Document: 458 U.S. 419 102 S.Ct. 3164 73 L.Ed.2d 868 Jean LORETTO, on behalf of Herself and all Others Similarly Situated, Appellantv.TELEPROMPTER MANHATTAN CATV CORP. et al. No. 81-244. Argued March 30, 1982. Decided June Syllabus A New York statute provides that a landlord must permit cable television (CATV) company to install its facilities upon his property may not demand payment from the in excess amount determined by State Commission be reasonable. Pursuant statute, ruled one-time $1 was reasonable fee. After purchasing five-story apartment building City, appellant discovered appellee companies had installed cables building, both "crossovers" for serving other buildings "noncrossovers" appellant's tenants. Appellant then brought class action damages injunctive relief state court, alleging, inter alia, installation insofar as relied constituted taking without just compensation. Appellee which granted an exclusive franchise provide within certain areas city, intervened. Upholding trial court summary judgment appellees. The Appellate Division Supreme Court affirmed, further appeal Appeals also upheld holding it serves legitimate police power purpose eliminating fees conditions inhibit development CATV, has important educational community benefits. Rejecting argument physical occupation authorized government is necessarily taking, held did have excessive economic impact when measured against her aggregate rights, interfere with any investment-backed expectations, accordingly work property. Held : works portion she entitled compensation under Fifth Amendment, made applicable States Fourteenth Amendment. Pp. 425-441. (a) When "character governmental action," Penn Central Transportation Co. v. 438 104, 124, 98 2646, 2659, 57 631, permanent real property, there extent regard whether achieves public benefit or only minimal owner. 426-435. (b) To permanently occupies effectively destroys owner's rights possess, use, dispose Moreover, owner suffers special kind injury stranger invades Such invasion qualitatively more severe than regulation use since no control over timing, extent, nature invasion. And constitutional protection private cannot depend size area occupied. 435-438. (c) Here, traditional test, involved direct attachment plates, boxes, wires, bolts, screws completely occupying space immediately above roof along building's exterior wall. There difference between crossover noncrossover installation, portions necessary types appropriated fact applies used rental does make simply Physical one type but another less occupation. purport give tenant enforceable respect thus construed merely granting right appurtenance leasehold. Application rule this case will dire consequences government's adjust landlord-tenant relationships, way alters usual analysis governing State's require landlords comply codes. 438-440. 53 N.Y.2d 440 N.Y.S.2d 843, 423 N.E.2d 320, reversed remanded. Michael S. Gruen, appellant. Erwin N. Griswold, Washington, D. C., Justice MARSHALL delivered opinion Court. 1 This presents question minor constitutes "taking" due Amendments Constitution. law N.Y.Exec.Law § 828(1) (McKinney Supp. 1981-1982). In case, occupied side building. appropriation taking. 320 (1981). Because we conclude such reverse. 2 * Loretto purchased located at 303 West 105th Street, 1971. previous appellees Teleprompter Corp. Manhattan (collectively Teleprompter)1 permission privilege furnishing services described follows: 3 "On 1, 1970 TelePrompter slightly 4 one-half inch diameter approximately 30 feet length about 18 inches top, directional taps, inches, front rear roof. By 8, been extended 6 run taps adjoining 305 Street." Id., 135, N.Y.S.2d, 847, N.E.2d, 324. 