Document: 532 U.S. 598121 S.Ct. 1835149 L.Ed.2d 855 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.BUCKHANNON BOARD AND CARE HOME, INC., et al., PETITIONERSv.WEST VIRGINIA DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH HUMAN RESOURCES al. No. 99-1848. SUPREME COURT THE UNITED STATES Argued February 27, 2001Decided May 29, 2001 Syllabus Buckhannon Board and Care Home, Inc., which operates assisted living residences, failed an inspection by West Virginia fire marshal's office because some residents were incapable "self-preservation" as defined state law. After receiving orders close its facilities, others (hereinafter petitioners) brought suit Federal District against State agencies officials respondents), seeking declaratory injunctive relief requirement violated Fair Housing Amendments Act 1988 (FHAA) Americans with Disabilities 1990 (ADA). Respondents agreed stay pending case's resolution. The legislature then eliminated requirement, granted respondents' motion dismiss case moot. Petitioners attorney's fees "prevailing party" under FHAA ADA, basing their entitlement on "catalyst theory," posits a plaintiff if it achieves desired result lawsuit about voluntary change defendant's conduct. As Fourth Circuit had previously rejected denied motion, affirmed. Held: theory" not permissible basis for award ADA. Under "American Rule," parties ordinarily required bear own fees, courts follow general practice awarding prevailing party absent explicit statutory authority, Key Tronic Corp. v. 511 809, 819. Congress has employed legal term art numerous statutes authorizing awards fees. A one who been awarded court. See, e.g., Hanrahan Hampton, 446 754, 758. Both judgments merits court-ordered consent decrees create material alteration parties' relationship thus permit award. however, allows where there no judicially sanctioned relationship. conduct, although perhaps accomplishing what sought achieve lawsuit, lacks necessary judicial imprimatur change. legislative history cited petitioners at best ambiguous availability theory"; and, particularly view such clearly insufficient alter clear meaning fee-shifting statutes. Given this meaning, need determine way petitioners' various policy arguments cut. Pp. 3-12. 203 F.3d 819, ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR FOURTH CIRCUIT Rehnquist, J., delivered Court, O'Connor, Scalia, Kennedy, Thomas, JJ., joined. Opinion Chief Justice Rehnquist Court. 1 Numerous federal allow costs party." question presented here whether includes secure judgment decree, but nonetheless achieved We hold does not. 2 care homes provide residents, Office Fire Marshal See W. Va. Code 16-5H-1, 16-5H-2 (1998) (requiring all residential board capable "self-preservation," moving themselves "from situations involving imminent danger, fire"); Rules, tit. 87, ser. 1, 14.07(1) (1995) (same). On October 28, 1997, after cease desist requiring closure facilities within 30 days, behalf itself similarly situated petitioners), Northern Virginia, two agencies, 18 individuals relief1 (FHAA), 102 Stat. 1619, 42 U.S.C. 3601 seq., (ADA), 104 327, 12101 seq. 3 enforcement resolution began discovery. In 1998, Legislature enacted bills eliminating see H. R. 4200, I 1998 Acts 983-986 (amending regulations); S. 627, II 1198-1199 statute), respondents moved finding legislation allegedly offensive provisions was indication would repeal amendments.2 4 FHAA, 3613(c)(2) ("[T]he court, discretion, ... reasonable fee costs"), 12205 court , fee, including litigation expenses, costs"). argued they entitled Although most Courts Appeals recognize theory,"3 S-1 S-2 Bd. Ed. N. C., 21 49, 51 (1994) (en banc) ("A person 'prevailing party' except virtue having obtained enforceable judgment, settlement giving sought"). accordingly same reason, affirmed unpublished, per curiam opinion. Judgt. reported 819 (CA4 2000). 5 To resolve disagreement amongst Appeals, we certiorari, 530 1304 (2000), now affirm. 