Document: 506 U.S. 263 113 S.Ct. 753 122 L.Ed.2d 34 Jayne BRAY, et al., Petitioners,v.ALEXANDRIA WOMEN'S HEALTH CLINIC, al. No. 90-985. Argued Oct. 15, 1991. Decided Jan. 13, 1993. Syllabus * Respondents, abortion clinics and supporting organizations, sued to enjoin petitioners, an association individuals who organize coordinate antiabortion demonstrations, from conducting demonstrations at in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area. The District Court held that, by conspiring deprive women seeking abortions of their right interstate travel, petitioners had violated first clause 42 U.S.C. § 1985(3), which prohibits conspiracies "any person or class persons equal protection laws, privileges immunities under laws"; ruled for respondents on pendent state-law claims trespass public nuisance; as relief these three claims, enjoined trespassing on, obstructing access to, specified clinics; and, pursuant 1988, ordered pay attorney's fees costs 1985(3) claim. Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. does not provide a federal cause action against clinics. Pp. ____. (a) Respondents have shown that opposition qualifies alongside race discrimination "otherwise class-based, invidiously discriminatory animus [underlying] conspirators' action," is required Griffin v. Breckenridge, 403 88, 102, 91 1790, 1798, 29 338, order prove private conspiracy violation 1985(3)'s clause. Respondents' claim petitioners' reflects general must be rejected. "animus" requirement demands least purpose focuses upon reason sex, whereas record indicates are directed specifically women, but intended protect victims abortion, stop its practice, reverse legalization. Opposition cannot reasonably presumed reflect sex-based intent; there common respectable reasons opposing other than derogatory view class. This Court's prior decisions indicate disfavoring although only engage activity, ipso facto invidious (b) also "aimed interfering with rights" "protected private, well official, encroachment," second prerequisite proving Carpenters Scott, 463 825, 833, 103 3352, 3358, 77 1049. Although travel constitutionally protected interference some contexts, makes clear at" right. Ibid. That was established here. showed substantial numbers reach question, it irrelevant whether such preceded abortions. Moreover, far appears record, proposed would erect "actual barriers . movement" intrastate. Zobel Williams, 457 55, 60, n. 6, 102 2309, 2312, 72 672. conceded this intrastate restriction applied discriminatorily travelers, therefore implicated. Nor can respondents' based state object purely conspiracy. See Carpenters, supra, U.S., S.Ct., 3358. (c) dissenters err considering second, "hindrance" clause, covers "for preventing hindering any State giving securing all laws." A "hindrance"-clause stated complaint, considered either lower courts, contained questions presented certiorari, suggested party question argument decision readily determinable violation. language source Second, "claim" fail unless applies aimed rights official encroachment. Cf. Carpenters. Finally, district court did find prevent hinder law enforcement. 2. award 1988 vacated because were entitled 1985(3). However not, decision, "wholly insubstantial frivolous," Bell Hood, 327 678, 682-683, 66 773, 776-777, 90 L.Ed. 939, so subject-matter jurisdiction over action. Consideration should given remand judgment alone support injunction entered. 914 F.2d 582 (CA4 1990), reversed part, remanded. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion. SOUTER, part dissenting part. STEVENS, opinion, BLACKMUN, O'CONNOR, Jay Alan Sekulow, Decatur, Ga., petitioners. John G. Roberts, Jr., amicus curiae Deborah A. Ellis, New York City, Ohio, respondents. Justice SCALIA Court. 1 case presents Rev.Stat. 1980, 1985(3)—the surviving version 2 Civil Rights Act 1871—provides perform abortions, organizations legalized members may wish use Petitioners Operation Rescue, unincorporated whose oppose six individuals. Among activities, Rescue organizes participants obstruct premises individual demonstrations. Following expedited trial, travel. nuisance. As Virginia counties cities National Organization Women 726 F.Supp. 1483 (ED Va.1989). Based ruling $27,687.55 costs. 3 Fourth Circuit affirmed, we granted 498 ----, 111 1070, 112 1176 (1991). argued October 1991 Term, our direction, see 504 2935, 119 561 (1992), reargued current Term. 4 Our precedents establish 1985(3),1 plaintiff show, inter alia, (1) "some racial, perhaps otherwise [lay] behind 338 (1971), (2) 1049 (1983). We think neither showing has been made present case. 5 In held, reversing 20-year-old precedent, Collins Hardyman, 341 651, 71 937, 95 1253 (1951), reaches color law, conspiracies. finding text expanded scope, however, recognized "constitutional shoals lie path interpreting tort law." Griffin, 1798. avoided, said, "by requiring, element action, kind motivation stressed sponsors limiting amendment," ibid.—citing Representative Shellabarger's statement restricted " 'to prevention deprivations shall attack equality American citizens; right, effect strike down citizen, end he enjoy contrasted his citizens' rights, within scope remedies. .' Id., 100, 1797 (emphasis original), quoting Cong.Globe, 42d Cong., 1st Sess., App. 478 (1871). said "[t]he [of ] requiring intent protection, immunities, means action." 1798 original). 6 yet occasion resolve "perhaps"; itself addressed upheld involved discrimination. assert discrimination, animus" covered 1871 abortion. Neither sense nor this. 7 To begin with, reject apparent conclusion (which make no effort defend) constitutes "class" "women abortion." Whatever precise meaning purposes Griffin's speculative extension beyond race, term unquestionably connotes something more group share desire conduct defendant disfavors. Otherwise, innumerable plaintiffs able causes simply defining aggrieved those activity interfered with. definitional ploy convert statute into "general law" very avoid. Blackmun cogently put it, "cannot defined tortious 850, 3367 (Blackmun, dissenting). "Women abortion" qualifying 8 contention, alleged class-based general. unnecessary decide since do met maliciously motivated, opposed assertedly benign (though objectively invidious), women. It demand, sex—for example (to illustration discrimination), "saving" they combative, aggressive profession practice law. motivated (malevolent benign) class; contrary, found define "rescues" reference physical intervention 'between abortionists innocent victims,' "all [petitioners] deep commitment goals stopping legalization." F.Supp., 1488. Given contention true if one two propositions true: intent, irrelevant, determined solely effect. proposition supportable. 