Document: 455 U.S. 745 102 S.Ct. 1388 71 L.Ed.2d 599 John SANTOSKY II and Annie Santosky, Petitionersv.Bernhardt S. KRAMER, Commissioner, Ulster County Department of Social Services, et al. No. 80-5889. Argued Nov. 10, 1981. Decided March 24, 1982. Syllabus Under New York law, the State may terminate, over parental objection, rights parents in their natural child upon a finding that is "permanently neglected." The Family Court Act (§ 622) requires only "fair preponderance evidence" support finding. Neglect proceedings were brought to terminate petitioners' as three children. Rejecting challenge constitutionality § 622's standard, weighed evidence under standard found permanent neglect. After subsequent dispositional hearing, ruled best interests children required termination custody. Appellate Division Supreme affirmed, Appeals dismissed appeal court. Held: 1. Process constitutionally due parent at state-initiated proceeding. Pp. 752-757. (a) fundamental liberty interest care, custody, management protected by Fourteenth Amendment, does not evaporate simply because they have been model or lost temporary custody State. A proceeding interferes with interest. When moves destroy weakened familial bonds, it must provide fundamentally fair procedures. 752-754. (b) nature process turns on balancing factors: private affected proceedings; risk error created State's chosen procedure; countervailing governmental supporting use challenged procedure. Mathews v. Eldridge, 424 319, 335, 96 893, 903, 47 18. In any given proceeding, minimum proof tolerated requirement reflects weight public affected, but also societal judgment about how should be distributed between litigants. question federal law which this resolve. Retrospective case-by-case review cannot preserve fairness when class governed defective evidentiary standard. 754-757. 2. prescribed 622 violates Due Clause Amendment. 758-768. balance weighs heavily against such proceedings, since commanding threatened loss permanent. Once affirmed appeal, decision terminating final irrevocable. 758-761. fairly allocate an erroneous factfinding parents. bear many indicia criminal trial, numerous factors combine magnify factfinding. Coupled these create significant prospect rights. allocates nearly equally failure leaves uneasy status quo, termination, unnecessarily destroys family, reflect properly relative severity two outcomes. 761-766. (c) more strict than consistent state stake proceedings—a parens patriae preserving promoting child's welfare fiscal administrative reducing cost burden proceedings. 766-768. 3. Before sever completely irrevocably child, its allegations least clear convincing evidence. "clear adequately conveys factfinder level subjective certainty his factual conclusions necessary satisfy process. Determination precise equal greater matter left legislatures courts. 768-770. 75 App.Div.2d 910, 427 N.Y.S.2d vacated remanded. Martin Guggenheim, City, for petitioners. Stephen Scavuzzo, Washington, D. C., respondents, pro hac vice, special leave Court. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion 1 N.Y.Soc.Serv.Law §§ 384-b.4.(d), 384-b.7.(a) (McKinney Supp.1981-1982) (Soc.Serv.Law). 1975 (Fam.Ct.Act) Thus, York, extinguish parent-child relationship no award money damages ordinary civil action. 2 Today we hold Amendment demands this. 3 * A. 4 authorizes officials remove temporarily from her home if appears "neglected," within meaning Art. 10 Act. See 1012(f), 1021-1029. removed, age 18 customarily placed "in care authorized agency," Soc.Serv.Law 384-b.7.(a), usually institution foster home. At point, "the state's first obligation help family services . reunite it. ." 384-b.1.(a)(iii). But convinced "positive, nurturing relationships longer exist," 384-b.1.(b), initiate "permanent neglect" free adoption. 5 bifurcates neglect into "fact-finding" "dispositional" hearings. Fam.Ct.Act 622, 623. stage, prove has neglected," defined 614.1.(a)-(d) 384-b.7.(a). 622. judge then determines hearing what placement would serve interests. 623, 631. 6 establish, among other things, year after entered agency "made diligent efforts encourage strengthen relationship." 