6 fees-the collect from loser. Alyeska Pipeline Service Co. Wilderness Society, 421 240, 247 (1975). "a authority." (1994). Congress, authorized addition those issue here, Civil Rights 1964, 78 259, 2000e-5(k), Voting 1975, 89 402, 1973l(e), Attorney's Fees Awards 1976, 90 2641, 1988. generally Marek Chesny, 473 43-51 (1985) (Appendix Brennan, dissenting).4 7 designating eligible costs, party," art. Black's Law Dictionary 1145 (7th ed. 1999) defines "[a] whose favor rendered, regardless amount damages . - Also termed successful can distilled our prior cases.5 8 758 (1980) (per curiam), reviewed found "Congress intended interim counsel only when prevailed least his claims." Our "[r]espect ordinary language requires receive claim he said prevail." Hewitt Helms, 482 755, 760 (1987). have held even nominal suffices test. Farrar Hobby, 506 103 (1992).6 9 merits, agreements enforced through decree serve Maher Gagne, 448 122 (1980). always include admission liability defendant, see, id., 126, n. 8, "chang[e] [in] between [the plaintiff] defendant." Texas Teachers Assn. Garland Independent School Dist., 489 782, 792 (1989) (citing Hewitt, supra, 760-761, Rhodes Stewart, 488 3-4 (1988) curiam)).7 These decisions, taken together, establish "material parties" U.S., 792-793; also Hanrahan, 757 ("[I]t seems intent interlocutory established claims, either trial appeal" (emphasis added)). 10 think, falls side line these examples. It parties. Even limited form could recover "complaint sufficient merit withstand lack jurisdiction failure granted." Brief Amicus Curiae 27. type based upon plain congressional intent, necessary. Indeed, ruling reverses dismissal "is stuff victories made." 760. 754 (reversal directed verdict defendant make party"). precedents holding authorizes without corresponding 11 dissenters chide us upsetting "long-prevailing precedent." Post, added). But, Scalia points out concurrence, several relied dicta cases approving theory." post, 11-12; 4-5, 5. Now squarely presented, behooves reconcile holdings. received Farrar, 112, Maher, 129-130-we secured reversal verdict, 759, acquired pronouncement Constitution unaccompanied "judicial relief," Never nonjudicial "alteration actual circumstances." 13. While urging expansion front, simultaneously abrogate "merit" plaintiff's "was colorable" "not groundless." (internal quotation marks citation omitted). cannot agree who, simply filing nonfrivolous potentially meritless (it will never determined), reached "sought-after destination" obtaining relief. 13 omitted).8 12 argue supports broad reading doubt overcome think rather party"-the actually used statute. Since resorted Garland, 790, 129, 756-757, do likewise here. House Report states "[t]he phrase victor entry final following full " Rep. 94-1558, p. (1976), while Senate explains "parties considered vindicate rights formally 94-1011, (1976). Reports reference 1970 decision Eighth Circuit, Parham Southwestern Bell Telephone Co., 433 F.2d (1970), indicate Congress' adopt theory."9 Particularly Rule" "explicit authority," accepted term. Tronic, 819; ("[O]nly claims determination 'substantial parties,' determined foundation departing usual rule country each expense attorney" (quoting 8)). 14 finally assert prevent defendants unilaterally mooting action effort avoid They rejection deter plaintiffs meritorious expensive bringing suit. skeptical assertions, entirely speculative unsupported empirical evidence (e.g., number suits declined, relation Circuits, since S-2). 15 discount disincentive voluntarily conduct illegal. "The defendants' potential kind significant as, sometimes more than, merits," Evans Jeff D., 475 717, 734 (1986), possibility being assessed well altering 16 And fear mischievous materializes equitable relief, so long cause damages, moot case.10 then, how often find mooted: "It settled cessation challenged deprive power legality practice" unless "absolutely wrongful behavior reasonably expected recur." Friends Earth, Inc. Laidlaw Environmental Services (TOC), 528 167, 189 (2000) citations If moot, later procures course possibility, strong incentive enter agreement, negotiate costs. Cf. ("[M]any unwilling binding offer terms left exposed whatever might fix plaintiff" omitted)). 17 stated request should second major litigation," Hensley Eckerhart, 461 424, 437 (1983), avoided interpretation "spawn[ed] dimension," 791. Among things, hearing require analysis subjective motivations changing "will likely depend highly factbound inquiry turn inferences nature timing conduct." 