Document: 499 U.S. 83 111 S.Ct. 1138 113 L.Ed.2d 68 WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS, INC., Petitionerv.Robert CASEY, Governor of Pennsylvania, et al. No. 89-994. Argued Oct. 9, 1990. Decided March 19, 1991. Syllabus After petitioner West Virginia University Hospitals, Inc. (WVUH), prevailed at trial in its suit under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 against respondent Pennsylvania officials over Medicaid reimbursement rates for services provided to residents, the District Court awarded fees pursuant 1988, which, inter alia, gives court certain civil rights suits discretion allow prevailing party "a reasonable attorney's fee as part costs." WVUH's award included attributable an accounting firm and three doctors specializing hospital finance hired assist preparation testify. The Appeals affirmed merits, but reversed expert fees, disallowing them except extent that they fell within $30-per-day witnesses by 28 §§ 1920(3) 1821(b). Held: Fees rendered experts litigation may not be shifted losing fee" 1988. Pp. 86-102. (a) Sections 1920 1821(b) define full a federal court's power shift whether testimonial or nontestimonial, absent "explicit statutory authority contrary." Crawford Fitting Co. v. J.T. Gibbons, Inc., 482 437, 439, 107 2494, 2496, 96 385; see id., 441, S.Ct., 2497. This will lightly infer Congress has repealed those sections through provision like 1988 does refer explicitly witness fees. See 445, 2499. 86-87. (b) Statutory usage before, during, after 1976 (the date 1988's enactment) did regard phrase "attorney's fees" embracing experts' services. 88-92. (c) At time enactment, judicial including 92-97. (d) Where, here, statute contains is unambiguous, this Court's sole function enforce it according terms. See, e.g., United States Ron Pair Enterprises, 489 235, 241, 109 1026, 1030, 103 290. Although chronology remarks some sponsors bill became suggest was viewed response Alyeska Pipeline Service Wilderness Society, 421 240, 95 1612, 44 141 (1975), text both broader narrower than pre-Alyeska regime. best evidence congressional purpose text, which cannot expanded contracted statements individual legislators committees during enactment process. argument would have if had thought about it, Equal Access Justice Act, duty ask how decided actually considered question, profoundly mistakes role with respect unambiguous Iselin States, 270 245, 250-251, 46 248, 250, 70 L.Ed. 566. 97-101. 885 F.2d 11 (CA3 1989), affirmed. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, SOUTER, JJ., joined. MARSHALL, filed dissenting opinion, post, p. ----. STEVENS, MARSHALL BLACKMUN, joined, Robert T. Adams, Richmond, Va., petitioner. Calvin R. Koons, Harrisburg, respondents. SCALIA Court. 1 case presents question permits fee." I 2 Petitioner operates Morgantown, W.Va., near border. often used recipients living southwestern Pennsylvania. In January 1986, Pennsylvania's Department Public Welfare notified WVUH new schedules residents Morgantown hospital. administrative proceedings, unsuccessfully objected on constitutional grounds. exhausting remedies, Federal 1983. Named defendants (respondents here) were Casey various other officials. 3 Counsel employed Coopers & Lybrand, national firm, lawsuit testify trial. May subsequently 1988,1 $100,000 found these been "essential" presentation case—a finding disputed 4 Respondents appealed judgment merits award. Third Circuit former, prescribed 1821. (1989). petitioned review disallowance; we granted certiorari, 494 1003, 110 1294, 108 472 (1990). II Title provides: 5 "A judge clerk any tax costs following: 6 "(1) marshal; 7 "(2) reporter all stenographic transcript necessarily obtained use case; 8 "(3) disbursements printing witnesses; 9 "(4) exemplification copies papers 10 "(5) Docket section 1923 title; "(6) Compensation appointed experts, compensation interpreters, salaries, expenses, special interpretation 1828 title." 