Document: 448 U.S. 100 S.Ct. 2758 65 L.Ed.2d 902 H. Earl FULLILOVE et al., Petitioners,v.Philip M. KLUTZNICK, Secretary of Commerce the United States, al. No. 78-1007. Argued Nov. 27, 1979. Decided July 2, 1980. Syllabus The "minority business enterprise" (MBE) provision Public Works Employment Act 1977 (1977 Act) requires that, absent an administrative waiver, at least 10% federal funds granted for local public works projects must be used by state or grantee to procure services supplies from businesses owned minority group members, defined as States citizens "who are Negroes, Spanish-speaking, Orientals, Indians, Eskimos, and Aleuts." Under implementing regulations guidelines, grantees their private prime contractors required, extent feasible, in fulfilling MBE requirement, seek out all available, qualified, bona fide MBE's, provide technical assistance needed, lower waive bonding requirements where solicit aid Office Minority Business Enterprise, Small Administration, other sources assisting MBE's obtaining required working capital, give guidance through intricacies bidding process. program, which recognizes that contracts will awarded even though they not lowest bidders if bids reflect merely attempts cover costs inflated present effects prior disadvantage discrimination, provides handling applications waiver requirement on a case-by-case basis infeasibility is demonstrated showing despite affirmative efforts, such level participation cannot achieved without departing program's objectives. program also mechanism ensure only encompassed prevent unjust firms whose access contracting opportunities impaired discrimination. Petitioners, several associations construction subcontractors firm engaged heating, ventilation, air conditioning work, filed suit declaratory injunctive relief Federal District Court, alleging had sustained economic injury due enforcement its face violated, inter alia, Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment equal protection component Due Process Fifth Amendment. Court upheld validity Appeals affirmed. Held: judgment Pp. 456-492; 517-522. 584 F.2d 600, Mr. CHIEF JUSTICE BURGER, joined Justice WHITE POWELL, concluded Act, face, does violate Constitution. 456-492. 1 (a) Viewed against legislative background objectives thereunder were ensure—without mandating allocation according inflexible percentages solely based race ethnicity—that, under who elected participate would employ procurement practices Congress decided might result perpetuation discrimination foreclosed opportunities. 456-472. 2 (b) In considering constitutionality provision, it first determined whether legislation within Congress' power. 472-480. 3 (i) primarily exercise Spending Power Art. I, § 8, cl. 1, "to . general Welfare," conditions receipt moneys upon recipient's compliance with statutory directives. Since reach broad regulatory powers, Congress, pursuant could have then may do so Power. 473-475. 4 (ii) Insofar pertains actions contractors, including those responsible any violation antidiscrimination laws, Clause. history shows there was rational conclude subcontracting perpetuate prevailing opportunities, this inequity has effect interstate commerce. 475-476. 5 (iii) grantees, use power enforce, appropriate legislation" guarantee abundant historical traditional practices, when applied businesses, prospective elimination barriers minority-firm denied opportunity grants governments, one aspect laws. Cf., e. g., Katzenbach v. Morgan, 384 641, 86 1717, 16 828; Oregon Mitchell, 400 112, 91 260, 27 272. 476-478. 6 (iv) Thus, scope Lau Nichols, 414 563, 94 786, 39 1. 479-480. 7 (c) here racial ethnic criteria condition attached grant valid means accomplish constitutional objectives, 480-492. 8 remedial context, no act wholly "color-blind" fashion. Swann Charlotte-Mecklenberg Board Education, 402 1267, 28 554; McDaniel Barresi, 39, 1287, 582; North Carolina Education Swann, 43, 1284, 586. 482-484. 9 constitutionally defective because disappoint expectations portion government nonminority themselves innocent discriminatory actions. When effectuating limited properly tailored remedy cure "a sharing burden" parties impermissible. Franks Bowman Transportation Co., 424 747, 777, 96 1251, 1270, 47 444. 484-485. 10 Nor invalid being underinclusive limits benefit specified groups rather than extending sought select preferred standing industry, but embarked place them more equitable footing respect been inadvertently effected invidious excluding coverage identifiable victim degree greater suffered program. 485-486. 11 contention overinclusive bestows identified justified competitive merit. account reasonable assurance application narrowly accomplishing misapplications promptly adequately remedied administratively. particular, exemption procedures identify eliminate "bona fide," attempt exploit aspects charging unreasonable price attributable past Moreover, obtain demonstrate best efforts achieve target limitations viewed pilot project, appropriately duration subject reassessment re-evaluation extension re-enactment. 486-489. 12 (d) continuing effort goal equality opportunity, latitude try new techniques especially programs voluntary cooperation induced placing expenditures. comes judicial review, should courts satisfied projected administration function limitations. 490-492. 13 MARSHALL, BRENNAN BLACKMUN, concurring judgment, proper inquiry determining classifications benefits minorities purpose remedying serve important governmental substantially related achievement University California Regents Bakke, 438 265, 359, 98 2733, 2783, 57 750 (opinion BRENNAN, WHITE, JJ., part dissenting part), judged standard, set-aside plainly constitutional, congressionally articulated 517-521. 14 Robert G. Benisch, New York City, petitioners Fullilove 15 J. Hickey, Washington, D. C., petitioner General Building Contractors State, Inc. Drew S. Days III, respondents. 17 [Amicus Curiae Information pages 452-453 intentionally omitted] 18 BURGER announced delivered opinion, POWELL joined. 19 We certiorari consider facial challenge congressional spending controlled members statutorily groups. 441 960, 99 2403, 60 1064 (1979). 20 * May 1977, enacted Pub.L. 95-28, Stat. 116, amended Local Capital Development Investment 1976, 94-369, 90 999, 42 U.S.C. 6701 seq. amendments authorized additional $4 billion appropriation made Commerce, acting Economic Administration (EDA), entities projects. Among changes addition become focus litigation. Section 103(f)(2) referred "MBE" that:1 21 "Except determines otherwise, shall project unless applicant gives satisfactory per centum amount each expended enterprises. For purposes paragraph, term 'minority enterprise' 50 or, case publicly business, 51 stock members. preceding sentence 22 late promulgated governing two months later.2 August EDA issued guidelines supplementing statute grants,3 October bulletin promulgating detailed instructions information assist meeting requirement.4 23 On November 30, complaint Southern seeking enjoin provision. Named defendants administrator, State City York, actual potential grantees. Petitioners subcontractors, work. Their alleged violated Amendment, various provisions.5 24 After hearing held day filed, requested temporary restraining order scheduled matter expedited merits. December 19, memorandum opinion upholding denying sought. Kreps, 443 F.Supp. 253 (1977). 