Document: 473 U.S. 234 105 S.Ct. 3142 87 L.Ed.2d 171 ATASCADERO STATE HOSPITAL and California Department of Mental Health, Petitionersv.Douglas James SCANLON. No. 84-351. Argued March 25, 1985. Decided June 28, Rehearing Denied Aug. See 926, 106 18. Syllabus Respondent, who suffers from diabetes has no sight in one eye, brought an action Federal District Court against petitioners, alleging that petitioner State Hospital denied him employment because his physical handicap, violation § 504 the Rehabilitation Act 1973, seeking compensatory, injunctive, declaratory relief. Section provides handicapped person shall, solely by reason be subjected to discrimination under any program receiving federal financial assistance Act. 505(a) makes available aggrieved act recipient remedies for set forth Title VI Civil Rights 1964. The granted petitioners' motion dismiss complaint on ground respondent's claims were barred Eleventh Amendment. Ultimately, after initially affirming other grounds upon remand this Court, Appeals reversed, holding Amendment did not bar funds had implicitly consented sued as a 504. Held: Respondent's is proscribed Pp. 237-247. (a) Article III, 5, Constitution, which "[s]uits may such manner courts shall directed law" does constitute waiver State's immunity suit court. In order state statute or constitutional provision waiver, it must specify intent subject itself specifically indicate willingness court but appears simply authorize legislature waive sovereign immunity. P. 241. (b) abrogate suits States. Congress express its intention unmistakable language itself. Here, general authorization kind unequivocal statutory sufficient 242-246. (c) acceptance participation programs funded are insufficient establish falls far short manifesting clear condition consent 246-247. 735 F.2d 359 (CA9 1984), reversed. E. Ryan, Los Angeles, Cal., petitioners. Marilyn Holle, respondent. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 This case presents question whether States agencies litigants retroactive monetary relief 29 U.S.C. 794, 2 * Douglas Scanlon, mellitus eye. November 1979, he filed Atascadero United Central California, 1978 hospital graduate student assistant recreational therapist handicaps. Respondent charged hospital's discriminatory refusal hire violated Stat. 394, amended, certain fair laws. sought 3 Petitioners moved dismissal entertaining claims. Alternatively, petitioners argued Act, plaintiff allege primary objective received defendants provide employment, should dismissed so allege. January 1980, On appeal, Ninth Circuit affirmed. Scanlon v. Hospital, 677 1271 (1982). It reach suit. Rather affirmed respondent failed essential element claim 504, namely, was employment. Id., at 1272. 4 then review We certiorari, 465 1095, 104 1583, 80 117 (1984), vacated judgment Appeals, remanded further consideration light Consolidated Rail Corp. Darrone, 624, 1248, 79 568 we held 504's limited receive aid purpose providing 632-633, S.Ct., 1253-1254. remand, reversed "the [respondent's] State, if participated 794." 359, 362 1984). Although noting expressly States' immunity, reasoned could inferred based view fact provided remedies, procedures, rights "any assistance" while implementing regulations defined class recipients include Quoting our decision Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 672, 94 1347, 1360, 39 662 (1974), determined " 'threshold congressional sue literally includes [the] present case. F.2d, 361. 5 court's conflict with those Courts First Eighth Circuits. Ciampa Massachusetts Comm'n, 718 (CA1 1983); Miener Missouri, 673 969 (CA8), cert. denied, 459 909, 103 215, 74 certiorari resolve conflict, 469 1032, 503, 83 395 now reverse. II 6 provides: "The Judicial power construed extend law equity, commenced prosecuted Citizens another Subjects Foreign State." As have recognized, significance "lies affirmation fundamental principle limits grant judicial authority Art. III" Constitution. Pennhurst School Halderman, 89, 98, 900, 906, 67 (1984) (Pennhurst II). Thus, Hans Louisiana, 134 1, 10 33 L.Ed. 842 (1890), citizen bringing own court, even though terms do provide. 7 There are, however, well-established exceptions For example, waives consents action. See, e.g., Clark Barnard, 108 436, 447, 878, 883, 27 780 (1883).1 Moreover, "necessarily enforcement provisions Fourteenth Amendment," is, Congress' "to enforce, appropriate legislation, substantive Amendment." Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 456, 96 2666, 2671, 49 614 (1976). result, when acting pursuant Amendment, can without consent. Ibid. 8 But implicates balance between Government States,2 consistently these apply only specific conditions met. will deemed waived "only where stated 'by most overwhelming implication text [will] leave room reasonable construction.' supra, U.S., 673, 1361, quoting Murray Wilson Distilling Co., 213 151, 171, 458, 464, 53 742 (1909). Likewise, determining exercising powers abrogated required "an expression 'overturn constitutionally guaranteed several States.' II, 99, 907, Quern 440 332, 342, 99 1139, 1146, 59 358 (1979). Accord, Employees Missouri Dept. Public Health Welfare, 411 279, 93 1614, 36 251 (1973). 