Document: 521 U.S. 424117 S.Ct. 2113138 L.Ed.2d 560 METRO-NORTH COMMUTER RAILROAD COMPANY, Petitioner,v.Michael BUCKLEY. No. 96-320. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Feb. 18, 1997. Decided June 23, Syllabus * Respondent Buckley was exposed to insulation dust containing asbestos while employed as a pipefitter by petitioner railroad. Since attending an awareness class, he has feared, with some cause, that will develop cancer. Thus far, periodic medical check-ups have revealed no evidence asbestos-related disease. filed suit under Federal Employers' Liability Act (FELA)-which permits railroad worker recover for "injury . resulting from'' his employer's "negligence,'' 45 U.S.C. §51-seeking damages negligently inflicted emotional distress and cover cost future check-ups. The District dismissed after hearing Buckley's case, finding that, because there had been physical impact from exposure, FELA did not permit recovery injury. See Consolidated Rail Corporation v. Gottshall, 512 532, 114 2396, 129 427. It discuss monitoring claim. In reversing, Second Circuit held contact what Gottshall called "physical impact'' when present, plaintiff accompanying distress, could also costs made necessary exposure. Held: 1.Buckley cannot unless, until, manifests symptoms Pp. ____-____. (a) critical issue is whether amounts term used in case. interpreting word "injury'' §1, set forth several general legal principles applicable here: FELA's purpose basically humanitarian; expressly abolishes or modifies host common-law limitations on recovery; it should be interpreted liberally, but liability rests upon negligence insurer all employee injuries; those rejected statute's text are entitled great weight play significant role determining whether, when, can distress. identified more specific propositions: common law torts does unless falls within categories amount recovery-permitting exceptions; mirroring many States' law, allows such where satisfies law's "zone danger'' test, which plaintiffs injury if they sustain from, placed immediate risk harm by, defendant's negligence. (b) referred include simple substance might cause disease at substantially later time-where substance, related circumstance, threatens other than disease-related risk. First, each state cases cited support test involved threatened caused, traumatic harm. Second, Gottshall's language, read light this precedent, seems similarly limited. Third, only few exceptions, courts denied who, like Buckley, symptom free. Fourth, policy reasons explaining why restricted certain classes caused harms, see U.S., 557, S.Ct., 2411, present Thus, basis adopting Circuit's emotional-distress rule. (c) arguments reply-that exposure enhanced mortality strong proof genuine series position, "humanitarian'' nature warrants holding favor-are unpersuasive. 2.Buckley shown legally costs. Insofar opinion suggests intended apply basic principle expenses reasonably underlying injury, here compensable requires reversal point. court rested its broader ground themselves represent separate economic possible, existence tort action permitting lump sum irrespective insurance, beyond bounds "evolving law'' currently stands. supra, 558, 2411-2412. authorizing asymptomatic do endorse full-blown, traditional action, instead suggested, imposed, special remedy. Given mix competing considerations policy-based contains unqualified rule unconvincing. 79 F.3d 1337, reversed remanded. BREYER, J., delivered Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, THOMAS, JJ., joined. GINSBURG, concurring judgment part dissenting part, STEVENS, Sheila L. Birnbaum, New York City, petitioner. Charles C. Goetsch, respondent. Justice BREYER Court. 1 question case carcinogen (here, asbestos) without any (FELA), 35 Stat. 65, amended, §51 et seq., We conclude before us consider claim costs, we hold, out below, respondent 2 Respondent, Michael works Metro-North, For three years (1985-1988) job him about one hour per working day. During time would remove pipes, often covering himself contained asbestos. 1987, attended "asbestos awareness'' feared cancer-and two expert witnesses testified even taking account now-discarded 15-year habit smoking up pack cigarettes day, created added death due cancer, diseases either 1% 5% (in view plaintiff's experts), 3% another). 