25 Second Circuit affirmed, 600 (1978), holding "even most exacting standard review passes muster." Id., 603. Considered context many years court found it"difficult imagine" 605. view, number factors contributed legitimacy significant narrowed size, impact, duration, id., 607-608; looked holdings Courts 608-609.6 It expressly rejected petitioners' guarantees Constitution.7 609. II A. 26 Title I 1976. 1976 intended hort-term measure alleviate problem national unemployment stimulate economy governments build needed facilities.8 To these EDA, make construction, renovation, repair, improvement projects.9 placed restrictions eligibility designed assure targeted purposes.10 established determine priorities apportion among political jurisdictions.11 Those directed toward areas high unemployment.12 up $2 period ending September 1977;13 soon consumed Early began consideration expanded appropriations appropriation, "Round I" applicants some $25 competed available funds; nearly 25,000 applications, 2,000 granted.14 results provoked widespread concern fairness process.15 Because authorize fund II" program,16 hearings debates concerning focused politically sensitive problems priority geographic distribution supplemental appropriation.17 attention inclusion provisions revising legislation. provisions, however, retained underlying objective direct into unemployment.18 added qualify grants;19 origin amendment House version H.R. 11, offered floor February 23, Representative Mitchell Maryland.20 As offered, provided:21 29 "Notwithstanding law, articles, materials, procured percent sentence, 30 sponsor stated community, sector sorely need stimulus which, experience Government programs, expected significantly formulated.22 He cited marked statistical disparity fiscal year less 1% enterprises, although comprised 15-18% population.23 put forward during debate 11,24 reiterated fair share program.25 31 concept, building practice. his introductory remarks, rested proposal squarely ongoing 8(a) 85-536, 72 389, evident, served model developed enforce provision:26 32 "The point opposition you set-aside. Well, Madam Chairman, we doing last Government. 8-A SBA tested times legitimate fide. bill." 33 Although proposed appeared mandatory, requiring "[n]otwithstanding law," gave assurances existing practice flexibility if, particular proved infeasible.27 34 Roe Jersey suggested change language expressing twin intentions (1) administrator discretion (2) mandated demonstrated.28 substitute eventually enacted:29 35 enterprises." 36 fully accepted clarification directive initial burden fall grantee. That necessary because, he it, "every agency tried figure way avoid very thing. Believe me, bureaucracies can come 10,000 ways it."30 37 Other supporters echoed sponsor's factors, difficult isolate quantify, seemed impair Conyers Michigan spoke frustration situation, process fault own, businessmen unable gain opportunities.31 38 Biaggi "promote sense Nation." expressed view amendment, "this potentially inequitable workers" historic precluded effective opportunities.32 House.33 Two weeks later, senate considered 427, package At time Senator Brooke Massachusetts introduced worded somewhat differently version, aimed achieving same objectives.34 His statement support summarized expressions side deprived generated program.35 40 Senate adopted debate.36 Conference Committee, called resolve differences between versions approved provision.37 Reports comment: "This dependent availability enterprises located area."38 41 device thought participation; otherwise repetition ex pected, accounting inordinately small percentage contracting. causes perceived involving longstanding existence maintenance impairing sometimes relating lack—as it—"of capable qualified ready willing work."39 words sponsor, "designed begin redress grievance extant long."40 B deliverance century-old promise opportunity. sponsors linked promoting procurement, particularly 1953.41 delegates (SBA) authority obligation "whenever action necessary" enter furnish goods services, and, turn, subcontracts performance contracts. This lay dormant decade. Commencing 1968, President42 develop concerns "socially economically disadvantaged" persons position economy. 43 enacted, "social disadvantage" follows:43 44 "An maintain social disadvantage. Such arise cultural, social, chronic circumstances background, similar cause. include, to, black Americans, American Spanish-Americans, oriental Aleuts. ." 45 accompanying provided maintained groups, disadvantage.44 46 Committee lengthy Report summarizing activities, evaluation program.45 One chapter Report, entitled "Minority Enterprises Allied Problems Business," 1975 title dealing matter.46 original prepared Subcommittee Oversight observed:47 subcommittee acutely aware policies Nation guided our system 'equal laws.' inequities stemming prejudice remained past. recognized reality have, degree, adversely affected system. 48 "While comprise about Nation's population, million 382,000, approximately 3.0 percent, individuals. recent data Department indicates gross receipts country totals $2,540.8 billion, $16.6 0.65 realized concerns. 49 "These statistics random chance. presumption systems resulted inequities. right situation formulated certain uplift socially disadvantaged effectively mainstream economy.* "* report 'minority' include individuals disadvantaged."48 disappointment effectiveness.49 With specific reference contracting, concluded, "there substantial area agencies preclude realization potential."50 took "full notice evidence consideration" reports submitted Accounting U. Commission Civil Rights, reflected dissatisfaction effectiveness program.51 Rights discussed length encountered gaining federal, state, levels.52 major difficulties confronting deficiencies inability meet requirements, disabilities caused inadequate "track record," lack awareness unfamiliarity procedures, preselection before formal advertising process, officers disfavor businesses.53 52 operations organized Executive Orders54 formulate coordinate development businesses. OMBE "totally inadequate" policy increasing hampered "glaring contractor achieve," "lack provisions," meaningful monitoring system."55 53 Against backdrop inconceivable Members both Houses reasons prompting enactment. C 54 itself outlines bare bones makes critical determinations: decision initiate preference; specification minimum identification program; feasible. relied flesh skeleton, delegated rulemaking authority, operation consistent 55 set motion program.56 require funded performed bidding, determination method interest. Where employed, echo statute's "lowest responsive bid bidder responsibility," restate requirement.57 56 published devoted entirely outline obligations SBA, process.58 contemplate anticipated entail award predominant contract, assuming above requirement.59 specify selected contract "shall Grantee MBE's."60 envisions incentive motivate aspirant perform "responsive" bidders. And, since bidder, firms. too intention.61 58 either process.62 Technical Bulletin discusses detail processing requests, clarifying issues left open guidelines. specifies waivers total partial, depending circumstances,63 illustrates procedure posing hypothetical questions responses. interest, preference contemplated confronted enterprise bidder. provides:64 59 "Question : Should request asked ever granted? "Answer possible imagine situations ask product where, therefore, justified. However, honored, following determinations made: 61 "a) quote unreasonably priced. nature service subcontractor, location site prices products relevant market area, area. Furthermore, subcontractor's trying affects cost 62 "b) contacted MBEs choice accept price." 