Document: 74 L.Ed.2d 882 103 S.Ct. 1011 460 U.S. 150 JEFFERSON COUNTY PHARMACEUTICAL ASSOCIATION, INC., Petitionerv.ABBOTT LABORATORIES et al. No. 81-827. Argued Nov. 8, 1982. Decided Feb. 23, 1983. Syllabus Petitioner trade association of retail pharmacists and pharmacies filed an antitrust suit in Federal District Court against respondent pharmaceutical manufacturers, the Board Trustees University Alabama, which operates connection with its hospitals, a county hospital pharmacy. alleged that manufacturers violated price-discrimination proscriptions Robinson-Patman Act by selling their products to at prices lower than those charged petitioners' members for like products, knowingly induced such violation sold drugs general public direct competition privately owned pharmacies. The granted respondents' motions dismiss complaint, holding state purchases are beyond Act's intended reach. Appeals affirmed. Held: sale local government hospitals resale private is not exempt from proscriptions. Pp. 153-171. (a) terms does purchases, statutory language sufficiently broad cover governmental bodies. Thus, plain strongly suggests there no exemption compete enterprise. 154-157. (b) Such supported purposes laws, including Act. Those laws represent carefully studied attempt bring within them every person engaged business whose activities might restrain or monopolize commercial intercourse among States. And history reveal any legislative intention enable State, unexpressed exemption, enter competitive markets congressionally approved price advantages. 157-162. (c) Nor contention outside scope clearly subsequent events (particularly hearings on held late 1960's) court decisions interpretations commentators executive officials. Congress cannot be said have left untouched universally interpretation 163-170. (d) It this indulge policymaking field legislation. replete references economic evil large organizations purchasing other small, retailers. To create case would contrary Congress' intent. Pp.170-171 656 F.2d 92 (C.A.5 1981), reversed remanded. Joe L. Tucker, Jr., Bessemer, Ala., petitioner. David Klingsberg, New York City, respondents. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 issue presented whether 2 * Petitioner, doing Jefferson County, commenced action 1978 Northern Alabama as assignee members' claims. Respondents 15 Cooper Green Hospital Pharmacy. medical center, school. Located University's center two hospital, existing corporation under law. 3 complaint seeks treble damages injunctive relief §§ 4 16 Clayton Act, 38 Stat. 731, 737, U.S.C. 26, violations § 2(a) (f) 730, amended (the Act), 49 1526, 13(a) (f). contends 2(a)1 Pharmacy petitioner's products. alleges 2(f)2 also discrimination exempted 13c.3 moved ground purchases4 matter law sanctions 2. In granting motions, expressly accepted true allegations had been injured challenged least some were 13c. 92, 98 (CA5 1981) (reprinting Court's Appendix). "governmental are, without regard 13c, reach Price Discrimination respect traditional purposes." 102 (1981). Fifth Circuit, divided per curiam decision, affirmed "on basis district court's Memorandum Opinion." F.2d, 93.5 5 We certiorari resolve important question federal 455 999, 1629, 71 865 (1982). now reverse. II 6 here narrow. concerned sales government, nor use functions.6 Rather, before us limited purpose competing enterprise—with advantage discriminatory prices—in market.7 7 courts below held, respondents contend, exempts all purchases. Assuming, deciding, did intend apply consumption functions, therefore exempt, we conclude where State has chosen market. III 8 only express nonprofit institutions contained 13c.8 Moreover, conceded, "[t]he language—'persons' 'purchasers'—is 12, 13(a, f)." 