Document: 418 U.S. 208 94 S.Ct. 2925. 41 L.Ed.2d 706 James R. SCHLESINGER, Secretary of Defense, et al., Petitioners,v.RESERVISTS COMMITTEE TO STOP THE WAR al. No. 72—1188. Argued Jan. 14, 1974. Decided June 25, Syllabus Respondents—an association present and former members the Armed Forces Reserve opposing United States involvement in Vietnam, five who were citizens taxpayers—brought a class action on behalf, inter alia, all taxpayers against petitioners, Defense three Service Secretaries, challenging membership Members Congress as violating Incompatibility Clause Art. I, § 6, cl. 2, Constitution, which provides that 'no Person holding any Office under States, shall be Member either House during his Continuance Office.' The District Court held respondents had standing to sue but not taxpayers, merits granted partial relief. Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. Respondents no citizens, since claimed nonobservance they assert deprives faithful discharge legislative duties reservist implicates only generalized interest constitutional governance is thus merely an abstract injury rather than concrete essential satisfy III's case or controversy' requirement. Pp. 216—227. 2. also lacked failed establish required 'logical nexus between (taxpayer) status asserted claim sought adjudicated.' Flast v. Cohen, 392 83, 102, 88 1942, 1953, 20 947. 227—228. Reversed remanded. Solicitor Gen. Robert H. Bork, for petitioners. William A. Dobrovir, Washington, D.C., respondents. Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 We certiorari, sub nom. Richardson Reservists Committee Stop War, 411 947, 93 1927, 36 408 (1973), review judgment affirming, without opinion, Court's summary declaring 'Article Section 2 Constitution renders member ineligible hold commission continuance office.' War Laird, 323 F.Supp. 833, 843 (DC1971). do have taxpayers. therefore reversed. * Article Federal provides: 3 'No Senator Representative shall, Time he was elected, appointed civil Authority been created, Emoluments whereof encreased such time; 4 thereby makes appointment certain offices through limitation Ineligibility Clause, prohibits from other latter limitation, Clause. 5 Respondents, named thereof,1 challenged Congress2 being violation They commenced seeking (1) order nature mandamus directed petitioners requiring them strike rolls Reserves presently thereon, subsequently became Congress, seek reclaim pay said received while serving (2) permanent injunction preventing placing (3) declaration office prohibited by incompatible with Congress. 6 above relief behalf four classes persons. individual represent interests persons opposed military Vietnam purporting use lawful means, including communication persuasion end involvement. alone officers enlisted (4) States. these alleged adversely affected various ways. 7 As relevant here, respondents' complaint suffered because position Executive Branch subject possibility undue influence Branch,3 concept independence implicit I Constitution. place upon possible inconsistent obligations might cause violate their duty faithfully perform reservists thus, according complaint, 8 'deprives may deprive plaintiffs are entitled.' Pet. Cert. 46. 9 Petitioners filed motion dismiss ground bring action, state could granted. based contention sets forth qualification Membership U.S.Const., 5, 1, Branch. power judge rest exclusively courts, Powell McCormack, 395 486, 550, 89 1944, 1979, 23 491 (1969). 10 concluded it first determine whether and, citation authority, stated: 11 'In recent years Supreme has greatly expanded this Circuit now almost completely abandoned.' F.Supp., at 839. 12 court then represent, '(o)nly citizens' gave case. Id., 840. denied reservists, opponents our involvement, acknowledged there very few instances assertion 'merely undifferentiated citizens,' ibid., would sufficient, persuaded find sufficient here several considerations found dispute before abandonment limitations Appeals, whose decisions binding 13 In response petitioners' judge, characterized issue presented nonjusticiable 'political question,' resolution text committed Baker Carr, 369 186, 217, 82 691, 710, 663 (1962). failure remove positions justiciable. 14 Having resolved issues political question favor respondents, merit 'Office States' within meaning On basis foregoing, its final ineligible, office, 'commission'; parts mandamus.4 843. 