Document: 357 U.S. 116 78 S.Ct. 1113 2 L.Ed.2d 1204 Rockwell KENT and Walter Briehl, Petitioners,v.John Foster DULLES, Secretary of State. No. 481. Argued April 10, 1958. Decided June 16, Mr. Leonard B. Boudin, New York City, for petitioners. J. Lee Rankin, Sol. Gen., Washington, D.C., respondent. Justice DOUGLAS delivered the opinion Court. 1 This case concerns two applications passports, denied by One was Kent who desired to visit England attend a meeting an organization known as 'World Council Peace' in Helsinki, Finland. The Director Passport Office informed that issuance passport precluded § 51.135 Regulations promulgated State on grounds:1 (1) he Communist (2) had 'a consistent prolonged adherence Party line.' letter denial specified some detail facts which those conclusions were based. also advised his right informal hearing under 51.137 Regulations. But told whether or not requested it would be necessary, before issued, submit affidavit then ever been Communist.2 did ask but filed new application listing several European countries visit. When still available him, attorney replied took position requirement concerning membership 'is unlawful reason matter conscience,' supply one. He did, however, have at principal evidence against him from book It's Me O Lord, agreed accurate. again refused affidavit, maintaining any matters unrelated question citizenship irrelevant Department's consideration application. Department no further given until satisfied requirements Thereupon sued District Court declaratory relief. granted summary judgment On appeal heard with Dr. psychiatrist. Briehl applied passport, asked covering Party. like Kent, refused. tentatively disapproved following grounds: 3 'In your has alleged you Communist. Specifically is member Los Angeles County Party; Bookshop Association, St. Louis, Missouri; held meetings; 1936 1941 contributed articles Publication 'Social Work Today'; 1939, 1940 sponsor raise funds veterans Abraham Lincoln Brigade calling President United States petition defend rights its members; Civil Rights Congress bail fund used raising behalf convicted leaders City; Hollywood Arts, Sciences Professions contact Committee Protection Foreign Born Freedom Stage, Incorporated.' 4 stated held, necessary. one held. At raised three objections: 'political affiliations' passport; 'every American citizen travel regardless politics'; (3) burden prove illegal activities Briehl. persisted refusal affidavit. Because Board Appeals could entertain appeal. 5 complaint indistinguishable Kent's dismissed complaint. 6 cases en banc affirmed divided vote. 101 U.S.App.D.C. 278, 248 F.2d 600; 239, 561. are here writ certiorari. 355 881, 149, L.Ed. 111. 7 first noted function performed law Urtetiqui v. D'Arbel, 9 Pet. 692, 699, 276, decided 1835: 8 'There States, manner regulating issuing directing upon what may done, declaring their legal effect. It understood, practice, required, secretary state, passport. This, entirely discretionary him. No inquiry instituted ascertain fact citizenship, proceedings had, will bear character judicial inquiry. document, which, nature object, addressed foreign power; purporting only request, bearer pass safely freely; considered rather political recognized, countries, citizen; usage nations, received fact.' A great value—indeed necessary abroad; aid establishing purposes re-entry into States. See Browder 312 335, 339, 61 599, 602, 85 862; Moore, International Law Digest (1906), 512. throughout most our history—until indeed quite recently—a though convenience travel, leaving entering Jaffe, Right Travel: Problem, 35 Affairs 17. Apart minor exceptions noted, first3 made 215 Act 27, 1952, 66 Stat. 190, U.S.C. 1185, U.S.C.A. states that, after prescribed proclamation President, 'unlawful depart enter, attempt unless bears valid passport.'4 And Proclamation make restrictions this applicable force made.5 10 Prior 1952 there numerous laws enacted passports many decisions, rulings, regulations Executive them. Thus 1803 official knowingly issue alien certifying citizen. 205. In 1815, just prior termination War 1812, 'cross frontier' enemy territory, board vessels waters camps within limits 'without obtained' other designated official. 199—200. similar steps during War. Dept. State, (1898), 50. 1850 ratified treaty Switzerland requiring citizens nations. 11 587, 589—590. Finally 1856 remains today basic statute. time various federal officials, state local notaries public undertaken either certificates documents letters introduction officials requesting treatment according usages international law. By August 18, 1856, 52, 60—61, 22 211a, put end practices.6 provision, codified July 3, 1926, 44 Stat., Part 2, 887, reads, 'The grant * such rules shall designate prescribe person grant, issue, verify passports.' 12 history condition entry exit. 13 true intervals, required travel. Mention already imposed 1812 restriction, forerunner contained Act, 1918. 