Document: 480 U.S. 709 107 S.Ct. 1492 94 L.Ed.2d 714 Dennis M. O'CONNOR, et al., Petitionersv.Magno J. ORTEGA. No. 85-530. Argued Oct. 15, 1986. Decided March 31, 1987. Syllabus Respondent, a physician and psychiatrist, was an employee of state hospital had primary responsibility for training physicians in the psychiatric residency program. Hospital officials became concerned about possible improprieties his management program, particularly with respect to acquisition computer charges against him concerning sexual harassment female employees inappropriate disciplinary action resident. While he on administrative leave pending investigation charges, officials, allegedly order inventory secure property, searched office seized personal items from desk file cabinets that were used proceedings resulting discharge. No formal property ever made, all other papers merely placed boxes storage. Respondent filed petitioner Federal District Court under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, alleging search violated Fourth Amendment. On cross-motions summary judgment, granted judgment petitioners, concluding proper because there need office. Affirming part, reversing remanding case, Appeals concluded respondent reasonable expectation privacy office, The court held record justified grant partial issue liability search, it remanded case determination damages. Held: is reversed, remanded. 764 F.2d 703 (CA9 1985), reversed Justice joined by THE CHIEF JUSTICE, WHITE, POWELL, that: 1 1. Searches seizures government employers or supervisors private their are subject Amendment restraints. An one's place work based upon societal expectations have deep roots history However, operational realities workplace may make some public employees' unreasonable when intrusion supervisor rather than law enforcement official. Some offices be so open fellow no reasonable. Given great variety environments sector, question whether has must addressed case-by-case basis. Because does not reveal extent which work-related reasons enter respondent's should matter its further determination. majority this agrees Regardless any itself, undisputed evidence supports conclusion at least cabinets. Pp. 714-719. 2 2. In determining appropriate standard conducted employer areas privacy, what depends context within takes place, requires balancing employee's legitimate government's supervision, control, efficient operation workplace. Requiring obtain warrant whenever wishes desk, purpose would seriously disrupt routine conduct business unreasonable. Moreover, requiring probable cause searches type here impose intolerable burdens employers. Their intrusions constitutionally protected interests noninvestigatory, purposes, as well investigations misconduct, judged reasonableness circumstances. Under standard, both inception scope 719-726. 3 3. procedural posture cannot determined seizure belongings, satisfied reasonableness. Both courts below error inappropriate. parties dispute actual justification inadequate seizure. remand, determine these matters. 726-729. 4 SCALIA employees, fortiori drawers files those offices, covered protections general matter, special circumstances present call exception ordinary rule. retrieve materials investigate violations rules—searches sort regarded normal private-employer context—do violate conflicting incomplete could conceivably support did such validating purpose, decision 731-732. 5 J., announced delivered opinion REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE JJ., joined. SCALIA, concurring post, p. ----. BLACKMUN, dissenting opinion, BRENNAN, MARSHALL, STEVENS, joined, 6 Jeffrey T. Miller, San Diego, Cal., petitioners. 7 Joel I. Klein, Washington, D.C., invitation Court, amicus curiae, judgment. 8 O'CONNOR POWELL join. 9 This suit 1983 presents two issues rights employees. First, we respondent, employee, work. Second, address found privacy. 10 * Dr. Magno Ortega, position Chief Professional Education Napa State (Hospital) 17 years, until dismissal 1981. As Education, Ortega young programs. 11 July 1981, including O'Connor, Executive Director Hospital, Ortega's particular, Apple II use thought misled O'Connor into believing been donated, fact financed possibly coerced contributions residents. Additionally, sexually harassed taken 12 30, requested take paid during charges. At request, agreed allow weeks' vacation instead leave. however, stay off grounds duration investigation. August 14, informed yet completed, being remained terminated employment September 22, 13 selected several personnel investigation, accountant, physician, security officer. Richard Friday, Administrator, led "investigative team." point Mr. Friday made specific reason entry unclear record. petitioners claim property. Initially, contended pursuant policy conducting employee. time employment; still Apparently, inventorying Before initiated, become aware home. contends proceedings. 