Document: 497 U.S. 417 110 S.Ct. 2926 111 L.Ed.2d 344 Jane HODGSON, et al., Petitioners,v.MINNESOTA, al. MINNESOTA, Petitioners, v. Nos. 88-1125, 88-1309. Argued Nov. 29, 1989. Decided June 25, 1990. Syllabus Subdivision 2 of Minn.Stat. § 144.343 provides that no abortion shall be performed on a woman under 18 years age until at least 48 hours after both her parents have been notified. The two-parent notice requirement is mandatory unless, inter alia, the declares she victim parental abuse or neglect, in which event declaration must given to proper authorities. 6 that, if court enjoins enforcement subdivision 2, same effective unless competent jurisdiction orders proceed without upon proof by minor "mature and capable giving informed consent" an would best interest. Two days before statute's date, group consisting doctors, clinics, pregnant minors, mother filed suit District Court, alleging statute violated Due Process Equal Protection Clauses Fourteenth Amendment. declared unconstitutional its entirety enjoined enforcement. Court Appeals, sitting en banc, reversed. Although it rejected State's submission 2's was constitutional any bypass procedure, held valid procedure saved as whole. also argument 48-hour waiting period imposed significant burden minor's right. Held: judgment affirmed. 853 F.2d 1452 (CA8 1988), Justice STEVENS delivered opinion with respect Parts I, II, IV, VII, concluding violates Constitution insofar requires notification. Pp. 436-444, 450-455. (a) Since none this Court's decisions dealing consent notification statutes focused possible significance making applicable instead just one, extensive unchallenged findings question are significant. On basis trial testimony, found, had particularly harmful effects custodial parent when were divorced separated, especially context abusive dysfunctional family; adverse families lives parents, where family violence serious problem; actually impairs communication many instances, since minors who otherwise inform one unwilling do so such involve going for event; few can take advantage exception because obligation report information authorities attendant loss privacy; did not further interests protecting assuring integrity. found cases, statutory extended week more scheduling considerations, thereby increasing risk associated statistically degree. 436-444. (b) notified, whether wish notified assumed responsibility upbringing child, does reasonably legitimate state Any interest supporting authority parent, presumed act interest, assure decision knowing, intelligent, deliberate, fully served one-parent functioning families, either normally constitute both. As notify other State has questioning first parent's presuming him incompetent make regarding child's health welfare. Moreover, record demonstrates, disserves assisting thousands affected statute, proved positively harmful. There merit justified because, ideal family, should only consultation naturally concerned conforming life state-designed requiring members talk together. Nor shaping values lifestyle overcome liberty acting single court. combined force separate privacy outweighs second justification rule involvement rests entirely child. fact virtually oddity among federal provisions governing childrens' health, welfare, education demonstrates unreasonableness ease adopt less burdensome means protect STEVENS, joined O'CONNOR, concluded V VI that: 1. Three but related relevant constitutionality requirement. First, strong welfare young citizens, whose immaturity, inexperience, lack may sometimes impair their ability exercise rights wisely. That justifies state-imposed consult terminating pregnancy. See, e.g., Ohio Akron Center Reproductive Health, 502, 510-511, 2972, 2978-2979, 405. Second, controlling upbringing, natural stake relationship child rise level protected demonstrated his commitment assuming personal, financial, Third, children's constitutionally against undue interference. When government intrudes family's choices, governmental advanced extent they challenged regulation carefully examined. 444-448. 2. To wait notifying intention obtain abortion, furthers ensuring knowing intelligent. properly enact laws designed aid "primary responsibility" well-being discharging responsibility, delay opportunity spouse physician, inquire into competency doctor, discuss decision's religious moral implications provide needed guidance counsel how will affect future. imposes minimal rights. impose court, loco parentis, procedure. reveals run concurrently time necessary appointment abortion. 448-449 O'CONNOR statute—two-parent plus judicial bypass—passes muster interference internal operation required simply exist avoid using Planned Parenthood Central Mo. Danforth, 428 52, 90-91, 96 2831, 2850-2851, 49 788. P. 461. KENNEDY, THE CHIEF JUSTICE, WHITE, SCALIA, concluded: enable daughter wish, results little delay, therefore constitutional. 496-497 statute—which obtains By creating mechanism identify, exempt from strictures law, those cases mature precisely addresses concern underlying invalidation 2: possibility some work benefit parents. In providing bypass, moreover, Minnesota attempted fit legislation framework supplied previous Bellotti Baird, 443 622, 99 3035, 61 797, stands proposition law sufficient alternative. See id., 643, S.Ct., 3048 (opinion Powell, J.); 656-657, 3054-3055 (WHITE, J., dissenting). conclusion sustained compelled Bellotti, H.L. Matheson, 450 398, 101 1164, 67 388, applied immature notice. If case, served, expeditious efficient applications not. 497-501. announced BRENNAN, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, JJ., joined, Part III, VI, dissenting VIII. concurring part judgment, post, p. 458. part, BRENNAN 479. REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE 480. Janet Benshoof, New York City, petitioners No. 88-1125 respondents John R. Tunheim, St. Paul, Minn., III joins, 1 A §§ 144.343(2)-(7) (1988), provides, certain exceptions, subdivisions 2-4 (1) attending physician certifies immediate prevent woman's death there insufficient notice; (2) consented writing; (3) United States Appeals Eighth Circuit, unanimously these unconstitutional. 