12 limits authorized follows: shall paid attendance $30 per day each day's attendance. A also occupied going returning from place . ."2 385 (1987), held provisions express go further. "[W]hen," said, seeks own witnesses, bound 1821(b), contract explicit Id., 2496. "We 1821, either [Federal Rule Civil Procedure] 54(d) referring fees." 13 As hospital's therefore, plainly requires, prerequisite reimbursement, identification authority." argues, however, incurred unrelated testimony, limits, apply only trial, are no consequence. We agree that, there remains applicable limitation 1920. said find implied repeal 1821 1920, upon types authority, courts. U.S., None categories expenses listed can reasonably read include nontestimonial advisory capacity. before us, then, is—with fees—whether term provides authority" required Fitting.3 III 14 record demonstrates convincingly regarded separate elements cost. While fee-shifting provisions, fees," see, Rights Act 1964, 2000e-5(k), many others well 1976, just week prior passed Toxic Substances Control 15 2618(d), 2619(c)(2), provide recover "the attorneys witnesses." (Emphasis added.) Also amended Consumer Product Safety 2060(c), 2072(a), 2073, originally enacted 1972 "cost[s] suit, fee," 86 Stat. 1226. amendment, altered their present form adding shifting addition Pub.L. 94-284, 10, 90 506, 507. Two significant Acts contain similar phrasing: Resource Conservation Recovery 6972(e) ("costs (including attorney fees)"), Natural Gas Amendments 49 U.S.C.App. 1686(e) fees"). similarly phrased numerous statutes Endangered Species 1973, 16 1540(g)(4) afterwards, Utility Regulatory Policies 1978, 2632(a)(1) ("reasonable attorneys' advocacy [the litigant's] position" ). These encompass diverse legislation, tax, procedure, environmental protection, consumer admiralty navigation, utilities regulation, and, significantly, rights: (EAJA), counterpart violation employees, states " 'fees expenses' [as 2412(d)(1)(A) ] includes 2412(d)(2)(A). least 34 different titles U.S.Code fees.4 laws less common, establish 1976: Such referred when intended. Criminal 18 3006A(e), directs reimburse counsel necessary defense indigent criminal defendants—even though immediately preceding provision, 3006A(d), already designated hourly rate plus "expenses incurred." position must billed client because treated attorney; normal usage, reimbursable incurred"—and subsection 3006A(e) add nothing recoverable amount. very heading subsection, "Services counsel" (emphasis added), acknowledges distinction between himself (or client) nonlegal expert. 17 To same effect 1980 EAJA, cost study, analysis, engineering report, test, project party's case, 2412(d)(2)(A) added). If "study" "analysis"—which another way describing services—is common "attorney again highly detailed becomes redundant. Administrative Procedure 504(b)(1)(A) (added 1980), Tax Equity Fiscal Responsibility 1982, 26 7430(c)(1), language. reflecting two railroad regulation statutes, Regional Rail Reorganization 45 726(f)(9) accountants, attorneys) incurred"), Railroad Revitalization Reform 854(g) incurred").5 think shows beyond distinct items expense. If, one other, dozens separately become inexplicable exercise redundancy. IV 19 argues pre-1976 experts. support proposition, relies historical assertions: first, courts, exercising traditional equitable taxed element such related services; second, courts identical phrasing allowed recovery disagree assertions. background mirrored background: subset category 20 Certainly true parties doctrines—sometimes conjunction But Typical courts' mode analysis (though results) Fey Walston Co., 493 1036, 1055-1056 (CA7 1974), brought securities laws. Plaintiff won variousex penses: "Included [district] sum $1,700 plaintiff's witness, accountant amount $142, illustrator-diagrammer $50 $15,660." separately: illustrator (who trial) "costs" could fully district