Document: 341 U.S. 70 71 S.Ct. 581 95 L.Ed. 758 UNITED STATESv.WILLIAMS et al. No. 26. Argued Jan. 8, 1951. Decided April 23, Mr. Philip Elman, Washington, D.C., for petitioner. John D. Marsh, Miami, Fla., respondent Charles R. Ford. Justice FRANKFURTER announced the judgment of Court and an opinion in which THE CHIEF JUSTICE, JACKSON MINTON joined. 1 In 1947 a Florida corporation employed detective agency to investigate thefts its property. The inquiry was conducted by one Williams, head agency, among participants were two his employees member Miami police force detailed assist investigation. Certain company's fell under suspicion; Williams collaborators, without arresting suspects, took them shack on premises. There investigators subjected familiar 'third-degree' which, after blows, kicks, threats, prolonged exposure brilliant light, yielded 'confessions.' 2 other three thereupon indicted violation §§ 19 20 Criminal Code United States. 18 U.S.C. (1946 ed.) 51 52, now (1950 241 242, U.S.C.A. 241, 242. convicted § 20, indictment alleging that he 'wilfully, color laws, statutes, ordinances, regulations customs State * inhabitant Florida, deprivation rights, privileges immunities secured him protected Fourteenth Amendment *.' 3 This conviction is reviewed 365, 97, 576, infra, also decided this day. defendants acquitted charges as all mistrial declared 19. outcome followed new against four alleged 'acting laws Florida' 'conspired injure citizen States free exercise enjoyment rights time convicted; but appeal Appeals Fifth Circuit reversed. It held conspiracy provision 'the Congress had mind federal appertain citizens such not general extended persons clause Amendment.' 179 F.2d 644, 648. alternative, court concluded broader construction would render it void indefiniteness, there error judge's charge well exclusion evidence prior acquittal defendants. Together with Nos. 134 365 Term, 58, 595; cases growing out same affair, we brought case here because important questions administration civil legislation are raised. 340 849, 77. 4 alternative grounds decision need be considered, agree (to use current designation what Code) does reach conduct laid offense prosecution here. deny power enforce appropriate criminal sanction every right guaranteed Due Process Clause Amendment; nor fully accept course reasoning below. We base our history text context, statutory framework stands, practical judicial application—controlling elements construing affects wise adjustment between responsibility national control essentially local affairs. converge direction. They lead us hold only covers interferes arising from substantive powers Federal Government. 5 What known originated 6 Act May 31, 1870, 16 Stat. 140. That statute entitled 'An Right Citizens vote several Union, Purposes.' furtherance chief end assuring Negroes vote, provided should misdemeanor any 'person or officer' wrongfully fail duty imposed law perform permit performance acts necessary registering voting. interference elections private made similar offense. passage through sections added larger purpose. One them, 17, derived Civil Rights 1866, 14 27, designed 'secure equal protection laws.'1 imprisonment up year fine thousand dollars 'any person who, law, statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, shall subject, cause subjected, Territory last preceding section act, different punishment, pains, penalties account being alien, reason race, than prescribed punishment 140, 144. Through successive revisions has become application facts before considered infra. Another provisions immediate concern. original form: 'Sec. 6. And further enacted, if more band conspire together, go disguise upon public highway, premises another, intent violate injure, oppress, threaten, intimidate prevent hinder privilege granted Constitution States, having exercised same, guilty felony, and, thereof, fined imprisoned, both, at discretion court,—the exceed five dollars, ten years,—and shall, moreover, thereafter ineligible to, disabled holding, office place honor, profit, trust created States.' 141. 