Document: 505 U.S. 333 112 S.Ct. 2514 120 L.Ed.2d 269 Robert Wayne SAWYER, Petitionerv.John WHITLEY, Warden. No. 91-6382. Argued Feb. 25, 1992. Decided June 22, Rehearing Denied Sept. 4, See , S.ct. 21. Syllabus A Louisiana jury convicted petitioner Sawyer and sentenced him to death for a murder in which the victim was beaten, scalded with boiling water, set afire. His conviction sentence were upheld on appeal, his petitions state postconviction relief, as well first petition federal habeas denied. In second petition, District Court barred abusive or successive Sawyer's claims, inter alia, that police failed produce exculpatory evidence—evidence challenging prosecution witness' credibility child statements had tried prevent an accomplice from setting fire victim—in violation of due process rights under Brady v. Maryland, 373 83, 83 1194, 10 215; trial counsel's failure introduce mental health records mitigating evidence trial's sentencing phase constituted ineffective assistance counsel. The Appeals affirmed, holding not shown cause raise claims earlier it could otherwise reach claims' merits because he "actually innocent" penalty law. Held: 1. To show "actual innocence" one must by clear convincing but constitutional error, no reasonable juror would have found eligible applicable Pp. 338-347. (a) Generally, prejudice before court will successive, abusive, defaulted claim. Even if cannot meet this standard, may hear such them result miscarriage justice. See, e.g., Kuhlmann Wilson, 477 436, 106 2616, 91 364. justice exception applies where is crime imposed. While easy define what meant penalty, very narrow be determined relatively objective standards. 338-341. (b) order avoid arbitrary capricious impositions sentence, States adopted narrowing factors limit class offenders upon imposed, evidenced Louisiana's definition capital something more than intentional killing its requirement recommend death, determine at least list statutory aggravating exists. Once eligibility established, however, emphasis shifts defendants individualized consideration particular defendant introduction evidence. Within framework, applied proper standard when required base showing law elements itself existence circumstances, additional introduced claimed error. This hones exist adoption stricter definition, any crime, rejected, since, stating Smith Murray, 527, 537, 2661, 2668, 434, actual innocence mean innocent suggested expansive meaning simply offense itself. Also rejected lenient allow extend beyond factors, include bears, defendant's receive only ultimate discretionary decision between life imprisonment. Including make little already purposes securing relief broaden inquiry principle finality. 341-347. 2. has actually been sentenced. psychological allegedly kept does relate guilt jury—that committed course aggravated arson, especially cruel, atrocious, heinous—which made penalty. Nor can said both factors. alleged also fails innocence. Latter-day impeachment seldom, ever, makes believed heart account. statement did goes jury's finding arson and, thus, circumstance, rational find heinous quite apart even crediting hearsay statement, guilty participation 347-350. 945 F.2d 812 (CA5 1991), affirmed. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, WHITE, SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, THOMAS, JJ., joined. BLACKMUN, J., filed concurring judgment. STEVENS, judgment, BLACKMUN O'CONNOR, R. Neal Walker, New Orleans, La., argued petitioner. Dorothy A. Pendergast, Gretna, respondent. Paul J. Larkin, Jr., Washington, D.C., amicus curiae special leave Court. Chief Justice REHNQUIST 1 issue determining whether bringing claim so Sawyer, case, containing claims. Fifth Circuit refused examine It held these (1991). We affirm hold 2 1979—13 years ago—petitioner accomplice, Charles Lane, brutally murdered Frances Arwood who guest home shared girlfriend, Cynthia Shano, Shano's two young children. As we recounted our review Smith, 497 227, 110 2822, 111 193 (1990), Lane returned petitioner's after night drinking, Arwood, accusing her drugging Petitioner then attacked beat their fists, kicked repeatedly, submerged bathtub, poured scalding water dragging back into living room, pouring lighter fluid body igniting it. lost consciousness sometime during attack remained coma until she died injuries approximately months later. Shano children attack, testified prevented leaving.1 3 At trial, credit "toxic psychosis" defense, first-degree murder. phase, intoxicated time remembered bits pieces events. Petitioner's sister, Glenda White, about deprived childhood, affection