Document: 521 U.S. 844117 S.Ct. 2329 138 L.Ed.2d 874 Janet RENO, Attorney General of the United States, et al., Appellantsv.AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION al. No. 96-511. Supreme Court States Argued March 19, 1997. Decided June 26, Syllabus * Two provisions Communications Decency Act 1996 (CDA or Act) seek to protect minors from harmful material on Internet, an international network interconnected computers that enables millions people communicate with one another in "cyberspace'' and access vast amounts information around world. Title 47 U.S.C.A. §223(a)(1)(B)(ii) (Supp.1997) criminalizes "knowing'' transmission "obscene indecent'' messages any recipient under 18 years age. Section 223(d) prohibits "knowin[g]'' sending displaying a person message "that, context, depicts describes, terms patently offensive as measured by contemporary community standards, sexual excretory activities organs.'' Affirmative defenses are provided for those who take "good faith, . effective actions'' restrict prohibited communications, §223(e)(5)(A), such requiring certain designated forms age proof, verified credit card adult identification number, §223(e)(5)(B). A number plaintiffs filed suit challenging constitutionality §§223(a)(1) 223(d). After making extensive findings fact, three-judge District convened pursuant entered preliminary injunction against enforcement both challenged provisions. The court's judgment enjoins Government enforcing §223(a)(1)(B)'s prohibitions insofar they relate "indecent'' but expressly preserves Government's right investigate prosecute obscenity child pornography therein. §223(d) is unqualified because section contains no separate reference pornography. appealed this Act's special review provisions, arguing erred holding CDA violated First Amendment it overbroad Fifth vague. Held: CDA's "indecent transmission'' "patently display'' abridge "the freedom speech'' protected Amendment. Pp. ____-____. (a) Although vagueness relevant overbreadth inquiry, should be affirmed without reaching issue. P. 2341. (b) close look at precedents relied Government-Ginsberg v. New York, 390 629, 88 1274, 20 195; FCC Pacifica Foundation, 438 726, 98 3026, 57 1073; Renton Playtime Theatres, Inc., 475 41, 106 925, 89 29-raises, rather than relieves, doubts about constitutionality. differs various laws orders upheld cases many ways, including does not allow parents consent their children's use restricted materials; limited commercial transactions; fails provide definition omits requirement offensive'' lack socially redeeming value; neither limits its broad categorical particular times nor bases them evaluation agency familiar medium's unique characteristics; punitive; applies medium that, unlike radio, receives full protection; cannot properly analyzed form time, place, manner regulation content-based blanket restriction speech. These precedents, then, do require uphold fully consistent application most stringent (c) factors recognized some Court's justifying broadcast media-the history government broadcasting, see, e.g., Red Lion Broadcasting Co. FCC, 395 367, 399-400, 1794, 1811-1812, 23 371; scarcity available frequencies inception, Turner System, Inc. 512 622, 637-638, 114 2445, 2456-2457, 129 497; "invasive'' nature, see Sable Cal., 492 115, 128, 109 2829, 2837-2838, 93-are present cyberspace. Thus, these basis qualifying level scrutiny applied Internet. (d) Regardless whether so vague violates Amendment, ambiguities concerning scope coverage render problematic purposes. For instance, undefined will provoke uncertainty among speakers how two standards each other just what mean. regulation, Gentile State Bar Nev., 501 1030, 111 2720, 115 888, coupled increased deterrent effect criminal statute, Dombrowski Pfister, 380 479, 85 1116, 14 22, raise concerns obvious chilling free Contrary argument, saved fact standard repeats second part three-prong test set forth Miller California, 413 15, 24, 93 2607, 2614-2615, 37 419. prong reduces inherent own term proscribed "specifically defined applicable state law.'' In addition, only "sexual conduct,'' whereas, prohibition extends also "excretory activities'' "organs'' nature. Each Miller's prongs critically uncertain sweep definition. Just three limitations vague, follow limitations, standing alone, undermines likelihood has been carefully tailored congressional goal protecting potentially materials. (e) lacks precision requires when statute regulates content interest children materials, Ginsberg, U.S., 639, S.Ct., 1280, pursues suppressing large amount speech adults have constitutional send receive, Sable, supra, 126, 2836-2837. Its breadth wholly unprecedented. burden unacceptable if less restrictive alternatives would least achieving legitimate See, proved otherwise. On hand, found currently user-based software suggests reasonably method which can