Document: 524 U.S. 569118 S.Ct. 2168141 L.Ed.2d 500 NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE ARTS, et al., Petitioners,v.Karen FINLEY, al. No. 97-371. Supreme Court of the United States Argued March 31, 1998. Decided June 25, Syllabus * The National Foundation on Arts and Humanities Act vests Endowment for (NEA) with substantial discretion to award financial grants support arts; it identifies only broadest funding priorities, including "artistic cultural significance, giving emphasis . creativity diversity,'' "professional excellence,'' encouragement "public education appreciation arts.'' See 20 U.S.C. §954(c)(1)-(10). Applications NEA are initially reviewed by advisory panels experts in relevant artistic field. report Council (Council), which, turn, advises Chairperson. In 1989, controversial photographs that appeared two NEA-funded exhibits prompted public outcry over agency's grant-making procedures. Congress reacted controversy inserting an amendment into NEA's 1990 reauthorization bill. became §954(d)(1), which directs Chairperson ensure excellence merit criteria [grant] applications judged, taking consideration general standards decency respect diverse beliefs values American public.'' has not promulgated official interpretation provision, but adopted a resolution implement §954(d)(1) ensuring panel members represent geographic, ethnic, aesthetic diversity. four individual respondents performance artists who applied before was enacted. An recommended approval each their projects, subsequently disapproval, denied. They filed suit restoration or reconsideration applications, asserting First Amendment statutory claims. When enacted respondents, joined Association Artists' Organizations, amended complaint challenge provision as void vagueness impermissibly viewpoint based. District granted summary judgment favor facial constitutional §954(d)(1). Ninth Circuit affirmed, holding its face, discriminates basis is under Fifth Amendments. Held: Section 954(d)(1) facially valid, neither inherently interferes rights nor violates principles. Pp. ____-____. (a) Respondents confront heavy burden advancing challenge, they have demonstrated risk application will lead suppression free expression, see Broadrick v. Oklahoma, 413 601, 615, 93 2908, 2917-2918, 37 830. premise respondents' claim constrains ability fund certain categories expression. however, simply adds "considerations'' process; does preclude awards projects might be deemed "indecent'' "disrespectful,'' place conditions grants, even specify those factors must given any particular weight reviewing application. Regardless whether view formulation sufficient comply Congress' command fact reasonable reading, §954(d)(1)'s plain text clearly impose categorical requirement. Furthermore, political context surrounding "decency respect'' clause's adoption inconsistent assertion. legislation bipartisan proposal introduced counterweight amendments would eliminated substantially constrained authority. merely admonishes take consideration, perceive realistic danger utilized punish expression views. typically strikes down unconstitutional when dangers both more evident substantial. See, e.g., R.A.V. St. Paul, 505 377, 112 2538, 120 305. Given varied interpretations urged parties, provision's vague exhortation "take them consideration,'' seems unlikely significantly compromise values. enabling statute contemplates number indisputably "decency'' "respect'' prong It well established permissible factor where "educational suitability'' motivates consideration. Board Ed., Island Trees Union Free School Dist. 26 Pico, 457 853, 871, 102 2799, 2810, 73 435. And already provides agency "cultural diversity'' account. References alone sustain statute, persuaded that, other language itself give rise protected Any content-based considerations may taken account consequence nature arts funding; limited resources allocate among many "artistically excellent'' so wide variety subjective criteria. Respondent's reliance Rosenberger Rector Visitors Univ. Va., 515 819, 837, 115 2510, 2520-2521, 132 700-in overturned university's objective decision denying all student publications having religious editorial viewpoints-is therefore misplaced. mandate make judgments, "excellence'' threshold sets apart from subsidy at issue Rosenberger. Moreover, although applies context, latitude set spending priorities. Regan Taxation Representation Wash., 461 540, 549, 103 1997, 2002-2003, 76 129. Unless until manner raises concern about disfavored viewpoints, uphold it. (b) lower courts also erred invalidating unconstitutionally vague. Amendments protect speakers arbitrary discriminatory enforcement standards. NAACP Button, 371 415, 432-433, 83 328, 337-338, 9 405. 954(d)(1)'s terms undeniably opaque, if criminal regulatory scheme, could raise concerns. unlikely, compelled steer too far clear forbidden area grants. As practical matter, conform speech what believe decisionmaking order acquire funding. But Government acting patron rather than sovereign, consequences imprecision constitutionally severe. selective subsidies, always feasible legislate clarity. Indeed, accept argument call question constitutionality valuable programs awarding scholarships such "excellence.'' 