1989, received cancer asbestosis. So 3 sued Metro-North FELA, statute "negligence.'' §51. He sought His employer conceded negligence, concede actually suffered argued who harm, injuries sort. After action. found "offer sufficient allow jury find real injury.'' App. 623. And, event, impact''; hence fell outside limited circumstances which, according recovery. Id., 620; 427 (1994). further monitoring. 4 appealed, reversed. 1337 (1996). evidence, said, showed (containing "massive, lengthy, tangible,'' id., 1345, "would fear reasonable person,'' 1344. Under these circumstances, held, impact''-a workplace statements expression worry sending jury. Finally, incurred extra whenever "reasonable physician prescribe regime different prescribed absence of'' particular toxic substance. 1347 (internal quotation marks omitted). 5 granted certiorari review holdings Gottshall. II 6 respect "emotional distress'' accompanied provision makes " [e]very carrier liable person suffering employed'' results doing so, initially here. described purposes "humanitarian.'' 542, 2403-2404; also, e.g., Urie Thompson, 337 163, 69 1018, 93 L.Ed. 1282 (1949). pointed doctrines previously See, §§51, 53, 54. Act's language "liberally'' humanitarian purposes. 543, 2404. But, same time, noted "negligence'' make ""the insurer''' injuries. 2404 (quoting Ellis Union Pacific R. Co., 329 649, 653, 67 598, 600, 91 572 (1947)). stated "common-law principles,'' statute, "are weight'' Act, "play role'' "negligent infliction distress.'' 544, 2405. 2411-2412 (SOUTER, concurring) (Court's duty "in federal informed reference evolving law''); Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co. Buell, 480 107 1410, 94 563 (1987). 7 propositions. recognized exceptions. example, accompanies see, Simmons Pacor, Inc., 543 Pa. 664, 678, 674 A.2d 232, 239 (1996); Restatement (Second) Torts §924(a) (1977), close relative victim, Dillon Legg, 68 Cal.2d 728, Cal.Rptr. 72, 441 P.2d 912 (1968); 549, n. 10, 2407, 10 (citing cases). then States, sometimes permitted "for negligent distress,'' 550, and, particular, so seeking test. defined stating "recovery injury'' 8 "those result conduct, conduct.'' 547-548, 2406, (emphasis added). 9 us, focuses italicized words impact.'' including long kind "cause person.'' F.3d, our view, however, adoption quoted above. And permitted, Keck Jackson, 122 Ariz. 114, 593 668 (1979) (car accident); Towns Anderson, 195 Colo. 517, 579 1163 (1978) (gas explosion); Robb Pennsylvania 58 Del. 454, 210 709 (1965) (train struck car); Rickey Chicago Transit Authority, 98 Ill.2d 546, 75 Ill.Dec. 211, 457 N.E.2d (1983) (clothing caught escalator choked victim); Shuamber Henderson, 452 (Ind.1991) Watson Dilts, 116 Iowa 249, 89 N.W. 1068 (1902) (intruder assaulted husband); Stewart Arkansas Southern 112 La. 764, 36 So. 676 (1904) Purcell St. Paul City 48 Minn. 134, 50 1034 (1892) (near streetcar collision); Bovsun Sanperi, 61 N.Y.2d 219, 473 N.Y.S.2d 357, 461 843 (1984) Kimberly Howland, 143 N.C. 398, 55 S.E. 778 (1906) (rock blasting crashed through plaintiffs' residence); Simone Rhode Island 28 R.I. 186, 66 A. 202 (1907) (streetcar Mack South-Bound 52 S.C. 323, 29 905 (1898) narrowly missed plaintiff); Gulf, S.F.R. Hayter, Tex. 239, 54 S.W. 944 (1900) Pankopf Hinkley, 141 Wis. 146, 123 625 (1909) (automobile carriage); Garrett Berlin, Wis.2d 223, 362 N.W.2d 137 (1985) accident). Cf. Deutsch Shein, 597 S.W.2d (Ky.1980) (holding x rays contact'' supporting fetus suspected). 11 555, 2410 ("zone danger consistent central focus perils''); 556, 2410-2411 Lancaster Norfolk Western 773 F.2d 807, 813 (C.A.7 1985), cert. denied, 945, 1602, 788 (1987)) (FELA seeks protect workers ""from invasions menaces'''); (employer apprehension impact''); 2406-2407 Pearson, Bystanders Negligently Inflicted Emotional Harm-A Comment Nature Arbitrary Rules, 34 U. Fla. L.Rev. 477, 488-489) (1982) (""[T]hose zone impact''' able ""recover fright''' ""a near miss may frightening direct hit'''). 12 Taken together, precedent indicate encompass every form contact.'' exposure-an poses causes learns become ill substantial period time. 13 favor plaintiff. Common suffers supra 2117, exhibits recover, Herber Johns-Manville Corp., 785 79, 85 (C.A.3 1986); Mauro Owens-Corning Fiberglas 225 N.J.Super. 