88-1309, we granted petition review holding. order permitting proceed. vote 7 3, upheld 6. plaintiffs' For reasons follow, now conclude different majority stated opinions, concludes Accordingly, 3 * enacted 1981 amendment Minors' Consent Health Services Act. earlier remains effect 144.346, modified common-law medical minors. It authorized "[a]ny minor" give treatment "pregnancy conditions therewith, venereal disease, alcohol drug abuse."1 unlike others age,2 services. 4 qualified "unemancipated minor"3 agent "the parent" personally certified mail performed.4 term "parent" defined mean "both living." No made noncustodial biological never married lived mother.5 provide, however, living, "if cannot located through diligent effort," sufficient.6 makes exceptions emergency prior "is death," already writing, advised sexual physical abuse.7 subjects person performing violation terms criminal sanctions civil liability action brought "wrongfully denied notification."8 5 authorizes ever "temporarily permanently" order. convince "any judge jurisdiction" proposed abortion," authorize confidential, expedited, right court-appointed counsel, afforded free access "24 day, seven week." An denying appealed expedited basis, authorizing subject appeal.9 contains severability provision, include statement purposes. Attorney General us purposes apparent text "include recognition fostering parent-child relationships, promoting difficult traumatic choice, most welfare."10 primary purpose encouraging them terminate pregnancies.11 legislature motivated desire deter dissuade choosing pregnancies.12 General, disclaims reliance purpose.13 II This litigation commenced July 30, 1981, two date statute. plaintiffs doctors specialize obstetrics gynecology, four clinics contraceptive services metropolitan areas Minnesota, six representing class minor. Plaintiffs alleged Amendment various Constitution. 8 Based allegations verified complaint, entered temporary restraining enjoining After hearing, preliminary injunction still effect. App. 31. refused, validity advance trial.14 9 1986, 5-week trial, invalid. definition "parent," carried over requirement, severable remainder entire defendants enforcing it. 10 three-judge panel compulsory invalid option alternative demonstrate maturity performance interests. Pet. Cert. 62a. relying heavily concerning impact divorced, unmarried, could bypass. reasoned better position than determine forced submit "Hobson's choice" between bypass.15 severable.16 11 vacated, reheard case banc. 1988). summarily Id., 1456-1457. concluded, valid. agreed development full factual facially "unconstitutional operation," 1459, . detailed general difficulties obtaining trauma compared effectiveness, raise considerable questions about practical wisdom statute." Ibid. majority's opinion, consider interests: " 'encouraging unmarried seek help advice very important bear child,' "17 well independent children.18 12 noting challenge findings, 1462, placed emphasis no-parent households. even though "best-interest" nevertheless More importantly, "as all regardless circumstances, district (as distinguished alone) requirement." 1463. wrote: 13 "The primarily considering recognized Supreme Court. concentrating living non best-interest minor, gave limited consideration 50% live require involvement. court's determination renders contrary notice-consent/bypass plainly serves narrowly drawn Considering whole unconstitutionally right." 1464-1465 (citation omitted). 14 right, finding reversed reaching severability.19 15 dissent, criticized ignoring evidence amassed five-week trial," "to uphold requirement," "a new apparently dimension, non-custodial receive activities." 1466. One dissenters third dissenter expressing single-parent withstand challenge." 1472. We certiorari, 492 917, 109 3240, 106 587 (1989). 16 difference men women: Only women capacity children. conceive component Clause Harris McRae, 448 297, 316-318, 100 2671, 2687-2688, 65 784 (1980); Carey Population International, 431 678, 685, 687, 97 2010, 2016, 2017, 52 675 (1977); Cleveland Bd. Education LaFleur, 414 632, 639-640, 94 791, 796, 39 (1974); Roe Wade, 410 113, 152-153, 93 705, 726, 35 147 (1973); 168-170, 734-735 (Stewart, concurring); Eisenstadt 405 438, 453, 92 1029, 1038, 31 349 (1972); Griswold Connecticut, 381 479, 502-503, 85 1678, 1691, 510 (1965) judgment). Clause, interpreted protects independently privately, see Whalen Roe, 429 589, 598-600, n. 23, 869, 875-876, 51 64 (1977), unwarranted intrusion. 17 "Moreover, potentially severe detriment facing woman, U.S., 153, [93 726] mitigated minority. Indeed, probable education, employment skills, financial resources, emotional maturity, unwanted motherhood exceptionally addition, having brings adult legal parenthood, like attainment majority, traditional criteria termination disabilities sum, situations consequences grave indelible." 642, 3047-3048, 797 (1979) (Bellotti ) J.). 74, 2843, 788 (1976), "do[es] come being magically attains state-defined majority." Thus, protection unjustified intrusion process deciding extends women. 