5 two large silver boxes cables. are attached nails penetrating masonry two-foot intervals, equipment bolts. Initially, Teleprompter's service They were part what could "highway" circumnavigating city block, periodically dropped back desired service. Crucial network so-called "crossovers"—cable lines extending order reach new group tenants.2 Two years after connected "noncrossover" line—i.e., provided own tenants—by dropping line first floor down 7 Prior 1973, routinely obtained authorization installations owners cable's route, compensating standard rate 5% gross revenues realized particular facilitate access enacted 828 Executive Law, effective January 1973. Section "interfere premises," permitting "in [State Cable Television] shall, regulation, determine reasonable."3 may, however, bear cost indemnify damage caused installation. 828(1)(b), normal fee entitled. Matter Implementation 90004, Statement General Policy (New Television, Jan. 15, 1976) (Statement Policy), App. 51-52; Clarification (Aug. 27, 1976), 68-69. nominal fee, concluded equivalent would receive if condemned pursuant York's Corporations satisfied requirements absence showing greater attributable taking." Policy, 52. 8 discover existence until She 1976 placed components, alleging trespass and, 828, requested relief.4 City York, Manhattan, Court, Special Term, upholding constitutionality situations. Misc.2d 944, 415 180 (1979). affirmed opinion. A.D.2d 849, 422 550 9 On appeal, Appeals, dissent, statute. requires allow permits him request level Commission, noncrossovers. purpose—eliminating stated expectations. Accordingly, Chief Judge Cooke dissented, reasoning balancing courts ordinarily employ evaluating 10 light holding, occasion awarded adequate Gabrielli, concurring, agreed dissent presumptive award, together procedures demonstrate entitlement, affords We noted probable jurisdiction. 454 938, 472, 70 246 II 11 "rapid maximum penetration means communication aspects," N.Y.2d, 143-144, 852, 329, power. reason determination. It separate question, otherwise valid so frustrates paid. See Transporta- tion 127-128, 2660-2661, 631 (1978); Delaware, L. & W. R. Morristown, 276 182, 193, 48 276, 278, 72 L.Ed. 523 (1928). interests serve. Our history confirms rule, recent cases do it, purposes Takings Clause compel retention. A. 12 supra, surveyed some general principles Clause. "set formula" existed determine, cases, constitutionally restriction Ordinarily, engage "essentially ad hoc, factual inquiries." S.Ct., 2659. But inquiry standardless. especially degree interference significance. "So, too, character action. 'taking' readily found can characterized government, arises program adjusting benefits burdens life promote common good." Ibid. (citation omitted). 13 As affirms, often substantial where deemed interest. At same time, long considered intrusion unusually serious establish reaches extreme form occupation, occurred. "the action" factor resolving determinative. 14 faced challenge invariably taking.5 early 1872, Pumpelly Green Bay Co., Wall. (80 U.S.) 166, 20 557, defendant's construction, authority, dam flooded plaintiff's unanimous stated, qualification, "where estate actually invaded superinduced additions water, earth, sand, material, having artificial structure effectually destroy impair usefulness, meaning Constitution." 181. Seven later, reemphasized importance distinguishing restricted Northern Chicago, 99 635, 25 336 (1879), city's construction temporary river tunnel even though plaintiffs thereby denied their premises, because obstruction impaired plaintiffs' distinguished earlier flooding regarded e.g., Pumpelly, involving "a owner, practical ouster possession." contrast, "[n]o entry lot." U.S., 642. 15 Since these consistently hand, invasion, outside causes consequential within, other. always former situation. United Lynah, 188 445, 468-470, 23 349, 356-357, 47 539 (1903); Bedford States, 192 217, 225, 24 238, 240, 414 (1904); Cress, 243 316, 327-328, 37 380, 384-385, 61 746 (1917); Sanguinetti 264 146, 149, 44 264, 265, 68 608 (1924) (to "constitute actual, land, amounting of, to, property"); Kansas Life Ins. 339 799, 809-810, 885, 890-891, 94 1277 (1950). 