9 first: Some activities irrational disfavor targeted, happen engaged exclusively predominantly particular people, presumed. tax wearing yarmulkes Jews. But voluntary possibly surrogate (or paternalism towards) thinks denied hatred condescension toward indeed concerning) class—as evident fact men both sides issue, just unlawful Planned Parenthood Southeastern Pennsylvania Casey, 505 2791, 120 674 (1992). 10 comes down, then, legally irrelevant; women,2 discriminate cases proposition. Geduldig Aiello, 417 484, 94 2485, 41 256 (1974), rejected disability insurance system coverage certain disabilities resulting pregnancy discriminated basis sex Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. "While true," "that become pregnant, follow every legislative classification concerning classification." 496, 20, 2492, 20. reached similar Personnel Administrator Mass. Feeney, 442 256, 99 2282, 60 870 (1979), sustaining challenge Massachusetts employment preference military veterans, 98% male, id., 270, 2291. 'Discriminatory purpose,' "implies volition awareness consequences. implies decisionmaker selected reaffirmed course 'because of,' merely 'in spite adverse effects identifiable group." 279, 2296 (citation omitted).3 same principle "class-based, 1985(3).4 deal conclusively Maher Roe, 432 464, 97 2376, 53 484 (1977), Harris McRae, 448 297, 100 2671, 65 784 (1980), constitutional test applicable government abortion-funding restrictions heightened-scrutiny standard demand Craig Boren, 429 190, 197-199, 451, 456-458, 50 397 (1976), ordinary rationality standard. Maher, 470-471, 478, 2380-2381, 2385; Harris, 322-324, 2691-2692. 11 nature "invidiously mind used phrase ("invidious [t]ending excite odium, ill will, envy; likely give offense; esp., unjustly irritatingly discriminating," Webster's Second International Dictionary 1306 (1954)) company ("there animus," 353 added)). Whether agrees disagrees goal (apart achieve relevant discussion animus) remotely qualify harsh description, racism. "a value favoring childbirth proper reasonable enough implemented allocation funds, 474, 2382, Congress has, approval, provision financial medical procedures, 325, 2692. stuff out created. B 12 fails independent reason: depriving laws," requires guaranteed impairment. No 13 like courts below, rely travel—which be, interference. 105-106, 1799-1800. point way connecting actions "[s]ubstantial services [abortion] Washington Metropolitan area clinics." 1489. enough. involving 18 241, criminal counterpart 1985(3): 14 "[A] rob traveler itself, violate 241. predominant impede exercise oppress then becomes indictment brought." United States Guest, 383 745, 760, 86 1170, 1179, 16 239 (1966).5 suffice application incidentally affected. purpose" denying at," 3358 added); impairment conscious objective enterprise. Just requirement, discussed above, taken "at group," 2296, "intent right" aware deprivation causes, accept it; act producing it.6 here, face implausible. performed after 15 failed show another implicate guarantee transform torts offenses when intentionally committed travelers. Rather, protects travelers sets burdens: "the erection actual "being treated differently" 2313, 672 (1982). Paul Virginia, Wall. 168, 180, 19 357 (1868) (Art. IV, "inhibits discriminating legislation [citizens and] gives them free ingress States, egress them"); Toomer Witsell, 334 385, 395, 68 1156, 1161, 92 1460 (1948) "insure[s] citizen ventures citizens enjoy"). resulted Petitioners' immediate vicinity clinics, restricting movement portion Commonwealth another. Such even them. oral argument.7 infringed declined rule relying right-of-interstate-travel theory; inadequate Whereas, unlike asserted assuredly (whatever contours) infringe First Amendment apply, definition interference," encroachment." There few (we hitherto Thirteenth involuntary servitude, Kozminski, 487 931, 942, 108 2751, 2759, 101 788 (1988), context, 759, 17, 17). among most peculiar accord preferred position, much less explicitly Constitution than, example, speech status described opinions privacy, Roe Wade, 410 113, 152-153, 93 705, 726-727, 35 147 (1973), liberty, Pennsylvania, ----; elements obviously infringement. (A burglar Amendment, mugger Fourteenth.) "deprivation" fail, identified II 17 Two constituted authorities Territory could hardly posture suitable review. frankly admitted reargument, complaint set forth Tr. Oral Arg. 27 ("the claim"); Reargument 33-34.8 Not surprisingly, therefore, facts. issue fairly included sought Pet. Cert. i; Rule 14.1(a),9 exclude consideration.10 briefed, albeit sparingly, parties case," post, initiated slightest suggestion decided here.11 possibility time bench during argument, reintroduced, again bench, reargument. (Respondents include section Supplemental Brief Reargument, filing. 14, 941 (1992).) sum, Justices reaching themselves there; court; revise Petition Certiorari (not later briefs) determines presented; penalize addressing supplemental briefing.12 extraordinary. See, e.g., R.A.V. St. Paul, 3, 2538, 2542, 305 (1992) (citing treatises); Kamen Kemper Financial Services, Inc., 500 4, 1711, 1716, 114 152 (1991); Browning-Ferris Industries Vt., Inc. Kelco Disposal, 492 257, 277, 23, 109 2909, 2921, 106 219 (1989). dissenters' zeal understandable, perhaps, affirmative answer provided easy one. that. Judging statutory text, seem require requires, lacking immunities," original)—and well.13 At applicability though withdrew concession Without race- post-Civil War available weapon mass "sit-ins" conducted promoting desegregation 1960's—a wildly improbable result.14 20 Even, moreover, lack animus, still (as private) STEVENS finds "clear" does, ____, citing, extent illuminates all, clearly contrary dissent's view, holding least, cover O'CONNOR asserts without analysis nonetheless ____ operative clauses ("equal laws") identical. SOUTER disposes rights-guaranteed-against-private-encroachment well, undertaking full-dress reconsideration concluding wrongly decided, (3) damage supposed errors embracing interpretation concededly successive completely different meanings.15 formidable task undertaken completed, reiterate, uninvited amicus, respect pleadings, certiorari. 