99.9 This concession was compelled several decisions.10 City Lafayette v. Louisiana Power & Light Co., 435 389, 395, 1123, 1127, 55 364 (1978), example, stated qualification "the definition 'person' 'persons' embraces both cities States."11 9 distinguish because it involved Sherman rather Act.12 distinction ignores specific reference our discussion all-inclusive nature term "person." U.S., 397, n. 14, S.Ct., 1128, 14. do perceive reason construe word "person" differently amends,13 undisputed applies states. See Hawaii Standard Oil 405 251, 260-261, 885, 890, 31 184 (1972).14 sum, IV 10 controlling unless different intent apparent An examination reveals intention. A. 11 Our cases explicit stating On numerous occasions, comprehensive coverage recognized these "a [them] states." United States South-Eastern Underwriters Association, 322 533, 553, 64 1162, 1173, 88 L.Ed. 1440 (1944).15 Goldfarb Virginia Bar, 421 773, 95 2004, 44 572 (1975), observed "our repeatedly established heavy presumption implicit exemptions" laws. Id., 787, 2013 (citing Philadelphia National Bank, 374 321, 350-351, 83 1715, 1734-1735, 915 (1963); California FPC, 369 482, 485, 82 901, 903, 54 (1962)).16 Lafayette, supra, applying city utility, governments implied. emphasized laws: "[T]he choices made corporations . ., designed they assure maximum benefits community constituency, inherently more likely comport broader interests national well-being acting furtherance organization shareholders." 403, 1131. id., 408, 1134.17 12 These principles, further, helpful interpreting As BLACKMUN Abbott Laboratories Portland Retail Druggists Assn., Inc., 425 1, 11-12, 96 1305, 1313, 47 537 (1976): 13 "It said, course, particular, construed liberally, exceptions application strictly. McKesson Robbins, 351 305, 316 [76 937, 943, 100 1209] (1956); FMC Seatrain Lines, 411 726, 733 [93 1773, 1778, 36 620] (1973); Perkins 395 642, 646-647 [89 1871, 1873-1874, 23 599] (1969). recognized, also, 'was enacted 1936 curb prohibit devices buyers gained preferences over smaller ones virtue greater power.' FTC Broch 363 166, 168 [80 1158, 1160, 1124] (1960); Fred Meyer, 390 341, 349 [88 904, 908, 19 1222] (1968). Because remedial, broadly effectuate purposes. Tcherepnin Knight, 389 332, 336 548, 564] (1967); Peyton Rowe, 391 54, 65 1549, 1555, 20 426] (1968)." B 14 falls far short supporting "commodities" "resale." There nothing whatever Senate House Committee reports, floor debates, focusing issue.18 Some aware possibility Most members, however, but possible limitations Government. most relevant testimony principal draftsman, H.B. Teegarden, Judiciary Committee.19 Although ambiguous consumption, one conclusion certain: Teegarden municipal circumstances.20 his comments directly contradict found purchasing.21 absence evidence, find advantages.22 V Despite history, nevertheless argue confirm turn events. cite 1960s.23 Testimony Subcommittee investigating practices industry indicated favor hospitals,24 Trade Commission Chairman Paul Dixon disclaimed authority transactions involving health care programs.25 clear, contemplated agency competed retailers, although he institutional purchasers.26 Other statements expressed little informed, interested opinions presented, entitled consideration appropriate constructions given contemporaneously passage.27 ---- - ----, 22. 17 clear Subcommittee's conclusions focus case. difference between drug retailers customers "is extremely substantial" "not always fully explainable either cost justifiable quantity discounts, economies scale, factors inherent bulk distribution." H.R.Rep. 1983, 90th Cong., 2d Sess. 77 next conclusion, "[n]umerous acts policies individual seem violative ." Ibid. quite considered prices—about heard testimony—to unlawful. report include awkwardly worded statement: "There why mandate should applied favoring nongovernmental purchasers, profit nonprofit, extent prescription level disfavored druggists." 