prevent accessing believe inappropriate soon widely available. Moreover, arguments referred possible indecent "tagged'' facilitate parental control, exceptions artistic educational value, providing tolerance choice, regulating portions Internet differently others. Particularly light absence detailed findings, even hearings addressing problems, persuaded narrowly tailored. (f) additional sustaining affirmative rejected. First, contention leaves open ample "alternative channels'' communication unpersuasive content, "time, manner'' analysis inapplicable. Consolidated Edison N.Y. Public Serv. Comm'n N.Y., 447 530, 536, 100 2326, 2332-2333, 65 319. Second, assertion "knowledge'' "specific person'' requirements significantly permissible communications persons sender knows untenable, given forums all comers strongest reading confer powers censorship, "heckler's veto,'' upon opponent Finally, there textual support submission having scientific, educational, social value necessarily fall outside prohibitions. (g) §223(e)(5) constitute sort "narrow tailoring'' save CDA. argument transmitters may protective faith actio[n]'' "tagging'' way indicate contents, thus permitting recipients block reception appropriate software, illusory, action "effective'': proposed screening exist, but, did, knowing potential actually encoded material. failed prove §223(b)(5)'s verification defense reduce heavy being used providers sexually explicit material, economically feasible noncommercial speakers. (h) preserve honoring severability clause, §608, construing nonseverable narrowly, acceptable respect. Because obscene banned totally, Miller, 18, 2611-2612, §223(a)'s "obscene'' enjoys manifestation sever "or leaving rest §223(a) standing. (i) "significant'' fostering Internet's growth provides independent upholding singularly unpersuasive. dramatic expansion new forum contradicts factual underlying contention: unregulated availability driving away 2351. 929 F.Supp. 824, affirmed. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, THOMAS, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. O'CONNOR, concurring dissenting part, REHNQUIST, C. Seth Waxman, Washington, DC, appellants. Bruce J. Ennis, appellees. Justice STEVENS Court. 1 At issue statutory enacted Notwithstanding legitimacy importance we agree abridges Amendment.1 2 made were based stipulation prepared parties. See 830-849 (E.D.Pa.1996).2 describe character dimensions medium, problems confronting communications. underpinnings legal issues, begin summary undisputed facts. 3 computers. It outgrowth began 1969 military program called "ARPANET,''3 was designed enable operated military, contractors, universities conducting defense-related research redundant channels damaged war. While ARPANET longer exists, example development civilian networks eventually linking other, now tens "a worldwide human communication.''4 4 experienced "extraordinary growth.''5 "host'' computers-those store relay communications-increased 300 1981 approximately 9,400,000 time trial 1996. Roughly 60% hosts located States. About 40 million trial, expected mushroom 200 1999. 5 Individuals obtain different sources, generally themselves entities host affiliation. Most colleges students faculty; corporations employees through office network; communities local libraries access; increasing storefront "computer coffee shops'' small hourly fee. Several major national "online services'' America Online, CompuServe, Microsoft Network, Prodigy offer proprietary well link much larger resources online services had almost 12 individual subscribers trial. 6 Anyone advantage wide variety retrieval methods. methods constantly evolving difficult categorize precisely. But, presently constituted, case electronic mail ("e-mail''), automatic mailing list ("mail exploders,'' sometimes "listservs''), "newsgroups,'' "chat rooms,'' "World Wide Web.'' All transmit text; sound, pictures, moving video images. Taken together, tools medium-known users "cyberspace''-located geographical location anyone, anywhere world, 7 E-mail message-generally akin note letter-to group addressees. stored electronically, waiting check her "mailbox'' receipt known type prompt. exploder e-mail group. Subscribers common address, then forwards group's subscribers. Newsgroups serve groups regular participants, postings read others well. There thousands groups, serving foster exchange topic running gamut from, say, music Wagner Balkan politics AIDS prevention Chicago Bulls. 