care children, teenager confined hospital "no reason" undergone shock therapy. App. 505-516. three death.2 4 affirmed appeal Supreme State 422 So.2d 95 (1982). granted certiorari, vacated remanded instructions reconsider light Zant Stephens, 462 862, 103 2733, 77 235 (1983). Louisiana, 463 1223, 3567, 1407 On remand, reaffirmed sentence. State, 442 1136 (1983), cert. denied, 466 931, 104 1719, 80 191 (1984). ex rel. Maggio, 479 360, reconsideration 480 313 (La.1985).3 1986, raising 18 all denied merits. Butler, 848 582 1988), aff'd rehearing en banc, 881 1273 1989). again certiorari Appeals' denial relief. supra.4 next motion summarily repetitive without merit, review. F.2d, 815. 5 present arises out After granting stay evidentiary hearing, merits, others either successive. 772 F.Supp. 297 (ED La.1991). certificate probable "innocent penalty" should contained petition. 814. unconstitutionally ineligible For third 502 ----, 116 453 (1991), now affirm. 6 Unless shows prejudice, see Wainwright Sykes, 433 72, 97 2497, 53 594 (1977), of: grounds identical heard decided previous 364 (1986); new previously raised constitute abuse writ, McCleskey Zant, 499 1454, 113 517 (1991); (c) procedurally follow procedural rules Murray Carrier, 478, 2639, 397 (1986). These cases are premised concerns finality judgments conviction, "significant costs review." McCleskey, supra, S.Ct., ----; see, Engle Isaac, 456 107, 126-128, 102 1558, 1570-1572, 71 783 7 prisoner "miscarriage justice." trio 1986 decisions, elaborated justice, innocence," exception. explained developed language statute which, prior 1966, allowed hearing judge "satisfied ends served inquiry." Id., U.S., 448, 2624. despite removal 28 U.S.C. § 2244(b) "establish[es] probative colorable factual innocence." Kuhlmann, 454, 2627.5 supra.6 8 434 (1986), context. emphasized concerned compared legal innocence, acknowledged "does translate easily context error offense." 2667-2668. case "alleged neither precluded development true facts nor resulted admission false ones." 538, 2668. 9 subsequent cases, scope fundamental Dugger Adams, 489 401, 109 1211, 435 (1989), default excused innocent. Without endeavoring stated "[d]emonstrating nature kind might affected accuracy far demonstrating individual probably 'actually innocent' received." 412, n. 6, 1218, 6. Just last Term "narrow exception" avail violation, occurred, "resulted truthful inculpatory affect reliability determination." requires us further amplify punishment. prototypical example colloquial sense wrong person crime. Such regularly motions courts, adduced support rigorous standards motions. But rare instances turn later, example, another credibly confessed evident mistake. noncapital concept grasp. 11 difficult develop analogous framework dealing death. phrase death" natural usage those words, strive construct analog simpler situation represented defendant. defining analog, bear mind exception, workable subject determination every day proceedings, district typically presented few days before, of, scheduled execution, limited falls within made.7 12 Since Furman Georgia, 408 238, 92 2726, 33 346 (1972), Eighth Amendment jurisprudence imposing punishment adopt safeguards protecting against Gregg 428 153, 96 2909, 49 859 (1976); Proffitt Florida, 242, 2960, 913 Jurek Texas, 262, 2950, 929 (1976). response, various sentencer authorized impose defines murder, offense, killing.8 addition, doubt imposed.9 13 once established satisfaction jury, deliberations assume different tenor. series beginning Lockett Ohio, 438 586, 604, 98 2954, 2964, 57 973 (1978), permitted wide variety pertaining character background. Consideration together combinations methods dependent law, results judge's shall 14 Considering then, there possible ways defined. strictest offense. negate essential element Solicitor General, filing respondent, urges standard. reject submission too narrow, contrary "innocent" term 15 most possibilities bore, This, effect us. He contends exists "there 'fair probability' evidence, preclusion [caused error] death." Brief (citation footnote omitted).10 Although describes narrower Ninth Courts Appeals,11 reality closely related alleges jury. crucial according petitioner, " 'a factually inaccurate profile ' 15, 21, quoting Johnson Singletary, 938 1166, 1200 (CA11 1991) (en banc) (Anderson, dissenting). 