21 Equally troubling questionable resolution legal never presented, (or, thought found) facts necessary (nonexistent) They concede protesters' enforcement officers; discern footnote recitation rescuers outnumbered police officers" unable closing clinic (6) hours." 1489, 4. (STEVENS, dissenting); (O'CONNOR, (SOUTER, part). renders distinction between "purpose" "effect" utterly meaningless. Here again, (other SOUTER) dared ask. original concluded impeding protests, claim, valid remand. correct.16 III 22 Because 1988. vacate award. 23 seek more. contend lacked including claims; entire dismissed. agree. While deciding case, 776, 939 (1946), jurisdiction. 24 course, leave consideration 25 26 STEVENS' dissent observes about power control commit illegal acts," involves "no trespass," "picketing local retailer," zealous, politically lawless led enactment Ku Klux gave name," Those certainly evocative assertions, asked concerned, irrelevant. construe statute, views "most citizenry." Post, By terms, concerted persons, (much nationwide) scope. part-time protesters nationwide full-time force thousands.17 And apply sort Trespassing property is, many localities, entrance premises. These prosecuted criminally civil damages. rise performance held) stifle speech. 28 remanded further proceedings consistent ordered. 30 concurring. 31 joining I added observations. 32 separate offer differing interpretations difficulty inability agree single rationale confirms, my correctness recognize, essential considerations federalism stake balance fragile one, false step risks making whole catalog crimes concurrent congressional passed century ago. 33 Of wholesale commission creates dangers ordinary. Even context political protest, persistent, organized, premeditated lawlessness menaces unique capacity maintain preserve citizens. designed inflame, inform. subvert civility mutual preconditions orderly social conflict society. For reason, important note offers powerful assistance injured threatened organized falls primary governments. Should officials deem necessary, authorized request Attorney General 10501. event emergency "State resources lives enforce law," 10502(3), empowered full range disposal State, Marshals Service, presumably principal practical advantage 10502(2). If scheme invoked, response determination Executive. Its authority circumscribed own, little doubt extraordinary controversies careful assessment circumstances, need liberties traditions. Indeed, directs consider avoid Federal involvement matters primarily concern." 10501(c)(5). 36 suggest remedy available. illustrate, mechanism ensuring adequate federally Congress, too, attaches great significance intervene. Thus, if, remand, ultimate result dismissal retain ability assistance, warranted. 37 38 turns render civilly actionable. (the clause) 39 depriving, directly indirectly, 40 clause), laws. ." liability instance "act furtherance conspiracy, whereby [a person] property, deprived privilege States. 43 Prior words "equal laws" authoritative construction limited imposing conditions terms text. An actionable racial motivation, secured infringement, well. follows applying today, take exception conclusion. know exempt us counsel stare decisis adhering settled construction, Hilton South Carolina Public Railways Comm'n, 502 560, 116 560 (1991), change reading unsound. 44 thus settled, starting Part IV will importation extratextual First, word clause's properly before us, explain why position cast arguable indicated light refusal allow address briefing permitted reargument 45 limit theory alone, alleges "have conspired each presently unknown targeted facilities 1985(3)." 16.1 Evidence hearing hindrance, leading demonstrators "[e]ven 240 arrested, 1483, especially restated respondents, i (first presented);2 Holmes Securities Investor Corp., 503 1317, 12, 1311, 117 532 (respondent 24.2 restate presented); (petitioners' fourth presented).3 43-44; Reply 14-15, subject bench. 27-29. 46 me merits file brief Their denied, voted grant Members dissented contrary. Nonetheless, whatever better leaving day, barred pressing stage litigation. vote deny could, reflected absence extensive trial findings quoted above appropriate. Now, expressing skepticism relief, begins close door earlier left open, move unfair denied. concentrates ways, difficult read rejecting might succeed, barring allowed comment C 47 raised, unfairness putting forward bar further, turn own terms. 48 previously faced arises import imposed limitations construing differently neighboring provisions seemingly odds "natural presumption identical parts meaning." Atlantic Cleaners & Dyers, 286 427, 433, 52 607, 608-609, 76 1204 (1932). defeasible, exactly what ought done. 49 almost run counter intention strength them, now us. extend shorten would, inoperative plain perpetrators plan overwhelm officers, providing attempting liberty extended going lawful business streets Lest embrace unintended untoward result, obliged constructions require. amalgam concepts witness statute's evolution, 1871, bill criminalized "to privileges, .," 206 (Apr. 1, 1871) (statement Rep. Blair), H.R. 320, 2, Sess. (1871), conspirators "go disguise" guarantees. Stat. 13. amendment concerns occurred House, calm fears breadth vast field traditional jurisdiction, exceeding took Comment, Construction Section 1985(c) Light Original Purpose, U.Chi.L.Rev. 402, (1979). curb placed proscribed threats voting 1985(3)) sponsor amendment, Shellabarger, way: "The confine Cong. Globe, 5, 1871). 51 received attention, series recent cases, Great Savings Loan Assn. Novotny, 366, 2345, 957 purposes, stand out. honor restrictive "language omitted), demanding proof while treatment did, effectively narrow probably overkill, unsupported indication understanding lying heart legislation's understood necessarily character. 1797; 188 (remarks Willard); Shellabarger). fine degree, am (and address) evidence using protection" years ratification mean anything meant itself. say, jurists, agreed mean, conceptual development outlined advance Congress. equally suppose narrowly obvious cognate reading. 54 sure, resonance classifications calling strict heightened scrutiny, discriminations employ characteristics national origin, alienage, gender, illegitimacy. Cleburne Living Center, 473 432, 440-441, 105 3249, 3254-3255, 87 313 (1985) (describing jurisprudence).4 categories distinctions qualities bearing analogy exhaust protection. All classifications, having review Clause, contains comprehensive late 19th century. Magoun Illinois Trust Bank, 170 283, 293-294, 594, 598-599, 1037 (1898) cases). routine deferential passing muster bears rational relationship legitimate governmental purpose. E.g., test); Schweiker Wilson, 450 221, 230, 1074, 1080, 67 186 (1981). scrutiny counterpart, impermissible scrutiny. 