79. unexceptional opinion, simply says may facilitate unfair through prices. about case.28 18 that, exception, considering concluded purchasers. They insist imposed liability upon seller buyer, 2(f), when city, county. Brief Respondent 31-32. serious infirmities assertions: (i) never suggested purchases;29 (ii) number judicial even agencies relatively small;30 (iii) appeals decision adopted below; (iv) rely inapposite;31 (v) published relied solely purchase claim alleging injury result market;32 (vi) suggest applicable purposes.33 track record sense comparable unbroken chain previously ascertaining construction long period time preserve. cited, 27, supra. seek support various But authoritative sources indicate unsettled;34 others necessarily inconsistent holding;35 it.36 Act.37 post-enactment developments—whether legislative, judicial, commentary—rarely us. unambiguous evidence congressional market advantage.38 VI 21 widely criticized, effects promote. well criticisms, remained effect almost half century. certainly [this Court] policy-making function ends endeavor ascertain words used, light material, what fact Congress." Corp., 312 600, 606, 61 742, 744, 85 1071 (1941). 22 "A [Robinson-Patman] combinations capital organized suppress harmony spirit impulses times gave birth." Underwriters, 1173. reason, think congressmen who feared evils deny small businesses, protection strongest competitor all.39 Congress. VII hold judgment accordingly remanded further proceedings consistent opinion. 24 so ordered. 25 STEVENS, dissenting. 26 While I join O'CONNOR's dissenting believe additional comment text help explain my vote. For statute, federal, state, "purchasers," "competition" parties resell purchased goods consumers otherwise patronized retailer. Both after statute requirement proving adverse played part limiting statute. 27 agreed covered Even though obvious primary line military post exchanges normally resold substantial discount, deliberations questioned inapplicability sales. explanation, rest sovereign status government,* assumption embodied entities. 28 Mr. lobbyist, statement 1935 hearings, quoted Ante, 160-161, 17: 29 "Mr. Lloyd: Would bill, your judgment, prevent discounts Government?. instance, Government gets huge discounts. Take electric fan, instance. You go ordinary store list $25. Procurement Division procures delivered, time, $13.18. Now, discount barred bill? 30 Teegarden: see should. Aside answer this: concerns. Therefore discrimination—it interstate commerce law, railroad law—to discrimination, must relative position constitutes other. that. 32 words, if A makes retailer San Francisco, things aside, could predicated there, same sphere all. 33 saved distinction, location function. else buy." Hearings H.R. 4995 Judiciary, 74th 1st 208-209 (1935). 34 interpret "distinction, function" somewhat majority. merely purchased. items public, entities engage stores independent importantly, seldom affected profit-making motivation; undertaken provision services public. Further, merchandising price-setting take set into account. notes, ante, 158 16, need component, overhead subsidized, taxation. short, entirely category participants. 35 am convinced analysis resales agencies. pharmacy druggist exchange grocer clothing store. sure, implied Teegarden's equivocal Congressman Hancock. say "If each other," operated save bill. went stress, other, then sphere." 209. view, Teegarden's, differences justify construing neither agencies—federal, local—constitute persons application. impact agency's ability provide related constituents. reasons O'CONNOR forth detail, accurately reflects understanding lawyers businessmen lived day-to-day 37 O'CONNOR, whom BRENNAN, REHNQUIST, STEVENS join, confronts construction: covers commodities retailers.1 task, therefore, discern agree majority can resolved statutes, reliance remedial generally. issue. legal communities assumed past four decades covered. reasons, explained below, respectfully dissent. 