9 case, asked decide alleged violations three arguments support suit: first, virtue Constitution; second, enacting States; third, accepting Under prior decisions none merit. III argues thus 25 (1883). relies "Suits law." view, unless Legislature affirmatively imposes potentially well state. 11 test federal-court jurisdiction stringent one. enough Florida Nursing Home Assn., 450 147, 150, 101 1034, 132 (1981) (per curiam). explained just last Term, "a interest encompasses merely sued, sued." 907. Smith Reeves, 178 441, 20 919, 921, 44 1140 (1900); Great Northern Life Insurance Co. Read, 322 47, 54, 64 873, 876, 88 1121 (1944). principles, believe Constitution constitutes Indeed, absence applicable jurisdiction, decline find IV 12 also contends making argument, pre- post-enactment legislative history inferences language. To conclusion, would temper requirement, established cases, unequivocally 907; 342-345, 1145-1147. so, affirm secured unmistakably statute. nature interests implicated dictates conclusion. 13 Only recently reiterated occupy special position system. . ." Garcia San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 528, 547, 1005, 1015, 1016 (1985). "constitutionally mandated power" adopted Framers ensure protection "our liberties." 572, 1028 (POWELL, J., dissenting). By guaranteeing serves maintain balance. "Our reluctance infer been negated stems recognition vital role doctrine system." 14 means circumstances usual obtain. "Congress may, what 'appropriate legislation' enforcing private officials impermissible contexts." Fitzpatrick, 2671. fact, incumbent before finding overrides guarantees requirement ensures certainty. 15 significant themselves their expanded. course duty say is," Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 177, 60 (1803), rely clearest indications enhanced power. American Fire & Cas. Finn, 341 6, 17, 71 534, 542, 95 702 (1951) ("The carefully guarded expansion interpretation ."). 16 reasons, hold—consistent Quern, Edelman, II—that itself.3 17 principle, determine Congress, adopting chosen override Amendment.4 pertinent part: "No otherwise qualified individual States, section 706(7) title, excluded in, benefits of, activity conducted Executive agency Postal Service." amended 794. 18 505, added 1978, describes, 794a, including case: 19 "(a)(2) title 1964 [42 2000d et seq.] failure provider 794 title. "(b) proceeding enforce charge subchapter, discretion, allow prevailing party, than attorney's fee part costs." 21 assistance." here given role, like aid. A When chooses specifically. citing Accordingly, hold V 22 Finally, consider Act.5 361-362. reaching relied extensive [of Act] states intended 360. "this 'congressional enactment authorized designated plaintiffs included instrumentalities,' 'the effect abrogation immunity,' id., 361, 1360. concluded "has [it] 362. 23 properly recognized mere receipt cannot Ibid., 1034; erred, concluding various addressed necessarily participating decided today evince purpose, unconsenting courts. likewise Spending Clause, I, 8, see n. 4, there indication jurisdiction. 24 fall expressing Nor determinations, ordered. 26 BRENNAN, whom MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS join, dissenting. If Court's grounded principles structure system necessary protect cherished liberties people, might unobjectionable; changed unforeseen events—and full regard purposes underlying text—has always unique diverges virtually genuinely interests. consequence, put judiciary unseemly exempting compliance laws bind every legal actor Nation. Because I rests flawed premises, misguided history, untenable vision needs purports protect, take advantage opportunity reexamine doctrine's historical jurisprudential foundations. Such inquiry reveal Professor Shapiro's words, taken wrong turn.1 follows mistaken path, respectfully dissent. 28 first address succeed abrogating enacted resulted examination impose obligation enforceable confine my dissent indisputable evidence contrary discriminate unqualified, contains whatsoever exemption intended. governmental activities undoubtedly large percentage funds.2 Given widespread dependence funds, quite incredible assume intend fully strictures 30 confirms among targets introducing predecessor amendment 1964, 42 2000d, Representative Vanik clearly indicated governments legislation: Governments tax [handicapped] parents relatives, fail services them. opportunities almost exclude handicapped." Cong.Rec. 45974 (1971). He referred approvingly Pennsylvania raising issue educational handicapped. 45974-45975 (citing Assn. Retarded Children Pennsylvania, 343 F.Supp. 279 (ED Pa 1972), characterizing "suit State"). Two months later, noted range actions disadvantage said "lack facilities" medical care children "favor higher income families" tuition funding. 