100 F.3d 671, reversed remanded. O'CONNOR, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., STEVENS, KENNEDY, BREYER, JJ., joined, GINSBURG, except Part II-B. SCALIA, concurring judgment, THOMAS, joined. SOUTER, dissenting opinion. Seth P. Waxman, Washington, DC, petitioners. David D. Cole, Brooklyn, NY, respondents. Justice O'CONNOR Court. 1 Act, 1990, requires this case, we review Appeals' determination We conclude 2 A 3 With establishment 1965, embarked "broadly conceived national policy States,'' §953(b), pledging federal funds "help create climate encouraging freedom thought, imagination, inquiry material facilitating release creative talent.'' §951(7). grants; knowledge, education, understanding, §§954(c)(1)-(10). 4 composed field arts. Under reflect "diverse points view'' include "wide minority representation,'' "lay individuals knowledgeable §§959(c)(1)-(2). 26-member ultimate authority approve made negative recommendation. §955(f). 5 Since distributed three billion dollars organizations, served catalyst increased state, corporate, foundation recently restricted availability artists, confining primarily qualifying organizations state agencies, constraining sub-granting. Department Interior Related Agencies Appropriations 1998, Pub.L. 105-83, §329, 111 Stat. 1600. By largest portion fiscal year 1998 were awarded directly agencies. remaining categories, most allocated symphony orchestras, fine museums, dance theater foundations, opera associations. Arts, FY Grants, Creation & Presentation 5-8, 21, 20, 27. 6 Throughout history, handful roughly 100,000 generated formal complaints misapplied abuse public's trust. Two provocative works, 1989 led congressional revaluation priorities efforts increase oversight Institute Contemporary Art University Pennsylvania had used $30,000 visual grant received retrospective photographer Robert Mapplethorpe's work. exhibit, entitled Perfect Moment, included homoerotic several Members condemned pornographic. 135 Cong. Rec. 22372 (1989). denounced artist Andres Serrano's work Piss Christ, photograph crucifix immersed urine. id., 9789. Serrano been $15,000 Southeast Center Art, organization support. 7 considering appropriations Mapplethorpe eliminating $45,000 budget, precise amount contributed recipients. providing no "may promote, disseminate, produce materials [the NEA] considered obscene, to, depictions sadomasochism, homoeroticism, sexual exploitation children, engaged sex acts whole, do serious literary, artistic, political, scientific value.'' 101-121, 738, 738-742. implemented instituting requirement grantees certify writing utilize engage That certification invalidated Federal Bella Lewitzky Dance Frohnmayer, 754 F.Supp. 774 (C.D.Cal.1991), did appeal decision. 8 bill, agreed Independent Commission law scholars procedures assess possibility focused Commission's report, issued September concluded there obligation provide funding, rescind cautioned against setting forth content restrictions. Instead, suggested procedural changes enhance role reaffirmation "the high nation accords fostering mutual disparate us.'' Commission, Report 83-91 (Sept.1990), Record, Doc. 151, Exh. K (hereinafter Congress). Informed recommendations, cognizant pending judicial challenges limitations debated proposals reform process fall 1990. House rejected Crane Amendment, virtually NEA, 136 28656-28657 (1990), Rohrabacher prohibition "promote, distribute, matter purpose effect denigrating beliefs, tenets, objects religion'' "of individual, group individuals, race, sex, handicap, origin,'' 28657-28664. Ultimately, Williams/Coleman between opposing restrictions favoring some guidance agency. part, Chairperson, establishing judge "tak[e] public.''* 10 December unanimously conduct initial Minutes Dec. Retreat reprinted App. 12-13; Transcript 32-33. John then declared he "count [the] procedures'' membership peer fulfill mandate. 40. B 11 Karen Finley, Fleck, Holly Hughes, Tim Miller, after receiving Frohnmayer's request reconsider applications. majority informed denied suit, alleging violated rejecting grounds, failed follow basing denial breached confidentiality through quotations press, violation Privacy 1974, §552(a). sought damages alleged violations. now Organizations (NAAO), Amended Complaint, 16, p. (Mar. 27, 1991). 12 motion pleadings, 795 1457, 1463-1468 (C.D.Cal.1992), and, discovery, settle as-applied claims paying vetoed damages, attorney's fees. Stipulation Settlement Agreement, 128, pp. 3-5 (June 11, 1993). 13 enjoined provision. F.Supp., 1476. court structuring selection panels. Id., 1471. stated, "fails adequately notify applicants required circumscribe discretion.'' 1472. Reasoning very our pluralistic society infinite correlatively, "general decency,''' "cannot consistent Amendment's due requirement.'' 1471-1472 (citing Grayned City Rockford, 408 104, 108-109, 92 2294, 2298-2299, 33 222 (1972)). Drawing analogy universities, further ruled process, because "clearly reaches speech,'' overbroad face. seek stay Court's injunction, consequently since 1992. 14 divided Appeals affirmed ruling. 671 (C.A.9 1996). alter judged according reasoned, "has ignore obligation, enforce part it, cramped construction.'' 