55 indeed, positive allow. history suggests omission inadvertence, infringing notion closely comparable personal quality. significant, often quoted, came Senator Edmunds, managed Senate floor remarked "because Democrat, you please, Catholic, Methodist, Vermonter it." 567.5 examples Senator's list counters matter confined.6 56 Notwithstanding remained expansive being conspirators, 96-97, 1795-1796. conclusion, fact, prompted concern Congress' reach. obviated confining insofar freely, "assertable interference." 105, 1800.7 57 away shape, Whereas sufficient allay fear unconstitutional breadth, turned condition necessity alleging Constitution. 1181-1182. 58 significant step. affirm constitutionality arguably acted prudent reticence avoiding needless outlaw rights.8 converting indisputably object, exclusive people narrowed intended. narrowly, gone violations adopted 1865. (The next emerge until 759-760, (1966), recognizing good governments.) outside hard drafters so, third dealt expressly infringements already abridgement Fifteenth 1870. 59 responded objection suggesting textual violating infringement possible applications open 833-834, 3358-3359. prompt fundamental portions subsection clauses) individual-infringement limitation all. holdings raised wisely allayed decisions, solution lesser probably, imported work contraction. 61 prompts argue favor placing not. 62 recall requisite mindful apprehension dwell chose restrict readiness category understandable sees virtually element. self-imposed long produced harm. 63 carries premonition liability, however. distinctive conspiratorial "preven[t] hinde[r] additional significantly condition. Private injure according here; force, sort, evenhandedly administering 64 affected supported comparison touches authorities" territory 1985(1), (among things) person" "discharging duties" office contrast situation prevented discharging duties. day scarce personnel, rudimentary communication slow transportation, situations overthrow overthrowing alone. ambitious normal modern conditions, satisfy affecting sufficiently, envision capable countering officers injuring responsive disabling system, example). thwart laws narrows degree narrowing inapposite Griffin-Carpenters where interfere justification initial enquiry lay limits regulate 104, 1799. Once lies accomplish discharge responsibilities. choice here precisely frustrating thwarting State's amount extralegal determining how exercised. real arrogate amounts policy place Constitution's mandate, tantamount undoubted abridge legislate exercises usurpation formally vested authority. equation central reasoning indicating, respectively, "three forms 98, 1796. One influence authorities." tack onto inclusion nowhere else. "interference guarantee-against-private-encroachment needed Accordingly, conclude hobble duly secure characteristic, V 69 Turning Casey (1973). My frustration individual's obtain more, lacks purpose, consequently withdraws benefit account Police Dept. Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 95, 2286, 2290, 212 (1972) (applying "appropriate interest suitably furthered" independently Amendment). wrought burden substantive due process guarantee, forbidden such, denial generally civic benefits guarantees supra; Carey Brown, 447 455, (1980).9 When conspire arrogating effect, exercising exercised officials, "whereby States." 1985(3).10 refreshment "designed accommodate persons"); Peterson Greenville, 373 244, 245, 247, 83 1119, 1121, 323 (1963) (10 "Negro boys girls" service lunch "was persons"). 70 event, adopt sit-in overwhelmed because, arrested immediately replaced others integration counter, arrests. owner segregated Roberts Jaycees, 468 609, 618-622, 104 3244, 3249-3252, 82 462 (1984) (no associational Jaycees); Heart Atlanta Motel, 379 258-261, 85 348, 358-359, 258 (1964) (Title 1964 prohibiting places accommodation taking compensation). correctly describes Atlanta, ignores argues "would equivalent sit-ins did," i.e., restaurant owners blacks, "physically occupy[ing owners'] compensation." ante, 14. "property" refers owners' "right blacks establishments" ibid., assuming bundle up owner's (a dubious proposition, see, Lane Cotton, Mod. 472, (K.B. 1701) (common-law duty innkeepers serve potential patrons equally, regard preference, accommodated)), how, Constitution, Title "legal warrant occupation," similarly offending Takings Due Process Clauses. additionally, apart demonstration 1963 1964, Paulsen, Sit-In Cases 1964: "But Answer Came None," Sup.Ct.Rev. 137 (1964), largely mooted adoption segregation rather "securing amounted Shelley Kraemer, 836, 1161 (1948). VI 73 remaining demonstrated, found, clause.11 supportable made. 74 respondent cease operations physically blocking entry exit rendering existing prospective patients, physicians staff, enter receive counseling advice. characteristically notice typically invested component power, period 1490, chosen choices falling routinely persons. replacing regime create risk harm, 1489-1490, amply assaults movement, previous A-25 (Nov. 1989). 75 "purpose [Virginia] fair lines express conclusions. express, side clarification. Certainly appropriate proceedings. final implementation whom BLACKMUN joins, dissenting. After War, enacted Judiciary responsibility abuses acting fully competent, always certain, prevent.1 massive, infected Southern era. arises, controversy character dimension legislation. 78 detailed, undisputed codified provides violent law-abiding 1990). below precedents. Admittedly, gender-based woman's revealed record. Like overwhelming majority judges spoken issue,2 persuaded principles answers questions. 79 unfortunate analyzed abstract logical deduction government. entirely constitutional) Nation's theft mobs across country. 80 importance warrants decisive 81 dedicated profoundly believe mere obedience cities. goals, combined organize, participate 'rescue' various country, disrupt target ultimately entirely."3 nationwide; exceeds bounds State. blockaded York, Connecticut, California, Kansas, Nevada, Columbia carried "rescue" Maryland defiance injunctions.4 Pursuant overall repeatedly harm block clinic, entering services. Uncontradicted testimony demonstrates created "substantial patients suffer mental harm."5 form expression. 