100,000 posted every day. newsgroups, automatically purged intervals. addition posting later, more individuals wishing immediately enter chat room engage real-time dialogue-in words, typing appear others' computer screens. "tens engaging conversations huge range subjects.''6 "no exaggeration conclude diverse thought.''7 8 best category over World Web, allows search retrieve remote computers, as, cases, back sites. concrete terms, Web consists documents Some simply files containing information. However, elaborate documents, commonly "pages,'' prevalent. address-"rather like telephone number.''8 pages frequently contain viewer page's (or "site's'') author. They "links'' created site's author (generally) related Typically, links either blue underlined text-sometimes 9 Navigating relatively straightforward. user address page keywords into "search engine'' effort locate sites subject interest. sought "surfer,'' or, links, avenue Users explore page, move another, clicking "mouse'' icons links. Access freely available, purchased provider. comparable, readers' viewpoint, library readily indexed publications sprawling mall offering goods services. 10 From publishers' point view, constitutes platform hear world-wide audience readers, viewers, researchers, buyers. Any organization connected "publish'' Publishers include agencies, institutions, entities, advocacy individuals.9 make entire pool users, confine selected group, willing pay privilege. "No single controls membership centralized blocked Web.''10 Sexually Explicit Material 11 includes text, "extends modestly titillating hardest-core.''11 created, named, same explicit, accessed deliberately unintentionally during course imprecise search. "Once provider posts entering community.''12 example, "when UCR/California Museum Photography site nudes Edward Weston Robert Mapplethorpe announce exhibit travel Baltimore York City, images Los Angeles, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Mobile, Beijing-wherever live. Similarly, safer sex instructions Critical Path site, written street language teenage receiver understand them, Philadelphia, Provo Prague.''13 13 originate foreign countries explicit.14 Though seldom encounter accidentally. "A document's title description document usually before itself receive he she need step document. Almost preceded warnings content.''15 reason, "odds slim'' accident.16 Unlike received radio television, series steps deliberate directed merely turning dial. sophistication ability thereby unattended.''17 15 Systems developed help control home access. system limit computer's approved sources identified sites, attempt identifiable objectionable features. "Although screen suggestive words images.''18 Nevertheless, evidence indicates available.''19 Age Verification 16 problem uses categorically determined "is determine identity e-mail, exploders, newsgroups rooms.''20 offered reliable participants fora technologically minors' rooms discussions art, subjects elicit contributions, "still remaining overwhelming majority indecent.''21 17 Technology exists operator condition requested password. Credit feasible, however, connection transaction used, payment agency. Using possession surrogate proof impose costs non-commercial shut down. "effectively unavailable substantial providers.'' Id., 846 (finding 102). imposition "would completely bar material.''22 Commercial pornographic charge assigned passwords verification. record reliability technologies. Even purveyors password significant burdens discourage cost creating maintaining systems "beyond reach.''23 sum, found: 19 "Even implemented, presented testimony could ensure 18. imposed effectively Ibid. 107). II Telecommunications 1996, Pub.L. 104-104, 110 Stat. 56, unusually important legislative enactment. As stated first 103 pages, primary purpose encourage rapid deployment telecommunications technologies.'' components nothing Internet; promote competition service market, multichannel market over-the-air broadcasting. seven Titles, six product committee discussion Reports Committees Senate House Representatives. By contrast, V-known "Communications 1996'' (CDA)-contains added executive after concluded amendments floor debate legislation. An amendment source case.24 informally described provision provision.25 21 first, (Supp.1997), pertinent part: 22 " Whoever- (1) interstate communications- 24 ..... 25 (B) means device knowingly- 26 makes, creates, solicits, 27 (ii) initiates of, 28 "any comment, request, suggestion, proposal, image, indecent, age, regardless maker placed call initiated communication; 29 30 (2) knowingly permits facility his activity paragraph intent activity, 31 "shall fined imprisoned years, both.'' 32 provision, §223(d), provides: 33 34 35 (A) interactive specific 36 display organs, 38 person's 39 qualified defenses. §223(e)(5).26 One covers reasonable, effective, §223(e)(5)(A). covered code. III 41 February 8, President signed plaintiffs27 Department week conclusion too prosecution, Judge Buckwalter temporary restraining order plaintiffs,28 consolidated, §561 Act.29 evidentiary hearing, judges wrote opinion, unanimous. 42 Chief Sloviter doubted strength CDA,'' acknowledged "compelling'' respect F.Supp., 853. She concluded, nonetheless, "sweeps broadly necessary chills expression adults'' "inherently vague.'' 