680. Concluding "susceptible definition,'' held "gives application'' 680-681. alternative, viewpoint-based speech. arts, explained, "traditional sphere expression,'' Rust Sullivan, 173, 200, 1759, 1776, 114 233 (1991), stated intention "encourage diversity views private speakers,'' 834, 2519, 700 (1995). F.3d, 681-682. Accordingly, finding speech-based restriction sole rationale operative principle,'' Rosenberger, supra, S.Ct., noting failure articulate compelling interest invalid. 683. 15 dissent asserted protects artists' express themselves indecently disrespectfully like, compel 684 (Kleinfeld, dissenting). challenged contended, prohibit indecent offensive art, consider process. 689-690. dissent's reasoning, principles applicable direct regulation bearing prizes, draw distinctions based making decisions. 684-688. Three judges dissented rehearing en banc, maintaining panel's gave "implausible construction,'' " "void vagueness' doctrine belong,'' extended "First situation doesn't cover.'' 1015, 1016-1017 1997). 16 certiorari, 522 ----, 118 554, 139 396 (1997), reverse Appeals. II 17 "a burden'' claim. Rust, 183, 1767. Facial invalidation "is, manifestly, strong medicine'' employed sparingly last resort.'' 613, 2916, 830 (1973); FW/PBS, Inc. Dallas, 493 215, 223, 110 596, 603, 107 603 (1990) (noting "facial generally disfavored''). To prevail, demonstrate Broadrick, 2917-2918. 18 argue paradigmatic example discrimination rejects either fails mainstream offends decency. reads hortatory, contends stops short absolute restriction. asserts representation various backgrounds analyze Declaration Randolph McAusland, Deputy Chairman Programs 79 (stating implements "by geographical areas, views, professions, areas expertise, races ethnic groups, gender, lay person''). decide view-that command-is reading statute. clear, imposes stands sharp contrast classes intended affirmatively constrain authority, done uncertain terms. §954(d)(2) (" [O]bscenity without merit, speech, shall funded''). 19 like §954(d), clause assertion compels deny aimed 28626, 28632, 28634 (1990). distinct suggests additional selection, any, should incorporated (perhaps definition excellence'), isolated treated exogenous considerations.'' Congress, 89. keeping recommendation, inform assessment declined disallow viewpoints. sponsors noted urging rejection "if start road prohibiting indeed end? Where one Member's aversions end, others different sensibilities begin.'' 28624 (statement Rep. Coleman); 28663 Williams) (arguing prevent Jasper Johns' flag series, "The Merchant Venice,'' "Chorus Line,'' "Birth Nation,'' "Grapes Wrath''). contrast, vote stated: "If important thing amendment, this. maintained integrity States.'' 28674. reforming precluding undercut inevitably tool invidious discrimination. cases struck unconstitutional, 305 (1992), example, face municipal ordinance defined offense placement symbol property ""which knows grounds know arouses anger, alarm, resentment color, creed, religion, gender.''' 380, 2541. penalty, proscribed "disfavored subjects,'' 391, 2547-2548, suppressed "distinctive idea[s], conveyed distinctive message,'' 393, 2548. 21 silence expressly "threaten[ing] censorship ideas.'' ibid. Thus, own arguments demonstrate, introduces, nature, engender kind directed prompt invalidate assert, [o]ne hard-pressed find people agree public' are, much less art "respects' them''; "[d]ecency' likely mean something septegenarian Tuscaloosa teenager Las Vegas.'' Brief 41. likewise enumerated susceptible multiple interpretations. 1992, Hearing Subcommittee Committee Appropriations, 102d Cong., 1st Sess., 234 (1991) (testimony Frohnmayer) [N]o wise enough able him herself. These decisions''). introduce practice, effectively hardly anticipate how bear orchestras. 22 Respondents' reduced sufficiently greater element selectivity excellence'' itself. reluctant, event, "on hypothetical situations Court.'' FCC Pacifica Foundation, 438 726, 743, 98 3026, 3037, 57 1073 (1978). 23 reference "respect Educational central mission. §951(9) ("Americans receive school, background preparation humanities''); §954(c)(5) (listing "projects productions encourage arts'' priorities); 1999 Application Guidelines 18-19 (describing "Education Access'' category); Twenty-six Broadcast, Library, Museum, Publishing Amici Curiae 5, n. Strategic Plan 1997-FY 2002, children's festivals at-risk youth schools examples activities). 435 (1982); Bethel 403 Fraser, 478 675, 683, 106 3159, 3164, 549 (1986) ("Surely highly appropriate function school use vulgar discourse''). 24 Permissible public'' apparent. purposes explained [i]t vital democracy honor preserve multicultural heritage.'' §951(10). takes account, special reach, culture of, minority, inner city, rural, tribal community,'' §954(c)(4), emphasize §954(c)(1). contend justified, contemplates, project's audience. 25 recognize, course, these challenge. receives, propose projects. reasons, "such technical proficiency artist, work, anticipated work's contemporary relevance, educational value, suitability audiences (such children disabled), service rural community, knowledge form.'' Petitioners 32. below noted, "impossible program money large expression.'' 