Document: 343 U.S. 306 72 S.Ct. 679 96 L.Ed. 954 ZORACH et al.v.CLAUSON al. No. 431. Argued Jan. 31 and Feb. 1, 1952. Decided April 28, [Syllabus from pages 306-307 intentionally omitted] Mr. Kenneth W. Greenawalt, New York City, for appellants. Wendell P. Brown, Albany, N.Y., appellee Comm. of Education State York. Michael A. Castaldi, Board City Charles H. Tuttle, Greater Coordinating etc. [Amicus Curiae Information page 307 Justic e DOUGLAS delivered the opinion Court. has a program which permits its public schools to release students during school day so that they may leave buildings grounds go religious centers instruction or devotional exercises. A student is released on written request his parents. Those not stay in classrooms. The churches make weekly reports schools, sending list children who have been but reported instruction.1 This 'released time' involves neither classrooms nor expenditure funds. All costs, including application blanks, are paid by organizations. case therefore unlike McCollum v. Education, 333 203, 68 461, 92 249, involved Illinois. In were turned over instructors. We accordingly held violated First Amendment2 (by reason Fourteenth Amendment)3 prohibits states establishing religion prohibiting free exercise. Appellants, taxpayers residents whose attend schools,4 challenge present law, contending it essence different one case. Their argument, stated elaborately various ways, reduces itself this: weight influence put behind instruction; teachers police it, keeping tab released; classroom activities come halt while leave; crutch leaning support their training; without cooperation this program, like case, would be futile ineffective. Court Appeals sustained law against claim unconstitutionality. 303 N.Y. 161, 100 N.E.2d 463. here appeal. 28 U.S.C. § 1257(2), U.S.C.A. 1257(2). briefs arguments replete with data bearing merits type program. Views pro con expressed, based practical experience these programs implications.5 do stop summarize materials burden an analysis them. For involve considerations germane narrow constitutional issue presented. They largely concern wisdom system, efficiency educational point view, political motivated adoption rejection some communities. matters no here, since our problem whether system either prohibited 'free exercise' made 'respecting establishment religion' within meaning Amendment. It takes obtuse reasoning inject any into No forced exercise brought schools. need take instruction. He left own desires as manner time devotions, if any. There suggestion use coercion get evidence record before us supports conclusion.6 indeed tells authorities neutral regard more than parents request. If fact used, established using office persuade force instruction, wholly presented.7 Hence we aside both respects 'an Moreover, apart coercion, see how respecting much talk separation Church history Bill Rights decisions clustering around See Everson 330 67 504, 91 711; supra. cannot slightest doubt Amendment reflects philosophy should separated. And far interference 'establishment' concerned, must complete unequivocal. scope coverage exception; prohibition absolute. Amendment, however, does say every all there shall State. Rather, studiously defines manner, specific concert union dependency other. That common sense matter. Otherwise state aliens each other—hostile, suspicious, even unfriendly. Churches could required pay property taxes. Municipalities permitted render fire protection groups. Policemen helped parishioners places worship violate Constitution. Prayers legislative halls; appeals Almighty messages Chief Executive; proclamations making Thanksgiving Day holiday; 'so help me God' courtroom oaths—these other references run through laws, rituals, ceremonies flouting fastidious atheist agnostic object supplication opens session: 'God save United States Honorable Court.' press concept extremes condemn grounds. nullification wide profound effects. catholic applies teacher permission hours Holy Obligation mass. Jewish asks excused Yom Kippur. Protestant wants afternoon off family baptismal ceremony. requires parental consent writing. teacher, order sure truant, goes further report priest, rabbi, minister. words cooperates extent possible her participate it. Whether she occasionally few students, regularly one, pursuant systematized designed needs alter character act. people institutions presuppose Supreme Being. guarantee freedom chooses. room variety beliefs creeds spiritual man deem necessary. sponsor attitude part government shows partiality group lets flourish according zeal adherents appeal dogma. When encourages adjusting schedule events sectarian needs, follows best traditions. then nature accommodates service needs. To hold find Constitution requirement show callous indifference preferring those believe believe. Government finance groups undertake blend secular education person. But makes necessary hostile throw efforts widen effective influence. when comes competition between sects. thrust sect observance compulsory. coerce anyone church, observe holiday, can close doors suspend operations want repair sanctuary undertaken here. unwise improvident community viewpoint. theory, previously advanced, decided basis 'our prepossessions.' supra, at 238, 478. Our individual preferences, standard. standard problem, many problems degree. 