63 clear understanding partial (and granted) "unreasonable" price, i. e., levels attributed firm's 64 approach intention. recalled Enterprise special care note using "minority" "only disadvantaged."65 cognizant lists intention continue govern SBA's program.66 reliance practice, given application; expression debates, point:67 "[W]hen talking bout companies [c]ertainly people variety backgrounds included that. really measurement. They deprived." 66 elaboration clarifies definition members."68 EDA's allow credit utilization involvement constitutes strengthening long-term industries."69 Finally, complaints "unjust program," improper requirement.70 III 67 pass assume "the gravest delicate duty perform." Blodgett Holden, 275 142, 148, 105, 107, L.Ed. 206 (1927) Holmes, J.). A employs criteria, calls close examination; yet bound task deference co-equal branch charged Constitution "provide Welfare States" legislation," 1; Amdt. 14, 5. Columbia Broadcasting System, Democratic National 412 94, 102, 93 2080, 2086, 772 (1973), accorded "great weight decisions Congress" implicated fundamental rights guaranteed First rule different raises See,e. Cleland College Business, 435 213, 1024, 225 (1978); Mathews De Castro, 429 181, 97 431, 389 (1976). 68 Here pass, single judge school board, President. render immune scrutiny, "is say 'defer' question," hesitate invoke overstepped bounds Broadcasting, supra, 103, S.Ct., 2087. 69 disclosed necessarily extended background. elect mandate ethnicity. 70 Our analysis proceeds steps. outset, inquire Congress. If so, go decide presented, permissible 71 enacting employed amalgam specifically powers. nature, Const., Welfare" independent distinct Buckley Valeo, 90-91, 612, 668-669, 659 (1976); Butler, 297 65-66, 312, 319, 80 477 (1936). frequently further recipient repeatedly technique induce cooperate voluntarily policy. E. Bankers Assn. Shultz, 416 21, 1494, 812 (1974); Oklahoma CSC, 330 127, 544, 794 (1947); Helvering Davis, 301 619, 904, 81 1307 (1937); Steward Machine Co. 548, 883, 1279 (1937). 73 structured familiar pattern. agreement accomplished overcoming awarding MBE's. conditioned competitively priced, priced Admittedly, administering formidable. primary responsibility ensuring falls grantee, involve contractor, devolve party; contractual contract. 74 explore outermost attainable Power, sphere, powers If, And difficulty perceiving insofar pertain parties, 75 76 turn U.S.Const., 3. Had chosen drawn regulate federally McClung, 379 294, 85 377, 290 (1964); Heart Atlanta Motel, 241, 348, 258 (1964). Thus take situation. Ibid. 77 shown cases VII 1964, 78 253, amended, express doubt prohibit "challenged perpetuating [not unlawful] occurring date Act." 761, 1263, 444 see Brewers Bryant, 598, 814, (1980); Teamsters 431 324, 1843, 396 (1977); Albemarle Paper Moody, 422 405, 95 2362, 280 (1975); Griggs Duke 401 424, 849, 158 (1971). (3) 79 contexts, governments. League Cities Usery, 426 833, 2465, 245 complications, look funds. Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 2666, 614 persuades us 828 (1966), equated Necessary Proper Clause, 18. "Correctly viewed, positive authorizing what secure Amendment." U.S., 651, 1723-24. Katzenbach, 4(e) Voting 1965, 439, 1973b(e), prohibited English-language literacy voters completed sixth grade accredited English medium instruction. uphold prerequisite 648-649, 1722. enough perceive reasonably predicate qualifications compass discriminate terms ballot consequently programs. 652-653, 1724. Four 272 (1970), 201 Amendments 1970, 84 315, imposed 5-year nationwide prohibition voter-qualification tests devices elections. unanimous, albeit separate opinions, concluding voter qualifications; attacking purposeful only. See Rome 446 156, 176-177, 1548, 1561-1562, 119 (1980). reviewing parallel Fifteenth 15, confirm extends beyond encompass impact South 383 301, 803, 769 (1966); cf. Rome, supra. 82 perpetuated course, legislate compiling kind "record" proceedings. data, long roots today, intentional unlawful conduct. much pattern existed well. relation acted competence scope. 83 recites preambulary "findings" subject, Accordingly, (4) There similarities reviewed (1974). Lau, barrier "effectively foreclosed" non-English-speaking Chinese pupils educational San Francisco 564-566, 787-788. acts. Nevertheless, regulation applicable receiving "criteria methods defeating accomplishment [educational] race, color, origin." 568, 789 (emphasis added). system, funds, "[w]here speak understand excludes origin-minority children district, district steps rectify deficiency instructional students." true differs directly objectives; essentially Lau. instructive like regulates conditions. methods, defeating, impairing, community appropriations. now question whether, way, grant. mindful "[i]n pay instrumentalities power," Mutual Insurance Tidewater Transfer 337 582, 603, 1173, 1183, 1556 (1949) Jackson, exercising recognize careful goal. 87 Again, stress inquiry. decree challenged face; damages allegedly flowing nor attempted show party case.71 circumstances, light administration, find free defects, Parker Levy, 417 733, 760, 2547, 2563, 439 Fortson Dorsey, 433, 438-439, 498, 501, (1965); Aptheker 378 500, 515, 1659, 1668, 992 Raines, 362 17, 20-24, 519, 522-524, 524 (1960). 88 reveals strictly measure; moreover, functions prospectively, manner decree. Pursuant MBE's; Supra, 468-469. assumes undertake good faith target, bidders, higher bids, challenged, 470-471. demonstration 469-470. mechanism, procedure, 471-472. 89 threshold matter, reject Charlotte-Mecklenburg 18-21, 1277-1278, 554 (1971), argument court-formulated desegregation examination composition student bodies unavoidable starting racially attendance assignments absolute balance required. 41, 1289, 582 citing observed: "In almost invariably students assigned 'differently race.' Any freeze status quo processes." (Citations omitted.) 586 invalidated law absolutely forbade assignment implementation plans violations. "[j]ust occurred, formulating remedy." 46, 1286. dealt unconstitutional incorporate laws factor. (1975). another setting, voting legislation, violation. Jewish Organizations Williamsburgh, Carey, 430 144, 147-165, 996, 1000-1009, 229 (1977) J., STEVENS, JJ.); 180-187, 1017-1020 (BURGER, C. grounds). 92 court, alert limitation "[t]he restructure 'is plenary. .' [A] tailor 'the remedy' fit violation." Dayton Brinkman, 433 406, 419-420, 2766, 2775, 851 (quoting Milliken Bradley, 418 717, 738, 3112, 3124, 1069 (1974), 16, 1276). deal, noted earlier, example, organ government, repose comprehensive guarantees. also, declare conduct unlawful, may, here, 473-480. charge impermissibly deprives Act. conceded impairment access, Failure receive is, incidental consequence objective; similarly, "business usual" contractors. defect Franks, 1270; Albermarle supra; Organizations, "burden" shouldered relatively connection compared overall opportunities.72 complaining conduct, assumption reaped over virtual exclusion Another assertion underinclusive—that would, provide; courts. Even well-established concept legislature step broader relevance. Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 1153, 491 (1970); Williamson Lee Optical 348 483, 461, 563 (1955). seeks confer nondisadvantaged similarly minorities. authority. See, Personnel Administrator Feeney, 442 256, 2282, 870 (1979); Califano Webster, 313, 1192, 360 Morton Mancari, 535, 2474, facts limit Vance 440 93, 109-112, 939, 949-950, 171 240, 322 JJ.). But record hold represented courts, heavy host intractable problems. 101 102 contended conceivable effect; peculiarities case. presented denial request; await future cases. 103 mean claim overinclusiveness tolerance imposing deleterious benign stray narrow justifications. case, muster unless, 104 scheme exemption. assumptions underlie program: groups; evaluate adjustment accounted Each rebutted 105 contains measures effectuate assuring Administrative tightened definite program.73 scrutiny fide" guidelines; spurious minority-front exposed. surveillance reporting program." 472. awards, attempting 469-471. false claims prompt them. 106 Grantees succeed succeeded once demonstrated. letting warrant. 107 participation. administratively cumbersome, wisdom concentrating evaluate; supervision allows grievances assert failed opposed entities, transgress inherent possibility removed. Steelworkers Weber, 193, 200, 2721, 2726, 480 108 premised rebuttable remedied. statute, doubts resolved reevaluation re-enactment.74 Miscarriages transitory irremediable. IV 109 after consideration, pressing move approaches effort, press outer affords striking down. 110 mounted branches part, proceed reassessment; vigilant flexible; Jackson admonished 1941:75 111 Supreme tasks counsels self-restraint urged earnestly humbly faithfully heeded. forces conservatism liberalism, radicalism reaction, emotion self-interest caught averaged rest compromise Missouri Compromise, N.R.A., A.A.A., minimum-wage policy, down closes conflicts actually, temporarily, composed. takes away democratic federalism defenses domestic disorder violence. vice supremacy, exerted ninety field progressive closing avenues peaceful conciliation conflicts." 112 thoughts shortly death Godkin Lectures:76 113 "I said matters own usurpation me justifiable promising permanent kind. So presuppose depart resolving controversies brought conventional form, consciously encroach branches." 114 sure, discussing allowed states problems, Brandeis say: 115 "To stay experimentation things grave responsibility. Denial experiment fraught serious consequences Ice Liebmann, 285 262, 311, 371, 386, 747 (1932) (dissenting opinion). 116 searching sure conflict requires, received, examination. adopt, implicitly, formulas (1978). demonstrates survive "test" Bakke opinions. Constitution.77 117 Affirmed. APPENDIX TO OPINION OF 118 ¶ Guidelines, 2-7, part: carrying rests Grantees. purchase (hereinafter 'prime contractors') every project. 120 ownership interests real created requirements. owners stockholders possess control management, interest capital earnings commensurate based. 121 supply materials needed. depends engage wide 122 expect Inability ordinarily disqualify MBE. help bonding, bond 90% participating LPW [local works] Lack otherwise. 123 " [E]very knows names, addresses areas. prebid conferences invite interested representatives organizations. 124 "Arrangements requirement. 125 "Grantees Administration. 126 [T]he monitor commitments expend fulfilled. administer tightly. 127 2. 13-15, 128 "Although section approve exceptional circumstances. sufficient, relevant, justify waiver. locate enlist indicate reason used. 129 130 "Only negotiation unsuccessful. 131 132 "[A] situated population apply requesting 133 Bulletin, definitions: 134 Negro—An individual African origin. 135 Spanish-speaking—An Spanish-speaking culture parentage. 136 "c) Oriental—An culture, parentage traceable south Soviet Union, East Iran, inclusive islands adjacent thereto, Pacific Indonesia, Indochina, Malaysia, Hawaii Philippines. 137 "d) Indian—An having origins America Indian tribe, tribal organization suitable community. (A be: institutions, religious organizations, agencies.) 138 "e) Eskimo—An peoples Alaska. 139 "f) Aleut—An Aleutian Islands." 140 4. 141 "Any person indicating believes improperly contact complaint. 142 "Upon complaint, dispute. event reaching determination, Specialist Regional Office. 143 "If complainant satisfactorily raised personally Office." 144 concurring. 145 emphasis THE articulate standards terms, announcing accord my views. join write separately forth (1978) ). 146 enact (PWEA), work aside classification advancing compelling 299, 305, 2756; re Griffiths, 413 721-722, 2851, 2854-2855, 910 (1973); Loving Virginia, 388 1817, 1823, 1010 (1967); McLaughlin Florida, 184, 196, 283, 290, 222 myBakke adherence precedent. 147 demand distinction justifiable. Different sorts simply illustrate principle likely others. Racial assessed stringent immutable characteristics, bear merit need, irrelevant decision. Anderson Martin, 375 399, 402-404, 454, 455-456, believe serves eradicating Congress.1 148 never constitute 'Distinctions ancestry' [are] 'odious institutions founded doctrine equality.' quoting Hirabayashi 320 81, 100, 1375, 1385, 1774 (1943). expresses desire prefer another, violates Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 499, 693, 694, 884 (1954). 149 ameliorating disabling 307, 2757; see, Keyes School Denver, Colo., 189, 236, 2686, 2711, 548 (1973) (POWELL, part); 1288, (1971); 45-46, 1285-1286, Green County Board, 391 430, 437-438, 1689, 1693-1694, 716 (1968). illegal justifies imposition "make whole injuries discrimination." 418, 2372, inquiry, redressing race-conscious remedies judicial, administrative, findings 367-376, 1870-1875, 155-159, 1004-1006, J.); 308-315, 808-811, (1966). 150 impermissible violation, creating occurred. words, met. First, body impose response Cf. Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 88, 1895, 1905, 495 Second, entrusted functions, quota medical admissions. 309-310, 2758-2759. 151 establish proffers suspect classification, fulfill purpose. 2854-2855. university did attainment diverse body. end, fixed admissions quota, appropriate. Regents' eliminated seats entering class, compete seats. 275-276, 2740-2741. contrast, factor, sole assessing applicant's university's diversity while receives consideration. 317-318, 2762-2763. 152 103(f)(2), decide: competent discrimination; sufficient None answered explicit recognition 153 Court's Legislature Unlike California, indeed must—address society. 257, 357, 304, 384, (1964), restaurants "finding[s] [such discrimination] adverse flow commerce." 154 Similarly, "overwhelming" employment H.R.Rep.No.914, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., pt. p. (1963), 1964 fostered stratified job environments citizens." McDonnell Douglas Corp. Green, 411 792, 800, 668 (1973). Acting VII, vested 'persons aggrieved be, far possible, restored discrimination.' 764, 1264, (1976), Section-by-Section Analysis 1746, Opportunity 1972 Cong.Rec. 7166, 7168 (1972). 