614.1.(c), 611. further during same period, failed "substantially continuously repeatedly maintain contact plan future although physically financially able do so." 614.1(d). Should "a evidence," declared permanently neglected. That declaration empowers parents' child. 631(c), 634. Termination denies physical well ever visit, communicate with, regain child.1 7 York's statute provides certain procedural protections.2 permits establish less most States require. Thirty-five States, District Columbia, Virgin Islands currently specify higher proof, evidence."3 analogous are aware solely "evidence beyond reasonable doubt." Indian Child Welfare 1978, Pub.L. 95-608, 102(f), 92 Stat. 3072, 25 U.S.C. 1912(f) (1976 ed., Supp.IV). here whether sufficient. B 8 Petitioners Santosky Tina III. November 1973, incidents reflecting neglect, respondent Kramer, Commissioner initiated 1022 removed About months later, he III him On day was taken, gave birth third Jed. Jed days old, transferred ground immediate removal avoid imminent danger life health. 9 October petitioned children.4 specified Judge rejected constitutional challenge, App. 29-30, statutory While acknowledging Santoskys had maintained children, those visits "at superficial devoid real emotional content." Id., 21. deciding made " 'diligent efforts' relationship," id., 30, concluded incapable, even assistance, planning 33-37. later held Santoskys' custody.5 39. appealed, again contesting proof.6 Court, Division, holding application preponderance-of-the-evidence "proper constitutional." re AA, 320 (1980). court reasoned, "recognizes seeks possessed Ibid. 11 "upon substantial directly involved." 55. We granted certiorari consider claim. 450 993, 101 1694, 68 192 (1981). 12 Last Term Lassiter 452 18, 2153, 640 (1981), 5-4 vote, Amendment's require appointment counsel indigent every case casts light, however, central questions here—whether and, so, due. 13 Lassiter, "not disputed intervention [a parent] [the] accomplished procedures meeting requisites Clause." 37, S.Ct., 2165 (first dissenting opinion); see 24-32, 2158-2162 (opinion Court); 59-60, 2176 (STEVENS, J., dissenting). Little Streater, 1, 13, 2202, 2209, 627 absence dispute reflected Court's historical recognition freedom personal choice matters Quilloin Walcott, 434 246, 255, 98 549, 554, 54 511 (1978); Smith Organization Foster Families, 431 816, 845, 97 2094, 2110, 53 14 (1977); Moore East Cleveland, 494, 499, 1932, 1935, 52 531 (1977) (plurality Cleveland Board Education LaFleur, 414 632, 639-640, 94 791, 796, 39 (1974); Stanley Illinois, 405 645, 651-652, 1208, 1212-1213, 31 551 (1972); Prince Massachusetts, 321 158, 166, 64 438, 442, 88 L.Ed. 645 (1944); Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 534-535, 45 571, 573-574, 69 1070 (1925); Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 399, 43 625, 626, 67 1042 (1923). Even blood strained, retain vital preventing irretrievable destruction life. If anything, persons faced forced dissolution critical need protections resisting ongoing affairs. procedures.7 15 dissenters agreed "three distinct factors" (1976): proceeding; U.S., 27-31, 2159-2162; 37-48, 2164-2171 opinion). respective opinions presumption disfavoring appointed one liberty, compare 31-32, 2161-2162, 41, n. 8, 2167, opinion), concern irrelevant here. Unlike right-to-counsel rulings, decisions concerning burdens turned favoring particular To contrary, engaged straight-forward consideration identified Eldridge determine satisfies 16 Addington Texas, 441 418, 99 1804, 60 323 (1979), unanimous vote participating Justices, declared: "The function concept embodied realm factfinding, 'instruct degree confidence our society thinks correctness type adjudication.' 423, 1808, quoting Winship, 397 358, 370, 90 1068, 1075, 368 (1970) (Harlan, concurring). teaches that, 17 while parties interested intensely damages, indicates both society's "minimal outcome," conclusion litigants "share roughly fashion." 