Document: 445 U.S. 622 100 S.Ct. 1398 63 L.Ed.2d 673 George D. OWEN, Petitioner,v.CITY OF INDEPENDENCE, MISSOURI et al. No. 78-1779. Argued Jan. 8, 1980. Decided April 16, Rehearing Denied June 2, See 446 993, 2979. Syllabus After the City Council of respondent city moved that reports an investigation police department be released to news media and turned over prosecutor for presentation grand jury Manager take appropriate action against persons involved in wrongful activities brought out investigative reports, discharged petitioner from his position as Chief Police. No reason was given dismissal received only a written notice stating made pursuant specified provision charter. Subsequently, suit Federal District Court under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 city, Manager, members their official capacities, alleging he without reasons hearing violation constitutional rights procedural substantive due process, seeking declaratory injunctive relief. The Court, after bench trial, entered judgment respondents. Appeals ultimately affirmed, holding although had violated petitioner's Fourteenth Amendment, nevertheless all respondents, including were entitled qualified immunity liability based on good faith officials involved. Held: A municipality has no flowing its violations may not assert officers defense such liability. Pp. 635-658. (a) By terms, "creates species tort face admits immunities." Imbler v. Pachtman, 424 409, 417, 96 984, 998, 47 128. Its language is absolute unqualified, mention any privileges, immunities, or defenses asserted. Rather, statute imposes upon "every person" (held Monell New York Dept. Social Services, 436 658, 98 2018, 56 611, encompass municipal corporations) who, color state law custom, "subjects, causes subjected, citizen United States . deprivation rights, immunities secured by Constitution laws." And this expansive sweep 1983's confirmed legislative history. 635-636. (b) Where well established at common where rationale compatible with purposes 1983, been construed incorporate immunity. But there tradition corporations, neither history nor policy supports construction would justify accorded Appeals. 637-644. (c) application underlying both doctrine whereby held immune respect "governmental" functions but "proprietary" functions, immunized "discretionary" "legislative" those which "ministerial" nature, demonstrate these common-law doctrines could have intended limit municipality's 1983. principle sovereign derives cannot serve basis privilege claims since insulates unconsented suits altogether, presence absence being irrelevant, abrogated sovereign's enactment making it amenable suit. granting merely prevented courts substituting own matters within lawful discretion municipality, foundation good-faith "discretion" violate Constitution. 644-650. (d) Rejection accord municipalities compelled purpose provide protection wronged abuse governmental authority deter future violations, considerations public policy. In view enjoyed most government officials, many victims malfeasance left remediless if also allowed defense. concerns justified decisions conferring various officials—the injustice, particularly bad faith, subjecting liability, danger threat official's willingness execute office effectively—are less compelling, wholly inapplicable, when entity issue. 650-656. 589 F.2d 335, reversed. Irving Achtenberg, Kansas City, Mo., petitioner. Richard G. Carlisle, Independence, Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 611 (1978), overruled Monroe Pape, 365 167, 81 473, 5 492 (1961), insofar local governments among "persons" whom applies therefore statute.1 reserved decision, however, question whether governments, immunity, should afforded some form suits. U.S., 701, S.Ct., 2041. Western Missouri, Eighth Circuit "is liability" officials: "We extend limited district court applied individual defendants cover well, because acted malice." 337-338 (1978). We granted certiorari. 444 822, 42, 62 28 (1979). reverse. 2 * events giving rise are detailed Court's findings fact, 421 F.Supp. 1110 (1976). On February 20, 1967, Robert L. Broucek, then appointed Owen indefinite term Police.2 1972, new Lyle W. Alberg, engaged dispute administration Police Department's property room. March year, handgun, records room stated destroyed, up possession felon. This discovery prompted Alberg initiate management Although probe initially directed petitioner, soon transferred responsibility city's Department Law, instructing Counselor supervise conduct inform him directly findings. 3 Sometime early report investigation's progress, along copies confidential witness statements. Auditor found insufficient permit adequate accounting goods contained room, concluded evidence criminal acts discussed results informal meeting several advised them time correct problems Department. 4 10, asked resign accept another Department, citing dissatisfaction manner managed inadequate supervision warned refused employment terminated, responded did intend resign. 