Document: 518 U.S. 515116 S. Ct. 2264135 L. Ed. 2d 735 UNITED STATES, PETITIONER v.VIRGINIA ET AL. VIRGINIA, AL., PETITIONERS v. STATES No. 94-1941, 94-2107 SUPREME COURT OF THE January 17, 1996, Argued June 26, 1996 * , Decided* Together with 94-2107, Virginia et al. United States, also on certiorari to the same court. As Amended July 3, 1996. ON WRITS CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR FOURTH CIRCUIT. 976 F.2d 890, affirmed; 44 F.3d 1229, reversed and remanded. GINSBURG, J., delivered opinion of Court, in which STEVENS, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, SOUTER, BREYER, JJ., joined. REHNQUIST, C. filed an concurring judgment, post, p. 558. SCALIA, a dissenting opinion, 566. THOMAS, took no part consideration or decision case. JUSTICE GINSBURG Court. 1 Virginia's public institutions higher learning include incomparable military college, Military Institute (VMI). The States maintains that Constitution's equal protection guarantee precludes from reserving exclusively men unique educational opportunities VMI affords. We agree. 2 Founded 1839, is today sole single-sex school among 15 learning. VMI's distinctive mission produce "citizen-soldiers," prepared for leadership civilian life service. pursues this through pervasive training kind not available anywhere else Virginia. Assigning prime place character development, uses "adversative method" modeled English schools once characteristic instruction. constantly endeavors instill physical mental discipline its cadets impart them strong moral code. school's graduates leave heightened comprehension their capacity deal duress stress, large sense accomplishment completing hazardous course. 3 has notably succeeded leaders; alumni are generals, Members Congress, business executives. overwhelmingly perceive helped realize personal goals. endowment reflects loyalty graduates; largest per-student all undergraduate Nation. 4 Neither goal producing citizen-soldiers nor implementing methodology inherently unsuitable women. And impressive record leaders made admission desirable some Nevertheless, elected preserve advantages education II 5 From establishment 1839 as one Nation's first state colleges, see Va. Acts, ch. 20, remained financially supported by "subject control [Virginia] General Assembly," Code Ann. § 23-92 (1993). First southern college teach engineering industrial chemistry, H. Wise, Drawing Out Man: Story 13 (1978) (The Story), provided teachers Commonwealth's schools, 1842 24, (requiring every cadet 2-year period). n1 Civil War strife threatened vitality, but resourceful superintendent regained legislative support highlighting "VMI's great potential[,] technical know-how," advance postwar recovery. 47. 6 enrolls about 1,300 cadets. n2 Its academic offerings liberal arts, sciences, at other colleges universities But special. It school"'to educated honorable men, varied work civil life, imbued love learning, confident functions attitudes leadership, possessing high service, advocates American democracy free enterprise system, ready defend country time national peril.'" 766 F. Supp. 1407, 1425 (WD 1991) (quoting Mission Study Committee Board Visitors, Report, May 16, 1986).In contrast federal service academies, maintained "to prepare career armed forces," program "is directed preparation both life"; "only 15% enter service." Supp., 1432. 7 produces "citizen-soldiers" "an adversative, doubting, model education" features "physical rigor, absolute equality treatment, absence privacy, minute regulation behavior, indoctrination values." Id., 1421. Commandant Cadets described it, adversative method "'dissects young student,'" makes him aware his "'limits capabilities,'" so he knows "'how far can go anger, . how much take under exactly what do when physically exhausted.'" 1421-1422 Col. N. Bissell). 8 live spartan barracks where surveillance constant privacy nonexistent; they wear uniforms, eat together mess hall, regularly participate drills. 1424, Entering students incessantly exposed rat line, extreme form model," comparable intensity Marine Corps boot camp. 1422. Tormenting punishing, line bonds new fellow sufferers and, have completed 7-month experience, former tormentors. Ibid. 9 model" further characterized hierarchical "class system" privileges responsibilities, "dyke assigning senior class mentor each entering "rat," stringently enforced "honor code," prescribes "'does lie, cheat, steal tolerate those who do.'" 1422-1423. 10 attracts applicants because reputation extraordinarily challenging school, "because exceptionally close school." "Women opportunity gain benefits [the system VMI]." B 11 In 1990, prompted complaint Attorney female high-school student seeking VMI, sued Commonwealth alleging male policy violated Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. 1408. n3 Trial action consumed six days involved array expert witnesses side. 12 two years preceding lawsuit, District Court noted, had received inquiries 347 women, responded none them. 1436. "Some least," court said, "would want attend if opportunity." 1414. recognized that, recruitment, could "achieve least 10% enrollment" -- "a sufficient 'critical mass' provide positive experience." 1437-1438. it was established "some women capable individual activities required cadets." 1412. addition, experts agreed admitted "the ROTC experience would become better perspective forces, dealing mixed-gender army." 1441. ruled favor however, rejected challenge pressed States. That correctly Mississippi Univ. Women Hogan, 458 718, 73 1090, 102 3331 (1982), closest guide. 1410. There, underscored party uphold government based sex must establish "exceedingly persuasive justification" classification. Women, 724 (internal quotation marks omitted). To succeed, defender challenged show "at classification serves important governmental objectives discriminatory means employed substantially related achievement objectives." 14 reasoned single gender environment, be female," yields substantial benefits. 1415. brought diversity otherwise coeducational "enhanced instruction." If single-gender males ranks objective, becomes obvious, concluded, only achieving objective exclude all-male institution VMI." [indeed] denied VMI," acknowledged. "[VMI's] status lost, aspects [school's] altered" were admitted, id., 1413: "Allowance made," 1412; requirements altered, women," 1413; environment survive unmodified, 1412-1413. Thus, "sufficient constitutional been shown, held, "for continuing [VMI's] policy." 1413. 16 Appeals Fourth Circuit disagreed vacated Court's judgment. appellate held: "The advanced any justify determination, announced diversity, afford type women." 892 (1992). 17 appeals greeted skepticism assertion offers facet overarching undisputed "autonomy diversity." nondiscrimination commitment: "'It extremely [colleges universities] faculty, staff, without regard sex, race, ethnic origin.'" 899 1990 Report Commission University 21st Century). "That statement, " explicit we found expressed itself respect distinctions." F.2d, 899. Furthermore, observed, urging "diversity" supplied "no explanation movement away [single-sex education] universities." short, "[a] aims opportunities, including institutions, more than gender." 