Document: 529 U.S. 765120 S.Ct. 1858146 L.Ed.2d 836 SyllabusNOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as being done in connection with this case, at the time opinion issued. The constitutes no part of Court but has been prepared by Reporter Decisions for convenience reader. See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 321, 337. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES VERMONT AGENCY NATURAL RESOURCESv.UNITED ex rel. STEVENS CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR SECOND CIRCUIT No. 98_1828. Argued November 29, 1999 Decided May 22, 2000 Under False Claims Act (FCA), private person (the "relator") may bring qui tam civil action "in name [Federal] Government," 31 U.S.C. § 3730(b)(1), against "[a]ny person" who, inter alia, "knowingly presents _ to Government false or fraudulent claim payment," §3729(a). relator receives share any proceeds from action. §§3730(d)(1)_(2). Respondent Stevens brought such an petitioner state agency, alleging that had submitted claims Environmental Protection Agency federal grant programs EPA administered. Petitioner moved dismiss, arguing State (or agency) not "person" subject FCA liability and court barred Eleventh Amendment. District denied motion, filed interlocutory appeal. intervened appeal support respondent Stevens. Second Circuit affirmed. Held: A individual suit on behalf under FCA. Pp. 4_21. (a) standing meets requirements necessary establish Article III standing. In particular, he demonstrated "injury fact"-a harm both "concrete" "actual imminent, conjectural hypothetical." Whitmore Arkansas, 495 149, 155. He contends suing remedy injury fact suffered States-both its sovereignty arising violation laws proprietary resulting alleged fraud. concrete interest outcome his suit, form bounty receive if successful, insufficient confer standing, since does consist obtaining compensation for, preventing, legally protected right. An adequate basis Stevens' however, found doctrine assignee assert assignor. Because can reasonably regarded effecting partial assignment Government's damages claim, States' suffices This conclusion confirmed long tradition actions England American Colonies, which conclusively demonstrates were "cases controversies sort traditionally amenable to, resolved by, judicial process." Steel Co. Citizens Better Environment, 523 83, 102. 4_11. (b) federal-court States. Such agency Court's longstanding interpretive presumption include sovereign applies text Although hard fast rule exclusion, disregarded only upon some affirmative showing statutory intent contrary. As historical context makes clear, various features FCA, originally enacted amended, far providing requisite indications term included purposes liability, indicate quite buttressed ordinary construction Congress intends alter usual constitutional balance between Federal Government, must make intention do so unmistakably clear statute's language, statutes should construed avoid difficult questions. expresses view whether would run afoul Amendment, notes there "a serious doubt" score. Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 348. 11_21. 162 F.3d 195, reversed. Scalia, J., delivered Court, Rehnquist, C. O'Connor, Kennedy, Thomas, Breyer, JJ., joined. concurring statement. Ginsburg, judgment, Stevens, dissenting opinion, Souter, Opinion 1 NOTICE: formal revision before publication preliminary print Reports. Readers are requested notify Decisions, Supreme States, Washington, D. 20543, typographical other errors, order corrections made goes press. 98_1828 2 RESOURCES, PETITIONERv.UNITED 3 ON WRIT APPEALSFOR 4 [May 2000] 5 Justice Scalia Court. 6 case question Act, 3729_3733. 7 * Originally 1863, (FCA) most frequently used handful extant creating known tam.1 imposes presents, causes presented, officer employee payment approval." 3729(a). defendant liable up treble penalty $10,000 per claim. Ibid. commenced one two ways. First, itself claimant. §3730(a). Second, relevant here, "for Government" claimant, Government." §3730(b)(1). 