Document: 362 U.S. 539 80 S.Ct. 926 4 L.Ed.2d 941 Frank C. MITCHELL, Petitioner,v.TRAWLER RACER, INC. No. 176. Argued Jan. 21, 1960. Decided May 16, Mr. Morris D. Katz, Boston, Mass., for petitioner. James A. Whipple, respondent. Justice STEWART delivered the opinion of Court. 1 The petitioner was a member crew Boston fishing trawler Racer, owned and operated by On April 1, 1957, vessel returned to her home port from 10-day voyage North Atlantic grounds, loaded with catch fish spawn. After working that morning his fellow members in unloading spawn,1 changed clothes came on deck go ashore. He made way side which abutted dock, accord recognized custom stepped onto ship's rail order reach ladder attached pier. injured when foot slipped off as he grasped ladder. 2 To recover injuries filed this action damages complaint containing three counts: first under Jones Act, 46 U.S.C.A. § 688, alleging negligence; second unseaworthiness; third maintenance cure. At trial there evidence show where had lost footing covered distance 10 or 12 feet slime gurry, apparently remaining earlier operations. 3 district judge instructed jury allow recovery upon either negligence unseaworthiness count, they must find gurry been period time long enough respondent have learned about it removed it.2 Counsel requested distinguish between respect, specifically him instruct notice not necessary element proving liability based vessel. This request denied.3 awarded cure, but found shipowner both counts. An appeal taken sole ground error instructing constructive support unseaworthiness. Court Appeals affirmed, holding at least respect 'an unseaworthy condition arises only during progress voyage,' shipowner's obligation 'is merely see reasonable care is used circumstances * incident correction newly arisen defect.' 265 F.2d 426, 432. Certiorari granted, 361 808, 70, 57, consider question maritime law Courts expressed differing views. Compare Cookingham v. United States, Cir., 184 213, Johnson Line Maloney, 9 243 293, Poignant 225 595. 5 In its present posture case thus presents single issue whether so-called 'transitory' limited concepts common-law negligence. There are here no problems, such recently engaged Court's attention, petitioner's status 'seaman.' Cf. Seas Shipping Co. Sieracki, 328 85, 66 872, 90 L.Ed. 1099; Pope & Talbot, Inc., Hawn, 346 406, 74 202, 98 143; New York Jersey Sandy Hook Pilots Ass'n Halecki, 358 613, 79 517, 541, itself. West 118, 189, 161. Racer active operation, crew.4 6 origin seaman's right caused an ship far clear. earliest codifications sea provided equivalent cure—medical treatment wages mariner wounded falling ill service ship. Markedly similar provisions granting relief nature be Laws Oleron, promulgated 1150 A.D. Eleanor, Duchess Guienne; Wisbuy, published following century; Hanse Towns, appeared 1597; Marine Ordinances Louis XIV, 1681.5 7 For many years American courts regarded these ancient codes establishing limits seaman Harden Gordon, Fed.Cas. 6,047, Mason 541; Brig George, 5,329, Sumn. 151; Reed Canfield, 11,641, 195.6 During early concerned concept reference two situations quite unrelated personal injuries. mention judicial opinions appears cases mariners were suing their wages. They required prove excuse desertion misconduct otherwise would result forfeiture See Dixon Cyrus, page 755, 3,930; Rice Polly Kitty, 20 666, 11,754; Moslem, 17 894, 9,875. other route through into via rules covering marine insurance carriage goods sea. Caledonia, 157 124, 15 537, 39 644; Silvia, 171 462, 19 7, 43 241; Southwark, 191 24 48 65; I Parsons Insurance (1868) 367—400. 8 Not until late nineteenth century did develop admiralty doctrine seamen beyond became generally accepted liable consequence owner's failure exercise due diligence. decisions era most part treated injury same involving duty shoreside employer ordinary provide employees reasonably safe place work. Brown D.S. Cage, 367, 2,002; Halverson Nisen, 11 310, 5,970; Noddleburn, D.C., 28 F. 855; Neptuno, 30 925; Lizzie Frank, 31 477; Flowergate, 762; Heaton, C.C., 592; Julia Fowler, 49 277; Concord, 58 913; France, 59 479; Robert McQuillen, 91 685. Although some held shipowners 'active' negligence, Edith Godden, 23 43; Willie, 45 494, City Alexandria, 390, thorough Judge Addison Brown, owner render appliances unseaworthy. A closely related limitation imposed fellow-servant doctrine. Sachem, 42 66.7 historical background behind Brown's much quoted proposition Osceola, 189 158, 175, 483, 487, 47 760: 'That are, English law, indemnity received ship, supply keep proper appurtenant ship.' noted '(i)t will observed departure has Continental Codes allowing expense cure arising originated England Merchants' shipping act 1876 country, general consensus among circuit courts, exception should principle before obtaining, favor suffering We disposed disturb so wholesome any contrary decision our own.' 487. It arguable import above-quoted Osceola broaden liability, but, rather, limit those resulted vessel's Support view historic context decided, discussion balance opinion, itself (in shipowner), equation drew England, Merchant Act use 'all means' 'insure seaworthiness Osceola's pronouncement may basis subsequent federal exonerating responsibility agents because rendered Henry B. Fiske, 141 188; Tropical Fruit S.S. Towle, 222 867; John Roebling's Sons Erickson, 261 986. Such reading also finds several Baltimore Phillips, 274 316, 600, 71 1069; Plamals Pinar Del Rio, 277 151, 457, 72 827; Pacific Peterson, 278 130, 75, 73 220.8 event, passage 1920, 41 Stat. 1007, U.S.C. Congress effectively obliterated all distinctions kinds liable, well limitations doctrine, extending remedies available railroad workers Federal Employers' Liability 51 et seq.9 furnish seaworthy explicitly standard Carlisle Packing Sandanger, 259 255, 475, 927. said 'we think court might told without regard she left dock if one damage direct thereof, entitled compensatory damages.' 259, 477. characterization probably case, respondent's clearly fact (putting gasoline can labeled 'coal oil' neglecting life preservers). Yet reason suppose language inadvertent.10 13 decades followed acceptance enunciated absolute principles law. Personal litigation substantial. See, Gilmore Black, Law Admiralty (1957), p. 316. And texts theory question. Benedict, (6th Ed., 1940), Vol. I, 83; Robinson, (1939), 303 seq. Perhaps clearest expression Augustus Hand's H. Scandrett, 87 708: 14 'In libelant even though means anticipating trouble. 'The freed mere diligence Harter (46 §§ 190—195) loss results faults navigation, and, default follows breach obligation.' 711. 16 1944 decided Mahnich Southern Co., 321 96, 64 455, 88 561. While possible take narrow precise case,11 stands landmark development Chief Stone's gave unqualified stamp solid authority correctly understood depends agents. Moreover, dissent claimed more than properly attributable pages 105—113, 460—463. 1099, scotched doubts lingered after character duty, Court, 'absolute.' 'It essentially species fault, analogous known instances Derived shaped meet hazards performing imposes, neither conceptions nor contractual character. form owing within range humanitarian policy.' 94—95, 877. dissenting agreed duty. '(D)ue owner,' said, 'does relieve 104, 822. 18 From day this, undeviatingly reflected understanding completely independent care. Alaska Steamship Petterson, 347 396, 601, 798; Rogers States Lines, 984, 849, 1120; Boudoin Lykes Bros. 348 336, 75 382, 99 354; Crumady J. Fisser, 423, 445, 413; 541. suggestion less onerous leaves port, temporary. Of particular relevance supra. affirmed judgment defective equipment temporarily brought board contractor over control. That specific actual knowledge essential liability. disposes temporary different attaches permanent.12 ample room argument, light history, how could developed. theories fill volume logic. But, last years, we argument what is. What evolved complete divorcement hold now erase just history. 21 suggest obligated accident-free absolute, appurtenances fit intended use. perfection, fitness; weather every conceivable storm withstand imaginable peril sea, suitable service. 354. 22 reversed, remanded District new Reversed remanded. FRANKFURTER, whom HARLAN WHITTAKER join, dissenting. 25 No area judge-made source extent admiralty. evolution process accretion erosion. great master civilized purposefully conscious. Conversely, 'grow'd' like Topsy unreflectively conscious design, irrational. When challenged uncritically matter course inertia repetition—has Topsy—the owes demands reason, law-making power ultimately rests authority, examine foundations validity appropriately assess claims extension. 26 Our static, needs interests interrelated world-wide seaborne trade reflects very deeply rooted past. undergone changes emergence growth industrialized society land. continuity persistence particularly international title-deeds, special significance. 