18 parties meet standards now imposed men," 896, satisfied "neither citizen soldiers Appeals, accepted finding these three training, approach materially affected coeducation." 896-897. Remanding case, assigned Virginia, instance, responsibility selecting remedial suggested options Commonwealth: Admit VMI; parallel programs; abandon support, leaving pursue policies private institution. 900. 1993, certiorari. See 508 946; ibid. (opinion noting interlocutory posture litigation). C 19 response Circuit's ruling, proposed women: Women's Leadership (VWIL). 4-year, state-sponsored located Mary Baldwin College, arts open, initially, 25 30 students. Although VWIL share differ, does offerings, methods education, financial resources. 852 471, 476-477 1994). 20 average combined SAT score entrants 100 points lower freshmen. 501. Baldwin's faculty holds "significantly fewer Ph. D.'s 502, receives significantly salaries, Tr. 158 (testimony James Lott, Dean College), reprinted App. Nos. 94-1667 94-1717 (CA4) (hereinafter Tr.). While degrees engineering, Baldwin, trial, offered bachelor degrees. 503. A earn degree one, attending Washington St. Louis, Missouri, years, paying tuition. 21 Experts educating level composed Task Force charged designing program; members drawn own staff. 476. Training attention instruction appropriate "most determined "wholly inappropriate" VWIL. Ibid.; 1233 (CA4 1995). 22 programs newly established, "largely ceremonial" Cadets, 1234, House format, 477, require meals uniforms during schoolday, 495. lieu method, favored cooperative reinforces self-esteem." addition standard courses complete off-campus externship, community projects, assist arranging speaker series. F.3d, 1234. 23 represented will in-state cadets, 483, Foundation supply $ 5.4625 million program, 499. million; 131 million. add 35 future commitments; 220 Alumni Association developed network employers interested hiring graduates. open graduates, 499, advantage afforded degree. D 24 returned approval plan, decided plan met Clause. 473. again acknowledged evidentiary determinations: used educate fact, may prefer methodology." 481. "controlling legal principles," decided, "do mirror image anticipated similar outcomes." concluded: "If marches beat drum, then melody fife march over, arrived destination." 484. divided affirmed 1229 This time, give "greater scrutiny selection [Commonwealth's] proffered objective." 1236. official purpose, should reviewed deferentially. Respect "legislative will," reasoned, meant judiciary "cautious approach," inquiring into "legitimacy" refusing purpose revealed "pernicious." 26 "Providing option considered legitimate aspect education," 1238; added, "not pernicious," 1239. Moreover, continued, vital "has never tolerated sexually heterogeneous environment." "was designed accommodated believed, participation destroy decency still permeates relationship between sexes." 27 Having determined, deferentially, legitimacy question means. Exclusion "men College essential such exclusion, "accomplish [its] providing education." 28 analyzed merged end, merger risked "bypassing scrutiny." 1237. therefore added another inquiry, decisive test called "substantive comparability." key question, whether obtain "substantively State." "lacks historical benefit prestige" degree, nevertheless "sufficiently comparable." 1241. 29 Senior Judge Phillips dissented. court, held burden showing "'exceedingly [justification]' action. 1247 724). Phillips' view, "rationalizations compelled exigencies litigation," confronted "actual overriding purpose." 1247. clear record; create diversify system[,] [was] simply allow continue order historic mission." satisfy requirement "simultaneously opened having curricular extra-curricular programs, funding, plant, administration services, library resources." 1250. thought evident comparison fell "far short tangible intangible 31 rehearing en banc. 52 90 (1995). Motz, joined Judges Hall, Murnaghan, Michael, opinion. n4 Motz shown justification'" disparate supported. 92 She asked: "[H]ow yet implemented supplemental 'substantively comparable' venerable 150 ago?" 93. need guaranteed 'results,'" "but [and] being here." III 32 cross-petitions case present ultimate issues. First, exclusion extraordinary development deny "capable cadets," 1412, laws Amendment? Second, "unique" situation, 1413 offends principle, requirement? IV 33 note, again, core pathmarking decisions J. E. B. Alabama ex rel. T. B., 511 127, 136-137, 128 89, 114 1419, n. (1994), omitted): Parties seek gender-based demonstrate 34 Today's skeptical denying rights responds volumes history. plurality generation ago, "our Nation long unfortunate history discrimination." Frontiero Richardson, 411 677, 684, 36 583, 93 1764 (1973). Through century plus decades history, did count voters composing "We People"; n5 until 1920 right franchise. 685. half thereafter, prevailing doctrine government, state, withhold accorded "basis reason" conceived discrimination. See, e. g., Goesaert Cleary, 335 464, 467, 163, 69 198 (1948) (rejecting tavern owner her daughter Michigan law bartender licenses females except wives daughters owners; "give ear" contention unchivalrous desire bartenders monopolize calling" legislation). 1971, our woman complained State laws. Reed Reed, 404 71, 73, 225, 251 (holding unconstitutional Idaho prescription "'several persons claiming equally entitled administer [a decedent's estate], preferred females'"). Since repeatedly neither acts compatibly principle denies full citizenship stature aspire, achieve, contribute society talents capacities. Kirchberg Feenstra, 450 455, 462-463, 67 428, 101 1195 (1981) (affirming invalidity Louisiana husband "head master" property jointly owned wife, giving unilateral dispose wife's consent); Stanton Stanton, 421 7, 43 688, 95 1373 (1975) (invalidating Utah parents boys age 21, girls 18). Without equating classifications, purposes, classifications race origin, n6 post-Reed decisions, carefully inspected closes door (or men). 152 (KENNEDY, judgment) (case evolving since 1971 "reveal[s] presumption invalid"). summarize current directions cases gender: Focusing differential treatment denial relief sought, reviewing determine justification persuasive." demanding rests entirely State. 724. [challenged] 'important employed' 'substantially objectives.'" Wengler Druggists Mut. Ins. Co., 446 142, 150, 64 107, 1540 (1980)). genuine, hypothesized invented post hoc litigation. rely overbroad generalizations different talents, capacities, preferences females. Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 420 636, 643, 648, 514, 1225 (1975); Califano Goldfarb, 430 199, 223-224, 51 270, 97 1021 (1977) (STEVENS, judgment). 37 review precedent establishes make proscribed Supposed "inherent differences" longer ground origin classifications. Loving 388 1, 1010, 87 1817 (1967). Physical differences enduring: sexes fungible; up [sex] both." Ballard 329 187, 193, 91 38 181, 261 (1946). 