7 dominant conditions Reconstruction Period conducive enactment carefully coherent legislation. Strong post-war feeling caused inadequate deliberation led loose careless phrasing relating political issues. no exception. Although enacted they proposed sponsors hastily adopted. received little attention debate. While discussion bill whole fills about 100 pages Congressional Globe, related 6, these good part record complaint inadequately understood.2 8 Nevertheless some conclusions warranted. first officers dealt 17 Act. Three years passed statute. March 2, 1867, 30, 484, R.S. 5440, 371, 371. provision, conjunction reached conspiracies deprive Amendment. No 1870 9 second conclusion language carry meaning must clear principal purpose unlike action rather acting authority. Men who 'go another' likely official capacities. times—the lawless activities bands, Klan most conspicuous—explains why both disregard constitutional prohibitions lawlessness.3 sponsor Senate explicit amendment conduct.4 10 These strongly suggest third: protects those can beyond doubt constitutionally secure individuals. Decisions have established category includes arise relationship individual congressional elections, instance, may obviously interference. Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 651, 152, 28 274. On hand, consistently protect excludes merely guarantees State. Thus individual's interest receiving fair trial courts cannot vindicated persons. v. Powell, 212 564, 29 690, 53 653; accord, Hodges 203 1, 27 65; Wheeler, 254 281, 41 133, 65 270. distinction decisions draw flow Government clearly interference, interests American law. See, e.g., Strauder West Virginia, 303, 310, 25 664. 11 To construe so Government, make scope duplicate coverage clause. fact desired confirmed examination Full allowance hasty draftsmanship obscure indications include 17. 12 Thus, when wished Amendment, described 'secured protected' Constitution. But narrower phrase 'granted secured' used define When wanted officers, reference 'color' demonstrates knew how known. Similarly, 'persons officers' indicates able explicitly draft applicable capacities alike. contrast, simply 'persons.' Nothing terms relevant it.5 13 find significance give undue weight differences phraselogy appearing For been once times. Some minor changes phraseology revisions. neither Revised Statutes 1874—1878, 1909, 1926 codification Code, 1948 revision either revisor's commentary change substance. continuity indicated Appendix opinion. revisions, furthermore, consistent indicating 6—now 241—was practice interpreted existence pattern Cruikshank, 92 542, 23 588. conspiring Negro affirmed entered verdict guilty. found counts First, Second, Fifteenth Amendments objectionable asserted States' within 551, set never departed from. 15 274, seven assumed Guinn 238 347, 35 926, 59 1340; Mosley, 383, 904, 1355; Saylor, 322 385, 64 1101, 88 1341, members 241; Classic, 313 299, 61 1031, 85 1368, Louisiana system primary Congress.6 Waddell, 112 76, 35, 673, establish claim Homestead Acts offender 241. did pertain citizenship; since 'wholly dependent act Congress,' obstructing came 'within purview statute.' 79, 80, page 37, 673. assault custody marshal Logan 144 263, 617, 36 429. so, denied inform laws. re Quarles, 158 532, 959, 39 1080; Motes 178 458, 993, 44 1150. Contrariwise, their jobs compel move 653, mob seized sheriff lynched indictable 241.7 none precise issue decided, acted validity depends section, expanded draftsman indictment. uses put strong ends intended serve. instance buttress common sense spontaneous reading independently clear, repeated reenactment substantial change.8 All points conclusion: applies relation victim abridgment reject valid involves new, distorting old makes redundancy confusion raises needless problems. assume 242 Indeed, tried 242; 365. Unlike qualified requirement 'wilfully,' very specialized content attributed word essential sustaining Screws 325 91, 89 1495. Nor defined crime ingredient statutes given invites. Their terms. therefore including allegation extend Since interpretation fall, below affirmed. 21 Affirmed. APPENDIX 22 Legislation: Comparative Table Successive Phraseology Material deleted next subsequent shown brackets. substituted italics 9, 24 SEC. 2. [having condition slavery involuntary servitude, except whereof party duly convicted, or] white persons, deemed misdemeanor, conviction, punished exceeding year, court. 