84 repeated contested. services, incite activity. malicious conduct, defacing signs, damaging strewing nails parking lots nearby streets.6 "vital [petitioners'] avowed goals."7 signs abandoning method advancing goals.8 community protection.9 warning department resources, ambush hours time. replete sheer numbers. Falls Church, vastly department's complement deputized officers. rescuers, blockade hours. large-scale, highly conspiracy.10 number cross depends, extent, location quality area, routine, percent obtained half conclusions bear repetition: "[Petitioners] related counselling includes unobstructed Testimony establishes Northern plaintiffs' state. Defendants' persons' unimpeded And, closings affect intra-state street doors Were hold otherwise, occur borders. deprives organizational non-Virginia travel."11 88 summarize briefly, conspiracy; occupied trespassed protecting traveled commerce destinations trespass, resembling peaceful picketing retailer. striking contemporary name. 89 separately identify following quotation: "If go disguise highway another, [first laws; [second section, therein do, done, recovery damages occasioned injury deprivation, conspirators." surely broad "highway" "premises another." fit comfortably persons." "directly indirectly" engaging literal proven Territory" frivolous. sometimes Appeals. plainly describe bypasses history, misplaced reliance precedent. construed wholly conspiracies.12 governmental) deprivation. re-emphasized 830-834, 3357-3359. date, encroachment (and, hence, perceived serious problems larger era issues unforeseeable flexible approach, powers Congress.13 exceed instructive overruling Collins, alleged—a Mississippi white man suspected worker black passengers car—was emblematic antiabolitionist violence prevent. hand, conspiracies, wanted shoals" punishing assault battery defendants "close core Congress." 103, satisfied "equal" Act. explained construction: 96 avoided purpose—by amendment. remarks Representatives Willard __ [91 1797] [Cong.Globe, (1871) ]. 101-102, 1797-1798. carefully "whether bias us." 9, added). answered statute.14 98 facts, over-application, grounds. ground latter. concerned specifics 1985(3); emphasized "make suffered travel." 106, 1800-1801. Giving privilege—indeed, —to danger turning anyone calls "authoritative construction" part), doctrine whenever unnecessarily language. wrote: "Whether Hardyman concerned. clear, evolution decisional exist. Little remains, 95-96, 1794-1795. aside, focus appropriately On disclosed convinced underlying Griffin—whether bias—is easily answered. excluding cognizable consistently grounds, Reed Reed, 404 71, 251, 225 (1971); University Hogan, 458 718, 3331, 1090 parallel Holmes, "dealt lump," 238 383, 387, 904, 905, 1355 (1915), confirms recently emancipated citizens, thirty-eight millions nation." prevailing attitudes respective roles males females society, enacting legislators anticipate That, refusing meaning, particularly fulfills Union Bank Wolas, 527, 530, 514 gloss Stewart coverage. animated "class-based." "invidious" susceptible interpretations. today announces mob "only effect." Ante, 107 malevolent ill-will. defends engages predominantly, unmask instance, behavior keep African-American rights. guilty suffrage, beatings African-Americans. Similarly, female lawyers,15 liquor establishments,16 pregnant women17 characterized discriminatory" decisionmakers than—or addition women.18 deserves disdain. plausibly assumption protections forbid, undermine Regardless paternalistic involve violation, none poses creating statute. Both proposes Sex-Based Discrimination 110 noted "ipso facto" "opposition per se, Instead, call attention factual employing "reasonably intent." hostility class, requirement—as statute—is perform. sole part" (1979); Arlington Heights Housing Development 252, 265-266, 555, 563-564, (1977). obtaining indirect consequence nondiscriminatory saving life, undeniable women.19 specifically, abortion.20 belief terminate pregnancy, decision. blanket overrides member's choice, she victim rape incest, save her life,21 advice information options. woman opportunity possess. combines massive obstruction fellow represents paradigm cover.22 recognizes "readily presumed" membership insists "irrational disfavor." subjective judicial inappropriate seems oppressor victim. desegregation, African-Americans "rational" propositions. classes. traveling "irrational," newly crafted deliberately irrational. apparently willing presume is—in eyes-wholly pretextual: except achieving distinct goal.23 member excuse remains chooses rights; want to. abortions—that abortion—does violently somehow cleansed intent. enforce, through excuses—the motives —that foresee, speed, disguised, unmasked. 115 disdainfully insist impose prevents attempts refute funding several reasons. challenges plans facially neutral statutes effects, justifiably results burdens pregnancy. constitute prohibited Clause. Geduldig, purport logic, gender-neutral. statement, false; classification, as, religion-based classification. pregnancy-based equivalent, struck Frontiero Richardson, 411 677, 1764, 583 (1971). narrower sentence quotes part: Frontiero, supra." 2492 added).24 118 Central conferred evenly women.25 Later confirmed depended program effect.26 Nashville Gas Co. Satty, 434 136, 347, 356 employer's accumulated seniority employees returning leave. burdened sex. "petitioner refused receive, suffer. semantics." 142, 351.27 threaten semantic. seeks forcibly doubt. inapplicable reason. statutory, constitutional, context. broader relies.28 determine occurred. occurred—the remedied. play jurisprudence, stringent standards cases. interpretation, believed rules special inherited immutable characteristic "primarily differentiates male." Electric Gilbert, 125, 162, 401, 421, 343 (1976) continue inform 121 affirmed Pregnancy Act, 2076, amended VII 2000e seq.29 categorically expressed "discrimination face, sex." Newport News Shipbuilding Dry Dock EEOC, 669, 684, 2622, 2631, Geduldig's impact, instead insisting H.R.Rep. 95-948, pp. 2-3 (1978), U.S.Code Admin.News 1978, p. 4749. statements bill's proponents demonstrate disapproval reluctance Gilbert recognize 123 Cong.Rec. 10581 (1977) Hawkins) ("[I]t commonsense, .").30 Terms ago, Automobile Workers Johnson Controls, 499 1196, 158 child-bearing ban arising VII, Controls' "fetal-protection policy," excluded "capable children" jobs exposure lead. Controls justify maternal lead health fetus. or, alternatively, discriminatory. neutral, reproductive company's male females." 