court; shifted, limited 1821; fit doctrines awarding 1056. re Electric Power Light Corp., 210 585, 587, 591 (CA2 1954) ("[Appellant] applied allowance $35,975 ., $2,734.28 accountant"; permitted disallowed fee), rev'd grounds sub nom. SEC Drexel 348 341, 75 386, 99 376 (1955); Kiefel Las Vegas Hacienda, 404 1163, 1170-1171 1968) (itemizing separately, allowing former latter 1821); Burgess Williamson, 506 870, 877-880 (CA5 1975) (applying Alabama law fee); Henning Lake Charles Harbor Terminal District, 387 264, 267-268 1968), appeal remand, 409 932, 937 1969) Louisiana Coughenour Campbell Barge Line, 388 F.Supp. 501, (WD Pa.1974) ("Plaintiffs' claim denied [because defendant acted good faith thus unavailable]. Plaintiff's medical deemed proper insofar establishing .") (citations omitted). 21 Even where holdings (i.e., both), discussed Wolf Frank, 477 467, 480 1973) ("The reimbursing plaintiffs' supported established principles") added); Kinnear-Weed Corp. Humble Oil Refining 441 631, 636-637 1971) erred costs, Humble"); Bebchick Pub. Util. Comm'n, 115 U.S.App.D.C. 216, 233, 318 187, 204 (1963) ("It our view appellants, appropriate should [appellee]"); Lipscomb Wise, 399 782, 798-801 (ND Tex.1975) (in analyses, barred). proposition law, 22 Of arguably greater significance treatment versus containing contends cases statutorily fees—and former. find, practice, overwhelming majority cases, otherwise. 23 Prior leading Clayton 38 731, amended, (shifting fee"). four Circuits (six Circuits, summary affirmances judgments) permit Union Carbide Carbon Nisley, 300 561, 586-587 (CA10 1961) (accountant's fees); Twentieth Century Fox Film Goldwyn, 328 190, 223-224 (CA9 1964) (accounting Advance Business Systems Supply SCM 287 143, 164 (Md.1968) fees), aff'd, 415 55 (CA4 1969); Farmington Dowel Products Forster Mfg. 297 924, 930 (Me.) (expert 61 (CA1 Trans World Airlines, Hughes, 449 51, 81 grounds, 363, 93 647, 577 (1973); Ott Speedwriting Publishing 518 1143, 1149 (CA6 Brookside Theater Century-Fox F.R.D. 259, 267 Mo.1951) fees). No instructive practice patent laws, provided, 35 285, "[t]he exceptional party." Again, every consider matter conveyed Specialty Equipment Machinery Zell Motor Car 193 515, 521 1952) ("Congress having dealt subject taxation without making presumably intended taxed"); accord, Chromalloy American Alloy Surfaces 353 429, 431, n. 1, 433 (Del.1973); ESCO Tru-Rol 178 USPQ 332, 333 (Md.1973); Scaramucci Universal 234 290, 291-292 La.1964); Prashker Beech Aircraft 24 305, 313 (Del.1959). Tasby Estes, 416 644, 648 Tex.1976), Davis County Los Angeles, FEP Cases 244, 246 (CD Cal.1974). constituted solid advanced hospital, hardly sufficient overcome weight cited above. But, neither clear example contrary usage. Without entering into discussion, suffices say, (where event uncontested), cite statute, 2000e-5, basis belief considers dealing Given what then state Ninth Circuit, citation, Cases, 246, avowedly NAACP Allen, 340 703 (MD Ala.1972), likely general powers, 54(d). Tasby, unquestionably attorney's-fee-shifting 1617 (1976 ed.). decision, understanding rather (quite erroneous) earlier Bradley Richmond School Bd., 696, 94 2006, 40 476 (1974), adopted interpretation. Thus, single none, even likely) understood fees.6 sum, conclude nor V 25 suggests distinctive meaning meant overrule decision (1975). mentioned above, 1975 circumstances discretion. Alyeska, extend few long recognized law. Specifically, rejected so-called "private general" doctrine recently created lower La Raza Unida Volpe, 57 94, 98-102 Cal.1972), plaintiffs litigation. 269, 1627. restore regime—and since now. Both members Alyeska. S.Rep. 94-1011, pp. 4, (1976). It considerable step, conclusion us draw, namely, reversal respects. 