14 quite thorough. investigators entered number times cabinets, Valentine's Day card, photograph, book poetry sent former resident physician. These later proceeding before hearing officer California Personnel Board impeach credibility resident, who testified behalf. also billing documentation one patients Medicaid otherwise separate because, investigator testified, "[t]rying non-State, too much do, I gave up boxed up." App. 62. Thus, made. Instead, boxes, put storage retrieve. 15 commenced petitioners' motion relying Chenkin v. Bellevue Center, New York City Health & Hospitals Corp., 479 F.Supp. 207 (SDNY 1979), Ninth Circuit affirmed part (1985), procedure inventories, inventories reserved departing terminated. concluded—albeit without explanation—that unlawful 16 We certiorari, 474 1018, 106 565, 88 551 now reverse remand. strictures Amendment, applied States through Fourteenth governmental various civil activities. Jersey T.L.O., 469 325, 334-335, 105 733, 738-739, 83 720 (1985). past governs school see ibid., building inspectors, Camara Municipal 387 523, 528, 87 1727, 1730, 18 930 (1967), Occupational Safety Act Marshall Barlow's, Inc., 436 307, 312-313, 98 1816, 1820-1821, 56 305 (1978). observed "[b]ecause individual's interest 'suffers motivation criminal laws breaches statutory regulatory standards,' . 'anomalous say individual fully only suspected behavior.' " U.S., 335, S.Ct., 739 (quoting supra, 1820 530, 1731). therefore, restraints protects "right people persons, houses, papers, effects, seizures. ." Our cases establish implicated if infringed "an society prepared consider reasonable." United Jacobsen, 466 109, 113, 104 1652, 1656, 80 85 (1984). talisman determines accept "the given weight factors intention Framers uses location, our understanding certain deserve most scrupulous protection invasion." Oliver States, 170, 178, 1735, 1741, 214 (1984) (citations omitted). 19 understood differ according context, essential first delineate boundaries context. includes related generally employer's control. hospital, example, hallways, cafeteria, desks, among areas, remain even them, photograph letter posted bulletin board. 20 Not everything passes confines can considered however. bring closed luggage prior leaving trip, handbag briefcase each workday. whatever existence outward appearance affected presence workplace, contents same way. necessarily apply piece luggage, happens address. 21 Within recognized police. See Mancusi DeForte, 392 364, 2120, 1154 (1968). home, "based Amendment." n. 8, 8. union shared sufficient challenge successfully warrantless office: 22 "It long settled standing object [I]t seems clear DeForte occupied 'private' headquarters, records filing cabinet standing. entitled expect disturbed except invitees, permission superiors." 369, 2124. 23 expressed Mancusi, reject contention Solicitor General never Individuals do lose they employer. Public like similar reduced virtue practices procedures, regulation. Indeed, suggested supervisors. assessed relation. seldom enclave free supervisors, invitees. many continually visitors workday conferences, consultations, visits. Simply put, nature others—such consensual visitors, public—may frequent access agree "[c]onstitutional disappear right capacity employer," 731, but Cf. Katz 389 347, 351, 507, 511, 576 (1967) ("What person knowingly exposes public, own home protection"). 24 five Members 731-732 (SCALIA, judgment); 732 (BLACKMUN, dissenting). think But regardless staff such, recognize suggests discloses share years kept included correspondence, medical files, correspondence unconnected financial records, teaching aids notes, gifts mementos. 14. outside Id., 21. apparently hearings, effects simply available Ortega. 58, Finally, note established regulation discouraging storing desks id., 44, although absence create where exist. 25 basis evidence, Gillard Schmidt, 579 825, 829 (CA3 1978); Speights, 557 362 1977); Blok, U.S.App.D.C. 326, 188 1019 (1951). III 26 Having discussion "search fourth amendment." F.2d, 707. stated "[t]o hold applies [public employers] begin inquiry standards governing searches. [W]hat place." 337, 740. applicable search. A particular class "balanc[ing] quality importance alleged justify intrusion." Place, 462 696, 703, 103 2637, 2642, 77 110 (1983); 536-537, 1734-1735. employer, balance invasion 27 "[I]t 'except carefully defined classes cases, consent "unreasonable" unless authorized valid warrant.' 370, 2125 528-529, There circumstances, requirement unsuitable. burden obtaining likely frustrate behind search." 533, 1733. Or, BLACKMUN "[o]nly exceptional needs, beyond enforcement, probable-cause impracticable." 749 (concurring judgment). (1978), explored scheme, after warrants "impose serious inspection system courts, [would not] prevent inspections necessary enforce statute, them less effective." 316, 1822. suitable environment, unduly interfere maintenance swift informal procedures needed schools. 28 surprisingly little Generally, lower "work-related" satisfies requirement. Nasser, 476 1111, 1123 (CA7 1973) ("work-related" Amendment); Collins, 349 863, 868 (CA2 1965) (upholding power Government defendant's supervise performance duties Customs employee"). Others cause. Bunkers, 521 1217 1975) (work-related locker tested "reasonable cause" standard); 328, 1021 ("No doubt [a desk] her Her official superiors might reasonably use"). imply required involve related, 829, 1, Kahan, 350 784 1972). 