13, issued statement addressed Mayor concerning investigation. referring "discrepancies" administration, handling, security property, release "[t]here appears substantiate allegations nature" offered assurances "[s]teps initiated administrative level discrepancies." Id., 1115. apparently decided replace Chief, took formal end brief vacation informing decision.3 6 While away weekend 15 two developments occurred. Petitioner, having consulted counsel, sent letter demanding charges reasonable opportunity respond charges.4 At approximately same time, Councilman Paul Roberts copy appeal immediate response, Acting complied Roberts' request supplied audit 7 evening 17, regularly scheduled meeting. completion planned agenda, read prepared investigation.5 Among other allegations, charged misappropriated use, narcotics money "mysteriously disappeared" office, traffic tickets manipulated, high ranking "inappropriate" requests affecting court, "things occurred causing unusual felons." close statement, jury, "take direct action" "involved illegal, wrongful, gross inefficient reports." discussion, passed motion dissents one abstention.6 8 very next day. Petitioner dismissal; "[t]erminated provisions Section 3.3(1) Charter."7 Petitioner's earlier demand specification ignored, subsequent attorney discharge decision denied grounds "there appellate procedure forum provided Charter ordinances relating Owen." App. 26-27. 9 press gave prominent coverage Council's dismissal, linking investigation.8 As instructed Council, referred statements Prosecuting Attorney Jackson County, consideration jury. never public, however. subsequently returned "no true bill," further taken either Alberg. II 10 named present capacities suit.9 Alleging sought relief, discharge, backpay date attorney's fees. (1976).10 11 reversed 560 925 (1977).11 agreed Missouri possessed interest continued allegedly false accusations blackened name reputation, thus depriving liberty process law. That stigmatizing come included was, court's view, immaterial. What important, explained, "the actions council [petitioner] contemporaneous and, eyes connected discharge." 937.12 12 Respondents petitioned review Appeals' decision. Certiorari granted, case remanded light our supervening 438 902, 3118, 57 1145 remand reaffirmed original determination 335 13 "a sued injury inflicted solely employees agents. Instead, execution government's lawmakers whose edicts fairly said represent policy, inflicts responsible 1983." 694, 2038. instant rights: "[T]he stigma attached connection caused City's lawmakers, Such amounted infringement [petitioner's] section F.2d, 337.13 14 Nevertheless, affirmed denying relief stating: "The Supreme Board Regents Roth, 408 564 [92 2701, 33 548] (1972), Perry Sindermann, 593 2694, 570] crystallized rule establishing right name-clearing employee stigmatized course discharge. cases months case. Thus, Independence aware predicting malice. hold liable reasonably known rights." 338 (footnote citations omitted).14 16 turn now disagreement holding.15 III 17 Because scope essentially statutory construction, see Wood Strickland, 420 308, 314, 316, 95 992, 996, 43 214 (1975); Tenney Brandhove, 341 367, 376, 71 783, 788, L.Ed. 1019 (1951), starting point analysis must itself. Andrus Allard, 51, 56, 318, 322, 210 (1979); Blue Chip Stamps Manor Drug Stores, 723, 756, 1917, 1935, 44 539 (1975) (POWELL, J., concurring). 988, 128 unqualified; Act laws."16 words corporations natural "persons." 18 Moreover, congressional debates surrounding passage Civil Rights 1871, Stat. 13—the forerunner 1983—confirm language. Representative Shellabarger, author manager bill House, explained introductory remarks breadth act receive: 19 "I single remark make regard interpretation sections framed. remedial, aid preservation human rights. All statutes authorizing liberally beneficently construed. It strange civilized law, monstrous interpretation. again your States, everywhere else wise judicial interpretation, largest latitude consistent employed uniformly construing meant protect defend give remedies wrongs people." Cong.Globe, 42d Cong., 1st Sess., 68 (1871) (hereinafter Globe App.). 20 Similar views Act's broad remedy federally protected voiced supporters Houses Congress. 683-687, 2032-2034.17 21 However, notwithstanding express incorporation we have, occasions, so firmly rooted supported strong "Congress specifically wished abolish doctrine." Pierson Ray, 386 547, 555, 87 1213, 1218, 288 (1967). Thus supra, tracing development source 16th-century England inclusion State Constitutions, Congress "would [not] impinge grounded covert general language" 788. 22 Subsequent required consider personal types officials. Noting "[f]ew more solidly than judges damages committed jurisdiction," 553-554, 1217, traditionally preserved case, enjoy "good probable cause" similar existed arrest 555-557, 1218-1219. Several recent varying different Procunier Navarette, 434 855, 55 24 (1978) (qualified prison officers); (1976) (absolute prosecutors initiating presenting State's case); O'Connor Donaldson, 422 563, 2486, 45 396 superintendent hospital); school board members); Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 94 1683, 40 90 (1974) "good-faith" Governor executive discretionary performed conduct). 23 each cases, finding "was predicated considered inquiry into historically relevant interests behind it." 421, 990. claimed defendant enacted, Act, hold, therefore, agents 1983.18 Since colonial times, distinct feature Nation's system governance conferral political power concern. recounted, 1871 municipalities—like private corporations—were treated virtually analysis. particular, they routinely federal courts. 687-688, 2034. Cf. Cowles Mercer Wall. 118, 86 (1869). Local units answer wide range breach contract.19 although, discuss below,20 subject tortious conduct, clear bodies sort extended 25 rule, understood identical individuals: 26 "There nothing character corporation entitles malfeasances individuals civil action. extent done corporation, branch government, empowered particular relates, which, done, lawfully ratified corporation." T. Shearman & A. Redfield, Treatise Law Negligence 120, p. 139 (1869) Redfield). 