27 By plain language unanimously construed Before private enforcement defend important benefiting large numbers people, barriers might otherwise preclude suits. Unida, supra, 98-101. Section limitation—so propriety doubtful theories. respects, broad limited, example, violations specified statutes—which means outcome itself, involved National Environmental Policy 1969, 4321 seq. Since return precisely regime, objective achieving reason depart import text. further enacting prevail ordinary quotes, House Committee Report remedy [must be] complete," H.R.Rep. 94-1558, (1976), Senate "[c]itizens opportunity vindicate [civil] court," 2. observed sets out change, resolves leave alone. Rodriguez 522, 525-526, 1391, 1393-1394, 533 (1987). Houses submitted President. Where unambiguous—that clearly accepted legislative practice—we do course 290 (1989) ("[W]here, statute's plain, 'the terms' "), quoting Caminetti 242 470, 485, 37 192, 194, 442 (1917). easily "reasonable expenses," contemporaneous statutes; chose instead enact more restrictive language, restriction. 29 asserts previously guided "broad remedial purposes" context resolving "analogous issue": Missouri Jenkins, 491 274, 2463, ----, 105 229 (1989), concluded paralegal law-clerk charged party. trouble Jenkins involve issue," relevant considerations concerned. issue not, contends, perception "policy" "plain language." remotely charges services, "secretaries, messengers, librarians, janitors, whose labor contributes work product," 2470, traditionally calculation lawyers' rates. Only arisen 'increasingly widespread custom billing [such] services,' 286, 2470-2471 (quoting Ramos Lamm, 713 546, 558 1983)). contrast, never been, knowledge, There Jenkins—as lengthy here—of recognizes know shifts separately; those, comprehensively assessable "litigation costs" make mention clerks paralegals. words, (giving benefit doubt) genuinely ambiguous; resolved ambiguity invoking policy supersedes concluding sort difference. term's application lead 30 last contention done so it. Most pre-§ litigation, necessity advice readily apparent; later runs, 94th simply forgot; question. Friedrich Chicago, 888 511, 514 1989) (awarding "complete reading bring end clearly"). 31 role. presented first ambiguous, construe permissible fits most logically comfortably body J. Sutherland, Construction 5201 (3d F. Horack ed.1943). precise accommodative lawmakers mind (how enact? ), sense nonsense corpus juris. where, prevents accommodation, eliminate expressed inconsistency treat alike subjects Congresses chosen differently. facile attribution "forgetfulness" justify usurpation. contradictory disposition merely difference parsimonious generous one, saying forgot felt circumstances, forgetfulness rests reality judge's assessment better disposition. judges prescribe. reject Brandeis, writing once explicit) States: 32 "[The statute's] unambiguous. What Government asks construction but, effect, enlargement court, omitted, inadvertence, scope. supply omissions transcends function." 566 (1926).7 33 * For foregoing reasons, conveys When appear eligible 1821—which Appeals. 36 ordered. dissenting. STEVENS demonstrates, uses implements literalism wound, minister to, intent case. That dangerous usurpation involved. troubling designed give access persons groups attempting vital rights. Judge ably put point analogous context: 39 "At here much simple [plaintiff's] receive continued vigorous commitment Nation's lofty, yet unfulfilled, agenda promises land available citizens, race sex impermissible characteristic. ways undermine commitment. open direct: anti-discrimination second indirect reason, somewhat insidious: deny victims discrimination redress creating economic market afford represent take court." Hidle Geneva Bd. Ed., 681 752, 758-759 Ala.1988) VII 1964.). whom BLACKMUN join, 41 Statute Wills 1540,1 careful draftsmen executors pay debts decedent, estate. omission authorization indicate testator unnecessary, he overlooked point, surely deliberate forbid his attorney. early 1970's, began focus importance public interest time, statutes. cites length, ante, 88-92, expressly whether, notwithstanding authorize my view, estate's attorney, look interpreted past, history, resolve looking need compensating witnesses. 