39 "Inherent come appreciate, remain cause celebration, denigration either artificial constraints individual's opportunity. Sex compensate particular economic disabilities [they have] suffered," Webster, 313, 320, 360, 1192 (per curiam), "promote employment opportunity," California Fed. Sav. & Loan Assn. Guerra, 479 272, 289, 613, 107 683 (1987), talent capacities people. n7 used, were, Goesaert, perpetuate legal, social, inferiority 40 Measuring against just described, conclude excluding citizen-soldier VMI. affirm initial Amendment's Because remedy cure violation, i.e., opportunity, reverse final judgment V 41 initially justify, principles, determination 892. challenges "liability" ruling asserts justifications defense contends, "single-sex provides benefits," Brief Cross-Petitioners contributes "diversity approaches," 25. argues, training," approach, modified admit 33-36 consider turn. 42 Single-sex affords pedagogical students, emphasizes, reality uncontested n8 Similarly, disputed serve good. maintained, view diversifying, categorical within Commonwealth. genre, instructs "benign" exclusions automatically; tenable describe actual rationalizations actions fact differently grounded. ("mere recitation benign [or] compensatory purpose" block "inquiry purposes" government-maintained classifications); 212-213 government-proffered purposes after purposes") immediately point. There asserted, nursing engaging "educational affirmative action" "compensating discrimination 727. Undertaking "searching analysis," 728, resemblance alleged objective" underlying classification," 730. Pursuing inquiry here, reach conclusion. recent distant bears out pursuit options. range scarcely contemplated. Higher dangerous women; n9 reflecting widely views women's proper place, example, Harvard Massachusetts, William men. Farello, History Education 163 (1970). novel respect: admitting followed lead flagship founded 1819. 45 "No struggle university," historian recounted, out, bitterness, Virginia." Woody, 254 (1929) (History Education). 1879, Senate resolved look possibility recognizing "'has never, period history,'" daughters, though she liberally sons.'" Educ. 212 (1879)). Despite recognition, instantly n10 46 eventually several seminaries colleges. Farmville Female Seminary became 1884. supra, 521, 2. Two Madison University, 1908; another, Radford 1910. 1418-1419. By mid-1970's, four coeducational. 47 Debate concerning undergraduates main university continued well past century's midpoint. Familiar arguments rehearsed. feared, encroach men; there problems perhaps scandals; old honor changed; lowered schools; glorious university, trailed dust." 255. 48 Ultimately, 1970, most prestigious Virginia," introduced coeducation 1972, began basis Kirstein Rector Visitors 309 184, 186 (ED 1970). three-judge Federal confirmed: "Virginia Charlottesville campus operated 187. 49 describes anomaly." 30. indicates deliberate anomalous: education; next, resources finally, conversion separate coeducation. legislature, prior advent controversy, repealed "all statutes requiring 1419. commission, "legislatively chart goals reaffirmed "'of affording broad access" while maintaining diversity.'" 898-899 Significantly, reported:"'Because develop values learn role models, (emphasis deleted).This 50 Our 1982 reexamine male-only policy. 1427-1428. relies reexamination character. Reply 6. Committee, appointed studied problem October 1983 1986, month counseled "change college." 1429 Whatever internal served however meaning framers report hardly extract effort commonwealth evenhandedly diverse Committee's analysis "primarily focused difficulties attracting report, overall, "very little indication conclusion reached." sum, find evidence furtherance 'diversity.'" No policy, discerned education. questioned "how autonomy, authority over institution, effect institutions." genuinely options, recognized, "afford males." However "liberally" sons, provision whatever daughters. protection. next argues cannot available, Alterations accommodate necessarily "radical," "drastic," asserts, transform, indeed "destroy," program. 34-36. transformation, maintains: Men deprived currently them; "eliminate very [the] distinguish [VMI] 34. 53 forecast witness testimony, accepted, affect approach." accommodations, primarily housing assignments Cross-Respondent 11, 29-30. undisputed, even allowed might pursue. least, 1414, testimony "are parties, furthermore, agree impose[s] men." 896. stated, soldiers," raison d'etre, "nor 54 rejecting objections presented "findings" "gender-based developmental differences." 1434-1435. These restate opinions witnesses, typically "tendencies." 1434. For "males tend atmosphere adversativeness," "females thrive atmosphere." "I'm saying don't testified, "undoubtedly [women] do"; experiences "around rule," exception." 55 estimation Instead, emphasizes turning point (1971), cautioned courts "hard look" "tendencies" relied upon O'Connor, Portia's Progress, 66 Y. U. Rev. 1546, 1551 (1991). actors controlling gates instructed, qualified individuals "fixed notions roles abilities females." 725; 139, (equal applied mean "overbroad" "judgments people likely patterns discrimination"). 56 assumed, decision, choose method. dissent Appeals' banc, probable "many (On point, colleague agree.) Education, sure, "one size fits all" business. issue, "women forced VMI"; rather, constitutionally capacity, attendant uniquely 57 notion downgrade stature, n11 proved, n12 prediction "self-fulfilling prophec[ies]," 730, routinely opportunities. When sought bar access concerns expressed. 1876, Common Pleas Hennepin County, Minnesota, explained why ineligible practice law. train young, which"forbids shall bestow (early late) labor, attaining eminence true lawyer ever aspire. said opposition extent outgrowth 'old fogyism[.]' arises rather magnitude responsibilities connected successful law, grade profession." re Application Martha Angle Dorsett Be Admitted Practice Counselor Law (Minn. P. Cty., 1876), Syllabi, Oct. pp. 5, added).A like fear, according 1925 accounted Columbia School's resistance admission, although"the master No, argument practical. School, faculty] choicer, manly red-blooded School!" Nation, Feb. 18, 1925, 173. 58 Medical faculties similarly resisted partners study medicine. R. Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy Science: Physicians Medicine 51-54, 250 (1985); M. Walsh, "Doctors Wanted: Need Apply" 121-122 Clarke, Boston Med. Surg. 345, 346 (1869) ("'God forbid I aiding display scalpel secrets reproductive .'")); cf. 536-537, 9. More recently, careers policing encountered fears presence "undermine solidarity," Heidensohn, Control? 201 (1992); deprive adequate assistance, 184-185; sexual misconduct, Milton al., Policing 32-33 (1974). Field studies confirm fears. 92-93; Bloch D. Anderson, Policewomen Patrol: Final 59 entry n13 n14 indicate solidly n15 "citizen-soldier" qualified, event, rank persuasive," standard. 