1203. thought, signaled recognition inseparable exercise. unduly frustrated Almost decades squarely Privileges Immunities Const., Art. Doe Bolton, 179, 200, 739, 751, 201 (1973).31 home imperative. uniquely situated suited ply trade. Blake McClung, 172 239, 248-256, 165, 169-172, (1898). 124 well-supported Interference visit achievement goal—the complete elimination throughout multi-state operations. 125 locality, substantial. Between Making destination inaccessible foreseeable natural blockades, consequences 126 Today advances excerpt 1179-1180, assumes 'the purpose' intentional out-of-state permissible imposes mistaken Guest precedent 127 impediments nonresidents. broadly referred "authorizes impinge commerce." 1179. Enforcement 1870, 141, contain "stringent scienter requirement" condemnation failing conduct. 785, 1192 (Brennan, part); 753-754, 1175-1176. 241: 128 "This passage sanction specific proved, jury instruction phrased Screws 325 91, 106-107 [65 1031, 1038, 1495] [1945]. 1179-1180. 129 241 "criminal counterpart." 130 mistaken. sanctions originally 629, 601, 290 (1883); Baldwin Franks, 656, 766 (1887). year texts materially different. assume glibly incorporated statute.32 dramatic difference unequivocal "intent" "either indirectly." 241.33 131 interpreted generously Griffin. 132 "Under allegations impaired drive workers deter associating 1800. 133 paragraph mentions "discriminatorily" impaired. uphold "Congress "in 1795, years, prohibit blockades highways indiscriminately interdicted 134 implausibility readings matched invalid commerce. Pike Bruce 137, 844, 174 (1970); Dean Milk Madison, 340 349, 354, 295, 298, 329 (1951); Pacific Arizona ex rel. Sullivan, 761, 1515, 1915 (1945). discriminates nonresidents immunizing even-handedly disrupts refuted demonstrating attacked activists 135 known crossed line, knew had. "engaged travel," 1493, abundantly 136 Perhaps else assumptions authors Reconstruction startled, think, learn freed slaves supporters Klan spared abolitionists wrath. shocked offered lynching abolitionist Yet impossible requirements infringed. waiting violates believes it. hindrance provision.34 successful efforts overpower During operations, rendered ineffective, prevails.35 victims' pernicious combination counteract. duplicate 99, 1797. 138 hinders women's choose pregnancies. Though safeguarding redressable 830, 3357, (1983); 840, 3362, (BLACKMUN, 384, 2355 concurring). officers' duties entails 139 have, confronted developed 1985(2). provision, proscribes proceedings, 1985(3).36 Kush Rutledge, 460 719, 413 (1983), contended intimidate witnesses contention. reasoning, briefly summarized Kush, here: "Noting Government's unquestioned processes 1985(2) Breckenridge." 723, 1486. 140 strictly explained: 141 "Although arose 1985 confined us,' [Griffin, U.S.,] 1797]; 9]. 1985. relied heavily 'equal protection' objections 'enormous sweep language' displaced 99-100 1797]. background elections. Third, greatest importance, 'class-based, animus' appear case." 726, 1487-1488. 142 true, potentially unlimited former latter confines "constituted Territory." deliberate "carefully confined" us," coupled inapplicability construction. Limited sufficiently supplant authorities, effective federalizing judicially involvement. removed application. 143 inferred faithful members. yarmulkes, Jews, synagogue worship yarmulkes. legislation, disorder anarchy effectively. 144 With suggested, follows: large-scale nature, victimizes closer perfectly Klan, description blockading affirmance.37 VIII 145 correct Many opponents matter. Petitioners, abortion; defiant lawbreakers minds general, will) women—and —possess. 146 error infects unstated acts. citizenry large, understand existence kind. concludes condemned promote "wildly result." misguided. totally when, 1960's classes—not disadvantaged nonviolent challenging economic basic dignity country fought secure." NAACP Claiborne Hardware Co., 886, 918, 3409, 3428, 1215 struggle rhetorical appeal, insupportable majority's parsimonious statute.38 148 respectfully dissent. 149 150 groups forces entrances injuries fall ambit 151 (Act), combat chaos paralyzed post-War South. Wilson Garcia, 471 261, 276-279, 1938, 1947-1948, 254 (1985); Briscoe LaHue, 336-339, 1108, 1116-1117, threat violence. animosity supporters, 3360, statutes, historical circumstances inspired civil-remedy speaks "two [who] [first] [second] 153 approach Era "accord [them] [their] language." Price, 787, 801, 1152, 1160, 267 (1966); accord, 97, 1796, Jones Alfred H. Mayer 392 409, 437, 2186, 2202, 1189 (1968). Today, opposite, precluding covers. dispute "conspired" activities. shows "directly" "depriv[e]" clinics' 1488 Va.1989), "indirectly" purposefully "preventing hindering" maintaining 154 holds "element" Adhering adamantly exhibit serve. parse finely exclusion adopting 155 "class-based derived history. recounted punishment person.' 99-100, (quoting (1871)). placate too sweeping. 477 supplied). harmed Looking "congressional exhibited, "there words, aim enjoyment all." (footnotes omitted). 156 tortious, interferences others." 101, avoids difficulties crime affiliation. clearest expression Senate, colleagues "undertake called growing neighborhood feud [but, if] formed Vermonter, 567. Edmunds' illustrative 42nd extending diverse classes nationwide. 153-154 (Rep. Garfield) (legislation "particular citizens" "certain individuals"); Barry) ("white black, native citizens"); 376 Lowe) ("all States; complexion politics"); 190 Buckley) ("yes, women"). 157 shorthand type address. Beginning began life own. 837-839, 3360-3361. dissent, "[i]nstead contemplating traits, functional [§ ]," "provide unprotected violence." 851, 3368 dissenting) deleted). nonunion "self-professed union town" residents resented 854, 3369. clients. tried "[p]etitioners class." associated legitimate, vulnerable 3367; targets identifiable—by virtue affiliation —before occurs. 