39 40 relies extensively statutes guide used 13, 155-156. misplaced. treatment requires intent.2 Indeed, cited emphasize key regarding noncoverage enacting question.3 Resolution depend abstract assertion enough embrace municipalities.4 mere 397 case, referred breadth 41 propounds misleading syllogism (1) Acts similarly, (2) cites (1972), proposition States, (3) opines "purchasers" 155-160. Because, observes, 156, definitional section dispute first proposition. However, Co. bringing 261, 890.5 Conspicuously absent majority's exposure purchasers provisions Act.6 decide subject 2, policy appropriately determination. 42 persuasive invocation presumptions liberal Without derogating usefulness principles suggesting play role context, candidly acknowledge identified certain tension hand, frequently strict enforcement antiprice-discrimination former lead rigidity uniformity conflict goals latter. See, e.g., Great Atlantic Pacific Tea FTC, 440 69, 80, 99 925, 934, 59 153 (1979); Automatic Canteen 346 61, 63, 74, 73 1017, 1019, 1024, 97 1454 (1953); 340 231, 249 15, 240, 239 (1951).7 43 At very least, recognition raises doubts liberally coverage. enhanced aim protect suffered hands stores.8 displayed special solicitude well-established, below-trade buying institutions. documents, 160, 17, indicates envisioned sort immunity bodies.9 immunity—in acknowledges, 159, precise Notwithstanding admission, announces surprising "[t]o 171 (emphasis added). 45 correct " 'policy-making legislation' order fill gaps 170 (quoting (1941)). precisely concur admonition refrain attributing here.10 46 attempting supply Congress, fails offer satisfactory guidelines determining agencies.11 assumes, "without functions" pharmaceuticals indigent citizens expose liability. 154, 7. assumption, purports rely. If, expression contrary, controls, own assertions State's indigents fall For, remarks, 155, entities, "ambiguous consumption. 160-161. 48 implies turns consumption,12 rationale elsewhere suggested, underlie prohibitions 2(a). university limit faculty staff, thereby falling "for use" exception.13 Nevertheless, inflicting university's staff patronize.14 conflicting suggestions leave doubt principle—the presence functional consumption/resale dichotomy—guides determination government's Against backdrop concedes stands consensus devotes considerable effort distinguishing undercutting authorities doing, observing 1936, 165, 24, misunderstands significance evidence. illustrate virtually unanimous years entities—an served well-established marketing relationships. widespread prohibitions.15 less appropriate. 50 respondents, (f), purchaser.16 Commentators municipalities Act.17 failure enact bills extending buttresses 9, 51 1967 1968 subcommittee conducted problems businesses industry. representatives industry-wide practice purchasers—federal, county, municipal.18 Several witnesses sales.19 52 1969 1970, investigated again view covered, highlighting problem favorable making plea change law.20 53 exclude extent. governing noncoverage. area bright lines needed practices, identify principle triggering inclusion exclusion. structured relationships longstanding transactions. That finds commentators. developed programs providing medically needy,21 based assumption. enterprise will engender significant disruption—not reexamination restructuring relationships, unfortunately, termination supplies needy citizens22 litigation associated process reexamination.23 rests primarily history,24 taken isolation remarks force abandonment below-market calls question. Given delineate governments, allow speak disrupt judicially arm litigants powerful governments. Therefore, affirm below. Section 2(a), 13(a), provides part: shall unlawful commerce, course indirectly, discriminate grade quality, use, substantially lessen tend monopoly injure, destroy, grants receives benefit them. 13(f), provides: induce receive prohibited section." 13c "Nothing [the Act] schools, colleges, universities, libraries, churches, charitable profit." "State purchases" defined Court, thus Appeals, claims treated equivalent itself." 