Document: 487 U.S. 977 108 S.Ct. 2777 101 L.Ed.2d 827 Clara WATSON, Petitionerv.FORT WORTH BANK AND TRUST. No. 86-6139. Argued Jan. 20, 1988. Decided June 29, Syllabus Petitioner employee, who is black, was rejected in favor of white applicants for four promotions to supervisory positions respondent bank, which had not developed precise and formal selection criteria the positions, but instead relied on subjective judgment supervisors were acquainted with candidates nature jobs. After exhausting her administrative remedies, petitioner filed suit Federal District Court, alleging, inter alia, that respondent's promotion policies unlawfully discriminated against blacks generally personally violation Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964. As petitioner's individual claim, court held she met burden proof under discriminatory treatment evidentiary standard and, this other reasons, dismissed action. The Court Appeals affirmed relevant part, rejecting contention erred failing apply "disparate impact" analysis claims. that, its precedent, a challenge discretionary or system can only be analyzed disparate model. Held: vacated, case remanded. 798 F.2d 791 (CA5 1986), vacated 1 Justice O'CONNOR delivered opinion respect Parts I, II-A, II-B, III, concluding impact may applied system. Pp. 985-991, 999—1000. 2 (a) Each Court's decisions applying analysis—under facially neutral employment practices, adopted without deliberately motive, operation functionally equivalent illegal intentional discrimination—involved standardized tests criteria, such as written aptitude high school diploma requirements, see, e.g., Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 424, 91 849, 28 158, has consistently used theory, intent discriminate required, review hiring based exercise personal application McDonnell Douglas Corp. Green, 411 792, 93 1817, 36 668. Until today, never addressed question whether criteria. 985-989. 3 (b) reasons supporting use practices. That might effectively abolished if it confined objective, since an employer could insulate itself from liability progeny simply by combining practices component, brief interview, refrained making objective absolutely determinative, thereby remain free give those almost much weight chose risking challenge. Moreover, principle no less applicable than tests, since, either case, practice, intent, have effects are indistinguishable intentionally Simply because inference drawn customary reasonable practice some businesses leaving unchecked discretion lower level most familiar jobs candidates, does follow these always act intent. Even assumed discrimination adequately policed through analysis, would solve problem created subconscious stereotypes prejudices lead conduct prohibited VII. 989-991. 4 (c) Since neither nor evaluated statistical evidence determine made out prima facie must P. 5 O'CONNOR, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, WHITE, SCALIA, concluded II-C II-D that: 6 1. extension increase risk order avoid liability, employers will adopt surreptitious numerical goals quotas belief inevitably focuses evidence, cannot practically rebutted kind counter-evidence typically defend threat ruinous litigation requires steps ensure plaintiff establish theory. result contrary Congress' clearly expressed 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(j) shall required grant preferential any protected group imbalance work force. 991-993. 7 2. However, theory should chilling effect legitimate business standards cases operate constrain within proper bounds provide adequate safeguards danger employers. 993-999. 8 In establishing when at issue, difficulty satisfying initial identifying specific allegedly responsible observed disparity, especially where combined more rigid rules tests. plaintiff's sufficiently substantial prove caused exclusion job their membership group, defendant attack probative point fallacies deficiencies data techniques, adduce countervailing own. 994-997. 9 "business necessity" "job relatedness" defense—under producing after case—also constrains Employers even defending introduce "validation studies" showing particular predict actual on-the-job performance. context decisions, often find easier produce "manifest relationship question." Many jobs, example involving managerial responsibilities, require qualities amenable testing nevertheless related. evaluating claims insufficiently related purposes, courts competent restructure therefore attempt do so. 997-999. 10 BLACKMUN, BRENNAN MARSHALL, agreeing disparate-impact processes, 11 context, successfully establishes shifts proof, production, necessity. See, Albemarle Paper Co. Moody, 422 405, 425, 95 2362, 2375, 45 280; Dothard Rawlinson, 433 321, 329, 97 2720, 2726, 53 786; 432, 854, 158. plurality's assertion mimics allocation burdens established very different disparate-treatment Unlike claim discrimination, inference, directly disparity shown justified. To justified necessity, relate prospective employee's ability perform effectively; i.e., necessary fulfill requirements. 