8 If initiates action, deliver copy complaint, supporting evidence, §3730(b)(2), then 60 days intervene §§3730(b)(2), (4). so, assumes primary responsibility prosecuting §3730(c)(1), though continue participate litigation entitled hearing voluntary dismissal determination reasonableness settlement, §3730(c)(2). declines within 60-day period, exclusive right conduct §3730(b)(4), subsequently "good cause," §3730(c)(3). action-generally ranging 15 25 percent intervenes (depending relator's contribution prosecution), 30 court's assessment what reasonable)-plus attorney's fees costs. 9 Jonathan Vermont Natural Resources, former employer, (EPA) administered EPA. Specifically, claimed overstated amount spent employees federally funded projects, thereby inducing disburse more money than was receive. declined motion unpublished order. App. Pet. Cert. 86_87. appeal,2 stayed proceedings pending outcome. divided panel affirmed, 195 (1998), we granted certiorari, 527 1034 (1999). II 10 We first address jurisdictional Constitution maintain suit. 93_102 (1998). 11 have explained, plaintiff meet three See, e.g., Friends Earth, Inc. Laidlaw Services (TOC), Inc., 528 ___, ___ (2000) (slip op., 9). demonstrate 155 (1990) (internal quotation marks citation omitted). causation-a "fairly trace[able]" defendant. Simon Eastern Ky. Welfare Rights Organization, 426 26, 41 (1976). And third, redressability-a "substantial likelihood" relief fact. Id., 45. These together constitute "irreducible minimum" Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 555, 560 (1992), "essential unchanging part" III's case-or-controversy requirement, ibid., key factor dividing power government courts political branches, see id., 559_560. 12 It beyond doubt complaint asserts (which criminal lawsuit Government) But "[t]he Art. exists redress otherwise protect complaining party." Warth Seldin, 422 490, 499 (1975) (emphasis added); also Sierra Club Morton, 405 727, 734_735 (1972). perhaps suffice say here simply statutorily designated agent whose (as statute provides, 3730(b)) brought-and fee out recovery filing and/or successful Government. analysis precluded, gives himself lawsuit, merely retain recovery. Thus, provides "[a] section 3729 §3730(b) "the party action" even when assumed "primary responsibility" it, §3730(c)(1); entitles §3730(c)(2)(A); prohibits settling over objection without "fair[ness], adequa[cy] reasonable[ness]," §3730(c)(2)(B). For portion retained relator, therefore, explanation identified. 13 There doubt, course, recovery-the successful-a "concrete [the] suit." Lujan, supra, 573. same might said someone who placed wager unrelated give Valley Forge Christian College Americans Separation Church State, 454 464, 486 (1982); Club, 734_735. 560_561. invasion-indeed, "right" seeks vindicate fully materialize until completed prevails.3 suggest cannot define new legal rights, turn caused Warth, 500. held another context, "byproduct" rise cognizable purposes. 107 ("[A] achieve litigate substantive issue bringing cost suit"); Diamond Charles, 476 54, 69_71 (1986) (holding pursue appeal). 14 believe, claim.4 never expressly recognized "representational standing" assignees, routinely entertained their suits, see, Poller Columbia Broadcasting System, 368 465 (1962); Automatic Radio Mfg. Hazeltine Research, 339 827, 829 (1950); Hubbard Tod, 171 474, 475 (1898)-and suits subrogees, described "equitable assign[ees]," L. Simpson, Law Suretyship 205 (1950), Vimar Seguros y Reaseguros, S. A. M/V Sky Reefer, 515 528, 531 (1995); Musick, Peeler Garrett Employers Ins. Wausau, 508 286, 288 (1993). conclude, Colonies. That history particularly inquiry since, elsewhere, restriction "Cases" "Controversies" properly understood mean U.S., 102; Coleman Miller, 307 433, 460 (1939) (opinion Frankfurter, J.) Consti- tution established "[j]udicial could come into play matters traditional concern Westminster they arose ways expert feel lawyers constituted `Cases' `Controversies' "). 