196, 542 16 (App.Div.1988). But E.g., Burns Jaquays Mining 156 375, 752 (Ct.App.1987), dism'd, 162 781 1373 (1989); Mergenthaler Asbestos Corp. Am., 647 (Del.1984); Eagle-Picher Industries, Inc. Cox, 481 So.2d 517 (Fla.App.1985), den., 492 1331 (Fla.1986); Capital Holding Bailey, 873 187 (Ky.1994); Payton Abbott Labs, 386 Mass. 540, 437 171 (1982); 232 Ball Joy Technologies, 958 (C.A.4 1991); Deleski Raymark 819 377 1987) (Pennsylvania Jersey law); Adams Sales 783 589 (C.A.5 1986) (Louisiana Wisniewski 759 271 1985) re Hawaii Cases, 734 F.Supp. 1563 (D.Haw.1990) (Hawaii Amendola Kansas 699 1401 (W.D.Mo.1988) (FELA); Potter Firestone Tire Rubber Cal.4th 965, 25 Cal.Rptr.2d 863 795 (1993) banc) (no "more likely not'' cancer). 14 referred-in explanation falling rather categories-militate against expansive definition Those include: "difficult[y] judges juries'' separating valid, important claims invalid "trivial,'' 2411; threat "unlimited unpredictable liability,'' ibid.; "potential flood'' comparatively unimportant, claims, ibid. 15 To meritorious trivial seem easier seek typical facts illustrate problem. concluding failed "sufficient injury,'' apart own testimony, virtually 623-625. Indeed, continued work insulating material "even though transferred'' elsewhere, "continued smoke cigarettes'' despite doctors' warnings, doctor refer "either psychologist social worker.'' 624. Appeals objective corroborating namely "workers' complaints supervisors investigative bodies.'' 1346. Both kinds "objective'' evidence-the confirming disconfirming evidence-seem indirectly issue, seriousness claimed Yet, given difficulty valid typify parties look. similar point: 17 [T]esting "genuineness' alone bound lead haphazard results. Judges forced highly subjective determinations concerning authenticity far less susceptible their counterparts. extent genuineness limit potential liability, inconsistently.'' 552, 2409. 18 too, her opinion, recognize problem, she show simply having expressed concern supervisors. post, __. 19 More important, here-a (though extensive) carcinogenic substance-does offer much help claims. That contacts, extensive serious carcinogens common. Nicholson, Perkel Selikoff, Occupational Exposure Asbestos: Population Risk Projected Mortality-1980-2030, Am. J. Indust. Med. 259 (estimating 21 million Americans work-related asbestos); Dept. Health Human Services, Seventh Annual Report Carcinogens 71 (1994) (3 benzene, majority workplace); Pirkle, al., U S Environmental Tobacco Smoke, 275 JAMA 1233, 1237 (1996) (reporting 43% children lived home least smoker, 37% adult nonsmokers smoker reported environmental tobacco work). They occur causing both unusually threatening Statistical Abstract (23.5 percent died 1994 cancer); American Cancer Society, Facts Figures-1997, p. (half men third women relevant remains evaluating reaction increased dying. An external circumstance-exposure-makes likely. how determine circumstance (say 23% 28%) genuine, overstated-particularly statistics controversial uncertain (as usually case), particularly since neither nor juries experts statistics? evaluation problem one. 20 large number uncertainties surround suggest liability.'' Does mean, associated unreasonable require public pay higher prices result? Priest, Current Insurance Crisis Modern Tort Law, 96 Yale L.J. 1521, 1585-1587 characteristics "flood'' important. world resources, large-scale recoveries widespread diminish likelihood suffer disease? Weinstein, Individual Litigation 10-11, (1995); Schuck, Worst Should Go First: Deferral Registries Litigation, Harv. J.L. Pub. Pol'y 541 (1992). raise questions answer them (for answers), concerns led deny harms well. being rationale departing current consensus. say, policy, adopted Appeals. 22 raises reply. points out, symptoms; argues genuine. 