19 involving travel marry, identification merely beginning analysis. marriage obviously permissible categorically exclude nonresidents borders, Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 631, 89 1322, 1329, 22 600 (1969), deny prisoners Turner Safley, 482 78, 94-99, 107 2254, 2265-2267, (1987). But decisions, reside whom he predicated concerns disagreement choice individual made. Cf. supra; Loving Virginia, 388 1, 12, 87 1817, 1823, 1010 (1967). area, spend own money, use facilities, subsidize nontherapeutic abortions adults. Maher 432 464, 2376, 53 484 cf. Webster Services, 490, 508-511, 3040, 3051-3053, (1989); 523-524, 3059-3060 (O'CONNOR, value favoring childbirth adequate support allocation public funds, substituting herself. Otherwise, nullity. policy itself overriding placing "obstacles—absolute otherwise—in path abortion." Maher, 474, 2382; 315-316, 2687-2688. 20 rest defense judgment. affirmatively disavows upholding law.20 clear judges 3,000 implementing procedures legislative intent disfavor contrary, handful approved decisions.21 Because unquestionably places obstacles establishing constitutionality. Under analysis, 97, 2266; 704, 2026 Doe Bolton, 179, 194-195, 199, 739, 748-749, 751, 201 (1973). IV 21 considered decided during last years.22 Massachusetts reviewed 132, 2857, 844 (1976) I), Utah (1981), parents,"23 opinions one. contrast, arguments directed distinction. appropriate summarize addressing Appeals. Approximately out every marriages ends divorce. 648 F.Supp. 756, 768 (Minn.1986). Unrebutted indicates Ibid.; 125-126. substantially corroborated study indicating 9% neither 33% parent. F.Supp., 768.24 23 found—on testimony trial—that separated. Relations absent reestablished result notification, often producing disappointment "when anticipated reestablishment d[id] occur." 769. "[t]he reaction anger, resentment frustration parent," ibid. fear threaten custody promote intrafamily violence. Tragically, fears realized: 24 "Involuntary detrimental comes abusive, family. Notification pregnancy provoke violence, Studies shown harassment continue beyond divorce, children involved. 25 ". Furthermore, mother's perception father learns daughter's likely accurate perception." found: 26 "Twenty twenty-five percent go accompanied knows consents told vast voluntarily separated spouses seen years. Going burdens accompanying angry bring back intrusive way." 27 These pronounced distressingly large number problem. "live members" "are, fact, victims rape, incest, neglect violence."25 privacy. Findings 46 47, 764.26 helps explain why instances communication. Minors torturous ordeal explaining 28 "Minors ordinarily dissuaded doing authorization elect tell reduces communication." 769.27 29 great petitions three counties courts schedule hearings regular place hearing petitions. 762. Courts nonmetropolitan acquainted and, apply conscientiously, hear 763. Aside unavoidable officials, confidentiality maintained. 30 During August March 3,573 courts. All granted.28 adjudicated 90% testified; identified positive law.29 experience produced fear, tension, anxiety, shame causing mature, "forego carry term." Finding 44, Among supported daughters proceedings, evoked similar reactions.30 Scheduling typically hearings. frequently compounded factors "commonly" created 72 hours, 764-765, "in cases" effecting 765. magnitude increased degree." 43, While recognizing following shorter period. 779-780. 32 At 37 witnesses testified issue furthered good harm; direct Summarizing interests, 33 "Of remaining spoke effectuates involved implementation Minnesota. They judges, defenders, guardians ad litem, clinic counselors. None beneficial affects. Some negligible [e]ffect intra-family minors' decision-making process. Others deleterious applies increases stress corresponding benefit. Thus five weeks find meaningful way state's integrity." 775. 34 Focusing specifically finds Particularly disinterested, reintroducing disruptive unhelpful participation acute stress. Similarly, obstacle homes consulted psychological, sexual, toward introduces distraction anxiety tends interfere initiated 36 25% seeking obtained approval necessity despite agreement undesirable, waiver distracts disrupts need appearance actively interferes assertedly heart discourages 777-778. 38 interests—the unit—are our 634-639, 3043-3046 Prince Massachusetts, 321 158, 166-167, 442-443, 88 L.Ed. 645 (1944).31 requirements undergoing operation, marrying, entering military service, Parham J.R., 442 584, 603-604, 2493, 2504-2505, (1979); 95, 2853 part); 102-103, 2856-2857 (STEVENS, part), "an absolute, possibly arbitrary, veto" decision, reasonable 405; Inc., 462 416, 428, 10, 439, 103 2481, 2491, 2497, 76 687 (1983); 409-410, 1171; 640-641, 3046-3047 75, 2844. Stewart, pointed concurrence Danforth: 40 "There doubt end child." 91, 2851. 41 Parents counterpart responsibilities assumed." Lehr Robertson, 463 248, 257, 2985, 2991, 77 614 Parham, 602, 2504 (citing W. Blackstone, Commentaries *447; J. Kent, American Law *190); Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 535, 45 571, 573, 69 1070 (1925). parentage generally offers develop offspring." Lehr, 262, 2993; Caban Mohammed, 441 380, 397, 1760, 1770, 60 297 demonstration assumption rising Stanley Illinois, 645, 651, 1208, 1212, 551 261, Michael H. Gerald D., 491 110, 157-160, 2333, 2360-2361, 105 91 (1989) dissenting); Caban, 393, 14, 1768, 14. H., 123-127, 2342-2344 (plurality opinion). 42 creation dissolution contract, Sosna Iowa, 419 404, 95 553, 559, 532 (1975); Maynard Hill, 125 190, 205, 723, 654 (1888), intimacies marital Wisconsin Yoder, 406 233-234, 1526, 1537, 495-496, 1687-88 (Goldberg, Poe Ullman, 367 497, 551-552, 81 1752, 1781-1782, 989 (1961) (Harlan, Gilbert 254 325, 335-336, 125, 128-129, 287 (1920) (Brandeis, 2346 Roberts Jaycees, 468 609, 618-620, 104 3244, 3249-3250, 82 (1984); 796. assign guide look health.32 statist notion power supersede repugnant tradition." 603, 2504. long exists "private realm enter." 