60 trained "means" "end," thus misperceived precedent. "important objective," "substantially related," objective. circular argument, "straightforward" 724-725, bent bowed. 61 misunderstanding turn, Court's, apparent mission: individuals"'imbued 1986).Surely enough citizens Just surely, total disregard merit, premier corps. n16 fallen establishing 'exceedingly justification,'" 731, solid base gender-defined VI 62 second phase litigation, maintain approval. Circuit, deferentially proposal directly reasserted purposes: "achieving results 1236, Inspecting "afforded genders substance, [if] detail," 1240, concluded arranged comparable" evaluation, 1240-1241. "remedial" pervasively misguided. 63 decree, closely fit violation; shaped unconstitutionally position occupied [discrimination]. Milliken Bradley, 433 267, 280, 745, 2749 violation explained, [so possible] effects past" "bar future." 380 145, 154, 709, 85 817 (1965). chose eliminate, untouched, exclusionary only, unequal facilities. n17 requirement, obliged "directly addressed to" Milliken, 282, i. e., ready, willing, able offers. "parallel program," asserted shares "education, discipline, development." Respondents past," future"? Louisiana, 154. "parallel" informs answer. exposing of, in, recapitulate facts earlier presented. 520-523, 526-527. 65 rigorous famed. 1413-1414 ("No private, VMI."); 1421 (VMI known States"). "deemphasize[s]" "cooperative "which self-esteem," deliberately institute. military-style residence throughout 4-year together, day. "barracks" "crucial experience," living arrangements foster "egalitarian ethic." 1423-1424. occur barracks," found, 1423, deemed nonessential, inappropriate, citizen-soldiers. receive "leadership training" seminars, externships, series, episodes encounters lacking values" hallmarks n18 Kept pressures, hazards, psychological bonding 1422, know "feeling tremendous accomplishment" commonly experienced 1426. 68 methodological "justified pedagogically," needs," "psychological sociological "real" stereotypes." developing staff "determined especially wholly inappropriate 476 added). 1233-1234 (noting suited VMI-style experience]," effective group") embraced testified 480-481. 541-542, way are," estimates whose outside description. Notably, suits revealing failure militaristic VMI" planned expect careers." 478. reasoning, "entirely militaristic" general group, 70 rests, note dispositive realities: "implementing methodology" "inherently 899; 1434 omitted); 1414; "can behalf instituted suit, crafted, n19 end state-supplied fit, decree 71 myriad respects qualify equal. VWIL's body, course facilities match VMI's. Nor graduate anticipate associated 157-year prestige, influential network. 72 gain, first-year D.'s," offer choices cadet. awards baccalaureate biology, electrical computer mechanical engineering. 503; Institute: (Govt. exh. 75, lodged Clerk Court). "does math science focus," physics offers, 477. 74 "two multi-purpose fields" gymnasium." NCAA competition indoor track field facility; number fields; baseball, soccer lacrosse obstacle course; boxing, wrestling martial facilities; 11-laps-to-the-mile running pool; outdoor rifle ranges; football stadium contains track." 75 endow million, difference schools' reserves pronounced. endowment, additional 76 Her diploma unite legions "graduates [who] distinguished themselves" life. 892-893. "[VMI] school," closeness accounts, part, success applicants. assume "network owners, corporations, non-graduate graduates," responsive search employment, 1250 (Phillips, dissenting) ("the powerful political ties expected open" fledgling program). 77 failed "comparable institution." created fairly appraised "pale shadow" terms influence. dissenting). 78 solution reminiscent Texas trial court's 1946 given guarantee, African Americans facility. Sweatt Painter, 339 629, 94 1114, 848 (1950). Reluctant set Heman black 632. originally opened, independent library, lacked accreditation. 633. equivalent white Texas." 632 79 Before gained five full-time professors; body 23; 16,500 serviced staff; aid association; alumnus member Bar." contrasted excluded. School 850, containing 65,000 volumes, scholarship funds, review, moot 632-633. 80 features, emphasized, "those qualities incapable measurement greatness" "reputation administration, influence alumni, standing community, traditions prestige." 634. Facing marked reported unanimously "substantial [separate] opportunities" offered. Accordingly, School. 636. Sweatt, rule here supports 81 tendered inquire remedy, approved placed [discrimination]." 280 provide, fidelity 82 lacks prestige observed ongoing history," remains declared satisfactory. reached result revising applicable review. displaced precedent, 532-534, substituted invention. 83 deferential engaged, 528-529, brand inconsistent exacting requires, 532-534. Quoting candidly checking ranked "pernicious," generally "deference will." 1235, Recognizing extracted yielding "little [single-gender education]," devised test, comparability" 1237, proceeded satisfied, 84 plainly erred analysis, today" warrant "heightened 136. Valuable prove offered, withheld grade. 549-554. n20 withholding VII authorities despite tradition, innovate favorably entertained [then] relatively idea offering Kirstein, 186. Commencing [were] [state-operated] 187; 538. innovation, emphasizing "offered elsewhere." noted: "There exists 'prestige' factor [not paralleled in] 86 too, provides, "prestige" unequaled. closed facility instead, less impressively credentialed paid, limited scientific specialization. Cf. beyond "possesses greater degree" greatness "position VMI-quality anything less, obligation Constitution, Richard Morris story extension protections ignored n21 People" expanded. 546, 16. reason believe enhance "more perfect Union." 88 89 reasons 890 1992), affirmed, 1995), reversed, remanded proceedings consistent ordered. THOMAS CHIEF violates Institute's (VMI's) admissions (VWIL) violation. conclusions, disagree write separately. ago Craig Boren, 429 190, 197, 397, 451 (1976), withstand challenge, adhered since. 210-211, (1977); 316-317, Orr Orr, 440 268, 279, 306, 99 1102 (1979); Caban Mohammed, 441 380, 388, 297, 1760 Davis Passman, 442 228, 234-235, 235, 9, 846, 2264 Personnel Administrator Mass. Feeney, 256, 273, 870, 2282 Westcott, 443 76, 85, 382, 2655 (1980); 459-460, (1981); Michael Superior Sonoma 469, 437, 1200 724, (1982); Heckler Mathews, 465 744, 646, 104 1387 (1984); 137, 6, 1419 (1994). majority adheres today, ante, 524, 533, says 529, 530, 531, 534, 545, 556. thereby introduces element uncertainty respecting test. related" models precision, content specificity phrase justification." best confined, observation difficulty meeting formulation itself. 273 ("These precedents dictate overtly covertly exceedingly justification"). avoid introducing potential confusion, traditional, "firmly established," 723; Heckler, "must bear 273. 96 purpose. 