685 "very assumption'' worth competing applications,'' neutrality "inconceivable.'' Advocates Thomson, 532 F.2d 792, 795-796(C.A.1), cert. denied, 429 894, 97 254, 50 177 (1976). (1995), university authorize disbursements Student Activities Fund finance printing Christian newspaper. subsidizing Fund, created forum, excluded 2520-2521. Although scarcity distinguish case 835, 2519-2520, competitive does. indiscriminately 2519. -which available ""related University,''' 824, 2514-and comparably decisions allocating benefits, access auditorium theater, Lamb's Chapel Moriches Dist., 508 384, 386, 113 2141, 2143-2144, 124 352 (1993); Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. Conrad, 420 546, 555, 95 1239, 1244-1245, 43 448 (1975), second class mailing privileges ""all newspapers periodical publications,''' Hannegan Esquire, Inc., 327 146, 148, 1, 66 456, 457, 90 L.Ed. 586 (1946). 27 allege (In fact, filing Exhibit 35 Heins Declaration, Nos. 275 276 (Sept. 30, 1991 letters informing Hughes Miller Solo Performance Theater Artist Fellowships).) occasion here address shown product If leverage power subsidies penalty case. "ai[m] dangerous ideas,'' Regan, U.S., 550, 2003 (internal quotation marks omitted), "manipulated'' "coercive effect,'' relief appropriate. Arkansas Writers' Project, Ragland, 481 221, 237, 1722, 1731-1732, 209 (1987) (SCALIA, dissenting); Leathers Medlock, 499 439, 447, 1438, 1443, 494 [D]ifferential taxation suspect threatens suppress ideas viewpoints''). addition, concedes, pressing arise government resulted imposition disproportionate calculated drive "certain viewpoints marketplace.'' Simon Schuster, N.Y. State Crime Victims Bd., 502 105, 116, 501, 508, 116 476 (1991); 38, 12. Cf. Red Lion Broadcasting Co. FCC, 395 367, 396, 89 1794, 1809, (1969) [W]e pass upon regulations envisioning extreme conceivable, deal problems arise'') citation omitted). 28 Finally, certainly note impermissible stake. So long infringe rights, 129 (1983). modified declaration act "contribute confidence taxpayer funds,'' [p]ublic ultimately serve defines.'' §951(5). "selectively activities believes interest, same time alternative seeks problem another way.'' 193, 1772. doing so, discriminated viewpoint; chosen activity exclusion other.'' Ibid.; Maher Roe, 432 464, 475, 2376, 2383, 53 484 (1977) ("There basic difference interference consonant legislative policy''). III 29 Amendments, 405 (1963). "forbidden area'' nature. Compare Airport Comm'rs Los Angeles Jews Jesus, 482 569, 574, 2568, 2571-2572, 96 (facially flat ban Amendment'' airport); Hoffman Estates Flipside, Estates, 455 489, 499, 1186, 1193-1194, 71 362 (1982) ("prohibitory stigmatizing effect'' "quasi-criminal'' analysis); 108, 2298-2299 (requiring lines "lawful unlawful'' conduct). decision-making Statement Charlotte Murphy, Executive Director NAAO, 21-22. 30 vague, §802 (establishing Congressional Award Program "promote initiative, achievement, youths service, personal development, physical expedition fitness''); §956(c)(1) (providing promote "progress scholarship §1134h(a) (authorizing Secretary Education fellowships "students superior selected achievement exceptional promise''); §2452(a) Fulbright "strengthen international cooperative relations''); 42 §7382c Energy recognize teachers "excellence mathematics science education''). countless them. 31 imprecise not, rights. remanded proceedings 32 ordered. whom THOMAS joins, judgment. 34 operation success, patient died.'' What procedure medicine, law. sustains gutting avid opponents asked more. I write separately because, unlike think evaluated written, distorted meant control. terms, establishes content- evaluated. perfectly constitutional. Statute Means Says provides: 36 "No payment section therefor submitted accordance procedures, that- (1) 38 phrase "taking my grammar-school teacher dangling modifier: There noun participle attached (unless jumps out paragraph press "Chairperson'' service). Even apply judging. reviewers decency'' evaluating merit. One can regard suggesting elements regards addition way, entirely, 100% 39 This apparent am loss understand mind (other statute) speculates "advisory.'' Ante, __. General Americans' (for says "shall ensure'' result) (see, Heritage Dictionary 402 (3d ed.1992): "consider [t]o account; mind'') dispositive, considered. method compliance proposed (NEA)-selecting nonartists range geographic perspectives-is obviously inadequate insults intelligence. increases odds reach accurate demand. way consideration-much ensures Chairperson's duty fanciful wholly superfluous. 959(c) "issue establish composed, extent practicable, reflecting view.'' 40 applications-not, just relating programs, ante, __, audience, Just violate requirements select universally. reviewer may, varying depending __) rarely ever affect outcome; every 41 "imposes requirement,'' sense require exhibit disrespect Americans. need conclusive discriminatory. applicant comport decency, likelihood diminishes. words, presence consideration'' regarded mere surplusage; means something,'' Potter States, 155 438, 446, 144, 147, 214 (1894). "something'' decisionmaker, else being equal, display respect, disfavor not. unquestionably constitutes discrimination.1 conclusion altered "compe[l]'' imposing five-point handicap black civil jobs saved race applicants. (a point anon), invalid unless constitute none. displays "decency,'' is, [c]onformity prevailing propriety modesty,'' 483 ed.1992) (def. 2), "respect,'' "deferential regard,'' people, 1536 1), edge opposite. finally, affected people'' difficult pin down, __-any civil-service preference "Republican-party values'' rendered nondiscriminatory plenty room Republican-party be. "political respect' clause,'' discusses length, change meaning constitutionality. All proved statements quotes floor debates categorically exclude (which conceded, text), (2) anything unconstitutional. propels leap countertextual "aimed procedures,'' cannot "utilized discrimination,'' history by, at, "Piss Christ,'' portrayal urine, show lurid photographs. strays beyond disfavor-that discriminate against-such productions. Not absolutely, sure (though discuss, unconstitutional); difficult. 