28. ability district perform nuanced "three thresholds" test theory"-whether colorable than groundless; substantial insubstantial conduct; motivated threat victory expense, 6-7-it formula "ready administrability." Burlington Dague, 505 557, 566 (1992). statutes, Alyeska, 260, "extended roving authority Judiciary otherwise whenever deem them warranted." disregard holdings similar assumption "roving For reasons above, 3613(c)(2), 12205. 19 Affirmed. 20 filed concurring opinion, Ginsburg, dissenting Stevens, Souter, Breyer, NOTES: original complaint money relinquished January 2, 1998. App. Pet. Cert. A11. Rule Procedure failing timely notice amendment. 147. Stanton Southern Berkshire Regional 197 574, 577, (CA1 1999); Marbley Bane, 57 224, 234 (CA2 1995); Baumgartner Harrisburg Authority, 541, 546-550 (CA3 1994); Payne Ed., 88 392, 397 (CA6 1996); Zinn Shalala, 35 273, 276 (CA7 Little Rock Dist. Pulaski Cty. #1, 263, (CA8 Kilgour Pasadena, 53 1007, 1010 (CA9 Beard Teska, 31 942, 951-952 (CA10 Morris Palm Beach, 194 1203, 1207 (CA11 1999). interpreted consistently, 433, approach nearly identical occasion decide described above. Dicta (1987), alluded "voluntary affords sought," expressly reserved question, 763 ("We circumstances, any, 'catalyst' theory justify award"). though (1992), rejecting "involved catalytic effect." (2000). Thus, supporting both respondents, last Term observed open ibid. However, circumstances still 115-116. subsequently characterized allowing private settlements. 111; But ignores "held decree." 720 (1986). Private settlements entail approval oversight involved decrees. enforce contractual lacking agreement incorporated into dismissal. Kokkonen Guardian Life Ins. America, 375 seek support Mansfield, & L. M. Swan, 111 379 (1884), "[B]y universally recognized common law costs," 387, "the 'has recoverable,' 257 (1975) Fleischmann Distilling Maier Brewing 386 714, 717 (1967)). generally, particular, now, presumptive discretion vary. Court's 43.2 ("If vacates respondent appellee shall pay orders"). successfully removed opposed plaintiffs' remand lost case, reversed lower jurisdiction. plaintiffs, won jurisdictional issue, decided. sense word here-they opponents litigated issue-so use must regarded figurative literal one, justifying departure obvious equities favoring plaintiffs. victims legally whipsawing tactics. "lawsuit acted catalyst prompted [defendant] take compliance requirements Title VII," F.2d, 429-430, did unlawfully, 426 matter [plaintiff's evidence] violation VII"). consistent stands proposition permits like (1980), ordered "retain over period time insure continued implementation appellee's equal employment opportunities." 429. Clearly shifting untethered precedents. Only officers acting official capacity immune Edelman Jordan, 415 651 (1974). Plaintiffs bring others, municipalities political subdivisions State, Mt. Healthy City Doyle, 429 274 (1977). 22 join entirety, write respond greater length contentions dissent. 23 * "Prevailing newfangled invented late-20th-century law, actions ." 379, 387 (1884). 24 "Costs usually allowed party, incident statute Edw. I, c. acknowledged system organized. 25 "Weighed light [of 1789], conclusion appears Baltimore, Wall. 377, 388, 390 (1869). 26 Statutes Large Bankruptcy 1867, provided adverse Mar. ch. 176, 24, 528. 3, 1887, 359, 15, 508 Government put right may, joining issue"). computer search shows 70 times current Code; stranger 27 At enacted, know federal, which-either invocation common-law rule-the enunciated dissent cites (although expressed) reason support, today's not: Baldwin Chesapeake Potomac Tel. 156 Md. 552, 144 A. 703, 705 (1929), granting [appellee's] appeal unnecessary inquire suit, act performed institution appeal." irrelevant equity. While, Mansfield observed, equity "as require," Getz Johnston, 145 426, 125 689, 691 (1924). Horn Bohn, 96 12-13, 576, 577 (1902) ("The resting sound exercise lie") omitted).1 state-law despite absence involve finding-or equivalent, acknowledgement defendant-of case.2 Moreover, single Court-or applying enactment here-has litigant courthouse emptyhanded. means contends, remarkable authority. 28 That understood "prevailing" confirmed many context presumes existence ruling. 