Document: 497 U.S. 1 110 S.Ct. 2695 111 L.Ed.2d Michael MILKOVICH, Sr., Petitioner,v.LORAIN JOURNAL CO. et al. No. 89-645. Argued April 24, 1990. Decided June 21, Syllabus While petitioner Milkovich was a high school wrestling coach, his team involved in an altercation at match with another school's team. Both he and School Superintendent Scott testified investigatory hearing before the Ohio High Athletic Association (OHSAA), which placed on probation. They again during suit by several parents, county court overturned OHSAA's ruling. The day after court's decision, respondent Lorain Journal Company's newspaper published column authored Diadiun, implied that lied under oath judicial proceeding. commenced defamation action against respondents court, alleging accused him of committing crime perjury, damaged occupation teacher constituted libel per se. Ultimately, trial granted summary judgment for respondents. Court Appeals affirmed, considering itself bound State Supreme Court's determination Scott's separate that, as matter law, article constitutionally protected opinion. Held: 1. First Amendment does not require "opinion" privilege limiting application state laws. limit such application, New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 254, 84 710, 11 686, breathing space freedoms expression to survive is adequately secured existing constitutional doctrine. Foremost, where media defendant involved, statement matters public concern must be provable false liability can assessed, Philadelphia Newspapers, Inc. Hepps, 475 767, 106 1558, 89 783, thus ensuring full protection opinion having no provably factual connotation. Next, statements cannot reasonably interpreted stating actual facts about individual are protected, see, e.g., Greenbelt Cooperative Publishing Assn., Bresler, 398 6, 90 1537, 26 assuring debate will suffer lack "imaginative expression" or "rhetorical hyperbole" has traditionally added much discourse this Nation. reference dictum Gertz Robert Welch, Inc., 418 323, 339-340, 94 2997, 3006-3007, 41 789, intended create wholesale exemption "opinion." Read context, merely reiteration Justice Holmes' "marketplace ideas" concept, see Abrams United States, 250 616, 630, 40 17, 22, 63 L.Ed. 1173. Simply couching statement—"Jones liar"—in terms opinion—"In my Jones liar"—does dispel implications contained statement. Pp. 11-12. 2. A reasonable factfinder could conclude Diadiun imply assertion perjured himself did use sort loose, figurative, hyperbolic language would negate impression seriously maintaining committed perjury. Nor article's general tenor impression. In addition, connotation perjury sufficiently it susceptible being proved true comparing, inter alia, testimony OHSAA board subsequent court. 21-22. 3. This decision balances Amendment's vital guarantee free uninhibited discussion issues important social values underlie law society's pervasive strong interest preventing redressing attacks upon reputation. 22-23. 46 App.3d 20, 545 N.E.2d 1320 (1989), reversed remanded. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered Court, WHITE, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. BRENNAN, J., filed dissenting opinion, MARSHALL, joined, post, p. 23. Brent Lawson English, Cleveland, Ohio, petitioner. Richard D. Panza, Lorain, Chief REHNQUIST Court. Respondent J. Theodore implying Milkovich, local proceeding incident involving occurred match. Petitioner sued libel, affirmed lower entry based part grounds from reach States Constitution. We hold prohibit Ohio's laws alleged defamations article. 2 lawsuit us third time odyssey litigation spanning nearly 15 years.1 now retired, coach Maple Heights Heights, Ohio. 1974, home Mentor School. Several people were injured. response incident, (OHSAA) held H. Don Scott, Public Schools, testified. Following hearing, probation year declared ineligible 1975 tournament. also censured actions altercation. Thereafter, parents wrestlers Common Pleas Franklin County, seeking restraining order ruling they had been denied due process ineligibility orders grounds. 3 rendered its Diadiun's appeared News-Herald, circulates Lake owned bore heading "Maple beat 'big lie,' " beneath photograph words "TD Says." carryover page headline announced ". . says told lie." following passages: 4 '. [A] lesson learned (or relearned) yesterday student body School, anyone who attended Maple-Mentor meet last Feb. 8. 5 'A which, sadly, view events past year, well early. 6 'It simply this: If you get jam, lie your way out. 7 'If you're successful enough, powerful sound sincere stand excellent chance making up, regardless what really happened. 