118 4341 (1972). pointed out unable define deal with" illnesses child, "[e]xclusion [from public schools] illegal some plead lack funds." Similarly, Senator Humphrey, bill's sponsor Senate, focused particularly state-operated institution mentally retarded demonstrating need bill. 9495, 9502. 31 used ("any assistance") long obligations schemes. VI, bans basis race, color, national origin 2000d. Soon enactment, seven promulgated political subdivision instrumentality subdivision." Fed.Reg. 16274, 15.2(e) (1964). generally Guardians Service Comm'n New York City, 463 582, 618, 3221, 3240, 77 866 (1983) (MARSHALL, Over 40 Cabinet similar regulations. 619, 3241. Javits remarked debate "[w]e primarily trying units government, individuals." 110 13700 32 Similarly IX Education Amendments 1972, 1681(a), prohibits sex education governing use same definition "recipient"—which explicitly States—as 34 CFR 106.2(h) examples Titles it, plainly knew States.3 Implementing "recipient" previously implement IX. 45 84.3(f) (1984). 1977, hearings implementation subsequently produced amendments 1978. Pub.L. 95-602, 92 2982, 505(a)(2), 794a. Senate Report accompanying approved S.Rep. 95-890, p. (1981). No Member questioned describing within Jeffords "applies local dollars." 124 13901 (1978).4 Sarasin emphasized "[n]o she handicap—not employers, governments, certainly, Government." 38552. 504: 35 title." 794a(a)(2). Again, unqualified An additional made fees parties Discussing two provisions, Cranston presupposed section: 37 "[W]ith respect bodies officials, fees, items cost, collected official, official capacity her control; government—regardless named party." 30347 (1978) 38 conclusion obviously rest analysis thought doing. addition, whatever entities—including amendments—be equally shred contrary. current holds Despite presence lawless behavior acknowledges supposed remedied, either consent,5 War Amendments, (1976); City Rome 446 156, 100 1548, 119 (1980), perhaps powers. raised formidable obstacles efforts immunity; place series rules draftsmanship obey accord act. (1973), make "clear" lift conditional program. 285, 1618. still more difficult act, stating "we implications construction." 1361. intent." tightens noose requiring "that itself." Ante, 243 (emphasis added). 41 These drafting justified (nor they justifiable) genuine Congress; advanced why ordinary canons construction inadequate ascertain Congress. Rather, designed hurdles keep disfavored flows 242.6 policy decision, vaguely attributed ought hear individuals executes difficult, impossible, create States.7 Reliance reverses federal-question cases. instruments National Government, seeing limitations obeyed interpreting context, instead disfavoring justification ignoring goal seems obstruct ability achieve ends unexceptionable 43 unfortunate results. inconsistent function courts—to impartial forum uniform supreme land—it led development complex body technical circumvent intolerable constriction occur. rule Ex parte Young, 209 123, 52 714 (1908), law, remembers name rather defendant, Alabama Pugh, 438 781, 98 3057, 57 1114 (1978), prospective retrospective. (1974).8 intricate often manifest injustices failing respond legitimate damages award practical remedy plaintiff,9 threat effective deterrent defendant's willful law. Cf. 691-692, 1369-1370 While prohibition awards substantial costs members injunctive permitted intrusive—and expensive—than simple be.10 unstable. discuss below, lacks textual anchor, firm foundation, rationale. impossible extent accountability accommodated competing framework nonaccountability into doctrine. reason, agree content "rules" applied Acts Compare Parden Terminal Railway Ala. Docks Dept., 377 184, 84 1207, 233 (1964) Whatever time retroactively 7, supra. plausible limiting overruled ignored past cases seemed stand way vindication doubtful right created. 165-166, 50, 943, 50. tolerate all results—the unprecedented intrusion lawmaking consequent increase courts, results ensue, precedent lessons evident —if derived values protecting freedom people sadly Instead, paradoxical require violate consequences conduct. 46 Since began over decade ago aggressively expand modern scholars historians critical look record result.11 Recent research discovered collated rested premise. underpinning premise embodied limit concerning ratification original indicates never constitutionalize Consequently, been, occasionally suggested, effort reestablish limitation III. Nor, written, Amendment's narrow understood instituted sweeping new whenever attempts State. close records reveals different status excluding 47 permit bring attempt strain imagined dreamed of." 15, 507. course, explicit adoption passage implies everyone involved framing believed tacit exercise being early reveals, mistaken. unamended read prohibit power, assertion defense, arising 48 useful begin Power Cases, Law Equity, Laws Treaties made, Authority; —to Cases affecting Ambassadors, Ministers Consuls; admiralty maritime Jurisdiction; Controversies Party; —between State; States,—between claiming Lands Grants thereof, foreign Subjects." 