Document: 422 U.S. 806 95 S.Ct. 2525. 45 L.Ed.2d 562 Anthony Pasquall FARETTA, Petitioner,v.State of CALIFORNIA. No. 73—5772. Argued Nov. 19, 1974. Decided June 30, 1975. Syllabus The Sixth Amendment as made applicable to the States by Fourteenth guarantees that a defendant in state criminal trial has an independent constitutional right self-representation and he may proceed defend himself without counsel when voluntarily intelligently elects do so; this case courts erred forcing petitioner against his will accept state-appointed public defender denying request conduct own defense. Pp. 812-836. Vacated remanded. Jerome B. Falk, Jr., San Francisco, Cal., for petitioner. Howard J. Schwab, Los Angeles, respondent. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion Court. 1 Amendments our Constitution guarantee person brought any or federal court must be afforded assistance before can validly convicted punished imprisonment. This clear rule emerged from series cases decided here over last 50 years.1 question us now is whether so. Stated another way, State constitutionally hale into its there force lawyer upon him, even insists wants It not easy question, but we have concluded 2 * Faretta was charged with grand theft information filed Superior Court Angeles County, Cal. At arraignment, Judge assigned preside at appointed represent Faretta. Well date trial, however, requested permitted himself. Questioning judge revealed had once represented prosecution, high school education, did want because believed office 'very loaded down . heavy load.' responded 'making mistake' emphasized further proceedings would receive no special favors.2 Nevertheless, after establishing wanted lawyer, judge, 'preliminary ruling,' accepted Faretta's waiver counsel. indicated, might reverse ruling if it later appeared unable adequately 3 Several weeks thereafter, still prior sua sponte held hearing inquire ability defense, questioned him specifically about both hearsay law governing challenge potential jurors.3 After consideration answers, observation demeanor, ruled intelligent knowing counsel, also defense.4 accordingly, reversed earlier permitting again subsequent leave act co-counsel rejected, were efforts make certain motions on behalf.5 Throughout required defense conducted only through defender's office. conclusion jury found guilty charged, sentenced prison. 4 California Appeal, relying then-recent Supreme decision expressly issue,6 affirmed judge's himself.7 Accordingly, appellate conviction. A petition rehearing denied opinion, review.8 We granted certiorari. 415 975, 94 1559, 39 870. II 5 In courts, been protected statute since beginnings Nation. Section 35 Judiciary Act 1789, Stat. 73, 92, enacted First Congress signed President Washington one day proposed, provided 'in all United States, parties plead manage their causes personally such ..' currently codified 28 U.S.C. § 1654. 6 With few exceptions, each several accords case.9 constitutions 36 explicitly confer right.10 Moreover, many expressed view supported States.11 7 more than indicated same view. Adams v. ex rel. McCann, 317 269, 279, 63 236, 241, 87 L.Ed. 268, recognized implicitly embodies 'correlative dispense lawyer's help.' case, indicted mail fraud violations, insisted conducting benefit He bench jury. prosecution consented jury, court. convicted, Appeals conviction ground accused felony could competently waive except advice lawyer. reinstated conviction, holding 'an accused, exercise free choice, considered approval court, so likewise Constitutional counsel.' Id., 275, S.Ct., 240. 8 does not, course, necessarily resolve issue us. 'the defendant.' 242.12 Whether forbids different question. But recognize, albeit dictum, affirmative self-representation: 9 'The correlative help are legal formalisms. They rest considerations go substance accused's position law. 10 '. What contrived protections should turned fetters. To deny choice procedure circumstances which he, though layman, capable making impair worth great safeguards treating them empty verbalisms. 