43 Under typically assumed articulated component Because interpreting words evaluated created.2 litigation.3 illustrates point. Leaving aside sought $45,867 disbursements, App. Pet. Cert. C-1, 1920.4 travel long-distance telephone calls, questioned respondent. They retained lawyer ordinarily her client. accordingly kind. given highlighted THE CHIEF JUSTICE's contrasting argued One issues paralegals compensated. State contended actual cost, value, govern. nonlawyers. JUSTICE—in lone dissent reasoning now endorsed Court—advanced purely literal statute. He wrote: "I State's suggestion party, 'attorney's fees' nonetheless expands definition 'costs' 'a fee,' fairly out-of-pocket Absent specific limitations imposed govern cost-shifting applicable. specifically enumerates six costs: reporter; fees; copying docket court-appointed interpreters. list exclusive. 437 [107 385] none possibly paralegals, hold cost." 297-298, 2476. 47 JUSTICE narrowly defined reach reimbursed rate. product attorney." 2470. explained: 48 "[T]he account attorneys, secretaries, bills client; profit. suggested why compensated, any. starting self-evident 'reasonable fee' compensate attorneys." Ibid. acknowledged reduced 'by reducing spiraling further[ed] policies underlying statutes.' 288, 2471. forced perform supervision locating interviewing compiling statistical financial data, "it surprising performed themselves, increasing overall litigation." 2471, 10. 50 applies equally forms specialized needs customarily pays for, directly indirectly. reliance recent development tasks save enhance quality product. undisputed correctly "necessary" successful prosecution case,5 data played pivotal preparation.6 Had attempted performed, obviously taken far longer entire costly parties. Posner comparable case: 51 "The spent substitute is, prohibited deterred cost) hiring attempt educate expert's area expertise. encourage underspecialization inefficient preparation, lawyers paralegals' work. distinguishing educating ." 1989). 52 cover clerks, Similarly, routinely calls awarded, literally arbitrary inspired 53 Attorney's Awards explained proposed amendment "to anomalous gaps Supreme achieve consistency laws."7 Cong. Admin.News 5909. Judiciary wanted level playing field who little money, still serve actions, local bodies, "[i]f citizens able assert rights, violate fundamental proceed impunity, 2, 5910 According Committee, create "no startling remedy," technical requirements" requested "continue years decision." 6, 5913. 54 underscore intention Committee's approval several contained Legal Fees, Hearings Subcommittee Representation Citizen Interests Judiciary, 93d Cong., 1st Sess., pt. 3, 888-1024, 1060-1062 (1973) (hereinafter Hearings). 3. collected 1973 reversed, order suits.8 along passage concerns raised Report. noted effective depends largely efforts citizens" "designed "civil litigants suffering severe hardships decision," "devastating impact" "compelling need" context. 2-3. 56 Reports, subcommittee hearings, consisting testimony written submissions officials, scholars, practicing questions legislators, makes concerned preserving encouraging litigation.9 fair say throughout recurring theme desire whole again, 58 today type amending Petitioner, tertiary center border,10 number payment recipients, believed below minimum standards Social Security Act. successfully challenged adequacy system 59 determination assume $104,133 war whole. Hensley Eckerhart, 461 424, 435, 1933, 1940, 76 (1983), petitioner's "fully compensatory," or, "comparable 'is compensated fee-paying client.' 5908, 5913." 