27 Accord, Dillon 764, 875 ("But respects proper, is, think, universally considered, even action, misfeasance positively injurious individuals, authorized officers, performance corporate powers constitutionally conferred, duties") (emphasis original). E. McQuillin, Municipal Corporations 53.02 (3d rev. ed. 1977) McQuillin). Under theory deemed losses generated through variety operations injuries defective sewers, thoroughfares, utilities, damage trespasses uncompensated takings.21 Yet hundreds era awarding them, searches vain much officers. Indeed, issue all, rejected proposition privileged believed lawful. leading Thayer Boston, 36 Mass. 511, 515-516 (1837), example, Shaw explained: 29 large class deeply involved, not. event legal justice, show unlawful. Still, unlawful competent authority, vote nature duties charged, offices, matter, especially honest obtain benefit advantage, justice obviously require capacity, sustained consequence done." 30 later reiterated jurisdictions, numerous awarded expressly faith. See, e. g., Town Akron McComb, Ohio 229, 230-231 (1849); Horton Inhabitants Ipswich, 66 488, 489, (1853); Elliot Concord, N.H. 204 Hurley Texas, Wis. 634, 637-638 (1866); Lee Village Sandy Hill, N.Y. 442, 448-451 (1869); Billings Worcester, 102 329, 332-333 Squiers Neenah, 588, Hawks Charlemont, 107 414, 417-418 (1871).22 31 commonly recognized 688, For Senator Stevenson, opposing Sherman amendment's creation riotous inhabitants, prevailing law: "Numberless created resulting neglect duty." Cong. lobe 762 Globe).23 Nowhere debates, suggestion excused account agents, indication intent Act.24 allusion assumes added significance objections raised opponents unqualified interpreted traditional legislators, judges, governors, sheriffs, officers.25 Had municipalities, bill's doubtless specter destruction, well. 32 To sure, measure first distinguish between functions; former, immune, whereas exercise latter, standards corporation. second activities, nature. examination demonstrates governmental-proprietary distinction26 owed existence dual hand, body, capable performing torts extent, arm State, acting "public" shared sovereign.27 immunity—itself somewhat arid fountainhead immunity28—is necessarily nullified impliedly allows itself, creation, sued. Municipalities acts, withdrawn And, 19th century, imposing specific duty charter statute, nonperformance misperformance obligation. Weightman Corporation Washington, Black 39, 50-52, 52 (1862); Providence Clapp, How. 161, 167-169, 72 (1855). generally Redfield §§ 122-126; Note, Liability Cities Other Misconduct Officers Agents, Am.St.Rep. 385 (1893). despite nominal multitude involving activities. 34 explains why served First, simply irrelevant. critical while exercising governmental, opposed proprietary, obligations—not conducting themselves.29 More fundamentally, just statute. laws, Congress—the supreme law30—abolished whatever vestige possessed. 35 distinction protecting challenging decisions—was concern separation powers. part responsibilities issues policy—decisions affected numbers called delicate balancing competing considerations. guise suit, reasonableness properly vested coordinate coequal government. Johnson 69 Cal.2d 782, 794, n. 73 Cal.Rptr. 240, 249, 447 P.2d 352, 361, (1968) (en banc) ("Immunity 'discretionary' serves except assure refuse pass province branches government"). order ensure invasion legitimate sphere policymaking processes, entertain "either non-exercise of, exercises, character." 753, 862.31 many, seem involve least discretion, influence significant might expected. implied exception here, too, effect conduct. retained another, once made, fully incurred judgment. Hill 122 344, 358-359 (1877) (dicta) (municipality construct interest; repair sewer, activity ministerial nature). C. Rhyne, 30.4, pp. 736-737 (1957); Williams 7. remained implementing decisions. 37 Once again, understanding municipality. Constitution; dictates imperative. passes does seek second-guess "reasonableness" interfere resolution looks conformed requirements statutes. Sterling Constantin, 287 378, 398, 53 190, 195, 77 375 (1932): "When substantial showing exertion overridden Constitution, proceeding transgression." 38 sum, can discern "tradition reason" warrant conclusion enacting sub silentio Absent clearer reach designed "broad rights," 685, 2033, unwilling suppose occasioned unconstitutional redressable sweep.32 B 39 Our rejection central aim " '[m]isuse power, virtue possible wrongdoer clothed law.' 184, 482 (quoting Classic, 313 299, 326, 61 1031, 1043, 85 1368 (1941)). creating remedy, "enforce Amendment who carry badge accordance misuse 172, 476. How "uniquely amiss" be, itself—"the social organ society look promotion liberty, fair equal treatment, setting worthy norms goals conduct"—were permitted disavow begotten. Adickes Kress Co., 398 144, 1598, 1620, 142 (1970) (opinion BRENNAN, J.). offending party vital component scheme vindicating cherished guarantees, importance assuring efficacy accentuated institution transgressed. owing (1974), Unless countervailing counsel otherwise, injustice result tolerated.33 41 compensation past abuses, deterrent deprivations, Robertson Wegmann, 584, 590-591, 1991, 1995, 554 (1978); Carey Piphus, 435 247, 256-257, 1042, 1048-1049, 252 knowledge will not, create incentive harbor doubts about lawfulness err side citizens' rights.34 Furthermore, levied encourage institute internal rules programs minimize likelihood unintentional infringements rights.35 procedures beneficial preventing "systemic" individual, interactive behavior Developments Law: Federalism, Harv.L.Rev. 1133, 1218-1219 (1977).36 previous 637-638, derogating societal compensating innocent misconduct. overriding nonetheless demanded decisions, issue.37 1688, THE CHIEF JUSTICE identified "mutually dependent rationales" rested: "(1) officer required, obligations position, discretion; (2) decisiveness good."38 implicated award comes pocket, treasury. hardly seems unjust citizen's compensate suffered thereby. enacted precisely abuses power. 