Document: 540 U.S. 712 LOCKE, GOVERNOR OF WASHINGTON, ET AL.v.DAVEY. No. 02-1315. Supreme Court of United States. Argued December 2, 2003. Decided February 25, 2004. Washington State established its Promise Scholarship Program to assist academically gifted students with postsecondary education expenses. In accordance the Constitution, may not use such a scholarship pursue devotional theology degree. Respondent Davey was awarded and chose attend Northwest College, private, church-affiliated institution that is eligible under program. When he enrolled, double major in pastoral ministries business management/administration. It undisputed degree devotional. After learning could his degree, brought this action 42 U. S. C. § 1983 for an injunction damages, arguing denial violated, inter alia, First Amendment's Free Exercise Establishment Clauses. The District rejected Davey's constitutional claims granted summary judgment. Ninth Circuit reversed, concluding that, because had singled out religion unfavorable treatment, exclusion majors be narrowly tailored achieve compelling state interest Church Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. v. Hialeah, 508 520. Finding State's antiestablishment concerns were compelling, court declared program unconstitutional. Held: Washington's pursuit from otherwise-inclusive aid does violate Clause. This case involves "play joints" between Walz Tax Comm'n City New York, 397 664, 669. That is, it permitted by former but required latter. rejects contention Lukumi, supra, presumptively unconstitutional facially neutral respect religion. To accept claim would extend line cases well beyond only their facts reasoning. Here, disfavor (if can called that) far milder kind than where ordinance criminalized ritualistic animal sacrifices Santeria imposes neither criminal nor civil sanctions on any type religious service or rite. denies ministers right participate community political affairs, see McDaniel Paty, 435 618, requires choose beliefs receiving government benefit, see, e. g., Hobbie Unemployment Appeals Fla., 480 136. has merely chosen fund distinct category instruction. Even though differently worded Constitution draws more stringent Federal seeks further scarcely novel. fact, there are few areas which interests come into play. Since country's founding, have been popular uprisings against procuring taxpayer funds support church leaders, one hallmarks "established" Most States sought avoid establishment around time founding placed constitutions formal prohibitions using tax ministry. early saw no problem explicitly excluding ministry dollars reinforces conclusion instruction different ilk other professions. Moreover, entirety goes long way toward including benefits, since permits pervasively schools so as they accredited, still take courses program's current guidelines. Nothing Constitution's history text operation suggests animus Given historic substantial at issue, cannot concluded funding vocational alone inherently constitutionally suspect. Without presumption unconstitutionality, must fail. degrees substantial, places relatively minor burden Scholars. If room exists two Religion Clauses, here. Pp. 718-725. 299 F. 3d 748, reversed. REHNQUIST, J., delivered opinion Court, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. SCALIA, filed dissenting opinion, THOMAS, joined, post, p. 726. 734. 1 CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT. 2 Narda Pierce, Solicitor General Washington, argued cause petitioners. With her briefs Christine O. Gregoire, Attorney General, William Berggren Collins, Senior Assistant Michael J. Shinn, General. 3 Jay Alan Sekulow respondent. him brief Stuart Roth, Colby M. May, James Henderson, Sr., Walter Weber, David A. Cortman, E. Sears, Benjamin W. Bull. 4 Olson amicus curiae urging affirmance. Acosta, Deputy Clement, Gregory G. Garre, K. Flynn, Eric Treene.* 5 CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST Court. 6 pursuing theology. We hold otherwise inclusive Clause Amendment. 7 Legislature found "[s]tudents who work hard . successfully complete high school academic marks financial ability college obtain insufficient." Wash. Rev. Code Ann. 28B.119.005 (West Supp. 2004). 