15 affirmed unpublished 'on memorandum Court.' added 'also view (respondents) requisite judicially enforceable rationale of' 947 (1968), supra. questions review: standing, 'either federal taxpayers,' claim, presents question' judicial review, 'membership' constitutes II 16 supra, U.S., 95, S.Ct., 1949, noted justiciability, expresses jurisdictional imposed courts 'case requirement III, embodies both doctrines part rely. Each poses distinct separate 512, 1959; 198, 699, so absence presence suffices prevent judiciary invoked complaining party. more sensitive complex task determining particular causes did turn intially, although invariably,5 sue. light we suit. Our conclusion erred correct denying eliminates need consider 17 considered each capacities brought suit; rejected four, citizens. Appeals' affirmance, solely Court, alter ruling standing. petition certiorari addressed citizen seeks add taxpayers.6 contend two proceed, i.e., American reservists. proceed consideration B Citizen Standing 18 To representative plaintiff must class, is, possess same suffer shared represents. Indiana Employment Security Division Burney, 409 540, 883, 35 62 (1973); Bailey Patterson, 31, 549, 512 granting representatives necessarily—and correctly—characterized 'undifferentiated' 19 share advanced one abstract. Judicial compel act conformity language 212, reveals nothing matter speculation And nonobservance, alone, affect governance, injury.7 previously declined treat 'generalized grievances' about conduct Government taxpayer 106, 1955. complaint. analysis begins where stated gist inquiry party 21 'Alleged personal stake outcome controversy assure adverseness sharpens presentation largely depends illumination difficult questions.' 204, 703. 22 Although dealing further 'personal stake' noting meant complainant adjudicate 'proper party' 'in adversary context form historically viewed capable resolution.' 100, 101, 1953. circumstances Flast, taxpayer-complainant established relationship Taxing Spending give assurance 'that will framed necessary specificity, contested litigation pursued vigor challenge made traditionally thought 1956. 24 While III 'blend requirements policy considerations,' id., 97, 1951, subsequently, regulatory agency whatever else embodied, essence 'injury fact.' Association Data Processing Organizations, Inc. Camp, 397 150, 152, 90 827, 829, 25 184 (1970). categories cognizable broadened, 154, 830, recently stressed broadening 'is different abandoning himself injury.' Sierra Club Morton, 405 727, 738, 92 1361, 1368, 31 636 (1972). And, defining injury, flatly: 'Abstract enough.' O'Shea Littleton, 414 488, 494, 669, 675, 38 674 (1974). Ex parte Le vitt, 302 633, 58 L.Ed. 493 (1937), occasion faced involved here. There show why Justices should disqualified serve Associate Justice. confirmation August 1937 unlawful Act March 1937, permitting retire full salary after period specified service, increased emoluments statute enacted Senator. President Senate 26 . time ..' held: 27 'The papers disclose petitioner bar That insufficient. It principle entitle private invoke validity executive sustained, immediately danger sustaining, direct result general common public.' 634, 1.8 28 today recognized continued vitality vitt,9 Richardson, 166, 176—179, 2940, 2946—2948, 678; see Laird Tatum, 13, 2318, 2325, 33 154 reaffirm vitt predicated kind public, necessarily share. Concrete actual threatened, indispensable element serves cast resolution. adds dimension specificity caused unlawful. This what consistently enables authoritatively complete perspective adverse consequences flowing specific set facts undergirding grievance. Such authoritative presentations integral process, rely parties' treatment claims develop rules law.10 Only factual court, aided parties argue context, making decisions. 29 Moreover, when asked undertake adjudication, most important delicate tis responsibilities, function insuring adjudication does take unnecessarily. particularly applicable interpretation provision never construed courts. First, removes realm real exercise protect 30 desire obtain (sweeping relief) cannot accepted substitute compliance rule requires remedy asks.' McCabe Atchison, T. & S.F.R. Co., 235 151, 164, 69, 72, 59 169 (1914). Second, discrete occurred threatened insures framing broader precise court's applied. especially produces confrontation coordinate branches Government; would, practical effect, conflict branches. 32 permit require create potential abuse distort role Judiciary Legislature open arguable charge providing 'government injunction.' powers adequate great burdens placed if employed prudently, recognition strengths well hazards go government.' 131, 1968 (Harlan, J., dissenting).11 34 apart accord appeals question, until review,12 consistent holdings thing hear individual's government person competitive (1970), enjoyment natural resources impaired SCRAP, 412 687, 2405, 2415, 37 254 another allow call resolve questions.13 setting focused injury. latter, allegations some can complainant. Finally, support militate error grant resulting hypothetical, designed prohibit injury.14 fails, however, compensate alleges like deal allege 'a controversy.' assures 'the specificity' called 1955, premature evaluation complaint.15 next longstanding reluctance entertain grievances government,' 1956, distinguished characterizing 'precise (and) self-operative.' Even accepting characterization rested, preceding characterization, way preliminary appraisal found. event, less self-operative' relied fact sharply conflicted views supported able briefs arguments. 841. doubt sincerity objectives depth commitment them. But motivation possession be, injured unconstitutional conduct.' Doremus Board Education, 342 429, 435, 72 394, 397, 96 475 (1952). 