166, 442. choices arrangement household, examined "governmental regulation." Moore East Cleveland, 494, 499, 1932, 1935, 531 (1977) opinion); 507, 1939, 1941 (BRENNAN, Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 399-400, 43 625, 626-627, 1042 (1923). thereafter entitled explained (1972): 44 emphasized importance one's deemed 'essential,' 399 [43 626, 1042], (1923), 'basic man,' Skinner Oklahoma, 316 541 [62 1110, 1113, 86 1655] (1942), '[r]ights far precious property rights,' May Anderson, 345 528, 533 [73 840, 843, 1221], (1953). 'It cardinal custody, care nurture function freedom preparation obligations supply nor hinder.' 166 [64 442, 645], (1944). integrity unit Amendment, supra [262 U.S.], 626], [316 1113], Ninth 496 [85 1688, concurring)." Id. [405 651 [92 1212].33 think get another well-being, "laws discharge responsibility." Ginsberg York, 390 629, 639, 1274, 1280, 195 (1968). that. brief permits doctor evaluating Zbaraz Hartigan, 763 1532, 1552 (CA7 1985) (Coffey, dissenting), aff'd equally divided 171, 108 98 478 decide factors, weather, school commitments combine, create longer initiation 765, unreasonable once express noted reveals,34 thus resulting delay.35 VII 47 usual provision supports assures deliberate. legitimate, then mate party, decision. setting, course, instances. assist duties Not fail serve families. established ostensibly resulted major well. participate upbringing. 244-245; 466; 115. violated, suffered psychological harm. deserted abused 462, died tragic 120-121, inflict unnecessary ill. 204, 465.36 ineffectual achieving goals counterproductive. focus distracted imminent rely defending Rather, argues strive what believe children." Minn.Br. 26. Neither justify desirable decreed State. invalidated zoning ordinance "slic[ed] deeply itself," 498, 1934, city "standardiz[e] adults—by forcing patterns." 506, 1939. conception view, ordinance's relation too "tenuous" satisfy standards. implication, standardizing adults, life" conform ideal, all. 626-627 (right establish home up interfered "reasonable within effect"). 50 (1976); (1976). parentalcon sent safeguarding authority" consent. weighty enough become pregnant." follows outweigh I grounds permitted refuse based attorney argued consisted 'exclusively assess independently, interest.' 144, 2864. believed general's interpretation "would modify challenge," 148, 2866, ordered certify state-law Judicial Massachusetts. 151-152, 2668. time, unambiguously "good cause" standard grant 630, 644, 3048, J.), confirmed construction satisfied "some concerns" constitutionality, avoided "much objectionable successfully Danforth," 3049. defects Powell statute—its failure allow interests—are 3052.37 Unsurprisingly, desiring enlist armed Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) "his guardian." U.S.C. 505(a), 2104(b)(4), 2107(b)(4). guardian" passport foreign Department State, CFR 51.27 (emphasis added), forms research, 46.404, 46.405 (1988). driver's license operator's permit. said surgical abortion.38 change name. Tr. Oral Arg. 32; Reply Brief Petitioner 259.10 (1988)). Clark Jeter, 486 456, 1910, 1915-1916, 465 (1988); 98, 2266. hold VIII holds objection removed provided respectfully dissent 54 previously 'alternative whereby sufficiently herself interests.' Assn. Kansas Mo., Inc. Ashcroft, 476, 491, 2517, 2525, 733 (1983) 505, 2532 Members expressed 643-644, precedents control today. 55 eight holding set forth valid; opposite. discussion minimum Powell's parties, doctrine stare decisis standards articulated mandates 56 Unlike Ashcroft containing distinctions rather arguably response resting decisis. Further analysis necessary, surface, appear onerous mere 57 distinction tested respective decisional arbitrary veto 604-608, 2505-2507. undermine perfectly reasonable—just surely emergencies which, example, might lifesaving grounds. 602-603, 58 length, advice. called attention to, am aware of, situation elsewhere conditioned by, uniform activity affects safety, emphasizes aberrant quality 59 handle rule, preserve quite minor—or parents—must permission application goals. effectuate clearly official invoked agree represents together joint "[W]here and/or interests." 69a. originally "minor virtue superior position, alone whom, anyone, given." conclusion. 62 ordered. 63 part. join STEVENS' opinion. central points broader discussion. characterized "[a] [as] Constitution." Ante, 434. 1691-92, 3047, II), albeit limitations: "[P]arental qualifications decisions. account long-range consequences, minor." supra, 423, 1178, (1981) judgment); Thompson 487 815, 835, 2687, 2698, 702 (1988) ("Inexperience, intelligence teenager able evaluate conduct while much apt emotion peer pressure adult"); Stanford Kentucky, 361, 395, 2969, 2988, 306 dissenting) ("[M]inors treated differently adults laws, reflects simple truth derived communal experience, juveniles maturation presume modern life"). my understanding area "[i]f particular 'unduly burde[n]' fundamental evaluation rationally relates purpose." 2504, 530, 3063, "statute (1973)." 436. 66 offered decisionmaking processes (1988)—two-parent stringent country. ante, 425, 5. defines generic "parents," see, Tenn.Code Ann. 36-1-201, Art. III(6) (Supp.1989) (adoption statute) (" 'Parents' singular plural word 'parent' "); 437, parents" Arkansas, numerous bypassing Ark.Code 20-16-802, 20-16-804, 20-16-808 (Supp.1989). is, reality, out, 426, 7, avail exception, abuse. agency immediately "conduct assessment." 626.556(10)(a) interviews victim, interview; investigation, investigation. 626.556(10)(c); 626.556(11); ("[I]t turns reporting it's reported department, department assessment assessment. done frame occurs"). combination reluctance abuse, 440, 26, likelihood invoking avoiding notice, effectual. 