14 May 22, 1918, 40 559, unlawful, while Presidential force, leave enter 'unless passport.' H.R.Rep. 485, 65th Cong., 2d Sess. That statute invoked 1473 8, 1829, continued effect March 1921. 41 1359. 15 1918 effective wartime. amended so then-existing emergency. 55 252. S.Rep. 444, 77th 1st Proclamation. Proc. 2523, November 14, 1941, 1696. emergency 28, 1952. 2974, C31, 50 U.S.C.A.Appendix, note preceding section 1. extended statutory provisions 1, 1953. 54, 57, 96, 137, 330, 333. extension period issued complained of.7 16 Under 1926 predecessor large body precedents grew up repeat over act' part scholars,8 courts,9 Chief Executive,10 Attorneys General,11 all said. long-continued executive construction should enough, said, warrant inference adopted it. Allen Grand Central Aircraft Co., 347 535, 544—545, 74 745, 750—751, 98 933; Allen-Bradley 352 306, 310, 77 343, 345, 347. key problem, we see, Secretary's discretion exercised, bare discretion. 17 'liberty' cannot deprived without due process Fifth Amendment. So much conceded Solicitor General. Anglo-Saxon emerging least early Magna Carta.12 Chafee, Three Human Constitution 1787 (1956), 171—181, 187 et seq., shows how deeply engrained freedom movement is. across frontiers direction, inside well, heritage. Travel abroad, country, livelihood. close heart individual choice eats, wears, reads. scheme values. Crandall Nevada, Wall. 35, 44, 18 744; Williams Fears, 179 270, 274, 21 128, 129, 45 186; Edwards People California, 314 160, 62 164, 86 119. 'Our nation,' wrote 'has thrived principle outside areas plainly harmful conduct, every left shape own life thinks best, do pleases, go where pleases.' Id., 197. social As Chafee it: 19 'Foreign correspondents lecturers affairs need first-hand information. Scientists scholars gain greatly consultations colleagues countries. Students equip themselves more fruitful careers instruction universities.13 Then reasons core personal marriage, reuniting families, spending hours old friends. Finally, abroad enables understand people live Europe helps them well-informed issues. An crossed ocean obliged form opinions about policy merely government few newspapers. Moreover, views domestic questions enriched seeing foreigners trying solve problems. different ways direct contributes sounder decisions home.' 195—196. see Vestal, Movement, Iowa L.Rev. 6, 13—14. 20 is, indeed, important aspect citizen's 'liberty.' We decide extent can curtailed. concerned extent, if any, authorized curtailment. difficulty power expressed broad terms, apparently long exercised narrowly. far material here, generally fell categories. First, pertinent applicant allegiance resolved Secretary, command 'No verified persons than owing allegiance, not, States.' 32 386, 212, 212. Second, participating escape toils law, promoting frauds, otherwise engaging conduct violate 512; Hackworth, (1942), 268; Hyde, (2d rev. ed.), 401. grounds asserted relate hand criminal other. Yet, relevant ones fairly argued light administrative practice. find records rulings subordinates wider range indicated. respects Communists these scattered consistently pattern. say assurance whatever practice adopted, jelled around categories mentioned. We, therefore, hesitate impute Congress, when purpose give unbridled withhold substantive choose. 23 More restrictive war measures. compelled equate present problem problems arise power. Cf. Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. Sawyer, 343 579, 72 863, 96 1153. 24 comparable magnitude, Korematsu 323 214, 218, 65 193, 195, 89 194, allowed Government exclude homes restrict showing 'the gravest imminent danger safety.' There moved coordinated action; and, Nation war. presently exists. extremity, joint action curtail constitutional here. 25 Since start exercise activity included protection, readily infer gave If dealing entrusted case. involved part, course, carries implication intention extend diplomatic does 'request whom concern permit freely pass, lawful protection' subordinate. Its crucial control And, seen, exit word regulated, must pursuant lawmaking functions Congress. supra. delegated, standards adequate scrutiny accepted tests. Panama Refining Ryan, 293 388, 420—430, 241, 252, 79 446. Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 307, 60 900, 904. 84 1213; Niemotko Maryland, 340 268, 271, 71 325, 327, 95 267. Where enjoyment, natural often well-being citizen, involved, construe narrowly delegated powers dilute Ex Parte Endo, 283, 301—302, 208, 243. Hannegan Esquire, Inc., 327 146, 156, 456, 461, 90 586; Rumely, 345 41, 46, 73 543, 97 770. generalized authority trench heavily 26 reach constitutionality. conclude 1185 211a delegate kind deal beliefs, associations, ideological matters. remember neither accused crimes nor found guilty. They being solely because subjected beliefs associations. seek Communists. assuming they are, passed expressly curtailing borders yet become effective.14 therefore strange pending effectiveness silently larger, pervasive free order satisfy himself 27 To repeat, assume faithful respect. faced hold provision explicit terms; absent one, employ standard citizens' movement. 