854. "technologically providers,'' specifically considering rejecting avoid liability readers out unwanted transmissions. 856. rejected suggestion narrowed apply pornographers. 854-855. 43 word §223(a)(1)(B) "in context'' §223(d)(1) violate "fundamental principle'' "simple fairness,'' id., 861, protections Amendments, 858. He "pornographic'' noting obscenity, "indecency exclude works serious literary, artistic, political scientific value.'' 863. claim work must considered context might "refer to, things, nature whole, day conveyed, speaker, accompanied warnings.'' 864. believed aggravated statute. 865, n. 9. 44 Dalzell's attributes communication'' disclosed convinced him denies Congress power regulate 867. His explained length why speech, particularly speakers, while [p]erversely, pornographers remain unaffected.'' 879. construed our "medium-specific'' approach mass communication, 873, Internet-as participatory yet developed,'' 883-is entitled highest protection governmental intrusion,'' ibid.30 45 §§223(d)(1) 46 §561, 142-143, noted probable jurisdiction, 519 ----, 117 554, 136 436 (1996). appeal, argues discuss relevance We reviewing principal authorities relies. Then, describing CDA, consider contentions, severance fashioning judicial coverage. IV reversal, contends plainly prior decisions: Ginsberg 195 (1968); 1073 (1978); (3) (1986). raises-rather relieves-doubts 48 selling adults. defendant's secured citizen concerned depend minor.'' 636, 1279. contention, State's well-being youth, recognition principle parents' authority household direct rearing basic structure society.''31 49 four respects, narrower sales desire purchasing magazines children.'' 1280. Under consent-nor participation-in statute.32 transactions, 647, 1284-1285, whereas limitation. Third, cabined "utterly minors.'' 646, 1284. us §223(a)(1) and, importantly, political, value. Fourth, minor 17, applying year nearest majority. 50 Pacifica, declaratory Federal Commission, recording 12-minute monologue "Filthy Words'' previously live "could administrative sanctions.'' 730, 3030 (internal quotations omitted). Commission repetitive referring organs afternoon "as broadcast.'' 735, 3033. respondent did quarrel finding offensive, contended within meaning statutes contained prurient appeal. respondent's arguments, confronted arguments: Commission's construction ban aside unprotected; since obscene, forbade abridgement radio. 51 portion lead joined Justices Powell Blackmun, plurality prohibit depends 742-743, 3036-3037. Accordingly, vulgar depended broadcast. 744-748, 3037-3040. Relying premise "of broadcasting protection, 748-749, 3039-3040, ease broadcasts, "coupled '' justified treatment 749-750, 3040-3041. 52 differences between issued stations decades, targeted represented departure traditional designate when-rather whether-it air medium. dependent characteristics refused decide justify prosecution.'' 750, 3041. matter "received protection,'' 748, 3040, adequately listener unexpected content. comparable history. risk encountering accident required 53 Renton, zoning ordinance kept movie theatres residential neighborhoods. aimed, films shown theaters, "secondary effects''-such crime deteriorating property values-that theaters fostered: ""It th[e] secondary ordinances avoid, dissemination "offensive'' speech.''' 49, 930 (quoting Young American Mini 427 50, 71, 34, 96 2440, 2453, 310 (1976)). According Government, "cyberzoning'' But universe And effects "secondary'' such, "properly regulation.'' 46, 928. Boos Barry, 485 312, 321, 108 1157, 1163, 99 333 (1988) ("Regulations focus impact audience'' Renton); Forsyth County Nationalist Movement, 505 123, 134, 112 2395, 2403, 120 101 (1992) ("Listeners' reaction content-neutral regulation''). 54 surely V 55 Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. Conrad, 420 546, 557, 95 1239, 1245-1246, 448 (1975), observed [e]ach problems.'' justifications media 371 (1969); (1978). Lion, 1811-1812; 497 (1994); (1989). 56 Those Neither enactment democratic supervision attended industry.33 television. [c]ommunications "invade' individual's one's unbidden. "by accident.''' 844 88). [a]lmost content,'' cited ""odds slim' come across sight accident.'' distinguished basis. company engaged business oriented prerecorded (popularly "dial-a-porn'') messages. held invalid attempting complete criminalization messages, gaining agreed "there compelling physical psychological minors'' extended shielding 2836-2837, "emphatically narrow holding'' involve involved 127, 2837. dial-it communication.'' 127-128, "Placing call,'' continued, taken surprise message.'' 58 conditions prevailed authorized spectrum, hardly "scarce'' expressive commodity. unlimited, low-cost capacity kinds. estimates [a]s today, figure grow 1999.''34 This dynamic, multifaceted print news services, audio, video, still images, interactive, dialogue. Through rooms, phone line become town crier voice resonates farther soapbox. pamphleteer. found, thought.'' 