44 More fundamentally, valid attention all. virtual certainty few voted knew with, culled debate (probably conducted almost empty floor). irrelevant "bipartisan counterweight'' restrict viewpoint. statutes surveying scene accident; reviewed, worse been, says. Estate Romani, 523 1478, 1481, 140 710 (1998) judgment). matters enactment partisan alignment whether, passage, linked arms sang, get together, happier we'll be.'' "not scheme inquire motives legislators.'' Tenney Brandhove, 341 783, 788, 1019 (1951). found passed Houses signed President, Const., Art. I, §7. disfavors-discriminates against-indecency people. then, Constitution. Is Constitutional 45 devotes explaining why neglects cite governing analysis. reads: "Congress abridging speech.'' Amdt. (emphasis added). abridge "to contract, diminish; deprive of.'' T. Sheridan, Complete English Language (6th ed. 1796). disdain public, Those wish disrespectful unconstrained Avant-garde artistes remain entirely epater les bourgeois;2 deprived satisfaction bourgeoisie taxed pay preposterous equate measures ""aimed ideas.''' 2003, (1983) added) (quoting Cammarano 358 498, 513, 524, 533, 462 (1959), turn quoting Speiser Randall, 357 519, 78 1332, 1338, 1460 (1958)). reason participation tax exemption necessarily "infringe' fundamental right that-unlike prohibition-such rule, significant coercive effect.'' 1731, 46 contend, suppose, threat source coercion hence "abridgment'' within Amendment. Norwood Harrison, 455, 465, 2804, 2810-2811, 723 (1973). contention, mandatory indecent, disrespectful, kitsch attract accepts here. art-even bad art. earmark deems thereby 2002-2003. 47 discriminatory, constitutional, piece Congress. can, violating Constitution, selectively '' 1772, (1991). chose Democracy philosophies government-an cuts closer core primary 194, 1772-1773. particularly degree chutzpah contradict proposition, discriminates-and discriminate-in (as opposed scientific, theological) common folk, great minds, good idea. 1800, Marshall told Adams recent immigration Frenchmen talented "Adams Frenchmen, especially "schoolmasters, painters, poets, C.' He warned germs infected healthy constitutions.'' J. Ellis, After Revolution: Profiles Early Culture (1979). Surely nothing institutionalized view. Nonetheless Because favoritism "abridge'' anyone's 48 Respondents, relying 833, 2518-2519, speaker "disburs[ing] entities convey governmental message.'' Ibid. impossible imagine so; involving (if unconstitutional) worse. mistaken. business (in modern times, least) innumerable subjects-which main decided elect run government, save posts hereditary. makes bit difference, insofar Constitution concerned, officials (and, democracy, our) favored achieving (having government-employed paint pictures, doctors perform abortions); advocating officially Office Appreciation, Voluntary Population Control); achieve advocate (funding classes, Planned Parenthood).3 None explains, "private'' involved, forum-to granting discriminating) bears resemblance. 49 nub me distinction "abridging'' divide, side inapplicable. despite ineffable constraints indeterminate announces (without troubling enunciate test) here-or, accurately, quite different, emasculated imagines. [T]he Government,'' says, stake,'' think, noncompetitive ad libitum, concerned. true rule legislation: Insofar concerns, addresses expressive conduct, (1972), programs. former produces abridgment lawful speech; latter produces, worst, waste money. refrain observing, applicable, charged standard excellence''-and thought met everything playing Beethoven depiction urine-would dubious validity (who demand strict excellence'') humorlessness 51 *** 52 laudatory description accomplishments __-__, notes "only complaints,'' ----. felt necessary enact evidently noteworthy exacted taxpayers secret Instead banning took lesser step requiring evaluation today renders nullity. For reason, concur dissenting. 54 italicized segment face: [for Arts] public. §954(d) is. 55 proviso mandates disbursement explain afforded exercise conclusions based, regulation, permissibly discrimination, patently Nor raised answered Government's assumption satisfy constitutionality, leaving proviso's obvious invalidity dealt later response specific irreconcilable standing sensible overbreadth, brought clause. respectfully dissent. 