11 When administration hedged bout protection some thse imprison man privileges call Constitution.' 279—280, 241 242. (emphasis added). 12 other settings well, trial. For example, Snyder Massachusetts, 291 97, 54 330, 78 674, Confrontation Clause gives present stages where fundamental fairness thwarted absence. 'presence' based premise 'defense easier examination jurors summing up power, present, give suggestion supersede lawyers altogether himself.' 106, 332 And Price Johnston, 334 266, 68 1049, 92 1356, Court, absolute argue appeal, said 'sharp contrast' 'recognized privilege trial.' 285, 1060. 13 repeatedly Bill Rights. Plattner, 330 F.2d 271, Second Circuit grants rights confrontation, compulsory process witnesses favor, minimum procedural requirements prosecutions. concluded, intended supplement defendant, primary one's propria persona.' 274. support language 1789 statute; statutes rules procedure, see 1654, Fed.Rule Crim.Proc. 44; selfrepresentations Court's recognition Price. On these grounds, implicit Fifth Amendment's due law, case.' F.2d, See Maldonado Denno, 348 12, 15 (CA2); MacKenna Ellis, 263 35, 41 (CA5); Sternman, 1165, 1169—1170 (CA6); Lowe 418 100, 103 (CA7); Warner, 428 730, 733 (CA8); Haslam 431 362, 365 (CA9); compare Dougherty, 154 U.S.App.D.C. 76, 86, 473 1113, 1123 (intimating finding unnecessary reach issue) Brown 105 77, 79—80, 264 363, 365—366 (plurality stating statutory nature). 14 past self-representation, federal-court authority dimension, pointing right's nature form consensus easily ignored. '(T)he mere fact path beaten one,' Jackson observed, 'is persuasive reason following it.'13 confront nearly universal part people well unwilling contrary basic truly III soundly premised. finds structure Amendment, English colonial jurisprudence emerged. A. 16 includes compact statement necessary full defense: 17 'In prosecutions, shall enjoy informed cause accusation; confronted him; obtaining Assistance Counsel defence.' 18 Because adversary system justice, they 'due law' guaranteed defendants States.14 notice, process, taken together, charge answered manner fair American justice—through calling interrogation favorable witnesses, cross-examination adverse orderly introduction evidence. short, constitutionalizes know it. Green, 399 149, 176, 90 1930, 1944, 26 489 (Harlan, J., concurring). 19 provide merely accused; who 'informed accusation,' 'confronted him,' accorded 'compulsory favor.' Although stated words, self-representation—to thus implied Amendment.15 given directly suffers consequences fails. 20 provision supplements design. speaks 'assistance' assistant, however expert, assistant. spirit contemplate like tools aid willing defendant—not organ interposed between personally. thrust wish, violates logic Amendment. master;16 stripped personal character insists. true chooses tradition allocate power binding decisions strategy areas. Cf. Henry Mississippi, 379 443, 451, 85 564, 569, 408; Brookhart Janis, 384 1, 7—8, 86 1245, 1248—1249, 314; Fay Noia, 372 391, 439, 83 822, 849, 837. allocation justified, defendant's consent, outset, representative. An unwanted 'represents' tenuous unacceptable fiction. Unless acquiesced representation, presented Constitution, for, very real sense, B 21 naturally read, implies self-representation. reading reinforced roots history. 