159 today's category. (dissenting opinion). encompass merit Classifications gender Univ. 723-726, 3335-3337, (1982); 197, 456-457, (1976). seven appeals "women" Stathos Bowden, 728 (CA1 1984); Terry, 886 1339, 1359 (CA2 1989), cert. 495 947, 2206, (1990); Novotny Fed. Sav. Assn., 584 1235, 1244 (CA3 1978) (en banc), 582, 585 1990); Volk Coler, 845 1422, 1434 (CA7 1988); Conroy Conroy, 575 175, 177 (CA8 1978); Life Ins. North America Reichardt, 591 499, (CA9 1979). WHITE observed, "[i]t come prohibition 389, 2358, (1979) 160 are, linked pregnancies, believe, 161 based, profound sincerity opposition. assessing actions, surmount manner variety lobbying, counseling, disseminating information. state-protected interests, legal, Va.Code Ann. §§ 18.2-72, 18.2-73 intimidation, violence, 18.2-119 (Supp.1992) (trespassing), 18.2-120 (1988) (instigating lawfully premises), 18.2-404 (obstructing others), 18.2-499 (conspiring profession). undeniably characteristics, showing. 162 one's "is [the] animus." isolate motivation. 475, 2383, (noting "basic difference," analysis, "direct activity" "encouragement alternative activity"). operations; lawfully. serving group-based, 163 reinforces recourse dictionary "invidious." fitting action; appeared construing; became Microscopic examination substitute language, [or she] remedies section." 164 caused actors, invocation misplaced. relies maintained "not governing rectifying harms inflicted actors. stark declared antidiscrimination "on Pub.L. 95-555, 2000e(k); 2628, regulation disproportionately affects legislature "selected 1991, 102-166, 105(a), 1074. 165 employed jurisprudence. Amendment's similar, "[a] adjudication understandably conceive resolves tandem, so. Romero Terminal Operating 358 378-379, 468, 484-485, 368 (1959) (explaining "arising under" mirror jurisdiction). 166 similarities provisions, differences. "deny Amdt. repeat it: actor "depriving (Emphasis added.) Unlike "deny," withholding, "deprive" actors seen bestow. 167 interrelated objectives provisions. "erects shield however wrongful." 842, contrast, "meant focus, interpret "discriminatory high threshold appreciated, devastating hostile pose greater operate unregulated realm divorced responsibilities checking functions danger, accorded 168 abortions" legislatures. (discussing (1977); (1980)). interests distract remedy. 169 clients impairment, grafted content rest invoke "depriv[e], attempted "[r]espondents provision." "prevention hindrance" 98-99, 1796-1797 (second officials"); adequately 1496. 171 "resurrect[ed]" "from interment (1951)," 19, 2361, (WHITE, resurrection proved hope indeed. redress means. takes modern-day syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. threat, vote, advocacy manner, election qualified elector President Vice President, Member advocacy; amici destruction human fetuses, personnel friends relatives escort categories, out, men, reply aborting fetuses. "class-based" women—just lose dispute, sake characterization correct. irrespective sexually puts confirm revisionist opposite. cited once, endorsement 'distinctions pretexts other.' 145, 496-497, 2491-2492, 20) (internal quotation marks Satty "need decide" "it prima facie 703(a)(1)," 144, 352, "[r]espondent effect," "[n]otwithstanding Geduldig," suggests) compatible 703(a)(2) requirement. 139-141, 349-351. (inapplicable) acknowledges nn. 29-30. relegates footnotes: Turner Department Employment Security Utah, 423 44, 249, 181 (1975), case; 135, 407, do; casts continuing vitality Geduldig. jurisprudence automatically inherent observation, "may effects," done replace class-specific disparate) impact. "targeted" characteristics," dissenting), regardless be. Accord, eradicates distinction, Under preserving fetal "legitimate goal," added)) "indirect blockade," purpose." Ibid "target[ing]" targeting womanhood, abortion—so earlier: equating (abortion) (women) leads absurd revulsion harbor antimale animus. convicted rapists paroled attend weekly sessions; lenient centers; liable 241" "includes 'intent' requirement." He backwards. explicit paragraph, 747, 1172, not; "purpose." emphasis embraces 'either indirectly'," ____: contradicts modifies "depriving," direct indirect, defendant's contradict point, presses 33. introduced 'equal' 1985(3)," confused "specific definite law"; "contains 'wilfulness'," "motivation aspect relation 10, 10. supremely , 'equal'," "purpose," asserting "made knowledge cf. 103-107, 1036-1038, 1495 (1945)—a "wilfulness," pleaded noted. time, says ("aimed "). 33, follow. expresses incredulity described. says, "unsupported reason," "conduct cite right-to-travel position; cites nothing negative Commerce his. pleasant greet old warhorses (1970), (1945), discussing. derive eliminated admissions accurate. alleged, travel" privacy." 15-16. allusion authorities. contends, embraced four, asked: "Are jurisdiction?" i. founders admitted) reality "respondents' claims" Contrary SOUTER's suggestion, Rules Opposition, 24.2, expand clear. raises formulation merits, deeming presented—though once unhelpful. "present contentions respecting [their right-to-privacy] claim" hindered 43. believe" entail statute." 14-15. arguments grasp logic (despite below), criticizes (without resolving issue) inhere approach. straining extrapolating expounded Kush—what "of importance"—was rested language" contain. 1487. Since straightforward quite opposite asserts. contends "depriv[e] right." appended, purports "amount[s] right," 9—such (presumably) convictions. invade uses does) Surely occupy compensation. citation (1984), 472 (K.B.1701), response. Act's restaurant-owners' establishments Assuredly commercial did: consent owner, warrant. (1948), (in effect) was, occupation. Any driven volatile trouble. requirements, "significantly limit[ed]" covering "conspiracies discerns limitation, Only 1985(1) added) duties," speaking non sequitur. (if all) sections roughly parallel. "prevent[ing]" person's duties, Obviously, "hinder" "preventing" officer. d issenters' adopted, uncovered. (Section States—which provisions.) explains enforcement, "overwhelm" "supplant" "hindering"; "force" bribery misdirection prevention. Nothing justifies limitations. faith "severely limited" depends 9. disposition erred issuing injunction, despite authorizing "an deprivation." curious, dissenters, quick unpresented propriety injunctive approve briefs 4-9; chides invoking (he says) "statutory requirement—"selectively employ[ing] approaches narrowest construction." 37. rely, simply, used. otherwise) integral reargument: "Q: wasn't—and wasn't it? "Ms. Ellis: No, Your Honor. (sic) though, generally." 33-34. states, 835-839, 3359-3362, (1983) (holding views, reserving "Negroes championed cause"). organization __, 3360. 