155 addition, unique legislating Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Amendments.2 early date, "[i]t enlarged" post-Civil War Amendments. Ex parte 339, 345, 676 (1880). Jones Alfred Mayer & 392 409, 441-443, 2186, 2204-2205, 1189 (1968), inhibiting acquire convey property forbidden Thirteenth Subsequently, enactment 1981 Runyon McCrary, 160, 168-170, 179, 2586, 2593-2594, 2598, 415 employment. McDonald Sante Fe 273, 295-296, 2574, 2585-2586, 493 Johnson Railway Express Agency, Inc., 421 459-460, 1716, 1719-1720, 295 156 1973b(e). educated Puerto Rico vote election failure read language. empowered Rican Implicit belief find, found, 157 violations confirmed construing Enforcement 308, 808, 1973 seq., "insidious pervasive" demanding "ster[n] elaborate" measures. 309, 808. Most approval "prescrib[e] adjudication." 327-328, 818.3 question, prescribe eradicate effects. next adequate extensive 159 contend reflects finding Crucial PWEA believed combating theory erect artificial full 160 adjudicatory disputes competing adversaries. Its role representative impartial, settled principles law. treat complete decisionmaking plea court. conclusions creation rules governance society recordmaking proceeding. confine vision adduced parties. Instead, attribute lies mission investigate opinions resolution issue. source expertise acquires earlier legislated concern, reduce fresh prolonged again considers 161 Acceptance force factual action. mark unprecedented Neither tradition warrants constraint therefore confined alone. Rather, examine contemporary 162 negligible contractors.4 overview history, ante, 456-457, few added. 163 originated Representatives Mitchell. Congressman already operating 637(a). described sensible viable country, ultimate going able end survival contribute economy." 5327 (1977).5 Brooke, Senate, reminded previously Railroad Revitalization Regulatory Reform 149, 1657a, stated, amendment. 7155-7156 164 subcontract Order persons. Ante, 463-464.6 Committees 1977. 1972, "are linger characteristics group." H.R.Rep.No.92-1615, 1975, past," low "past practices." H.R.Rep.No.94-468, pp. 1-2 165 "over years, traditionally excluded measurable present, conducting transactions overtly input. Currently, often encounter neutral overt presently operating, effect, inequities." H.R.Rep.No.94-1791, 182 166 Committee's January 3, Representatives.7 167 discussion contained JUSTICE's conclusion received. Refusals sub-contract identity discriminating party, VI 2000d 1981, activities exactitude adjudication, remembered "Congress paint brush 284, 344, (1970) (STEWART, part).8 168 doctrine, strict scrutiny. Part 2756. leads serving past, "means" test virtually impossible satisfy. Only modern constitutional. Korematsu 323 214, 194 (1944); Hirabayshi Indeed, led wonder theory, fatal fact. Gunther, 1971 Term—Foreword: Search Evolving Doctrine Changing Court: Model Newer Protection, Harv.L.Rev. 169 Application demands type preference. unconstitutional. 497. conscious nonracial instances, non-racial 310-311, 2759. 170 Enactment recognized, affect race. 1285-1286. exceed 267, 280-281, 2749, 2757, 745 Austin Independent 990, 991, 517, 603 (1976) concurring), restrictive implementation. balancing left, limits, sound trial court." 794, 1278 part). Clauses choose instructive. Howard, member Joint Reconstruction delegation carry [the] guarantees" Cong.Globe, 39th 2766 (1866). 172 "casts seeing future, sections carried faith, infringes property. clause indispensable thus imposes duty." 2768. 173 Howard's importance goals Stevens, "allows correct States," 2459, Poland wished leave "as lying foundation republican government. 2961. 2512-2513 (remarks Rep. Raymond); 2511 (Rep. Eliot); 676.9 174 Framers behind Fairman, History States: Reunion, 1295, 1296 unreviewable Court. Several emphasized 1866 "in eternal firmament Constitution." 2462 (1866) Garfield). 2459 Stevens); 2465 Thayer); 2498 Broomall). By 1866, understood Legislative Branches conform Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, (1803). 175 conclude, advance repairing exercised erode Judicial Branch justification employing remedy. intrusive equally upheld, preserves essential safeguard classifications. 176 selection remedy, closely analogous hiring efficacy alternative remedies, NAACP Allen, 614, 619 (CA5 1974); Vulcan Society Service Comm'n, 490 387, 398 (CA2 1973), planned 399; Wood, Wire Metal Lathers 471 408, 414, n. (CA2), cert. denied, 2773, relationship workers force, Association Discrimination Bridgeport, 594 306, 311 1979); Boston Chapter Beecher, 504 1017, 1026-1027 (CA1 1974), 910, 1561, 775 Bridgeport Guardians, 482 1333, 1341 1997, 481 Carter Gallagher, 452 331 (CA8) (en banc), 406 950, 2045, 338 (1972), plan met, Associated Contractors, Altshuler, 9, 18-19 957, 1971, 307 177 knew ameliorate industry. addressed executive fact 7156 Sen. Brooke). recession threatened industry whole. bill appropriating construction. emergency distributed quickly,10 promptly. continued success assistance.11 ability frustrated trades.12 enable assistance. 178 concludes, ends. ensures longer eliminate. re-examine re-enacts 103(f)(2). 179 discretion. insuring population. F.2d, 1027; 1341; 331. 4% 608 1978), 17% Constructors Western Pennsylvania 936, 951 (WD Pa.1977), aff'd, 573 811 (CA3 1978). roughly halfway Nation. 180 pegged figure, unfair rigidly issuance size locale's Dept. Program, Round II, Guidelines Participation Grants App. 165a-167a. told 1,261 Brief 62, 37. 181 crucial factor—the third 374-375, 1874. wrongdoing. believe, great disapproved. above, enacted. appropriated projects, $400 calculated reserve 0.25% yearly group. F.2d., 607-608. remaining 96% 99.75% widely dispersed fairness.13 Consideration furthering marginal unfairness sufficiently identifiable—to outweigh acts choosing Whatever exact breadth discretion, encompasses case.14 V 183 divisive arising taken played tragic legacy government-sanctioned Plessy Ferguson, 537, 1138, 256 (1896); Dred Scott Sandford, How. 393, 691 (1857). Brown 686, 873 (1954), resolute dedication irrelevant. pigmentation quest ignore still suffer 184 Distinguishing perplexing, necessary, task. issue make, made, adopted. clear, classifications, fundamentally odds ideals implicit Clauses, transient goals, however worthy be. turns power, victims chose purpose, invalidate 103(f)(2).15 185 whom BLACKMUN join, judgment. 186 My governed coauthored 324-379, 2766-2794, opinion.1 187 Brothers articulating "racial se [the of] 356, 2782 part) joint opinion).2 acknowledged 'suspect classifications' subjected 'strict scrutiny' furthers then, available." 2782. firmly adhered cardinal stigmatize—because inferior hatred separatism—are more." 357-358, 2783. 188 outlawing pernicious inapposite discrimination.3 whites, whites class 'traditional indicia suspectness: saddled disabilities, unequal treatment, relegated powerlessness command extraordinary majoritarian process.' 2783 Antonio Rodriguez, 28, 1278, 1293, (1973)). Carolene Products 304 152, 4, 778, 783, 1234 (1938). crafted stigmatization, "strict scrutiny" 362, 2785 (joint 189 analyzed minimally rigorous rational-basis review. 358, stigmatize powerless segments society, paternalistic stereotyping, characteristic runs counter deep state-sanctioned burdens 360-361, 2784. 