1808. brings action deny defendant life, magnitude historically without explicit standards designed exclude possible likelihood judgment." stringency "beyond doubt" bespeaks "weight gravity" 427, 1810, avoiding convictions, together "society impos[e] almost entire itself." 424, 372, 1076 "minimum requirements [of process] being diminished fact own deem adequate determining preconditions adverse official action." Vitek Jones, 445 480, 491, 100 1254, 1262, 63 552 Logan Zimmerman Brush Co., 422, 432, 1148, 1155-1156, 265 (1982). Moreover, "is kind traditionally judiciary resolve." Woodby INS, 385 276, 284, 87 483, 487, 362 (1966).8 "In cases involving individual rights, civil, '[t]he [at minimum] value places liberty.' 425, 1809, Tippett Maryland, 436 F.2d 1153, 1166 (CA4 1971) concurring part part), cert. dism'd sub nom. Murel Baltimore City Criminal 407 355, 2091, 32 791 (1972). 19 This mandated intermediate evidence"—when "particularly important" "more mere money." Notwithstanding 'civil labels good intentions,' 365-366, 1073-1074, deemed variety government-initiated threaten involved deprivation liberty" "stigma." 426, 1809. See, e. g., supra (civil commitment); 285, 487 (deportation); Chaunt United 364 350, 353, 81 147, 149, 120 (1960) (denaturalization); Schneiderman 118, 125, 159, 1333, 1336, 1353, 1796 (1943) (denaturalization). 20 sure, some basis, rather through rules general application. 2161-2162 (natural parent's right court-appointed determined trial court, subject appellate review). never approved determination proper Standards like "procedural rules[,] shaped inherent truth-finding applied thegenerality cases, rare exceptions." 344, 907 (emphasis added). Since know outset will allocated, necessarily calibrated advance. standard.9 21 commanding; using substantial; comparatively slight. Evaluation compels inconsistent 22 extent afforded recipient influenced 'condemned suffer grievous loss.' Goldberg Kelly, 254, 262-263, 1011, 1017-18, 287 (1970), Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee McGrath, 341 123, 168, 624, 646, 95 817 (1951) (Frankfurter, Whether sufficiently grave warrant average permanency loss. 23 "plain multiple citation" "desire 'the companionship, children' far precious property right. 27, 2160, 651, 1212. initiates merely infringe interest, end "If prevails, worked unique deprivation. accuracy justice is, therefore, one." 2160. 24 juvenile delinquency, ; commitment, supra; deportation,Woodby denaturalization, supra, losses serious imposition elevated proof. Yet delinquency adjudications, deportation, degree, all reversible actions. supra. Few forms so severe irreversible. factor—the deeply outcome contest. stage focus emphatically them. 26 purport—and intended—to normal raising Nor purport better Rather, pits alleges fault. 614.1.(d). decided did—"made efforts," 614.1.(c)—and did do—"maintain child." marshals array resources disprove case. Victory makes possible; entails judicial unfit raise children.10 27 presume adversaries. established unfitness initial assume diverge. 631 (judge shall make order "solely basis child," thus selecting alternatives). until proves unfitness, share relationship.11 coincide favor error-reducing 28 However be, cf. 845-847, 2110-2111, implicated authorized, pit initiating 1055(d); 384-6.3(b), 392.7.(c). Alternatively, can where already issue focusing For parents, prolong delay uncertainty freed cut off forever Given disparity consequence, difficulty strongly favors heightened protections. 29 next resulting preponderance" reduce risk. 903. phase adversary contest relevant parties. 30 bears trial. Cf. 42-44, 2167-2169 Meltzer C. Buck LeCraw & 402 954, 959, 91 1624, 1626, 124 (1971) (Black, denial certiorari). opinion, post, 777-779 (describing employed proceeding). Services charges They served summons. 614, 616, 617. conducted pursuant formal 624. State, represented counsel. 249, 262. series facts intensity agency's infrequency insubstantiality contacts inability unwillingness formulate future. attorneys submit documentary evidence, call witnesses who cross-examination. Based proved elements Permanent employ imprecise substantive determinations unusually open values judge. 