23 This argument, overlooks fact area examine Rather, developed contours distantly reflect this, other, abstract concerns. point categorization authority undertake examination. category (or exhibit symptom), thereby effort evaluate warranted cases-perhaps desire physically injured victim whole event. cases, categories, reached conclusion. validity redefine category. easy terms turned on, [or] tangible'' amounted contaminated water, germ-laden air, carcinogen-containing substances, stated, __-__, done so. 24 believes support. Many already Marchica Long 31 1197 (C.A.2 1994) (traumatic injury); Clark Taylor, 710 (C.A.1 1983) (intentional harm); Laxton Orkin Exterminating 639 431, 433-434 (Tenn.1982) (nuisance claim); Lavelle 30 Ohio Misc.2d 11, 507 476 (Ct. Pleas, Cuyahoga Cty. (emotional asbestosis-afflicted plaintiff). involving directly. Watkins Fibreboard 994 253, 1993) (Texas law) (recognizing based exposures symptoms); Moorenovich, 634 (D.Me.1986) (Maine (same); Gerardi Nuclear Utility 149 657, 566 1002 (Westchester Cty.1991) (same). None decided highest State. minority reaching proposed favor. doubt militates 2407-2408. just must interpret take proper sympathetic individual plaintiff, impact, well employers, rules create. Here consequences effects concludes here, perspective, benefits balance good, reasonable, conclusion inconsistent purpose. III 26 "injury,'' expects incur asbestos-laden dust. aspect Circuit, reversing "a award'' "costs'' "medical monitoring'' 1347. agreed decide correctly loss. 27 dispute-and assume-that develops symptoms. As element damages. McCormick, Law Damages §90 (1935)); §924(c) (1977); Stein, Stein Personal Injury §5.18 (2d ed.1991). No whose consists disease, symptom, sorts fall "injury.'' Part II, supra. Much 1342 (" [T]his turns FELA''); (monitoring "traditional damages''). Other portions portion decision ground, §51, (including symptoms) exceed [the] exposure.'' (citation viewed straightforward "amount money'' "compensate'' "future expenses,'' Plaintiff's Proposed Charges Jury 25, Record, Doc. 33, ordinary, separate, ordinarily permits) sum, §§5.1 5.18, §920A(2) (1977). characterized, holding, went law.'' concurring). Guided parties' briefs, canvassed state-law considered causation (i.e., costs) itself constitutes decisions. put side involve presence explained beside Friends All Children, Lockheed Aircraft 746 816, 824-825 (C.A.D.C.1984) impact); Hagerty L Marine 315, modified, 797 256 (physical symptom). courts, come conclusions matter. Compare, Paoli Yard PCB 916 829 1990) 1991) (West Virginia law). ended focusing State Ayers 106 N.J. 525 287 (1987); Hansen Mountain Fuel Supply 858 970 (Utah 1993); (1993); (Ct.App.1987). note, purposes, lump-sum damages-of sort endorsed recognizing justifies remedy, Compare Ayers, 608, A.2d, 314 (recommending creation court-supervised fund administer medical-surveillance payments''); Hansen, 982 (suggesting insurance mechanism remedy); Potter, 1010, 28, Cal.Rptr.2d, 580, P.2d, 825, award inappropriate); Burns, 381, appropriate) with, Honeycutt Walden, 294 Ark. 440, 743 809 (1988) (damages awarded payment); Rice Hill, 315 166, 172 289 (1934) (1977) (ordinarily insured irrelevant recovery). 154. believe note caution, limitations, uneasiness remedy judicial recognition here-concerns identified. Since, say cancer-related, over above otherwise recommended, identification pose "difficult[ies] juries.'' 2411. difficulties uncertainty among professionals tests most usefully administered when. Preventive Services Task Force, Guide Clinical xxvii, xxx-xxxi, xlvii-xcii ed.1996). scientists always need provide systematic scientific answers question, calls Cf.App. 182 (testimony conceding colon screening "is recommended Society anyway''); 164 declining chest benefit smokers exposure). sole expert, then, equivocal monitoring, defense yet 32 Moreover, tens millions individuals substances justify substance-exposure-related (The dissent limits class employees suing __, satisfy sue-at law.) fact, along threaten (potentially absorbing resources better left available seriously harmed, __) systemic accompany liability'' (say, vast testing adversely affecting allocation scarce resources). assumes "costly'' __ worth $950 annually years; comparison, settled Center Claims Resolution, group representing manufacturers, 1988 until 1993, average settlement $12,500, non-malignant averaged $8,810. 96-270, Amchem Products, Windsor, 578. 33 traditional, full-blown ordinary ignore existing alternative sources payment, leaving potentially unavailable accrue whom employers now future) CFR §1910.1001(l) (requiring asbestos). Safety Administration regulations (which cites) demonstrate erred: relief seeks, creating entail corresponding benefits. Nor necessarily offering endorse-a would, noted, "collateral source'' payment. __-__. considerations-of liability. argues, inequitable place burden care defendant. 