231, 475. used was promote Here, said, accommodate schedules outside follow case.8 expand cover unless means adjustments people. read such hostility religion. Affirmed. Justice BLACK, dissenting. 1 Illinois ex rel. invalid 'establishment under children, compelled freed work condition special classes buildings. Although taught employed state, did power releasing regular class work, insisting classes, requiring remained kind academic others received training. said about system: 2 'Pupils legal duty upon classes. beyond question utilization tax-established tax-supported aid spread faiths. falls squarely ban * *.' 209—210, 464. 3 I significant difference sustained. Except Illinois, systems consider worthy mention. attend, building until hour over. As attempted categorically clear, decision same had said: 4 'Here only state's dissemination doctrines. also affords invaluable helps provide pupils thier compulsory machinery. State.' (Emphasis supplied.) 212, 465. 5 thus constitutionally manipulate machinery channel childrn Yet exactly what holds do. 6 am aware subjected most searching examination throughout country. Probably opinions recent years attracted attention stirred wider debate. insistence 'a wall kept high impregnable' seemed correct exposition true interpretation language strictly adhere.1 With equal conviction sincerity, thought fundamentally wrong2 pledged continuous warfare it.3 court below reflect diverse viewpoints. dissenting today, mean give routine approval decision. reaffirm my faith fundamental expressed 711. reaffirmance brief because exhaustive cases. 7 Difficulty hypothetical situations mentioned Court, now us, confuse issues Here sole laws sects attendants presumably too unenthusiastic moved pressure plan, purpose, design consequence denied. beneficiaries compel Any coercive hinder prefer nonbelievers vice versa just think forbids. considering entered forbidden field all. manipulating pupils. combination 8 Court's validation rests statement Americans Being.' least adopted; eight Justices invalidated premise 'aid religions' one.4 precisely Eighteenth Century divided fighting given mandate keep completely separate. Colonial already shown that, elsewhere zealous sectarians entrusted governmental causes sometimes torture, maim kill branded 'heretics,' 'atheists' 'agnostics.'5 insure powerful punish dissenters whom convert faith. Now then, isolating sphere compelling neutral, denomination maintained. neutrality abandons today treats York's merely 'encourages authorities.' abandonment dangerous liberty exaltation orthodox derogation unbelievers. 9 Under freedom, gone sanctuaries feared loved God. choice answered call music old Sunday morning church bells. mind believe, disbelieve, doubt, repression, great small, heavy hand government. Statutes authorizing repression stricken. Before judicial refrained drawing invidious distinctions n lost follower longer judicially regarded entitled justice law. 10 injects party prejudices holy field. often substitutes prayer, hate love, persecution persuasion. allowed, soft euphemism 'co-operation,' steal sacred area choice. 11 FRANKFURTER, DP By way emphasizing agreement JACKSON'S dissent, add words. 12 maintenance '(The government) operations' citizens devotions issue, rise dignity controversy. Of course dismissed, reason, fixed days, occasions. 'close doors' 'suspend operations'. world letting out them he will unconnected schooling law—those wish devoting ethical home, study music, that—then conflict 13 pith formalized substituted activity released-time attend. very operation time. closed, closed school. thing raises issue. met disregarding Failure discuss 14 Again, relies absence system. 'If used,' 'if presented.' Thus, 'coercion' abstract acknowledged fatal. disregards proof appellants allowed Appellants alleged 'The resulted inevitably results secure attendance instruction.' allegation—that inherent matter disavowals might operating regulations—was denied respondents. Thus drawn determined, conceivable view notice, judges knowledge experience. sought opportunity adduce allegations appropriate trial. though courts cited concurring 226, 472, 'emphasize importance detailed facts Constitutional test Separation applied', ground irrelevant constitutionality. 198 Misc. 631, 641, 99 N.Y.S.2d 339, 348 349; 174—175, 463, 469.1 15 turn facts, strange procedure permit established. weighty require determination after thorough canvass circumstances bar consideration. Cf. Chastleton Corp. Sinclair, 264 543, 44 405, 841; Hammond Schappi Bus Line, 275 164, 48 66, 218. decide record, strict adherence usage ruling sufficiency pleadings admitted pleaded appellants' complaint, actual inherent. Judge Fuld, below, 185, Even latitudinarian finding absent, deemed critical sustaining practice, prevented timely showing irrelevant. 