8 'The teachers responsible mainly head Mike former superintendent schools Donald Scott. 9 10 'Anyone meet, whether Mentor, impartial observer, knows heart each given solemn tell truth. 'But got away it. 12 'Is kind we want our young learning their administrators coaches? 13 'I think not.' 1320, 1321-1322 (1989).2 nine passages quoted above "accused plaintiff indictable offense directly life-time teacher, se." App. 12. proceeded trial, directed verdict ground evidence failed establish "actual malice" required 686 (1964). See Eleventh Appellate District remanded, holding there sufficient malice go jury. Journal, 65 App.2d 143, 416 662 (1979). dismissed ensuing appeal substantial question, certiorari. 449 966, 101 380, 66 232 (1980). 14 On remand, relying 789 (1974), "constitutional law," 55, alternatively, figure, make out prima facie case malice. Id., 55-59. both determinations. 62-70. appeal, first decided neither figure nor official relevant decisions St.3d 292, 294-299, 473 1191, 1193-1196 (1984). then found "the issue assertions opinions writer. plain import author's law." 298-299, N.E.2d, 1196-1197. 474 953, 322, 88 305 (1985). Meanwhile, pursuing through courts. Two years position article, concluding "constitutionally opinion." 25 243, 496 699, 709 (1986). Consequently, upheld grant 16 proper analysis determining utterances fact set forth Columbia Circuit Ollman Evans, 242 U.S.App.D.C. 301, 750 F.2d 970 (1984), cert. denied, 471 1127, 105 2662, 86 278 St.3d, 250, 706. Under analysis, four factors considered ascertain whether, "totality circumstances," These are: (1) specific used"; (2) "whether verifiable"; (3) context statement"; (4) broader appeared." Ibid. two militated favor deeming challenged actionable fact. 250-252, 706-707. That potential outcome trumped, however, consideration fourth factors. With respect factor, explained large caption 'TD Says' indicate even most gullible reader was, fact, 252, 707.3 As "broader context," reasoned because sports page—"a traditional haven cajoling, invective, hyperbole"—the probably construed 253-254, 708.4 17 Subsequently, instant proceedings respondents, "it decided, question App.3d, 23, 1324. petitioner's question. 119. certiorari, 493 1055, 863, 107 947 (1990), consider questions raised courts' recognition exception reverse.5 Since latter half 16th century, common afforded cause damage person's reputation publication defamatory statements. L. Eldredge, Law Defamation (1978). 18 Shakespeare's Othello, Iago Othello: 19 "Good name man woman, dear lord, 20 Is immediate jewel souls. 21 Who steals purse trash; 22 'Tis something, nothing; 23 'Twas mine, 'tis his, slave thousands; But filches me good 24 Robs enriches him, And makes poor indeed." Act III, scene developed only means allowing vindicate name, but purpose obtaining redress harm caused supra, 5. country, apart damages, one usually needed allege unprivileged defamation. See, Restatement Torts § 558 (1938); U.S., 370, S.Ct., 3022 (WHITE, dissenting) ("Under typical defamed private citizen prove subject hatred, contempt, ridicule"). generally place any additional restrictions type actionable. Indeed, communications deemed Torts, §§ 565-567. noted 1977 (Second) 566, Comment a: 27 "Under defamation, if derogatory reputation, so estimation community deter persons associating dealing him. despite normal requirement communication defamatory. maintained though truth falsity opinion—as distinguished fact—is objectively determined complete defense defamation." 28 However, concerns unduly burdensome stifle valuable debate, "fair comment" incorporated into affirmative "The principle 'fair comment' afford[ed] legal immunity honest legitimate when privileged fact." F. Harper & James, 5.28, 456 (1956) (footnote omitted). implies, comment concerned concern, facts, represented speaker, made solely causing harm. 606. "According majority rule, fair applied expressly stated a. Thus device employed strike appropriate balance between need vigorous injury citizens wrought invidious irresponsible speech. 29 1964, Constitution limits There recognized "a federal rule prohibits recovering damages falsehood relating conduct unless proves 'actual malice'—that is, knowledge reckless disregard not." 279-280, 726. prompted criticism officials governmental affairs, state-law 'rule compelling critic all assertions' speech." 334, 3004 (quoting Times, 279, 725). 30 Three later, Curtis Butts, 388 130, 87 1975, 1094 (1967), "that test should apply 'public figures' officials.' extended protect nonpublic 'who nevertheless intimately resolution or, reason fame, shape areas society large.' Gertz, 336-337, 3005 164, 1996 (Warren, concurring result)). Warren concurrence, "[o]ur citizenry persons, freedom press engage involvement crucial 1996. figures, showing clear convincing standard proof. 