16 St. Louis Western Union Telegraph 148 92, 485, 380 (1893), applied enunciated situation closely analogous presented today. exact telegraph company's placement poles streets. reasoned: 17 "The [company] makes streets one, temporary, shifting public. ordinary traveler, foot vehicle, passes fro streets, thereof shifting. he moment abandons next traveller. . is, much poles, exclusive. dispossesses destroyed ground. Whatever transportation messages, far respects actual highway personal travel, wholly lost 19 ". matters taken, steam railroads street railroads, telegraphs telephones, chooses party corporation given pecuniary being deprived appropriated." 98-99, 101-102, 488-489 (emphasis added).6 Similarly, Pennsylvania 195 540, 133, 49 312 (1904), constructed operated railroad's way. federal grant eminent domain operate absent consent, assumed telephone compensable 570, 141 (the right-of-way "cannot whole except compensation"). Later relying clearly occupations land lines, rails, underground pipes wires takings they occupy relatively insubstantial amounts seriously landowner's rest land. See, Lovett Va. Gas 65 W.Va. 739, S.E. 196 (1909); Southwestern Bell Telephone Webb, 393 S.W.2d 117, 121 (Mo.App.1965). Cf. Portsmouth Harbor Land Hotel 260 327, 43 67 287 (1922). generally J. Sackman, Nichols' Law Eminent Domain 6.21 (rev. 3d ed. 1980).7 21 More confirm distinction short restricts Causby, 328 256, 66 1062, 90 1206 (1946), frequent flights comparing overflights quintessential taking: 22 "If, frequency altitude flights, respondents purpose, loss complete. complete entered surface taken possession it." 261, 1065 (footnote explained, "We doubt that, erected elevated railway respondents' precise planes now fly, partial none supports rested immediate subtract full enjoyment limit exploitation 264-265, 1067. "were consequential. product domain." 265-266, 1067-1068. Griggs Allegheny County, 369 84, 82 531, 585 (1962). 26 wartime instructive. Pewee Coal 341 114, 71 670, 95 809 (1951), unanimously Government's seizure direction operation coal mine prevent national strike miners members differed losses suffered during period Government compensable. plurality little difficulty concluding "actual control," clear title ownership. 116, 671 (plurality Black, J., whom Frankfurter, Douglas, Jackson, JJ., joined; challenged opinion). Eureka Mining 357 155, 78 1097, 1228 (1958), issued requiring nonessential gold mines cease operations conserving manpower essential war effort. Over dissenting Harlan's complaint "as matter Order led different those followed acquisition States," id., 181, 1110; reasoned occupy, manner take them." 165-166, 1102-1103. justified exigency war.8 YMCA 395 85, 89 1511, 1515, 117 (1969) ("Ordinarily, course, deprives deprivation Constitution 27 Although Court's most addressed issue before us, emphasized repudiated imply subject process, suggest ever exempt 28 above, contains discussions explained hoc several factors particularly significant—the interferes repudiate unique might examine.9 29 Kaiser Aetna 444 164, 100 383, 62 332 (1979), imposition navigational servitude pond landowner reasonably consent connecting navigable water. took exclude, "one sticks bundle commonly property." 176, 391. explained: "This exercising regulatory cause devaluation petitioner's property; rather, context result privately owned marina. physically easement nonetheless pay 265 [66 1067, 1206] (1946); 327 [43 287] (1922)." 180, added). 31 passage, per se, reemphasizes character.10 32 Another underscores PruneYard Shopping Center Robins, 447 74, 2035, 64 741 (1980), requirement shopping center individuals exercise free speech petition already invited restricting expressive activities imposing place, restrictions minimize commercial functions. limited nature, exhibited interest excluding persons [the solicitors] 'physically invaded' owners'] viewed determinative." 338.11 33 short, Central, our uniformly B 34 historical another's tradition commend it. perhaps interests. borrow metaphor, cf. Andrus Allard, 51, 65-66, 318, 326-327, 210 single "strand" "bundle" rights: chops through bundle, slice every strand. 