1221(g)(2) ("[i]f employee prohibited personnel practice"); 1221(g)(3) (providing "regardless decision"); 7701(b)(2)(A) (allowing obtain "relief 1324b(h) (permitting administrative judge "if losing party's argument fact"); 1864(e) (1994 ed., Supp. V) "in monetary damages"). 29 out, 8-9, Prison Litigation Reform 1995 limits 'proportionately related violation.' explicitly "tightly bind judgments," inviting (the believes) fasten judgments. premise. What provision demonstrates, most, impose assuredly true. rational reject normal produce different language, conclude that, synonyms "jump," "jump" mean something else. undoubtedly true, quoting nonlegal dictionary, meanings contexts: winds" winds predominate, election wins election. legislatures traditionally-and my knowledge, first invariably-meant obtains (or admission) liability. Not ultimately gets adversary dies comes judgment; point turns practical him; ceases (for reason) nuisance mooted asphalt plant gone bankrupt ceased operations, normally call party. difference, far propriety characterization concerned, go new location litigation. "prevailed"; lawsuit. Words specialized accorded meaning. "[W]here borrows accumulated tradition centuries practice, presumably knows adopts cluster ideas attached borrowed body learning convey mind instructed. contrary direction satisfaction widely definitions, them." Morissette 342 246, 263 (1952). 32 treated preclusively definitive," inapposite. Pioneer Investment Brunswick Associates Ltd. Partnership, 507 380 (1993), Rodgers, 466 (1984), definition conflicted precedent. Pioneer, 395-396 14; 480. not, relevant tailored settings another dictionary. 33 distorts beyond reasons, seem me misguided. rest presumption applies suit's led abandon fray, switch fight on, accord sooner principal redress complaint," it, today approves denying proven discrimination, very capitulate judgment. case. contrary, 1970), "after [a] unlawfully," ante, 9, 9.3 dissent's stretching produces more, less reasonable: remain unresolved-when, knows, "abandon[ed] fray" cost litigation-either financial public relations-would too great. "prevailed" Webster's term-"gain[ed] strength superiority," 12. resources, superiority media manipulation, merit, reward. 34 argued, perhaps, insofar abstract justice little choose outcome Court's: former rewards phony (there knowing), latter denies solid slinks away eve evil outweighs latter. There difference world extraordinary boon "deserving" them, causes instrument wrong-exacting payment extortionist. true extorted well, approved resolved mechanisms. 5-6 cases). makes Report, 122, 129 arise today, result. (1987) (Scalia, J.) (opining prevail" court-approved decrees, product of, bears sanction saying favored Extending stretches (and injustice produces) conceivably support. 36 object judge's approbation," "stop [West Virginia] rule," 13; 761. True enough. petitioner preparing threatened complaint, offending behavior, wannabe-but-never-was fees; countertextual, "action" "proceeding," 3613(d); 1988(b) V)-which parlance (though usage) (concluding deemed "postcomplaint conduct"). Does leave achievement purpose identified just unsatisfactorily incomplete decree? Just rhetorically asks why (never statute) want deny capitulates fair ask filed, about-to-be filing. Surely, contemplated difficult. All proof takes threatening letter batch timesheets. Surely obstacle (according dissent) willing let judges pursue much evasive will-o'-the-wisp called "catalyst." (Is courts?, dissent, 19.) My twisting prelitigation decreeless favors true). usage justified ground establishes regime logical handedness. cutoff seemingly equivalent entitlements fees-either file time. suggests former. One prevail determined. 37 ultimate worry "impede access well-heeled," 1. course, harms "less putting pressure risk massive abandoning solidly defensible early award, intend maximize quantity attorneys general," Rather, appropriate level enforcement-which produced limiting "on parties," permitting open-ended dissent.4 III 38 majority Circuits," 2. disagreeing "clear majority" Circuits rare phenomenon. opinions contradict unanimous long-standing courts. McNally 483 350, 365 (Stevens, dissenting) contradicted "[e]very consider" question). 39 insistence defer peculiar present nurtured preserved misleading (to unfortunately, contributed). Most 6, 5, reaffirming earlier Hewitt. 