1999, these high-achieving students, legislature created Program, provides scholarship, renewable year, Students spend education-related expense, board. scholarships funded through general fund, amount varies each year depending annual appropriation, evenly prorated among students. Admin. 250-80-050(2) (2003). worth $1,125 1999-2000 $1,542 2000-2001. 8 student meet academic, income, enrollment requirements. A graduate public private either top 15% graduating class, attain first attempt cumulative score 1,200 better Scholastic Assessment Test I 27 American College Test. §§ 250-80-020(12)(a) (d). student's family income less 135% median. 250-80-020(12)(e). Finally, enroll "at least half Washington," while scholarship. 250-80-020(12)(f) (g); also 28B.10.814 1997) ("No shall theology"). Private institutions, those religiously affiliated, qualify "`[e]ligible institution[s]'" if accredited nationally recognized accrediting body. See 250-80-020(13). "degree theology" defined statute, but, both parties concede, statute simply codifies prohibition providing "devotional nature designed induce faith." Brief Petitioners 6; 8; Const., Art. I, 11. 9 applies meets requirements notified App. 95. Once enrolls institution, certify enrolled rather State, determines whether Id., 126, 131. requirements, sent distribution pay tuition educational 250-80-060. 10 Respondent, Joshua Davey, Scholarship, College. Christian affiliated Assemblies God denomination, Program. "planned many years Bible prepare [himself] training lifetime ministry, specifically pastor." 40. end, when decided 43. There dispute therefore excluded 11 At beginning met Northwest's director aid. He learned meeting informed receive appropriated use, writing Northwest.1 refused sign form did funds. 12 then Stat. 1979, 1983, various officials (hereinafter State) Western enjoin refusing award solely damages. based decision Exercise, Establishment, Speech Clauses Amendment, incorporated Fourteenth Equal Protection denied request preliminary injunction, cross-motions judgment favor State. 13 divided panel 748 (2002). treatment thus our 520 (1993), interest. 3d, 757-758. own 760. certiorari, 538 1031 (2003), now reverse. 14 Amendment provide: "Congress make law respecting religion, prohibiting free exercise thereof." These Clause, frequently tension. Norwood Harrison, 413 455, 469 (1973) (citing Tilton Richardson, 403 672, 677 (1971)). Yet we said "there play them. 669 (1970). words, some actions 15 described above. Under precedent, link broken independent choice recipients. Zelman Simmons-Harris, 536 639, 652 (2002); Zobrest Catalina Foothills School Dist., 509 1, 13-14 (1993); Witters Dept. Servs. Blind, 474 481, 487 (1986); Mueller Allen, 463 388, 399-400 (1983). As such, doubt could, consistent permit Scholars theology, Witters, 489, contend otherwise. question before us, however, pursuant constitution,2 authoritatively interpreted even indirectly will 112 2d 363, 369-370, 771 P. 1119, 1122 (1989) (en banc); cf. 102 624, 629, 689 53, 56 (1984) banc) ("It role future ministers"), rev'd, 481 (1986), deny them without violating 16 urges us answer negative. contends rule enunciated religion.3 reject presumptive however; do city Hialeah made crime engage certain kinds slaughter. suppress S., 535. present case, kind. affairs community. 618 (1978). And require benefit.4 ibid.; 136 (1987); Thomas Review Bd. Indiana Employment Security Div., 450 707 (1981); Sherbert Verner, 374 398 (1963). 17 SCALIA argues, generally available benefits part "baseline burdens measured." Post, 726 (dissenting opinion). Because all secular professions, 726-727. But professions fungible. Training someone lead congregation essentially endeavor. Indeed, majoring akin calling pursuit. Calvary Presbyterian Board Regents, 72 912, 919, 436 189, 193 (1967) (holding expended "that resembles worship manifests devotion principles thought, feeling, belief, conduct"); 40 (Davey stating "religious [were] reason [him] seek degree"). subject embody views — exercise, opposed find counterpart callings deal product views, evidence hostility 18 drawn think play.5 country, religion.6 R. Butts, Tradition Education 15-17, 19-20, 26-37 (1950); Lambert, Founding Fathers Place America 188 (2003) ("In defending liberty overreaching clergy, Americans regions Radical Whig ideas best framed argument state-supported clergy undermined conscience should opposed"); Madison, Memorial Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments, reprinted Everson Ed. Ewing, 330 65, 68 (1947) (appendix dissent Rutledge, J.) (noting dangers liberties supporting funds). 