171-172, 475-476. Elemental notions fairness dictate loss bear loss. 46 argued, revenue taxation use diverted discrete group taxpayers, times contrary, accepted Boston "that [unlucky] Mass., 515. enjoys benefits administration. foreseen fairer allocate financial inevitable costs borne allow impact felt albeit newly recognized, violated. K. Davis, Administrative 25.17 (1958 Supp.1970); Prosser 131, 978; Michelman, Property, Utility, Fairness: Some Thoughts Ethical Foundations "Just Compensation" 80 1165 (1967).39 mentioned loses force contrast official, heart justification monetary introduce unwarranted unconscionable decisionmaking paralyzing governing distorting policy.40 inhibiting significantly reduced, eliminated, removed. empirical questionable hazard conscientious duties; expenditure funds risk depleting fisc. Kostka Hogg, 37, (CA 1977). though, realization quite elected decisionmaker derelict if, point, comports mandates weigh commentator aptly put it: "Whatever shape actions, certainly actions. criticize leads decisionmakers avoid statute's raisons d'etre."41 IV 48 harmonizes pronouncements Doctrines changed reflect evolution. longer "blameworthiness" acid test liability; equitable loss-spreading joined fault factor distributing 49 believe today's together prior precedents area, allocates three principals scenario cause action: victim deprivation; injury; represented entity. harmed assured compensated injury. long conducts himself go business secure appropriately chargeable populace whole. forced "execution policy." 50 Reversed. 51 POWELL, JUSTICE, STEWART, REHNQUIST join, dissenting. today holds violating unknown finds denial failure grant discharged. proper according doctrine. imposed "name clearing" Due Process Clause. alleged interprets impose strict violations. approach inexplicably departs runs counter ruling ignores vast weight precedent current reasons, hamper unnecessarily, I dissent. 54 facts Owen's dismissal. Ante, 625. rejects necessary circumstances [Owen's] illegal immoral professional reputation." 1110, 1122 (WD Mo.1976); ante, 633-634, 13. Careful record deprivation. From 1967 pleasure Manager.1 Friction flared openly surfaced mismanaged. full April, reported sparse audit. ordinances, room." 925, 928 (CA8 telephone call met following expressed unhappiness situation requested step down. When refused, fired. F.Supp., 1114-1115. Lieutenant Cook willing Chief. public: 58 "At my direction, Counselor's [i]n conjunction ha[s] completed routine 59 "Discrepancies handling recovered property. There ." 928-929. 60 Saturday, 15, Before announced, Member obtained meeting, accused "gross inefficiencies" 1116, 2. He refer County recommend Charter. Ibid. unanimously approved resolution. 18, "implemented [Owen] Police." 929. termination Charter." 17. grants complete remove "directors" departments "when service." lawyer client's termination. Assistant 27. matter. filed lawsuit asking libel, slander, malicious prosecution. won state-law him, reached settlement Owen.2 1976. reputation dismissed hearing. 10.3 64 requires "if employer creates disseminates defamatory impression Codd Velger, 429 624, 628, 97 882, 884, 92 (1977) (per curiam). announced 564, 548 weeks pivotal Roth employee's impair reputation. 572-575, 2706-2708. 65 "were prominently newspapers." 930. Doubtless, negative abilities performance. unless makes "might seriously [the employee's] standing associations community." 573, 2707. "discharge terminable disclosure Bishop Wood, 426 341, 348, 2074, 2079, 684 dismissing Owen. relied top administrators "for suggest "had guilty dishonesty, immorality." "property room" nature." exoneration reinforced jury's refusal prosecution actual firing cast infringed. 67 address relies derived "connected with" firing. 633; 337. great adopted recommended "appropriate action," "causal connection" 1121. Two days before met, already dismiss resignation. 2.4 Even viewed demonstrated liberty. Neither aspersions character. absolved activity, wrongdoing. focused attention undeniable; condition employment—and discharge—for triggered hearing.5 measured benign, Independence. 691, 2036, respondeat superior. deprivations challenged "pursuant noted, employs tortfeasor. 2036. councilman scarcely policy.6 70 concluded, "[a]t most, suggested that, Police, administrator." 1122. interaction unobjectionable unauthorized lone role process. notoriety attended resulted misapprehension purely liability.7 Having constructed valid strictly torts. Until years ago, claims. (1961). meaning policies. 690, 2035. 695, 2038, 2041; id., 713-714, 2047 gone short unreasonably subjects judgments performed. converts hazardous slalom obstacles often unknowable. impinges prerogatives entities regulated primarily States. least, intrusion magnitude explicit text conflicts apparent drafters immunities. 