603-606, 311-312; 1007-1009, 578-580, 824. providing preventive go mitigate health detecting early stages; again, situation, assume situations occur. adds uncertainties, justified unjustified issue. (1993). paints picture co-workers; force wrong hands employer. troubled new, action-for interests depend system distinguish between reliable hand, unreliable relatively other. reality stake-and reconciled ways tried these, explain cautions important-and integral-parts state-court decisions is, arguably, considerations, convince kind. 37 disposes matter us. not, express might, accommodate finely tailored considered. IV 38 reverse determination remand proceedings opinion. 39 ordered. 40 STEVENS joins, part. 41 (FELA) enacted facilitate railworkers employers' "Congress static enlarged meet changing conditions concepts industry's toward workers.'' Kernan Dredging 355 426, 432, 78 394, 382 (1958). Until recently, accorded notably "liberal construction order accomplish [Congress'] objects.'' 180, 1030, Today's decision, continues step-back approach taken Even supported Court's rejection disposition new enigmatic departure once "constant established course.'' Urie, 181-182, 1030. 42 particles Grand Central's tunnels, I comprehend constituted Nevertheless, concur my fails severe 566-567, 13, 1416-1417, (1987) ("severe generally required establish purely injury''); 569, 1418, 18. trial angry fearful developing However, professional ease presented testimony mental health. 1341 1996). law. 563-564, 2414-2415 (GINSBURG, dissenting) (describing "unquestionably severe'' nervous breakdown, another hospitalized, lost weight, had, inter alia, suicidal preoccupations, anxiety, insomnia, cold sweats, nausea). 43 Concerning ruled triable "necessary asbestos,'' essential "to ensure detection cure develops.'' disturb ruling. 44 repaired maintained labyrinth pipes steam tunnels Central Terminal City. were surrounded white co-workers perform jobs. Without protective gear, pipefitters hammer, slice, pull material, broke removed, scattering into air. Fans intense heat spread pieces accumulated tunnel floors. coated skin clothing; taste gritty entered mouth nose. emerge covered head toe dust; appearance, dubbed "the snowmen Central.'' asbestos, widely mid-1970's. tell of, protection against, started tunnels. At August 31, learned pipe cause. respirator instruction "glove bag'' method removing efforts use glove bag proved frustrating: fit poorly slid down face perspired tunnels; plastic bags isolate melted hot spilling it. 46 140 asbestos-exposed counsel management unresolved. serving employees. stipulated "negligently 1985 beginning September 1987.'' 594 (Admitted Stipulated Facts). [N]o 1986,'' conceded, [it] obtained actual notice hazard around posed welfare employees.'' Ibid. acknowledged "it warning training safely handle asbestos.'' Prior Metro-North's stipulation Attorney General's Office Inspector General Metropolitan Transportation Authority conducted joint investigation, leading conclusions: "seriously disregarded safety workers''; railroad's failings "particularly egregious'' workers, report consultant, inspections Department Labor. 614. 47 asserted FELA-based complaint: first, charged distress; second, compensation definitively rejects first railworker ante, second claim, speaks tentatively. [T]he case,'' told, "has [medical monitoring] costs.'' Ante, [A]rguably,'' explains, demands "unqualified recovery,'' finds [in]sufficient law,'' pointedly refrains, "express[ing] [a kind].'' original). apparent whether) reverses solidly grounded, hold otherwise. Hypothesizing nothing else, ruminates appropriate answering anterior question: relief? "extremely high levels 1341, detect treat [asbestos-related] arise.'' witness estimated annual $950. Ibid.1 know qualify relief. 