835, 36, 2105, 36. appraising quality complex encounters agency, possesses unusual discretion underweigh probative might parent.12 Because often poor, uneducated, members minority groups, 833-835, vulnerable judgments based cultural bias. ability assemble inevitably dwarfs mount defense. No predetermined limits restrict sums spend prosecuting attorney expert issues contested enjoys full access records family. experts relations, psychology, medicine bolster Furthermore, primary professional caseworkers whom empowered investigate situation testify Indeed, power shape events form termination.13 33 adversaries' litigation matched striking asymmetry options. defendants, "double jeopardy" defense repeated efforts. initially fails win here, 4, always try once gathering attained fitness similar means forestall 34 termination. very terms quantity, quality, misdirect marginal 371, 3, 1076, stake, social occasional sizable. 35 Raising practical symbolic consequences. long considered used prosecutions prime instrument convictions resting error." 363, 1072. An alleviate decide [deprive] few isolated instances conduct [or] idiosyncratic behavior." 1810. "Increasing way impress importance thereby perhaps chances inappropriate" terminations ordered. 36 "balanced App.Div.2d, N.Y.S.2d, 320. By saying, suggested child.14 view mistaken. 37 court's theory assumes invariably benefit child.15 noted above accepting assumption, agree distributes Use neutral likely consequence preservation quo.16 unnecessary outcomes severity. C 38 Two "Since urgent shares accurate just decision" As patriae, goal 384-b.1.(a)(i) (statement legislative findings intent). there still reason believe positive, exist, preservation, severance, bonds.17 384-b.1.(a)(ii). "[T]he registers gain towards goals separates fit parents." 652, 1213. 40 alternative arises "when 384-b.1.(a)(iv) promote 41 hearings, see, e.g., 347, 908, counsel, stricter imposing observed, adopted apparent effect speed, form, 42 factfinders. judges familiar 384-b.3.(g), 384-b.4.(c), 384-b.4.(e) (requiring proof" before terminated reasons mental illness retardation abuse). moment N.Y. Veh. Traf. Law 227.1 Supp.1981) traffic infractions evidence") Rosenthal Hartnett, N.Y.2d 269, 367 247, 326 N.E.2d 811 (1975); Ross Food Specialties, Inc., 336, 341, 189 857, 859, 160 618, 620 (1959) "clear, positive contract reformation). unduly factfinders suspend driver's license. IV logical Amendment.18 : asked injury significantly harm state." near-equal allocation intolerable. question, then, convincing" mandated. 44 Addington, reasonable-doubt inappropriate commitment reasons—because hesitation apply "too broadly casually noncriminal cases," 428, psychiatric ordinarily adduced rarely susceptible doubt. 429-430, 432-433, 1811-1812, 1812-1813. above, Supp.IV), Congress reasoning penalty great [as], greater, penalty. H.R.Rep.No. 95-1386, p. (1978), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News pp. 7530, 7545. consider, problems arise doubt Like evaluate medical testimony, difficult absolute certainty, lack motive, affection foresight progress. 2161; 44-46, 2168-2169 opinion) raised proceedings). vary Although case, another body conclude erect unreasonable barrier neglected 46 majority strikes legitimate concerns. 433, 1813. We, course, express merits claims.19 prevail. Without approved, vacate remand opinion. 48 It 49 REHNQUIST, THE CHIEF JUSTICE, WHITE, O'CONNOR join, dissenting. 50 I us live aspect regulated single source organ politic. today's certainly direction. parsing scheme narrow provision unconstitutional, invites federal-court intrusion facet law. area courts heed admonition Holmes page history worth volume logic,"1 domestic relations. time immemorial, reason. 51 Equally troubling majority's analysis. guarantees treat individuals "fundamental fairness" whenever actions adoption exhaustive program assist regaining protect unfair And yet myopic scrutiny blinds considerations "fundamentally fair." relations unhappy feature organized society. experience area, fully satisfactory solutions painful problem abuse found, leaving experiment various remedies produced novel approaches promising Throughout scrupulously refrained interfering answers questions. "Both precedents teach solicitude interests, particularly field family-property arrangements." Yazell, 382 352, 86 500, 507, 404 (1966). say blink violations statutes, areas, "substantial good-faith [administering program] provided assure claims individuals." 