342, 3008. 31 next step evolution individual's concern. Although initially doubt, Rosenbloom Metromedia, 403 29, 91 1811, 296 (1971), ultimately concluded inappropriate person attempting interest. supra. explained: 32 "Public figures enjoy significantly greater access channels effective hence have more realistic opportunity counteract than individuals normally enjoy. 33 34 "[More important,] voluntarily exposed themselves increased risk concerning them. No assumption justified individual." Id. 344-345, 3009 35 Nonetheless, believed certain significant protections warranted area. First, impose without requiring some fault. id., 347-348, 3010-3011 ("This approach recognizes strength compensating wrongful yet shields broadcast rigors strict defamation"). Second, permit recovery presumed punitive less 350, 3012 ("Like doctrine jury discretion award unnecessarily exacerbates danger self-censorship ."). 36 Still 783 (1986), common-law presumption speech seeks concern." 777, 1564. other words, fashioned bear burden falsity, fault, damages." 776, 1563. recognizing "requiring show insulate false, unprovably so," result "placement proving defendants publish deters fear unjustifiably result." 777-778, 37 may actions. (1970), real estate developer engaged negotiations city council zoning variance land, while simultaneously negotiating land wished purchase articles characterized developer's "blackmail," libel. Rejecting contention premised notion word "blackmail" blackmail, imposition basis impermissible—that 'blackmail' these circumstances slander spoken, reported News Review." 13, 1541. Noting reports "were accurate full," "even careless perceived rhetorical hyperbole, epithet used those [the developer's] extremely unreasonable." 13-14, 1541-1542. Hustler Magazine, Falwell, 485 46, 50, 108 876, 879, 99 (1988) (First precluded emotional distress ad parody "could involved"); Letter Carriers Austin, 264, 284-286, 2770, 2781-2782, 745 (1974) (use "traitor" literary definition union "scab" labor since "in figurative sense" "merely lusty imaginative contempt felt members"). 38 cases raising appellate obligation 'make independent examination whole record' sure 'the constitute forbidden intrusion field expression.' Bose Corp. Consumers Union 466 485, 499, 104 1949, 1958, 80 502 (1984) 728-729). record support finding Harte-Hanks Communications, Connaughton, 491 657, 685, 109 2678, 2694, 562 (1989). 39 Respondents recognize, addition established safeguards discussed above, still First-Amendment-based categorized opposed "fact." For proposition rely principally Gertz: thing idea. However pernicious seem, depend correction conscience judges juries competition ideas. value 3007 Judge Friendly appropriately observed passage "has become opening salvo arguments remotely question." Cianci Co., 639 54, 61 (CA2 1980). though, meaning equate second sentence "idea" sentence. view, classic concept. 1173 (1919) (dissenting opinion) ("[T]he ultimate desired better reached trade ideas—. best power thought accepted market"). 42 Thus, do anything might labeled Cianci, 62, n. (The origin "points strongly 'opinions' corrected discussion"). Not interpretation contrary passage, ignore expressions often objective 43 speaker says, "In John liar," implies lead conclusion untruth. Even states bases either incorrect incomplete, assessment them erroneous, implications; statement, "Jones liar." aptly stated: "[It] destructive writer escape accusations [defamatory conduct] using, explicitly implicitly, think.' 64. It worthy note extend (1977). 44 Apart reliance dictum, contend as, Amendment. every mandates inquiry "fact," propose number courts (in mistaken dictum) deciding which. 'breathing space' '[f]reedoms survive,' 772, 1561 272, 721), creation artificial dichotomy 45 Hepps stands least situations, like present, involved.6 unlike Mayor shows abysmal ignorance accepting teachings Marx Lenin," ensures contain receive protection.7 Bresler-Letter Carriers-Falwell line provides "reasonably [be] facts" individual. 879. assurance 53-55, 880-882. 47 Times-Butts-Gertz culpability requirements further ensure remains "uninhibited, robust, wide-open." 270, 720. regarding officials, Similarly, involves connotations level fault Gertz.8 Finally, enhanced review foregoing determinations manner "constitute expression." Corp., 1959 (quotation 48 persuaded protections, guaranteed dispositive present becomes answered affirmative. observed: "[T]he impact sentences [Milkovich] 'lied truth.' 