Document: 382 U.S. 111 86 S.Ct. 258 15 L.Ed.2d 194 SWIFT & COMPANY, Inc., et al., Appellants,v.Don J. WICKHAM, Commissioner of Agriculture and Markets New York. No. 9. Argued Oct. 13, 1965. Decided Nov. 22, William Condon, York City, for appellants. Samuel A. Hirshowitz, appellee. Mr. Justice HARLAN delivered the opinion Court. 1 Appellants, Swift Armour Companies, stuff, freeze, package turkeys which they ship to retailers throughout country ultimate sale consumers. Each is labeled with net weight particular bird (including stuffing) in conformity a governing federal statute, Poultry Products Inspection Act 1957, 71 Stat. 441, 21 U.S.C. §§ 451—469 (1964 ed.), regulations issued under its authority by Secretary Agriculture.1 Many these are sold Section 193 York's Law, McKinney's Consol.Laws, c. 692 has been interpreted through rulings require that packaged be labels informing public unstuffed as well entire package. Because amount stuffing varies each bird, State thus seeks help purchasers ascertain just how much fowl included ready-for-the-oven turkey. 2 requested permission Department change their order conform requirements, but such was refused at initial administrative level no review refusal sought. then brought this action enjoin from enforcing State's labeling provisions, asserting enforcement would violate Commerce Clause Fourteenth Amendment Federal Constitution overriding requirements poultry enactment. 3 Pursuant appellants' request, three-judge district court constituted 28 § 2281 (1958 provides tribunal whenever state statute sought enjoined 'upon ground unconstitutionality statute.' The District Court, unsure jurisdiction reasons appearing below, dismissed suit on merits3 acting both single-judge capacity.4 Appeals were lodged Court Second Circuit determination, decision accordance direct appeal 1253 ed.). threshold question before us, consideration we postponed merits (379 997, 85 716, 13 700), whether rather than Appeals, turn depends required. We hold it not. 4 At outset, agree claims alleged complaint too insubstantial support court. It long held called when constitutional claim insubstantial, Ex parte Poresky, 290 30, 54 3, 78 L.Ed. 152; California Water Service Co. v. City Redding, 304 252, 58 865, 82 1323. Since only remaining basis forth enjoining enactment asserted repugnancy quite right concluding turned proper application our 1962 Kesler Public Safety, 369 153, 807, 7 641. There decided suits restrain allegedly conflict or field pre-empted comes into play Supremacy immediately drawn question, not issues statutory construction must first even though may ultimately implicated. Finding itself unable say assurance resolution case involved less had taken place Kesler, left puzzling more occurred necessary deprive three judges jurisdiction. 5 might suffice dispose issue us hold, agreement what indicated, 230 F.Supp., 410, involves so did inappropriate. (We indeed find difficult here therefore necessary.) think, however, disposition important jurisdictional satisfactory, candor compels rule elusive fall short responsibilities if accept opportunity take fresh look problem. believe considerations stare decisis should deter course. Unless inexorably commanded procedural principle importance kept books name once proved unworkable practice; mischievous consequences litigants courts alike perpetuation an great. For given opinion, have concluded doctrine area unsatisfactory, pro tanto overruled. overruling six-to-two decision5 recent vintage, concurred two members majority present case,6 written acknowledged expert jurisdiction, demands full explication reasons. I. 6 unique feature jurisprudence, created alleviate specific discontent within system. antecedent 1910 Act7 passed assuage growing popular displeasure frequent grants injunctions against operation legislation regulating railroads utilities particular.8 early nineteenth century occasionally behest private officials prevent statutes,9 cases rare generally character offend policies. advent Granger labor movements late century,10 acceleration social especially creation regulatory bodies met opposition judiciary. In Chicago, M. St. P.R. Minnesota, 134 418, 10 462, 702, 33 970, setting rates permitting fair return violated Due Process Amendment. Young, 209 123, 52 714, established firmly corollary inferior could unconstitutional laws. This confrontation between uncertain contours developing legislation, arising considered unsympathetic policies States, severe repercussions. Efforts made Congress limit various ways sensitive areas.11 spoke out obstruction delay occasioned injunction suits.12 sponsor bill establishing procedure cases, Senator Overman North Carolina, noted: 8 '(T)here 150 kind now where one judge tied hands officers, governor, attorney-general * *. 