56 bedrock principle underlying idea finds disagreeable.'' Texas Johnson, 491 397, 414, 109 2533, 2545, 105 342 [A]bove else, message [or] Police Dept. Chicago Mosley, 92, 95, 2286, 2290, 212 say [t]he underlies Amendment,'' Bose Corp. Consumers 466 485, 505, 104 1949, 1962, 80 (1984). affirmative disqualification favors, permitted pivot otherwise offensiveness unacceptability expresses. (1995) (public disbursed terms); (1993) (after-hours withheld viewpoint); viewpoints''); Pacific Gas Elec. Public Util. Comm'n Cal., 475 903, (government-mandated utility's billing envelopes based); Taxpayers Vincent, 789, 804, 2118, 2128, 772 (1984) forbids regulate ways expense others''). goes saying lies protection. Hurley Irish-American Gay, Lesbian Bisexual Group Boston, 557, 2338, 2345, 487 (remarking painting, music, poetry "unquestionably shielded''); Ward Rock Against Racism, 781, 790, 2746, 2753, 661 (1989) ("Music, form communication, Amendment''); Schad Mount Ephraim, 452 61, 65, 101 2176, 2181, 68 (1981) ("Entertainment, ideological protected; broadcast radio television, live entertainment, musical dramatic guarantee''); Kaplan California, 115, 119-120, 2680, 2684, 492 (1973) [P]ictures, films, paintings, drawings, engravings protection''). protection works turns significance attributable productions, though comment political,1 character, falls spectrum "speech'' extending outward overtly declarations. Put differently, full life,'' native politics, "rests ideal'' neutrality. Turner System, 512 622, 641, 2445, 2458-2459, 497 (1994). 58 called vindicate ideal, characteristically begin asking "whether disagreement conveys. government's controlling consideration.'' 791, 2754 (citation answer damning. read Congress's conveys message; quintessentially Record confirm purpose. words cosponsor bill proviso, [w]orks deeply offend portions ought supported funds.'' (1990).2 Another supporter observed Endowment's Andre[s] offended angered citizens,'' behooving listen [these] funded again.'' 28642. mind, definitive comes succinctly remark author, "add[s] shell, screen, constantly account.'' 28631.3 59 purpose, plainly expressed, cut seeking Edward DeBartolo Florida Gulf Coast Building Constr. Trades Council, 485 568, 575, 108 1392, 1397-1398, 99 645 (1988). 60 first, capable interpretations, face.'' Unquestioned law, contrary. 61 "Sexual obscene Sable Communications 126, 2829, 2836, (1989), protecting exposure material, (1978), never allow rove around see, Reno Civil Liberties Union, 521 117 2329, 138 874 (1997) (striking regulated "indecency'' Internet). normal "indecent' refers nonconformance accepted morality,'' 740, 3035, turning couched decency,'' based: conformity mores. contrary suggestion "mode, form, style'' message, 39-41, tempting abstraction (and lacking support, cf. Bolger Youngs Drug Products Corp., 463 60, 83-84, 2875, 2889-2890, 77 469 (STEVENS, judgment)). suffices realize subject viewpoint, quote years old: "In settings, indecency communicative content, protesting conventional norms conveying inexpressible emotions. Indecency often inseparable conveyed, separable truth power.'' Denver Area Ed. Telecommunications Consortium, 518 727, 805, 2374, 2415-2416, 888 (1996) (KENNEDY, concurring) internal omitted); Cohen 15, 26, 91 1780, 1788, 284 (1971) indulge facile forbid running suppressing process''). inextricability dispute enterprise. Starve mode, starve message. 62 self-evidently, disfavoring America's model discrimination; penalizes belief value espoused someone populace. Boiled essence, limitation disrespects ideology, opinions, convictions disfavored, whereas reinforces all, whole ostensibly blasphemous Jesus funded, while reverent treatment, conventionally respectful sensibilities, afoul Nothing that. 831, 2517 targeting "prohibited perspective, matter'' religion Eichman, 496 310, 317, 2404, 2409, 287 anti-flag-burning prohibited "disrespectful'' flag). disfavors insufficiently "diverse'' alters whit: validate ambition disqualify instead one. 831-832, 2517-2518. 63 avoiding unconstitutionality appears populating backgrounds. Would easy; implementation "reflec[t] plausible construction statute.'' 184, 1767, 64 actually [i]n [of According Government, judging regulations. If, panels, satisfied. plausibility reading. occurs subparagraph speaking "criteria judged,'' preamble directing adopt regulations; surprise, contradicted history. "mandates funds, itself, accorded.'' 28672 Or, co-sponsor put 28624. 65 offers variant active indirect natural behavior diversely constituted This, indeed, apparently position shortly first passed. obvious. First, defies statute's suggest complies allowing subconscious inclinations members. [T]aking conscious activity. Webster's New International 2570 (2d ed.1949) (defining allowance for''); 569 "consideration'' [a]ct considering; continuous careful thought; examination; deliberation; attention''); 568 "consider'' care mind''). Second, assuming composition occur derivatively members, intentional criteria; end day, still screen offending equally dispositive satisfied selecting essentially redundant §959(c), comprise "individuals Statutory "render superfluous provisions enactment'' strongly disfavored. Freytag Commissioner, 501 868, 877, 2631, 2638, 764 C third try disclaimer [s]ection "considerations' "disrespectful,' application.'' __-__. "§954(d)(1) specifically sees difficulty. 