19 Ga. IV, (1789), Constitutions, Colonial Charters, Other Organic Laws 789 (F. Thorpe ed. 1909) (reprinted 1993) ("All persons being obliged contribute profession own"); Pa. II (1776), id., 3082 ("[N]o man ought compelled worship, erect place maintain contrary to, against, consent"); N. XVIII 2597 (similar); Del. (1792), 568 Ky. XII, 1274 Vt. Ch. (1793), 3762 Tenn. XI, (1796), 3422 Ohio VIII, (1802), 2910 (similar). plain provisions prohibited clergy. nothing indicate, contends, 728, n. applied equally supported stake de minimis. ilk.7 20 Far evincing manifest believe benefits.8 schools, accredited. advertises, "concept distinctly evangelical sense." 168. prepares "through instruction, modeling, [and] [its] classes, guide, truth," matter profession. 169. Program's guidelines, courses.9 notes four courses, "Exploring Bible," "Principles Spiritual Development," "Evangelism Life," "Christian Doctrine," 11, 5; 151, additional majors. 150-151. 21 short, Article anything religion.10 conclude 22 need venture difficult area order uphold currently operated Washington. 23 24 Reversed. Notes: * Briefs ofamici reversal Vermont et al. H. Sorrell, Vermont, Timothy B. Tomasi, Chief Anabelle Rodríguez, Secretary Justice Puerto Rico, Attorneys respective jurisdictions follows: Reilly Massachusetts, Jeremiah (Jay) Nixon Missouri, Hardy Myers Oregon, Lawrence Long South Dakota, Clyde Lemons, Jr., Northern Mariana Islands; Civil Liberties Union Aaron Caplan, Steven Shapiro, Julie Sternberg, Ayesha Khan, Elliot Mincberg, Susan L. Sommer; Jewish Congress Marc D. Stern, Hollyn Hollman, Jeffrey Sinensky, Kara Stein, Strom; Anti-Defamation League Lash, Freeman, Sheinberg, Martin Karlinsky, Erwin Chemerinsky, Frederick Lawrence; National Association Robert Chanin, Andrew Laurence Gold; Boards Remes Underwood. amici affirmance Alabama Pryor, Alabama, Nathan Forrester, Margaret Fleming, General; Florida Charles Crist, Florida, Christopher Kise, Raquel Rodriguez, Daniel Woodring; Texas Greg Abbott, Texas, Barry McBee, Edward Burbach, Rafael Cruz, Joseph Hughes Cassandra Robertson, Solicitors Mike Moore, Mississippi, Mark Shurtleff, Utah; Southern Baptist Colleges Schools Carter Phillips, Gene Schaerr, Nicholas Miller; Becket Fund Liberty Kevin Hasson, Roman Storzer, Anthony Picarello, Jr.; Black Alliance Educational Options Samuel Estreicher Brett Schuman; Council & Universities Baylor Berg; Fairness Foundation Kenneth Starr, Gasaway, Ashley Parrish; Institute Richard Komer, Clint Bolick, Mellor; Landmark Legal Hutchison O'Neill; Counsel Mathew Staver Rena Lindevaldsen; Commission Law Public Affairs Lewin, Dennis Rapps, Zwiebel, Stone, Diament; Hodge; Solidarity Center Justice, C., Kelly III; Teresa Becker Thompson. Common Good Defense John Stepanovich Keith Fournier; Conference Catholic Bishops Chopko Hunter Moon; Alley Green. forms. 86, 89 relevant provision states: "Religious Freedom. Absolute freedom matters sentiment, belief guaranteed every individual, molested disturbed person property account religion; hereby secured construed excuse acts licentiousness justify practices inconsistent peace safety state. No money establishment." relying onRosenberger Rector Visitors Univ. Va., 515 819 (1995), viewpoint restriction speech. forum purpose low- middle-income families cost education, "`encourage diversity speakers.'" Library Assn., Inc., 539 194, 206 (plurality opinion) (quoting Rosenberger, 834). Our dealing speech forums inapplicable. supra; Cornelius NAACP Fund, 473 788, 805 (1985). argues protects discrimination basis hold, infra, 725, violation apply rational-basis scrutiny equal protection claims. Johnson Robison, 415 361, 375, (1974); (1978) (reviewing Clause). For reasons stated herein, passes review. studying "philosophical preference" protect individual potentially limit, seepost, 730; issue here commands. Perhaps most famous example backlash defeat "A Bill Establishing Provision Teachers Religion" Virginia Legislature. bill assess teachers," inEverson 72, 74 (supplemental appendix J.); 853 (THOMAS, concurring) (purpose "clergy performance function teaching religion"), after outcry. stead, "Virginia Liberty," originally written Jefferson, enacted. frequent place, whatsoever." Freedom, Papers Jefferson 546 (J. Boyd 1950). Theamici born bigotry contains so-called "Blaine Amendment," linked anti-Catholicism. Amicus Curiae 23, Amici Curiae; Mitchell Helms, 530 793, 828 (2000) dispute, Blaine Tr. Oral Arg. Reply 6-7. enabling Act 1889, authorized drafting constitution include "for maintenance systems sectarian control." Feb. 22, ch. 180, 4, ¶ Fourth, 25 676. included IX, maintained wholly forever control influence"), case. Neither credible connection provision. Accordingly, us. solicitous ensuring hostile seeState ex rel. Gallwey Grimm, 146 445, 470, 48 274, 286 (2002) ("[I]t never intention manner indicating religion" (internal quotation omitted)), respects, greater Covenant Seattle Seattle, 120 203, 223-229, 840 174, 186-188 (1992) (rejecting standard Human Resources Ore. Smith, 494 872 (1990), protective rule); Munns Martin, 131 192, 201, 930 318, 322 (1997) imposed controls demolition structures inapplicable Church's plan demolish old building build new center facilities intimately associated church's mission). overall approach indicates "single[s] out" anyone special calling," 731. open prohibits nontheology taking courses. point, guidelines exclude 250-80-020(12)(g) Although sometimes characterized "disapprov[ing] particular general,"Church 520, 532 (1993) cases), noted impermissibly done whom THOMAS joins, dissenting. majority held "[a] burdening practice undergo rigorous scrutiny," 546, "the minimum requirement neutrality discriminate face," 533. concurrence Justices "[w]hen discriminates automatically fail strict scrutiny." 579 (Blackmun, joined concurring judgment). third endorsed "noncontroversial principle" "formal neutrality" "necessary conditio[n] free-exercise constitutionality." 563 (SOUTER, opinions irreconcilable today's decision, sustains articulated principle governs 50 ago (1947): "New Jersey hamper citizens Consequently, Catholics, Lutherans, Mohammedans, Baptists, Jews, Methodists, Non-believers, Presbyterians, members faith, lack it, welfare legislation." (emphasis deleted). makes benefit available, becomes baseline measured; withholds individuals violates tax. precisely what whose receipt conditioned performance, attendance school. carved solitary course study exclusion: 28B.119.010(8) 2004); field fashion. asking others entitled. Cf. Lyng Indian Cemetery Protective 485 439, 453 (1988). direct study, Scholar enjoys. Court's reference historical "popular leaders," ante, 722, quite misplaced. involved inclusion programs like here, laws example, Madison's directed provided: "[F]or teachers [a] sum payable within Commonwealth, assessed ." (1784), Everson, 72. similar Cobb, Rise 131, 169, 270, 295, 304, 386 (1902). One concede Framers' specifically, says about all. seriously contend, Framers barred roads church.1 constraints programs, finds none "`play joints.'" Ante, 719. term "principle" loosely, much legal refusal faced competing directives. anomalous commands abut. municipality hiring contractors blacks them; little bit plead haled court. demand neutrality, enforce them, easy ones. valid principle, surely close call complying other. just theology." close, evident fact unanimous. formally gerrymandered devoid plausible might raise specters evenhanded already joints needs. number ways unusually sensitive concern taxpayers redeemable universities (where sets curriculum), select study. Either option replace happens subsidize it. abandon altogether. seems dear price conscience, broadly offended incidental, indirect effect. What asserted here? protecting pocketbooks citizens; given tiny fraction degrees, citizen's preventing mistaken appearance endorsement; declines penalize selecting major, "[n]o reasonable observer likely draw inference itself endorsing belief." 