9 Whenever stands up enjoins governor attorney-general, people resent it, sentiment stirred, my State, there almost rebellion, whereas declare rest easy it.' 45 Cong.Rec. 7256.13 atmosphere put books, although subsequent Congresses amended statute14 basic structure remains intact. II. 11 designed provide responsible forum litigation which, successful, render void statutes embodying notification pending suit, 2284(2) preventing ex common previously.15 judges, whom circuit judge, 2284(1) allow authoritative determination individual predilection politically emotional areas. authorizes 1253, means accelerating final merits; criticism pre-1910 directed length time required Supreme consequent disruption tax programs caused outstanding injunction.16 12 That used any clear start. What yet unclear, spite decisions other courts, scope phrase statute' alleges traditional Clause, Equal Protection Contract arguments, regulation some thereunder. Any pre-emption course grounded Constitution: measure conflicts requirement, provision give way. Gibbons Ogden, Wheat. 1, 23. never interpretation inevitably comparing statutes. Whether carry function hand. casting light problem Buder, 271 461, 46 557, 70 1036, presented was, here, properly directly Missouri authorizing taxation bank shares remained valid after enlarged States' power national banks shares, dividends, income. Under scheme, States apparently expected choose methods. Although law applied assessment, because explicitly among types taxation, instead relied prior assessment void. Brandeis, writing unanimous '* assailed being repugnant Constitution.' U.S., 465, S.Ct., 558. Buder invoke noted defendants' answer Tenth Amendment, "supreme land' meaning provisions Article VI United States,' controlling over unless construed consistent law. clearly conflict. 14 Bransford, 310 354, 60 947, 84 1249, raised similar problem, also context validity tax. again type federal-state outside purview predecessor 2281: 'If assessments invalid, levy taxes upon property withdrawn manner forbidden National Banking Act. declaration supremacy clause gives superiority acts conflicting purposes merely act Congress, constitutionality enactment.' 358—359, 950: third case, Case Bowles, 327 92, 66 438, 90 552, proposed Washington timber stateowned land price violating Emergency Price Control 1942. A sale, argued single lacked otherwise: 'the challenge Consequently required.' 97, 441.17 16 upshot seems abundantly clear: 2281.18 distinction involving preemption firm until 641, plaintiff bankruptcy laws suspending driving licenses persons who judgment debtors result adverse negligent automobile. policy underlying overrode otherwise legitimate exercise police power. Frankfurter, majority, declared denying second distinguished such: immediate controversy law, requirement does become operative.' 157, 811. itself, Frankfurter said, 'constitutional question' pre-empted. After can characterized extensive analysis (369 158—174, 811—820) fact pre-emption.19 III. 17 re-examining admonition viewed 'not broad great liberality, technical strict sense term such,' Phillips 312 246, 251, 61 480, 483, 800, mind. reflects admonition, rationalization view excluded comprehensive language 2281,' 156, 810, most explain. 18 As distribution judicial responsibility test applying formulated. purpose scheme major part expedite litigation: way litigation, like one, delayed while composition litigated. convinced rule, distinguishing substantial those 'immediately' apparent, practice unworkable. Not uniformly criticized commentators,20 lower evidently avoid dealing application21 uncertainty.22 Judge Friendly's below demonstrates, correct forum, adjudicated discover 'engaged make ruling inapplicable.' 410. Such formulation, whatever abstract justification, cannot stand every-day allocating judges. 19 Two possible interpretations practicable extended thought indicate,23 all ground, channeled courts. resting solely 'supremacy' grounds statute. 20 alternative holds attraction. First, relatively straightforward: need distinguish different injunction; relief Moreover, several grounds, depend certain insubstantial. Second, speaks 'unconstitutionality,' and, sure, obstructing Constitution. And, third, justification wider rule. sense, concerned legislators progenitor voiding sensibilities citizens, perhaps particularly officials, likely offended, thought, handed down judge. rationale applicable identical alleging directly. Persuasive be, supporting interpretation, is, returning Buder-Bransford-Case day. restrictive discriminating reading embracing interpretation. requires actions Clause,24 words appear superfluous read exclude injunctive suits.25 simple prohibiting restraint except manifestly sufficed embrace every ground. permissible limitation, signifying congressional confine depending substantive Constitution, leaving (or treaty) follow normal do suggest compelled. say, entirely appropriate reading, supported precedents sound considerations. 