16 Qui appear originated around end 13th century, individuals began royal own Crown's behalf. Prior Lewes De Holt (1300), reprinted 48 Selden Society 198 (1931). Suit dual capacity device getting respected courts, generally involving interests. Milsom, Trespass Henry Edward III, Part III: More Special Writs Conclusions, 74 Q. Rev. 561, 585 (1958). Starting 14th extend jurisdiction wholly wrongs, common-law gradually fell disuse, although seems remained technically available several centuries. W. Hawkins, Pleas Crown 369 (8th ed. 1824). 17 At about time, Parliament enacting explicitly provided suits. types: those allowed injured parties sue vindication interests well Crown's), Statute Providing Remedy Him Who Is Wrongfully Pursued Admiralty, Hen. IV, ch. (1400), and-more here-those informers obtain information, themselves, Prohibiting Sale Wares After Close Fair, Edw. (1331); Common Informers Geo. VI, 39, sched. (1951) (listing informer statutes). Most, all, gave cause typically bill, plaint, debt. Bill Leases Hospitals, Colleges, Other Corporations, 33 VIII, 27 (1541); Avoid Horse-Stealing, Eliz. I, 12, §2 (1589); Prevent Over-Charge People Stewards Court-Leets Court-Barons, Jac. (1604). 18 obvious reasons, highly abuse, M. Davies, Enforcement English Apprenticeship 58_61 (1956)-particularly relating obsolete offenses, E. Coke, Institutes Laws 191 (4th 1797) (informer prosecutions "vex entangle subject"). many old enactments repealed, Continuing Reviving Divers Statutes Repeal Others, 21 28, §11 (1623), passed deterring penalizing vexatious informers, limiting locations brought, subjecting relatively short limitation, Redress Disorders Informers, (1576); Concerning 63_76. Nevertheless, allowing continued exist 1951, all remaining ones repealed. Note, History Development Tam, 1972 Wash. U. 81, 88, n. 44 (citing 39 (1951)). 19 prevalent America England, least period immediately after framing Constitution. evidence Colonies (which, noted, dying time), did pass authorizing Restraining Punishing Privateers Pirates, 1st Assembly, 4th Sess. (N. Y. 1692), Colonial New York 279, 281 (1894) (allowing of, fine imposed officers neglect duty privateers pirates). Moreover, framing, First considerable number statutes.5 Like counterparts, them express action;6 others only.7 20 think nigh conclusive respect us here: When combined theoretical justification discussed earlier, leaves room standing.8 turn, then, merits. contentions: (1) FCA; (2) is, Amendment bars Courts Appeals disagreed these immunity questions addressed. Compare Long SCS Business Technical Institute, 173 890, 893_898 (CADC 1999) (statutory first), Foulds Texas Tech Univ., 285_288 (CA5 (Eleventh first). 22 Questions jurisdiction, given priority-since authority sit judgment anything else. 93_102. "Jurisdiction declare law, ceases exist, function announcing dismissing cause." Ex parte McCardle, Wall. 506, 514 (1869). Even opposed subject-matter jurisdiction) "is `an essential element district . court,' `powerless proceed adjudication.' " Ruhrgas AG Marathon Oil 526 574, 584 (1999) (quoting Reinsurance Corp. Bryant, 299 374, 382 (1937)). 23 nonetheless addressed forbids particular asserted permits creates clearly expressing intent). Kimel Florida Bd. Regents, 8_13); Seminole Tribe Fla. Florida, 517 44, 55_57 (1996); cf. Hafer Melo, 502 21, 25_31 (1991); Mt. Healthy City Ed. Doyle, 429 274, 277_281 (1977). issue, "logically antecedent existence question, Amchem Products, Windsor, 521 591, 612 (1997), realistic possibility addressing expand limits imposed. opposed, example, broader whatever, facts "false claim" statute) not, practical matter, permit pronounce rights person, issues persons reached anyway. ultimate sued statute; unconsenting statute. combination logical priority virtual coincidence scope possible, indeed appropriate, decide first. therefore begin (and end) question. 