1000-1006. 12 suggestion job-relatedness factor misleading, still obligation persuade introduction evidence. 1006-1011. 13 fact validation techniques endorsed Equal Employment Opportunity Commission's Uniform Guidelines Employee Selection Procedures subjective-selection processes proof. link between performance may, depending type size job, variety methods, including results studies, expert testimony, prior successful experience. Although common sense plays part assessment, reviewing rely own, employer's, what "normal" substitute assessment 1006-1008. 14 employer's justifying produces lessened relies upon assessments. Establishing general rule allowing escape articulating vague, inoffensive-sounding disserve VII's goal eradicating encouraging abandon attempts construct mechanisms broad generalities. While sometimes pose difficult problems charged assessing job-relatedness, requiring development greater factual record, perhaps, degree judgment, dictate accepted face value. 1008-1011. 15 STEVENS, racially adverse committing corps subject test include too many variables considered further discussion postponed until appropriate findings concerning explanation practice. 1011. 16 J., announced REHNQUIST, C.J., BRENNAN, JJ., joined, WHITE joined. concurring post, p. ---. KENNEDY, took consideration decision case. 17 Art Brender, Fort Worth, Tex., petitioner. 18 Bruce W. McGee, respondent. 19 II-D, join. 20 This us decide 1964, 78 Stat. 253, amended, 2000e et seq., determining employees led discrimination. 21 * Watson, hired Worth Bank Trust (the Bank) operator August 1973. January 1976, Watson promoted position teller Bank's drive-in facility. February 1980, sought become supervisor tellers main lobby; male, however, selected job. then given female. 1981, served about year commercial lobby, informally assistant tellers, man holding promoted. vacancy, female bank instead. vacancy drive-in; male Bank, 80 employees, unsuccessfully applied. It filled. All involved denying issue white. 22 charge Commission (EEOC). lawsuit United States Northern Texas. She alleged hiring, compensation, placement, promotions, terminations, terms conditions employment. On Watson's motion Rule Procedure 23, certified class consisting "blacks employed [respondent] October 21, 1979 submit applications future." App. 190. later decertified concluded, light presented trial, there law uniting groups employees. splitting along line, found black did meet numerosity requirement 23(a); accordingly, subclass decertified. also representative applicant typical members group. Because proceeded zealously behalf applicants, went address merits failed racial hiring: percentage force approximated metropolitan area located. 199-202. 23 See 668 (1973), Texas Dept. Community Affairs Burdine, 450 248, 1089, 67 207 (1981). rebuttal presenting nondiscriminatory each challenged decisions. show pretexts Accordingly, action dismissed. 195-197, 203. 24 A divided panel Fifth Circuit part. 1986). majority abuse decertification unfair prejudice portion affecting them remanded instructions dismiss prejudice. conclusion set Douglas, supra, supra.1 25 argued promotion. Relying "a properly model rather model." F.2d, 797. Other Courts systems involve "discretionary" "subjective" Atonio Wards Cove Packing 810 1477 (CA9) (en banc), return panel, 489 (1987), cert. denied, 87-1388, 485 989, 1293, 99 503 (1988), pending, 87-1387; Griffin Carlin, 755 1516, 1522-1525 (CA11 1985). Cf. Segar Smith, 238 U.S.App.D.C. 103, 738 1249 (1984), 471 1115, 105 2357, 86 258 (1985). We granted certiorari resolve conflict. 483 1004, 107 3227, 734 (1987). II A. 26 Section 703 2000e-2, provides: 27 "(a) unlawful employer— "(1) fail refuse hire discharge individual, otherwise his terms, conditions, privileges employment, individual's race, color, religion, sex, national origin; 29 "(2) limit, segregate, classify way deprive tend opportunities adversely affect status origin. 30 31 "(h) Notwithstanding provision subchapter, . professionally provided test, administration designed, intended sex ." 32 Several our dealt alleges treated person favorably others treatment" cases, "the easily understood discrimination," Teamsters States, 431 324, 335, n. 15, 1843, 1854, 52 396 (1977), motive. facilitate orderly we devised series shifting "intended progressively sharpen inquiry into elusive discrimination." U.S., 255, 8, S.Ct., 1094, 8. Under scheme, ordinarily employer, having promotion, continued seek qualifications similar plaintiff's. Id., 6, 6. proving "not onerous," id., turn rebut legitimate, decision. 