68 Minnesota's considers half 437. Given broad sweep asserted striking series explicitly tailoring unduly burdening 147-148, 2866-2867, 642-644, 3047-3048 70 deficiency lies [the statute's] imposition absolute limitation [A] materially presented prompt (i) resolution (ii) Such condition 2850-2851. 71 passes BLACKMUN join, 73 concur 88-1309.1 compare 445, infra, 463-472, substantial reasoning 450-455, Therefore, pass strict scrutiny restrictions 74 461 497-501 save face applied. least, scheme advancing compelling significantly, usurps body effectively 75 consistently (1973), encompass pregnancy." 726. repeatedly freely fundamental." Thornburgh College Obstetricians Gynecologists, 476 747, 772, 2169, 2185, 90 779 (1986). Accord, 420, 2487 155, 727. reiterated "Few personal intimate, private, basic dignity autonomy, decision—with limits specified 2184. subjected limiting exacting scrutiny, show 727; 427, 2490. protective intensely land. 521, 3058, 525, 3060 537, 560, 3079 (BLACKMUN, part). today's reaffirms vitality Justices voted strike down restricting constitutional, meet rigorous test above. strongly disagree (or parent2) proceeding disclose intimate affairs ask J.) (finding interest). significantly restrict reproductive choice. base intuition needs attitudes women, sizable impressive collection empirical data documenting delaying tailored Finally, discussed requirements. 78 scope law's diminished II) minority status nature privacy, 450-451, 36, fails recognize 459-460 491-497 79 proportion existence Torres, Forrest, & Eisman, Telling Parents: Clinic Policies Adolescents' Use Family Planning Abortion Perspectives 284, 287, 288, 290 (1980) (51% absence requirement). old younger (69% parents). burden. choose evident: destroys disclosure matter. 599-600, 876, (1977). 80 woman. extremely depending 36. leads crisis, anger rejection. Osofsky Osofsky, Teenage Pregnancy: Psychosocial Considerations, Clinical Obstetrics Gynecology 1161, 1164-1165 (1978). devastating physical, Clary, Minor Women Obtaining Abortions: Study Parental Metropolitan Area, Pub. 283, 284 (1982) chose negative punishment retaliation). 911 (testimony Dr. Elissa Benedek) (stating usually accurately predict news daughters' pregnancies). 438-440, 25. Certainly, prospect causes abortions, risks Cates, Schulz, Grimes, Risks Associated Abortion, 309 England Medicine 621, 623 younger, deaths per 100,000 0.2 pregnancy, 0.6 3.4 16, 7.8 after). 1187, (MARSHALL, posed adolescents relatively late pregnancies, higher. National Research Council, Risking Future: Adolescent Sexuality, Pregnancy, Childbearing 114 (C. Hayes ed. 1987). compels Cartoof Klerman, Abortion: Impact Law, (1986) one-third traveled outside Massachusetts' Other resort horrors self-abortion illegal 288 (9% planning self-induced parent); Greydanus Railsback, Adolescence, Seminars 213, 214 (1985) (noting 100-times greater rate ones).3 Still forgo fetus term, 289, 291 abort), subjecting themselves hardships motherhood. overall dying nine times abortion); Lewis, Competence Psychologist 84, (1987) ("[P]regnancy continuation poses economic adolescent abortion") 3047 ("[C]onsidering minor"). Clearly, then, B 83 aggravates harm caused pre -notification flow including parents.4 assertion "imposes burden," 449; ignores costs entails. matter "[d]elay length statistical mortality morbidity." 765 (Minn. 1986). Even pushes trimester, risky costly. C. Tietze S. Henshaw, Induced World Review pp. 103-104 (6th 1986) (rate complications nearly doubles trimester thereafter). "frequently transportation requirements, commitments, commitments," more. 765.5 magnitude, point Certainly heightened dismiss "minimal."6 C 84 closely main "protect pregnancies" 766. turn, daughters. states, intended ensure "knowing intelligent." 448. ultimately women's here goal. 464-465, superfluous, unlikely productive feel comfortable consulting matters. Melton, Legal Regulation Unintended Effects, 79, predicament); 1357-1358 Steven Butzer) involuntary "almost universally negative" effects, accord expectations). history greeted assault open caring conversation predicament. Lenore Walker) sever patterns increase violence); 446, 1190 Forced amount punishing stable communicative environment, blame principally, entirely, less-than-ideal therefore, lead minor.7 claims parents' shape the[ir] child[ren]'s style[s]" Petitioners so, underinclusive, seeks 144.343(1) Are contexts? event, (1944) "have respected private enter"). 232, 1538, 534-535, 573-574, Yet, ironically, trying archetype opinion) ("[T]he prevents State] patterns"); 452 strange alchemy transform interactions. matter, "state intervention hardly resurrect unable preserve." 448, 1191 2844 "will enhance nonconsenting fundamentally conflict fractured structure"). construed facilitation authority, drawn. limitless. threatens yield. 169-170, 444; 449, 1192 Yet facilitate physically psychologically 470. form obstructing objects exert minor—in stern disapproval, withdrawal support, abuse—to block getting 647, 3050 ("[M]any views home, vulnerable efforts obstruct abortion"). 438-439, 1186-1187 becomes, effect, below, 473, permit person, situations, facilitating exercises authority. salvage A. saves harmed 'whereby [could] [was] (quoting 439-440, 2497). believe, sort gives patient." 504, 2531 655, 3054 judgment) ("The me troubling. inherent exercised defiance sovereign parties") (footnote omitted); 2843 party patient patient's reason withholding consent"). "immature" adult. allows determines or, 144.343(6) Of refuses reevaluate wants 466-467. confront judge's refusal constitutes veto. allowing someone exacerbated vagueness contained "mature" "capable" own. 144.343(6)(c)(i) (judge "determines Psychologist, assessing maturity). similarly silent "best thereby"). Is expected know makeup doctor? Should future enjoy world? answers questions. wrote "provides real judge, necessarily reflect societal mores minor—particularly decision—is odds decision." 