22 An examination origins about show sort concern them. Their ire aroused progressive usually due process grounds. (See pp. 116—119, supra.) Requiring collective appeals safeguard interests. contrast, incompatibility statutes, confining legal hardly raise worrisome possibilities economic political predilections will judgment. enacted deemed insensitive circumstance always subject corrective 'constitutional' beyond ready correction dealt amendment. greater dignity involve instance determining Agriculture's total frozen stuffed necessarily renders invalid requiring supplemental figure excludes stuffing. 23 Our conflicts, addition statute's structure, pre-Kesler precedent, section's historical purpose, buttressed administration. Frankfurther observed Florida Lime Avocado Growers, Inc. Jacobsen, 362 73, 92 93, 80 568, 579—580 (dissenting opinion): 24 '(T)he convening trial makes dislocation functioning vast non-metropolitan regions; judgments expands Court's obligatory contradicts dominant having gone sieves *.' 25 number determinations year exaggerated,26 efficient persuades thereby conforming constrictive traditionally taken. Collins, 277 565, 48 585, 72 990; Oklahoma Gas Elec. Packing Co., 292 386, 732, 1318; Rorick Board Commissioners, 307 208, 59 808, 83 1242; 800. 26 appellate lies pending. lack 27 ordered. Appeal dismissed. 29 DOUGLAS, BLACK CLARK concur, dissenting. 30 Less four years ago, 2281, 'ground unconstitutionality' challenged based 31 express If plainly 2281. But 'unconstitutionality' contained Art. VI, cl. 2, states language: 32 'This Laws shall Pursuance thereof supreme Law Land; Judges bound thereby, Thing Contrary notwithstanding.' latter Congress. Overman, author provision, said relevant violates Amendment: 34 'The point amendment peace good State. it. let little whole you rising rebellion. States.' 7256. 35 Some heated controversies Nation supervised questions inclusive pre-empt area. One earliest tumultuous Cohens Commonwealth Virginia, 264, 440, 257, Virginia argument lottery Columbia, barred making criminal offense sell tickets protest vociferous1 end keep operating Virginia. Id., 447. I see difference charge Neither nor reason history plain. 36 Pre-emption recurring theme2 contexts. storm referee contest regimes. recently another aspect matter,3 efforts curb standards Congress.4 facet self-same 37 related bring halt scheme. can—and hereafter—happen fairly example Cloverleaf Butter Patterson, 315 148, 62 491, 754, suspended Alabama's program control renovated butter—a demonstrably health measure. Growers systems, emphasized interest free interference outweighed additional burdens imposed On reflection think better though, matter construction. 38 virtually experience 'unworkable' therefore, previous incorrect. regret am join decision. My objection 'a respectful burial,' Gideon Wainwright, 372 335, 349, 792, 799, 799 (concurring opinion), engaged unwarranted infanticide. 39 Stare immutable principle.5 many occasions overturned decision, matters overtones. 40 error interpreting easily remedied. failed perceive intention thwart legislative lessons learned alone. 41 overturning announced March 26, 1962. 42 able thrown chaos, demise out. calls 'unworkable.' enough attach label. broadly asserts 'lower (Kesler's) uncertainty.' proposition (in instant case) cited. failure compelling documentation indictment meticulous scholarship, far discover, truth (not cited) remotely warranting conclusion 43 attempt harmonize earlier cases. asserts, nonetheless premise: 44 'Neither gave rise affords remotest carving unfrivolous 2281.' 810. done, overrule 1249. so-called found class others While are, strictly speaking, engaging task adjudication same concede adjudication. Though touchstone, interests account either same, eloquently demonstrates. 47 decided, gloomy predictions handful articles, produce chaos Those borne difficulties arise, cure Until acts, stand. convened decide merits. 457(b) declares: use written, printed graphic accompanying product inspected pursuant chapter container false misleading prohibited.' 458(d) prohibits 'Using commerce, designated consuming area, label product.' authorized 463 regulations. CFR 81.125 containers bear 'approved labels'; 81.130(a)(3) declares include contents marked products weights wet dry packaging materials giblet wrapping materials.' 