29 objects substantial. Against interests, balanced strongly suggest unworkable. police, personnel, proceedings, frequently wholly unrelated illegal conduct. Employers focused primarily complete agency's prompt manner. report while away here, safeguard identify connection misfeasance. 30 view, wished burdensome. Imposing unwieldy familiar contrast warrants, hardly investigating violation laws. Rather, incident agency. imposition conflict common-sense realization function every constitutional matter." Connick Myers, 461 138, 143, 1684, 1688, 75 708 (1983). 31 Whether more difficult issue. For cause, noted "[t]he fundamental command reasonable, 'both concept bear limited neither required.' 340, 742 Almeida-Sanchez 413 266, 277, 93 2535, 2541, 37 596 (1973) (POWELL, concurring)). "[w]here careful best served stops short hesitated adopt standard." 341, 742. concluded, traditional meaning. obtained showing legislative satisfied. 320, 1824; 538, 1735. 32 initial important plethora contexts will occasion intrude either noninvestigatory investigatory misfeasance, undertake types another day 33 justifying agencies provide myriad services suffer finding correspondence. give rooted meaning reasons. Similarly, securing Colorado Bertine, 367, 738, (1987); Illinois Lafayette, 640, 2605, 65 To ensure agency, wide latitude work-related, 34 come misconduct. Even substantially different enforcement." 748 ensuring operate effective manner, inevitably suffers inefficiency, incompetence, mismanagement, misfeasance entrusted tremendous responsibility, consequences misconduct incompetence agency severe. enforcers law; instead, direct overriding delay correcting caused suspicion translated tangible often irreparable damage work, ultimately interest. 353, 749. ("The teacher ask questions observations turn teacher, students, diverted task education.") expected "schoo[l] themselves niceties cause," 343, 743, employers, gather offense. It unrealistic learn subtleties standard. "[a] nor day-to-day experience complexities possesses, ill-equipped quick cause." believe observation equally apt description conclude permit "according dictates common sense." 743. 35 Balanced substantial which, insubstantial, far contexts. Camara, "involve relatively invasion" 537, provided sole facilitating avoid exposing belongings 36 sum, "special impracticable," judgment), efforts authorize arbitrary hold, reasonable: "Determining involves twofold inquiry: first, 'whether inception,' Terry Ohio, [1], [88 1868, 1879, 889 (1968) ]; second, actually 'was interference place,' ibid." 742-743. 38 Ordinarily, "justified inception" suspecting guilty file. "individualized suspicion" decide individualized element today. 342, permissible measures adopted objectives excessively intrusive light [misconduct]." IV 39 attempt satisfy articulated case. evidentiary acted Appeals, hand, granting 40 Petitioners consistently attempted deposition ordered members investigative team "check out ascertain office." 50. He initiated "wanted sure identified, get there, resident's protected, stuff." 51. 41 "part departing, separated employees." Record Doc. 24, 9. accepted characterization involving policy. terminated, leave, reflect investigated moreover, rejected motivated whose discover pointed eventually "to look contractural [sic ] kinds documents issues" involved 38. character erroneous assumption findings undertaken. 43 liability. unlawful. belief secured, itself justification. forward belief; knew removed Hospital. removal computer—together allegations mismanagement program harassment—may forth order, stand. 44 seizure, evaluate scope.* 45 Accordingly, consistent opinion. 46 ordered. 47 48 Although remanded, disagree reversal plurality prescribes inquiry. 49 latter first: instructs "on basis," "so Ante, 718. clue how open" be; police officers facts refined 181, 1743, (1984), "[t]his repeatedly acknowledged difficulties created citizens ad hoc, definition differing factual circumstances." result legal produce us, formulation devoid content produces eliminates uncertainty field. 50 Whatever plurality's means, wrong leads extensive "work-related office" existed. solitude. man enjoys though wife children run place—and indeed, landlord unannounced time. my co-workers excluded. decided ago. (1968), regard headquarters guests, (implicitly) "union higher-ups" Just secretary working corporation corporation's government, why exists entity, Constitutional 51 agree, view (and thus protection) changes "when official." 717. identity searcher (police employer) relevant apply, area Pursuant analysis answered "global" Where, fireman enters dwelling response alarm, occupant hence vis-a-vis firemen, whether—given covers dwellings—intrusion extinguishing fire Michigan Tyler, 499, 509, 1942, 1949, 486 here. 52 matter. (The qualifier cover unusual situations unrestricted access, "expose[d] public" therefore "not protection." (1967).) Since unquestioned assigned since rule, applied. 