50 extends types identified matter parties. subject-matter heads questions ("all made") Jurisdiction"). party-based called diversity ("Controversies States"), state-citizen ("between State"), state-alien Citizens"). latter clauses, diversity, focus Chisholm Georgia, Dall. 419, (1793), subsequent 51 understand dispute crucial relationship grants disjunctively. enumerated jurisdictional heads. citizens state; arise Most important purposes, alone noncitizen alien suing standard gave importance clauses. clauses alien, particular defendant Yet 1789, formally forbade maintenance although actual frustrating unclear.12 left open asserting cause since independent depend identity state-law defense liable, (at least aliens) troublesome prospect incurred debts, dated back Revolutionary War. debts naturally hands noncitizens aliens, sign default expected promptly retain turn futile. resulting operate retroactively; years adopted—and contracting available—would become causes 54 short, danger that, Bill contained few action: created action, effectively assert 55 Constitutional Convention controversy clauses.13 III,14 guide meaning, consistent both (for State) clause itself). However, threaten displace defenses force hand, does, suggested above, extant defense. 56 debates surrounding conventions proves productive. references appear discussions clause. Virtually comments problem predated creditors meager default. Yet, sensitive number participants welcomed followed directly govern. Nonetheless, apparent many delegates suggests willing Virginia detailed discussion clause.15 mention George Mason, opponent After clause, about Virginia's confiscation property belonging Lord Fairfax.16 asserted: 58 "Claims respecting lands, liquidated account, state, tried Is disgraceful? justice delinquent individual? sovereignty arraigned culprit, offender? Will undergo mortification? think perfectly unnecessary. let us pursue farther. What done obtained state? you fieri facias? ludicrous state's jail. How judgment, then, enforced? executed granted." Elliot's Debates, 526-527. Mason debt Madison responded next day: "[Federal] controversies much objected to, reason. call operation have, wish citizen, give satisfaction individuals, prevent citizens, claim, dissatisfied courts." 533. 61 plaintiffs. deny "[i]t court," remark explication displaced His remarks certainly suggest elsewhere "call or, again powers, 62 At rate, wholly satisfied Madison's explanation. Patrick Henry, ratification, speaker. Referring said: "My honorable friend's right, incarcerating ease mind, gentleman tell me money paid, if, cast." 542. Returning attack Henry doubt meaning clause: 63 "As incomprehensible. says seldom happen demands individuals. nothing warrant assertion. only. gentlemen pervert expressions, end argument. paper? That cognizance discriminating defendant. gentleman? contrary—that plaintiff. debtor, reciprocity. please it. What! other?" 543. Edmund Pendleton, President speaker, supported agreed "[t]he impossibility calling shows propriety necessity vesting tribunal 549. John Marshall took up debate: 65 "With disputes decried unusual vehemence. hope present? Are yet sued? rational suppose dragged enable recover residing states. contend warranted words. But, they, partiality defendant—if proceed obtain avoided. difficulty avoided, object account? presumed application legislature, satisfaction? how establishment tribunals?" 555-556. 66 Marshall's remarks, Madison's, unwilling "it court." Of "sovereign whose governed consequently correct "irrational" forced less retained relevant "sovereignty"; supposing sovereign—in Congress—had suit.17 observations go unanswered. Randolph, member Committee Detail proponent Mason's remarks: 68 "An asked, prison? states? government refuses war consequence. bloody alternative referred. think, nations say, plaintiff, away words 573. 69 Randolph convinced party disputed land claims, remarked: "One thing certain—that settlers, Virginia. equity direct compensation state." 574. discussion: "I ask free honesty rejecting it? discard honest?" 575.18 One vest settle peace unity Nation.19 saw internecine strife reneges owed applauded extension avoid consequences. 70 ratified cited inherent .e.g., 660, 9, 1354, 9; Monaco Mississippi, 292 313, 323-325, 745, 748-749, 78 1282 (1934); 14, Even adequately characterized substance views, minority Convention. opposing position.20 Equally important, entire liability arose excited issues court.21 conventions, attention Virginia.22 press sheds influential anti-Federalist publications sounded alarm unwarranted worked "Federal Farmer," commonly Richard Lee Virginia, widely published anti-Federalist. objected: 72 "There proposed lodged department, very unnecessarily, mean internal respective proper co-extensive legislature—that deciding finally union. 