28 Reversed. 29 CLARK, BURTON, HARLAN, WHITTAKER concur, dissenting. 30 acting vested Order 7856, CFR 51.77, question, 51.142 provides statement oath 'with respect past Party.' 51.142. 1917, 'contain recital each rules' '(b)efore person.' 227, 213, 213. context background, for, petitioners file, affidavits stating members consider petitioners' affidavits. 31 clearly information ground might properly refuse purports preclude existence holding deny whose inimical national security. thus construing recognizes passports. power, benefit statute, subject specific legislative consolidated hands Secretary. 60—61. 1874 language, 'shall issue,' changed 'may issue.' R.S. 4075. slightly modified form, come through re-enactments, e.g., p. 657 present-day embodiment 211a. 33 authority, proviously acknowledged Perkins Elg, 307 349—350, 59 884, 896, 83 1320, both times peace periods During emergency, importance tremendously magnified succession 'travel-control statutes' making possession necessity country. 1815 territory 199. After same result accomplished congressional sanction, Digest, 1015—1021, World I prompted passage second travel-control 559. directly antecedent controlling legislation, provided safety additional restrictions, country Shortly thereafter, Wilson necessity, affirmatively appeared 'departure prejudicial interests 1473, 1829. 34 sharply indicates meant contrary came floor House Representatives accompanied explanation Report Affairs, 2—3: 'That supervision essential statements committee bill. mentioned recently returned having, knowledge Government, done work neutral German Government. strong suspicion proper purpose. Nevertheless impossible now prevent saw fit so. sufficient institution prosecution, event securing place easily imagined. 36 'It meet situation wide action. foresee means hostile nations secure military spread propaganda discontent. obviously impracticable legislation Swift counterstroke. 37 representatives departments prompt suggested pressing. suspicious departures Cuba prevent. Other departure points excited greatest anxiety. particularly Mexican border, legally restricted types reasonably suspected aiding Germany's purposes.' debate bill House, spokesman stated: 38 very hampered lack even loyal, suspect governments.' 56 Cong.Rec. 6029. 39 ports open, concerned, friends, citizens, neutrals, pleasure, notwithstanding individuals go.' Id. 6065. His counterpart Senate debate: chief object correct serious trouble Justice, Labor having aliens enemies renegade am sorry say, nests border. intercept delay covers believed goes Germany preparations transportation troops France passes Mexico. along everyday occurrence, measure great. supplementary espionage efficient execution detecting punishing spies.' 6192. 42 unmistakable intended traditional effectively add protection country's internal 43 understood evident 1920. memorandum dated 30, 1920, declared, 'Any assistance way facilities, render working indirectly Soviet help *.' Memorandum Re Applicants Passports Who Bolshevists Connected Bolshevist Code 5000. Accordingly, recommended 'who counsels advocates publicly privately overthrow (of) organized Governments force.' Among examples '(m)embers Two weeks later, published office instructions, December embassies world, implementing 5000 prohibiting 'anarchists' 'revoluntionary radicals.' Expressly among proscribed classes 'believe advocate violence States,' well 'are affiliated organization' believes overthrow. terms expired 1921, 1359, controls existed 1941. year, provide proclaimed proclaim interest reimposed. Roosevelt 1696, Department. 53. amendment clear Act: use block best security Judiciary, 1—2, declared: 'Since outbreak attention engaged subversive governments, others desire between connection 46 floor, 'sole purpose' establishment sort clearing house,' wishing 'would why going coming, determined coming 87 5052. 5048—5053, 5386—5388. carrying out resulted 'complete change emphasis Division agency afford safeguard maintain state.' Dept.State Bull. 1070. transformation clearance basis hundreds thousands (Emphasis added.) 47 While related officially declared 54. interim period, Immigration Nationality repealed 279, reenacted amending invocation 'during President.' 190. practically incorporation apart comment 'incorporated appear act 1918.' H.R. Rep. 1365, 82d For reason, amendment, set detail, doubly ascertaining intent Act. Plesha, 1957, 202, 205, 275, 277, 254. 48 Truman 1950, response Korean conflict, was—and today—in existence. 2914, 64 A454, reliance January 17, Proc.No. 3004, 67 C31. carefully pointed none interpreted revoking regulation 'heretofore relating from, into, theretofore attacked Communists, shortly Fed.Reg. 8013. 