53 turns, violated—i.e., status employment-related relevant. rule per se unreasonable, exceptions impracticable. 749, Such needs" employment. needs convenient purposes. 54 whom STEVENS join, dissenting. 55 simple straightforward. target characterized nature. need," 748, (1985) (opinion dispense requirements applying clearly rights. problems arise failure unwillingness realize clear. plurality, discovers feels dispute: investigatory. concludes remand course action. Despite assumes announce treats dispute, formulates distance situation presented 57 seem me way analysis, especially unfamiliar.1 properly, always extent, sustained consideration situation.2 rests judgments situations, apparent assumed hypothetical follows. "assumed" weighted favor employer,3 and, result, emerges makes almost 58 review briefly assertion, ante, 728, "[t]here considers misdeeds. 727-728. comprehend how, seen concedes, Hospital's routinely 712-713).4 713. 59 observes dispositively eliminate 728. suggesting points concern owned desire located 60 demonstrates, leader team," nothing 59. himself admitted between location computer. 39. focus insofar dealing acquisition. 32. 61 testimony, aimed 38, 40, suggestion, overwhelmingly contradicted remarks itself. spoke individuals "investigators," 37, described nature, furthering See, e.g., ("Basically trying remove obviously department, running around contracts, computer, interested investigating"). recognizes, 713-714, "investigators" rummaged highly termination witness favorable him. Ibid. Furthermore, evening, 53, undertaken received advice, 62 stemmed practice entrances plainly significant 63 examining searches, agreement disagreement What important, course, acknowledges 719, that, 718, holds With comments, am "[i]ndividuals employer." go along "operational realities" 717-718, entries completely expectation. 64 suggestion contrary accords offices. Amendment's commercial buildings, Amendment"); Hoffa 385 293, 301, 408, 413, 374 (1966) relies places area, hotel room automobile"). worker receives occasional business-related visitor. visits occur there. appears recognize, precise turns accordance principle protect another. 339, Lo-Ji Sales, Inc. York, 442 319, 329, 99 2319, 2326, 920 (1979) (the opening retail store mean "it consents wholesale conform guarantees"). observes, 731. visit afterhours locked seeking proceeding.5 66 Finally importantly, reality modern time, done reveals safeguarded lightly set aside. is, unfortunately, true Americans. Many spend better days evenings R. Kanter, Work Family States: Critical Review Agenda Research Policy 31-32 (1977); Bellah, Madsen, W. Sullivan, A. Swidler, S. Tipton, Habits Heart: Individualism Commitment American Life 288-289 (a "less frantic advancement reduction hours" easier men women participate family life). Consequently, life intersect advantage lunch breaks telephone calls, attend business, receive tidy distinctions (to alludes, 715-716) professional affairs, possessions activities, other, exist reality.6 handbag. remark "employee home," 725, insensitivity workplace," 717, value.7 67 relation question. 68 outset arrived "balancing" intrusion. 719-720. jurisprudence, abandon requirements, constitute established, 721-722, 2652-2653, (1983) practical sacrificing ultimate goals contribute, test formulate 69 faulted neglecting "crucial step" analysis. 747. agreed, T.L.O. Court's step, taken, revealed need." discipline country's secondary schools promotion overall goal education, maintain if, called for, procure 352-353, 748-749. observed: "The immediate behavior threatens safety schoolchildren teachers educational process justifies excepting interests." 70 repeats mentions need" 720, immediately dispensing requirements. above, permitted grounds. Without maintaining institution devoted healing, disciplining contributed, magistrate warrant. 71 exactly kind neutral magistrate's involvement helpful curtailing infringement 407 297, 317, 92 2125, 2136, 752 (1972) historical accepts, unreviewed executive discretion yield readily pressures incriminating overlook potential invasions speech"). forced articulate exact specify sought, prevented rummaging doctor's demanded dispensed with, end affirmed. B 72 proposition calling respective arrive flawed. Once again, fails facts. arrives sweeping broad brush, announces dispenses "would burdensome." 722. manner addition, argues requirement, imposed unfamiliar procedure, prove "unwieldy." danger formulating becomes very stage Whenever found, situation, nexus purposes Put way, adopts new alternative circumstances.8 20, brief, on-the-spot Still concerned, import provides "neutral scrutiny judge," 21, 1880, weighed detail suspect's protective constituted equivalent warrant: judging officer's objective 27, 1883. declined municipal health enforcing standards. 532-533, 1732-1733. 