842 74). VI 59 purposes parts linguistic form. "indecent,'' speaks organs,'' §223(d). Given term,35 difference other36 mean.37 Could speaker confidently assume birth practices, homosexuality, issues raised Appendix consequences prison rape CDA? 60 concern reasons. raises 1048-1051, 2731-2733, 888 (1991). opprobrium stigma conviction, threatens violators penalties up act violation. severity sanctions cause silent arguably unlawful ideas, 494, 1125, (1965). practical matter, effect, "risk discriminatory enforcement'' regulations, poses greater implicated civil reviewed Denver Area Ed. Consortium, 518 116 2374, 135 61 established 419 (1973). so. conviction vendor mailed brochures pictures 2611-2612. Having struggled establish day: 62 average person, find work, appeals interest; way, conduct law; 2615 quotation marks citations 63 (and, arguendo, synonymous standard) test, reasons, unconstitutionally 64 incorrect fact. test-the purportedly analogous standard-contains critical omitted CDA: open-ended reasoning flawed. itself, vague.38 prongs- appeal "prurient'' interest, "lac[k] value''-critically because, "prurient interest'' criteria, judged standards. Pope Illinois, 481 497, 500, 107 1918, 1920-1921, 439 (1987). "societal value'' requirement, absent appellate courts regularity setting, law, able give belied rationale juries according standards: questions essentially ones fact.39 66 contrast previous presents threat censoring falls statute's scope. contours unquestionably silences whose protection. That danger further reason insisting overly broad. avoided drafted VII 67 deny suppresses another. serve. 68 evaluating rights adults, perfectly clear [s]exual Amendment.'' 2836. Carey Population Services Int'l, 431 678, 701, 97 2010, 2024, 675 (1977) (" [W]here involved, consistently suppression''). Indeed, admonished society sufficient it.'' 745, 3038. 69 true repeatedly 1280; 749, 3040. unnecessarily suppression addressed explained, "reduc[e] population fit Denver, 2393 omitted) 2837-2838).40 [R]egardless government's children, [t]he discourse mailbox suitable sandbox.'' Bolger Youngs Drug Products Corp., 463 60, 74-75, 2875, 2884-2885, 77 469 (1983). 70 correct resembles "dial-a-porn'' invalidated Sable. 129, 2838, defer total preventing enterprising youngsters mere exposure foreclose inquiry validity.41 pointed last Term, embodies "over-arching commitment'' sure accomplish "without imposing great speech.'' 2385. 71 diminish relies prohibiting whenever interfere adult-to-adult communication. untenable. size viable process, charged likely view it. Knowledge members 100-person minor-and therefore message-would adults.42 72 existing technology obtaining denying rooms. 845 (findings 90-94). prohibitively expensive noncommercial-as commercial-speakers verify 845-848 95-116).43 inevitably curtail [d]espite available.'' 73) (emphases added). 73 regulations entities. embrace nonprofit presence minors. general, cover nonpornographic value.44 "community standards'' criterion nation-wide offended message.45 regulated "dirty words'' monologue, expert felony. Olsen Test., Tr. Vol. V, 53:16-54:10. extend safe nude subjects, catalogue Carnegie Library. 74 decision, accept reject forbid communicated 17-year old-no approval. equally strong throughout parent allowing 17-year-old family she, judgment, deems face lengthy term. §223(a)(2) (Supp.1997). sent college freshman via incarcerated though he, child, anyone community, offensive,'' town's thought 75 imposes especially explain done facilitates coming homes, Internet-such web sites-differently others, Congress, all. VIII 76 facial overbreadth, advances prohibitions: plain restricts applications; "almost always'' lacking censors modalities-such exploders-it nonetheless "reasonable opportunity'' Web. Brief Appellants 39. 319 (1980). immaterial (which, acknowledged, $10,000 speaker's interests accommodated database management verification). position equivalent leaflets long publish books. invalidating leafletting streets content-we "one exercise liberty places abridged plea exercised place.'' Schneider N.J. (Town Irvington), 308 147, 163, 146, 151-152, 84 L.Ed. 155 (1939). 78 asserts §§223(a) (d), child'' element saves overbreadth. sections argues, "refrain communicating adults; refrain disseminating materials know 18.'' 24. 79 ignores fora-including Web-are comers. knowledge somehow protects log inform would-be discoursers child-a age,'' §223(d)(1)(A) (Supp.1997)- present. 80 37, supra. IX 81 §223(e)(5).46 relying Act. assumes encode software. good "effective'' makes illusory. recognizes exist. Without impossible guardian "tag,'' transmitter rely "effective.'' 