251, 707. 49 false. instance core case: "[W]hether indeed perjure certainly verifiable adduced transcripts witnesses hearing. Unlike subjective averred articulation event." So too Milkovich.9 50 numerous establishing surely demonstrate issues. side equation; regularly acknowledged "important defamation," "[s]ociety reputation." Rosenblatt Baer, 383 75, 86, 669, 676, 597 (1966). Stewart put customary clarity: 51 right own unjustified invasion hurt reflects basic concept essential dignity worth human being—a root decent system ordered liberty. 52 53 destruction bring sure, beyond capacity redeem. Yet, imperfect hope vindication gives whose falsely dishonored." 92-93, 679-680 (concurring opinion). 54 believe holds true. reversed, remanded inconsistent 55 Reversed. 56 whom MARSHALL joins, dissenting. 57 hinted opinion,1 notwithstanding protection, commentators struggled contours relationship doctrines within jurisprudence. Today, time, addresses and, mind, cogently almost entirely correctly. I agree culminating 1564, capable law. ante, 16.2 "statement" invariably literal phrase rather understood author said. 16-17 (discussing (1970); (1974); (1988)). 58 today dispels misimpression so-called wholly already Amendment, determines pure dictated explains, "full protection" extends 'reasonably facts' Ante, 20. Among scrutinized ascertaining purports individual," shown here, 9, same indicia decade distinguish opinion: used, verifiable, made. Potomac Valve Fitting Crawford 829 1280 (CA4 1987); Janklow Newsweek, 788 1300 (CA8 1986); 59 am essentially agreement. company point applies rules find articulated therefore, protection." respectfully dissent. 60 * recognizes, signal readers purporting actual, known facts. cases, rejected claims attach "as 17. supra (metaphor); Carriers, (hyperbole); (parody). example, Bresler recover mean manipulative unreasonable. 16-17. plaintiffs "traitor[s]" newsletter's meant plaintiffs' accurately reprehensible fabric, treason. Statements belief agrees, individual, existence 18-19. guidance identifying attention "to confine perimeters [an] unprotected category acceptably narrow effort inhibited." 505, 1962, so. Distinguishing requires solicitous thorough evaluation particular exaggerated satirical asserted supra; Holmes long ago: "A crystal, transparent unchanged, skin living vary greatly color content according used." Towne Eisner, 245 418, 425, 158, 159, 62 372 (1918). instance, example majority, liar"—standing alone—can form different obtain speaker's comments instead follows: "Jones' brother once me; just 25; I've never met don't actually know how old else looks 16; age now." case, six statements, arguably Jones' brother. "I now," infers, stated, lie. listener reasons thinking did.3 drew inference. inference nondefamatory, liable damages.4 II rest patently conjecture.5 finds actionable, concludes disagree. reveals runs guessing. 5-7, (reproducing column). 64 begins noting before, suspend year's He adds reversal emphasizes audience brawl led team's suspension took OHSAA. attributes Milkovich's wild gestures, ranting egging crowd competing Mentor. describes OHSAA, characterizing deliberate misrepresentation "attempting convince [his] innocence, but, incredibly, shift blame affair Mentor." quotes allegedly commissioners effect fight gestures mere shrugs. At openly surmise. "seemed official's story enough contradictions obvious untruths able "[p]robably reflected displeasure melee. 7, (emphasis added). Then guesses "apparently version polished reconstructed, judge apparently them." party's events. source, commissioner, described—in evident contrast Diadiun—as quote proceeding, describe said vague commissioner "sounded pretty darned unfamiliar."6 fails claim firsthand knowledge, stressing personally After ruled Heights' favor, proclaims: "Anyone truth." understand impliedly asserting—as fact—that himself. infer information based. attend clearly detailed hand Instead, suffices "detail" "color" quotations hearing—old news compared column—and quotation commissioner. Readers focused angrily supposing it.7 67 insinuation repeated, plausible misrepresentations preceded cautionary term "apparently" unmistakable sign "[C]autionary interrogatories notice read weaken possesses damaging, undisclosed word, encounters language, tends 'discount follows.' U.S.App.D.C., 314, F.2d, 983, quoting Burns McGraw-Hill Broadcasting 659 P.2d 1351, 1360 (Colo.1983). B. Sanford, Libel Privacy: Prevention Defense Litigation 145 (1987) (explaining many "apparent" reveal qualified speculative declaration fact"); Information Control Genesis One Computer 611 781, 784 (CA9 1980) phrased apparency "is likely opinion"); Gregory McDonnell Douglas Cal.3d 596, 603, 131 Cal.Rptr. 641, 644, 552 429 (1976) (finding letter "cautiously apparency" assertions); Chicago Title Ins. 151 Ill.App.3d 888, 894, Ill.Dec. 865, 868, 503 580, 583 "couched knowledge" assertions). wrote unstated 68 Furthermore, tone format piece notify expect speculation personal judgment. pointed, exaggerated, heavily laden rhetoric moral outrage. "[a]nyone heart" lied—obvious hyperbole purport researched everyone heart. 