349, 909, (1976). presents classic occasion solicitude. seen part, enacted comprehensive aid purpose divided families. Adoption represents effort These earnest principles. "Great provisions administered caution. Some play allowed joints machine, remembered ultimate guardians liberties people quite courts." Missouri, K. T.R. Co. May, 194 267, 270, 638, 639, 971 (1904).2 55 adopting relatively unobtrusive ensuring "due law." fact, fixing lead schemes. surely mean passes muster applies permitting showing acceptable 30-minute hearing. Similarly, probably balk permitted 862-863, 2119, (Stewart, judgment). 56 aspects reference point. Having abandoned evaluation overall scheme, possibility compensate lower approach federalization Such trend thwart searches experimentation. "It happy system courageous may, citizens choose, laboratory; economic experiments rest country. prevent experiment." Ice Liebmann, 285 262, 311, 386, 76 747 (1932) (Brandeis, violation. violation occurred 57 notes, petitioners five August 22, 1974. During four one-half years, homes institutions, diligently prepare children's return. Those unsuccessful, April 1979, 1974 earlier. preceded return category now contend, today holds, denied inadequacy protections, 58 settled "[t]he encompassed protection property." Regents Roth, 408 564, 569, 2701, 2705, 548 government action, "we look 'weight' stake." 2706 original). disagree come finite 2119 "Once applies, [however,] remains due." Morrissey Brewer, 471, 481, 2595, 2600, 484 answer disagree. 59 flexible principle. imposes situations applies. previously recognized, calling safeguards procedure." 2600. Greenholtz Nebraska Penal Inmates, 442 12, 2100, 2106, 668 (1979); 334, 902; Cafeteria Workers McElroy, 886, 895, 1743, 1748, 1230 (1961). adequacy cannot, principles unrelated peculiarities hand. flexibility, obvious inquiry scheme. threatens overlook introduce Courts examine offered assess cumulative safeguards. stated before, reliability existing procedures" Constitution more. 343, 907. Only broad fairness."3 instances, looked nonprocedural restraints effected E.g., Ingraham Wright, 430 1401, 711 (1977). reveals fairness.4 61 occur (SSL) 384-b.3.(d) Supp.1981-1982). petition filed several occur. 62 jurisdiction agency. N.Y.Family (FCA) 614.1.(b) Therefore, basis. Temporary ways. consent removal, FCA 1021, or, abused neglected.5 1051, 1052. alleging state-authorized person designated 1031, 1032. Unless finds exigent circumstances held, 1022, results "dispositional hearing" appropriate care. 1045. 1055. separate "fact-finding hearing," specific definition terms. 1012, 1044, 1051. Parents subjected extensive summons copy issuance 1035, 1036, request, commencement service 1048.6 commence present petition. 1041. itself, "only competent, material admitted," enumerated exceptions 1046(b)(ii). addition, represent them related 262(a)(i). 65 reviewed SSL 392.2. ordered notice including statement alternatives, held. 392.4. ibid., entitled indigent. 262(a). 66 One years home, commenced filing removal. 384-b.3.(b), allege 384-b.3.(d).7 Notice 384-b.3.(e), inform potential consequences "of assistance [their] assigned [if] unable obtain counsel." hearings 384-b.3.(f). determine, 384-b.3.(g). "Only admitted fact-finding hearing." find "failed period substantially 384-b.7.(a).8 considers "first obligation" reuniting 384-b.1.