535-536. rejects namely, institutions. ultimately carried day justification, analyzing issue. notes, then-prevailing destined misguided present-day standards, surely 1839. adoption Amendment, Clause, nearly future. interpretation away. 98 Long century, distinctions raise refers (1948). Likewise representing abandoned Hoyt Florida, 368 57, 118, 159 (1961), upheld Florida jury automatically lists, serve. noted advances "woman regarded center home family life." 62. Then, 251, seminal nothing sort An statute governing estates probate statutory qualifications statute's Supreme hearings man applying letters administration. Amendment mandatory preference other, merely accomplish elimination hearings," "arbitrary choice forbidden Clause." 76. brief mention Hoyt. Even therefore, notice holding extended across board. They swallow doesn't summer" await developments. Those developments coming. actually involving men-only serious question. response, examine legality wisdom light of" Hogan. 1427 1991). committee ended cryptically recommending changing college. After study, "'no information'" change status. 1429. sympathetic position, reached" one-half pages committee's devoted information obtained focuses changes require, helpful addressing constitutionality desirable, coeducational, room scant real only. But, unlike majority, postdates draw negative inferences before time. think reconsider justifications, lack thereof, it. 103 problematic. benefited sex; corresponding Hogan possibly unconstitutional, dealt felt strongly seriously harmed institution's approach. Was something done violation? nothing, definitively answer think, imply. cites, expressly approving statement judge Ante, 529-530 possibilities, too stringent requirement. operation half, successful, group alumni. wand call existence loss scrap tradition. words Grover Cleveland's inaugural address, faced condition, theory. condition about, defiance construing bias but, appeared offend Constitution. Had genuine devote avoided stark hand, abandoning starting scratch other. 105 board 1982. single-sex, Virginians, 106 criticizes me "disregarding all-women's (generously assisted funds)." Post, 595. treated treated, includes tuition-assistance grants residents. gives special obviously, men's doing, demonstrated interest measure matched policy: maintenance unless pedagogically beneficial. considerable shows beneficial hence valid promoting methodology, traits methodologies. 108 defines 547. defining way, victims "'the [discrimination],'" ibid., implies foregoing discussion suggests, define way; "exclusion women" all-men 109 creation clone my demonstration such, D.'s, scores, athletic fields. 551-552. curriculum men's; science, arts. quality overall caliber. 110 decides would, expect, public's demand curricula. rightfully so. assuming stereotypes; priori, evidence, nursing. 111 proposes, VWIL, fails distinctly inferior existing foreseeable not, sense, is. particular, appended self-standing institution; underfunded compared remedy. 112 dissenting. 113 Today shuts down pride distinction half. achieve desired result, (contrary practice) factual findings below, sweeps aside ignores facts: explicitly exist supporting restriction "adversative" composition (VMI) precedent: drastically revises sex-based history: counts enduring present, Government. Much deprecating closed-mindedness forebears areas Closed minded is, own, matters guess, debatable. virtue democratic readily enables people, persuaded granted so, accordingly. destroyed smug assurances removed process written So counterbalance criticism ancestors, let say word praise: left us change. illiberal embarked inscribing (and counter majoritarian society's law-trained elite) Basic Law. enshrines value all-men's academy others. Constitution takes sides debate, dissent. 115 evaluating jurisprudence, regards evaluate everything sun tests: "rational basis" scrutiny, intermediate strict scrutiny. tests names suggest, randomness largely Strict reserved "classifications affecting fundamental rights," Clark Jeter, 486 456, 461, 465, 1910 (1988) (citation term "fundamental rights" "interest[s] traditionally protected society," Gerald D., 491 110, 122, 91, 2333 (1989) (plurality J.); deprivation "fundamental." criterion "intermediate scrutiny" either, essentially apply seems good load dice. content-neutral restrictions incidental speech, illegitimacy, sex. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. FCC, 512 622, 662, 129 497, 2445 (1994); Mills Habluetzel, 456 98-99, 770, 1549 (1976). 116 abstract rational basis, intermediate, (though whenever feel it). Such formulas imposes conduct comport "equal protection" always past. function regarding (among things) protection, revise prevent backsliding prescribe, authority, progressively devise, supersede ought crafted reflect unbroken embody people's understanding ambiguous texts. specifically, "when prohibited text Bill Rights endorsement tradition widespread, unchallenged use dates back beginning Republic, striking down." Rutan Republican Party Ill., 497 62, 95, 52, 2729 (1990) (SCALIA, applies, mutatis mutandis, post-Civil Burnham Cal., County Marin, 495 604, 631, 2105 J.) (Due Process Clause); 156-163, (1994) (Equal Planned Parenthood Southeastern Pa. Casey, 505 833, 979-984, 1000-1001, 120 674, 2791 (1992) (various "penumbras"). 117 constitution comes squarely continuously since, unusual. almost existence, reflected uniform government-supported Another famous Southern Citadel, existed state-funded South Carolina 1842. West Point, Naval Academy Annapolis, Air Academy, 1954 Their 1976 (upon relies, 544-545, nn. 13, 15) came representatives, decreed 803(a), Stat. 537, following U.S.C. 4342. words, government-funded rooted sending combat. decide processes; centuries politics-smuggled-into-law. 118 broadly, general, which, discuss, today's cutoff support. Government-run nonmilitary recently "[It is] coeducation, historically, [that] professional population segregated classrooms." 736, (1982) (Powell, dissenting); 736-739. changed been. 119 Today, reversion nationwide, processes bemoaning sorry, bygone notions" 10, 537-539, 542-545, favors fixedly willing application custom-built "tests." one. reject disposition necessary accept made-up displace longstanding primary determinant honestly decades. settled, O'CONNOR stated unanimous lies "between extremes 461. denominated inquired 197. 121 proceed comment manner avoids doing Notwithstanding above-described "'firmly principles,'" 744 723), urged hold litigation "that correct sex." (This flat contradiction Government's was, "state unequivocally 'intermediate scrutiny.'" Record, Doc. 88, added).) making reference effectively accepts 122 places recites 532-533, asks objectives," omitted), answers resembling form. engages instead prefers nine invocations phrase, 556, fanciful description imponderable instruction" unobjectionable "justification" persuasive" assessed asking "[whether] [whether] proceeds interpret fashion contradicts reasoning precedents. 123 achieved survived undertaking activities, demands. summarizes follows: 124 "In model; opportunity; 550 marks, citations, punctuation omitted; emphasis states 'citizen-soldier' persuasive' ." 545. 