493 (O'CONNOR, Nor defended means assuring calling. throughout life fisc sales taxes personal purchases, home, on; turns winds up net winner loser tax-and-spend scheme. No, defers fear conceivable violation, budget constraints, avoidance endorsement, substantive these. pure philosophical preference: taxpayers' candidates sort "freedom conscience" logical limit singling virtually context. deems (the mention review) self-evidently, not.2 serious defend instead identifies features thought render offensive. lightness burden. offers authority approving facial material consequences severe. understand test reviewing happen individual's not. 872, 885 (1990). Discrimination face something else. indignity one's profound concrete harm produced dismissed insubstantial. proof "substantial" forms discrimination, Brown Education, 347 483, 493-495 (1954); Craig Boren, 429 190 (1976), threshold quantum-of-harm requirement, satisfied all, guarantees exacts penalty almost $3,000 forfeiture free. response "Promise 721, 4. attractive recipient preferred institution. "benefit" confers. distinguishes precedents swapping actually entitled (a study) another, valuable one). On reasoning, discriminatory redeemed redefining guarantees. thinks offensive motivated explain why legislature's motive matters, should. deprives citizen trial jury post facto law, pause investigate trying accomplish evil prohibits. sufficient rights infringed. "[It not] consists entirely purehearted, enacts singles burdens." 559 (SCALIA, approached way. racial segregation unconstitutional, ask adopted regime, "animus" blacks, well-meaning misguided races off apart. note effect minorities. Brown, 493-495. Similarly, statutes women vestigial well-intentioned view women's appropriate social role. See, Virginia, 518 515, 549-551 (1996); Adkins Children's Hospital 261 525, 552-553 (1923). look legislative intent smoke subtle instances supplement core guarantee replacement Hunt Cromartie, 526 541, (1999). rely analogies, methodology very (1978), considered Tennessee disqualified participation convention. upon clause 1796 sitting legislature. 621, faithful separation state, accepted claimed benevolent bona fide. 628. Nonetheless, invalidated restriction. 629.3 original benign, same true maintaining today. forgiven suspecting invidious forces work. Let doubt: minority. country identify themselves professing policy poses obstacle practitioners tepid, civic version faith. Those statutory affects strong dedicate lives narrower set. delve too modern culture perceive trendy disdain deep conviction. era quick disfavored groups, Romer Evans, 517 620, 635 (1996), indifference speaks, exceptional. Today's holding limited logic readily extendible, plenty directions go. next? Will priests nuns prescription-drug ground forbids medicating expense? seem fanciful, recall France proposed banning attire invoking secularism benign embraces Sciolino, Chirac Backs Keep Signs Faith Out School, Y. Times, Dec. 18, 2003, A17, col. 1. public's invoked motives shade ultimately repression. Having justification equipped fend future. respectfully dissent. agree faith," 8, assume purposes deciding understanding, join SCALIA'S opinion. write separately my view, necessarily implicate contested Scholarships "a (defining student,'" part, "[i]s theology"); define "theology." usual definition "theology" studies. "Theology" "[t]he truth" "rational inquiry questions." Heritage Dictionary 1794 (4th 2000). Webster's Collegiate 1223 (1991) ("the practice, experience" relation world"). definitions perspective one. Assuming application correct. party contests validity precedents, Equally misplaced reliance founding-era ministryAnte, 723. against: measures discussed earlier text, support. 727. proposition meant clergymen citizens. choosing interpret fashion, needlessly gives meaning jurisprudence, stopping-point short absurd. has, know, ever employees salary conduct ministries, disability unemployment benefits. instance appeal "plain text," 723, adds whatever text" Constitution. comparable "training fungible."Ante, 721. be, proves rational treating differently. requires, 726, common sense. basis, impose action. different, differences enough inflicts major. Plainly unpersuasive distributing counterparts discriminatory. premise level abstraction thing establish. All committing actual violations. Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 271 (1981). inferred discriminating context pleases, connection, however attenuated, concerns. separate disagreement over issues 636, (Brennan, judgment) statute's deeming irrelevant).

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