190 ostensibly susceptible misuse, "an use." 361, 2785. stricken stigmatizes singles well brunt 191 Judged one. 192 Chief demonstrates, 456-467, indisputable Brother 503-506. minority-owned capable, received disproportionately Here, opinion), underrepresentation chronic, handicap impeding to" generally 362-373, 2785-2790.4 193 implement meets second prong test. break creates favor stigmatizes. "[f]or difference between" setting predetermined places factor evaluating applicants." 378, 2793. set-aside, implemented carefully avoiding stigmatization penalizing protect 480-489. 508-515. neither burdened it. "establish ceiling," 375, 2792 miniscule annually 484-485, 72. sum, Bakke. 195 387-396, 2798, recounted "ingenious pervasive forms Negro" condoned Negro today inevitable centuries treatment." 395, 2802. stated: 196 "It treatment permit making positions influence, affluence, prestige America. long, doors shut Negroes. integrated color person's skin him her, doors." 401, 2805. 197 opened acceptance remedies. observed get racism, way." 407, 2808 (separate 198 realities Today, accords moving abstract forever frozen fabric. applaud result. concur 199 STEWART, REHNQUIST joins, dissenting. 200 "Our color-blind, tolerates classes citizens. regards man man, surroundings written Member ago. 559, 1146, (Harlan, dissenting). colleagues disagreed him, separation "reasonable" "enacted promotion [of] 550, 1143. upholds "Negroes, Aleuts," reasons. think today's wrong Ferguson wrong, respectfully dissent. central meaning—it prohibits met 10, 1822, 1010; Hill Texas, 316 400, 1159, 1559; Strauder West 303, 307-308, 664; Slaughter-House Cases, Wall. 36, 71-72, 394. Washington 229, 239, 2040, 2047, 597; 884.1 Constitution, official treats inherently presumptively invalid. 192, 288, 222; 694; 216, 194, 194.2 202 hostility manifested 873; rel. Gaines Canada, 305 337, 232, 208. forbidding whatever victims. instance, candidate office designated nomination papers ballots. candidates nonetheless protection. "We relevance," said, State's pointing bearing office." 403, 456 statutes miscegenation interracial cohabitation invalid, penalized violators equally. simple Goss 373 683, 1405, 632; Buchanan Warley, 60, 149.3 203 lesson. detriment race.4 ability, disadvantage, moral culpability, "Distinctions ancestry odious equality." 1774, quoted 1823.5 short, 204 injured biased minority. "universal [its] application, regard nationality." Yick Wo Hopkins, 369, 1064, 1070, 220. 910; Hernandez 475, 667, 866; Truax Raich, 239 33, 39-43, 7, 9-11, 131; 308. unequivocal: Amendment: "No deny laws." Nothing "persons" "equal" Shelley Kraemer, 334 22, 836, 846, 1161 afforded "are, individual. [They] personal rights." From perspective detrimentally arbitrariness same, law's purportedly "for good" 205 No self-evident proposition disburse revenues deems disbursed. enjoys truisms answer obey just legislatures unconstitutional, States. denies directs submit 6705(e)(1) (1976 ed., Supp. II). firms—defined attributes owners—is, excepted rigor bars belong benefit, precisely forbids. 207 characterize counteract remarkably unconvincing. equity. dispassionate objectivity mold around eliminating discrimination.6 208 previous disbursement pushes Certainly, nothing detriments Branch.7 Pasadena Spangler, 2697, 599. 209 satisfy condition. suggests counteracting industry.8 appears contracts.9 But, immunizes capricious "persons"—not "races"—it countenance itself. "Preferring sake. forbids." indications compensate educational, "disadvantage."10 monopoly disadvantage,11 indulges clearly stand comports strictures protection, could.12 210 treated regardless skin. promised founded—that honor lineage.13 Tragically, 1868 immediately fulfilled, decades passed finally detrimental derails imprimatur privileges birth. 211 drastic without, seriously ramifications Laws operate definitions books contain delineating qualities white.14 "good faith" inevitably two-edged sword. "[P]referential reinforce common stereotypes worth." 298, 2753 importantly, criterion affairs, implicitly teaches apportionment rewards penalties legitimately race—rather ability—and can, perhaps should, others characteristics. Notions entitlement" fostered, encouraged.15 Hughes Superior 339 460, 463-464, 718, 720, 985; T. Eastland W. Bennett, Counting Race 139-170 Van Alstyne, Rites Passage: Race, U.Chi.L.Rev. 212 views someday prevail. racism—not "temporarily" "experiment." 213 reasons, reverse Appeals. 214 215 (Act), investors beneficiaries represent entrepreneurial subclass—those borrow, capital. 216 associated sovereign's exclusive shoddy workmanship handmaidens monopoly; engender animosity discontent noble birth 18th-century France, disastrous, terror engendered name "egalite" "fraternite." privilege acquired unmixed blessing. 217 aversion titles nobility1 commitment sovereign impartially.2 persons, difference.3 seldom disparate treatment,4 harmful entire politic,5 unquestionably legitimate. 218 includes "citizens All aliens nonmembers excluded. economic, geographical, inclusion. word remainder explains why favored identifies share.6 explain six subclasses.7 219 different, interrelated, justifications advanced: first, form reparation membership class; second, contracts; third, entitlement piece action" distributing benefits; fourth, fostering asserted merits 220 define who, reparations. tribes unjustly allowing classwide relief. Delaware Tribal Weeks, 73, 911, 173. formerly suggested, recovery distribute evenhanded way. 97-98, 925 (STEVENS, harm cure. 221 eloquent 750, MARSHALL class-based Negroes indelible America's history. committed measured sum class. Whether resources character address. classification. Quite obviously, Eskimos Indians. subclasses surely follow identical magnitude. dragged chains sold slavery," 2798 J.), "Spanish-speaking" subclass came voluntarily, invitation, Aleuts ancestors arrived. assume, suggests, reparations Government.8 223 best, perverse classes. suffering wrong.9 poor compensation shared many. 224 principal objection cuts deeply character. erase recounted. lines embodied privileges. ethnic, religious, strength negotiate dispute severe slapdash providing 226 narrower measure—one practices. 227 tell when, how often, access. infer incidents years. For, Solicitor General, numerous programs.10 unequivocally comprehensively activity financial scarcity litigated behalf period, contrary record, presume obeyed. 228 Assuming, instant nevertheless demonstrably wrong. successfully obtained undoubtedly well; past; initially formed passed, advantage provisions;11 unsuccessful unrelated stockholders; (5) victimized four categories wrongfully contracts, measure. fifth category,12 seems inappropriate wrongs.13 event, highly unlikely category valuable preference, ill-fitting "narrowly tailored" measure.14 230 discloses legislators "Black Caucus" argued constituents action." 231 unusual reprehensible Congressmen promote authorization districts. indirect beneficial. Elrod Burns, 347, 2673, 547, patronage dispensed power.15 allies condemned Elrod, all, portion, another. majority convinced grossly disproportionate opposite 232 short run processes enhanced disseminate backers. objectionable purely partisan basis. 233 legislators' 234 facilitating encouraging entry growth grounded irrational prejudice—should vigorously thoroughly Equality investment remove entry. sparse insuperable obstacles market. 