254-255, 1094. If carries preponderance all offered pretext 10, 1093, 10. cautioned meant aid litigants arranging presentation evidence: "The ultimate persuading trier remains times plaintiff." 1093. Postal Service Bd. Governors Aikens, 460 711, 715, 103 1478, 1481, 75 403 (1983). 33 158 (1971), need necessarily violated 703. certain significant been violate issues character somewhat exempted 252, 5, 5; see 713, 1, 1480, 1; 802, 14, 1824, 14; Teamsters, 335-336, 2729-2730, 15. usually disparities, incidents, competing explanations disparities. 34 distinguishing features dominate imply legal used. Washington Davis, 426 229, 253-254, 96 2040, 2054, 48 597 (1976) (STEVENS, concurring). Nor think hold liable unintentional basis Rather, premise approach 35 Perhaps obvious examples functional equivalence requirements operated perpetuate occurred before enacted. itself, example, history overt predated enactment 426-428, 851-852. Such apparently ceased thereafter, markedly disproportionate" blacks. 428-429, 852. 349 32, 1861 32. policies, requirement, demonstrably they 431-432, 853-854. Believing diplomas "masters reality," 433, pre-Act defended facial neutrality lack repeatedly reaffirmed absence demonstrated limited subsequent like 280 (1975) (written tests); supra verbal skills); 786 (1977) (height requirements); New York City Transit Authority Beazer, 440 568, 1355, 59 587 (1979) (rule employing drug addicts); Connecticut Teal, 457 440, 102 2525, 73 130 (1982) examination). contrast, conventional inherently (discretionary rehire engaged criminal acts while laid off); Furnco Construction Waters, 438 567, 98 2943, 57 957 (1978) (hiring knowledge recommendations); fire said get co-workers); Serv- ice 1481 decision). 37 Our make noted above, conflict issue. conflict, support new workable standards. B 38 parties present stark uninviting alternatives. contends methods least likely cases. Furthermore, argues, able substantially identical effects, dead letter. Respondent (appearing amicus curiae ) argue accomplish purpose enacting They so impossibly forced liability. 39 persuaded succeeding largely nullified However one distinguish "objective" apparent combine both types nature. Thus, preferred passed company's nonetheless included interviews candidates. So long allowed themselves Griggs, abolished. 40 true, sure, policy raise conduct. Especially relatively small respondent's, quite delegate filled follow, whom delegated remain. told big responsibility lot money count." 7. remarks suggest lingering form enacted combat. undisciplined decisionmaking precisely same pervaded impermissible why proscription actions apply. circumstances, "adversely [an individual's] origin." 2000e-2(a)(2). conclude, C 41 Having decided well here concerns raised greatest bare statistics, necessity," 431, 853, relatedness," 426, 2375. Standardized previous studies," discrete 429-436, 2377-2380. warns, "validating" impracticable. Some qualities—for sense, good originality, ambition, loyalty, tact—cannot measured accurately techniques. success crucial directly. Opinions differ managers evaluated, close cooperation one's co-workers complex subtle tasks professional services counseling. difficulties, told, impossible eliminate expensive litigation. insists, agrees, employers' alternative quota agree inevitable focus statistics put undue pressure inappropriate prophylactic measures. completely unrealistic assume sole cause people gravitate accord laws chance. Sheet Metal Workers EEOC, 478 421, 489, 106 3019, 3057, 92 344 (1986) (O'CONNOR, dissenting part). equally suppose eliminate, discover explain, myriad innocent causes imbalances composition forces. Congress specifically such: 43 "Nothing contained [Title VII] interpreted origin account exist total number persons comparison community, State, section, area, available area." 2000e-2(j). 44 Preferential public Constitution, Wygant Jackson Education, 476 267, 1842, 90 260 (1986), recognized "little choice" measures "far VII." 449, 2390 (BLACKMUN, judgment). thus correct extending potential create Hobson's choice perverse results. cost-effective means avoiding potentially catastrophic widely adopted. prudent careful programs discussed euphemistic met. Allowing evolution today. D believe recognize, today's incentives engage treatment. emphatically result, 2000e-2(j), imperative explain detail serve recognized. offer guidance, calls fresh closer examination constraints keep bounds.2 46 First, note goes beyond disparities begin challenged. easy challenges combines view isolating (1982). 47 Once identified, causation proved; is, sufficient formulations, framed mathematical formula, stressed causation. examined "requirements [that] operate[d] disqualify Negroes higher rate applicants." 851. Similarly, plaintiffs "that select pattern significantly pool Later terms. 