16 Insofar merely itself, broadens extent type inquiry. Both circumstances used And proof disproof like definitions obvious relevant Sensible given allowing addition circumstance some other condition met.12 17 place, extension amounts "prejudice," necessary many errors. United Bagley, 473 667, 682, 105 3375, 3383, 87 481 (1985); Strickland 668, 694, 2052, 2068, 674 If sentences rational, obtain petition.13 But, importantly, anything "narrow" described be. confronted relative ease submission, intentional, consists credible, noncumulative admissible negating intent. task assess how jurors reacted showings particularly considering breadth decisions consider.14 19 took middle ground among test: 20 "[W]e require show, based proffered plus record fair probability trier fact entertained prerequisites imposition penalty." 820 (footnotes omitted). 21 therefore conditions Eleventh similar "eligibility" test 1166 pending, 91-6576.15 agree Circuits focus render being 22 advances arising distinct groups considered Sawyer. group relates role affidavits attacking affidavit claiming sons told officer responsible lighting it, fire. 215 (1963). medical stays institutions. counsel trial. 23 assert failing McCleskey. 824. earlier. 823. contest findings Appeals. Tr. Oral Arg. 7. Therefore 24 Under murder—that is, while committing arson—and valid circumstances: heinous. crime.16 Neither penalty.17 Therefore, fail reexamine 25 convinced Much suggesting testimony knew murder; drinking grant immunity prosecutor. 589-608. sort latter-day brought forward impeach witness account actions. 26 final bit 4-year-old son, Wayne, submitted Diane Thibodeaux detective asked lit "Daddy [Sawyer] help lady" "other man" pushed chair. 587. states showed cigarette trash. Ibid. Because arson. However, conclude affidavit, view record, undisputed torture (e.g., beating, water). that, information affidavit,18 found, principals.19 27 judgment Affirmed. sive, unless "by law." Ante, 336. reasons STEVENS separate opinion, post, I join, believe today adopts unduly cramped write separately discuss specifics Court's instead reemphasize my opposition implicit premise underlying decision: "fundamental justice" proceeding warrants redress express ever-growing skepticism each constricting ability courts remedy errors, really imposed fairly accordance requirements Amendment. 29 * repeatedly recognized principles fairness underlie writ corpus. 126, 1571, (1982); Sanders States, 1, 17-18, 1068, 1078, 148 erected unprecedented unwarranted barriers judiciary's prisoners properly petitions, resolution, consistently exceptions unreviewability violations fairness. Engle, 135, 1576 (principles comity "must yield imperative correcting fundamentally unjust incarceration"). Thus, held, defaulted, absent do thwart "ends justice," 455, 2627, (1986) (plurality opinion), work 495-496, 2649, 537-538, 1217-1218, (1989); 1470, 30 By traditional understanding corpus, occurs whenever secured right. 2254(a) (federal "shall entertain" allege they "in custody Constitution laws treaties States"); 543-544, 2671 (STEVENS, Holmes concern reviewing validity corpus "solely question [the petitioner's] preserved." Moore Dempsey, 261 86, 88, 43 265, 67 L.Ed. 543 (1923). 31 ignored teachings purported sovereignty, preservation resources, judgments, shifted away fact-based guilt. 2627 opinion) ("the 'ends justice' entertain [successive] supplements innocence"); 496, 2649 ("in extraordinary innocent, absence default"); 2668 (applying Carrier trial). 1470 "abuse writ" context). 32 "the 'actual,' 'legal,' Undaunted own illogic, just approach Smith. There, court-appointed psychiatrist violated informed right remain silent present. assumed Smith's claim1 potential impact "future dangerousness" satisfied, id., nonetheless concluded, remarkably summarily, "pervert concerning continuing threat society" (emphasis original). Michael demonstrate default, because, view, substantial "undermined determination," 539, went unaddressed executed July 31, 1986. continued equate notion "probably received," appeared further. Adams' claim, misinformed jurors, Caldwell Mississippi, 472 320, 2633, 86 231 (1985), vote strictly advisory (when Florida overturn choice erroneous), surely satisfied articulated Smith: "substantial undermined cryptic discussion relegated end Adams application apparently reason belief somehow convert "extraordinary" "ordinary" one. rejecting bother substitute place. ibid. ("We undertake here means sentence"). address Aubrey May 1989. 34 Term, 'safeguard compelling man suffer unconstitutional loss liberty,' 1471 (quoting Stone Powell, 465, 491-492, 3037, 3051 1067 (1976)). authorities deliberately elicited admissions Sixth counsel, Massiah 377 201, 84 1199, 246 (1964), withheld documents establishing 1460-1461, concluded lacked 1474. More important purposes, "exercise [their] equitable discretion correct avail" McCleskey: "Massiah one, Warren McCleskey's September 24, 1991. 