22 long history British jurisprudence, tribunal ever adopted practice proceeding. Star Chamber. That curious institution, flourished late 16th early 17th centuries, mixed executive judicial character, characteristically departed common-law traditions. those reasons, specialized trying 'political' defenses, Chamber centuries symbolized disregard individual rights.17 allowed answer indictment unless refused sign answer, whatever reason, confessed.18 Stephen commented procedure: 'There something specially repugnant justice using debar prisoner defending himself, especially professed object used Stephen, History Criminal Law England 341—342 (1883). swept away 1641 revolutionary fervor Long Parliament. notion obligatory disappeared 23 By common time, representation prosecutions serious crime. every litigant 'appear words.'19 While developed civil misdemeanor, prohibition continued treason.20 Thus, felon traitor stood alone, neither nor rights—to process—that associate genuinely 'long argument Crown.'21 As harsh seems, least what statements liked. Obviously oral opportunities secret enquiry written depositions, which, continent, place .'22 24 Treason 1695, began important era reform procedure. 1695 copy indictment, testify under oath, 'to Defence, learned Law.'23 appointment desired.24 new developed, retained established liked.'25 viewed guaranteeing traditional ban cases, substantially eroded courts,26 finally eliminated 1836.27 recent years, Parliament request.28 point forced defendant. rule, succinctly R. Woodward, (1944) K.B. 118, 119, All E.R. 159, 160, evidently always 'no offence will.'29 Halsbury's Laws 1141, pp. 624—625 (4th ed. 1973); Maybury, L.T.R.(n.s.) 566 (Q.B.1865). C 25 Colonies insistence was, anything, fervent England. colonists appreciation virtues self-reliance distrust law-years. first settled, synonymous cringing Attorneys-General Solicitors-General Crown arbitrary Justices King's bent opposed prerogatives, twisting secure convictions.'30 prejudice gained strength 'distrust became institution.'31 prohibited pleading hire century.32 persisted 18th century lower classes came identify upper class.'33 years Revolution Confederation saw upsurge antilawyer sentiment, 'sudden revival, War th Revolution, old dislike class.'34 heat sentiments forged. 27 say slow recognize value cases. Colonial judges soon ancient felons defense.35 never questioned. instance representative Indeed, permitted, general self-representation.36 charters declarations rights. These documents establish 'right counsel' meant choose representing oneself.37 Declaration Independence, along entered wholesale fashion.38 clearly thought himself,39 utilizing process. newly rather constitution meticulously preserved personally.40 29 limited lawmakers. noted, 'plead 92. time James Madison drafted heard 'by himself' counsel; others 'allowed' counsel.41 various proposals Rights similar variations terminology.42 embedded package accused. There indication differences phrasing 'counsel' reflected principle No Colony spokesman suggested tolerable, much less advisable. If anyone drafted, failed protect long-respected undoubtedly debate comment issue. none. 30 sum, evidence Framers doubted imagined inferior contrary, Framers, ancestors, conceived option, selected words consistent IV 31 blinking seems cut grain requires imprisoned Powell Alabama, 287 45, 53 55, 77 158; Johnson Zerbst, 304 458, 58 1019, 82 1461; Gideon Wainwright, 335, 792, 799; Argersinger Hamlin, 407 25, 2006, 32 530. surely thesis essential assure trial.43 strong whole most inevitably lead impose thing hold rich poor, quite compel want. unappreciated Founders,44 yet utterly foreign them. else wrote Rights, doubt understood inestimable choice.45 33 undeniable better counsel's guidance unskilled efforts. advantage training experience realized, all, imperfectly. believe contrives him. inconceivable rare instances, effectively Personal liberties rooted averages. personal. State, bear therefore, decide particular advantage. although ultimately detriment, honored out 'that respect lifeblood law.' Illinois Allen, 397 337, 350—351, 1057, 1064, 353 (Brennan, concurring).46 V 34 manages relinquishes, purely factual matter, benefits associated order 'knowingly intelligently' forgo relinquished benefits. U.S., 464—465, 1023. Von Moltke Gillies, 708, 723—724, 316, 323, 309 Black, J.). need skill aware dangers disadvantages record 'he knows doing eyes open.' Here, unequivocally declared affirmatively shows literate, competent, understanding, exercising will. warned mistake follow 'ground rules' procedure.47 assessment how poorly mastered intricacies code provisions govern challenges voir dire.48 technical knowledge, such, relevant Faretta, circumstances, oublic defender, deprived judgment vacated, remanded inconsistent opinion. 