125 -----------------------------------Footnotes 126 Accord, 541 ("In sum ., citizen-soldiers, women") added); 542 ("The affords"); 547-548 (the "violation" [has been] offers"); ("As 'the are,' description"). 127 Only amorphous elaboration yield (or, woman) undertake Intermediate least-restrictive-means relation" interests serves. congressional Social Security unfairly hindered earning proof suffered disadvantaged not; scheme retirement 318, intermediate-scrutiny relation means, fit. Rostker Goldberg, 453 478, 2646 (1981), selective-service registration "assuming small drafted noncombat roles, Congress worth burdens draft plans." 81. Metro Broadcasting, 547, 579, 582-583, 445, 2997 (1990), overruled grounds, Adarand Constructors, Pena, 515 200, 227, 132 158, 2097 (1995), accurate "in case" as, aggregate," invalid relates characteristics instance. Not execute de facto abandonment decades, purports reserve whether, (i. scrutiny) apply. has," says, "thus judicial .," 532, decline "equate origin," 532 wonderful thing statements false 'beyond reasonable doubt' criminal cases," "we equated tort actions, prosecutions." misleading, insofar suggest already categorically inapplicable (1984) (upholding scrutiny); (same) opinions); supra curiam). irresponsible, calculated destabilize task clarify muddy waters, exact overcompliance intimidation. Government act guess outcome peek-a-boo. intimations particularly perfectly subject reconsideration, stronger elevating reducing rational-basis latter certainly firmer foundation jurisprudence: Whereas 1970's, see, (1961); normal, accord genesis footnote Carolene Products 304 144, 778 (1938), (intimatingly) hand"whether prejudice discrete insular minorities tends curtail ordinarily protect minorities, correspondingly searching inquiry." 152-153, 4.It hard "discrete minority" unable employ "political upon," constitute electorate. suggestion exerting power smacks paternalism roundly condemns. 542-545 accompanying notes). list legislation proves proposition false. Pay Act 1963, 206(d); Title 1964, 2000e-2; IX Amendments 1681; Business Ownership 1988, Pub. 100-533, 2689; Violence Against 1994, 103-322, IV, 1902. 130 With seem orthodox indeed, overly generous conducted. answered, repeat, citizens. stated: case." 1238 1995) overwhelming "virtually uncontradicted" 1415 matter, contemporary research although significant overlap, differing needs deep-seated." many nonetheless obscure 133 "One empirical expert, demonstrates Students academically involved, interact frequently, larger increases intellectual self-esteem practically exception social life) counterparts Attendance likelihood carry plans teaching, salaries increase chances positions aspire degrees." 1412.See 1434-1435 (factual findings). favoring Board's fully justified taking teaching training." alone, dispute, 535, composition. 134 besides constitution, way. employs "distinctive method," sometimes referred "adversative, 1413, "Physical salient attributes contends individuals; wish junior vocational institutes, classroom State's "if VMI-type [i. adversative] attract insufficient participants work," 1241; drop altogether," excludes all. 135 dispute "represent contributions system." theoretical (insofar factors mentioned concerned) types all-men's, all-women's, run "traditional method." practical course, resources, State's, limitless, select fund, model: Institute. 136 make-up unrealistic assumption exist. Substantial "'higher viewed whole private'" enhances "'it waste permit unwarranted duplication.'" 1420-1421 1974 Assembly Virginia). whereas "four all-female [colleges] college," "indicates sector [former] 1420-1421. circumstances, election fund concentrate entity interests. 137 produced Rather, series contentions irrelevant erroneous matter foreclosed both. 138 1. pointed error, model. 571-574. unacknowledged amounts (at least) antecedent sex-discrimination discredits decision. 139 suggests claimed "genuine," pretext discriminating 539; 535-540. charge, impute motive conducted 3-year 1986 recommended male. committee, consisted non-VMI "read materials military," "made site visits institutions" Point "considered status"; praised "thorough" accreditation Colleges Schools. 1428; 1427-1430 (detailed Committee). "whatever options." 539. (its subject) quite antifeminism not. relevance creation, sober utterly refute claim student-body misogynistic reason. 140 stating "'in itself'" purposes. 539 1992)); 525. wrong numerous grounds. foremost, implication needed. adopts, effect, "assumptions" alone roles," "before initiated, valid, rationale policy," renders invalid." 10. unheard-of doctrine. Each adopt accompanied anticipation pain relevant lawyer's contemporaneous giant Administrative Procedure Act, forth "statement sovereign 553(c). situation assumes enshrined charter, perhaps, pronouncing keep place. recorded mere continues States'] [classification] 'accidental by-product traditional thinking females.'" M., opinion) 320) 141 moreover, recorded. imagine authoritative source Century (1990 Report). stipulated, "notes 'diversity autonomy.'" Stipulations Fact 37, Lodged Materials Record (Lodged Materials). said: formal institutions: state-supported independent, two-year senior, highly specialized, single-sex." quoted 64-65 repeated reliance [statement] distinctions'" (namely, "deal sex") diversity. 525, 899). proves, suppose, pertinent (accepting statement) there. plain deny, was. 142 demonstrating, actively seeks "'rich heritage pluralism education,'" 1969 Constitutional Revision, 53; "'one [as being] diversity,'" 1989 Plan 64; "higher private" "'Virginia inherent dual 1420 Budget Initiatives 1990-1992 Council (June 1989) (Budget Initiatives), infra. (for crucial later discussion) reports footnote, unitary 143 served" 539-540. theory sham. account possible permutations 578, coordinates money residents assists 144 tuition grants, loans, work-study funds §§ 23-38.11 23-38.19 (1993 (Tuition Assistance Grant Act); 23-38.30 23-38.44:3 (Virginia Student Authorities); 23-38.45 23-38.53 (1993) (College Scholarship 23-38.53:1 23-38.53:3 Scholars Program); 23-38.70, 23-38.71 Work-Study Program). involve expenditures: appropriated 4,413,750 (not counting earmarked) Program 1997, Tuition 21,568,000 25,842,000 1997. Appropriations 912, pt. 160. 145 stipulated assistance low-cost building services contracts, programs. 23-30.39 23.30.58 (Educational Facilities Authority Act). document various "means funding helping 146 Finally, unreasonably decentralized decisionmaking granting autonomy matters, adopts [to] impossible human beings groups beings) autonomously common goal, game market autonomous selfish cooperate. say, natural incentive segment autonomous; legislature serving decides, needed cease. 147 unfamiliar event careless local traditions, forgiven Virginians quoting campus'" older universities, Mary, occupies portion known, "campus," grounds." importantly, specify campus," refer Bloomington Indianapolis Indiana University. Unlike systems familiar, New York (e. Binghamton Buffalo), Illinois (University Urbana-Champaign Chicago), California, Los Angeles, Berkeley), happens (because Thomas Jefferson lived near there) Charlottesville. simply, University," suffices instruction, Christopher Newport Clinch Valley George Mason Longwood Norfolk Old Dominion Polytechnic 148 3. disparaging finds fault dismisses "'findings' 'gender-based differences'" "these 'findings' 'tendencies.'" 