74 provides "[e]very rights.8 harmony principles rather derogation them." 418, 989, (1976); (1951). 75 reflects concerns. traditions repealed "general 788; 421-424, 990-992; 554-555, 1217-1218, addition, enforce laws public." 241, 1689, (1974). "[t]he concept better error possibly decide all." 242, 1689; 319-320, 999, (1975). actors, attempted dominated fears unconstitutional. Public "cannot expected predict 562, 860, 76 response considerations, 553-555, advocates supra. protects implemented policies thought constitutional. extends 555-558, 1218-1219, members, hospital, 576-577, 2494, (1975), abandons attempt harmonize points legislation. "abolished" "within 'persons' 647. 78 reasoning flies repeatedly "immunities 'well reason' [were not] 'by language' quoting 243-244, 1689-1690; 554, 1217. peculiar emerges status compared governments. executives personally bad-faith unreasonable torts, find abrogation abolition overruling silence mean mutely silently singularly implausible. 79 Important support extension powers, presumptively insulated review. Marshall wrote Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 170, (1803), inquire how executive, perform discretion." stressed caution "[q]uestions, political, are, constitution submitted executive." allocation resources operational itself lie peculiarly competence bodies. charting policies, gauge employer's incorrectly though faith—forecasts Excessive distort discredit Qualified presumptive still leaving deprivations. inject constant decisionmaking, restrict independence ability needs communities. Only Term, noted "point" forestall atmosphere intimidation conflict [officials'] resolve designated principled fashion." Ferri Ackerman, 193, 203-204, 402, 355 argues modify unduly unlikely do locality liable. 655-656. contention denigrates sense misunderstands Responsible concerned potential accountable adverse judgments. If shoulders unknowable degree paralysis little fear 999; 1689.9 82 basic municipalities. authorizes "knew norm." 860. standard incorporates idea attach risk. alike. Constitutional what say and—as precursor, —even prescient hesitate firm plainly settled. Municipalities, utmost know anticipate inaction violation.10 83 suggests matter urges, "spread" across population. 655. neglects, fact lack withstand unanticipated enthusiastic proponents conceded ruinous imperil Damage Remedies Against Violations, 89 922, 958 (1976).11 simplistically applying theorems welfare economics ignoring reality finance, able it.12 severe limitation public. 84 length—and vain—for buttress Despite legislation Members dismayed ruling. Nor, frequent citation authorities marginally relevant, rely Both century now, legislatures limiting Each conventional sources need modern defeat amendment during deliberations 1871. 187-191, 484-486; 664-683, 2022-2032. proposed vicariously riots boundaries. originally drafted, impending disturbance.13 affect Senate House Representatives. 666, 2023. revisions Conference Committees, codified 1986. final version "persons," knew wrong "about committed."14 discussion offers invaluable insight attitudes colleagues Much resistance flowed Congress' vicarious 673-683, 2027-2032; 706, 2043 additional arguments strongly recognition legislators trepidation proposal's bankrupt They proposal bring "to dead stop." 763 (Sen. Casserly). Stevenson); 772 Thurman). Bingham argued deprive community "of means administering justice." 798. Congressmen inhibit effective operation corporations. possibility Kerr insisted, prevent "necessary customary functions." 789. Casserly); 808 (Rep. Garfield). 88 Most significant, objected defended characteristic riot Acts country. 760. Stevenson prudence foresight prevented." 762. thorough critique amendment, Thurman carefully reviewed Maryland York. emphasized plaintiff proved it. 771. "Is right? Why county, town, parish whatsoever crime committed, commission until committed? that?" These echoed complained "it shall attach, intention commit crimes, fasten justly municipality." denounced "total notice, constructive implied, decent limits reason," adding "takes gives mere force, right, guilt knowledge, either." Similarly, Willard warranted COMMUNITY HAS PROVED FAITHLESS TO ITS DUTIES. 791. criticized requirement "prov[ed] default, denial, citizens 91 Partly objections, finally conditioned demonstration denied. Poland introduced measure, noting "any person offenses [have a] diligence 804 supplied). sponsor entire Poland, member Committee produced draft. 804-805; 807 side, conferee 93 "in [municipal] body appear way satisfaction persons, repress tumult, could, likely one, neglected 821 Edmunds). disliked revised provision. "before you [a person] got wrought." Ibid.15 apply Just beforehand, legal. today, like spawn onerous burdens surely undercuts historical argument now. declares "compelled" "legislative purpose" 650. One expect powerful documentation back statement. notes features Act. Far "compelling" approach, scant position. reproduces attesting remedial 636, recognizing 666-667, shed Second, cites Stevenson's frequently 642-643, (1871). abolished fragmentary observation Finally, emphasizes comment "Had spectre well." 643-644. example continuing silence. noteworthy sentence concedes: "To liability." 