99. Accordingly, Eleventh Amendment bars University. challenge appeal decision. present risk Tenth avoid includes NLRB Catholic Bishop Chicago, 490, 501, 1319, 533 (1979). risk, constitutional arising case: "indisputably" attribute sovereignty. Hodel Surface Mining Reclamation 452 264, 288, 101 2352, 2366, 69 too day regulate Commerce Clause powers proprietary activities. Parden Terminal Railway, 377 184, 187-193, 84 1207, 1210-1213, 233 (1964). If protects limitations, protected case-by-case basis. Cf. 413, 42, 1136, (1978) (plurality opinion). Special plight concern circumstances, class indigents, decide, "in competition" correctly "competing pharmacies." 98. note infra. properly assumed, summary exemption. 3, accompanying text. consider use. 20, "persons" statutes. 7, 15. Georgia Evans, 162, 62 972, 974, 86 1346 (1942) (state Act); Chattanooga Foundry Pipe Works Atlanta, 203 390, 396, 65, 66, 241 (1906) (municipality meaning Act). Pfizer, Inc. India, 434 308, 318, 584, 590, 563 (foreign nation "anomalous require compliance substantive standards impose 'persons.' 400, 1130, (1978). 320 577, 585-586, 352, 356, (1944); Ohio Helvering, 292 360, 370, 725, 727, 78 1307 (1934). One particular relevance. Union R. 313 450, 1064, 1453 (1941), applicability Elkins ch. 708, 847, amended, 587, 41(1) (1976 ed.) (repealed 1978), essentially serving anti-price-discrimination Act." 402 19, 1131 19. municipality 462-463, 1071-1072. 401 1130 inclusive 80 Cong.Rec. 6430 (1936) (remarks Sen. Robinson) ("The Antitrust contains pending bill segregate purchasers."). complained affect commerce. Congress's Clause, Gulf Corp. Copp Paving 419 186, 199-201, 392, 400-401, 378 (1974), mean chose range conduct commerce" reports specifically definitions repetition appear since become amendment act." 2287, Pt. (1936); S.Rep. 1502, (1936). 3116 Logan) ("[M]any 'any commerce.' original exact language, carried consideration. courts."). common purposes, consistently 8137 Rep. Michener) Patman-Robinson new theory. 1914, act just sets out do."); 3119 (purpose strengthen 6151 (address (same). her questions define She uniformly included "persons," none "that Post, original). dissent takes notice, last Community Communications Boulder, 40, 56, 835, 843, 70 810 (1982), "like imposing civil criminal 'persons,' corporate entities." No dissent's sue 312-313, (noting "broad remedies provided laws") (applying Mandeville Island Farms, American Crystal Sugar 334 219, 236, 68 996, 1006, 1328 (1948) ("[Sherman] coverage, protecting victims forbidden whomever perpetrated.") Gerimedical Gerontology Center Blue Cross, 378, 388, 2415, 2421, 89 (1981); 398, 399, 1129; (1976); Assn. Securities Dealers, 422 694, 719-720, 2427, 2442-2443, 486 (1975). sense, invidious chain-stores, targets Volume permits large, efficient, pass savings consumers, extent, economy scale. attributable overhead, resulting grants, subsidies, free services, freedom taxation, redistribute burden costs actual large. give markets, perhaps eliminate marginal competitors. Consumers, citizens, ultimately pay full assume distribution efficiently pharmacists, suffer systems. emphasizes here. post, 180, 182, 187, nn. 10, true, likelihood sector remote 1936. contended, event, immaterial applies. 556-558, 1175-1176, Browder 335, 339, 599, 602, 862 (1941); De Lima Bidwell, 182 197, 743, 1041 (1901). [Rep.] Government? Not so. should, barred—that is, law—would distinction. anyone buy. Hancock: bidding along line, not, classes orders? Government, municipality. No; not. Michener: it, you want you? No, it. anywhere else, how bid exactly anybody else; quantity, price, quality? sell cheaper privately-owned way. final analysis, sphere. facts situation predicate becomes prohibits generally does. differs exceptions. bills. (1935) added) [hereinafter ]. agrees ----. He joins dissent, novel theory: ibid. fiction: participates market, competes witness attaches witness: "In bill." Hearings, supra 209 subsequently submitted written brief committee. rejected outright desirability exemptions. 