27 birth current unseaworthiness, impressively Magruder's review, stated precisely: occurred 29, 1922, Washington state employee Carlisle, who while motorboat six- eight-hour trip. lighted fuel marked start cookstove, exploded. thereafter mistakenly filled gasoline. suit claim Sandanger won verdict finding Supreme exclusively applicable afford compensation negligent employee. negligently created compensable, when, rule laid down 760, be. 112 Wash. 480, 192 P. 1005. dealt few lines innovating liability: (The full text margin.1) explication accompanied dogmatic presented judgment. strangely deemed sufficient rely unelaborated citation 464, 8, 241, 3, 65) rights cargo damage. abrupt, unreasoned conclusion reached benefit argument: parties solely instituted terms Washington—liability founded Neither own investigation disclosed prior contracts applied injury. unillumined Reasoned us, extension sought dubiously initiated,2 requires rational, social scrutinized unquestionable dogma. 29 established petitioner, employed fell using customary stepping leaving vessel; resulting presence spawn rendering slippery; get remain rail.3 further deposited shortly injury, bags handed across rested alleged Petitioner asserts function, then, more—and length remained compensate consequent conclusions flow supra, Respondent contends, lower held, not, itself, establish urges propositions alternative these—the express primary urged support—is since concededly arise commencement create unless persisted afforded existence. makes turn existence permitting persist. that, allowed persist, transitory hazard sound condition. 32 confronted questions scope facts generalization drawn, certainly foreshadow characterized Magruder 'startlingly opposed principle.' analysis reasons announced govern decision. does deny force respondent, regards foreclosed 798. fact, today's unrevealing per curiam affording justification here. 33 As shows, 205 478, longshoreman contract stevedore loading permission option substitute vessel, snatch-block, ships' equipment, supplied pursuant permission. Following Inc. 143, runs non-seamen seamen's work, Petterson best added delegated giving control operations raise argue (1) subsequently conditions, (2) temporary, sense pertinent here, therefore foundation, revealed history warrant inference squarely pressed rejected them. fanciful because, considered contentions urged, them insufficient avoid substitution warranted adopted own. 34 insubstantial foundation today deem incumbent me claim. 35 middle carrier goods, absence contrary, delivery against save acts God public enemy, see, e.g., Propeller Niagara Cordes, How. 23, 41, origins strict entirely confined losses fault servants. Fletcher, Carrier's Liability, 51—79. imposition stricter begun all, jurisdiction admiral gradually declined. Mears, History Jurisdiction, Select Essays Anglo-American Legal History, 312 (originally Roscoe, Jurisdiction Practice, pp. 1—61). increasingly common carrier, fitted traditional concept, Paton, Bailment Common Law, 233—236, appear predicated redeliver peculiarly aspects carriage. 36 sanction English—and, lesser extent, American—courts limiting extraordinary significance carrier's shrank. Nickerson, 11,274, Story 465. Disclaimers valid common, disclaimers sustained. Parsons, Maritime 177—179, n. 1; compare, re Missouri Ch.D. (1889), Liverpool G. W. Steam Phenix Ins. 1889, 129 397, 438—439, 469, 470—471, 788. 37 cargo, derogation them, limited, emerged. Unlike carriers expressed, focus of, resistance broad disclaimers, implied despite relatively 137, 542, 644. evident. vessels maintained outfitted; imperfect ships intolerable. Since familiar facilities ordinarily permit reduce risk, unreasonable require extensive make seaworthy—reasonably voyage, 9, 65—and thereby remove profitable temptation add Though measure indicative unstated determination ability distribute risk justified regarding insurer, cf. 94, 877, dominant conditions existing fair demand increment additional safety obtained barring defense defects undiscoverable comparatively ideal pre-voyage predictably low, coupled exclusive away dealings suppliers companies, imposing burden him. 38 doubtless influenced similarly warranty assured, shipowner, charterer, shipper, attaching policy. attributed risks actually undertaken insurer. Tetreault, Seamen, Seaworthiness, Rights Harbor Workers, Cornell L.Q. 381, 395. But whatever role played, sprung, part, considerations policy insurer's understanding. 'I endeavoured, commerce preservation human life, enforce (of initial seaworthiness) as, discretion, enabled do so. *' Lord Eldon, Douglas Scougall, Dow. 269, 276 (1816); Toward end considerations, given rise inperceptibly fused. assured insurer identical explaining promise undertaking shipper. 