3. Sect. 2. extended (among things) state—between states—between states, subjects. Actions except respectively; concurrent inferior them." Documentary History Ratification (J. Kaminski G. Saladino, eds., 1983) (hereinafter History) added).23 73 Later essay, circulated 1787 1788, 14-17, author becomes explicit: "How admit foreigner performing promises during war, doubtful: humble answer worthy consideration; actions; actions, processes, contemplation parties, contract made; engagements existing foreigners, foreigners; contemplating states—and founded whatever." 41-42. 75 presupposes clause; objects barring "arising states." believes coextensive deficiency permits beyond Congress: "which made." Another writer pseudonym "Brutus" attacked untoward 76 conceive improper itself, will, exercise, prove pernicious destructive. "It improper, subjects individual. humiliating degrading and, believe, ever submitted to. "Every union largely indebted payment notes payable bearer. Whenever possessed notes, commence government; prevented recovering. 81 "If above stated, executed, produce utmost confusion, progress, crush beneath weight. And confess myself utterly loss meaning." Complete Anti-Federalist 429-431 (H. Storing ed. 1981). 82 Other materials, proponents opponents similarly extending States.24 Timothy Pickering, landowner attended Convention, wrote: farmer, objectors, left, constitution, seem admitted cognizable With former, generally, differ each other—as pass unjust nature, partially foreigners wise provision, puts resort reasonably expect justice. cogent securing trial, instance, form nation. nation responsible conduct towards nations, subjects; therefore possess doing latter. Without single embroil whole war." History, 204. Pickering's revealing because, unlike previous comments, caused views adjudicating Pickering justifies existence unfair noncitizens. would, implicate protected Privileges Immunities Clause IV. adjudicate implicating Constitution—even 85 Federalist Papers written influence York. 81, Hamilton discussed plain terms: 86 occasion here, supposition grounds: assignment securities another, them prosecute amount securities. suggestion following considerations foundation. amenable sense, practice mankind; exemption, attributes sovereignty, enjoyed Union. Unless, therefore, surrender plan convention, remain intimated ideal. alienation considering article taxation repeated here. recurrence satisfy us, color pretend plan, divested privilege paying way, constraint good faith. contracts binding conscience sovereign, pretensions compulsive force. They confer will. owe? recoveries evident, waging ascribe implication, destruction pre-existing involve altogether unwarrantable." pp. 548-549 Cooke 1961) original). head 660-662, 1354-1355, 12-13, 506-507. careful reading passage, context Hamilton's Federalist, demonstrates precisely opposite. statecitizen valid state-created traditional sources revenue. (discussing taxation). "plan convention,"25 authority, longer court.26 areas, III's discussing "every executing authority," 80, 537 original).27 interpret convention" head.28 89 sober assessment consensus Certain predicted dire result. constituted argument favor Marshall, majority recorded contravene statement Hans, ----, inconceivable.29 90 Granted expressed belief remains contemporary understanding amenability little attention, conclusions drawn. First, effect. curious indeed absolute Second, Hamilton, Supremacy enumeration requires duties lawfully imposed Third, others able legislate enact legislation B 91 Judiciary 73, Supreme exclusive civil citizens; jurisdiction." considerable appeals suability giving surprisingly aroused Fletcher, 1053-1054.30 Those docketed Vanstophorst Maryland, 401, 433 (1791), Dutch judgments principal loans Maryland. Amendment,31 (1793). assumpsit South Carolina price military goods sold Georgia 1777.32 squarely presented Each five sitting Justices opinion; Iredell Several features drafted Both Washington's Attorney General represented strongly result Dall., 421, prohibitions 422, implicit occurred 423. Wilson, drafters lengthy urged Republic. 453-466. contract, Contracts 420 (argument counsel).33 maintainable Iredell's argue sketched follows: now, particulars. 1st. respects carried acts appointing Courts, prescribing methods proceeding. 2d. old. 3d. old recourse, suit, analogy." 449. 97 accurately perceived sued. not, found source liable maintained.34 handed down February 18, 1793. 19, resolution introduced House Representatives stating: "[N]o persons, politic corporate States." C. Warren, (rev. 1937).35 20. provided: Annals Cong. 651-652 102 recessed 1793, taking reconvened December British Loyalist properties confiscated. Vassal Massachusetts.36 angrily Chisholm, reacted speedy effectual measures" amendment, convention. Resolves (1793) (No. 45). resolution. come head, Federalists controlled felt pressure open-ended convention.37 2, 1794, introduced, known, ultimately enacted: (1794) differed addition italicized Gallatin amend add "except treaties States" 30. Gallatin's proposal, rejected offered unknown forbidden "where arisen amendment." Ibid.38 voted 23-2 107 Representatives, version language: "[w]here whereby effect." 476. resolution, shift litigation rejected, 77-8, proceeded ratify vote 81-9 1794. 