235 Three references followed officers, financing, 236 time. thorough intelligible accessible all. prepare businessmen. Consequently, grounds. 237 prohibiting lending financing borrow money rating. loans banks Orientals repay loans. Nor, granting includes, extreme, problem16 unsatisfactory rating taking crude evils 238 overcome evaluate. analyzing draw path compete. unfortunately persists continues obstruct pursuits, presumably eliminate, tend prejudice. importance, resentment competitors skepticism customers suppliers defended reducing 240 easily proved. reduction occurred generation anticipated; remains increased produced ever-increasing demonstrations races basis, excelling professions. resting race.17 perception—especially States—can exacerbate prejudice, delay truly irrelevant, insignificant, Unless articulates tailors justification, statute. 241 drafted 1965. dramatic responses injustice craftsmanship significance. Whereas preceded exhaustive electoral became authorizes automatic performed. Just wealthy investor Alaska—or citizen Eskimo Miami Detroit—is basic 242 poll taxes tests, removed old access; preclearance covered erection barriers. outlaw contrary, adopts own. 243 comparable Surely representation due. create inequality impartial tolerate. Yet "remedy" authorizes. future. value votes dollars. 244 human being's removal goal.18 frustrate progress. POWELL19 Douglas20 perceptively observed, protective habitual thinking instead Preferences foster intolerance antagonism classes.21 reason, am "temporary measure" disserve judge's profoundly unwise insufficient spend "general "regulate Amendments, 101-102, 1904, 495.22 constraints substantive procedural components; performs impartially. 246 STEWART REHNQUIST, persuaded scrutinize draws distinctions incidentally discriminates noncitizens classes.23 safeguards play vital preserving process.24 247 markedly normal thousands departure mentioned processed legislation,25 testimony brief days, handful debate. perfunctory profound accidental malfunction regarded totally unjustified 97, 925. 248 judges regularity obvious busy precipitately, deprivation liberty law.26 Whenever fashioned legislature, process.27 alternatives explained final substance goal."28 480; MARSHALL's 521. Acts Amendment—a separation-of-powers tentative unconstitutionality deliberation obviously merits.29 249 events, STEWART's ground. fairly characterized address way.30 risk attitudes imposed. explanation women, aliens, illegitimates, Today danger lead 250 disability, treatment.31 imperative. 251 bases differentiating me: wrongs, true. judicially proposition. demonstration, discharge impartially 252 6705(f)(2) Fed.Reg. 27432 (1977), 35822 CFR 317 Guidelines); 156a-167a. (Additional Assistance Available Meeting Requirement) Bulletin); 129a-155a. §§ 1983, 1985; VI, 601 252, 2000d; 701 2000e Ohio 580 (CA6 1978); Rhode Island Chapter, 450 (R.I. 77-4218 (Kan. Feb. Carolinas Branch, (S.C. 1977); 1013 (SD Montana Contractors' 1331 (Mont. Florida Coast 77-8351 Fla. 955 (CD Cal. 1977), vacated remanded mootness, 909, 3132, 1153 remand, 459 766 Cal.), sub nom. Armistead 908, 3052, 1138. Both arguments discussion. 608, 15; F.Supp., 262. H.R.Rep.No.94-1077, U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1746. version. S.Conf.Rep.No.94-939, H.R.Conf.Rep.No.94-1260, 6702. 1000, 6705. 6707. 1001, 6707(c). 1002, 6710. later. 94-447, 1497. 2136 Randolph). Hearings Related Bills Transportation, 95th Sess. H.R.Rep.No.95-20 S.Rep.No.95-38 150. 119, 6710 day. 95-29, 123. Hearings, 5290-5353 7097-7176. 117, 6707 6705 5097 Mitchell). 5098. 5097-5098. 5327. reintroduced, modified provide: dollar volume 5327-5328. 5328 Roe). 5329 5330 Conyers). 5331 Biaggi). 5332. paragraph Brooke's formulation originally text, 458-459. provided: interpreted defund percent. consultation solicitation lists." S.Conf.Rep.No.95-110, H.R.Conf.Rep.No.95-230, agreed Cong.Rec.12941-12942 House, 13242-13257, signed 13, 5327; Exec.Order 11375, 684 (1966-1970 Comp.); 11518, 907 Comp.). 124.8-1(c)(1) Development, Standard Operating Procedure 15-16 (1975) ("[T]he disadvantages her generally, system"); Ownership MSB COD Programs, (1979) ("The individuals, above-named [racial ethnic] Membership alone conclusive disadvantaged"). H.R.Rep.No.94-1791 124-149. Security Bond Guarantee industry: Minorities, until recently, participated extent, particular." H.R.Rep.No.840, 28-30 29. 11; Office, Questionable Effectiveness Procurement GGD-75-57 Comm'n Minorities Women (May 1975). "Minorities Contractors" 16-28, 86-88 11458, 779 11625, 616 (1971-1975 observations current minorities, (1972); H.R.Rep.No.95-949, S.Rep.No.95-1070, 14-15 S.Rep.No.96-31, 123-124 H.R.Doc.No.92-169, H.R.Doc.No.92-194, 6706 II); II) 6705(e)(1); 317.19 2-7; 157a-160a. portions Appendix 2; 157a; 5327-5328 8; 161a. 13-16; 5; 136a. 9-10; 143a. Text 48, 131a-132a. These 3; 135a. 19; 155a. "[s]pecific examples" three instances assertedly provision; 12a-13a, 17a-19a. calculate $4.2 amounted 2.5% $170 spent annual expenditure 607. II), classifies numbers." classified nondiscrimination 265.5(i) precedent Government's enterprise." 20-21 Appeals; GAO, Firms Projects—Mixed Results, CED-79-9 (Jan. Program Interim Percent Requirement (Sept. R. Struggle Supremacy 321 (1941). System 61-62 statutes, 5, inconsistent 1964. inconsistency inconsistencies asserted, provision—the enactment—must deemed control. 550-551, 2482-2483, Preiser 489-490, 1827, 1836, Bulova Watch 365 753, 758, 864, 867, (1961); Borden 308 188, 198-202, 182, 188-190, (1939). agree applicable: "Under invalid." Post, 523. rebutted. 390 333, 334, 994, 1212 (1968) (BLACK, HARLAN, concurring). abolished slavery, article legislation." language, suspension jurisdictions. 1973aa temporarily banned speaking five unanimously 261 (Black, 135, 270 (Douglas, 279 (BRENNAN, 281, 343 concurred). said: state-by-state citizen's box. uniformity, deciding records. 1965 supported ban tests." 344 (citation omitted). suggestion "perceive basis" 604-605 656, 1726, refers act, impinge 500-503; meaningless context. absence findings. During subsequent "through foot door." 1969, President Orders directing "members [participate system]," 908 Comp.), "opportunity justice." Orders. Ray Baillie Trash Hauling, Kleppe, 696, 706 914, 1410, 468 905, 906, establishes Resource Center rehabilitation railroads. "established passage encourage S.Rep.No.94-499, (Commerce Committee). 803(d) affirmative-action proportion 265.9-265.17 nn. 12, infra. suffices content standards. Race-conscious popularly infra, 514. Respect this, depend large public's perception fairness. 53, 2763, Wilkinson, 264-266 Perry, Modern Protection: Conceptualization Appraisal, Colum.L.Rev. 1023, 1048-1049 supporting satisfies fairminded just. 2203-2204, Trumbull Amendment). 6707(h)(1) Action days 6706, on-site approval, 6705(d). oversight "complex problem—how prosperity bias." (Select Business). translate barriers: increase entrepreneurs economy, businessman usually encounters entrepreneur faced beginning entrepreneurs. holders amounts outside Lending security track lend provide. produce either, turned "Functional necessity successful enterprise. assumed labor whereby learn physical enterprise, internal management." 3-4. unemployment. refused override "Philadelphia Plan." Plan," Labor Eastern Labor, 159, (CA3), 404 854, 98, Later year, adopt overruling Department's order. 