193, subd. provides: 'All food offered retail weight, standard numerical count prescribed commissioner.' Net defined regulation, NYCRR 221.40 (now 221.9(c)), '(t)he Director Bureau Weights Measures testified he turkeys, statement that, asked, advised local sealers measures.' Wickham, F.Supp. 398, 401 (1964). rejected implying strongly higher level. 'certifying abundant caution' original member panel, 'individually arrived conclusion.' minimizing prejudice unclear before, Query 316 486, 1122, 1616. Whittaker took case. Brennan writer majority. June 18, 1910, 309, 17, 557. See Currie, Three-Judge Constitutional Litigation, U.Chi.L.Rev. 3—9 (1964); Hutcheson, Three Judges, Harv.L.Rev. 795 (1934); Warren, Interference, 345 (1930). contemporary accounts see, e.g., Baldwin, Presidential Address: Progressive Unfolding Powers Am.Pol.Sci.Rev. 8—9 (1912); Scott, Increased Activities Courts, III 347 (1909). suits, Lockwood, Maw, Rosenberry, Use Injunction 426 (1930), numerous prominent railroad nine ten cases.' 7254 (1910). E.g., Spooner McConnell, Fed.Cas. 939 (No. 13245) (1838). S. Buck, Movement, esp. 194—214, 231 237 (1913); Jackson, Struggle Judicial 48—68 (1949); History 574 599 (1935). story equity field, Greene, Labor supra, 803—804. See, 7253 (1910) (remarks Crawford). dragged five years, ibid., expeditious, Lilienthal, Courts Regulation Utilities, 379, 417 n. 176 probably referring Southern R. McNeill, Cir., 155 F. 756 (1907). There, sustained Governor publicly urged ignore railway complained 'these attacks company agents effect demoralizing servants, agents, employe extent nigh impossible complainant discharge duties owed 790—791. cover challenges orders commissions 1913, 1013, 1925 permanent purview, 938, Three-judge Note, Court: Scope Procedure 77 299, 300—301 (1963). 800—801. Crawford South Dakota told his Legislature debating maximum rate companies already prepared motions injunctions: signature, hour signed filed office secretary restraining came telegraph officers proceeding enforce 7252 id., 7256 Crawford); note 12, supra. reiterated familiar facts application. 1616, where, asserted. (Commerce Protection) 'nonconstitutional' (pre-emption Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act) dissented, reasoning narrowly mere availability 'non-constitutional' Both dissent assumed attack inconsistent None specifically invokes inevitable underpinning striking quotation p. 121, invoked complaint. discussion 120-121. Nor turns involved, large, small, simply entails laying side side. stated 'refutes very establishes.' 177, 821 THE CHIEF JUSTICE). addition, Justices dissented conclusions derived analysis. 61—64 313—315 (1963); 49 Va.L.Rev. 538, 553—555 76 168 (1962); Stan.L.Rev. 565 U.Ill.L.F. 467; U.Pa.L.Rev. 113 (1962). Borden Liddy, 309 F.2d 871; American Travelers Club, Hostetter, D.C., 219 95, 102, 7. Bartlett Grain Corp. Comm'n Kansas, 223 975. 2. thereof; Treaties made, Authority encompass inconsistency constitution. Cf. 80, 573. statistics summarized Note; 303—305 Yale L.J. 1646, 1654—1659 figures 11,485 trials completed fiscal 1965, 147 heard Of I.C.C. regulations, civil rights, 1965 Dir.Adm.Off. Ann.Rep. II—25, II—28. History, 552 seq. (1928). Richmond Enquirer 'so obnoxious doctrines,' title stir one's blood.' feared Judiciary power, foot noiseless spirit greedy grave, sweeping destruction rights States. These encroachments increased, increasing ought diminished'; advocated repeal fatal advisable remedy evil.' leading Ohio paper alarming progress subverting Federalist principles introducing ruins mighty consolidated empire fitted sceptre monarch'; continued: 'That tenor decisions, State-Rights tendency reduce governors condition provincial satraps, silent acquiescence lamentable result, mathematical demonstration." 552—553. Thus 179, 507, favor 'purely destructive legislation.' And Rice Santa Fe Elevator Corp., 331 218, 67 1146, 91 1447; Campbell Hussey, 368 297, 327, 299; Hostetter Idlewild Bon Voyage Liquor 377 324, 1293, 350. H.R. 88th Cong., 1st Sess., material provided: 'No indicating intent occupy operates, exclusion matter, contains effect, positive reconciled consistently together.' version introduced 1956. House Committee changes, limiting subversion, reported 'do pass' recommendation. H.R.Rep. 2576, 84th 2d Sess. Senate version, 3143, narrowed Committee. S.Rep. 2230, Senate. Eighty-fifth recommended pass,' narrow subversion. 1878, 85th July 1958. approved Committee, 422, 86th 24, 1959. Eighty-seventh favorably 1820, 87th acted House. relations broader aspects envisaged Pennsylvania Nelson, 350 497, 477, 100 640, Petroleum Wisconsin, 672, 74 794, 98 1035, Slochower Education, 551, 637, 692, Railway Employes Hanson, 351 225, 1112, 754. Radin, Decisis, Col.L.Rev. 199 (1933).

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