644. conviction unprecedented unwise, recite theories relevance here. event, contradict contemporary infra, 677-678, nn. 99 J. Dillon, 862-863, 875-876 (2d 1873); Williams, Tort 9, (1901). Nineteenth-century undertaken "governmental," "proprietary," capacity.16 criteria determining damages. 681-683. governmental/proprietary retains widely enacted. inconceivable thoroughly versed doctrines, 669, 2025, regime imagined Harris Columbia, 256 650, 652, 610, 1146 (1921): "[W]hen Weightmann 49-50, (1862). Carr Northern Liberties, Pa. 324, 329 (1860), Pennsylvania recovery town drainage plan. 101 "[H]ow careful juries encroach belongs councils towns, best indirectly control either. us substitute representatives law." reasoning, century,17 parallels preserving autonomy entrusted Rhodes "range [that is] comparably broad." 1692. Consequently, available varies Strict undermine discretion.18 evident reliance 511 principal authority. 641-642. broadly 516. severely Massachusetts Bigelow Randolph, 541, 544-545 ruled situations malfeasance—or actions—not nonfeasance. Child Buttrick Lowell, 172 (1861). 359 (1877), squarely repudiated proprietary municipality.19 103 Today's Columbia. jurisdictions analogous faith" almost 90% broader 104 Twelve barring validly unconstitutional, regulation.20 Another Five distinction,21 Arkansas South Dakota corporations.22 Statutes four motor vehicle accidents negligent maintenance facilities.23 Iowa, care "officially enacted" regulation.24 105 Sixteen Columbia follow confided organs government.25 commentators appropriateness acceptance acts. Restatement (Second) Torts 895C(2) Comment g Seventies 25.13 Prosser, 986-987 (4th 1971). insurance.26 five kind blanket today.27 C 106 turns blind eye overwhelming life Republic retention. disregard unfortunate typically implicate evolving standards. important ordinary run pedestrian bus far change any, busdriver (1972). handed down stripping punishes failing Roth. result, unnerving prospect crushing whenever wisdom outcome. Title provides: "Every ordinance, regulation, usage, Territory, subjects, jurisdiction thereof injured equity, redress." charter, sole "[a]ppoint, service, lay off, suspend, demote, directors, heads, city. morning immediately informally Council. discussed, testified replacement letter, dated part: "My me relieve me, includes charge specifications, cross-examine me. "In spite press, leave minds desire services, wrongdoing part. "Such Further Procedure "May expression alternative specifications counsel." receive reproduced (1976), recited: "On notified certain 15th voluminous reports. contents astoundingly shocking unbelievable. deal disappearance television sets signed use. firearms custody hands others undesirables enforcement agencies. "Reports whow [sic ] mysteriously disappeared. Reports indicate manipulated. inappropriate things felons. inefficiencies few department. feel information backed investigators access told going prosecuting Grand Jury. insist Charter, shown involved." Ironically, minutes consequences flow media. maintained witnesses unfounded accusations, area libelous slander." 20-23. culmination front-page press. "Lid Off Probe, Seeks Action," Examiner, Apr. Tr. 25; "Independence Accusation. Probe Demanded," Times, 24-25; "Probe Culminates Chief's Dismissal," 19, 26; "Police Continues; Ousted," Community Observer, 26. join former litigation. separate defamation capacities. Roberts. 930 relying Kenosha Bruno, 412 507, 2222, 109 (1973), base claim Amendment. merits, determined because, untenured employee, contractual de facto continue hence interest. conclusion: Charter," imputed him. causal hire chief 17th Lastly, "completely exonerated" report, Alberg's statements, return bill." 1121-1122. ground assert, established, agents: "[D]efendants clearly preponderance they, predecessors, circumstances, Defendants proven publication Regents, [408 (1972)], 593, 570 (1972)]." 1123. parties appealed respondents' challenge assumption subject-matter 1331, reinstatement arising 932-934. Bivens Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics 403 388, 1999, 619 (1971). rest saw recover paid 932. lieu backpay. nullity, ordinarily ought remain payroll wages retention made. mandatory retirement age litigation, reinstated compensatory amount earned deprived mitigation amounts actually earned, assertion defense, footnote 314-315, 6, 997, ("immunity bar well"), boards. Wellner Minnesota Jr. College Bd., 487 153 1973); Cooley Educ. Forrest School Dist., 453 282 1972). primary immunity—the faced liability—simply exist unit officeholder. seemed Council: refusing hearing, evidenced unfair attack appellant business. remarks." 941. respondents cross petition issue, belated "liberty" Brief 45-46. merit contention, decline disturb below. Wisconsin Constantineau, 400 433, 437, 510, 515 (1971), "[w]here person's name, honor, integrity stake doing heard essential." 2707, accompanied "charge community" qualify something him," trigger refute publicly name. unanimous Council—released impugning honesty integrity. extensive "cause" "occur[red] employment." 693, 710, 1155, 1165, 405 twice doubt correctly 1001, ("Therefore, context discipline, student affected, student"). Courts divided Compare Bertot Dist. 1, 613 245 (CA10 1979) banc); Hostrop Junior 515, 523 569 (CA7 1975), Hander San Jacinto College, 519 273 (CA5), rehearing denied, 522 entity, Paxman Campbell, 612 848 (CA4 1980) banc), Sala Suffolk, 604 207 (CA2 1979), 685-686, 45, 2033-2034, acknowledged conferred illustrative: "[This section's] whole Judiciary belong it—a it, grant, yet privilege, wrong-doer courts, controversy. ". bill. Whether bill; terms employed, comprehensive used." 216-217. differs insulate Here, contrast, funds. Primary Contract Clause, courts' efforts "various forms 'positive' ordering taxes collected federal-court judgments, infraction found." 