1995) (relying theory); 1996) (same); Auth., 548 1994) (explicitly Hewitt); 274-276 950-952 Deferring colleagues' error bad enough; enshrining ourselves improvidently suggested blaming near-unanimous colleagues surely unworthy.5 Informing ill-considered misled displays, me, "disrespect," becoming well-deserved) humility. 40 41 concludes prevailed, purposes parties." litigation, proper free, revise provisions-but guess sort inequity invites, likelihood requesting prevailed. issued frequently (including cases) acquiring 434, 691-692 (1924) (an noting [O]n reversal, rule, is, appellant" also, Hoffman Glock, 284, 293, 315 2d 551, 557 (1974) ("Md. 604a provides: 'Unless allowance taxed clerk embraced judgment' "); Fritts Fritts, 195, 197, 273 648, 649 (1971) viewed evidence, must, favorable below"); Chillum-Adelphi Volunteer Fire- Dept., Button Goode, 242 509, 516, 219 801, 805 (1966) ("At arbitration became party"); Burch Scott, 1829 WL 1006, *15 (Md. Ct. App., Dec. 1829) demurrer set down proceeds affirm reverse deposite"). "tu[g] restrictive installs," 9. Defendants vacate removal (diversity citizenship) absent. concluded responsible improper place, judgment's "effect [was] defeat entire proceeding originated prosecuted," 388. words, position defeated. Ficklen Danville, 146 438-439 132 E. 705, 706 (1926), appellants "substantially prevail[ed]" appellees "abandoned contention court," i.e., intention desire rely correctness court's Talmage Monroe, 119 P. 526 (Cal. 1911), complied alternative writ mandamus; writ, mere petition, action. Scatcherd Love, 166 F. 1908), Wagner Wagner, Pa. 214 (1848), represent adopted settling "acknowledged liability," Scatcherd, 56; 215. hardly uniform among States. Compare J. 89, 167 (1918) "settlement confession judgment"), 89-90, 168, "plaintiff [c]osts law) expanding (based "confession judgment" fiction) accepting out-of-court settlement-much expand settlements, domain acknowledgment rested Madison County Fowler, 192 Ga. 35, 478 (1941), which, liability, analogized mandamus settlement. slim reed theory. incorrectly characterizes undifferentiated "finding retention jurisdiction," 17, 11. fact, discriminated, retained given effect, ever backslide Jurisdiction read suggesting circumstances. notes (Parham House) risky interpretive tool, chamber-and consisting few Members read-is virtually worthless. event, Kopet Esquire Realty 523 1005 1975), issue. dubious premise discovery uncovered documents making Thomas Honeybrook Mines, 428 981 There, union members fruitless efforts sue spurred employer, paid fund union's victory. Whether union, 'designed give ['victims civil violation'] process' added)); Report: '[I]f violate Nation's fundamental laws proceed impunity,' ante 6-7, theory's purported "merit test"-the survive claim, frivolousness-is scant protection innocent. adopting predate 755 4, point. Absent everything else topic, 5-6, unlikely universality acceptance relies. holds prompts precise she seeks "prevail," hence secures memorializing her merits. Nor wrongdoing. do. 43 document court-a court-endorsed settlement-upsets long-prevailing precedent applicable scores escape obligation complaint. Concomitantly, constricted consequent impede well-heeled, shrink created general. 44 view, applied key component advance rights. Nothing history, precedent, English warrants anemic construction imposes. 45 Petitioner (Buckhannon), elderly persons living, nursing services. Buckhannon's 1996 102- year-old Dorsey Pierce. Pierce resided four years. Her daughter lived nearby, met Pierce's needs. Until prohibiting accommodating unable exit premises assistance event fire. get aid. Informed residents' limitations, proceeded noncompliance self-preservation rule. 18, 1996, three issued, commanding "cease operating effect relocation [its] existing population thirty (30) days." 46-53. 