35 Property thing "to Motors Corp., 323 373, 378, 357, 359, 311 (1945). each rights. First, possess himself, exclude occupier space. traditionally treasured strands rights.12 Aetna, 179-180, 392-393; see Restatement (1936). Second, forever denies others, nonpossessory obtain profit not, independently sufficient 66, relevant. Finally, retain bare legal transfer sale, empty value, purchaser unable 36 directly Part II-A, indicates, protected expectation undisturbed least require, well, dominion literally adds insult injury. Michelman, Property, Utility, Fairness: Comments Ethical Foundations "Just Compensation" 80 Harv.L.Rev. 1165, 1228, n. 110 (1967). Furthermore, imposes affirmative duties 19, infra. avoids difficult line-drawing problems. Few disagree required third parties swimming pools landlords' rooftops convenience tenants, If here space, again, few occupied.13 Indeed, possible future, additional significantly restrict landlord's made. multiple installations.14 38 occurred problems proof. fixed obvious rarely dispute. Once shown, should consider relevant determining due.15 For reason, moreover, need instance. C 39 test. wall.16 40 analysis, find crossovers noncrossovers appropriate 41 Appellees raise series objections application here. notes draws conclusion permissible fail see, why Insofar differ. So remains residential wishes it.17 42 asserts related tenant's answer 828(1)(a) lower decisions ground.18 Of Teleprompter, owns unlimited redefine Webb's Fabulous Pharmacies, Inc. Beckwith, 449 101 446, 452, 358 (1980) ("a State, ipse dixit, transform into agree relationships. broad regulate housing relationship paying injuries entails. Heart Atlanta Motel, 379 241, 85 348, 258 (1964) (discrimination places accommodation); Queenside Hills Realty Saxl, 80, 850, 1096 (1946) (fire regulation); Bowles Willingham, 321 503, 641, 88 892 (1944) (rent control); Home Building Loan Assn. Blaisdell, 290 398, 54 231, 413 (1934) (mortgage moratorium); Edgar Levy Leasing Siegel, 242, 289, 595 (1922) (emergency law); Block Hirsh, 256 458, 865 (1921) control). authorize party. Consequently, today codes utility connections, mailboxes, smoke detectors, fire extinguishers, like regulations suffer party, analyzed multifactor activity. (1978).19 III very narrow. affirm entertains historically rooted compensation, intrusive category regulation. equally authority impose 45 presuppose many prior law's enactment proper measure value taken. due, express opinion, remand.20 46 reversed, remanded proceedings inconsistent ordered. BLACKMUN, BRENNAN WHITE join, dissenting. construing anything clearly, "[t]here set formula ends begins." Goldblatt Town Hempstead, 590, 594, 987, 990, 130 (1962).1 50 curiously anachronistic decision, acknowledges disavowal formulae almost breath constructs rigid se rule: serve." Ante, 426. sustain precedents, erects strained untenable "temporary invasions," whose concededly "is process," "permanent occupations," "taking[s] examine." 432. 51 my view, approach "reduces formalistic quibble" "permanently occupied" "temporarily invaded." Sax, Police Power, 74 Yale L.J. 36, (1964). facts vividly illustrates potentially dangerous well misguided. Despite concession "States entails," ante, 440, uses undercut carefully legislative concerning I therefore respectfully dissent. 52 Before examining worth reviewing "taken" case. 4" x metal boxes. Jointly, one-eighth cubic 1971, "physical invasion" challenges occurred.2 bring five demanding claiming 1981-1982) "took" Division, rejected claim, proscribe TV fixtures protect tenants who ultimately charge permitted collect company, respective apartments." 153, 858, 335 ruling, test prescribed decisions. Those teach questions resolved inquiries," 175, 390, "such action, impact, expectations." 83, 2042, (1980). 144-151, 853-858, 330-334. 55 found, first, represented effort arbitrate encourage communications medium.3 143-145, 852-853, 329-330. 83-84, determinative question. 146-147, 854, 331.4 56 statute's de minimis affect fair return 148-150, 855-856, 332-333. Third, 150-151, 856-857, 333-334. unaware cable. 2, supra. Thus, invested installment become income-productive. 859, 336. Given Appeals' straightforward yielded finding becomes escape dictated resorting bygone precedents arguing occupations" somehow differ forms 58 argues based occupation" rooted, 426-435, jurisprudentially sound, respects. 