476-478. chronology somewhat unclear,39 Adams certified four later 1798. broad elided principle. shown was—to least—no Constitution's consensus, represent cryptic embody Had desired enshrine easily House. strong omitted Gibbons, 1927. stops that. State" "between identical congruence adopt clauses; henceforth, alien.40 109 true intentions Second revealed "shall construed" According qualify case—even jurisdiction—in lead aliens permitted, permissible.41 scholarship, incorrect. particular, explanations advanced. Some natural rebuke Chisholm; 1061-1062. Others assure retrospective Jacobs, 68-69. intended, effect, pending docket ratified. E.g., Hollingsworth 378, 644 (1798).42 attendant economy explanation, accounts legalistic extravagant assumptions unexpressed legislatures, point favor. time. 111 correcting error mistake. interpreted work major change corrected error, henceforth drastic modification opposite mistake, construing Necessary Proper defect Chisholm: construe authority. 112 creates remedy, neither nor violates outside entrust adjudication newly courts—even Neither sense language, earliest interpretations C 113 curtailed. eliminated granting noncitizen. courts,43 jurisdiction.44 confront reflect lived through importance. 114 (1) 115 Admiralty 19th century. much-quoted Papers: bigoted idolizers shewn disposition causes." 538 1961). defendants, instances confronted showed interfere 116 Peters, 115, (1809), adjudicated proceeds prize sale dating 1770's, belonged Commonwealth claimant. Cranch., 136-139. claimed state-court favor, claimant's Articles Confederation. Treasurer, died. Chief writing common-law recovery notice adverse claim. maintained funds. avoided itself: however wrongfully acquired, disclosure unnecessary opinion." 139. preserving ran intact. year, Bushrod Washington, sat Peters heard sequel resisted execution judgment. Bright, F.Cas. 1232. 14,647) (CCPa 1809). agreeing Treasurer capacity, went note applies "in equity." "or jurisdiction," 1236, cases.45 Washington time, unlikely oversight. refused Governor Madrazo, Pet. 110, (1828). appeal claimant he, entitled sale. reality allegation "no decree personally." 123. it: "[I]f 11th proceedings admiralty, Court." Ibid.46 Writing 1833, Joseph Story noted: 120 doubted, rem personam. There, possession thing; interpose property, character actor. Besides equity.' correctly speaking, equity; spoken contradistinction both." J. Story, Commentaries 560-561 (1833).47 121 out, seen obstacle 122 (2) 123 Until 1875, endow these, constitutionalized operated appellate broadly cases.48 consequence doctrine,49 faced. Cohens Wheat. 264, 257 (1821), criminal conviction Counsel "sued" writ outset described, exception whatever, Wheat., 378. repeating times,50 stated: "We constitution originally stood, laws, arrested circumstance 405. 125 applicability petition "commenced" "prosecuted" holding: 126 "But mistaken, affect State.' entirely framed, already origin, parties." 412.51 127 encroached encroachment all. distinguishable concerned appellate, original, Osborn Bank 738, 204 (1824): 128 "In exercised form. form, both, wisdom congress direct. extends, constitution. Original gives rule, exercised." 820-821. 129 continued, speaking jurisdiction: bold [the judicial] only, applicable." 130 issues. Ohio seized bank specie imposing Bank. evidently unconstitutional McCulloch 316, 579 (1819). Bank, treated corporation division injunction prohibiting return appealed relying proceedings. 131 explains record: laid admits exception, depends record. restrains necessity, record." 857. 133 Technically, State.52 represents narrow, piece immediately construed, aliens." 857-858. 135 restatement 136 combined paucity deprived rulings demonstrate suable sensitivity unpopular decisions, centripetal forces driving Nation toward war. precedents readings import measure 137 precedents, survived until near 470. Louisiana bonds repudiated. Clause. ordered dismissed. 138 proposition despite terms, bars hearing State.53 before, ambiguous way. 313-315, 1632-1633 (BRENNAN, 283, Mr. reserved 18-19, 508-509. "presumption anomalous unheard-of Constitution—anomalous unheard adopted." 508. sensibly plaintiff's ancient 139 Whether departure sound misread relatively unimportant. holding, premises. 140 cites debates. 12-14, concludes permitting "startling unexpected," 11, "strain outlined Numerous exactly unimaginable. advocate Read All vitally unauthorized displacement creditors' incorrect 141 heavily supposedly "anomalous" literally, 142 10, 505. 143 "anomaly" existed, justify rewriting wholesale disregard precedents. event accordance relevance. non-citizens, "correction." 144 repeatedly establishing court.54 misconceived logic.55 145 pernicious. era legislatures anachronistic remnant feudal system, see, Ins. 57, (1944) (Frankfurter, dissenting); Muskopf Corning Dist., Cal.2d 211, Cal.Rptr. P.2d 457 (1961); W. Prosser, Torts 984-987 (4th 1971), expanded scope. enhance liberty protections, accept Framers, intrudes ideal obstructs steps deems goals 146 147 148 too, join BRENNAN's opinion. Its exhaustive persists. BRENNAN shows, reads reconciled principled power; surely says, ante, 302, "misconceived logic." compounds longstanding shield afforded "exemplification" 239, York, 256 490, 497, 588, 589, 1057 (1921), envisioned Basic Document Amendments. 