1434-1435). How remarkable criticize rest witnesses)! supposed do. indefensible tell [you]," ignore put forward when, virtually uncontradicted," 149 findings. 541-546. saved themselves trouble, expense omitting trial. dispenses submitted clearly Justices' world, (1) references observations someone witness, participated dissented rehear 542, (2) citations nonevidentiary amicus curiae briefs 14, (3) anecdotes constituted reminds Justices "bad days," 542-544. rendered treating absolutely contested, female, college" "[that] valuable achievement." 1411-1412. States' "called himself 'believer "personal, philosophical preference," "born educational-benefit considerations," sector." 151 4. erred, "misperceived precedent," "training 'means' 'end,'" mission," "imbued peril." 1986). "Surely," lawmaking indirection. What mission" Which aim etc.," peril"? summed "learning, patriotism." accordance military, imparting discussed below found), "great 153 results. Applied generally, (as be), restricts few pursuing theretofore participants. 154 5. 540-542. principal irrelevant: government's objectives, above refuses concludes inquiry. debate much" "too 155 relevant, losing elements focus fundamentally ends thwarted, interests." 1411. Changes detailed allowances barracks, locked doors coverings windows, detract regulating details "contradict everyone else," impair "total egalitarian approach" "treated alike"; reduce aggressiveness program"; modifications 1412-1413, 1435-1443. summarized district leading ethos critical 156 face amply resulting altered pronounces proved." (footnote "downgrading stature" straw man; claim. "destroying false; "evidence theory," specifically "without doubt" assimilate "it doubt changed" "move 8, 1440. depending intended mean, sets meet. sufficed establish, different" 157 do-it-yourself factfinding, contrary well-settled "undertake concurrent obvious exceptional error," Graver Tank Mfg. Co. Linde 336 271, 275, 672, 535 (1949) cited), exemplified invocation academies occur. 11; 15; 550-551, 19. experience" "adopt [different] system," becoming away" system. "Without Point's were." 8; accord, 896-897 1992) "unique methodology," coeducation"). precise "all-women's analogue" irrelevant. attached significance school. restricted 'Mississippi college.'" 720, 1). female-only analogue (VWIL), College. irrelevant, goal. exists, reaching 160 educators "difference respective spheres destinies woman," Bradwell State, 130, Wall. 141, (1873), "provide outcomes [to VMI's] environment," 481 voluminous "there [by VWIL] ends." undertook affirmed. runs succinctly: 161 "It resemble techniques barracks-like quarters. Simply replicating thought, research, expertise. facile paper prospect implementation." Amicus Curiae 5.It testify care. area, adversarial declares, professionals acted "'overbroad' generalizations," 550. 162 incorrect suggesting "deferential" "brand requires." 555. "inquired state's 'legitimate important,' requisite direct, present,'" 1235 725, (1982). evade "devised 'substantive comparability' inquiry,'" 555 1237), "additional step" engrafted test" concurrence, moderate implausible. concurrence reasons: "scant record," 562, "Scant" imprecise term. cited clearest Revision. 581-582, 2, contrary, rightly does) founding toward different. Is conceivably foreclose diversity"? Especially absurd "evidence" fosters diversity). have? One argue, does, indulge hostility refuted discussing concurrence's central supposedly "scant" lawfulness Army battle. culture forgotten concept res ipsa loquitur deserves fate decrees 164 "read[s] Court" "as pretext" genuine. disclaimer, difficult credit inasmuch 539, "deliberate" "familiar arguments," enforce "widely place," 165 hand calls "second 564. "this because, methodologies." wrong. 1426 methodology); college-age general). reality, applicant suit wanted assuredly school; cease soon entered. provided, battle (in main) recognizes this, devotes demonstrating "'some model'" suit." 1434). Of last contest methodology. 166 third quick react "further developments" jurisprudence. 561. Specifically, believes [Virginia's] 562. violation." 563. (which program), yes!, Any gave advice disbarred committed. pudding 6-Justice opinion.) politician step (assisted exceed, aggregate, costs, supra) recalled. 167 learning" "available men" assert disregarding funds) coordinating 583-584, According treated." get assisting treats blame schools? puzzlement. 168 frequently true, consequences extend unease consequences, unwillingness acknowledge them, alter reality. 169 Under principles unconstitutional. going motions balancing adduced creates illusion officials shot justifying Indeed, that: address 'unique.'" 7. 170 sit announce dispositions. America follow. Term, ourselves adhere "rationale decisions." Seminole Tribe Fla. 517 44, 66-67, 252, 1114 (1996) publish opinions. 171 sweeping: redefinition indistinguishable "unique," opposite "who capacity" 542. nonexistent. 172 regard, concede example pass muster today: even, On theory, 173 regardless leaves amount lawyers ensures functionally dead. costs litigating risks officials. person haul compel (presumably testimony) Should happen vacuous achievement, risk walk path trod today. mind buy high-cost, high-risk lawsuit commencing enemies won; persuading seven (five enough) world 174 regrettable increasingly "support flow replicated setting." case," effect. Until attempted institute experiments. 1991, Detroit boys-only inner-city youth; preliminary injunction swiftly entered purported Garrett Dist. Detroit, 775 1004, 1006 Mich. 1991), voted Aid Blacks All-Boy Schools Abandoned, Angeles Times, Nov. A4, col. assures experiment tried again. 175 extant widespread disruption immensely notes 1990-1991 year derived approximately percent budgets federal, 22, (citing Dept. National Center Statistics, Digest Note (1993)). Charitable tax donation deductible discriminates Note, Independent Sector Tax Laws: Defining Charity Ideal Democracy, Cal. Bob Jones 461 574, 157, 2017 (1983). 176 adverts briefly, (mentioned above) remarked, 596, assurance taken promise disclaim Government, attack direct indirect beneficiaries converted applicable. 35-37 (discussing Rendell-Baker Kohn, 457 830, 418, 2764 Blum Yaretsky, 991, 2777 (1982)). true. meaningless. 177 issue turns actors, violating Norwood Harrison, 413 723, 2804 (1973), saw racially privately schools. "Racial state-operated barred 'it axiomatic induce, encourage promote accomplish.'" Lee Macon Bd. Ed., 267 458, 475-476 (MD Ala. 1967)); Cooper Aaron, 358 19, 1401 (1958) ("State arrangement, management, squared [Fourteenth] command jurisdiction laws"); Grove City Bell, 555, 565, 516, 1211 arising 1972 often indistinguishable"). oral implications government-provided disastrous, "depending circumstances," Oral Arg. 56. "circumstances" be, foolish private-school administrators Justice Department outlive made, Department's "unequivocal" below. 