(iii), supervising has, success, "diligent added).9 Following separate, course control dismiss petition, opportunity 631-634. base record "material introduced 624; "Female" M., 70 A.D.2d 812, 417 482 entertain "will promoted disposition." unfavorable Thereafter, sought ultimately, presented. description demonstrates, rearing reassume rightful role. Fully understood, last resort, efforts" failed, authorize aided supervised viewed unfair. demonstrate system. relates 1973 1974, born. removals detailed response described shockingly abusive treatment.10 September (Department) take 72 continued December 1975, issued written concluding resume responsibilities personality disorders. Unsatisfied progress making, directed writing solve 73 providing counseling training submitted February 1976. plan, received mother's aide, nutritional health nurse, clinic. treatment vocational father, center mother. Brief Respondent Kramer 1-7. Between early 1976 spent $15,000 rehabilitate 34. 74 Petitioners' best. wholly disregarded available participated sporadically others. result, out growing length stay could recognized reaction generally "non-responsive, hostile," superficially cooperative" led hope improvement eventual Exhibit 618. Accordingly, dismissed. Whatever making prior little thereafter. despite considerable rendered behalf. time, agreed. meaningful advantage rehabilitative urged them." 35. "infrequent" "between "nothing holds [petitioners] become self sufficient emotionally mature enough independent agencies. More amount passed still, words workers, discernible forward movement. point said, 'enough enough.' accordance set forth seven, five, old rose freeing 77 account extraordinary 4-year altogether rebuffed unwilling improve permit step protracted accorded beginning sad story Judge. involvement petitioners, seven complete additional periodic supervision efforts, intimately prospects rehabilitation. 78 inconceivable me unfair" obsessive disregard otherwise.11 discussion indicates, comport 79 addition basic clearly permissible "represents attempt instruct adjudication." J. concurring); 1807, (1979). respect, crucial component legal process, "to minimize decisions."12 2106. 1808-1809; 80 propriety trying error. errors affect important. Harlan explained well-known concurrence Winship: lawsuit parties, difference First, result plaintiff true defendant. analogue conviction innocent man. hand, justify plaintiff's favor. acquittal guilty 82 influences frequency types If, example, doubt, smaller persons, convicting innocent. affects comparative outcomes, should, rational world, assessment disutility each." 370-371, 1076. 83 understood assessment, examination becomes essential fashion," rationally importance. selected 84 side continuation unit easily overstated. severance ties. convict committed prison deprived retains love members. "This plain citation desire important 'undeniably warrants deference absent powerful protection.' 651 [92 1212, 551]." 2161, creating Legislature expressly bring up children." 85 child.13 stable, loving homelife physical, emotional, spiritual well-being. authority assert youth face developing responsible, productive citizens. said who, though abused, constancy love, trust, discipline. incorrect rightfully ended, either home14 unstable world care.15 reality risks magnified families voluntarily surrendered irreparable year. homelife, 2160.16 valuable resource self-governing population adults themselves responsibility self-governance. "A democratic rests, continuance, healthy, well-rounded growth young maturity citizens, implies." 443, (1944). whole community" "that safeguarded abuses opportunities well-developed citizens." 165, 442. Ginsberg 390 629, 640-641, 1274, 1281-82, 195 (1968). When, context balanced paramount allocated other. borne fashion 1807-1808. precisely struck Legislature: intent legislature enacting section assuring protected, also, furthering needs, adoption." 384-b.1.(b). heretofore stated, errs parental-rights disregards host around tunnel-vision loses sight unmistakable 89 worrisome, cavalierly rejects entrusted begins, fear, stifle creative responses vexing problems. dissent. oral argument, asserted restoring Tr. Oral Arg. 9. Counsel citing 1061, answered aside earlier grounds, newly discovered fraud. 26. respondents conceded, invoked 27. Most notably, 262(a)(iii). Fifteen statute, equivalent. Alaska Stat.Ann. 47.10.080(c)(3) (1980); Cal.Civ.Code Ann. 232(a)(7) (West Supp.1982); Ga.Code 24A-2201(c), 24A-3201 Iowa Code 600A.8 (1981) ("clear proof"); Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., Tit. 4055.1.B.