655-656, reason, aside opposition endure will. unconstitutional, addressed facial challenges. 490-493, 2524-26 439-442, 2497-99; actual establishes sought petitioning remedy "scheduling practices contact combine more." above, 467-468, minor; week-long inevitably does. several willing petitions, distances hearing. 763; Donovan, Judging Teenagers: How Fare Seek Court-Authorized Abortions, 259, 264 (50% utilizing residents located); ("In rural recused hearings, round-trip 500 miles hearing"). travel, overnight stay distant city, heavy poor areas. school, jeopardize confidentiality. produces tension apprehensive figure hands Many resentful complete strangers. Despite proceeding, resent reveal details left feeling guilty ashamed daunted forego term. "Some upset itself. Indeed linger render latter necessary." 763-764.8 "rubber stamp," 766 Hon. William Sweeney); small denied, ("Available research proceedings pro forma. represent amounts screen vulnerable. minutes. complex issues (maturity minor), experts rarely testify"). 1986 identify 766; 441-442, 29. undergo counseling court—which surprising, role expertise area. truly knowledgeable adult, withholds consent.9 view practice excessive commence as, probably than, parent"). informed. Surely, approval.10 strikes equivalent saying wrongs accept novel calculus. 102 today vastly overbroad With agree. though, From vehemently dissent. forces dire unacceptable alternatives: dictatorial justifying profoundly intimidating black-robed stranger. dilemma pain voluntary understand today: (at present circumstances) 459-461 488-497 (KENNEDY, standards, 455-458 472-479 sets reasons, 510-517, 2978-2982, 522-524, 2994-2995 526-527, 2985 search vain document supposed construing distinctions; society's tradition hint relevant, indication ought resolved. random unpredictable consequently unchanneled increasingly evident, Term Term, tools job lawyer's—and hence judge's—workbox. enterprise devising Code, illusion so. SCALIA 'There girl tender years, stress, ill-equipped support.' Baird 2851, concurring)); 409-411, 1171, (1981); 422-423, 1177-78 94-95, 2852-53 2856 Today, plans furthering described specificity II. conclusion, surprise incompatible acceptable enactments. portion affirming Appeals' invalidated, Five aspect dissents straightforward. essence, perform unemancipated physician's each effort, performed. 144.343(2)-(3) death; abortion; 144.343(4). Failure comply misdemeanor, noncomplying 144.343(5). required, dispensing abortion" guardian, conservator 144.343(6). identifies law. acknowledging writing acknowledges legitimacy decides somehow illegitimate, whichever chooses notify. keeping always regard general, 2513, (STEWART, Legislatures historically acted qualitative differences Schall Martin, 467 253, 265-267, 2403, 2410-11, 207 Thomp- son 853-854, 2709, g (collecting cases); 384, 2983, reason. Age rough fair approximation seeing confronted abort assistance anything settled point. 3046-47 1171-72; 112 discrete recognizes common actions, speak behalf. Absent showing "possessed paramount children, superintend nurture." Schouler, Domestic 337 (3d. 1882); *452-*453; *203-*206; G. Field, Infants 63-80 (1888). century, abandoned idea vested solely fathers, mothers viewed agents husbands, responsibilities, Keeton, D. Dobbs, Owen, Prosser Keeton Torts, ch. 4, 18, 115 (5th 1984). Limitations emerged prerogatives matters schooling labor. "cardinal hinder." culture Western civilization debate enduring 1541-42, 113 pursues attempts foster Constitution, close relations Santosky Kramer, 455 745, 753-754, 1388, 1394-95, 599 (1982); 651-652, 1212-13, (1972). recognized, affecting, relinquished link biological, participation. 261-265, 2993-95, Quilloin Walcott, 434 246, 254-256, 549, 554-55, 511 circumstances attempt demand bond 2504; presumption unfit affording rebut presumption. Stanley, 654-658, 1214-16; Santosky, 753, 1394 care, management evaporate model ."). legislate classes undeserving assumption, premise interested descriptions caricatures, revered institutions. labels ones "standardizing adults," possible, "conform ideal." 452; 471 part) (accusing "trying family"). asserts purpose, explicit inference. vital attachment responds control. prefer heart; not, intimation, "decreed" communication, What informing intentions. common-sense fulfill roles does; knowledge risk, perpetuate, estrangement alienation greatest support. tradition, sad disservice impugning elemental objectives. 116 underlies guardian Wardle, "Time Enough": Prudent Pace Justice, Fla.L.Rev. 881, 963-965 statutes). States, require, 20-16-801 (Supp.1989); Idaho Code 18-610(6) (1987); 39-15-202(f) 76-7-304 (1990). Another varying Del.Code Ann., Title 24, 1790(b)(3) Ill.Rev.Stat., 38, ¶ 81-54(3) Ky.Rev.Stat.Ann. 311.732 (Michie 1990); Mass.Gen.Laws 112, 12S Miss.Code.Ann. 41-41-53 N.D.Cent.Code 14-02.1-03.1 (1981). Whether restrictive issue, although pause note "stringent" country, 459 judgment), import statutes. adopting legislature's suited serving 117 level, current trend legislatures norm share religion, treatment. Clark, 20.5 (2d 1987); Folberg, Joint Custody Law—The Second Wave, L. 14-55 (1984-1985) divorce requested 518.17(2) awarded, directs "has copies medical, dental, training, records children"; "keep name address attendance "notify [an accident illness child], provider treatment"; telephone 518.17(3) principles specific 118 Federal regulating Life Act applicant assurances requesting [relating planning] services." 300z-5(a)(22)(A)(i) (1982 ed.); 300z-5(a)(22)(A)(ii) (requiring pregnant). 5671(d) ed., Supp. V) (authorizing funding experimental juvenile programs safeguards "parents guardians" minors); U.S.C.App. 454(c)(4) ed.) (permitting induction 17-year-old Armed Forces written guardian"); 46.408 posing "minimal" harm). respect, errs states "oddity provisions." 