141, [shall [together], [public] [violate to] [granted thereof,] [or court,]—the States.1 26 [shall] citizens, [in court].2 1874-1878 5508. If same; secured, imprisoned years; office, 5510. Every subjects, causes privileges, immunities, punishments, penalties, both. 1092 years, 30 20. Whoever, willfully State, Territory, District color, 31 Codification, 462, 1946 ed. 32 Section 51. Conspiracy rights.—If $5,000 [and States]. 33 52. Depriving laws.—Whoever, subjected,] punish- ments, $1,000, 34 Title 18, revised s. 37 secured— 38 Deprivation subjects $1,000 40 BLACK, concurring. prosecutions respondents Ford, Bombaci Perry brutally coercing confessions certain suspected theft. charging 51, 52 resulted counts; counts.1 Shortly indictments returned: again charged six conspiracy; committed perjury during trial.2 convictions review present case. 42 I am convinced records principle res judicata barred trying conspiracy. judge instructed jury convict aided, abetted, assisted, counseled, encouraged, commanded, induced, procured incited do so. Acquittal was, therefore, final determination done things, or, effect, nothing commission itself. precludes relitigation factual issues trial. Sealfon 332 575, 68 237, 180. true, broad adversely conspired insofar unlawful agreement inferred participated way crime. Consequently, stand Perry, previously charge. 43 circumstances. allege named As result, precluded proving guilt Williams' co-conspirators, basis necessarily removed himself. Cf. Morrison People California, 291 82, 93, 54 286, 78 664; Feder Cir., 257 F. 694, A.L.R. 370; see collected 72 1180, 1186—1187; 97 1312, 1313, 1316—1317. Because, foregoing reasons, believe fail, unnecessary determine whether ed., Supp. III) applied, too vague uncertain 45 DOUGLAS, whom REED, BURTON, CLARK concur, dissenting. 46 Sections companion great won Nation's critical internal conflict. conspiracies; offenses. 'citizen'; 'inhabitant.' extends 'by States'; States.'1 47 Rutledge 119, 1044, 1495, wrote spite difference wording 'no basic guarded. Each individuals Constitution.' indeed strain hard words substance (§ 19) 20). embraces range 19, 'immunities' 'rights' 'privileges' 'protects' 'secures' them. major apparent themselves, strange hear said though state limited invasion division Nation inherent republican form government throughout along line, imagine used.2 48 true origins. into 7, while appeared 98—100, 1033—1034, legislative plain antidiscrimination measure newly rights. became effective. date reenacted 144; 1874 prohibition introduced. From doubt, stated supra, 100, 1034, 1035, 'one sanctions secure.' true—if 'rights, restricted persons—it difficult understand States', restricted. 49 (which, said, 141) recently debates. Cong. Pt. 4, 41st Cong., 2d Sess., pp. 3607 seq. Yet confined voting rights; reads finds trace suggestion broadening aimed 'secured' 50 urged noticed students period. Flack, Adoption (1908) p. 223, wrote, 'The Houses signed President enforcement Amendments.' Roberts Hague C.I.O., 307 496, 510, 954, 961, 83 1423. drastic restriction architectural scheme left history. way. Senator Pool North Carolina, introduced evolved, Amendment.3 has, indeed, long enough 387, 905, 1365, Holmes observed 'dealt rights.' decision, case, opposed view. sometimes Court. denial action, wrongs See Cases, 109 3, 835; Shelley Kraemer, 334 836, 1161. Cruikshank like others,4 involved wrongful fourteenth prohibits denying jurisdiction laws; not, precedes add anything another.' 554—555, implicit 125, note 22, 1047, officials bring stated, obligation resting right. guarantees, more. guaranty.' applied Hall, Fed.Cas. 15,282; Mall, 1147, 15, 712; Riggins, C.C., 404, writ dismissed, 199 547, 147, 303. Those attempts failed construed narrow scope, complained action. 151 648, affirmed, Powe 147. far 'basic guarded' concerned, coterminous. 'under color' reaches 'two persons' Constitution, etc. over deprivations respect less comfort certainly doubted wring accused violence, included day, deprives kind guarantees. He right, relieved risk unconstitutionality vagueness. 'a specific definite rule saves vagueness.' 