246-247, 2050-2051 ("hiring disqualifying disproportionate numbers blacks"); Dothard, 2726 (employment "select pattern"); 584, 1365 ("statistical race equal access opportunities"); 446, 2530 ("significantly impact").3 defendants obliged plaintiffs' reliable. "If discerns plaintiff, he own." 331, 2727-2728. 338-339, 2727-2728 (REHNQUIST, part) ("If reason discredit appear face, opportunity just lawsuit. endeavor impeach reliability rebutting disparage arguments briefs accorded"). Without attempting catalog weaknesses incomplete sets inadequate Fudge Providence Fire Dept., 766 650, 656-659 (CA1 containing individuals lacking minimal little Hazelwood School Dist. 299, 308, 2736, 2741, 768 ("[P]roper [the employer's] teaching staff qualified teacher population labor market") (footnote omitted). kinds plausible emerge facts Carroll Sears, Roebuck & 708 183, 189 1983) ("The flaw failure causal connection (testing) cut-off factors promote, score automatically disqualification cut-offs") (citation omitted); Contreras Los Angeles, 656 1267, 1273-1274 (CA9 1981) (probative value impeached disproportionately study seriously it), 455 1021, 1719, 72 140 49 second constraint lies defense. manifest question," formulation implying shifted defendant. contrary, times. impact, "show devices, similarly undesirable effect, interest efficient trustworthy workmanship." 2375 omitted; internal quotation marks Factors cost proposed devices effective serving goals. ibid. 50 clear "legitimate safety efficiency" permitted methadone users Authority; indicated relationship" satisfied non-safety-sensitive "significantly by" exclusionary though 587, 31, 1366, 31. police training academy "wholly aside test's] possible officer." 250, 2052. 256, 2055 concurring) ("[A]s matter law, permissible department predicting master program job"). 51 self-evident testing. borne mind "[c]ourts unless mandated it." 578, 2950. Zahorik Cornell University, 729 85, (CA2 1984) ("[The] [used university award tenure], however disagreement generate radical interpretation enjoin historically settled process plainly review"). sum, giving modify normal introducing III below inapplicable system, now express rulings Appeals. Neither base permit meaningful leave first instance, record principles resolved proceedings Court. consistent opinion. 54 ordered. 55 KENNEDY 56 MARSHALL join, judgment. I join am concerned, plurality mischaracterizes allocated doing, projects inconsistent central II-D. write separately reiterate thought plain brought framework. 58 production litigating flatly contradicted cases.1 plurality, course, establish, showing, "select[s] pattern." 2726-2727, (1977).2 clear, assertion, ante, 997, (employer "meet 'job related' "); 2727 "prov [e] related"); (1971) ("Congress placed question") (emphasis added quotation). suggested bears resemblance 802-804, 1824-1825, 252-256, 1093-1095, (1981), Nothing supports declaration challenge, times." Ante, 997. What striking statement near-perfect echo Burdine "[t]he mimic claims, turns blind eye distinctions two forms claims.3 60 exclusively employer. (in "[p]roof motive critical"). Unless proved disfavor class, fails. 336, (disparate-impact "involve fall harshly another"). ibid., violates VII, "good redeem procedures 'built-in headwinds' minority groups." 854. 61 formulated scheme designed "progressively "raises presume acts, unexplained, factors." 577, 2949-2950, (1978).4 An presumption asserts rejection reason" "rais[e] genuine satisfies "this production," proceeds specificity," 1094-1095, up proffered 1095. reflects unwillingness trial presume, discriminate, suggesting reason. insufficient shift 62 notably different. disparity. consequences, persuades " 'a question.' 2530, (1982), quoting already improper effect; 63 Intertwined defendant's necessity merely implication satisfy "producing reasons." 998. Again, unmistakable. enough "to articulate 1824. But again misses key distinction: accused discriminating dispute intent—which offering justification. justification legitimize excluding rate. runs afoul "necessary safe performance." 332, 2728, 14. Nashville Gas Satty, 434 136, 143, 347, 352, 356 (issue necessitates adoption policies"); 854 ("[A]ny added). 64 Precisely constitutes reduced, scientific involves case-specific take question. term toward limits defense: criterion bear indirect 331-332, (absent height correlated amount strength deemed "essential performance," necessity); 2378, (EEOC's Procedures, CFR 1607.4(c) (1974) message shown, acceptable 'predictive important elements behavior comprise job' "). 247, 2051, (Title "involves probing judicial review, deference seemingly [employers] Constitution special purpose, claimed"). effectively. And proves related, determined unlawful, lesser suitably needs. progeny, how intended, employment-selection disadvantages squared 65 concerned elaborated upon, projection misleading. suggests: "In 'manifest 999. warrants comment respects. 