69 signed editorial columnist logo continued—"Diadiun lie," 4—reminds reading man's commentary. columns include "well comment." Mr. Chow Ste. Jour Azur S.A., 759 219, 227 1985). Certain formats editorials, reviews, political cartoons, letters editor anticipate departure 317, 986 ("The peruses [a] Op-Ed fully aware 'hard' printed front elsewhere sections newspaper"); R. Smolla, 6.12(4), 252 (1990) (collecting cases); Zimmerman, Curbing Price Loose Talk, U.C.D.L.Rev. 359, 442 (1985) (stressing take account cultural sense ordinary reader").8 III 70 implicit assertions, majority's scrutiny "hol[d] true," complained reconfirms today, 'as law.' signaled repeatedly surmising, premises explicit column, court.9 Like "traditionally Nation," 18, conjecture intrinsic flow ideas concern" Amendment." examine activities affect lives. "One perogatives American citizenship criticize men measures." 51, 879 Baumgartner 322 665, 673-674, 1240, 1244-1245, 1525 (1944)). known, insistent prodding research—can subjected wide-open" country profoundly committed. 720, 71 Did NASA warnings Challenger Space Shuttle explode? Cuban-American leaders arrange Fitzgerald Kennedy's assassination? Was Kurt Waldheim Nazi officer? Such unearthed, ever are. Conjecture fueling national stimulating pressure answers more. maintenance end government responsive changes obtained lawful means, security Republic, fundamental system.' 269, 720 Stromberg California, 283 369, 532, 535, 75 1117 (1931)). 72 What disturbing than, say, 1960 speculating Francis Gary Powers spy, Government's initial assurances not, naivete conclusion. happens, knew included column. "due process" follow happened germane issue. happened, perjured, understands patois profession assume—from decision—that given. 73 guilty. guilty jumping conclusions, benightedly assuming always merits, looking foolish lawyers. Ignorance, more, served defeat turn truth, popularity, utility beliefs offered.' 271, 721 NAACP Button, 371 415, 445, 83 328, 344, 405 (1963)). 74 appreciate injuries offered solid information, chosen tolerate pursuit 'individual liberty [and] quest vitality whole.' 50-51, 503-504, 1960-1961). independently evaluating merits conclusions opprobrium. Punishing protects cost expunging genuinely useful mechanism debate. takes rests consent governed, cherished tenet." Edwards National Audubon Society, 556 113, 115 (CA2), sub nom. 434 1002, 98 647, 498 imperative care risk, articulating mandated applying 'Whatever taken debate.' Sweeney Patterson, 76 128 457, 458, 317 678, 160, 544 (1942)). Because affirm Appeals' albeit somewhat reasoning, previously certiorari twice various judgments (1985); entirety, reads "Yesterday County Paul Martin Assn. "It's final yet—the temporary injunction ruling—but acts quickly (he deliberating Nov. hearing) allow compete tournament meaningless. "But something here injunction. "When job school, administrator worker, remember primary educator. "There scarcely doesn't leave mark pass lessons students weren't plan book. come experiences observations superiors peers, watching reactions. "Such "It "If "Last winter faced difficult situation. mat opposing backfired Greater Cleveland Conference rival Metor [sic ], resulted team, partisan attacking squad sent hospital. "Naturally, protested governing sports, called carpet incident. declined walk face up responsibilities, accomplishments do, poisition ] schools. "Instead chose misrepresent things Board Control, among 2,000-plus trouble broke out, unique non-involved party observe Milkovich-Scott presented board. "Any resemblance occurrances purely coincidental. "To coach's leading passed off 'shrugs,' claimed 'Powerless control crowd' "Fortunately, seemed members "Probably distasteful reaction chicanery over voted son, Jr. (the Jaycee coach), two-year unfortunately, rolled around, say stories sounded unfamiliar,' Dr. Harold Meyer, us.' "Nevertheless, bought story, favor. "Is Pet. Cert. A138—A139. continued: "This borne continuation states: lie.' issue, lied. Rather, witnessed original admission demonstrates attempt secret bias. mind average viewing internal hard pressed accept reporting perjury." 