67 fair tolerating spread disrespect, panel, Counsel qualities underwrite anyway. That, presumably outrage place, naive Representative said tolerate wasting sexually explicit sacrilegious works.'' 28676 plausible, centrality Christianity experience,'' communist,'' art,'' superiority white race''? hold particular, controlling, weight? assume instances, bars decides subsidize Dawson Delaware, 503 159, 167, 1093, 1098-1099, 309 (1992) (holding defendant's abstract sentencing, many); Ozonoff Berzak, 744 224, (C.A.1 1984) (Breyer, J.) Order provided person's associations considered'' determining security clearance Amendment). 69 strand treatment today's question, heart SCALIA's, assumes zone restraints. calls roles government-as-speaker government-as-buyer, course discrimination: Food Administration launches advertising campaign smoking, condemn habit cowboy puff opposite page;4 Defense wishes buy portrait decorate Pentagon, prefer George Washington Third.5 70 freely admits, speaks subsidized NEA,6 buys On contrary, believing accorded nation's rich heritage,'' §951(6), assistance work,'' §951(10), patron, financially underwriting production impresarios independent consumption. us liberate government-as-patron strictures placing squarely government-as-buyer government-as-speaker, recognizing new category ones. poor fit, patronage embarrassingly wrong line -speaker government-as-regulator-of-private-speech. division reflected precedents. notion 1772-1773, promotion choices alternatives offered health social providers (e.g., family planning without, resort abortion). promotes program, "it define limits program,'' dictate expressed paid participate added [t]his coupled recipients speak outside scope Government-funded project, invariably justify control 199, 1776. contexts again "discriminate invidiously aim 548, brackets Chapel, 394, 2147-2148 (when subsidizes "favor others''); 149, 458, (1946) (the Postmaster periodicals ground "morally improper welfare good''). 72 Our thorough statement Virginia student-run publications. recognized "when speaker'' "disburses "does transmittal favors expends speakers.'' others, lawfully another. controls speakers. help Americans "achieve better understanding past, analysis present, future.'' §951(3). "support ideas'' inquiry.'' §§951(10),(7); S.Rep. 300, 89th (1965) intent expression''); H.R.Rep. 99-274, (1985) (committee accompanying reauthorize amend ("As Preamble directs, Endowment['s] open richly diverse, ferment Nation free''). choice teaches popularity. chooses endeavors large, exhibitors devote "freedom inquiry'' defying tastes, purse "suppres[s] 2002 74 otherwise, claiming applicants, competitively few. economic scarcity.'' 2519.8 Scarce demands choices, acceptable [viewpoint] neutral merit;9 "nothing decision[s] indicate[s] impermissible.'' Television Forbes, ---------, 1633, 1640-1641, 875 (scarcity air candidates television; employed). competitive, merit-based 50%, 5%, "journalistic newspaper,'' peradventure come refuse publication's perspective.10 75 word said, analogy. Solicitor oral argument, "there unique purposes.'' Tr. Oral Arg. However buyer, goes, singularly traditional placed distributing patronage. this, answers. again, forecloses issues somehow unique. truly singular, hesitate reject plea new, simple recognition exempt category. explicitly addressed buyer past. nonetheless synthesizing host presumptively places sort government.'' defeat presumption, exception rules life up (unique not) limits. carried here, faced IV disfavored,'' type lends attack. offer list reasons denies application, exhibitor whose hint played Hence, hope waiting plaintiff exhibition forum criteria, project sanitized avoid rejection. institutional plaintiff, representative behalf potential plaintiffs. 21-25 (declaration NAAO's Director, listing potentially objectionable produced member organizations). gain dismissing groups bring restyled raising possibilities mentioned. entertaining applications'' hard "how "decency' "respect' orchestras,'' circumstances similar reasons. "A mount successfully, challenger exists valid.'' Salerno, 739, 745, 2095, 2100, 697 (1987). rule,11 settled limit "exception th[e] [capable-of-constitutional-application] jurisprudence [for] challenge[s] free-speech grounds. restricting so-called "overbreadth' doctrine, rendering (i.e., invalid) them.'' Ada Guam Society Obstetricians Gynecologists, 506 1011, 1012, 633, 634, 121 564 certiorari);12 Decency overbroad); 2337 (O'CONNOR, part) (declining Salerno plaintiffs' arose Amendment); 66, 2181 ("Because appellants' rooted overbreadth challenge'') Gooding Wilson, 518, 521-522, 1103, 1105-1106, (1972).13 routinely understood mounts investing parcels benefits Lakewood Plain Dealer Co., 486 750, 759, 2138, 2145, 771 (1988) [A] whenever licensing gives disliked speakers''); Forsyth County Nationalist Movement, 123, 2395, (applying parade permits). sure, succeed "substantially' overbroad,'' York Club Assn., York, 2225, 2233, (1988), Ferber, 458 747, 771, 3348, 3362, 1113 (1982). impediment criterion schools14 celebrates tribal, inner-city culture. "reaches "legitimate dwarfs arguably applications.'' 