(2) (Supp.1981-1982); Mich.Comp.Laws 722.25 Mo.Rev.Stat. 211.447.2(2) (Supp.1981) ("clear, cogent evidence"), N.M.Stat.Ann. 40-7-4.J. (Supp.1981); N.C.Gen.Stat. 7A-289.30(e) cogent, evidence"); Ohio Rev.Code 2151.35, 2151.414(B) (Page R.I.Gen.Laws 15-7-7(d) (Supp.1980); Tenn.Code 37-246(d) Va.Code 16.1-283.B W.Va.Code 49-6-2(c) (1980) Wis.Stat. 48.31(1) (Supp.1981-1982). Islands, decision, Dale Dept. Pensions Security Robles, So.2d 39, (Ala.Civ.App.1979); Harper Caskin, Ark. 558, 560-561, 580 S.W.2d 176, 178 R., 374 A.2d 860, 864 (D.C.1977); Torres Van Eepoel, 735, 737 (Fla.1957); Kerns, 225 Kan. 746, 753, 594 P.2d 187, 193 Rosenbloom, 266 N.W.2d 888, 889 (Minn.1978) L. B., 182 Mont. 100, 116-117, 1127, 1136 Souza, 204 Neb. 503, 283 48, 157 N.J.Super. 478, 489, 240, 246 (App.Div.1978); J.A., 83, (N.D.1979); Darren Todd H., 615 287, 289 (Okl.1980); William L., 477 Pa. 322, 332, 383 1228, 1233, Lehman Lycoming Children's 439 880, 216, G. 596 846, 847 (Tex.1980); Pitts, 535 1244, 1248 (Utah 1975); Maria, V.I. 368, 384 Sego, Wash.2d 736, 739, 513 831, 833 (1973) X., 607 911, 919 (Wyo.1980) unequivocal"). South Dakota's dependency B.E., 91, Hampshire Louisiana, barred unless key Robert 118 N.H. 713, 716, 393 1387, 1389 La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13:1603.A Supp.1982). Illinois Ill.Rev.Stat. ch. &Par; 705-9(2), (3) amended Sept. 11, 1981, 1982 Ill.Laws, P.A. 82-437 (generally requiring minor mentally ill deficient parents); 384-b.3(g), 384-b.4(c), 384-b.4(e) So aware, addressed issue. Each Sims Public Welfare, 438 F.Supp. 1179, 1194 (S.D.Tex.1977), rev'd grounds Sims, 415, 2371, 994 Alsager Polk County, 406 (S.D.Iowa 1975), aff'd 545 1137 (CA8 1976). unsuccessful respondent's element Misc.2d 730, 486 whole" revealed planned W., 750, 751, 717, 719 (1978). took Tina, III, Jed, James Jeremy. taken younger replied affirmatively asserting "unfit handle older ones ones." 24. Appeals. sua sponte Third Department, stating direct lie "questions validity 50. therefore reject Kramer's claim interfere 11-18; 38. denying refuse broken down; meant decide. dissent charges, 772, 2, "this role establishing follow afford concedes, 'fundamental fairness.' 1813, (1979) (unanimous Justices) (Fourteenth commit involuntarily indefinite hospital); 364, 1072, (Due protects accused except constitute crime charged). reason, suggestions evaluated "package." 25, rewrite excuse amorphous "cumulative effect" context, assumed "strict Post, 773. 1074. treated curative inadequate 282, 486, (1966) ("judicial limited ascertaining relied trier substantiality rationality judgment"). points out, 'to decisions.' 785, Notice, summons, place information factfinder. "instruct[s] conclusions" draws information. suffice willing tolerate undue dispositive facts. refused "non-statutory, no-fault basis." 22-29. unfitness. (1978) ("We offended '[i]f force breakup objections sole thought interest,' judgment)). far-reaching. Colorado, noted: maintenance, thereafter dependent society; inherit; relationship, limited] ., forever." K.S., Colo.App. 72, 76, 515 130, 133 (1973). measured. old; judge's effectively foreclosed "detrimental 614.1.(c). repeatedly" "maintain 614.1.(d), discount actual communications insubstantial "overtly demonstrat[ed] affectionate concerned parenthood." 384-b.7.(b). future, unrealistic plans overly optimistic estimates financial ability. 384-b.7.(c). post 779-780, nn. orders visit prevented maintaining Fam.Ct.Act. cited rejection offensive superfluous "failure plan" 10-11. accept statements recognize structure increases Of litigants' vastly 34, 2163, (only Columbia statute). 786-791. hazardous assumption imperfect, welfare. Wald, Intervention Behalf "Neglected" Children: Search Realistic Standards, Stan.L.Rev. 985, 993 (1975) ("In current practice, coercive frequently placing detrimental intervention"). ensure Community Action Legal Amici Curiae 22-23. eventually adoptive moving institutions "temporary" placements ties severed. 833-838, 2103-06 "limbo" system). occurs, living adjudicated neglected" until, "for year," agency." 384-b.7.