681, 2031. Damages entertained. Levy Coroner, 501, 851 (1865); Ransom, 487, (1860); Bliss Brooklyn, F.Cas. 707 (No. 1,544) (CCEDNY 1871). constitutions statutes, charters, Streets, Change Grade, for, 835 (1893), cited therein. With contracts—and contracts corporation—municipalities breaches. 385, 394 1873) Dillon). Of contract adjudged meritorious, awarded. Richardson Vt. 602 575 (1856); Searsmont Farwell, Me. *450 (1825); F. Burke, Schools 81-85 (1880). litigated "breach contract" suits, pay bonds. Supervisors Durant, 415, 732 (1870); Commissioners Knox Aspinwall, 539, 208 (1859). 729-789 143-152; (1901) Williams). Bunker Hudson, 43, 54, N.W. 448, 452 (1904); Oklahoma Bros., Okl. 114, 137-139, P. 249-250 (1897); Schussler Comm'rs Hennepin Minn. 412, McGraw Marion, Ky. 673, 680-683, S.W. 20-21 (1896). 405-411 England, followed American Baron Bramwell Ruck H. N. 320, 157 Eng.Rep. 493 (Exch.1858): understand undertakes Commissioner, indemnifying slip, Commissioners, quasi [i. e., personally] inasmuch parliament raise fund payment damages, suffers bona fide erroneously compensated? inconsistent 133, 178. proceeded Prather Lexington, 559, 560-562 (1852): "Where act, operating injuriously delegation special, individual. office; render pursuance relate. (Thayer Pick., 511.) cities manner, negligence unskillfulness works benefit." protest would, "create clear, objection went novelty "even ensuing wherewithal anything 692-693, 57, 2037, 57. (remarks Rep. Arthur) Legislature enacts enforces judge renders judgment, sheriff levy execution, writ, summons, arrest, solemn, oath, pure saint immaculate seraph, ."); Lewis); 217 Sen. actuality, characterized line, succession points. often-harsh literal test, highly artificial elusive distinctions own. jurisdiction, another. McQuillin 53.02, 105. 979 1971) Prosser). stated, reference 'nongovernmental'-'governmental' quagmire plagued corporations": "A comparative study forty-eight disclose irreconcilable conflict. disharmonious chaos try inherently unsound." Indian Towing Co. 350 61, 65, 122, 124, (1955) (on rehearing). "While omitted, When, pertain franchises, privileges benefit, dealing gain emolument, omissions circumstances." 4, 9. 53.04, 53.24; 977-983; James, Governmental Units Their Officers, U.Chi.L.Rev. 611-612, 622-629 (1955). came democracy, stems English Monarch maxim, King wrong." suggested, ascribed phrase ironic perversion intent: maxim wrong. injuriae (wrongs). Bracton, ambiguous relation convey incapable committing Borchard, Government Tort, Yale L.J. (1924). Kates Kouba, Entities S.Cal.L.Rev. country, doctrine, state, subdivisions entities, completely contrary follows negligence, foreign spirit guarantee every trend always restrict, expand, immunity." (footnotes omitted). 984 ("For subjected vigorous criticism, length begun effect"). seminal Florida Hargrove Cocoa Beach, So.2d 130 (1957), spawned minor avalanche repudiating immunity," 985, handful cling old functions. 25.00 (1976 Supp.1977) (only adhere functions); Harley Wasinger, Immunity: Despotic Mantle Creature Necessity, Washburn 12, 34-53 comparable character, defeats outset, "depends motivations official's] trial." 419, defenses—including immunity—to course, controlled Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 455-456, 2666, 2671, 614 Hampton Chicago, 484 602, 607 1973) (Stevens, J.) ("Conduct 1985(3) controlling transmute illusory promise; supremacy clause insures enforced"). 53.04a; 127-130; 15-16. Like distinction, line hard discern, difficulty mirrored attempts draw Claims 2680(a). 25.08 Supp.1970). Bator, Mishkin, Shapiro, Wechsler, Hart Wechsler's System 336 ("[W]here astute, them"). "clearly established" 1000, deleterious freezing development, meaningful aggrieved vindication previously defined. preceded adoption slanderous integrity, wonder litigation Albemarle Paper Moody, 405, 417-418, 2362, 2371-2372, 280 (1975): "If employers order, shun practices dubious legality. 'provide[s] spur catalyst unions self-examine self-evaluate endeavor eliminate, possible, last vestiges ignominious page country's history.' Industries, Inc., 479 354, 379 1973)." increase attentiveness higher levels subordinates. system-wide measures vigilance otherwise indifferent acute front judgment-proof play threatened. Hutto Finney, 437 678, 2565, fees assessment contravene Eleventh suggestion, dissent, personally, "manifestly unfair," "def[y] insistence related 'exercise undue timidity.' 321, 214." 699, 32, 2578, 32. chilling decision-making responsibilities, pernicious Lake Country Estates, Inc. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency, 440 391, 1171, 401 (1979), justifications immunizing Petitioners regional planning agency agency. Relying discloses capacity legislature, 406, 1180. cautioned: legislation, TRPA adequately vindicate petitioners' interests. 611." 29, 1179, 29. third extending office. 1000 ("The candidates positions deterred heavy tenure"). totally unwarranted, eliminated. indicated superior theory. 693-694, 2037. Here presented. "solely tortfeasor." implements executes officially promulgated body's officers." circumstance—when deprivation—it perfectly distribute cost let burden fall imposition mistakes undoubtedly independently, forcefully, serving long-term students." 999-1000. 