49 rightly states FELA; again difference unexposed persons advise way were. 1347; infra, __-__ (defining worker's "injury''); 829, 849-852 1990), sub nom. Elec. Knight, 499 961, 111 1584, 113 649 (1991) (Paoli I); 717, 785-788 1994), Ingram, 513 1190, 115 1253, 131 134 (1995) II). Recognizing align [A increasingly latent hazardous materials doctrine requirement manifest.'' Daigle Shell Oil 972 1527, 1533 (C.A.10 1992); Schwartz, Recovery Expense Medical Monitoring Detect Prevent Future Disease Condition, A.L.R. 5th 327 understates, upheld pathmarking Third right diagnose properly signs disease.'' I, F.2d, 851; 785-788. Similarly, Courts instance, sustained claims.2 responsible little value 51 These answered passes by: What elements claim? enumerated: A (1) establishes significantly proven actions defendant; (2) proximate contracting disease; (3) reason exposure; (4) procedures exist treatment possible beneficial. 852; 788. Each factor competent testimony. 852. comports FELA. "shall officers, agents, carrier.'' invasion employee's interest free extraordinary surveillance. §7 (1964) protected another''); 826 ("It difficult dispute avoiding expensive diagnostic examinations injury.''); 591, 287, 304 53 Traditional warrant asserted. explained, [t]he obvious[:]'' "Medical acknowledge age, tortfeasor, notwithstanding manifestation speculate probability merely ascertain costly supervision appropriate. Allowing deters irresponsible discharge chemicals defendants encourages soon possible. conventional goals '' 1008, 579, 795, 824 970, 976-978 N.J., 603-605, 380-381, 33-34 56 On counts-exposure, devastating necessity monitoring-Michael complaint presents textbook Through stipulations, [the requires] furnishing safe work.'' 1411-1412. trial, [c]ompetent receive "through [its] experts, services-a inconsequential community accepts wear tear daily life. [tortfeasor] pay.'' 825. B 57 leaves open recognizes faces suffering, "unusually frightening,'' stages "can effects,'' notes "uncertainty when.'' uncommon, course, doctors agree attention needed, disagree course best. best Fact triers routinely lacking indubitably clear answers: Did product disability be? bears repetition, moreover, incremental recommend 59 (OSHA) governing permissible plain "trivial'' matter, __; instructive standards §1910.1001 §655(b)(7) (authorizing Secretary Labor substances). OSHA's describe detail available. §1910.1001(l), D, E industries 1970 (Act). Although §652(5), OSHA N.Y. Lab. §§27-a(3)(c), (4)(a) (McKinney 1986 Supp.1997). Had assiduously standards, spared recover.3 60 anticipation ""flood' cases'' ""unlimited liability''' overblown. stake additional surveillance entails, __-__; provides employee, compensation. pave "tens individuals'' doubtful legions universe ever known debilitating deadly disease.4 Withholding relief, dangerous, lives grave diagnosed too late. C emphasizes heavily imposed suggested lieu damages, indicates, Cal.4th, 1006-1010, 575-580, 821-825, affirming monitoring; suggesting footnote fund); 979-982 (reversing grant summary 607-611, 313-315 (affirming cases); Ariz., fund). 62 scarcely surprising fund. record shows, party recoverable, aired below prime obscures: 63 "an money' "compensate' expenses.''' precise take. infers charges jury, wanted "tort permits''-damages sum. qualifies If deems permits'' inappropriate, guidance lower "Yes, relief.'' Rule Civil Procedure 54(c) directs prevailing entitled, demand pleadings. thus instructs district "compensate situation regard constraints antiquated rigid forms action.'' Wright, Arthur Miller, Mary Kay Kane, Practice §2662, pp. 133-134 ed.1983). experience securing demanded pleadings shows it.'' 135; §2664, 163 (Rule utilized awards type complaint''); cf. Holt Civic Club Tuscaloosa, 439 60, 65-66, 99 383, 387-388, 292 ("a dismiss constitutional plainly one''; citing 54(c)). 64 *** 65 today remands proceedings. correctly, replead Unaccountably, resists statement enlighten cases: cognizable entirely step ""evolving law.''' concurring)). therefore relates syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Timber Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 499. contest estimate excessive. discrete Elam Alcolac, 765 42, 208-209 (Mo.App.1988); Askey Occidental Chemical 102 A.D.2d 130, 477 242, 246-247 (App.Div.1984). Day National Lead Ohio, 851 869, 880-882 (S.D.Ohio 1994); Bocook Ashland Oil, 530, 536 (S.D.W.Va.1993); Stead F.E. Myers Div. McNeil 56, (D.Vt.1990). oral argument conduct airborne only, escaped compliance ongoing Tr. Oral Arg. 52. supports assertion monitor level exposed. 606-607 (noting violations, failure accurately concentrations extend further, decide.

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