35 takes foregoing correctly struggles, ignoring "natural words" resorting "analog[s]," ante, 341, continue believe, "exaltation characteristic 'fundamental fairness' deeply flawed." 545, 2672 36 initial matter, inconsistent Congress' jurisdiction, pursuant instructed States." 2254(a). jurisdictional contains authority obligation 2243 ("The . dispose matter require"). court, unnaturally, "function much same capacity fact"; "make rough 471, 7, 2622, (Brennan, 37 Most important, assumes, erroneously, value worth through determination. "[o]ur criminal system, Constitution, protect values determination, duty serve 'law similarly reflect values." accusatorial system Founders affords certain process-based protections truth-finding primary goal. protections—including compelled self-incrimination, Fourteenth impartial judge, indicted grand petit members race systematically excluded—are debased, indeed, rendered largely irrelevant, above rights. 38 Nowhere single-minded misguided ongoing struggle give "innocence reflects inappropriateness 2668; 6; 340. "Guilt irrelevant context; rather, representatives community live die." 471-472, 2636, Patchel, Habeas, 42 Hastings L.J. 941, 972 39 Only returning courts' central function review, evaluating ensure miscarriages go unremedied. heed Black's admonition: "it never late proceedings look straight screens forfeiture liberty flagrant defiance Constitution." Brown Allen, 344 443, 554, 73 397, 469 (1953) (dissenting opinion).2 II 40 When Circuit, observed, decisional "particularly excruciating" someone "who personally rightness questions effective deterrent." Maxwell Bishop, 398 138, 153-154 (1968), vacated, 90 1578, 221 (1970). time, advisability policy ordinarily resolved legislature." 154. Four member echoed sentiments dissenting 405, 2812, (1972). reiterated personal distaste performs meaningful deterrent function, 405-406, declined join Brethren declaring statutes unconstitutional. 411, 2815 preferences wisdom legislative congressional action, guide judicial decision."). 41 My Maxwell, Furman, reviewed tenure bench enforce, notwithstanding deep moral reservations, legislature's appropriate sanction, always rested safeguards, chief power Today, wonder left acceptance B occasion lament "crusade erect petty path seeking claims" transformation self-fashioned abdication." Coleman Thompson, 501 2546, 2569, 2571, 115 640 (1991) opinion). witnessed avenues available petitioners Keeney Tamayo-Reyes, --- 1715, 118 318 (1992) (overruling Townsend Sain, 372 293, 745, 770 (1963), part). witnessed, well, execution victims "new habeas," Roger Keith Coleman. seemed archetypal charged remedying. noted above, demonstrated officials needed convincingly hours clemency threats pardons parole board. That ever starkly reveals skewed conservation expediency executions seem greater solicitude human life. Bowers, 37, 1117 (Marshall, execution). 44 less affront Last Coleman's effectively overruling, expense, precedents presumed (and therefore, review) explicitly reveal grounds. Coleman, ---- - 2571-2572 Moreover, refusal month temporary lower conduct well-supported demonstrates resounding hollowness professed commitment employ "safeguard liberty." (internal quotation 1845, 119 (opinion 45 jurisprudence, thus am ever-shrinking errors affects legitimacy constitutionality sufficient State's administration capricious. 189, 195, 2932, 2935, (1976) (joint opinion); 601, 2963, (1978). issued, possessed broader adequacy scheme case. constrains undermines innocent." default." 2649. Having equated giving proceeding—hence 46 manifest There why animating limiting furthering Judge Friendly emphasized, contexts irrespective violate Friendly, Is Innocence Irrelevant? Collateral Attack Criminal Judgments, U.Chi.L.Rev. 142, 151-154 Fundamental trial; 47 proceedings. qualitatively morally "[i]t vital importance be, appear consequence scrupulously procedures." 545-546, 2672, Accordingly, dictate "[w]hen condemned raises substantial, consider prisoner's unfair." 546, 2672. 48 Thus basic asks question. Charged averting narrowly recasts redressing aside, interpretation analysis, plainly disregards well-settled law—both holds cause, 50 "show[s] [him] 51 sentence" deviates ways. First, "clear evidence" departs line cause-and-prejudice requirement. Second, fundamentally, conflicts structure 52 "a supplied). since frequently confirmed Teague 288, 313, 1060, 1076-1077, 334 (1989). involving offense" sentence," employed proof. repeated proceeding. ruled risk "devoid 538-539, Similarly, controlling "individual sum, construing likely created context, "[t]his outcome-determinative several strengths. way familiar though inquiry, inevitable, precise. profound comports widely assessing newly discovered evidence." 