24 provision 3729(a), subjects apply our sovereign. Cooper Corp., 312 600, 604 (1941); Mine Workers, 330 258, 275 (1947).9 "particularly applicable where subjected before." Will Michigan Dept. Police, 491 58, 64 (1989); Wilson Omaha Tribe, 442 653, 667 (1979). "hard exclusion," 604_605, International Primate League Administrators Tulane Fund, 500 72, 83 (1991). often observed, 1863 principal goal "stopping massive frauds perpetrated large [private] contractors during Civil War." Bornstein, 423 303, 309 (1976); Marcus Hess, 317 537, 547 (1943).10 Its provision-the precursor today's §3729(a)-bore indication penalties. Indeed, indicating covered, corporations were, applied "any military naval forces nor militia called actually employed service States," penalties imprisonment.11 Mar. 2, 67, §3, Stat. 698. directed natural cast courts' assumption §3729(a) extends corporations, Woodard Country View Care Center, 797 F.2d 888, 890 (CA10 1986)-but because regard just opposite governing presumptively covered "person," 1. original less nothing overcome covered. 26 undergone changes, none suggests broadening 1982, housekeeping change, replacing phrase States" member armed force incorporating art "member force" throughout Title Code. (1982 ed.). 1986, eliminated blanket exemption members Armed Forces, current person." 3729(a).12 Several scheme further liability. 3733 enables Attorney General investigative demands possessi[ng] information law investigation," §3733(a)(1), contains defining "[f]or section," §3733(l)(4).13 presence definitional §3733, absence provisions contained §3729, §§3729(b)_(c), "persons" §3729.14 28 version essentially punitive nature, inconsistent light imposition governmental entities. Newport Fact Concerts, 453 247, 262_263 (1981).15 suggested earlier remedial rather punitive, 315; Smith Wade, 461 30, 85 (1983) (Rehnquist, dissenting), double $2,000 231 (1976 ed.); version, contrast, 3729(a).16 Cf. Marcus, 550 (noting suggesting damages, antitrust laws, been). "The very idea reveals punish past, deter future, unlawful conduct, ameliorate wrongdoers." Industries, Radcliff Materials, 451 630, 639 (1981). 29 Third, Program Fraud Remedies 1986 (PFCRA), sister administrative remedies claims-and amended 1986-contains (unlike FCA) definition 3801(a)(6) (defining individual, partnership, corporation, association, organization"). peculiar exempt smaller PFCRA. §3802(a)(1).17 sum, believe Our considerations unnecessary discuss length: first, construction" "if language statute," Will, 65 omitted); Gregory Ashcroft, 501 452, 460_461 Bass, 404 336, 349 (1971), second, course note 348 (1936) (Brandeis, concurring) omitted).18 32 hold 3729_3733, actions. ordered. 34 concurring. 35 I join full. Ginsburg. 36 whom Breyer joins, judgment. 37 extent subscribe opinion. 38 agree damages. ante, 6. agree, vitally, "Article `cases process.' Ante, 7. On again history's pages place safely "case" "controversy" category. 7_11. reasoned authorize citizen dismiss suitor's opining "on constitutionality done, do." 134 judgment). turns presented: Did Concluding engage inquiry, appropriately open. 40 find statement parties, concur resolution 21. note, plaintiff. Sims 359 108, 112 (1959) (state ranks tax levy provision); California, 175, 186_187 (state-owned railway "common carrier" Safety Appliance States). read decision leave open word encompasses sues Act. Souter dissenting. 42 (FCA Act) create procedure "civil demand," allows documentary purpose ascertaining engaged in" Act-including 3729. amendments §3729-thereby triggering demand provision-includes subdivision State." §6(a), 100 3168 (codified 3733(l)(1)(A), (2), (4)). my view, perfectly intended §3729 understanding supported legislative amendments, consistent cases decided enacted. 