37 ordered. 38 Judgment vacated Chief BURGER, whom BLACKMUN REHNQUIST join, dissenting. 40 Herring New York, 853, 2550, 593, announced today, example tendency constitutionalize 'good.' effort fails terms here, nothing desirable useful person, uneducated inexperienced, insist charges.1 basis holding, add problems already malfunctioning system. I therefore dissent. striking feature devotes little discussion matter concedes core decision, is, discerning supposed oneself trial.2 ante, 818-821, n. 15. Its ultimate assertion tucked lines contradicted interpretation. 42 820, 'personal' reflects obvious defense.3 trivial proposition uniformly mandatory terms, leads supplementary dispensed whim Rather, consistently included integral bundle larger it.' re Oliver, 333 257, 499, 682 (1948), summary contempt hands 'one-man jury,' say: 43 'We failure afford reasonable opportunity false evasive swearing denial person's notice defense—a court—are jurisprudence; include, minimum, examine offer testimony, 273, 507. 44 27—33, 2007—2011, 530 (1972); 344, 796—797, 799 (1963). hardly explanation. extraordinarily small number lose undertakes 158 (1932), puts eloquently: 46 'Even educated layman sometimes science crime, incapable, generally, determining good bad. unfamiliar Left put proper charge, incompetent evidence, irrelevant otherwise inadmissible. lacks knowledge prepare perfect one. guiding hand step Without it, guilty, faces danger innocence. men intelligence, ignorant illiterate, feeble intellect.' 69, 64. 47 Obviously, vary depending actively desires wishes pro se. Nor accurate suggest, quality legitimately concerned. 834. supra, ordinary litigant, simply automaton insures adhered to. Both duty insuring broadest sense term, achieved Brady Maryland, 373 83, 87, 2, 1194, 1196—1197, 215 (1963); Berger 295 78, 88, 55 629, 633, 79 1314 (1935). goal ill-served, integrity confidence undermined, obtained ill-advised damage inflicted mitigated lame explanation availed 'freedom' jail banner (CA2 1965). available instrument self-destruction. 48 'spirit logic' crime fullest possible defense; vast majority command means best determine True freedom society's interest seeing vindicated reject attempted tried according Constitution. discretion critical element decline plea guilty. Santobello 404 262, 495, 498—499, 427 (1971). 49 attempt result collecting dicta analysis Considered context, relies 'beat path' either nowhere precisely opposite direction. 268 (1942), Carter Illinois, 329 173, 67 216, 91 172 (1946), waived sought renounce actions while proceeding upheld convictions, uncounseled inherently defective carefully excises opinions relates, waiver.4 Adams, Frankfurter careful reference help' '(h)e .,' (CA8 1970). But, recognizes, carry opposite. Singer 380 24, 34—35, 783, 789 790, 630 (1965). 51 Similarly, observed 'does require defendant,' citing Adams. 174—175, 218 I, one, find impossible square absolutely entitled conditions. represents thereafter disaffirm deliberate decisions, 834-835, 46, comfort regarding case.5 52 Far 1356 that, appeals possess produced sound discretion. reasoning instructive: discretionary grows appeal absence sharp contrast prerogative being significant stage Lawful incarceration brings withdrawal limitation rights, retraction justified underlying penal Among unqualified 272 Judicial Code, 394 (now 1654), personally." 