249. posed [would] Governmental levels." restrict way rights, prerogatives privileges provides—a inherited jurisprudence noted "requiring showing preclude affecting Government." 250. All sovereign-exception rule means passes gives up surrenders. "perceive binding statute] all-embracing purpose, capable being obstructed action." California, 297 175, 56 421, 425, 567 Taylor, 353 562-563, 1037, 1042-1043, 1034 (1957). context supports, most, Government's existence 604-605, 743-744, (1941) (United suing damages). purchasing. inapplicable Six months passed, Attorney General responded inquiry Secretary War "to contracts supplies." Op.Atty.Gen. 539 ruling explained: [S]tatutes regulating rates, charges, etc., matters ordinarily provided; make [Robinson-Patman [Clayton and, aware, latter regarded heretofore contracts. 540. Later letter, clarified Government," ibid., avoiding matters," 541. Emergency Fleet Western Telegraph 275 415, 198, 202, 72 345 (1928), upheld telegraph rates General's following year, [1932-1939] Cas. (CCH) ¶ 55,156, 415-416 (1937). Two early attorney Opinion Minnesota, 55,157, 416 (1937); Op. Att'y Gen. Wis. 142 Representative Patman "presumed [United States] institutions." W. Patman, (1938). Complete Guide (1963) (interpreting exempting purchases). His weight, appears interpreting—or erroneously extending—the reasoning. Patman's personal intentions probably better reflected introduction 1951 1953 amend "purchaser" political subdivision thereof." 4452, 82d (1951); 3377, 83d (1953). bills, arguable believed negate reading reluctance 1955, 1957, 1959, 1961, Keogh unsuccessfully introduced extend resale. 430, 87th (1961); 86th (1959); 722, 85th (1957); 5213, 84th (1955). bears repeating, moreover, views Patman's—focuses here: gain functions. Department Justice's recent enterprises, 37, event 1938 excluding eleemosynary institutions, 446, Whether supports depends interpreted perform functions listed. right. Compare 7-8, (1968) (suggesting agencies), 81 8706 (1937) Walter) (§ financed cities, counties, States). "public libraries," "are, definition, government"); Laboratories, 10; 8705 (exemption codifies drafters address Small Business Act: Before Select Representatives, 91st Cong. 73-77 (1969-1970) (William McCamant, Director Public Affairs, Association Wholesalers); 623 (Harold Halfpenny, counsel Automotive Service Industry Association); Problems Drug Industry: Activities Regulatory Agencies 15-16 (1967-1968) 1967-1968 Hearings] (Earl Kintner, Commissioner, Nat'l Druggists) (State "probably" exempt). Charles Fort, President, Food Town Ethical Pharmacies, Inc.) ("Robinson-Patman practice"); obtain pharmacies, 258, 1093-1094, many adversely competition, A-140 A-141, 253-262, 273, 292. 74. After hearing testimony, eroding influence druggists' by: expanding group programs; wholesale cost; instances "both proprietary, outpatients nonpatients." 73. response Subcommittee, declined discuss category, issues. disclaimer welfare programs, similar discussed Dixon. Assuming commentary imputed Congress—quite leap conclusions—"the form hazardous inferring earlier one." Price, 361 304, 313, 326, 331, (1960). Consumer Product Safety GTE Sylvania, 447 102, 117-118, 2051, 2060-2061, 766 (1980); Oscar Mayer 441 750, 758, 2066, 2072, 60 609 Air McMann, 192, 200, 444, 449, (1977) ("Legislative observations passage history."). "designed afford institution's 'own use,' 78, opposite. 14; 18-19, 1316-1317, Motor Transport Trucking Unlimited, 404 508, 513, 609, 613, 642 (1972). fewer dozen cases, unpublished opinions, involve 31-33, Chip Stamps Manor Stores, 723, 1917, 1923, (1975) (affirming "virtually facing hundreds reported presenting quarter century") added); 200-201, 401, (1974) (adopting consistent, "longstanding" "nearly litigation"). Engineering Production Kerr-McGee [1974-1] 75,054, 96,742 (Utah 1974) (dicta) (involving ultimate purchaser) (relying sole support), aff'd rev'd part, 551 790, 798-799 (CA10) (finding legitimate despite prices), cert. denied, 879, 543, 472 (1977); Sachs Brown-Forman Distillers 134 F.Supp. (SDNY 1955) (Act proof plaintiff adversely), 234 959 (CA2) (per curiam), 352 221, 160 Shale Products Struck Const. 