46 Ten days later, Pierce, together organization resident plaintiffs), commenced overturn cease-and-desist rested. sued defendants) alleging discriminated disabilities immediate stopping closing permanently barring 47 November temporary restraining order, individual housing care. Discovery followed. facing sovereign immunity pleas, stipulated demands damages. response dispose remainder summarily, triable 48 Less month trial, repealed allege, prove, triggered repeal. rule's demise, 12205.1 49 Finding reenact State's rendered Turning application followed denial termination accompanied settlement.2 mootness determination, sum, sought. gained stopped caring people Pierce.3 50 Prior 1994, every (except addressed issue) "catalyst" sought, decree.4 stops short due intervening mootness." Grano Barry, 783 1104, 1108 (CADC 1986). Interpreting sense," Stewart Hannon, 675 846, 851 1982) (citation omitted), across "prevails" "its ends accomplished Associated Builders Contractors Orleans Parish Bd., 919 374, 378 (CA5 1990) internal en banc, dividing 6-to-5, broke ranks sister declared become "an settlement." acknowledges, dictum: effect"; plainly Farrar." 52 Circuit's banc ruling, nine reaffirmed consistently "prevail."5 predominant "[s]ecuring status, embodies enforces Victory equivalent) (Jacobs, J.). array decisions conditions qualification decree. show "some benefit sought" Wheeler Towanda Area 950 128, 131 1991). Circuits' precedents, demonstrate genuine "colorable," "frivolous, unreasonable, Grano, 1110 Plaintiff "substantial" "significant" providing Williams Leatherbury, 672 549, 551 1982). causation showing, satisfy results "by victory," dint expense." Marbley, F.3d, 234-235; Hooper Demco, 287, 293 render "must 'wholly gratuitously' "). crossed thresholds whom discretion," 3-4, 54 Developed decades legions federal-court implementing standards deserve respect approbation. 55 detects meaning" 12, heretofore eluded large construing words. announces, "one 4. derives principally Dictionary, critical part, rendered," 1999)). 56 rendered" prevails, resist, have, implication prevail. cases, definitive; instead, terms, "term[s] art," (opinion Court); concurring), contextual reading. 380, 395-396, (1993) (defining "excusable neglect," 9006(b)(1), broadly term); 475, 479-480 (1984) (adopting "natural, nontechnical" "jurisdiction," 1001 declining confine "narrower, technical meanings," citing Black's). Notably, refer qualify "prevailing." explained: fact [plaintiff] weaken [42 U.S.C.] issues violated." Id., 129. 58 spare wording contrast prescriptions tightly exclude concept. 1995, example, directs prisoners "proportionately violation." 110 1321-72, amended, 1997e(d)(1)(B)(i) IV) statute, express forecloses prisoner ADA prescriptions, modeled unmodified, staple "court relief." Their foreclose B 59 altogether 1-2, traditionally winner fits description. calls ironly tugs installs. 60 contract Over objections, there, review 380-381. determined, subject-matter start. Based Worse entering leaving Courthouse equally "emptyhanded," (concurring opinion), stripped won, merits" favor, opinion). did, small consolation: below. Recognizing "prevail[ed]" "formal "[i]n sense" 61 casts majority's nominal" approach, consider case" relies, 4.6 are, enlightening analogies. multiple instances, high prevailing, taxation purposes, sought.7 labors unconvincingly distinguish cases.8 governed 54(d), default "to directs." Wright, Miller, Kane, Practice 2667, pp. 187-188 (2d 1983) (When alters [for relief] becomes reached, [under 54(d)] finds changes result, litigation.") (citing, inter alia, Black Hills Alliance Forester, (ND 1981)). 62 short, old new, state, court's] seeks. C 63 stone, infra, 21-22, dictates modern "assume intends words enactments carry 'their ordinary, contemporary, meaning.' 388 neglect") Perrin 444 37, (1979) "bribery")); Sutton Air Lines, 527 471, 491 (1999) "substantially" usage); Rutledge 517 292, 299-300, (1996) (similarly defining concert"). everyday use, "prevail" "gain superiority: win mastery: triumph." Third New International 1797 individual's goal judge, situations, declaration. piano competition figure skating contest, prevails judges. arbiter's approval, declaration essential. Western democracies, instance, Cold War Soviet Union surrendered. television viewers, John Kennedy debate Richard Nixon during 1960 Presidential moderator Howard K. Smith winner. T. White, Making President 1960, 293-294 (1961). 64 lawsuit's opponent. Favorable instrumental gaining Generally, end means. rainbow lies action) 761 understanding, reaches destination," "route taken." Hennigan Ouachita 749 1148, 1153 1985). 