40 divergence attitude each recognize, sharply exemplified respectively cases. By 1853 recognizing exonerated occasioned persist responsible Baron Parke Gibson Small, H.L.Cas. 353, 398—399; Insurance, 381—383; Union Smith, 124 405, 427, 534, 546, 497. strongly inherent (see, 404); highly esteemed protection property, presumably gained, effect absolutely select diligently continuing America, conflicts nations 1893, 190—195. permitted disclaim preparation If exercised diligence, 'resulting errors navigation management' purpose strike compromise standards them.4 Admiralty, 122. One collateral largely concern voyage. 463, Hamburg-Amerikanische, 290 333, 54 162, 78 348. After, statement frequently cargo-damage applies voyage; deficiencies 'navigation management.' 345, 165; Steel Navigator, 1928, 590, 591. However, diminish tendency disclaimer apply remained. Carib Prince, 170 655, 753, 1181. striking differences injuries.5 employment, which, employer's default, exonerate quit 455; Arizona Anelich, 298 110, 121—122, note 2, 56 707, 710—711, 1075. run seamen, remedy considerable restricted self-help. Couch Steele, (1854) El. Bl. 402. plaintiff illness leaky court, assuming unseaworthy, declared unknown account Coleridge, (at 408), distinguished turning doctrines 'have branch law,' master-servant disposition analogize non-maritime activity manifested Readhead Midland R. (1869) L.R., Q.B. 379, advanced railway passenger wheel broke was, analogy contention describing responsive need Coggs Bernard, (1703) Ld.Raym. 909, prevent colluding thieves. modified 1876, Vict., c. 80, sec. 5, maintain damages. narrowly construed operation Hedley Pinkney (1894) A.C. 222. disapproved. D.C.Or.1886, 78. exist, however, Couch, fault. supra; D.C.E.D.N.Y.1887, D.C.S.D.Ala.1887, 477, 479 (which stemming common-carrier status). 44 1903 oft-cited four (189 487) governing seamen. noted, proposition, dictum declaring 'received ship' relied upon, none cited reliance defined requiring seaworthy. instead intention adopt D.C.S.D.N.Y.1883, cited, tenor fourth Osceola. number denied absent. 1915, 1919, abortive attempt Congress, 1164, 1185; Chelentis Luckenbach 247 372, 501, 62 1171, 1920 remedial legislation familiarly forms free 927, out blue, citing cases, cargo.6 ruling, policy, discernible decisions, implying expectations agreement—the court's rejection supra—but increase property previously conception degree departed confining attempted warranty, willingness throughout implication grounds seamen; countervailing give serious pause designed significant property. Despite survived; shipboard organization conduct, real sense, subject hazards. predictable few, any, matters extended, ignored creating threat cargo. opportunity ample, undertake effective able protect himself consequences undetectable agreement suppliers, rest purchase insurance. unduly heavy; interest vindicated stood alone, plain greater pre-existed presented—whether conditions—would novel Subsequent deliberately closed gap. 50 twenty-two again, interim sharp disagreement existed all. Rolph, 1924, 299 52, Tawmie, 1936, 792, 1937, 708. (In N. Hand relying cases.) (the statute having claims) incurred rope, staging fifteen rigged, parted fell. mate charge unused, old, Lyle Gun (a life-saving device) box. accident rope decayed. 52 F.Supp. 839, mate's selection dismissed libel apart alone compensable good job, affirmed. 135 602. assumed, deciding, selected 605), too, unnecessary decide contested 'the adequate appliances.' 100, 458. critical major premise went barred intervening primarily explanation. 53 disclosure attributing deliberate authoritative ruling conditions. Confined constitute consistent new, decayed overlong improper storage, use, assume Edwin I. Morrison, 153 199, 211, 823, 826, 688. raised argued parties. simply assumed follow defense. Their concern, 827, substantially facts, board. Mahnich, mistaken premises: turned appliance rigged provision remotely called rejecting premises did, extends Finally, assumption said: 55 relax exacting tackle. relaxation decision, seaman' (321 101, 458). better forged shackle supporting ten-ton boom latent defect forging. construction Both conceded recovered failed discover defect. 57 724. Sieracki seaworthiness. 149 98. turning-point seaworthiness, longshoremen doing extended sources rationale above. 90—96, 875—878. Nothing casts carried unless, running pre-Harter bespeaks enlightening warranty. 798, already discussed. 