149 mature vintage, spring soil Tenth jurisprudence abandoned League Cities Usery, 426 833, 2465, 245 (1976), derogation unquestioned scope circumscribed reference federalism inform language.* intuition progeny truer Cities. 150 spare predictable well. expatiate written. suffices adhere dissenting 688, 1368, (1974). 1035, (dissenting statement). accepted assistance. thereby raise. 151 STEVENS, 152 (1981), word explanation order. explained, notwithstanding incorrectly decided, stare decisis followed. constrained protective mantle immunity—having repudiated (STEVENS, dissenting)—and study abundantly well, "egregiously incorrect." 153, 1036. am persuaded fresh outweigh unraveling area 155, 1037. effectuate waiving situations, intends "[c]onstructive associated rights, here." asserts "grounded people. Post, 247-248; post, 258, 302. 3, infra. played serve "counterpoise" Government. 1961); 46, 316 "new evidence," ratifying centuries. Viewed isolation, varying interpretations. remainder Nos. 39, 45. stripped "is, question, reflection concern 293, 1622, (1973) concurring result). ago: "That having bearing embrace entertain given: Amendment; exemplification." (1921) (citations omitted). "exemp[t] Nation." 248. misconceives MARSHALL noted, susceptibility tribunals." 293-294, 1622-1623 (concurring result) denigrates judges land. Martin Hunter's Lessee, 304, 341-344, (1816). Stone Powell, 428 465, 493, 35, 3037, 3052, 1067 256, 8. remarkable decisis, evinces precedent." ----. Not dissent's overrule numerous However merits III," again, day. North Temple, 22, 30, 509, 511, 849 (1890); Fitts McGhee, 172 516, 524, 269, 272, 535 (1899); Bell 177 693, 1031, 945 446, 923, Palmer Ohio, 248 32, 34, 16, (1918); Duhne Jersey, 311, 154, 280 (1920); 589; Fiske, 290 26, 20, (1933); 51, 875, (1944); Ford Motor Treasury Indiana, 323 459, 347, 350, 389 (1945); Railroad Banking Redwine, 342 299, 13, 321, 324, 335 (1952); 186, 1209, (1964); 380 128, 140, 808, 814, 717 (1965); Welfare 280, 1616; 662-663, 1355-1356; settled holdings reasoning wrong. County Oneida Indian Nation, 470 226, 254, 1245, 1262, 169 (1985) part); 125, 921 298, 1625 687, 1367 hold. response scholarly, 55-page elaboration today. "further unrave[l] decisis," 1037, "repudiat[ing] cases." length 109-111, nn. 21, 930-931, ignore "unravel" depends. 1973 cl. 1. conceded passed analyze Part V, infra, 246, conclude "implicitly consen[t] focusing engaged enactments. Shapiro, Wrong Turns: Case, Harv.L.Rev. 1972-1973, year $31 billion revenue 1981-1982, grown $66 billion. Bureau Census, Historical Statistics Governmental Finances Employment 1974, enactment. 93-516, 1617. accompanied acknowledged "Section patterned after, antidiscrimination 601 901 1974 [sic]." 93-1297, 39-40 U.S.Code Admin.News 6373, 6390. "clarified 504" "shed enacted." Alexander Choate, 287, 306-307, 27, 712, 724, 661 localities eliminate wherever exists exempt themselves." 38551 (1978). "stringent," 241, purported waivers mirror image Just decides desires effective, "specifically "[a]lthough Ordinarily, faithfully would. identifiable eschews California's 216, 92, 457, 460 (1961) (abrogating tort "anachronism, basis, exist[ing] inertia"). Cal.Rptr., P.2d, 460. successful. Apparently, want grievances deterred so. ("Our system"). relentlessly "clear-statement rule" obstructing idea extreme clear-statement roots April 1973. lay event, bill became six previously. 35841 (Oct. 1972) (enactment Senate); 36409 House). vetoed reenacted 5901 (Feb. 1973) (Senate); 7139 (Mar. (House). veto followed, signed September 29633 (Sept. (Senate final bill); 30151 (House bill). chronology, "unequivocally language" acted. "cannot predict future Procunier Navarette, 434 555, 562, 855, 860, thoroughgoing Lincoln Luning, 529, 530, 363, 766 units. longstanding, unarticulated, Bacchus Imports, Ltd. Dias, 468 263, 3049, 200 taxpayer's unfavorable refund taxes. Jordan. Martinez 444 277, 553, 481 (1980) (adjudicating 1983 court) (1979) (holding court). Williams Vermont, 472 (1985); Summa ex rel. Commn, 466 198, 1751, 237 (1984); Aloha Airlines Inc. Director Taxation Hawaii, 464 291, (1983); Thomas Review Board Indiana Security Div., 707, 1425, 624 (1981); Bonelli Cattle Arizona, 414 517, 526 1979 improperly therapist. now—six attained degree benefit ordering hiring assistants. "For [Scanlon's] shoes, nothing." Bivens Six Unknown Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 410, 1999, 2012, 619 remedial scheme 2000a-3(a) (statute "preventive" defendants). Our permissible regardless Interpretation Amendment: Narrow Construction Affirmative Grant Jurisdiction Prohibition Against Jurisdiction, Stan.L.Rev. 1033 Fletcher); Sovereign Immunity: Reinterpretation, Colum.L.Rev. 1889 Gibbons); Immunity (1972) Jacobs); Field, Doctrines, U.Pa.L.Rev. 515, 1203 Field); Nowak, Scope Congressional Create Causes Action 1413 (1975); Orth, 1798-1908: Case Study Power, U.Ill.L.Rev. 423; Engdahl, Accountability Positive Wrongs, U.Colo.L.Rev. Jaffe English 1789 rarely government. Jaffe, Suits Officers: Immunity, (1963). Judge Gibbons' recent essay points Colonies 1895-1899. 