16 result principles unanimous acceptance barring single vote. agree BLACK disregarded reaching case.2 Happily disavowed From draw hope future variations bound again honored observance. 17 deeply divisive controversy aroused attempts promptly end advocates content operations'—that is, dismiss entirety, discrimination instead seeking instrument securing denominational unwillingness promoters movement dispense betrays surprising confidence faiths classes—an hardly greatest spirits. 18 JACKSON, 19 founded State's which, me, determines Stripped essentials, plan two stages, first, yield large and, second, 'released' him devote purposes. 20 suggests directly spent 'under control duly constituted body.' accomplishes indirection. taking pupils' injure students' welfare encroaching opportunity, simply shortening everyone's facilitate voluntary optional rejected Church. Hence, deprived period, permissible ways 21 greater effectiveness due truant officer who, youngster fails school, dogs back schoolroom. less suspended nonreligious forge ahead churchgoing absentees. serves temporary jail pupil subtlety possess deny constraint unconstitutional, exerted indirection exercised forthrightly. 22 choice, sent privately supported opposition antireligious, atheistic, agnostic. My evangelistic brethren objection compulsion enough rendered God collected Caesar. 23 country ceases irreligion cease religion—except win power. epithetical jurisprudence beat down oppose pressuring devise good epithets tomorrow favored And, all, concede 'duly religious' bodies exclusive alternatives logical uphold choose among constituted.' start rough road begin mix godliness. 24 number short majority promulgates today's passionate dialectics joined answering 649. distinction trivial, almost cynicism, magnifying nonessential details disparaging underlying invalidity. reading along overtones undertones clear passed storm teacup. professing erect become warped twisted expected. Today's judgment interesting psychology processes embodied following provisions: (a) N.Y.Education Law, McK.Consol.Laws, c. 16, 3210, subdiv. 1(b), provides 'Absence rules commissioner establish.' (b) Regulations Commissioner York, Art. 17, 154, N.Y.Official Code Comp. 683, (par. 1), where conducted body 2). Students obtain requests guardians training register copy registration filed 3). Weekly principal 4). Only week training, session 5), conducted, 6). (c) similar supplementing Commissioner's regulations, amplifications: announcement relative (rule 1). organizations assume full responsibility explain failures dismissed usual 5). comment nonattendance reads relevant part, 'Congress religion, thereof'. Stromberg California, 283 359, 51 532, 75 117; Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 60 900, 84 1213; Murdock Pennsylvania, 319 105, 63 870, 87 1292. jurisdiction posed since, Doremus 342 429, 394, —-, currently attending subject See, e.g., Beckes, Weekday Religious (National Conference Christians Jews, Human Relations Pamphlet 6); Butts, American Tradition Religion pp. 188, 199; Moehlman, Wall State, 123, 155 ff.; Educator, 103 Moral Spiritual Values Public Schools (Educational Policies Commission, 1951); Newman, Sectarian Invasion Schools; School Time 130 (January, 1941); Instruction On Time, Frontiers Democracy (1940); Released City's (Public Association, June 30, 1943); 1945); 1949); Stokes, States, 523—548; Status Association). Nor indication enforce punishing absentees truancy. contend prove administered manner. declined grant trial noting, inter alia, properly raised practice. 174, 469. independent precludes raising maladministration proceeding. Louisville & Nashville R. Co. Woodford, 234 46, 51, 34 739, 741, 58 1202; Atlantic Coast Line Mims, 242 535, 37 189, 61 476; Surety Baldwin, 287 156, 169, 53 98, 102, 77 231. allegation complaint bears 'has charge implicate authorities. generous labeling 'conclusory' allegation. Since holding guise local practice defeated federal right condemned Brown Western Alabama, 338 294, 70 94 100, related Three us—The Justice, Douglas Burton—who join agreed unconstitutional. prejudged conclusion emphasized reservation separate Frankfurter Burton joined. 225, 'Of course, generalized conception, undefined differentiating particularities, adjudication. Local differ crucial respects. share execution particular scrutiny demanded exact relation situation State; Thayer, Attack Secular School, 179—199; 201—208. Symposium Law Contem.Prob. 1—159. O'Neill, Constitution, 219—253; Parsons, Freedom, 158 178; Van Dusen, Education. n. p. 42. 2, 254—272. policy aiding 'all necessarily constitutes religion.' created certain denying such. regulations providing courses maintained operated bodies.' added.) Official 683. censorship 305, 904, 1213. Wertenbaker, Puritan Oligarchy, 213—214. Issues raise claims foreclosed treating 'conclusory character'. statute involved. 100. fortiori States. four not, refer referred form whole dismissed. reservation: 'We consider, colloquially characterized time,' differing aspects well crucial. Different forms taken thirty growth include withstand Constitution; found unexceptionable.'

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