73 absent inevitable gulf concrete setting. certainly correct workplace.9 perfectly suited instant one.10 abandons explain substitute retains anything judge."11 preordained cut setting, derives weighing competing interests. 74 When states limiting arguably case—the "noninvestigatory intrusion" (i.e., search) "investigatory misfeasance" search). 723. limitation, illusory. describes fashion imagine fit categories. proposes 725-726. Therefore, unclear, announcing effort arriving elimination absence, demand factors. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 873, 881, 95 2574, 2580, 607 (1975). nexus.12 true, eliminating enable accomplish tasks conceivable somewhat although, plurality. borrowed opposed imaginable asserted explicated,13 really "practical, nontechnical conception," Brinegar 338 160, 176, 1302, 1311, L.Ed. 1879 (1949), adequately 363-364, 754-755 (BRENNAN, part).14 76 reviewed length employers' workplaces, unexplored law, demands appear settings, beginning face, problems.15 examine closely replacing derived test. less. By ignoring abstract undermines constitutionality respectfully dissent. reach evaluation items. Neither issue, curiae brief behalf discuss legality qualified immunity damages 1983. Davis Scherer, 468 183, 3012, 82 139 (1984); Harlow Fitzgerald, 457 800, 102 2727, 396 (1982). raised Appeals. Nor drug alcohol testing nonwork-related development federal 720-721, squarely faced them. workability 'an circumstances.' 730 quoting Given, imagined-ranging retrieval planned misdeeds-development jurisprudence require approach. Carney, 471 386, 400, 2066, 2074, 406 (STEVENS, dissenting) rules formulated painstaking adjudication"); 366-367, 755-756, part) ("I develop single govern seizures" (emphasis original)). approach, unlike emerge possess precision exploration "every aspect multifaced embracing demanding interests" produce. Fruehauf, 365 146, 157, 81 547, 554, (1961). me, harms disservice argued removes unfavorable sympathy. Cardozo ago explained, judges feelings emerging lives: "I spoken forces avowedly avail shape form judgments. consciousness. They lie near surface, influence disclaimed. exhausted recognition power. Deep consciousness forces, likes dislikes, predilections prejudices, complex instincts emotions habits convictions, man, litigant judge." B. Cardozo, Nature Judicial Process 167 (1921). whenever, fail concentrate longer check "discipline" facts, shape, unknown themselves, then articulated. This, believe, central problem concurrence. pointing erred part. That notified participated it, 23, odds record, 40. notion exemplified recent Attorney General. responding possibility diversion funds Central recipients, reported stated: "I'm opportunity papers. criminality supported don't belong Government." N.Y.Times, Dec. 3, 1986, A11, col. 1978) (search desk); McIntyre, 582 1221, 1224 (monitoring conversations desk). Williams 728 721, (CA5 1984) 362, 364-365 1977) (describing cases); Donato, 269 921 (ED Pa.), aff'd, 379 288 1967) (Government lockers Mint viewed lockers). regulations Court. Perhaps greatest sign disappearance distinction representatives sphere life—have force increasing numbers. BNA Special Report, Family: Changing Dynamic, 13-15 (1986). therein noted: myth 'separate worlds'—one life—long harbored unions, workers effectively laid rest. inseparability undeniable, two-earner families norm once distressing parents raise own. work-family conflicts-for family, whole society-will grow demographic social transformations roles clarified appreciated." 217 (remarks Professor Phyllis Moen). disappearance, life. 227 Barney Olmsted Suzanne Smith). troubled implication lesser degree owns constitutes draws "context," cabinets," "closed handbag, briefcase." 715-716. ownership premises. Rakas Illinois, 439 128, 421, 430, (1978) ("[T]he invaded claims place"); 512, (Fourth "areas"). sure, premises main purposes; ownership, visits, abrogate step. Courts alternative. Through test, try reasonableness, one, continue serve model conceivable, court, having initially calls balancing, application all. investigations, coupled Security Law Enforcement Employees Dist. Council 82, Federation State, County Employees, AFL-CIO Carey, 737 187, 203-204 (government correctional facility strip officers, warrant). "unwieldy" failed why, burdensome fact, opposite true. 722, 530-531, 1731-1732, (1967). "standard captures requirement; explication consists series assertions: employers"; "tangible damage" agency; 724-725. assertions pass advice counsel, party My developed bears repeating believed vehicle public-employer fault substance verbatim 714-715. tailored directly transferable halls high government. event, stark it. Assuming, deciding, mismanaging concern. If truly understand looked resulted poetry, claimed Although, 729, n., One example associated Shoemaker Handel, 795 1136, 1141-1143 (CA3) (administrative-search extended breath urine jockeys, heavily regulated horse-racing industry), cert. denied, 986, 577, 580 (1986); National Treasury Union Von Raab, 649 380 La.1986) (wide-scale urinalysis Service struck down violative Amendment).

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