285—286, 1060 (citations omitted). barely emphasis passage contrasts 'constitutional prerogative' privilege' strongly latter arises statute. difficult imagine Johnston today. relied dubious views. Only 271 1964), reasoned issue, largely misreading perpetuates 275. cited 817, Courts assumed violated review. highly questionable holdings Circuits came. 56 well-traveled road reality trail blazing hinted previous decisions. interpretation perversion gave meaning Wainwright Hamlin. 57 Like BLACKMUN, hesitate participate use take cannot. Piecing together shreds provisions, elaboration context occurred drafters Federal creates questions answers provides firm foundation creation rest. reminded employed exhaustive practices justify and, later, essentially material conclude not. Compare 60—65, 60—63, Betts Brady, 316 455, 465—471, 62 1252, 1257—1261, 1595 (1942). illustrate point, single historical appear ascertaining proves too much. points out, 2539, trials. text proposed signed. Members then number, structured language, 1787 Convention. remarkable protection, left implication. canons construction, inclusion omission amendment men, supports intentional. 59 way reconcile idea impliedly contemporaneous action passing giving right. created enact subject all. ought leaves legislatures, flexible amendment, trials supra. 185 weight scales.6 Jackman Rosenbaum Co., 260 22, 31, 9, 10, 107 (1922). 60 Society expect effect resources considered. However, conspicuously absent case. 61 needs repeating levels handicapped unsupplied demand competent advocates, often takes far longer complete experienced require. assume widespread discovered almost certainly added congestion suffer. blandly assumes elected bound complain later. Ante, 46. assumption ignores role review, reported replete instances relieved Silber 370 717, 1287, 798 (1962). totally unrealistic, suggest Unless, persons wit confers expensive good-faith nullified reasons prevent.7 THE CHIEF JUSTICE Today holds whenever textual unpersuasive, light Finally, fear constitutionalized today frequently confusion advancing strategic 64 starting Amendment: 65 (to speedy impartial district wherein committed, previously ascertained and) 66 self-evident makes direct 'not words.' 819. argued carries 819-820, 15, squarely rejected mechanical Warren, speaking unanimous (1965), stated: ordinarily right.' Where self-representation? According 'necessarily Amendment.' chain inferences delicate deserves scrutiny. starts 'a defense.' 818. From concludes 'constitutionalizes Up proposition, unexceptionable. specific somewhat succinctly, it,' disagree. agree method asserting enjoyed accusation, more. 69 suggests thrusting assistant master. seeks analogy notorious procedures exaggerated analogy, markedly diminished recalls seeking inadequate consultation, significantly affects overbearing remedy. 314 (1966); 837 distrust, animosity, would-be rendered effective unlikely impossible. Craven, 424 1166, (CA9 Anders California, 386 738, 1396, 493 (1967). forced, expend pay generally Fuller Oregon, 417 40, 2116, 642 (1974); Strange, 128, 2027, 600 (1972). Instead, regardless complex likely frivolous motivations be. cannot anything Due Process subordinate solemn business whimsical—albeit voluntary—caprice vehicle political self-gratification. 70 folly, allowing 1965) ('(E)ven harming insisting autonomy .'). win done.' 37, 791. my part, amount se cure injury society unjust result, just prove balm frustrated 71 argues common, required, charters, constitutions, 72 reliance begin with, me inconclusive revealing original understanding remained silent believes silence Framers' belief words' equally plausible indicates mind language. 73 paucity becomes profound examines background two developments First, until middle 19th century, country disqualified testifying witness 'interest' outcome. Ferguson Georgia, 570, 81 756, 783 (1961). person' chance side See, e.g., Wilson Tenn. 232 (1871). Such Draconian relic virtually passed abrogating disqualification. 