1120. irrelevant Court; defendant guilty 354, incompetency found, aspect Joachim Hendrik 413, 'safe practice,' n., 447, winch operations, face act, although overt None objections Manich adjudicated. Against adjudications assumes assert '(t)here port. onerous, suggests Even century, concerns times Once safe, thought entrust conduct appropriate undoubtedly involved weighing factors, today: unavailability inspections repairs; unfairness accountable damage, detectable otherwise, caused, perils sea; likelihood whose event precaution preserve it, exacted liability; impose complex be, circumstances, burdensome. 60 latter consideration especially us. misgiving, wholly journey unreasonableness unavoidable ignored. compensating caution anticipated creation Nor pass along companies. rational bear cost offers why owners, unlike employers, should, gained insurers employees. arbitrary extreme chance occurs momentary inadequacy prudently All accidental fall cure; nothing modern undertakings justifies five centuries sufficient. 61 affirm below. HARLAN, FRANKFURTER 63 joining my Brother FRANKFURTER'S dissent, wish words. believe past unjustified principle, directed ends domain. Second Circuit's 595, provides useful point say. libellant, member, small piece garbage lying passageway lacked chutes, pulled, cans, railing, jettisoned. probability commenced. holds, nonetheless. then put, issue, constituted condition, trial. important manner problem. outset allegedly passageway, 597, remand chutes Id., 598. This, course, going outfitting travel, clear proximate lack passageways 65 approach indicates Had contended proved outfitted type device fish, facilitating egress railing slippery debarking, governed successors, immaterial. debarking crew, unsafe normal mismanagement anyone board, remedy. accumulate failing developed Carriage Sea would, bar recovery. 241. where, initially showing seems borrowing Magruder, 'hard doctrine,' fashioning Bullard Roger Williams 643, 2,122, 646, expectation promote taking precautions Frankfurter, J., ante, 557. being something undone done, asked show, libellant Poignant, ought differently, is, fashion prevented dangerous 67 served compensation. equally undoubted accident, bestowed, case. incapacity deal problem comprehensive integrated characterize legislative treatment, 219 10, 15, preserved. internal contradiction serves highlight central point: admiralty, tort response underlie workmen's legislation, weighty matter. Citation needed remind readiness felt heed capacity authority. Halcyon Lines Haenn Ship, etc., Corp., 342 282, 285—287, 277, 279—280, 96 318. 68 affirm. accordance tradition, employment proceeds sale divided thereof officers instructions follows: you believe, kind slime. Well, really time, your accident. haven't You recognize somewhat overlapping to, indeed obligations captains, mates, someone, isn't utilized climb ladder, sort substance doesn't difference puts there. owner-operator goes, job stay too long, knows place, getting 'So tell nub hope clouded you, Was slime; unreasonably time; it; cause suffered. 'Was seen removed? question.' 'Mr. Katz: request? 'and removed.' submit count situation, required. only— Court: Denied. Refer Circuit.' rulings earlier, undisputed Mitchell flows (sic) Congress.' memorandum almost month trial, judge, financial unloaded (see supra), '(T)here count. rail, put associate jointventurer stranger acting defendant. Sailor wife there, engaging frolic own, profit advantage say, example, munching taffy, drops taffy deck, sailor slips sailor, injured, collect shipowner. short, articles co-adventurer plaintiff.' played issues motion indicated reprinted 1171—1216. relevant Articles VI VII, 1174—1175; XVIII, XIX, XXXIII, 1191, 1192; XXXIX XLV 1200; Title Fourth, XI XII, 1209. And, vitality diminished years. Calmar Corp. Taylor, 525, 651, 82 993; Waterman Jones, 318 724, 930, 1107; Farrell 336 511, 69 93 850; Warren 340 523, 432, 95 503. sketched 382—403; 315—332. illuminating Circuit Harlan 12—15. Where '(u)nseaworthiness, understood, embraces certain (Jones Act) includes embraced term.' 138, 77. effort La Follette 1185) emasculated 1171. commentator chosen it. op. cit., 394. I.e., overruling cannot include 'operating negligence.' 317. persuasive Circuit. 'Considering prevailing waters cause, contained gasoline; preservers board; previous 432; 10. mode access, unloading, urging harmony carriage, Kingdom, led, enactment Goods 1207, 1300 seq., adopting recommendations convention 122—124. applicable, 1936 imposes have, varying extents, 169—170, 484—485, 760. development, originating concerning discharge Overton, D.C.Mass. 1859, 418, 2,024; 385. connection elaboration spokesman lead unhappy promulgated: Jensen, 244 205, 524, 1086 Knickerbocker Ice Stewart, 253 149, 438, 834.

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