82 third defenses-which together-the latter half §223(e)(5), identification. Such providers, therefore, defense. employ defense, adduce techniques preclude posing adults.47 "hovers provider, proverbial sword Damocles,''48 correctly unproven future proffered produced displays. 83 unacceptably otherwise unconstitutional provision. 2837, remarked amounted ""burn[ing] house roast pig.''' casting far darker shadow torch segment community. X oral heavily ultimate fall-back position: If insufficiently tailored, urged, U.S.C. narrowly. acceptable. clause severed. §608's guidance elements intact place where are, severable. "indecency'' indecent. —(Emphasis added.) Appellees challenge which, acknowledge, totally unconstitutional. Therefore, respect, surgery. 86 draws additional, aspect U.S.C., asks court holds facially invalidate "other circumstances'' constitutionally permissible. invokes admonition "countervailing considerations,'' "be declared extent reaches far, left intact.'' Brockett Spokane Arcades, 472 491, 503-504, 105 2794, 2801-2802, 394 (1985). flaws argument. 87 grants jurisdiction expedited review, jurisdictional grant actions "on face.'' Consistent brought panel decided treated challenge. authority, posture, convert litigation "as-applied'' Nor, array plaintiffs, activities, practicable judicially applications. considerations'' mentioned here. challenge, limiting "readily susceptible'' construction. Virginia Bookseller's Assn., 484 383, 397, 645, 782 (1988). Erznoznik, Jacksonville, 422 205, 216, 2268, 2276, 125 (1975) ("readily subject'' narrowing construction). ever text draw. Cf., Brockett, 504-505, 2802 (invalidating "lust'' excised statute); Grace, 461 171, 180-183, 1702, 1708-1710, 736 (1983) federal banning displays public sidewalks drawn grounds comported building, grounds, therein). Rather, decision National Treasury Employees Union, 513 454, 1003, 1019, 130 964 (1995), applicable. case, declined "dra[w] lines categories inconsistent signals drawn'' doing "involves invasion domain.''49 "will rewrite law conform requirements.'' Booksellers, 645.50 XI 90 that-in children-its [e]qually significant'' 19. apparently countless citizens exposing 91 marketplace ideas contention. demonstrates continues phenomenal. tradition, contrary, presume encouraging outweighs theoretical benefit censorship. 92 foregoing district ordered. 94 whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, part. I write separately 1996(CDA) little create "adult zones'' Our precedent creation zones sound. Despite soundness purpose, stray blueprint constructing "zoning law'' passes muster. bring describes image old. (May Supp.). What classifies ""patently display''' ante, __, reality ("specific provision). §223(d)(1)(A). a[ny] available'' ("display'' §223(d)(1)(B). None purports keep offensive) 2836, (1989) ("Sexual Amendment''). undeniable segregate areas S. Conf. Rep. 104-230, p. 189 (1996) "access restrictions material''). novel concept. denied establishments frequented adults.1 deemed "harmful minors.''2 sustained laws, valid unduly material; 1997, "display'' applications fail adhere principles restricting adults' circumstances. "zoning'' cannot, obtain-it interferes "reduce[s] Butler Michigan, 352 380, 524, 526, 412 (1957). tolerate interference. 526 (striking down Michigan sale books-to adults-that ""tende[d] corrup[t] morals youth'''); Communications, supra nonobscene, adults); 74, 2884, unsolicited advertisements contraceptives). valid. 634, 1277-1278, (1968), barred owners buy magazines. adequate zone face, question-and assumed-that zone, once succeed preserving Before question assumption, world zones'': geography identity. Lessig, Reading Constitution Cyberspace, Emory L.J. 869, 886 dance show enters establishment entertainment. so, conceal (or, consequently, age). twin establishment's proprietor establishment, let inside. fundamentally different. interconnection pathways, cyberspace listeners mask identities. Cyberspace undeniably reflects geography; exist fixed "locations'' Since revealing anything identities ages, 901, way: malleable. construct barriers identity, amenable laws. transformation already underway. 888-889. 887 (cyberspace unzoned extraordinarily zoned''). (users post Internet) begun "gateway'' technology. themselves-perhaps number-before cyberspace, (E.D.Pa.1996), bouncer checks driver's license admitting nightclub. attempted tried watch television installing lock box. accomplished (such Cyber Patrol SurfWatch) browsers capabilities, addresses associated "adult'' wishes, blocks 839-842. Platform Content Selection (PICS) project rate using codes programs. 838-839. 102 progress, complete. gateway now, 845; Shea Reno, 916, 933-934 (S.D.N.Y.1996), 845-846, becoming USENET Parties 37-38. Gateway ubiquitous verification,'' remains largely unzoned-and unzoneable. 846; Shea, 934. User-based infancy. agreed-upon code "tag'') exist; capabilities recognize "tag''; (iii) programs available-and used-by users. present, none true. Screening today'' "only handful capabilities.'' 