19th-century lack vitality agrarian decided.5 if, chance, lingering vitality, then, stand uniquely unsuited modern urban age. logically assertion "effectively destroys" three rights," 435. 59 nonphysical intrusions zoning ordinances land-use restrictions, rather exception. Modern exudes intangible "externalities" diminish touchings. Nevertheless, recognizes, "often interest." Agins Tiburon, 255, 2138, 106 (1980); 124-125, Village Euclid Ambler 272 365, (1926). 60 Precisely injure depends contact," avoided rules resting outmoded distinctions intrusions. commentator observed, inherently suspect "its capacity distinguish, crudely, significant insignificant too puny seriously." 1227 Surprisingly, finer invasions" occupations." authorizes latter intrusion, interests" Yet examination words newly-created rejected. mean "permanent"? limitations exclude" remain "subject complex process taking," 435, 12, presumably describes lasts forever. itself concedes, forever, "[s]o installation." 439. "permanent." 63 reaffirms entails." 440. defines statutory responsibilities Yorker accepts enters business. converts perfectly once purposes, statutes regulating relationship.6 "permanent" "without serve," attachments constitute takings, serve indisputably safety.7 theory invalidates statutes, "do party." surely determinative, simultaneously recognizes invasions rule. Nor qualitative arise incidental 19. anything, leaves better off ensures damaged esthetically physically, 4, burdening buying maintaining event, "third party" problem herself continuously passed electronic signal cable, litigant argue second element formula—a touching" stranger—was worked taking.8 Literally read, opens door endless metaphysical struggles individual's "physically" touched. precisely avoid "permit[ting] technicalities dictate substance," 1110, (1958) (Harlan, dissenting), abandoned contacts" place. talismanic continuous "occupation" transient "invasion" finds basis either logic precedent. context, rent "temporary" considerable magnitude. (statute apartments termination leases). record numerous officially intruded deeply long-unnoticed (leafletting demonstrating busy center); (1979) (public passage pond); (noisy airplane land). While, subjected them inflexible adapted analyze obtrusive present 430-431, 432-435. sum, teaches claims properly evaluated directing automatically compensable, owner," 434-435, equity encourages litigants manipulate allegations gain relish prospect inevitable flow certiorari petitions attempting shoehorn today's formula." Setting aside history, states impairs powers others from, fact, discussion nowhere demonstrates how garden-variety legislation. 69 contends cable-occupied sale. claim dissolves moment's reflection. someone buys person removed, wishes. exist. Even render valueless. matter, living likely increases resale attractiveness market.9 differs provisions occupying" spaces buildings. acknowledges, traditionally—and constitutionally—have exercised building." Like ensure legislature deems important, electricity, natural light, intercommunication systems, mail 7, dispositional affected adversely sells provisions. suggests unconstitutionally dwelling oblige surrender larger tenants' landlord—rather installers—to maintain equipment. example, mailboxes times volume Tr. Oral Arg. 42-43, citing N.Y.Mult.Dwell.Law 1974). insist sacrifice mail, hard understand filled expense, signals. solely interfered Any intelligible ask alternative property.10 freely admitted 97 (Deposition Loretto). final "power space" flaws. unjustifiably assumes countervailing space.11 Legislature common-law ago recognized social circumstances justify modification sufficiently Munn Illinois, 113, 134, 77 (1877) ("A vested interest, law. great office remedy defects developed, adapt changes time circumstance"); 260-261, (In world, "[c]ommon sense revolts idea" legislatures alter ownership rights). 75 recognized, maintains compliance recently aptly observed: 76 "[Appellant's] suggestion revision accepted, represent era Lochner 198 [25 539, 937] (1905), immune Federal Government. freeze courts, development. room change response circumstance. Due Process result." 