454. 119 concede, must, furtherance notify, with, 444-446 469 nonetheless says bears 450-455; 469-472 generally, question, validity. 120 ground before. dispute apart, mind. '[n]otify, [minor's] guardian.' 400, 1166 (1978)) added). dependent, "plainly violate guarantees 413, 1173. Our contentions, citations sociological literature, proffered again 436-441, 1185-88 consent, 411, 1172; procedures, 412, 121 well-accepted defer sound policy. relied principle. Concluding immature, advice." 1178. departs rule. suggests favorable results, 450, irrational unfavorable 450-451. unconstitutional: 122 legitimately 123 124 "Utah's parental-notice guarantee occur. Good-faith compliance tend react compassion predicament receptive, incorrectly advise her, undercut probability wisely 423-424, 1178 correct 126 applying hand, "we keep mind sensitive issues, here, 'the forum democracy legislature. forget "legislatures ultimate liberties people degree courts." Missouri, K. T.R. Co. May, 194 267, 270 [24 638, 971] (1904) (Holmes, J.).' 479-480, 2385-86, omitted)." 465, 2511, Legislature, laws. manner. 127 acknowledge 640, 20, (parental involvement, compassionate supportive, highly desirable). true calls "ideal setting," roof, maintain ties lives, guide, teach, them. attachments, mistreatment essential supportive kind tie. both, other, 128 produce instance us, went 438 historical "two-parent "were realized") today, 129 proves threat safety. costs; "reasonably effort" locate located, ceased 144.343(3) 130 144.343(4)(a); 144.343(4)(b); 144.343(4)(c). "neglect" food, clothing, shelter actions imminently seriously endanger mental so," 626.556(2)(c) injury inflicted responsible accidental means," 626.556(2)(d); includes 626.556(2)(a). narrow eliminate coverage danger 131 challenges efficacy believes authorities, 144.343(4)(c) exception. declaring Laws follow accomplish objective. Beyond physicians declarations known manifestation duty suspected 626.556(1) (declaring jeopardized abuse" strengthen community safer settings"). 132 contend deserving protection. contends investigate threatening harming prosecuted 518B.01 (Domestic Abuse Act); 609.221, 609.222, 609.223, 609.224 (1988 Supp.1989) (assault statutes); 609.341 609.345 (sexual 609.378 (criminal statute). Just relies line here. 133 Notwithstanding protections discussed, remain Allegations possibility, appellant Matheson. Appellant O.T.1980, 79-5903, 10-11; Federation America, Amici Curiae 16-31. valid, instance. formed cornerstone 1178-79, 2504: 134 concept possess lacks life's historically, bonds affection 135 "As presumptions, reality accepts starting point; incidence attest this. 'may children' creates caution, discard wholesale pages human teach 136 deviated principle receipt Missouri unmistakable: "[T]he consent." 2843. statement, isolated passages 452-453, 453 ). expressly equates 471-472 137 now. acknowledged "fundamental," "substantially modify[ing] 145, 2865, 17, 1172, 17. weighing competing 138 "It doubted bounds [does not] assum[e] character fiat [then] [t]he measures needful .' Akron, 459, 2508 Purity Extract Tonic Lynch, 226 192, 204-205, 184 (1912)). Like application, perfect applies; period, permissible, determined sees Section 144.343, 6, reverse 139 lieu Assuming, bound standing invalid, 140 design concerns, 144.343(6): comports respects precedents. 141 nothing cases. alternative, sustain obtain, 625-626 Mass.Gen.Laws.Ann., (West Supp.1979)). indicated 142 forming lay inadequate obtained," added; footnote omitted), dissent's contention advisory, thought 143 involvement—either judge—in raised, protracted parties subjected, irresponsible invalidate law] stating principles." 652, 32, 3052, 32. 144 3052-53 (REHNQUIST, concurring) (joining "unless overrule Danforth ], literally fragmented Court"). 145 dissented 3054-55. substitute 146 suggestion announcing rules, "conside[r]" 455-456. command 625-626, 3038-39. 3041, drew contrast 656-657 653, 3053 Aware reference "one both" 3048. reasoning, coupled dispositive 2497-99 (consent); 511-514, 2979-2981, (notice). dealt demanding validate precedent amended 148 characterization past "exception" rule," 457, off mark. mandated all, applications, 1176 (Powell, concurring). refusing obtain: announced, affirms 149 rejects empower result. 150 perhaps sustaining committed illusion. Statistics documentations fragments becomes day-to-day commands solution cruel misconduct, failure, social ills. taking primacy tie, seems irrelevance. presently provides: "Any presence treat required." professional treating health. 144.346 Haw.Rev.Stat. 577A-2 Mo.Rev.Stat. 431.062 (Supp.1971). Pilpel Zuckerman, Rights Minors, 275, 279-280 (D. Walbert Butler eds. 1973). emancipation Streitz Streitz, 363 N.W.2d 135, (Minn.App.1985), representation 144.341 144.342 Respondents Those sections apart borne person. appointed incompetency. 144.343(2). case. "Notwithstanding section 13.02, 8, pending manner 4. "(a) abode agent. "(b) delivery clause (a), return restricted addressee postal employee deliver addressee. Time occur o'clock noon next day takes place, subsequent mailing." Nation. required. additional Idaho, Tennessee, Utah, specify "parents" refers member constructive 18-609(6) 76-7-304(2) Arkansas "cannot "whereabouts unknown," year, Delaware residing household; sufficient. Del.Code.Ann., Tit. Illinois available. Kentucky available," available, available suffice. 311.732(2)(a), 1990). unavailable manner," custody. Mississippi Miss.Code 41-41-53(2) North Dakota guardianship. part: "For section, one." "No if: persons "(c) 626.556. Notice 626.556, 3." 626.556 local 626.556(3)(a), (3)(e), whereupon "shall offer preventing abuses, enhancing neglected preserving whenever possible." 