43 Since series cloak increasingly protective mantle "sovereign immunity" violating laws. through lens post-1986 chosen construe case. To explain disagreement shall comment pre-1986 cases, FCA-all meaning §3729. briefly why State's defenses fail, immunity. Cases uniformly proposition broad means says. general references normally sovereign, (1947), uses enforceable agencies corporations. Sherman Government), 600 (1941), Georgia Evans, 316 159 (1942). Similarly, regulation Shipping 1916, California 320 577 (1944), 175 (1936). latter "invoke[d] canon bound" unless act declares 186. rejected applicability canon, stating: 45 "We perceive reason extending business carried Congress, all-embracing national purpose, capable obstructed Language objectives plain thwarted resort resolve doubts, application circumstances artificial." 186_187.1 46 scope, violated action.2 War, shortly congressional committee decried "fraud peculation" officials procurement supplies contracts-specifically mentioning purchases Illinois, Indiana, York, Ohio. H. R. Rep. 37th Cong., 2d Sess., pt. ii_a, pp. xxxviii_xxxix (1862). following year, correctly observed "it suppose considered bills leading year later either meant exclude `persons' presentation forgotten results extensive investigation." 206 observation faithful consistently endorsed hardly requires "suspension disbelief" majority supposes, 16, 12). 47 Neifert&nbhyph;White 390 228, 232 (1968), noting result investigations use funds inferred "that reach types fraud, qualification, financial loss Rainwater 356 590, 592 (1958) ("It objective [in FCA] broadly property claims"); 99_660, p. ("[T]he vehicle recouping losses fraud"). authorized supplement additional fraud Finally, breadth "claims" confirms notion cover full range acts, including States.4 discloses Senate Report describing unequivocally stated reaches submit `person' sense partnerships, associations, subdivisions thereof." 99_345, 8_9.5 49 few accepted States-thus among relators 888 1986); Wisconsin Dean, 729 1100 (CA7 1984); Hartigan Palumbo Bros., F. Supp. 624 (ND Ill. 1992). Not judges thought §3730(b)(1), themselves "persons." fact, Dean stating proper relator." F.2d, 1103, 2. Seventh dismissed Wisconsin's grounds National Association Attorneys adopted urging easier relators.6 1986-and here-it i.e., hence "persons"); wanted greater freedom Act; taken like position. 12_13. 50 adopted, 51 pre-existing understanding. significant enactment §3733 granting (CID) commencing proceeding interwoven definitions unambiguously violate 52 Section authorizes CID she conducting investigatio[n]." §3733(a). investigation" defined investigation conducted law." §3733(l)(2) added). law" includes §3729-the §3733(l)(1)(A). Quite plainly, contemplate §3733(l)(4). Hence, "engaged law," "State State."7 thus Congress' 53 Elsewhere well. §3730 Act-both amendments-uses twice. subsection directs investigate violations "finds violating" section, "under (Emphases added.) different purpose; describe plaintiffs 54 clearly, §3730(a).8 noted 6, §3730(b)-and offers 18. brings effect, Given understanding, §3730(a) distinction possible defendants normal inference draw category General. 55 recapitulate, undisputed (under provision) §3729; named General; adjacent §§3729, 3730(a), 3730(b), defendants. 606 credible senses sentence"). single (describing commit §3729) regardless violator §3730(b). Ratzlaf 510 135, 143 (1994) ("A appearing places way each appears. stronger formulation play"). Absent powerful arguments contrary, follow Rather pointing arguments, comes contrary inapplicable strained inferences drawn provisions. 56 argument relies "our sovereign." 13. "presumption" heavy lifting do. What's more, doctrinal origins "person." 186 bound unaffected acts specifically it. aid added)); 275; Fox, 94 315, 321 (1877); 73 (1989) (Brennan, dissenting). presuming intend equally "affirmative showing" require 14, plainly above. 57 textual based §3733's §3733," argues, "together §3729." 17. Leaving aside cuts direction, 7_8, carry weight neglected mention all. negative seriously, prove too much. entity." premise correct-that inclusion certain items implies exclusion §3729-then absolutely left §3729.9 reasonable assume saw need add history, 3_7, demonstrate) already understood. likely itself. 