945-946. is, moreover, "tag'' recognize. 848; 945. prospects eventual promising, evaluate today. Ante, __. pass Until assured reach zone.'' forced silence impinges intents purposes, [on Internet] Butler, 526. result, withstand scrutiny. Accord, 126-131, 2836-2839; 73-75, 2883-2885. 104 closer issue, discussed above, proscribes conduct, although explicitly intended minor. Appellant urges construe 25-27, DeBartolo Corp. Florida Gulf Coast Building & Constr. Trades Council, 568, 575, 1392, 1397, 645 unless contrary Congress''). So construed, conversation involving minors-e.g., sends addressee minor, converse room. Ginsberg. Restricting say adult's prevented speaking indecently (because participating conversation) e-mails adult, consequently zone. analogy breaks down, party conversation. occupied stop not, prosecuted statements transmitting persons, bookstore owner sell store. assuming reasonable alternative excluding store, share defect. infringe situations. below, sense view. Normally, Salerno, 739, 2095, 2100, 697 (1987) ("A [succeeds if] challenger establish[es] circumstances valid''). Appellees' arises argue "substantially overbroad''-that [and] penaliz[es] protected,'' 130, 2401, (1992). Library Association 48; Civil Liberties Union 39-41. minors, end however. Where, here, parties punish forthwith 504, 2802, Supp.) (punishing [w]hoever [any communication] age''); send[s] [a message]''). version broader §608 ("If [of CDA] circumstance invalid, shall affected thereby''). sustain initiating Whether substantially runs afoul characteristic question. magazine 632-633, 1276-1277. Noting Roth 354 476, 485, 1304, 1309, 1498 (1957), adjust 638, 1279-1280, "invad[e] area 637, Cf. Erznoznik 213, 2274-2275, city nudity minors''). "accept[s] reject[s]'' prevailing whole minors''; minors; 633, 1276. offensive''-even interests-Congress' rejection (i.e., offensive'') possibility, prevail enough plaintiff "some'' "real'' "substantial'' Broadrick Oklahoma, 601, 615, 2908, 2917-2918, 830 (1973), appellees carried case. my CDA-i.e., interest-is very one. cite examples falling relation sweep.'' "value,'' __-__, beside point. ibid., education "redeeming 1276 (emphasis "many [e]-mail transmissions members,'' 32, proposition absolutely immune regulation. hinges infringed extent. Insofar sustained. conclusion, respectfully dissent. syllabus Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Timber Lumber Co., 337, 282, 287, 499. abridging Const., Amdt. 1. 410 356 paragraphs parties' court. 830, 9, 842, 15. acronym Advanced Research Project Agency. 81). 831 3). 835 27). 836 36). publishing simple organizations personal "home pages,' individualized newsletters organization, everyone 837 42). 838 46). 82). 86). 85). 848 117). 844-845 89). 72). 73). 90): "An authoritative addressee, "alias' anonymous remailer. universal listing corresponding names numbers, rapidly incomplete. instances difficulty compounded exploders listservs, sender's list. Dr. current assurance listed exploder's list.'' 93). 847 104-106): "At some, all, organizations, ACLU, Stop Prisoner Rape Project, regard charging goals charge. ... suggesting casual browsers, discouraged retrieving Andrew Anker testified HotWired complaints HotWired's registration system, member supply name, self-created decrease advertising revenue advertisers demonstration visited.'' Exon 1268, 141 Cong. Rec. S8120 (June 1995). S8087. amendment, revised, became §502 133, §§223(a)-(e) Members Representatives opposed "possible child-proof products private sector.'' Senate's "involve spending sums money trying define elusive going flood challenges kids unprotected.'' substitute instead "Online Family Empowerment.'' 137, §230 (Supp.1997); H8468-H8472. No law. S.Rep. 104-23 adopted Judiciary Committee one-day hearing "Cyberporn Children.'' opening statement Senator Leahy observed: really struck me your you mentioned, Mr. Chairman, right. floor, passed legislation overwhelmingly dramatically change-some wreak havoc-on went willy-nilly, legislation, never hour floor.'' Cyberporn Children: Scope Problem, Technology, Need Congressional Action, Hearing 892 Judiciary, 104th Cong., 1st Sess., 7-8 (1995). dissent break convention full, (5) prosecution subsection (a)(1)(B) section, (a)(2) person- taken, specified subsections, measures technology; card, debit account, code, number.'' Union; Human Rights Watch; Electronic Privacy Information Center; Frontier Foundation; Journalism Education Association; Computer Professionals Social Responsibility; Writers Clarinet Corp.; Institute Global Communications; Rape; System; Bibliobytes; Queer Resources Directory; Inc.; Wildcat Press, Declan McCullagh dba Campus; Brock Meeks Cyberwire Dispatch; John Troyer Safer Sex Page; Jonathan Wallace Ethical Spectacle; Planned Parenthood