103, 1036, analysis service here, evidenced 55 A definition venture. partnership crime.' Socony-Vacuum Oil Co., 310 150, 253, 60 811, 858, 84 1129. Frohwerk 249 204, 209, 249, 251, 63 561, 'intent accomplish object stating parties it.' ruling gave concept avoidance court, explaining enumerated indictment, numerous element intent. following typical: 56 'In order depriving complaining witnesses Florida. 57 proof, any, wrong sufficient, Constitutional conspiracy, burden casts considering intent, you take consideration circumstances light developed.' view nature instant incongruous strike down vagueness yet sustain 58 defense based 20—the argued entailed relitigation, principles 180, argument, however, facile facts. First. aiding abetting. application' 'It defendant consciously shares conspiracy.' Nye & Nissen 336 613, 620, 69 766, 770, 93 919. Respondents actually commission. words, crimes different. Second. jury's constituted rejection presented depended. acquittals means rejected example, ground showed giving actual aid obtained violence. evidence, insufficient show execution project, could nonetheless overwhelmingly conceived it. 62 links tied earlier Accordingly application. remarks Stewart amendment, Cong.Globe, 3480 (1870). Senate. Sess. outset Ibid. subsequently Pool. Id., 3612. debate Senate, Committee Whole, 3479 3808 Globe. Illustrative Casserly: 'One worst body went committee conference, escaped notice nearly minority body, verily considerable portion majority Senators body. refer taken amendment. 'Now, fit thing importance unknown greatest informing large whose know voting? undertake majority, forcing midnight session unusual duration, least demand exigency proceeding, contributed result; making, enacting supposed understood 3759. Thurman Stewart, id., 3672, 3808. House devoted 1812, 3503, 3853, 3871. depth lawlessness period evoked reflected letter Chief Thomas Ruffin son, July 1869. Hamilton, Papers Ruffin, 225. introducing 'There are, President, various ways fifteenth abridged positive enactment, abridge suffrage, country it; substitute Judiciary where registration assessment taxes making proper entries connection therewith, refuse register pay citizen. But, sir, suffrage; conferred trespass fifteenth. Not organizations conspiracies, told, formed purpose.' 3611. pertinent these: 'I incumbent it, attempt infringe recognized country. 'Mr. liberty prerogatives, citizenship, safely mere caprice withholding emergency require. omission neglects borders free, fair, full arm 3613. passages states proposals indicate distinctly protect. 'rights amendment' conferring citizenship position punish wherever prohibited likewise apply supplements 3. location contrary confirms distinct involving wanting constitute effective voter's feferal franchise. Gardwell, 243 476, 407, 857; Bathgate, 246 220, 269, 676. Baldwin Franks, 120 678, 656, drive aliens homes expressly citizens. involved, question decided. Mason, 213 115, 480, 725; O'Sullivan Felix, 233 318, 596, 980; Pennsylvania System Federation 267 203, 307, 574. worth noting count (now 241) review. demurrer afford legal argument advanced support substantially sustained challenge Court's although 1907, 1246, 682, 3731, enabled few early lower 15282; 15,712; 404. each plainly inconsistent run counter even arguments adduced Because rearrangement simplification clauses Revision 1874-1878, conveniently brackets italics. immaterial. referred "to contracts, sue, parties, benefit proceedings security property enjoyed subject taxes, licenses, exactions kind, other". 16, [Page intentionally blank] today. Ford (and case) today 595. claimed pending refrained testifying provided: 'If 'Whoever, both.' adequate inclusion bears weight. originally carried penalty $10,000 years. beginning severe Moreover, penalty: holding increased. reviser's note. After discussing Thirteenth, Fourteenth, perfect amendments, features spirit itself, protecting securing liberty. admit restraining liberty, delegated express terms; accordance formation Union sufficiently comprehensive embrace class might enable prerequisite fourth intimidation, bribery, otherwise prevent, delay, right; strikes individuals, amendments is, my judgment, perfectly bear possible resorted provisions. Certainly legislate moments ago, press matters own responsibility; singly organizations. all, 3611, 14, 298, 135,

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