60 vacillated approach task guidance context, identifying motivated legislation. Christiansburg Garment EEOC, 434 412, 98 694, (1978), "mechanical construction," 418, 699, 706(k) 1964 urged us. drew kinds "prevailing parties," awards governed liberal standard defendants. holding rested entirely evaluation corners Nevertheless, unanimous evoked adverse criticism Congress.11 On occasions, thick grammarian's spectacles ignored teaching construing dramatically different. coincidence VII, led disparate pregnant nonpregnant sex, General Gilbert, 429 125, 97 401, 343 repudiated 95th Congress;12 "continuous physical presence" requirement 244(a)(1) Immigration Nationality temporary inadvertent absences country, INS Phinpathya, 464 183, 104 584, 78 401 (1984), rebuffed 99th Congress;13 word "program" IX Education 1972, gratuitous limit scope antidiscrimination IX,14 Grove City College Bell, 465 555, 1211, 79 516 100th Congress;15 refusal accept decisions Wards Cove Packing Atonio, 490 642, 2115, 733 (reformulating proof parties' burdens disparate-impact cases), Patterson McLean Credit Union, 164, 2363, 132 (limiting 1981 contracts), overwhelmingly 101st Congress,16 widely fraud, McNally 483 350, 2875, 292 (1987) mail fraud protection property), quickly corrected Congress.17 62 domain interpretation, master. correct mistakes, country disservice needlessly ignore persuasive Congress' require revisit matter"18 restate English whenever suffers error. Learned Hand explained, imprecise. 63 "All [legislators] write down mean generally situations pervert meaning, undisposed suppose for. Thus enough dictionary. more, come result sensible man recognize quite opposite really intended; contradict unfulfilled purpose." L. Hand, How Far Is Free Rendering Decision?, Spirit Liberty 103, 106 (I. Dilliard ed.1952). 64 concludes disagreement textual based dissenters' preference "better" 101. overlooks possibility faithful command. fact consistently inclusion weak reed rest represents awards. tell reading19 today. 65 respectfully dissent. part: "In action proceeding 1981, 1983, 1985, 1986 title, title Law 92-318, VI discretion, increase allowable diem $40. Judicial Improvements 1990, 101-650, 314. aware counter-intuitive assertion litigation," 104. harmony 2497, 2499, likewise STEVENS' speculation Rather, (billed subsumed Northcross Board Ed. Memphis Schools, 611 624, 639 1979) attorney" award). 1980) agent fees"); Trade Commission 57a(h)(1) participating rulemaking proceeding"); Petroleum Marketing Practices 2805(d)(1)(C), 2805(d)(3) Historic Preservation 1980, 470w-4 ("attorneys' action"); 825q-1(b)(2) 1978) intervening [before Energy Commission] "); 7430(c)(1) attorneys"); Surface Mining Reclamation 1977, 1270(d) Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources 1427(c) (enacted Royalty Management 1734(a)(4) Longshoremen's Workers' 928(d) ("In assessed mileage witnesses"); Water Pollution 1987 1365(d), 1369(b)(3) fees)"); 2706(g) (1988 ed., Supp. II) (same); Marine Protection, Research, Sanctuaries 1415(g)(4) Deepwater Port 1974, 1515(d) Prevent Ships, 1910(d) Safe Drinking 300j-8(d) 1974) Childhood Vaccine Injury 300aa-31(c) Noise 4911(d) 5851(e)(2) 6305(d) Clean Air 1970, 7413(b), 7604(d), 7607(f) (same), 7622(b)(2)(B) ("all fees) incurred"); Powerplant Industrial Fuel Use 8435(d) Ocean Thermal Conversion 9124(d) Comprehensive Response, Compensation, Liability 9659(f) 1986) Emergency Planning Community Right-to-Know 11046(f) Outer Continental Shelf Lands 1349(a)(5) Hazardous Liquid 1979, 2014(e) Conference stating: conferees intend 'attorneys' costs' test case." H.R.Conf.Rep. 99-687, (1986) (discussing Handicapped Children's Protection 1415(e)(4)(B)). undercuts supports position: specification unnecessary elements. statement apparent effort art. Fairley Patterson, 598 Norris Green, 317 100, 102 Ala.1965). remanding reconsideration award, equivocal "court ones normally awardable Voting 1965, parallels 1988), "should meet harder discretionary standards" F.2d, 606, 11. event, explicitly, indication (undefined) Norris, 501(b), parallel authorizes "fees latter—and guess preferences Congress. apparently believes desires Congress, be. "Only tell," says, "whether Congress," 116. implication today's proved wrong amends conform not. "will Congress" evolving Session Session, fixed particular enactment. Otherwise, speak "interpreting" "intuiting" "predicting" Our hitherto enacted, is; forecast Hen. VIII, ch. (1540). My follow Cardozo's "lay [his] bricks secure foundation courses laid gone him." B. Cardozo, Nature Process 149 (1921). 