1224 (1977). 792-793, 247-248, 359-360 (1968): "Nor deem employer, unit, definition 'discretionary,' threshold serious fearless employee. takes wholesome. An enterprise naturally unquestionably promotes work; affects similarly employees." (Citation omitted.) departments. 3.8 "director" Mo. (Dec. 5, 1961) Charter). complaint state-court Case 778,640 (Jackson Ct.). 15. job 937 1977), presented cross-petition certiorari argue 633, settled "may below lower court." Hankerson North Carolina, 432 233, 2339, 2344, 306 (1977); Mutual Life Ins. Ludwig, 479, 480-481, 2158, 2159, 784 Railway Express 265 425, 435, 560, 1087 "den[y] pressing prohibits involvement Manager's personnel 2.11 states "participate appointment removal city." Violation misdemeanor punished ejection cryptically city—through integrity." fails, identify "allegedly statements." situation, released. 630. cloud suspicion misconduct" 8. constitute statement" capacity. 402-406, 1178-1180, sue libel out-of-court settlement. 660-661. bears resemblance Martinez California, 227, 553, 481 (1980) parole paroled prisoner. plaintiffs relationship defendants. 285, 559. absent Any injured. unpersuasive, internally inconsistent. contends 651-652. assures eliminated removed." 656. believes needed anyway. implies frozen development." 651, 33. curious notion. period 1961, declared absolutely 1978, Monroe, described static Alaska, $500,000 policeman "racism brutality" removed heard. Wayson Fairbanks, ATLA L.Rep. 222 (Alaska Fourth Dist.Super.Ct. 1979). Governments waived claims, 663 "by riotously tumultuously assembled together; offense punish race, color, servitude. notice. 749. stated: "That same, so, act. 819. 1986, place proof 610 1973), cert. 415 917, 1413, 471 Bailey &c. York, 531, (N.Y.1842), distinguished "conferred public" "made emolument advantage water utility exclusive residents "as company." protection, Homeopathic Medicine Cleveland, St. (1861), improper sewer (1862), highway maintenance, Hewison Haven, Conn. 475 (1871), unsafe buildings, 344 (1877). Goodrich Ill. (1858); Logansport Wright, Ind. 512 Mills 498-499 Wilson Denio 595, 600-601 (N.Y.1845); Wheeler Cincinnati, curiam ); Richmond Long's Adm'rs, Gratt. (Va.1867); Kelley Milwaukee, (1864). wish quotes 19th-century treatises 640. passages, exceptions existing rules. treatise concedes, deplores, embraced distinction. 140-141 volume 127, 154, officers' beyond 140, 169. quotation stops writer acknowledges nondiscretionary "corporate duties." 1873). writer's recognizes observes "where rests special interests, agency, perfect, 778, 891 solace absence, availability discovering background Constitutions. 639-640. amenability irrelevant controls eight "reiterat[ing]" Three "special peculiar" towns argument. 491 (1853) (trial "read prescribing keep roads safe defects highways"); (citing statute); Corporations, 1013-1015, 1881). fourth 229 (1849), street-grading, restricted facts. St., 378-379. 451 (liability street-opening "duty" open street); 634 (1866) (improper tax collection). seventh malfeasance, 414 (city material plaintiff's land bridge). opinions, seven unremarkable amendment. 642, 23, 24. reference, speech denouncing reinforce 560-652 (1852), Stevenson—and case—was safety territorial limits." Prather, 561. So turn, subsidiary point. sequence Idaho Code 6-904(1) Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. 85, 2-103, 2-109, 2-201, 2-203 Ind.Code 34-4-16.5-3(6), (8) 1979 Kan.Sess.Laws, 186, (including immunity); Mass.Gen.Laws Ann., 258, 10(a), (West Supp.1979); Minn.Stat. 466.03(5), (6) Mont.Code Ann. 2-9-111, 2-9-112 Neb.Rev.Stat. 23-2409(1), Nev.Rev.Stat. 41.032 N.D.Cent.Code 32-12.1-03(3) (Supp.1979); Okla.Stat. Tit. 155(1)-(5) Ore.Rev.Stat. 30.265(3)(c), (f) exemption Government. goal provision, "discretion administrator one's Dalehite 346 34, 956, 967, 1427 (1953). Baltimore Seidel, Md.App. 465, 409 A.2d 747 (1980); Mich.Comp.Laws 691.1407 (1970); Parks Long 372 253, 253-254 (Miss.1979); Haas Hayslip, St.2d 135, 139, 364 N.E.2d 1376, 1379 Virginia Electric Power Redevelopment Housing Authority, Va. 30, 225 S.E.2d 364, 368 Ark.Stat.Ann. 12-2901 Mission, S.D. N.W.2d 1977 N.M.Laws, 386, 4-9; Pa.Stat.Ann., 53, 5311.202(b) (Purdon Wright Charleston, 271 S.C. 516-518, 248 480, 481-482 S.C.Code 5-7-70, 15-77-230 Wyo.Sess.Laws, 157, (to Wyo.Stat. 1-39-105 112). Iowa 613A.4(3) Cal.Gov't 815.2, 820.2 1966); Tango 173 203, 204-205, 377 284, 285 Biloon's Electrical Serv., Wilmington, 639-640, 643 (Del.Super.1979); Spencer General Hospital 138 U.S.App.D.C. 48, 425 (1969) Commercial Carrier Corp. River 371 1010, 1020 (Fla.1979); Ga.Code 69-302 Frankfort Variety, Frankfort, 552 S.W.2d 653 (Ky.1977); Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., 14, 8103(2)(C) (Supp.1965-1979); Merrill Manchester, 114 722, 729, 332 383 (1974); N.J.Stat.Ann. 59:2-2(b) 59:2-3 Supp.1979-1980); Weiss Fote, N.Y.2d 579, 585-586, 200 N.Y.S.2d 412-413, 167 63, 65-66 (1960); Calhoun Providence, 390 350, 355-356 (R.I.1978); Tenn.Code 23-3311(1) Tex.Rev.Civ.Stat.Ann., Art. 6252-19, 14(7) (Vernon 1970); Utah 63-30-10(1) (1953); Seattle, Wash.2d 239, 246, 525 228, 233 Wis.Stat. 895.43(3) Colo.Rev.Stat. 24-10-104 (1973); Mo.Rev.Stat.Ann. 71.185 N.C.Gen.Stat. 160A-485 Vt.Stat.Ann., 1403 (1970). Ala.Code, 11-47-190 Jennings, 555 251 1976); Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 11-981(A)(2) (Supp.1979-1980); La.Const., 10(A); Weirton, 832, 859 (W.Va.1975). difficult determine Hawaii.

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