66 DP1As explained once method fact. EEOC measuring processes,5 performance, objective-selection devices. §§ 1607.6(B)(1) (2) (1987) (where procedure formally validated, "justify law"). 13, validated "any several ways"). vary question, employed. Davis Dallas, 777 205, 218-219 1985) (nationwide studies reports college-degree requirement) 1116, 1972, (1986); 219-222, 224-225 (criminal justice scholars' testimony explaining psychologist's prohibition recent marijuana use); experience, ("generations" experience reflecting decentralized structure peer judgments academic setting), used, necessity.6 complies EEOC's recordkeeping 1607.4 1607.15 keeps track classes, better prepared document correlation 68 certainty look assess surely "normal," 999, presented. Indeed, extent quo, necessary, addition being "normal." 430, 853 ("[P]ractices, procedures, maintained 'freeze' [discriminatory] quo"). 69 prediction "will easier" justify analyze abstract. Nevertheless, noting read, principles, lessen defined involved, 2379 (validation mechanism fails identify "whether actually [employer's] job-specific ability" related). For complete, unguided question.7 disfavored extent, bald purely best support, job-relatedness.8 70 whereby left list hirer's discretion, evaluation various carefully tailored measure qualifications. encourage shelter vague generalities.9 71 develop value, strike "normal legitimate." 999.10 teaches "fair form, operation," tolerated 853. lesson forgotten form" one. decide, extremely important, narrow. reads follows: 74 "Is vs. 424 [91 158] (1971)?" Pet. Cert. i. Essentially forth II-A II-B O'CONNOR's opinion, answered affirmative. At stage proceeding, unwise announce "fresh" 994. Cases delegating executives context. postpone promotions. judge abused decertifying applicants. He succeeded relief 800-815. Both concurrences should, time, approve step guidelines, previously done opinions describe 1000—1001, 1005—1006 expressly read quotas. congressional mandate extend reach accompanied intend. Faced task statements looked direction pt. 1607 Bushey State Comm'n, 733 220, 225-226 1984), 469 1117, 803, 83 795 (1985); Firefighters Institute St. Louis, 616 350, 356-357 (CA8 1980), denied sub nom. Louis 452 938, 3079, 951 These enforcement inferred ethnic four-fifths highest selected. 1607.4(D) criticized technical grounds, Boardman Vining, Role Probative Statistics Discrimination Cases, Law Contemp.Prob., 4, pp. 189, 205-207 (1983); Shoben, Differential Pass-Fail Rates Testing: Statistical Proof Harv.L.Rev. 793, 805-811 (1978), thumb courts, Clady County 770 1421, 1428-1429 1985), 475 1109, 89 915 (1986). referred "standard deviation" jury-selection Rivera Wichita Falls, 665 531, 536, 1982) (citing Casteneda Partida, 430 482 (1977)); Guardians Association Police Comm'n York, 630 79, 86, 1980) (same), 940, 3083, 954 emphasized useful role deviations" 311, 17, 2743, (1977). consensus around standard. Instead, judged "significance" "substantiality" case-by-case basis. Clady, 1428-1429; B. Schlei Grossman, 98-99, 77 (2d ed. 1983); 18-19, (Supp. 1983-1985). law's development, recognition "come infinite usefulness depends surrounding circumstances." 340, 1856-1857, certiorari, brief, applies fall, applies. reached respond plurality. quarrel characterization significant. (1981) (recognizing, issues, presented, classes"); (1983) ("We distinguished applicants"). showing: "(i) belongs minority; (ii) seeking applicants; (iii) despite qualifications, rejected; (iv) rejection, remained open complainant's qualifications." American Psychological Association, co-author Standards Educational Testing (1985), Guidelines, submitted subjective-assessment are, fact, "psychometric scrutiny" screening Brief Amicus Curiae Bartholet, Application Jobs High Places, 947, 987-988 (discussing feasibility validating assessments). corollary, screen identified Kevin Brown, chosen over "supervisory experience," totally unqualified position. 113. Six months Brown promoted, "close 'competent.' Record, 68. When resigned soon pressure, questioned "poor communication ., training," personality rendered him 85. One testified guidelines 161-162. Another attribute "fifty hundred things" enter 135. establishment specific, unwilling preclude possibility ever among granting hirer near-absolute discretion. Of specified functioning business. 1477, 1485 banc) ("It subvert incentive efforts validate methods"), 439 1987), Miles M.N.C. Corp., 750 867, 871 (subjective assessments "ready mechanism" discrimination). Doverspike, Barrett, Alexander, Feasibility Traditional Validation Demonstrating Job-Relatedness, Psychology Rev. 35, (1985) (noting "litigious climate resulted decline hiring"). specify turned shield whose poorly certainty, let alone connected effect. 994 (plaintiff "for disparities").

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