93, 2047 (concurring end, troubles me decision represents archaic judicial problem. growing, somewhat controversial, medium. Brief Television Association Amicus Curiae 6-7 (about 25% American homes televisions—approximately million families—currently subscribe television, expected double 1990). responded technological advance enacting sought balance parties. nn. litigation, jurist judgment. disrupts determination.12 believe solution precipitated advances ways come restraints formulated enforced courts." 274, 1072 (dissenting uphold Appeals. formerly subsidiary, division, defined "crossover" comprehensively occurring: "[W]hen (1) servicing adjacent buildings, (2) amplifier amplify signals neighboring (3) service, providing 6, 846, 323, 6. Exec.Law part: "1. No shall "a. require: "i. conform safety, functioning appearance well-being tenants; "ii. combination entire removal facilities; "iii. facilities. "b. accept tenant, form, exchange therefor commission reasonable; "c. discriminate charges, otherwise, not." Class-action status accordance request, single-family dwellings component excluded. Notice postponed, stipulation. Professor Michelman accurately summarized role concept jurisprudence: "At explicit expropriation, occur encroachment significance while sometimes hold nontrespassory never deny takeover. incontestable (short formal expropriation) seems deliberately brings agents, large, 'regularly' 'permanently' theretofore understood ownership." 1184 (1967) original; footnotes 6-50, 6-51 1980); Tribe, Constitutional 460 (1978). discussions, 157-158, 860-861, 337-338 (Cooke, C.J., dissenting); F. Bosselman, Callies, Banta, Taking Issue (1973); Stoebuck, Theory Domain, Wash.L.Rev. 553, 600-601 (1972); Dunham, County Perspective: Thirty Years Expropriation 1962 S.Ct.Rev. 63, 82; Cormack, Legal Concepts Cases 221, 225 (1931). objects domain; excluded principle cited cases. 566-567, 139-140, California F.2d 263, (CA9 1968). Also, squarely authorizing post roads, 101, 489. Early commentators Blackstone, Commentaries *139; Lewis, 197 (1888) ("Any necessity ., upon, below surface, permanent, constructing ditch passing tunnel, laying gas, water sewer soil, structures bridge wire" omitted; emphasis original)); P. Nichols, 282 (2d 1917). although Harlan treated paradigm 183-184, 1111-1112. place Central's reference "by government," similar differently. disagree. instead occupant. 557 (1872). holds appropriation, commits 128, 2661. That prohibition sale eagle feathers traders bird artifacts. artifacts, restraint them. crucial transport donate devise birds. [L]oss future profits—unaccompanied restriction—provides slender reed claim." 326-327. reliance labor union organizers, Hudgens NLRB, 424 507, 96 1029, (1976); Hardware 407 92 2238, 122 NLRB Babcock Wilcox 351 105, 679, 975 (1956), similarly misplaced. "[T]he allowed employees' [to organize National Labor Relations Act]. requisite employer's (i) organizers; (ii) non-working premises; (iii) duration organization accommodation announced campaigns, 'yielding' limited." 545, 2242. permanence absolute exclusivity distinguish exclude. Not intermittent reveal, rationale evident: absolutely dispossess clear. Post, 448. objection overstated, event irrelevant critical point unquestionably antitrust area, similarly, declined apply must, boundary analysis. approvingly Butler Frontier 186 N.Y. 486, 79 N.E. 716 (1906), ejectment lie wire strung across touching soil. quoted following language: " '[A]n including beneath. huge thick ground, degree, principle. Expand beam supported posts standing abutting lots still only. Enlarge bridge, yet Erect house air alone disturbed.' 10, quoting 491-492, N.E., 718. law, 811 seq. 1981-1982), technology reconsider decision. communities apparently nonexclusive franchises. Satellite Amici 21. testimony preceding "consists entirely insisting negligible unoccupied unoccupied." 141, 851, referred establishing award. 