39 theme inadequacy suggested Club, supra: 40 'But mere 'interest problem,' how qualified organization evaluating problem, itself render 'adversely affected' 'aggrieved' APA.' 739, 1368. Respondents' indeed into noted, needed adversaries focus efforts decision making. quality retrospective properly arrived merits. A logical corollary approach manifestly untenable appropriate 42 Furthermore, reached protected primary purpose insure Government, similarly resolved. All course, equally branch Government. fashion, every all. interest, too constitute resolution.16 proposition provisions simply ultimate beneficiaries those boundaries. 43 Closely linked idea observation irrelevant 'then can.' system leaves many crucial processes. assumption sue, reason See 179, 2947. C Taxpayer 44 Consideration raises can, limited circumstances, supply There, that, ensure stake, adjudicated,' determined demonstrated nexus' because, 'congressional taxing spending clause .' enactment exceed(ed) congressional power' 8. 102—103, 1954. 45 Here, applying holding, test. agree 8, maintain status.17 46 Accordingly, reversed, remanded proceedings opinion. 47 ordered. 48 49 STEWART, concurring. 50 lack unlike 678 refused affirmative Nor tax payer power. 51 wholly 254. wanting many, none sort direct, palpable III. Like Frothingham Mellon, 262 447, 597, 67 1078, air described prior cases make clear suffice confer join 52 DOUGLAS, dissenting. 53 'standing' created instrument ends: protects quo reducing challenges institutions. restricts administrative action. Its application bureaucracy Pentagon immune protests sometimes used left resolve, viz., so-called question. times ridding dockets involving controversial issue. 54 leading decided 1923, constitutionality grants agreed plan reduce maternal infant mortality. said: 55 administration statute, likely produce additional taxation vast number extent liability indefinite constantly changing, essentially public concern. If champion litigate cause, same, respect appropriation outlay money, questioned. bare suggestion result, attendant inconveniences, goes sustain reached, suit character maintained. much significance precedent sustaining right suits attention, although, formation government, examination acts disclose, large statutes appropriating expenditure moneys nonfederal purposes carried effect.' 487—488, 601. 56 admixture law results 'some presenting justiciable issue.' When lacking, intrusion trespass department 'To decide controversy, assume authority over governmental coequal department, plainly possess.' 488—489, 57 1968—45 Frothingham—that revisited sued enjoin funds financial aid religious schools. reasons. incidental statute. exceeded 102—104, 1953—1955. Therefore, stake,' went Establishment First Amendment 'operates conferred 8.' 104, Power lay collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts Excises, Debts provide Defence Welfare says Office(1) oust Rather keeping Services commissions Reservists. 60 Various Acts appropriations services e.g., Pub.L. 92—145, 85 Stat. 414; 92—545, 86 1154. 61 often referred At 1783 convention proposed allowed Branch,2 others opposed; Mason apparently represented majority insisted 'ineligibility keep out corruption, excluding office-hunters.'3 Amendment, 'was bulwark abuses operates upon' expenditures. Hamilton Federalist 76, p. 476 (H. Lodge ed. 1888), purpose: avoid body.' 63 citizenship gives financing activities 64 tend overlook basic legal reality people, bureaucracy, sovereign. security happiness people. Executives, lawmakers, inferior sense carry execute regime. 65 Preamble states 'We People' ordained 66 Declaration Independence 'certain unalienable Rights,' 'Governments instituted among Men, deriving just consent governed' 'That whenever Form becomes destructive ends, Right People abolish it.' involve restructuring society procedure mostly conventions. enforced written. unseat Any decree issued run off list. 68 obvious. injuries ability average advocacy effective touches vest Pentagon. oppose expansion national affairs met powerful lobby—the Officers strong allies. 69 Whether true know. So far concerned immaterial. immaterial establishment religion benign given What Framers up fences barring affiliations, kinds appropriations. Their evil made. 70 guarantees written seems Who better enforced? protect. regime fiefdom principality competing Legislative center framework, framework want intact. my view, rightful shown, outcome,' 703, 663. monetary one. Carr vote, badge citizenship. operative force freeing entanglement 71 493, opposed. moved declare Black unconstitutional. He Black, Senator, voted increase 'emoluments' barred taking file original stating: 'It 73 'emolument' retirement compensation judges spelled c. 21, 24. emolument accrue appointee designated years. turned even though served benefits Retirement Act. Hence showed wisdom deciding 'direct His remote, speculative, contingent. deficiency. asserts present, ongoing Pentagon's policies 74 687—688, 2415—2416, 'standing people deny injured, mean injurious widespread actions questioned nobody.' 75 affirm below. 