Federation America, Booksellers Association, Foundation Free Expression; Society Newspaper Editors; Apple Computer, Publishers, Editors Writers; Citizens Empowerment Coalition; Exchange CompuServe Incorporated; Families Against Censorship; Freedom Read Health Sciences Libraries Consortium; Hotwired Ventures LLC; Interactive Digital Software Magazine America; Corporation; L.L. C.; Press Photographers Netcom On-Line Communication Services, Opnet, Company; Professional Journalists; Wired Ventures, following §223 877: "Four transcendent shared face. Findings rehearse briefly low entry. entry identical listeners. result barriers, astoundingly wish speak creates relative parity speakers.'' Dalzell, "lead indecency all.'' press dispute quoted Prince Massachusetts, 321 158, 166, 438, 442, (1944): "It cardinal custody, care nurture reside parents, function preparation obligations hinder.'' members, suggest area, "are Post, 556 F.2d (C.A.D.C.1977) (Levanthal, dissenting), rev'd, When decided, allowed operate license, licensees infer official societal approval whatever heard F.2d, attends supervised Juris. Statement (citing 3)). Indecent'' embellishment "Patently involves organs'' "measured standards.'' Gozlon-Peretz 498 395, 404, 840, 846-847, 919 (1991) ("Where Act, presumed acts intentionally purposely disparate inclusion exclusion'') determinations whole. "what Reply 1276-1277, (1968)). Conferees standard. (S.Conf.Rep.), 142 H1145, H1165-1166 (Feb. 1, 1996). Rep., 189, "trunk,'' refer luggage, swimming suit, base tree, nose animal, three-part species gray animals. 30, 2618 (Determinations "pruri ent interest' offensive' Nation big expect articulated formulation, prerequisite consensus exists''). implements "contemporary conflicts Conferees' "to uniform 191. 525-526, (1957) (ban books unconstitutional); 73, 2883-2884, advertisement contraceptives unconstitutional). attention parallel Compare 129-130, 2838 [A]side conclusory debates proponents bill, similar assertions bill before, ineffective FCC's recent Congressman purported often circumvent rules dial-a-porn messages'') agrees transmits recipient, receiving Opposition Motion Affirm 4-5, [t]here suspect operators shoulder modest use.'' 35. "modest burden'' effective. Transmitting pornography, means, illegal juveniles. §§1464-1465 (criminalizing obscenity); §2251 pornography). expressed unnecessary ongoing efforts solicitation. S8342 14, 1995) (letter Kent Markus, Acting Assistant General, Justice, Sen. Leahy). Citing Church Lukumi Babalu Aye, Hialeah, 508 520, 113 2217, 124 (1993), why, strict originates overseas, argue, 33-34. regarding intended, extraterritorial dispose ironically, no) 855-856. ago certainly dangerous Legislature net catch offenders leave inside rightfully detained large. would, extent, department government.'' Reese, 214, 221, 563 (1875). separation concerns, "an aid merely; inexorable command.'' Dorchy Kansas, 264 286, 290, 323, 325, 686 (1924). Osborne Ohio, 495 103, 121, 1691, 1702-1703, (1990) (judicial rewriting derogate Congress's "incentive draft place''). Alaska Ann. §11.66.300 (no entertainment'' places); Ariz.Rev.Stat. §13-3556 expose themselves); Ark.Code §§5-27-223, 5-27-224 (1993) poolrooms bars); Colo.Rev.Stat. §18-7-502(2) (1986) movies shows children''); Del.Code Ann., Tit. 11, §1365(i)(2) (1995) (same); D.C.Code §22-2001(b)(1)(B) Fla. §847.013(2) (1994) Ga.Code §16-12-103(b) Haw.Rev.Stat. §712-1215(1)(b) houses "pornographic minors''); Idaho Code §18-1515(2) La.Rev.Stat. §14:91.11(B) (West 1986) depict interest); Md. Ann.Code, Art. 27, §416E enumerated performed portrayed); Mich. Comp. Laws §750.141 alcohol sold); Minn.Stat. §617.294 (1987 Supp.1997) Miss.Code §97-5-11 poolrooms, billiard halls, Mo.Rev.Stat. §573.507 cabarets); Neb.Rev.Stat. §28-809 Nev.Rev.Stat. §201.265(3) (1997) N.H.Rev.Stat. §571-B:2(II) N.M. §30-37-3 Penal Law §235.21(2) (McKinney 1989) N.D. Cent.Code §12.1-27.1 -03 (1985 Supp.1995) Pa. Cons.Stat. §5903(a) S.D. §22-24-30 Tenn.Code §39-17-911(b) Vt. 13, §2802(b) (1974) Va.Code §18.2-391 (same). Ala.Code §13A-12-200.5 §13-3506 (1989); 5-68-502 (1993); Cal.Penal §313.1 Supp.1997); §18-7-502(1) (1986); Conn. Gen.Stat. §53a-196 §1365(i)(1) (1995); §22-2001(b)(1)(A) (1996); §847.012 §16-12-103(a) §712-1215(1) §18-1515(1) (1987); Ill. Stat., ch. 720, §5/11-21 Ind.Code §35-49-3-3(1) (Supp.1996); Iowa §728.2 Kan. §21-4301c(a)(2) (1988); 1986); §416B Mass. Gen. Laws, 272, §28 (1992); §617.293 §573.040 Mont.Code §45-8-206 §28-808 §§201.265(1), (1997); §571-B:2(I) §30-37-2 §235.21(1) 1989); N.C. §14-190.15(a) §12.1-27.1-03 Supp.1995); Ohio Rev.Code §2907.31(A)(1) Okla. 21, §1040.76(2) §5903(c) R.I. §11-31-10(a) S.C.Code §16-15-385(A) §22-24-28 §39-17-911(a) (1991); Tex §43.24(b) Utah §76-10-1206(2) §2802(a) (1974); Wash. §9.68.060 (1988 Wis. §948.11(2) (Supp.1995).

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