(a); 789-790. ample hostile environment. Fam.Ct. 1055(b) extending placement. 19-20. 632(b) (when insufficient reconsider underlying placement); 633 year). Any phase, unfit. dissent's law," 773, duty "refrai[n] questions" statutes." 771. dissent, carefully refrain "facts case" not. Trust Eisner, 256 345, 506, 963 (1921). asserts 'is resolve.' (1966)." Ante, 755-756. seeks, statement, matters, arrogates itself odds federalist unsupported (1966), "Congress ha[d] [was] deportation proceedings." 487. Beyond fairness"—which satisfied case—this Although, states, state-provided judged equates fairness." 754. differ, presence ascertained plethora protective refuses procedure whole, facts." 758, Implicit reduced tolerable levels proof—that eliminate "undue uncertainty" too low. Aside begging "undue," infra, 785-791, flexibility principle process; understates review; establishes sine qua non intentional "which causes creates death, disfigurement, impairment bodily organ." 1012(e)(i). Sexual offenses covered category. "whose condition impaired becoming exercise supplying food, clothing, shelter education." 1012(f)(i)(A). short 1048 undoubtedly prompt mental, harm. awarded deceased, six retardation. 384-b.4.(c). infrequent not, preclude communication character overtly parenthood contact." Failure steps adequate, stable parent. realistic feasible, faith determinative. utilize medical, psychiatric, psychological parent." "Diligent "mean attempts assist, develop to: "(1) consultation cooperation family; "(2) suitable arrangements child; "(3) discharge resolved ameliorated; "(4) informing intervals progress, development health." 384-b.7.(f). Apel, oldest she old. Removal complaints neighbors reports local hospital suffered injuries fractured femur, home-made splint; bruises upper arms, forehead, flank, spine; abrasions leg. following summer second petitioner's John, suffering malnutrition, eye cuts foot, blisters pin pricks back. 1-5. finds, "numerous [in proceedings] factfinding." 762. Among "unusual discretion" parent"; consequent "vulnerab[ility] bias"; "State's case," "dwarfs defense" unlimited budget, attorneys, "full family"; "natural 'double jeopardy' state" "with "even State." 762, 763, 764. short, characterizes wealthy bully bent taking away defenseless ante, 761-764. characterization record. eminent clarity: [S]tate's break-up home." 384-b.1.(a)(iii) There believing, does, says; indeed, gone extra mile seeking effectuate purpose. 781-785. importantly, room jurisprudence unsupported, inaccurate assumptions. brief "factors" demonstrates "unusual" 'affectio[n] concer[n]' displayed nothing reality; shred suggesting "based "ability defense," attorney, they, family" added); recognizes unnecessary. desired give doubt," 620, "an minimal competency prompted second, successful 781-784 page. noting significance differs litigation. usual adjudicatory setting, exposure His knowledge comes renders normally, factor scale decision. serves assurances practice assign supervise discussed begin. closely change familiarity lengthy precede steeped background peculiarly escape scrutiny, attend dismisses instead "pits 759. "[a]fter unfitness," reasons, "assume diverge." 760. misses mark. exists harmful him. detrimentally 14, 15, infra. evenly, direction equal—that fault produce undesirable discernibly outweighs onerous outcome. 370-372, 1075-1077, unfitness—the unwarranted relationship—is fitness—the province legislatures. unconstitutional Members Legislature's weighing error-free illustrates returned Eighteen Katherine Weiss, supervisor Protective Unit testified totally blew up." 135. explain happened, Mrs. Weiss "there Mr. Santosky's wife, alleged proven along extended, non-permanent stays custodians. deprive deleterious effects Subsequent studies correct. commentator recently wrote lamentable conditions placements" today. He "Over fifty percent 'temporary' years; thirty years. sequence ill-suited homes, desperately need." Besharov, Protect Definition "Child Abuse" Neglect," N.Y.L. L.Rev. 723, 770-771 (footnotes omitted). unsatisfactory situation. well-being suffers assertion

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