76 BRENNAN, 77 heard invasion legally established, good-faith allegation him fact." Barlow Collins, 159, 167—168, 832, 838, 192 (1970) (concurring dissenting). inquiry, cases, connection zone regulated guarantee 153, complainant,' relevant, but, all, (1962), reviewability, see, Abbott Laboratories Gardner, 387 136, 140, 87 1507, 1510, 681 (1967). 78 fact. My Brother STEWART demonstrates Richardson's budget Central Intelligence Agency published. publish deprived individual, inseparable citizenry, 9, 7. construed, violations know fisc, voter receive information whom vote. These ultimately fail merits, 79 Similarly, respondent fact' glance seeming extraordinarily prove, neither impossible nor, record, bad faith. takes contrary regard requirements, move position. Barlow, 175, 842. More stringent demand Flast's 'nexus' requirement, rubric 'standing.' Since injury-in-fact allegation, reach members' 80 Unlike distinguishes supports Speaking generally 81 fundamental aspect focuses get wishes adjudicated. 'gist standing' 'alleged words, case, proper request justiciable.' 99—100, 1952. two-pronged test fashioned principles determinant alleging Free Exercise Clauses Amendment. 170—172, 839—841. extension confusion evidenced differing expressed opinions cases. Outside sphere, POWELL soundly observes, reliable indicator standing.' 180, 2948, 678. if, 176, 843, recognize: 83 '(A)lleged fact, pose another, governed own considerations. isolate independently two, possible, risk obscuring uninformed, poorly reasoned injustice. 84 ambiguity injustice minimized cleanly severing, inquiries reviewability determination MARSHALL, DOUGLAS accept majority's abstract' "generalized Government.' Ante, 217. According 'organized using means individually persuade steps involvement.' asserted, infringed doubtless widely shared, certainly 'general (1937). Not desired terminate end. nevertheless ahd attempt Congressmen war Vietnam. right, arguments virtue Reserves. states, interest. sad commentary priorities litigant contends interfered aesthetic appreciation effectiveness expression away hearing claim. respectfully dissent. Committee, located California, unincorporated Reserves, organized residents filed, individuals active Ready status; fifth, co-chairman, unspecified. 130 91st divided Ready, Standby, Retired components. By 92d 119 November 1973, 93d seen reduced 107, commissioned officers, App. occupy n. Dept. Directive 1200.7 v, (July 1970); CFR 125.4(c)(2). Of (including man) active, inactive, Standby Reserve; Reserve, pay. Two Army National Guard, U.S.C. 269(b), governors control appointments regarding extend category reservist. 233 838 (DC 1971). appear reference pressure conceivably applied President's consent, §§ 672 pleasure. 593. not, cross-petition denial injunctive disposition address ourselves scope fixed sequence contentions facet justiciability exhibited Second Circuit, bypassed question: '(T)he come determines reasons raised bench non-justiciable.' effect DaCosta 471 F.2d 1146, 1152 (2 Cir. 1973). 731, 1364, (1972); 1952, (1968). latter's may, raise ambiguous affirmance taxpayer-standing revealed sought, removal manifested influenced cited nearly contained similar quoted text. 601, 1078 (1923) (insufficient suffers generally'); Fairchild Hughes, 258 126, 129 130, 274, 275, 499 (1922) ('Plaintiff possessed citizen, administered wasted. Obviously institute suit'); Tyler Judges Registration, 179 405, 406, 206, 207, 252 (1900) ('even proceeding prosecutes benefit (the plaintiff) aver peculiar himself, body fellow citizens'). Giles Harris, 189 475, 639, 642, 909 (1903) (Holmes, J.) ('The whole registration scheme Alabama constitution fraud asks us void. course bill air'). Cf. Newman Frizzell, 238 537, 881, 884, 1446 (1915). approval principal (1974), 208, 705, sharp contrast processes initiate define objectives, virtually unlimited hearings reports, record plenary solutions. inherently intended responsive asserting themselves. apprehension 'mere problem." See, Earlier comparable 552, 885. Lamm Volpe, 449 1202, 1204 (CA10 1971); Pietsch 434 861, 863 (CA2 1970) (Clark, J.); Troutman Shriver, 417 171, 174 (CA5 1969) (citing supra); Velvel Nixon, 415 236, 239 1969); Pauling McElroy, 107 U.S.App.D.C. 372, 374, 278 252, (1960); cf. Sharrow Brown, 447 94, 97 aside appears ruled otherwise Atlee 339 1347 (ED Pa.1972), 1357 reliance inapposite. pointed fraction vote 689 2417. voting rights, early Liverpool, N.Y. Phila. S.S. Co. Comm'rs Emigration, 113 33, 352, 899 (1885), adjudge rights controversies.' 39, 355. analogy conflict-of-interest which, said, avoiding potential, actual, impropriety. creating right. 675; Linda R.S. Richard D., 410 614, 617 3, 1148, 536 prerequisite still him. found—as here—in conducted perceived, having harm, proscribed conflicts Looking 'to substantive issues' 'appropriate necessary' relation express 'whether step challenged. evaluate saw Satisfaction 'zone interest' seemingly reasons: first, Administrative Procedure injury; second, showing addition Until shown earlier, 211, requested follow invalidity paying lawfully authorizing H.R.Rep.No.885, 64th Cong., 1st Sess. (1916), Guard 'office' sense. distinguishable. Hartwell, Wall. 385, 830. M. Farand, Records Convention 1787 pp. 283—290 (1911). 491.

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