1045-1046; 14-20. reported Detail, draft assign, involving harmony, collection revenue[,] states[,] Citizen State[,] states; disputes, countries concerned[,] Jurisdn." (angle brackets M. Farrand, Records 1787, 146-147 1937) Farrand). instances, original." Interestingly, Committee's Wilson's handwriting, margin member, Rutledge Carolina. Putnam, Cornell L.Q. 460, 467 (1925) (facsimile document). possible existed eve Aside Treaty Paris 1783, Britain creditors. completed confiscations, escheats, property. prohibited escheats completed. discharge treasury. 1903. collect Treaty's 1899-1902, 1903-1908. Elliot, Debates 529 (1891) Debates) (further confiscation). endorse action—state federal—in render Justice. ---- - Before initiated earlier summarizing Constitution: admire pay debts." 207. example "[t]hat Legislature, harmony." 39. especially Their fervent desire downplay document arousing controversy. 534. broader statements need, vindicated War, enforcement. categorically obligations. State-State Dakota Carolina, 192 286, 448 (1904), Texas, 621, 642-646, 488, 492-494, 285 (1892). pleaded raise problems Cooper Aaron, 1401, (1958). 1902-1903 (Pennsylvania), 1912-1914 (North Carolina); 1050-1051; 27-40 (Pennsylvania). Detail: "When equal footing." 491. attribution Lee. 214-216. Main, Antifederalists 157 (quoting 1788 letter "expose holden States"); (widely reprinted Tench Coxe) ("[W]hen trial obliged which, is. disinterested court"); (pro-Federalist pamphlet Philadelphia elsewhere) ("[States] oppressing bad administration; moment mischief begins States[,] strangers, welfare,—the salutary controul [sic] check evil, restore strength security, offending state"). phrase frequently synonym Concordance 403-404 (Engeman, Erler, Hofeller, eds. 1980). adverted "as convention aims partial Union consolidation, exclusively delegated action; consequently, thereto Therefore, surrendered "What instance avail restrictions mode observance them? variety things; incompatible union, government." 350 according judiciary. insofar convention," sovereigns foresaw 1048; 1908-1912; 534-535. congruent writings ("If things axioms, legislative, ranked number"); 532 (remarks Madison) ("With Union, expedient correspond to"). comes conventions. "nothing contained, 409. Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Hampshire modified 1051-1052. scholarship unanimously weight Hans. 40; 531; 1913-1914; 1054. differentiate ambassadors nations." assigned (district "all common sue" amount); (circuit $500 "and plaintiffs, petitioners"). assigning Mathis, Adoption Interpretation, Ga.L.Rev. 207, 215-230 (1968) cases); 41-47, 57-64 (same). precise facts scholarly dispute. 93, (1922) (plaintiff executor behalf estate citizen), Ga.L.Rev., 217-218 citizen). explain likely, Prior Fletcher Peck, 87, 162 (1810), party. breach "law impairing contract" applied. Shawnee Sewerage Drainage Stearns, 220 462, 471, 452, 455, 544 (1911); Brown Colorado, 95, 175, (1882). damages. added, dicta: "So much, intimate admit, circumstances, money." emphasized, question: "This hold, reserve one, sentiments extra-judicial." 450. newspaper accounts. 1926, 186. unreported, Goebel, 734-735 situation facing administration 1927-1932. full: party; 67, 95-99. exempted treaty-based intact untenable. ignores foreigners. proposal implied nontreaty rejection preserve contours originating refusing Paris, Treaty. challenge triggered movement acted squelch prepared embark defensible open. commentators' plausible. unclear superfluity, do. 1801, circuit repealed later. 132, 156 (1802). purposes. Telegraph Cable Alabama, 155 482, 192, 231 (1894). exclusion enforced "delicate" execute F.Cas., 1236. echoed difficulties Madrazo Parte 627, 808 (1833). one-paragraph apparently "is personal possession." Pet., 632. (1798), statement. Doremus Education, 429, 475 (1952) (Article Jersey courts). 922, (1900) (State "subject condition, supremacy pursuance highest reviewed re-examined, prescribed denies specially States"). repetitions unmistakably. department description, From 382. whoever case." 383. "[W]e given, 392. worth 748, (1934). Justice's Cohens, prudent expansive flatly constitutionalizing Like narrowly accomplish adopted. hypothesized Cohens—in State—arose reached bar. Worcester 483 (1832). issue, error. 533-534. tension (1828), 292-293. 122-123. distinction personally 1086-1087. [Eleventh] provide." 238. (or ) overruling 110-year-old actions. 1232 1809), substantially justifiable; relevance material show recognize sovereign. justifiably Fry 421 557, 1792, 1800, 363 (1975) opinion) ("As sets mandatory ceiling wages employees. respects, superseded areas competent nonetheless business enterprise regulation").

Category: 9