773, 3363. record administered broad authorization §§951, 954(c), overwhelming proportion commemoration. instances celebrate culture, overbroad. Lakewood, 766, 2149 [I]n merits policies embodied vested open-ended threatened same, assumed properly drawn greatly circulation issue''). observation true, irrelevant.15 81 tack, arguing "prospect "chilling' conduct,'' forms Massachusetts Oakes, 576, 584, 2633, 2638-2639, (plurality J.), "is present here.'' 20-21, 5. wrong. prospect carries "chil[l] 2520. world makers trim offend, altogether. Either whatever eligibility defines mainstream, tend timid esthetic. "chill [persons] court.'' County, 129, 2401. 22-24 respondent NAAO) (recounting NAAO fear "chilled projects'' provision). matched donors, impact magnified: 82 chilling caused criteria] exacerbated realities community. Plainly occupies dominant influential affairs States. matching co-funding sources, involvement multiplier market endeavors. [In addition,] non-federal sources imprimatur signifies recipient's value. lend prestige legitimacy critical companies sources. Grant rely dollar grant.'' 774, 783 (C.D.Cal.1991) (footnote omitted).16 chill display, face.17 V 84 strike however. preserves irony causing quarter manifestation "create syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Timber Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. Title that: public; and'' section. Such indicate obscenity funded.'' uncertainty point, relates adjective, current discussion. render easier uphold. upheld conundrum worst. Which well. oeuvres d'art plaintiffs described follows: "Finley's show, "We Keep Ready,' contains segments. segment, Finley visually recounts assault stripping waist smearing chocolate her breasts using profanity describe assault. Hughes' monologue "World Without End' somewhat graphic recollection artist's realization lesbianism reminiscence mother's sexuality. his stage "Blessed Are Little Fishes,' confronts alcoholism Catholicism. During performance, Fleck dressed mermaid, urinates creates altar toilet bowl putting Christ lid. derives "Some Golden States' childhood experiences, homosexual, constant AIDS. uses vegetables performances symbols.'' Note, Wash. Lee L.Rev. 1545, 1546, (citations suppose devoted nominated Republican party-but party, attitudes ways, ranging espousal subtle shaping characterizes Joseph Burstyn, 343 495, 777, 780, 1098 (1952). whatsoever matter. enterprises detest. Nation's legal NEA. choose spend manner, deciding gets disturbing upholds drafted objections, proclaiming floor. Like believed oath affirmation VI, cl. 3, presume commands, X-Citement Video, 513 64, 73, 470, 130 372 (1994) impute Constitution''); Yates 354 298, 319, 1064, 1077, 1356 (1957). legislature's conclusory however sincere, trump incontrovertible unconstitutionality, emphatically province department is.'' Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 177, (1803). adding severe alternatives, seemed least evils. 28670 ("I happy aspects Williams-Coleman substitute concerning troubling. applaud Mr. Williams substitute''). Perhaps mildest available, proves push limitations. restrictions, knowing intending future controversies stemming inflammatory declaring ("When countries democratic principles, §4411(b), philosophy communism fascism''). proposing Works Project (PWAP), Deal hired buildings, President Roosevelt allegedly remarked: "I can't lot young enthusiasts painting Lenin's head Building.'' Quoted Mankin, Patronage Deal, Commitment Culture: (K. Mulcahy M. Wyszomirski eds.1995). buying, choice. Here, "communicative inherent itself,'' 892-893, 2548, (SOUTER, dissenting), endorsement importance collectively, transmit information pertaining program. appropriates wishes.'' 2519 1772-1773). attempt describing competition, scarcity, Competition implies exclusive prize compete for; "competition'' surrogate "scarcity.'' While merit'' intractable identification worth, doubt covertly filter unwanted ideas, esthetic goal legitimate. Metromedia, San Diego, 453 490, 507-508, 2882, 2892-2893, 800 opinion). hand, legitimate end. precludes "absolute neutrality'' misdirected. judgments quality branded degree; choices. SCALIA turned government-as-facilitator-of-private-speech, forum.'' Leaving aside proper characterizing metaphorical degree. involved forums, non-public ones, Cornelius Legal 473 806, 3439, 3451, 87 567 (1985), where, definition, facilitate Perry Assn. Local Educators' 460 37, 46, 948, 955, 794 tradition designation communication''). 's brief allusion determinative holding. Cf., Parenthood Pa. Casey, 895, 2791, 2830, 674 (statute abortion if, "in fraction statute] relevant, operate obstacle woman's undergo abortion''). have, commercial 497, 1192, ("The Bail Reform conceivable insufficient invalid, Amendment''). applicability existence §954a, [a]ccess education,'' concerned elementary secondary schools. "mission'' §954. appear all; governs §954, §954a. seemingly concedes little admit "would "persuaded rest combination competition distinguishing justifying (c) firm scrutiny. foreclose let arguments. also, 131 24808 [S]upport Endowmen[t] represented "Good Housekeeping Seal' helped generate non-Federal productions''). results drafting merit'') scarce inevitable prizes dealing exactness. artistic-merit-based justifies intolerable applying attempts _________, 1642-1643, My naturally result standards; unacceptable "dangerous (1958),

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