58 separate, similar, statute, (PFCRA). 19_20. organization." 3801(a)(6). worth obvious: PFCRA sits next Code, separate statutes. altogether much bearing latter.10 Regardless, whole rests entirely premise, §3801(a)(6) defines organization," have, interpreted similar well, mentioned definition. 585; 160. (I definitive conclusions PFCRA; presumes be.) event, §3729's do, piece legislation narrows term. 59 "essentially nature." Citing (1981), invokes "presumption entities." explains, "courts vie[w] [against bodies] sound public policy, awards burden taxpayers citizens benefit wrongdoer chastised." 263. rationale here. taxpaying "citizens benefit" designed true, violates ultimately bear paying coffers taxpayers), protect, taxpayers). Accordingly, "burden taxpayers" protect.11 Each identified brief comment. summarized 7_10, obviously sufficient "cases" "controversies" III. commonplace 19th 127_128, nn. 24_25 (1998) (Stevens, judgment), introduced sua sponte, 11, 8. 61 "Eleventh Amendment" defense, adhere (1996), wrongly decided. __, __ dissenting) 6_7); 100_185 (Souter, abrogate defense accepts controlling, still fail. 6; provide Mississippi, 380 128, 140 (1965) ("[N]othing [the Amendment] prevents ever seriously supposed prevent States"); (3) retains control F.3d, 199_201 (case below), affirmed denying petitioner's dismiss. Hampshire Louisiana, 108 76 (1883), South Dakota North Carolina, 192 S 286 (1904).12 would, accordingly, affirm Appeals. Notes 62 Latin pro domino rege quam se ipso hac sequitur, "who pursues Lord King's own." dates Blackstone. Blackstone, Commentaries *160. Three statutes, hundred years ago, remain books. 81 (providing contracting Indians manner); §201 Indian protection laws); 292(b) falsely marking patented articles); 962 forfeiture vessels privately friendly nations, informer); 723 removing undersea treasure coast foreign informer). 63 denial appealable. Puerto Rico Aqueduct Sewer Authority Metcalf Eddy, 506 139 exercised pendent appellate Swint Chambers County Comm'n, 35, 50_51 (1995). 3. Blackstone actions, "no B, right, demand, bounty], till brought," "inchoate imperfect degree [which] consummated judgment." *437. 4. today, dissent asserting "is, States." Post, 14; post, 8_9 (same). precisely, 66 5. addition, 31, 1790, 15, §2, 124_125 author proprietor half copyright); 1, §6, 103 census taker failure cooperate census); July 5, 25, §1, 129 (extending Rhode Island). 67 102 file return); Island); 20, §§1, 4, 131, 133 carriage seamen contract illegal harboring runaway seamen); 33, 137_138 goods forfeited unlicensed trading tribes); 3, 1791, §44, 209 discovers spirits duties, seizes contraband spirits, forfeiture, along costs, debt); Apr. 9, §§16, 17, 116 prosecution, fine, larceny receipt stolen goods). 68 1789, §29, 44_45 (giving paid customs official failing post schedule); Aug. §55, (same); §38, quarter penalties, fines, forfeitures law); Sept. §21, (same maritime §69, 177 §8, conviction conflict-of-interest bribery establishing Treasury Department); 8, 215 employees); Feb. 10, §§8, 195_196 fifth fines improper lending agents Bank States); §4, 153 (apportioning deposit ship manifest received manifest, collector port destination). suggested, dictum, "[s]tatutes reward forbid institute him sue." 541, (1943). 69 concluding, II, Appointments Clause "take Care" §3. challenge mechanism provisions, validity 102, ("[O]ur jurisprudence, sometimes impact Presidential powers, derives II"); 576_578 (1992). implicitly attacks "introduc[ing] [this question] sponte." 14. raise volunteer answer. 13_14. 70 9. that, "[a]lthough corporations." (citation cites assertion. None them, involved State. Government). 585_586. (1936), circumstances-and carrier." 186_187. (1942), when, §7 "without injuries practices outlawed Act." 162. 