40921 (1969). voted recede position. 40749. debate, Philadelphia Plan 40740 Scott); 40741 Griffith); 40744 Bayh). Percy blacks 40742-40743. position, Kennedy "exceptionally blatant" trades. commended Senate's useful tool minorities." 41072. legally Apparently funding, argues "[n]onminorities lost expectation 61. base considerations, entitled. Goldfarb, 199, 210-212, 1021, 1028-1029, Richardson Belcher, 78, 254, (1971) ("To conferring 'public benefit' not, immunize Amendment"). imply unavailable always specificity vary VI. 287 348-350, 2778-2779 prohibitions VI—which outlaws assistance—are coextensive 328, 2768 287, 2746 '[e]qual Amendment.' 367, 2788 opinion) 670, (per curiam )). Medical Davis reserved opinion); 305-306, 2756-2757 argue particularized misguided. framing rules, adjudicating disputes. "require preferential societal benefited 366, 2787 478; 502-503. "Equal 659. affairs. 480. States; suggest rule. university. apportioned districts composition. plaintiffs "failed reapportionment race," 179-180, 1017 (concurring franchise. More ago, World War, 194; 1774. Significantly, war, era 884. equity devising undo 396; 444; 18-32, 1277-1284, 554. decree, litigation determined, generalized awards recipients. text B, Murphy wrote 242, 206: "Racial life. unattractive utterly revolting embraced States." DeFunis Odegaard, 331-344, 1704, 1713-1719, dissenting); Bickel, Morality Consent 132-133 county's redrafting pupil segregation pupils. education "enforce" article." flout afford laws" mention historically particular. 182-183 Amend Extend Act: 939 (statement Some well, fact, Mitchell) ("all provision] legislation") supplied). rate Biaggi); Mitchell); 5097-5098 (Sen. Conyers) ("minority 'works' defy imaginations here"). "disadvantage" inference finds agency's interpretation 9-10 (Technical Bulletin) ("a [minority] added)). 1978, 83.4% age "white," Bureau Census, Statistical Abstract (1979), 79.0% households incomes $5,000 458. struck 851; 1069. sweeps broadly. Waivers permitted, numbers nonexorbitant entity prove permitted behavior. arguably evil corrected. oversimplification Negro, citizen, Oriental, Indian, Eskimo, Aleut currently suffers assumption, paints brush. Except sins lived Old operated shadow ancient feudal traditions. Age Enlightenment, white men ("No Nobility States"). Thomas Jefferson 1776 Declaration Independence, seeds principle: truths self-evident: equal. supra Cf.: Ga.Code 53-312 Tex.Penal Code, (Vernon 1938). potent, omnipresent teacher. ill, example." Olmstead 277 438, 485, 564, 575, 944 (Brandeis, "Such pure certainly 'legitimate purpose' Government, grounds [, 1774]. inception, 'created equal' eyes Independence states: 'We self-evident, equal, endowed Creator unalienable Life, Liberty pursuit Happiness.' "And rationale nobility attaching badge ignobility birth." Lucas, 495, 520-521, 2755, 2769, 651 sovereign, justice Amendment's 1903, 495. Harris McRae, 297, 349, 356-357, 2671, 2701, 2712, 2715-2716, 784 Craig Boren, 190, 211, 451, 464, "As attitude clause, purposes. ceases avoided pointed free. differentiation object ordinance." 336 106, 115, 463, 468, 533 (Jackson, "Habit, analysis, seem acceptable natural distinguish male female, alien citizens, illegitimate; inertia distinguishing white. sort stereotyped reaction relationship—other prejudicial made." 2769 dissenting) (footnote precision beneficiary's qualifying repugnant ideals. so-called appendix JUSTICE, 494-495, innocuous; vague useful. unclear eligible administered objectively, study precedents Regulation Reichs Citizenship Law 1935, translated Nazi Conspiracy Aggression, Document 1417-PS, 8-9 (1946): "On Article Law, Sept. 1935 (RGB1. page 146) ordered: "Article "1. Jew anyone descended grandparents Jews. par. apply. "2. parents, if: belonged issued, later; married person, subsequently; offspring marriage Jew, contracted German blood 1146 1935); extramarital relationship, born wedlock 31, 1936." persons." description "persons Oriental 463-464. 487-488, 73. identifying disadvantaged. involved 1968 assisted California's Harvard 315-318, 2761-2763, 750. total; figure. revealed firms; indicate, An guideline implies investments fide." 492. bears relative subclasses, reside. respectively 7% Alaska, Encyclopedia 47, 59, 891 (4th ed. 1975), urban Ironically, appear ruthlessly exploited Russian fur traders. Encyclopedia, 59. males 270, females. relieved widows proving dependency deceased spouses benefits, relieve widowers. nondependent husbands. widow benefits. 'suddenly forced she unfamiliar, former dependency, fewer skills offer.' [Kahn Shevin, 351, 1734, 189] 354, 1737. Kahn deliberately females Kahn." 221, 1034 judgment). broadly activities. Fiscal 1242; Energy Conservation Production 6870; Housing Community 1974, 5309; Comprehensive Training 1973, 991." 7. plain firms, noted, newly ineligible 418-421, 2813-2815 207(d) 1008, 6727(d). heavily 469-472, distinguishes not. uncompetitive accurately intent easy envision realistically precision, describes measure, operates flat quota. "Nonofficeholders lucrative highway buildings, supplies." 353, 2680. example claimed shareholders: "Based [Bureau Affairs'] Buy Act]. Nations Construction Company. president company one-fourth Health, occupation. one-quarter Choctaw self-employed rancher net worth half treasurer manager corporation non-Indian $1.3 million." Tr. Oral Arg. Andrus Glover O.T. 1979, 79-48, 26-27 [446 548]. 173-174, 1014, part): "[E]ven systemic institutional inequities, recipients' inferiority especial protection." commands barriers, ought organized." 342, 1718, 2753. 343, 1719 permits wards others." 295, 2751. Professor Bickel's comment self-contradiction argument: 'The lesson generation: illegal, immoral, destructive society.' 35, 2751, 35. 535. "When asserts overriding presuming actually interest." perfectly citizenship civil service. hand, 1883, acquiesced acquiescence Presidential command, President, Commission." 1906. Linde, Lawmaking, Neb.L.Rev. 197, 255 (1976): "For reawakened appreciation primacy knowledge ends better achievement. highest morality process,' Bickel Watergate untimely death. republic distant enduring processes, perfection rationality adjudication lawmaking." (Footnote Indians "Some Indians—with exceptionally structural levels—were capita excess communities." S.Rep.No.95-38, quotes paragraphs 465-466, implying contents vast quantity material dozens committees subcommittees unrealistic read, of, Report. did, subclasses. unexplained. included. 6, 'to establishing process' Dean Rostow Strong, others, argued." Neb.L.Rev., 251. Sandalow, Mich.L.Rev. 1162, 1188 (1977): "[I]f trenches values fundamental, deliberate stronger values, Legislation subordinate test, pressures reflective whole." "Fear interference borne exists, faulty unseating Adam Clayton Powell. cause accountable lawmaking repeated correctly, granted. Strikingly, propriety prevails nations enactment." (footnotes guarantees." "most examination" conducted instance class? Why contracts? What skill How slavery descendants overpopulated communities? unaccompanied persons? Is disability indicates? Or indicate? Are eligible? "Of irrationally differentiates identically Differences religion, affiliation rationally unmarried character." Jobst, 434 95, 99, 228. Court." Foley Connelie, 291, 1067, 1079,

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