1920; Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. Quoted pertinent 86. C-2; 117. testimonial, 6-7; 120-139. free fashion exceptions Rule, side reasoned judiciary's invade legislature's province redistributing .," 271, 1628, "inappropriate guidance, reallocate 247, 1616. Beens Erdahl, 349 97, 100 (Minn.1972); 28, (ED Va.1971) ("Fees witnesses' expense suit. difficult imagine item (and source assistance Court) educational expert"), rev'd, 1972), vacated, (1974); Cal.,1972), reprinted Hearings, 1060, 1062 "helpful court"); Pyramid Paiute Tribe Indians Morton, 360 669, 672 (DC resolution heart matter. Accordingly, seems scheduled total $20,488.72. ."), 163 U.S.App. D.C. 90, 1095 cert, denied, 420 962, 1351, 439 frequently concern undo damage caused Awarding Attorneys' Courts, Liberties, Administration 41, 42, 43, 54, 82-85, 87, 90-92, 119-121, 123-125, 134, 150, 153-155, 162, 182-183, 272-273, 370, 378-395, 416-418 (1975) Many testified needed 66-67, 76, 78-79, 80, 89, 124-125, 137-142, 146, 158-159, 276-277, 278-280, 306-308; 316-326; 789-790, 855-857, 1115, made 60, 189, 254-255, 292, 328; 106-111, 343-345, 347-349. citizen whole, bear examined average citizen's lack legal system. pts. 1-2, 3-4, 273 (addressing coal miners receiving adequate coverage); 466, 470-471, 505-509, 515 veterans $10 contingent 789, 791-796, 808-810 (Indians' lawyers); 1127, 1253-1254 (average attorney). "tertiary" complex community hospitals. Brief 1. Other examples eschewed Steelworkers Weber, 443 193, 2721, (1979), Johnson Transportation Agency, Santa Clara County, 616, 1442, 615 dissenters literally, opted took 201, 2726 (Court "literal 703(a) (d)" "be history arose"); 627, 1449 (legality employer's affirmative plan criteria announced Weber Neither prompted response. inaction seen endorsement interpretations, 671-672, 1472-1473 (SCALIA, dissenting); 175, 2371 charge answered observation "when displeased Court's] hesitated amend so. Surely, probative value radically reactions interpretations. 629-630, 7, 1450-1451, 7; 200, 2379 (Brennan, concurring part) ("Where plausible, subsequent varying degrees, depending acquiescence"). opportunity, albeit brief, misapprehended purpose, change Pregnancy Discrimination 95-555, 92 2076, 2000e(k) (overturning (1976)). 99-603, 315(b), 3440 ("An alien failed maintain continuous presence absence casual, innocent meaningfully interrupt presence"). 579, 1224 (STEVENS, result) refrain deciding dispute). Restoration 1987, 100-259, 1687. expressing legislation: "Congress finds that— aspects opinions unduly narrowed cast doubt .; consistent longstanding executive branch broad, institution-wide administered." 1687 note. 101-856, (1990) (Civil 1990). blunt purposes: purposes to— respond restoring protections decisions; strengthen existing remedies deterrence discrimination." 1-2. President vetoed legislation incorrect interpretations 100-690, 7603, 4508, 1346 ("[T]he 'scheme artifice defraud' scheme deprive intangible right honest services"). Smith Robinson, 468 992, 1031, 3457, 3478, 82 746 (1984) dissenting). Seventy ago, Cardozo warned dangers reading, precedents statutes: "[Some judges'] notion match colors hand sample spread desk. nearest shade supplies rule. course, evolved process, high worthy office, views narrowly. calling, intellectual card index wisest judge. match, references fail, decisive precedent, serious business begins." Process, 20-21.

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