1871. Edmunds referring unmistakable describing "under bill." ibid. prudential 762, 1180, (1966) (Clark, concurring); 782, 1191 empowers enact 7, supra. emphasize rests treating imposition which, charged limited. forbid incidental types disobedience inviting multiple arrests, ordinarily protests early 1960's, refers, representative, normally "mass" arrests small students requested Bouie City Columbia, 378 1697, 1699, 894 ("two Negro college students"); Maryland, 226, 227, 1814, 1815, 822 ("12 Robinson Florida, 153, 1693, 771 (an integrated whites); Barr 146, 147, 1734, 1735, ("five 130, 132, 1770, 1771, 754 young Negroes"); Lombard Louisiana, 267, 268, 1122, ("three students" observes, 16, "fairly included" certiorari granted, inappropriate. 14.1(a). Sherman 209, concentrations controlled common-law doctrines restraint W. Letwin, Law Economic Policy 77-85 (1980). Volunteer Medical Clinic, 948 218 (CA6 1991); 1339 Women's Health Care Services Rescue-National, 773 (Kan.1991); San Mateo Cty. Holy Angels Catholic 765 617 (ND Cal.1991); 747 760 (DC Southwestern Clinics 744 230 (Nev.1989); Va.1989); Portland Feminist Center Advocates Life, 712 (Ore.1988); 710 577 Pa.1989); 697 1324 (SDNY1988); Lucero Birmingham, 954 624 (CA11 1992); Abortion Federation 721 1168 (CD Cal.1989); 772 1193 Ala.1991). 1490. psychological conduct: "For elect undergo prescribe insert pre-abortion laminaria cervical dilation. instances, timely removal infection, ble eding complications. closes procedure vital postpone attendant elsewhere. numerous Hence, clinic's ". Dickinson-Collins, trained professional, patient stress, anxiety (i) scheduled (ii) procedures (i.e., insertion) underway (iii) decision." (footnote 1495. Presumably jurisdictional contributed illustrating operations: last five (5) Clinic Rescue. largest 29, succeeded 7:00 a.m. 1:30 p.m., notwithstanding Church Department. 'Rescuers' exits. defaced damaged fences blocked Clinic's lot car center deflating tires. occasions, 'rescuers' strewn abutting cars. Less later, April 1989, closed Family Planning Institute approximately four (4) 'rescues' November 1989. weekend, 18, Hillcrest Surgi-Center eleven (11) demonstration. Five commenced inserted removal." 1489-1490 1493. subsequently supplants [state] satisfies 5. caution echoes recorded debates 99-102, 1796-1798. retaliatory seq. disagree Appeals' labor organizers assaulted vandalized equipment owned employer. insufficient resting unionization, introductory 827, 3355. Bradwell Illinois, (1873). evidenced overt "[T]he herself, wide spheres destinies woman. Man protector defender. timidity delicacy belongs evidently unfits occupations life. constitution family organization, founded divine ordinance, things, domestic sphere domain womanhood. harmony, say identity, belong, institution repugnant idea career husband. So firmly fixed sentiment maxim husband, regarded head representative state; modifications status, flowing dependent cardinal exist married incapable, husband's consent, contracts binding him. paramount destiny mission fulfil noble offices wife mother. Creator." (Bradley, joined Swayne Field, judgment). subscribed misogynists, attitude—or —toward discriminatory." Goesaert Cleary, 335 198, prescient written 1948 accords equality, Rutledge characterize establishments. 200-201 (Rutledge, Last Term Fort Gratiot Sanitary Landfill, Michigan Natural Resources, 2019, garbage landfill operators located inquired challenged 2296. nonsensical of" mischaracterizes ignoring sexual 3. classifies Sunstein, Neutrality Constitutional (With Special Reference Pornography, Abortion, Surrogacy), Colum.L.Rev. 32-33 omitted): de jure m biological correlate way. 'no woman' saying person' meaning. punished doctors—does sex-neutral. Laws whites desegregate, race-neutral. impact weight height disproportionate line; appearing daylight features." "voluntary" "elective" evidences die fetus aborted. finding, inconsistent 1492. invokes: "A Jews." yarmulke-tax Jews taxing really wear yarmulkes—like abortions—would —like blockade—targeted Statutory Relief Discriminatory Effects Professor Sunstein adds: "It (for example) forced stay indoors periods, subjected disability." Colum.L.Rev., 32, 122. actuarial package 2492. pregnancy-related benefited dual distribution now-famous lines: divides recipients groups—pregnant nonpregnant fiscal accrue sexes." 497, (after stated: footnote, reasonableness cost justifications program."); 45, n., 250 (1975) (per curiam) (observing "ma[de] mention [Geduldig v.] Aiello "); 408, (relying exclusion, group, level benefits). monetary burden. ("There encouragement consonant policy"); 313-318, 2686-2689, "suspect classification" indigency. Relying Antonio Independent School Dist. Rodriguez, 1278, Dandridge 471, 1153, 491 "financial identifies suspect 2381; 323, 2691 2381). failure meet preclude Much permissibility distinctions. evolved "neutral" policy. 274, 2293-2294; 264-266, 562-564, Davis, 426 229, 242, 2040, 2049, 597 25, 25; Heights, 563-564; 2049. developing standard, invalidation "neutral ends pursue," indisputable body burdening 1983. jointly participated they, Lugar Edmondson Oil 922, 2744, 482 Adickes S.H. Kress 398 1598, (1970). travel—a interference—similarly reaction plan, VII. repudiated Gilbert. News, 2628 ("When unambiguously decision"). House Reports adopts (1978); S.Rep. 95-331, 678-679, 2628. 221-223, 755, disagreement 171, 736, (1973) deserve strong espoused diversity magnify facilities. Gypsum 438 422, 436, 2864, 2873, 854 (1978) (distinguishing Act). confusion surprising anticipated mistake warned 106-107, unmistakably distinguished "must 'specific law' articulated plurality care differentiate require, Further, distinguishing Screws, Monroe Pape, 365 167, 473, (1961), Monroe, 187, 484; 206-207, 494 (Frankfurter, 1983, pattern clear: right; 1983 "aim" attempt manufacture cloth. relate "aim at"; there, discuss appended explains, "scienter rights." departure "supremely" 6. gather Supreme reluctant ignore Fisher Shamburg, 156, 158, (CA10 1980); Cameron Brock, 608, 610 1973); Azar Conley, 456 1382, 1385-1386 1972); Weiss Patrick, 453 717, 723 (R.I.), aff'd, 588 818 1978), 929, 2858, 296 appendix 727-729, 1488-1489, crabbed contradicted magnitude ascertaining 1796; 661-662, (1951). More generally, comments renunciation accordance guided departs construes "purpose, statute," 381, 2353 (Powell, sad unjustified abandonment valuable interpretive tradition. resort purpose: owes ago noted, "In vacillated guidance identifying legislation." West Hospitals, 1138, 1153-1154, (1991) selectively employs KENNEDY's reminder General, help, puzzling ironic, role Administration played Amicus Curiae; 269-270; compare Memorandum Curiae O.T.1970, 144.

Category: 1