10. true enough, system reason, valid. While international accorded sovereigns, N. Republic China, 356, 358_359 (1955), sovereigns nonetheless, comity something mere unconsented them. fought lost battle (1989), 64; dissenting, joined Marshall, Blackmun, JJ.). 653 (1979), likewise 667. (Wilson omitted dissent's discussion "[c]ases 1986," "uniformly support" reading 2.) 71 "intended 4_5, (1968); (1958); (1985)). sources quotes, contention comma. They stand unobjectionable §3729(c)) fraudsters, 72 11. remains books currently codified separately, 287. 12. interpreting today Congress." unchanged 1863; amendment changed modifier "[a]" "[a]ny." replacement "any" four earlier. sole giving change "[a]ny" precise unusual consequence sentence Congress. unequal task happens proposed revision, setting forth Committee's (erroneous) 123 paragraph appears discusses "[i]n present," pre-1986, "form." (1986). contradicts "intent" controls relying heavily House Committee 1862. 3_4 (1862)). disposed allow determined committee, utterly irrelevant, legislation. repeating Circuit's unsupported assertion mind asks indulge suspension disbelief requires. finally, irrelevant promised action," cited details incident points §3733(l)(4) §3733(l)(2), investigator 7_8. effect assuming embrace (however defined) depends refers back §3733(l)(4)'s inapplicable. What demands. able useful contractors. 75 "prove[s] much," entity"; reasoning, contends, entities excluded so. Unlike addition attempts "simply understood." "understanding" §3733. 15. distinguish 263 where, `citizens benefit' [statute] [statute]." problem 1983-the Newport-is, better concerned imposing circumstances. `[Punitive damages], evidently vindictive, cannot, sanctioned court, borne widows, orphans, aged men women, strangers, admitting repair inflicted Mayor plaintiff, amount, her indemnification.' Newport, 261 McGary President Council Lafayette, Rob. 668, 677 (La. 1846)). 77 16. out, 13, reduced exception, (presumably few) concerning knowledge underway. ibid. 78 ground 11_12, can, should, interpret surrounding FDA Brown Williamson Tobacco 9_10); Fausto, 484 439, (1988). operate tandem virtually identical ("Any knowingly approval ") §3802(a)(1) (PFCRA) makes, submits, made, submitted, knows know false, fictitious, FCA-despite detailed 585, inapposite PFCRA, set included, than, does, "means," 79 concludes §3730(b), 6_7, 80 difference views issues, hand, actual illustrated rejection holdings Hoffman Connecticut Income Maintenance, 492 96 Nordic Village, 503 refused unequivocal waiver §106(c) Bankruptcy differently: "In 106(c), Department [otherwise.] using narrow construction, `unmistakenly clear' waive reasoning Inc." Cong. Rec. 27693 (1994). overruled decisions 106. pole "white Iowa apparent adopting §22 disputes country, arise involve 668. 82 3729(c) reads: "For `claim' request otherwise, contractor, grantee, recipient demanded, reimburse demanded." "[e]vidence steady rise." grants local governments totaled $108 billion. Commerce Data Book Guide Sources, Statistical Abstract 301 (108th 1988) (compiling data 1986). "to [but not] fraudsters," coverage potential 84 argues Report's inaccurate, Brief 25_26. governments-exactly 2_3. Petitioner's directly point indicates Senate's analogy controlling precedent. "persons," erroneous. 14_15. Assuming argument's sake incorrectly ascertained beside point. 3153 (deleting previously existing introductory clause person"). Therefore, mistaken previous Legislature expressed insists, 12), reference bit contradiction suggests, ibid.) informing enacts (perhaps erroneous) past meant. suggestion §3730(e)(4)(A). 86 concatenation incorporates answer listed apply, terms, of" 87 joins careful disagree 88 says, entities, unlike presumed 17_18, words, supposedly independent discussed. 9_10; 13_15. adds own. 89 reliance contradict central premise-that scattered intervening that. 14_16. matter statute? Of controls, irrelevant. 90 findings §§3729(a)(7)(A)_(C). 91 "end run" 33. me, though, yet precisely Articles

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