598, 602-603 (WD Ky.1941) "sale" alternatively "[n]either property necessary carrying another buyer reselling article") supplied), aff'd, 132 428 (CA6 1942) (expressly reserving agency), 318 780, 63 857, 87 1148 (1943). indicated, dicta, unclear F.Supp., 16. Mountain View C-77-0094 (Utah, Sept. 6, 1977) (unpublished opinion) (consent plaintiffs prejudice 630 1383 (CA10 1980) (complaint insufficient failed treatment); 71-543 (Ore., 11, 1972) (unpublished, oral opinion), vacated remanded, 510 (CA9 applied), (1976). alternative nonconsumption Logan Lanes, Brunswick 4-66-5, slip op. 4-5 (Idaho, May 1966) 212, 215-216 (CA9) (purchases Utah 13c; "so-called exemption"), 898, 216 (1967). predate Lafayette. Burge Bryant School District, 520 328, 330-332 (ED Ark.1980), 658 611 (CA8 curiam); Champaign-Urbana News Agency, J.L. Cummins 479 281, 286-287 (CD Ill.1979) (although face opposite result), 632 680 (CA7 1980); A.J. Goodman Son Lacquer Manufacturing 893 (Mass.1949). cut Municipality Anchorage Hitachi Cable, Ltd., 547 633, 637-641 (Alaska 1982); Sterling Nelson Sons Rangen, 235 393, 399 (Idaho 1964), 851, 858-859 1965), 383 936, 1067, 853 (1966); Sperry Rand Nassau Research Development Associates, 152 91, (EDNY 1957). Reid 107 439, 443 (ND 1952) addressing manner corporations). 5A Z. Cavitch, Organizations 105D.01[8][c] (1973 Supp.1982) (opinions "divided" applicable); J. Kalinowski, Laws Regulation 24.06, 24-70 (1982) ("there states Act"); id. 24.06[2]; E. Primer (1970) ("Although General's] settled concerned, controversy arisen governments."); F. Under 4.12 (1962). deal Letter Comptroller Robert Sarlo, Veterans Administration (July 1973), reprinted [1973-2] 74,642. Almost fail mention, much Report Executive Order 10936, Identical Bidding Op.Cal.Atty.Gen. 741 N.C.A.G. 112, 115 [1948-1949] Ga.Op.Atty.Gen. 727 (if enterprise, 1977 Task Group Immunities, 25, stated: "The authorized state-owned activity sufficient immunize test removes scrutiny while requir[ed] market." Reprinted Exemptions Immunities: Monopolies Commercial Law 95th Sess., 1890 (1977). Victory Comisaria de Abastecimientos y Transportes, 354, 360-362 (CA2 1964) charter ship haul grain instrumentality doctrine). "general [existed] 182. 174 (STEVENS, J., dissenting). existed 185-187, 20. "consensus" disregard commentators, 34, supra; 161, 162-163 22, 1022-1023, 37; recent, Justice, 169, 37. accurate unsettled demanded attention. interpretation, accrue, intended, 261 (Teegarden recommending rights"). When levels. First, prerogatives, provided. points out. 159-161, 18-19. addition, levels well. insertion clause proposed topic requiring 250 consider, suggest, 157-158, necessitates intent—i.e., amends. 157, Pfizer foreign acknowledged, 311, reenactment identical fact, eventually repealed redundant. 283; 619, Reliance prior uniquely 315, 589 Act) art fixed wherever passed."); 973, ("Whether environment."); (1934) (Rev.Stat. 3140, 3244) 'corporation' found."). ("[T]here hard fast matter, aids intent, term, law."). worth noting entity sue. overstates Senator Robinson's observation 'purchasers' 'person.' 11. Robinson read municipalities. senator's affirmative Vandenberg's drafted toward chain-store power field, industrial production 6429-6430 Were seems reasonable approach concerns bearing protections Parker Brown, 317 351, 307, 315 (1943) ("In dual system which, Constitution, sovereign, constitutionally subtract authority, nullify state's control officers agents lightly attributed Congress."). 539, 540 Prior 1929, addressed competition—i.e., sellers. Biscuit 299 (CA2), 266 95, 468 (1924). until 1929 type case—i.e., secondary injury, buyers. George Van Camp Can 278 245, 253, 113, (1929). redress injury. competitors goal prompted achieve partial reconciliation "meeting defense 2(b) 13(b). 