575—577, 596, 759. abolition disqualification, lost most, importance. Grano, Right Counsel: Collateral Issues Affecting Process, Minn.L.Rev. 1175, 1192 1194 (1970). 74 second development traveled (1972), recounted here. purposes, sufficient recall start finish ensure acknowledges 833. despite convictions choice. drastic curtailment done objective sense. 75 conclusion, note briefly suspect, today's visit future. waives claim ineffective open host questions. Must advised se? so, given? Since mutually exclusive, measured? se, standby counsel? How switch midtrial? May violation harmless error? treat differently professional finality course. Many them, standards treatment haunt spawned outweigh tactical feel electing 76 truth proverb 'one fool client,' bestows 1595; Faretta: 'You going You ask objection properly taken, sustained. you gentleman. you. chance, play anybody plays. don't rules. wouldn't gets tries lot haven't colloquy follows: 'THE COURT: back reconsideration continue yourself. 'How getting your research? DEFENDANT: Not bad, Honor. 'Last night 995 motion Clerk within next two. Have preparing yourself matter? Well, Honor, hoping possibly disposed 995. 'Mrs. Ayers yesterday policy hear pretrial possible, set deems adequate motion, sometime Let's research. exceptions rule? would, guess, called actual cause? twelve peremptory challenges. valid. they? grounds challenging juror numerous mean, juror, perhaps suffered, victim type offense, prejudiced toward Any substantial prejudice(d) Anything else? relative victim. look section is? Challenge juror? Yes. Yes, done— section? diring Honor? am offhand. in? research Witkins Jurisprudence. looked codes things up? No, haven't. Codes procedure? codes? extensive Penal Civil Code. tell empaneling District Attorney undisputable. try discharge juror. 'But valid aren't inquiry feelings concluded: '(T)aking People versus Sharp, apparently ends per hereby revoked. terminated.' urged success three times moved defender. motions, too, denied. Cal.3d 448, Cal.Rptr. 233, 499 P.2d 489. Sharp defend, Cal.Const., Art. 13. Mattson, Cal.2d 777, 336 937. Y. Kamisar, W. LaFave & Israel, Modern Procedure 57—60 1974); Note, Calif.Western L.Rev. 196 (1973); Hastings L.J. Comment, J.Crim.L. 240 (1973). immaterial court's shortly amended delete 13, empower legislature face capital Cal.Penal Code §§ 686(2), 686.1, 859, 987 (1970 Supp.1975). retains 686(2). tracks Constitution; construing exclude former 686(2) Appeal 'abused concluding counsel,' 'Faretta waiving skilled courts' unusual indigent Drumgo 930, 106 631, 506 1007; Miller, 562, 574, 102 841, 498 1089, 1097; Massie, 899, 910, 733, 740—741, 869, 876—877; Taylor, 259 Cal.App.2d 450 514, 515—517. lawsuit final matters strategy. Williams, 894, 905, 88 208, 471 1008, 1015; Foster, 604, 606—607, 288, 289—290, 432 976, 977—978; Monk, 299, 638—639, 363 865, 870—871; Rhay Browder, 342 345, 349 (CA9). extreme poor render 'farce sham.' Ibarra, 460, 863, 487; Cal.3d, 573, Cal.Rptr., 848—849, P.2d, 1096—1097; Floyd, 694, 709, 608, 617, 464 64, 73; Hill, 678, 689, 225, 230, 452 329, 334; Reeves, 766, 774, 691, 695, 39. Mackreth Wilson, Ala.App. 191, So.2d 112; Cappetta 204 913 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.); Lockard Idaho 813, 451 1014; Nelson, Ill.2d N.E.2d 2; Blanton 229 Ind. 701, 98 186; Westberry 254 A.2d (Me.); Allen Commonwealth, 324 Mass. 558, 192; Haddad, 306 Mich. 556, N.W.2d 240; McGhee, 184 Neb. 352, 167 765; Zasada N.J.Super. 589, 89 45; McLaughlin, N.Y. 480, 356; Pritchard, 227 N.C. 168, S.E.2d 287; Hollman, S.C. 489, 873; Thomlinson, S.D. 235, 100 121; Penderville, Utah 2d 281, 195; Woodall, Wash.App. 901, 491 680. Annot., A.L.R.2d 1233 (1961); Anderson, Wharton's 2016 (1957). Some grant heard, counsel: Ariz.Const., 24; Ark.Const., 10; Colo.Const., 16; Conn.Const., 8; Del.Const., 7; Const., 13; Ill.Const., Ind.Const., Ky.Const. 