65 point, achieves, instituting misreads insisting invariably, displayed correspondingly suffices. suing narrowly objective stop evict centenarian price remaining business. account 7-if succeeded keeping doors Ms. situated-then properly judged 66 recognized, suitably advances endeavor place actions, legislatively areas, securely arsenal. 67 stemmed extending protections measures. 1964 included (public accommodations), 2000a-3(b), VII (employment), VI (federal programs). provisions' central promote vigorous enforcement" plaintiffs; using two-way available terms. Christiansburg Garment EEOC, 434 412, 417, (1978) (under VII, qualifies "special circumstances," foundation"). 68 Once came force, regularly authorizations, authorization. 262, 270-271, rule" instruction so. 269. authorization Act, Reconstruction Era legislation, 1981-1983, 1985, 1986 IV), certain enactments, passed IV). 69 explained 1988, policies "of highest priority," (1976) Newman Piggie Park Enterprises, 400, 402 (1968) curiam)), yet "depend heavily enforcement," Persons light, "private general." 5; Such suitors, "cannot afford counsel." therefore experience "severe hardshi[p]" Rule." ensure nonaffluent "effective access" laws. 1.9 accounts sway until qualified resources impelled "wage total law" assure paid. accept kind, proffered recorded determine, warranted so, amount.10 71 envisioned prospect. 1976 states: "[F]or recovered court-conferred relief.11 corroborates: "[A]fter unlawful practice. conclude, equity, injunction, needed." (emphases Reports, ambiguous. ("legislative ambiguous"), with, Dunn Florida Bar, 889 1010, 1013 1989) (legislative "evinces Congressional intent" "even obtained" omitted)); Robinson Kimbrough, 652 458, 465 1981) American Constitutional Party Munro, 650 184, 187 (Senate "directs" rule). am convinced, '[v]ictory' typically practical, strictly matter." Exeter-West Greenwich Pontarelli, 788 47, 1986) IV 72 identifies "policy arguments" warrant 10-11. refrain fearing 10. impact: Desisting "unless 'absolutely recur.' Ibid. 189). Because easily achieved, settle, negotiating generous Finally, "require motivations," protract Ante, 73 declines look beneath surface arguments, placing reliance, jurists scarcely plain. Had inspected listed impressive. 74 opposition resist stave off urge lead promptly comply law's requirements: longer larger encouraged conform threatened. Hylton, Fee Shifting Incentives Comply Law, Vand. Rev. 1069, 1121 ("fee enhances incentives rules settle disputes"). No doubt, recurrence controversy control. 16, rulings drive prepared adequate unrecorded, litigate on? leads allied consummation applaud, deplore? 75 burden norm assigned disputes (deciding due), thereby clearing calendar? factfinding courts, expertise, deal regular basis"? 1994). Might overall, suggested, "saves resources," Paris Department Urban Development, 988 236, 240 1993), encouraging "plaintiffs discontinue acquiescence remedy initially sought"? 76 adds rule: sees "extortionist" "greater merit." concern overlooks character superintendence allowances. auxiliary primary 422. end, conduct-altering counted substance merely atypically superior ties, clout. 7. responsibility automatons extoritionists, instructed "discretion." So viewed, berth suits, Hooper, "thinly disguised forms extortion," Tyler Corner Constr. Corp., 1202, 1206 omitted).12 V 77 attorney correctly observes, "[w]e 'catalyst theory,' "there respondents." emphasis, determining past placed greatest weight imprimatur," impact lawsuit.13 nowhere presence 8; 22, 14. Some years "obtain[ed] [the] judgment." "If pays pronounced," [a judgment], conduct) towards plaintiff," "that prevailed." agree, apply 'merit' cases." "did purport adjudicate [plaintiff's] constitutional 8. "explicitly 'nothing [therein was] constitute fault party.' conflicts none "our holdings," 7.14 79 80 "accepted meaning." announces. address 1987 disavowed overwhelmingly agreed, settlement, voluntary, postcomplaint con- duct grievances. 81 When rejects cogent explanation. Today's one. narrow unaided logic. prescribed encourage designed Fidelity court-awarded registered vindicates secure. "In costs." 