers judges."

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