11; Mo.Const., 18(a); Mont.Const., 3, Nev.Const., N.H.Const., pt. 15; N.M.Const., 14; N.Y.Const., 6; N.D.Const., Ohio Okla.Const., 20; Ore.Const., 11, Pa.Const., 9; S.D.Const., 6, Tenn.Const., 12; Vt.Const., c. Wis.Const., La.Const., 9. Others Kan.Const. Mass.Const., Neb.Const., Wash.Const., 22. Still both: Ala.Const., Fla.Const., Me.Const., Miss.Const., 26; S.C.Const., Tex.Const., 10. supra; Mems, 281 658, 190 164; Verna, Or.App. 620, 793. reaffirmed 218, 172, adverted 'Neither historic conception vitality derives progressive denies confess guilt. Under appropriate tendered; (Emphasis added.) Moore Michigan, 355 155, 161, 195, 167. Jackson, Full Faith Credit—The Lawyer's Col.L.Rev. (1945). 799, (right counsel); Pointer Texas, 400, 1065, 923 confrontation); 388 14, 1920, 1019 process). 507, 682. stature literally document, accepted, frustrate proceedings, 674; behalf, Harris 401 222, 643, 645, 1; Brooks Tennessee, 406 605, 612, 1891, 1895, 358; cf. guilt proved beyond doubt, Winship, 358, 1068, 368; Mullaney Wilbur, 421 684, 1881, 508. inference exercise. 630, capacity '(t)he 790. judge. Recognizing arise independently design text, searched find, 'indication equal importance one.' 26, 785. locate 'isolated instances' 'clear departures Ibid. approach Our concern mechanically 814-815. text. sever concept roots. friends 'take them' pleading. F. Pollock Maitland, 211 (2d 1909). 'attorneys' agents, lacking training, litigants secured royal permission affairs representative, 212—213. star chamber efficient, arm power. height career days Tudor Stuart kings. swiftness power; competitor it—a reminder safely entrusted chancy .' L. Friedman, Holdsworth, 155—214 (1927). 'engrossed parchment clerk court.' must, pleadings, .. obliged pleas, misbehaved themselves liable rebuke, suspension, fine, imprisonment.' 17, 178—179. Counsel, cautious pleadings unduly offend Crown. 340—341 hypothetical risk account libel Chamber: 1632 William Prynne book Histrio Mastix. Prynne's amongst things, licensed, Holbourn, apologised, cause, style. His perfectly decent quiet, sentence described monstrous. disbarred university degrees; stand twice pillory, ear off time; fined 5,000; perpetually imprisoned, books, pen, ink, paper. 'Five this, 1637, Prynne, Bastwick, Burton, libel, punishment received 1632, branded cheeks instead losing ears. appears severe, think noticed. get probably defence responsibility signing—a extremely serious. confessed information. till time. Bastwick answer. Burton's aside impertinent. Upon whole, admitted three, accordingly. 340—341. foreclosed refusal endorse shocking realized I. Brant, operation Barnes, Mythology, Am.J.Legal Hist. 1—11 (1961), Slow Late Elizabethan-Early Chamber, 221—249, 315—346 16, 211. 18, 341. 326. accusations usually asked, granted, answering separately alleged him: excited altercations Every operated prisoner, admitting explaining essence regulated production proceeded (for Crown) allege prove. proof confessions accomplices, letters, fully inquired presiding 'repeated' summed verdict.' 325—326. 195—196. Will. 1. oath extended 1701. Anne, 3. provided, pertinent 'shall Law, Proof produce lawful Witness Witnesses, Oath, Defence Behalf; Person Persons desire tried, authorized immediately, Request, assign exceeding Two, desire, Access seasonable Hours; Usage notwithstanding.' 195. Mary Blandy's 1752 murder speak raised cross-examine How.St.Tr. 1117. Later instruct ask, (or) Blackstone, Commentaries *355—356. 4, 114, admitted, Close Case Prosecution, Answer thereto Attornies practise Counsel.' Poor Prisoners' Act, 1903, Edw. 7, c, 38, Goe. 5, 32; Legal Aid Advice 1949, Geo. 51. Woodward withdrew substitute objected: 'I aid. myself.' insisted, resulted. argument: beginning (of trial) wished having This, held, 'injustice prisoner,' 'although deal quashed C. Bar (1911). D. Boorstin, Americans; Experience 197 (1958). Massachusetts Body Liberties (1641) provided: 'Every findeth himselfe unfit owne Libertie imploy doth except, helpe noe fee reward paines. Pleading Century Virginia, Connecticut, Carolinas. 