693-694, 54 Equally significant, resulted" calibrated Not respect competing demands fairness, fits squarely jurisprudence. general, prejudice. generally alleged] erro[r], different." Strickland, 2068; Bag ley, 685, 3384, 3385, (1985). general rule showing: result, regime logical sense. "reasonable probability" outcome, "exceptional case" (or sentencing) sentence) 55 repudiates replaces "show 336 well-functioning severe burden strong interest finality, outweigh individual's contrary, manifests recognition occasionally errs does, 56 "The 'instruct factfinder degree confidence society thinks correctness conclusions adjudication.' serves allocate litigants indicate attached decision." Addington 441 418, 423, 99 1804, 1808, 60 323 (1979) considerations supports heightened imposes today. basis requiring virtually entertaining contexts: civil malice" libel suit public official. York Times Co. Sullivan, 376 254, 279-280, 710, 726, 686 (1964); Anderson Liberty Lobby, Inc., 2505, 202 deportation, Woodby INS, 385 276, 285-286, 483, 488, 362 (1966), denaturalization, Schneiderman 320 118, 125, 63 1333, 1336, 1796 (1943). contexts, interests nonmoving party truly substantial: Addington, freedom expression Times, residence Woodby, citizenship Schneiderman. nearly great interests. Indeed, remember staying vacating "finality" certainly warrant convincing" 58 justification allocating fall severely attaching appropriate. themselves attach weight sentences: provide plain-error cases. 548-550, 20, 2674 (collecting authorities). regard, uniqueness decisions: need exercises citizens. 59 ruling creates perverse double non-capital heartlessly stringent depart settled clearly pressing result" corresponding governs challenge sentence: probably—that not—"innocent sentence." 61 recognizes involve reweighing sentencer's evaluation directs added). Nevertheless, inexplicably limits below, limitation wholly foundation neglects refute recognize 62 refuse Hitchcock Dugger, 393, 394, 107 1821, 1822, 347 (1987) quotations citations Yet ascribing eligibility-based rudimentary principle. recognizes, single directive animates informs capital-punishment jurisprudence: [may not] procedures creat[e] penalty] inflicted manner." 188, Stewart, JJ.). over years, yielded principles. "genuinely persons 877, 2742, "not considering, factor, aspect proffers (1978) Burger, C.J.) principles—one class, broadening evidence—seemingly point opposite directions, end: ensuring product reasoned decisionmaking. 64 Against backdrop startling anomaly. "those [constitutional precluded] introduced." Stated bluntly, respects bedrock such, impoverished vision odds doctrine theory 65 implicitly constitutive dozen years. Eddings Oklahoma, 455 104, 869, (1982), overturned Skipper South Carolina, 476 1669, preclude postincarceration, pretrial good behavior. Penry Lynaugh, 492 302, 2934, 256 Texas' impermissibly restricted retardation evidence.1 66 clashes nonarbitrariness—and constitutionality—of rests determinations. California Brown, 544-546, 837, 840-842, 93 934 (O'CONNOR, concurring). difference guided-discretion Georgia mandatory death-sentence invalidated Roberts 325, 3001, 974 constitutionally infirm room "meaningful opportunity [to] conside[r the] attributes offender." 333-334, 3006 Roberts: focuses solely equally 'death defendant's] specific case.' 885, 2747 Woodson North 280, 305, 2978, 2991, 944 (1976)).2 flawed second, related, way. analysis factors; eligibility. call thereby himself 68 Contrary suggestion, although remains If, sentencer, assigning relied heavily tortured victim, later torture, elimination will, "all-or-nothing" test, acknowledge possibility. 69 implicating harsh disproved. III 70 take "death-eligible" broadly sentencer. distinctive capital-sentencing decision. essentially fact, imprisonment situations technically "eligible" nonetheless, constitutes Finally, "profound proceedings," "heavy burden" place "on scarce resources." ----. best met provides erroneous. encompasses types erroneous if, taking "jury override," override (as law) met. 1194-1195 (Tjoflat, part part) (concluding "judge, insufficient jury-override Tedder 322 908, 910 (Fla.1975)). "balancing" outweighed Cf. Jackson Virginia, 443 307, 316-318, 2781, 2787-2788, 560 (1979). arise 72 Unlike acknowledges "aggravation" "mitigation" aspects court's inaccurately "clearly erroneous" duly protective legitimate respectful systemic institutional litigation. stringent: "is plausible viewed entirety" "even is] sitting [sentencer], weighed differently." Bessemer City, 470 564, 574, 1504, 1511, 518 allows "court entire definite firm mistake committed." Gypsum Co., 364, 395, 525, 542, 746 (1948). 