626.556(10)(a). interview investigation 626.556(10)(c). Individuals 626.556(11). "Performance misdemeanor wrongfully liable careful prudent representations bona fide true, diligence so." "If temporarily permanently restrained order, enforced paragraph incorporated (c) subdivision; provided, permanent stayed dissolved, ceases addition "(c)(i) elects conservator, shall, petition, motion, claim thereby. "(ii) behalf, appoint litem her. request, counsel. "(iii) Proceedings confidential precedence reach promptly conducts conclusions maintained conclusions. "(iv) appeal denies appeal. filing fees appellate level. Access denial same, (hereinafter Minn.Br.); 8-9. 1981. pregnancies. Encouraging achieve salutory results. forestall decision-making. aware. supervise post-abortion care. mitigate sequelae attend procedure." 765-766 reads follows: pregnancies Testimony committee influential supporters measure hoped 'would lives' influencing aborting." 59, Hodgson Appendix 25a. lives.' evidence, motive legislator." January 1985, partial summary favor claims, reserved ruling trial. "Where broken suffer Hobson's desires. 68a-69a (citations 72a. F.2d, 1460, quoting 3046-3047, II). suggested physician," 1461, singling pregnancy-related equal renewed supra. "During statistics compiled, Six withdrawn Nine 3,558 granted." 55, 72-75, 2842-2844, I); 2497-2499, 2524-2526, Matheson "[n]otify, performed." define "parents." ambiguous individually unit, represented father, contrary: retains marriage, enlistment, treatment, residual duties. 78-3a-2(13) figures dissimilar throughout Psychological Association 12-13 ("It estimated white born 1980 spent black homes".) Hofferth, Updating Children's Course, Marriage Fam. (1985)). "Studies occurs million underestimate alone, reports indicate average 31,200 incidents partners year. statistics, officials suggest 'battering' 'has violent crime state' numbers low-level batterer, reported. members; are, impossible problem characteristically secretive reluctant dramatically underreported." 768-769. home. lost. declare prevalence elsewhere." 764. testified: "We teenagers talked myself telling mom, dad, anyway, absolutely sure don't want know, 239 (Testimony Susanne Smith). 21, 'a nerve-racking experience,' 60, 'level apprehension twice court.' heard "going 'absolutely' 'at very, "perceive useful "see accomplished anybody." 86-5423 (CA8), A-488-A-489. defenders testimony. Cynthia Daly (public defender), 187 (bypass "was hoop jump damaging stress-producing didn't good"); Smith (guardian litem), 234 guardian's office nervous, scared. terrified processes. exhausted. belong system, ashamed, embarrassed punished in"); Heather Sweetland A-585 ("Most clients scared relax slightly nervous"). Doctor Hodgson, patients returned process, wringing wet perspiration. They're markedly relieved, They—they dread And sedative beforehand." 468. According participated procedure—many court—were "real upset" 167, "angry, worried kid nervous too." 186. "Properly understood inconsistent liberty; rather, former presuppositions latter. role, chances growth eventual society rewarding." 638-639, 3045-3046 394-396, 2988-2989, 825-826, 2693-2694, principles, education. E. Spencer, (1911); T. Reeve, Baron Femme 295 (1816). "Certainly sanctity derives pre-eminence seat life. something draw Constitutional 1781, Far contraceptives, (1965), couple well-recognized communications Stein Bowman, 209, 223, (1839) ("This founded deepest soundest nature. Principles grown domestic relations, society; enjoyment confidence subsist connected nearest dearest break sanctities husband wife, destroy solace existence"); Best, Evidence 994-995 (1st Am. 1876); Greenleaf, 286-287 (12th 1866); M. Phillips, 69-80 (3d 1849). training manual contemplates contacts arrange scheduled later. 1- 2-day backlog, 146-147, delay. 2502, rely, contrary. consenting "woman's informed." 2503. counseling, prepared effectuation immaturity. text, defeated decisionmaker—a court—gives affirmative child- spouse-batterer, provoked Judge Allen Oleisky, familiarity 1,000 154, battering frequent exemption battered afraid assault, "set thing cases." 166-167. 237, 245, 339. uncontradicted enrage [a batterer]. red cape bull. plays worst spots. jealousy, dislike anybody else, difficulties." Walker). KENNEDY 483, [may] it," 485. That, generalized assumptions intact appropriate. (state parent—whatever age—to child); Gynecologists deal sexuality substance most, lifestyles, 452-453. effort." 14-year-old patient, tried induce friends inserting metallic object vagina, tearing body, scarring cervix, bleeding. failed months pregnant, finally clinic. damage hysterotomy, meaning Cesarean 462. notes, 35, constrain immutable clinic's flexibility exacerbate factors. instance, Monday Tuesday week. Without day; "little delay" "may 449. ("48-hour delay"); 1452, 1465 1988) (en banc). bases coadministrator backlog typical. 34. "One days," hours. witness her." 147. honor request elapsed. after-care followed." 34-36. (delay "permits peculiar try childbirth, page, pose helpful reacts rejecting abusing page. "wringing perspiration" beforehand. 'very nervewracking' You typical things you somebody incredible answering monosyllabically, tone voice, tenor shaky, hands, lady turning blue warm office.' Maine, member; bypass; counselor according criteria. Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., 22, 1597-A providers encourage Wis.Stat. 146.78 (1987-1988). situation, encourage—but require—the "another member, friend, counselor, worker person." 146.78(5)(c). schemes, examples alternatives seem goal counseling. 191-192 1987) (90% routinely first-abortion patients, request). conceded oral 1469 (Lay,

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