81. 82. 212. Zephaniah Swift, treatises Connecticut. wrote: cruel illiberal England, life, defence, allowed, trifling pittance property flimsy pretence, heighten indignation practice: apparent consideration, furnish advice, defence. 'Our laws respecting crimes, influenced principles imbibed native country, prisoners manifest necessity investigate fact, discovered.' Z. System Connecticut 398—399 (1796). Virginia customs, '(b)y eighteenth services.' H. Rankin, Trial Proceedings General 67, id., 89—90. Liberties, (1941), 32. Concessions Agreements West Jersey, 1677, criminal, compelled attorney counciller liberty please.' Pennsylvania Frame Government 1682, influential protecting rights,' Schwartz, Rights: Documentary 130 (1971) (hereinafter Schwartz), 'That, persuasions freely manner, themselves; or, unable, inspired Penn's persuade convict earlier, Penn, preaching sermon street, disturbing peace. Penn conceded 'unacquainted formality law,' 'liberty jailed contempt, acquitted charge. People's Ancient Just Asserted, Mead, 1670,' reproduced Schwartz 144, 147. 951 (1670), 353, (opinion Douglas, Article IX 1776 '(t)hat offences, hath council Vermont (Art. X) 1777 identical Georgia LVIII) barring unauthorized inherent freeman, cause.' 1780 XII, election.' Hampshire XV) 1783 1792 Delaware 7) modeled 1798 III, 8) both.' Other express literal phrased fashion imply existence antecedent liberty. Del. (1776) counsel'); Md. XIX N.J.Const., XVI (criminals 'same prosecutors'); XXXIV (1777) ('shall counsel'). Founders people. Underlying sentiment populace, 'natural thinking characterized Revolution's spokesmen. P. Kauper, Higher Man Revolutionary Society, lecture Enterprise Institute Public Policy Research 1973, extracted U. School Quadrangle Notes, p. (1974). Thomas Paine, arguing said: 'either party natural case; safety, retained; able, proxy, council, appendage self-representation) Paine 1777, reprinted 316. Statutes providing 1719, Delaware, 1700—1797, (Adams 1797); 1718, Stats. Large 199 (Busch 1896); South Carolina 1731, Province 518 519 (Trott 1736). Appointment century; 392. Free-choice Republic 1791 Hampshire, 247 (Melcher 1792), 1795 Acts Nineteenth Assembly Jersey 1012. ratifying right-to-counsel amendment. North packages including 967. York 'ought 913. proposing amendments ratification begun dissenters ratification, whose 664—665. seen Madison's precise formulation—'the defence'—varied proposals. debates throw significance attributed Beaney, (1955). Sutherland 158: intellect. arbitrarily refuse appearing reasonably hearing, sense.' predate 1790, 118. U.S.Const. Amdt. Freedom stranger '(e)very privileged so.' 783. 356 148, 622, 589. told courtroom disruption thereby occurred. terminate deliberately engages obstructionist misconduct. 353. Of may—even accused—appoint 'standby requests help, event termination necessary. 89, 1124—1126. license abuse dignity courtroom. Neither comply substantive amounted 'effective Absent interests characterization requested, initially dissatisfaction impaired honor suggestions conducted. phrase, contended 'his defense' presented. Instances dealt contriving broad constitutonal validity. deliberately, properly, declines characterize 425 871, 96 2560 (Rehnquist, dissenting). derive 'Assistance Counsel' comment. exercises 'master.' 820. client litigation preferred portion quotation warns turning 'fetters' refers 241—242, has, 674 (1934). 'power lawyers' helped explain why 'be easier' 'permitted 332. Cardozo's plain fairness, distinguished conferred Clause. 107, 333. misplaced. self- anticipate appointing qualified sit 'friend foreclose option.

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