74 workable. clear-error "[w]ell-defined [and] courts. manner threshold Federal long Rule Rules Civil Procedure done contempt actions, condemnation copyright appeals, actions illegal activity." S. Childress & M. Davis, Standards Review 2.3 29-30 (citing cases).3 workability 75 core presses Absent showing, IV 76 apply hand. majority indicates, argues uncover treatments psychiatric institutions guaranteed failure, "abusive" ineffective-assistance proceeding, "successive" showing. Upon entirety, 78 points State. offers woman (Diane Thibodeaux) who, occasion, small appears conflict contemporaneous reports. implicated cruel burning avers codefendant, casting Cindy principal witness. emphasizes highlights inaccuracies testimony. documenting brain damage retarded development. 79 Viewed whole, establish most, Thibodeaux's cast slight victim. challenges questions, commit convince me factors—that heinous, cruel. 95, 100 (La.1982). "more not" undermine assuming factor (diminished disease defect),4 say faced unrefuted 81 below declining V 82 rejects affecting "would 'narrow' finality." 345. unfounded. restrictive propose, rarely reached Deutscher Whitley, 946 1443 (CA9 1991); Stokes Armontrout, 893 152, 156 (CA8 1989); 888 530, 545 share task" 346. contexts. cost making fit mind, added administrative justified overriding minimizing implementing sovereign's observed Gardner 430 349, 1197, 1205, 393 "if disputed critical importance, invested ascertaining truth spent fully affirming 97-98 following factors: "(1) engaged commission (2) atrocious manner, (3) unrelated murder." 100. supported 101. twice hearings 450 355 (1984); 468 554 retroactively Our as: "[T]he 'show including illegally admitted (but regard unreliability it) tenably wrongly excluded become guilt.' 17, 2673 160 ." experience applications regrettable fact. condone, condemn, efforts delay filings minute obtaining lack execution. resolve doubts uncertainties sufficiency submission. Gomez 503 1652, 293 (per curiam ). La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 14:30 (West Supp.1992) murder: "First being: offender intent kill inflict bodily harm perpetration attempted kidnapping, escape, rape, forcible burglary, armed robbery, robbery simple robbery; "(2) fireman peace performance lawful duties; "(3) person; "(4) offered, given, received killing. "Whoever commits punished hard labor benefit parole, probation, suspension jury." La.Code Crim.Proc.Ann., Art. 905.3 1984) provided: "A finds recommends imposed." derives supra. maintains precludes shown. emphasizing lead converse, leads "false" phrased follows: "To sentencing, substantially infected 1446 (citations 'In penalty-phase verdict whom imprisonment.' 1989) 1989)). narrows circumstance. 7-8. Statutory provisions restricting may, course, vary state. reduced evasion acts "exception" practical terms longer 493, 2648. STEVENS' suffers weakness well. 52(a), "findings [in jury] aside erroneous." wrenches context—where written judge—and judge. latter quantitatively bring factfindings trials. (1948), 573, '[a] committed.' traditionally verdicts—that Post, 371. "Thus, presenting implicates body. penalty; 1183 form 10. category family attesting deprivation suffered child. 571-584. memory 602-603. tender occurrence, suggests corroborate Thibodeaux, independent refusing 14:24 1986) principals "All directly act constituting aid abet commission, indirectly procure principals." fingerprints fluid. absolutely abu- 551-553, 2675-2676, Estelle 451 101 1866, 359 (1981). Notwithstanding erred faithfully 424, 1224, (1989) post. O'CONNOR ago, reemphasized "[t]he indisputably honored position Tracing roots English common Constitution. centuries, bulwark convictions fairness.' [72,] [97 2512, (1972) ] concurring)." centrality fairness" led available, (1963); 1576. 495, 2650, Boyde California, 494 370, 1190, 108 316 (1990); McKoy 433, 1227, 369 Franklin 487 164, 2320, 155 (1988); Mills 486 367, 1860, 384 (1987); Bell 637, 2977, 1010 argument involves "far [of] assess[ing] showings." circumstances; anticipate found" facts. barring endorses. Its exclusion arbitrary. nonguilt 23(c) 10.3 73-76 cases). 905.5(e) (defining "mitigating circumstances" appreciate criminality conform impaired defect" offense).

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