49 virtue approved date legislation.1 conclusion necessarily follows turn limiting 310—311, 345—346, 347; 1954, Cerecedo Hermanos y Compan ia, 1908, 209 337, 532, 533, 52 821. determines peacetime cases, involving activity, wartime discretion, admittedly restrictive, relevance said denials involve concludes beyond pale authorization. Both propositions above vital Court's final conclusion. Neither validity: fact, common sense. indisputably Commission Security (1957), 470—473, summarizes granting excerpts documents. 1917 Russian Revolution, 'became aware scope world-wide revolutionary attendant existing including own.' Thereafter 'passports indoctrination, instruction, etc. 1931 From 'until II Communists.' II, '(a)t refused,' reconsideration 1948, decision supporters communism intend, engage promotion activities.' time, traveling subvert Later 1948 journalists 'actively cause.' Nearly years September latter leniency reversed, 'that Internal 1950 showed Government.'2 referred Legal Adviser, duty journalists.' 51 scattered, nevertheless existent. Much centers opposition aims minority report Judiciary objected, 'But evidenced recent cancellation Paul Robeson.' S.Rep.No. 2369, 81st 10. Truman, vetoing claimed law.' 15631.3 1869 Attorney General Hoar good nature, sometimes 'most inexpedient Op.Atty.Gen. 509, 511. example 'an avowed anarchist,' require denied.' Ibid. also, 89, 92. 53 Orders periodically adventurers' 'revolutionary radicals,' phrase defined include 'those wish take welfare See, I, Instructions 4, 1921; 1937, 1937; Service 9, 1948. 54 error determination wholly determining practices enactment 215. realistic sense today, wherein 'world conquest communist imperialism goal forces aggression loosed world' increasing menace requires defense strengthened speedily possible,' full A454. case, then, judging Professor Jaffe aptly exposed fallacy majority proceeds: criterion external enemies. 'war' 'peace.' critical enemy; communication controlled usual process. particular inevitably speculative: bird flown. Now Administration concluded enemy. process; seem justified control. assumed counsel fellows, arrange steady dependable flow cash information, bit promote 'conspiracy." 26. Were peace, us decide, since structure prerequisite imposition restrictions. 57 Indeed, irrelevant, Yet hence travel.4 58 distinguishing away wartime, makes distinguish presidential effect, prevailed II. Throughout out, 'whose Security, Numerous instances 1947—1951 reported February review article, nearly half year Note, Refusals Political Reasons, Yale L.J. 171. multiple basis, constrained disagree majority's resolution prevents reaching issues petitioners, delegation violation speech association First Amendment, view inappropriate me, dissenter, time. Peters Hobby, 1955, 349 331, 353—357, 75 790, 801—803, 99 1129. affirm questions. provides: assuring support world integral unit movement, except limited immediate return to: '(a) Persons terminated circumstances conclusion—not rebutted evidence—that continue furtherance discipline '(b) Persons, formal affiliation Party, domination, movement; '(c) believe, balance evidence, advance purpose, wilfully advancing movement.' Section 'At stage Board, deemed application, subscribe, affirmation, Communist, proceedings.' Sections 23, 987, 993, §§ 781, 785, registered 'there register,' registry apply conditions precedent materialized. part: prohibitions addition thereof, shall, ordered unlawful— '(1) reasonable rules, regulations, orders, limitations prescribe; '(3) false permission induce another; subsection (a) authorize prescribe, Proc.No.3004, 350, 352. Dept.Reg.No.108.162, ed. 1945), 399; 268. 1320. Exec.Order 654, 13, 1907; id., 2119—A Jan. 12, 1915; 2286—A Dec. 2362—A, Apr. 1916; 2519—A, 24, 1917; 4382—A, Feb. 1926; 4800, 31, 1928; 5860, 1932; Mar. 1938, 681, 51.75. last listed reads follows: certain withdraw cancel restricting validity countries.' Department, feel willfully cause. Acting 1907, may, sufficient, doubtful, believe improper use.' Relations Pt. (1910), 1083. Freund, Administrative Powers Property (1928), 97, '* acts theory circumstance Any attitude intolerable; mean harmony practice.' 92; Article person, future, kingdom, return, securely, land water, saving us, war, short space, kingdon: excepting prisoners outlaws, land, nation Merchants treated above.' op. cit. supra, 19—20; Sibley, System, J.Soc.Comp.Leg.(N.S.) 26, 32—33; Blackstone Commentaries 134 135. educational reviewed Francis Colligan 663. seriously disputed majority. However, reference reluctance interpret broadly 'jelled' overlooks look, abundant opinion, 1926. comprehensive story Communism America indicating control, Hoover, Masters Deceit (1958). Senator Kilgore 14538, offered 13756, Senate, 14599. Peacetime another point view, namely, hinge thereby get another.

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