252-253, 707-708 original). Specifically, recognize page—a hyperbole. doubt assign weight byline 'Law Correspondent' newspaper. particularly knowledgeable procedural 'legal conclusions' writer's 708. Preliminarily, 699 298, 1196 overruled malice, (1964), (1967). meritless. status official: 'To purposes controversy nonsense,' 247, 704 964, 330, (BRENNAN, denial certiorari)), "we overrule restrictive 248, 704. supporting official, relates dicta. importantly, Hainbuchner Miner, 133, 137, 509 424, 427 ("It universally judgment, res judicata action, parties adverse parties") address public-private remand (because ), presumably continues Hawley Ritley, 157, 519 390, 393 reviewing levels"). merit respondents' below alternatively negligence regarded (1974). material malice,' 1325 immediately accorded absolute liability. 1325. evidentiary negligence. concede relied privilege, Brief argue evidenced intent grounds, 244, 701 ("We Section 11, Article ."); 245, 702 ("These ideals integral reinforced ."), thereby precluding Michigan Long, 463 1032, 103 3469, 77 1201 (1983). similarly reject contention. below, completely 23-25, 1324-1325. interpreting scope defendants, "[b]ased totality Constitution." 709. "interwoven "plain [did] compel reached." 1040-1041, 3476. then, barred case. free, course, remand. reserved nonmedia 779, 4, 1565, accordingly same. Prior public-official public-figure result. 775, lied," levels. anyway, ordinarily serve recovery. Of limitations here. brief, amici Dow urge disputed "[a]gainst background profile small community," "[t]hey related pressing town." Amici Curiae 27. certainty "small town" differently city. Be may, err assumption. located Cuyahoga 1980 census population 29,735. 42,065. adjoins east, 212,801. consolidated statistical area, 2,834,062. played Conference. 30, 732, (1964) ("Since Fourteenth conditional misstatements follows privileged, true, ideas"). major daily notes, 16, decide defendant. 4. continue "such distinction 'irreconcilable "[t]he inherent informing identity corporation, association, union, ' 780, 1565 concurring) (citations c (1977), similar observation. explains C alcoholic" potentially libelous justify contrast, facts: writes B neighbor C: 'He moved months ago. works downtown, seen twice, backyard around 5:30 seated deck chair portable radio listening broadcast, drink hand. alcoholic.' Yet disclosure comment's predicate precludes signify partial none all, necessarily operative 7; Note, Wm. Mitchell L.Rev. (1987); Comment, Calif.L.Rev. 1001 (1986); 359 (noting statement" changed)). facts—independently cases. Implicit determine proof hinges mean. Riley tells friends Smith cheats cards rob convenience store, wrong Likewise, text, now" producing because, Smith, had, drawn Conjecture, recognizable such, alerts belief, putting forward hypothesis. hypothesis "best guess." premises, defamatory, said: unfamiliar. premise complain pleadings. event, unlikely "obvious untruths." commissioner's quite nebulous. commissioners, issues, new audiences Fitting, 1280, 1290 1987), disparaging product industry newsletter, list seven test's methodology, "readily appears nothing results. explicit, share author's] conclusion." reason, Dunlap Wayne, Wash.2d 529, 540, 716 842, 849 concluded: "Arguments actionability disappear underlying truthfulness themselves." Government Employees, Central 379 Mass. 220, 226, 396 996, 1000 (1979) listeners talk host her conclusion, minds generate accord host's]"). Where foundation therefore reasonable, defendant's unreasonable defame 'himself remarks.' Hill, Privacy Colum.L.Rev. 1205, 1229 Popham Pickburn, 158 Eng.Rep. 730, 733 (Ex.1862) (Wilde, B.)). "As Thomas Jefferson Inaugural Address error ought 'where left combat it.' Potomac, 1288-1289, Jefferson's Complete 385 (S. Padover ed. 1943)). alerted regard impartiality skepticism School—home mauled meet—is located. represents controversy, properly warned expressed passion foundation. contents company's newsletter reflecting professional interests dispassionate assessment" competitor's product); (recognizing early weeks unsubstantiated charges, "are highly fact"). challenge accuracy premises. proffer call insincere documentary eyewitness professed permitted submit Without evidence, jury's influenced recognized, neutral becoming instrument suppression 'vehement, caustic, sometimes unpleasantly sharp attacks,' guarantees Amendments prevail." Monitor Patriot Roy, 401 265, 277, 621, 628, (1971) 720). 510-511, 1964-1965, risks submitting stake); 349, 3011 (expressing punishing unpopular sustained fact); 6.05(3)(a)-(c) (1990); U.C.D.L.Rev., 430.

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