3613(c)(2). Similarly, notably 101-485, pt. 140 (1991) (ADA); 100-711, 16-17, (FHAA). Section "patterned contained Titles 2000a-3(b) 2000e- 5(k), 1973l(e)." (1983) 758, curiam)). observes. mandate discretion." proposed [repeal rule] progressing stages pendency litigation." 144. totaling $62,459 cover litigating aware, disclose, elimination likely. alternative, $3,252 offset expenses incurred motion. stating compensate," smaller sum. remained death 1999. Nadeau Helgemoe, 581 275, 279-281 1978); Gerena-Valentin Koch, 739 758-759 1984); Institutionalized Juveniles Secretary Pub. Welfare, 897, 910-917 1985); Bonnes Long, 599 1316, 1319 1979); 465-467 1981); Citizens Against Tax Waste Westerville 985 255, 257-258 1993); 1982); 620 199, 202 1980); J Anderson, Erie, 767 1469, 1474-1475 Doe Busbee, 684 1375, 1379 1108-1110 twelve antedate cf. concurring) (maintaining "improvidently suggested" asserting Hewitt"). "settled redresses grievances," favor." 760-761. statement accurately conveyed Circuits. 377 (1869), featured run distance it. favor. Wall., 384. Baltimore's "incident concurrence emphasizes, 390), once-maintained Mayor Cooper, 247, 250-251 (1868). ancient figured (1884); noted "universally jurisdiction, [and therefore] 387. Receding dismissing jurisdiction." Ibid.; Bancorp Mortgage Bonner Mall 513 36, 478, 479 (1941) (mandamus dismissed petition subsequent acts defendants, obviating necessity further proceeding"); (1929) (costs "based appeal"; "it suit"); 438, (1926) mootness, "equivalent 'substantially prevailing' "gain[ing] appeal"); 53, 55, 1908) paying sum $5,000," rendering "successful costs); 1911) (fees "alternative writ" directing specified doing chose action). urges inapposite equity," required. relevant, typed equitable, thing injunction expect long-ago quested mythical By concurrence's reasoning, paucity artifact nothing "remarkable," historic law-equity separation. "all case." agree. Fowler "acknowledgment" consisted Jefferson Weinman, Ind. 231 (1872) damages; judgment); (1848) Hudson Johnson, (1791) Common-law compliance, otherwise, "acknowledgment treatment prevailing. Court). wonder today. ("Because vast violations counsel, courts... [This statute] effective process ."); citizens able rights, impunity, opportunity court."), quoted part Kay Ehrler, 499 432, 436, (1991). 401-402 curiam) ("When passed, evident prove difficult Nation securing law... [Congress] injured racial discrimination ."). furnished aggrieved worry, wrongdoers believe, strategic maneuvers succeed averting Apt Judge Friendly's observation kin us: [Freedom Information Act] developments apparent plaintiff, abort eleventh hour tender information." Vermont Low Income Advocacy Council Usery, 546 1976) (interpreting 552(a)(4)(E), complainant prevails" earn fee); accord, Cuneo Rumsfeld, 553 1360, 1364 1977). 1005, 1008-1009 1975) (partner firm release documents, released release, partner's "dismissed jurisdiction"), 981, 984, 1970) (union committee twice pension payments, recovery, adjudicated)). features 1970). deems alternately 'retain [defendant's] opportunities.' 429). factors, however: findings essential neither finding" nor "retain[ed] (It attention description Parham, jurisdiction.) notes, correctly, "[t]here cut-off time." cutoff, held, "plain language" "proceeding" antecedent "legislative replete references [enforcement] 'in suits,' 'through courts' 'judicial process.' North Carolina Dept. Transp. Crest Street Community Council, (1986) (citations cut-off, time," text history. lawsuit." demur elaboration adhere raising trigger action; "ceases [his] conduct" dying going bankrupt. 6. behavior-altering bankruptcy occurs outside lawsuit; precipitated demand occurrence "through" "in" real. (a gains real whatsoever," fees); reversing violated, entitle gain "substance," affect defendant"). repeatedly quotes passages 757-758, merits." declares imprimatur." concerned verdict. juncture, undetermined. inconsistency benefit, suing. harmony itself; recognizing "through 5) selected influential 279-281. 757. 82 additionally 782 (1989), unanimously, "central suit." 790. linked 792-793, say, "court-ordered," engaging furnishes action, litigated, dismissed. unfavorable prominently opinion-and good 5-6. $17 million, $1, 113-116. reinforcing link "degree success obtained," 114 436), Farrar's

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