250, (1951). 3-4 Final Chain Store Investigation, S.Doc. 4, Members draftsman assured "would want" prohibited, later attempts failed. (1952); (1955); (1961). readily majority, 163, speculates reaffirm agreement book, (1938), extension "municipal institutions," plausible infer viewed My resolution reflect entrepreneurial capacity." 422, 1141, (BURGER, C.J., concurring). kind exposes 418, 1139. lying peculiarly province court, illuminate considerations competent regrettable today rush judgment." 597 (POWELL, supplied question, substituting judgments judiciary embrace. 320, 591 dissenting); 330-331, 596-597 "divine" comes surprise, inattention "bright lines" emerge suggests, refrains holding, coextensive drawn Nonprofit Institutions 1938, resale/consumption foundation 16-17, 1315-1316. Or, cafeteria employees inflict restaurants enjoy employees' patronage. 246-247, 247-248, (1951) (reliance meeting proviso complete charge discrimination). 680, 688-689 (Robinson-Patman resale); Pharmaceutical Division, Aug. (order consent dismissing entity), grounds, 4-66-5 (sale bowling equipment Act; 13c), 217 1967) (sales exemption), 1957) (disclaiming, motion reargument, "construed thought ("It doubtful best agencies, federal.") (holding liquor distiller commissions; wholesaler), (alternatively housing commission states, municipalities"), 1942), concede resale, nonetheless bodies simple 167-168, 29. already noted, supportive position, 168, 30, similarly distinguishable. 633 1982), Sons, 393 (1966), Sterling, municipality, Hitachi, victim bribery 2(c), 13(c), favored customer. 224 (1979) (2d ed. 1979) spite [any] indications [among attorneys general], level."); (indicating municipal, institutions); (1962) preponderance reasoned treats par exemption."); von 24.06 ("[T]he prevailing [to municipalities] excluded liability."). (1973) municipalities, customer, divided). opined prohibition discrimination. (identical bidders contend schedule contracts). ] (Merritt Skinner, pharmacist); 258 Apple, director 296, 318-319 (Hyman Moore, H.L. Moore Exchange, Inc.); 500 (Henry DeBoest, vice president Eli Lilly Co.); 705 (Donald van Roden, manager operations Smith Kline French Laboratories); 792 (Joseph Ingolia, Schering 817 (Lyman Duncan, Cyanamid Co.). Based overwhelming House: wholesalers compared substantial, often percent." ("When supplier sells Federal, Act."); 731 (W. Abrahamson, Ortho Corp.) pricing ever [sic situations [federal, government] 1069 (C. Stetler, Manufacturers Association) ("There immoral incremental cases—such .—where apply."). congressman 1092 (Rep. Corman) ("[I]f purchases?"). colloquy followed Corman's evidences resales. Stetler. Robinson-Patman, presume illegal Robinson-Patman. Cutler. try [Representative] Corman. [A]bsent suppose lack difference, discriminating people another. "Further, real circumstances bid. So still lawfully prevail William Affairs Wholesalers, testified: "Over years, extended days constituted volume marketplace, few problems. today, vast growth local, continued creates situations. "We attention problem." 73-74 (1969-1970). 76-77 (Everette MacIntyre, chairman Commission) Harold focused petitioners complain—i.e., "[W]hile silent subject, "This injurious ways. "[T]here 'second line' exists commodities. recommended legislation volition." Cal.Welf. Inst.Code Ann. 14100-14126 (1980 Supp.1982); Ill.Rev.Stat., &Par; 5-1 5-14 (Supp.1982-83); Mont.Code 53-6-103 53-6-144 N.Y.Soc.Serv.Law 365, 365-a (McKinney 1976 Tex.Human Res.Code 32.001-32.037 Va.Code 63.1-134 63.1-144 (1980). administrative developing internal accounting recordkeeping procedures plus financial strain paying higher terminate place. More significantly, uncertainty generated establish demarcation fear cause cautious legislators budgetary dilemmas programs. today's prospective effect. 161.

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