48. number dissent's arguments—that "likely market," post, 453-454 due. noted, speculative contradicted block" able sell higher price 100. (or predecessor title) previously "landowner ground connection land." 443. appears factually incorrect, ignores identified 90; Affidavit Support Motion Summary Judgment (Apr. 21, 1978), Appellants' Appendix 8300/76 (N.Y.App.), p. 77. reveal size, 18" 12" 6", n.*, dispute statement. displaced volume, 11/2 feet. critical: bigger breadbox. true ceasing ability conditioned forfeiting "use-dependency" proves much. devote vending washing machines, profits retained requisition offices. stranger's easily manipulated. decline hazard sharply desires, Ownership placement, manner, possibly disposition contrary "incidental," 450; (rather company) specifically authority. decide physical, esthetic, effects wished repair, demolish, construct located, incur burden obtaining cooperation moving obviated drilling stapling accompanied 95-96, 104. Appellant, resides testified "ugly." 99. "reasonable" "necessary" premises seek indemnity damage, limited. effective, inconvenience initiating repairs cognizable burden. address contention (1979); 65, 326, ("There abstract intervention appropriate"); Caltex, Inc., 344 156, 200, 203, 157 (1952) ("No laid noncompensable losses"); Mahon, 393, 416, 158, 160, 322 (a degree—and disposed propositions"). 1968, signed 5-year agreement flat $50. 30-foot main 4- 6-foot extension 1970. appurtenant equipment, object presence. despite inspections, noticed began 134-135, 324 thereafter remove components 107, 108, 110. alludes presence "two boxes" roof, 438, 16, mentions them, nor dimensions anywhere record. "prohibit gouging arbitrary "landlords [who] instances imposed extremely onerous buildings." 328, Joseph C. Swidler, Chairman Public Service Joint Legislative Committee considering bill. growing decided medium unoccupied. substantial, consisting (and send) world. age, preclude surcharge allowing service) receiving telegrams directed him." Ibid., Regulation Report Commissioner William K. Jones 207 (1970). regulates onto requests, tenants." 828(1)(a)(i) Supp.1981-1982). "agree facilities." 828(1)(a)(iii). [to] removal" 828(1)(a)(ii). adopted occupations. 432-435, 435 12. While relies dicta support holdings cites fall categories: flooding, 427-428, 428. 1950, stands destruction 'a taking' caused," rulings "been later respects." 1277. "[w]hether places" seeks "use public, [is] open citizens situate." 487-488. face, distinct here: extract continuing beyond namely, "any reasonable." 828(1)(b) Supp.1982). incidentally protects currently 422, 828's fundamental piece links "highway," simplest economical close proximity. "no installation," 438. assuming, arguendo, prepared incremental wire, child's 1974) (requiring entrance doors lights); (windows skylights halls stairs); 50-a (Supp.1982) (locks systems); 50-c (lobby attendants); 51-a (peepholes); 51-b (elevator mirrors); escapes); (bells receptacles); 67(3) sprinklers). (upholding sprinkler provision). These specify detail (owners "proper appliances distribute supply water," sink running two-inch waste trap"); frontage exceeding "at lights, way, illumination hundred fifty watts illumination"); 50-a(2) (Supp.1981-1982) Class system "located automatic self-locking giving hall lobby"). Apartment exempted. (landlords parapet walls guardrails roofs "three six height area"). counsel oral argument. Urging adopts, suggested location [taken changes] inside wire.. [T]he landlord, pass benefit." 15. pretrial deposition, conceded thought enhanced market 102-103, upset removed. asserting landlords, pools," 436, 439, 17, Presumably, create approach. Depending among things, hypothetical examples takings. hardly prove, se. square hardware attach. Under tenancy possessory specified contract provision package Schoshinski, Landlord Tenant 3:14 leasehold includes contractual, implied warranty habitability, control, obliged provide. Happily, losses. 441. Commission's awards damages," 52, concurring ("[I]t incurs put commensurate injury"). If, remand declared deserving net expenditure resources moment.

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