178 hope state-assisted hope, am happy ashamed say. all, sex-classification cases? positively invite ad-hocery assuring "unique"? advise (especially one) expectation support; despair existence. characterizes opinion's perceptions chauvinism, etc., etc. join 179 180 Brandeis incidents courageous may, choose, laboratory; try experiments country." Ice Liebmann, 285 262, 311, 747, 371 (1932) (dissenting opinion). unhappy self-righteous acting Members' "'more Union,'" 558 (a slightly restrictive world"), impose dispositions nationwide. disposition, others show, "single State," introduce frowns upon, reintroduce, to, disfavored old. BMW North America, Gore, 559, 809, 1589 (1996); Romer Evans, 620, 855, 1620 (1996). sphere self-government Republic narrowed. 181 dissent, approvingly colleague, Powell, Many force purport "narrow" "logic" "sweeping." 745-746, 18. Powell struck "left enriched 735. honor; that. 182 odd precisely attachment old-fashioned concepts "honor" represents, target succeed abolishing booklet so-called "rats") possession times. Near appears piece, Gentleman": 183 observance Honor, man, 'polished,' gentleman. gentleman demands inviolability word, incorruptibility principles. He descendant knight, crusader; defense-less champion justice Gentleman. 184 "A Gentleman 185 "Does discuss affairs acquaintances. speak casually girl friend. 187 lady's house alcohol. temperate 188 lose temper; exhibit hate, embarrassment, ardor hilarity public. 189 hail lady club window. 190 discusses merits demerits lady. 191 things cost. 192 borrow friend, dire need. Money borrowed debt honor, repaid promptly possible. Debts incurred deceased parent, brother, sister grown child assumed honor. 193 Does wealth, possessions. 194 manners off, ballroom. courtesy, be. 195 slap strangers lay finger 196 'lick boots above' 'kick ladder.' 197 another's helplessness ignorance him. others, his. 199 wills ."I code; powerfully us, included, off destruction. 200 During War, dominated A. Scott, Lady: Pedestal Politics, 1830-1930, Historically, 1418-1419 incorporated opened. 167. Originally "English, Latin, Greek, French, piano" "home atmosphere," Sprague, College: 7-8, (Longwood 1884 "white schools," 311. 1949, 136, 1976, 133. 202 intervene defendants. 203 Six judges rehearing, recused. Rule permits banc vote regular active (currently 13) recusals. 204 new: "Were pure excluded deliberations who, depravation morals ambiguity mix promiscuously meetings Letter Samuel Kercheval (Sept. 1816), Writings 45-46, (P. Ford ed. 1899). 205 Term inevitably "fatal fact." 237, (1995) 206 Several amici altogether importantly dissipate, perpetuate, classifications." Twenty-six Private Amici prerogative 1432; 892, institute, ("Mississippi 'separate equal' females."). 207 sees fire flame. 596-598, 598-600. "Both effects" apparently recognition. Jencks Riesman, Academic Revolution 297-298 (1968): 208 pluralistic preserving uncomfortably all-white easy emerged witting unwitting device tacit assumptions superiority pay." 209 Dr. Edward Clarke book, went editions, well-known medical opposing physiological interfere girls' organs. 38-39, 62-63 (1873); ("identical crime God humanity, physiology protests against, weeps over"); Maudsley, Mind (1874) ("It ambition, fail [in settings], cost strength health entails life-long suffering, incapacitates performance sex."); Meigs, Females Diseases 350 (1848) (after weeks "mental discipline," healthy "lose habit menstruation" suffer ills depriving sake mind). 210 Superintendent Public Instruction dismissed "'repugnant prejudices people'" Girton, Smith, Vassar. Interior, Commissioner 58th Cong., Sess., 438 (1904)). 211 566, 598-599, 603. Forecasts academies. Hearings 9832 Subcommittee Armed Services, 93d (statement Lt. Gen. Clark, Academy) introduction erode atmosphere."); Hon. Callaway, Secretary Army) ("Admitting irrevocably Academy. Spartan product diluted, probability disappear."). (describing David Riesman: altogether, nurturing students."). judgments attended, impeded, progress Speaking 1879 females, Senator Smith Nelson recounted resistance. 213 (1879). measures objected [legislation]," "depicted burning eloquence terrible produce." passed, later, sponsor, "terrible consequences"] happen, unto sounding Gabriel's trumpet." 537-538. graduated top academy. Lieutenant Colonel Rhonda Cornum 25; Defense Advisory Integration Performance 214 Cornum, 5-9 (reporting military); Mintz, President Nominates 1st Woman Rank Three-Star General, Mar. 27, A19, (announcing President's nomination Major Carol Mutter General; head corps manpower planning); Tousignant, Era Guard, 23, C1, Sergeant Heather Johnsen elite Infantry unit keeps round-the-clock vigil Tomb Unknowns Arlington Cemetery). 215 Inclusion settings where, traditionally, adjustment. squad leader recounted: classes '78 '79 '80 '81 classmates." Vitters, Admission (Project Athena II) 216 successfully managed notable African-American 1968. 347-349 (students sing "Dixie," salute Confederate flag tomb Robert ceremonies sports events). "retention cadets" social-cultural "minority dominantly tradition-oriented body." 1436-1437. "special recruitment blacks" little, any, accomplishing 1437. 217 Phillips, measured paradigm "could scrutiny": faculty[,] Bray Lee, 337 934 (Mass. 1972) Boston's Boys Latin (up 200) score, Girls ordering coeducation). VMI/VWIL paradigm, "reveals falls 218 Both expelled forthwith code violations, 1423; 496-497, severe, 414-415 Cynthia Tyson). 219 Admitting undoubtedly alterations arrangements, adjust Petitioner 27-29; 4342 (academic Military, Naval, Academies "shall individuals, minimum adjustments individuals"). Experience manageable. Kinzer, Adams, I-IV) (1977-1980) (4-year longitudinal Point); 17-18 concern, appears, "placing destroy, 1239; 540-546. ancient familiar fear. Compare Lavinia Goodell, Wis. 232, 246 (1875) (denying applicant's motion Wisconsin explained: "Discussions habitually justice, unfit ears. habitual relax propriety."), Levine, Closing Comments, Inequality (presentation Eighth Judicial Conference, Colorado Springs, Colo., 1987) (footnotes "Plato guardians, Rulers Platonic society. Ironically, undemocratic native ability guardians questioned. concern exercise candidates guardianship participate, prerequisites attain exalted guardian. Greek custom, nude. Plato clothe nakedness Plato's Dialogues 302-312 (B. Jowett transl., 4th 1953). bound custom "rigorous accommodations [all] citizens." 221 - End Footnotes- Footnotes 222 Morris, Forging Union, 1781-1789, (1987); 191, setting letter friend Massachusetts patriot (later President) John voting State: fruitful controversy altercation attempting voters; claims arise; vote; lads twelve twenty-one attended to; farthing, voice state. confound distinctions, prostrate level." Adams Sullivan (May 1776), Works 378 (C. 1854). 223 n22 equates "asserted diversity" "'genuine,'" "charge" 579-580. thing. read discrimination, endorse proposition. suggesting, "antifeminism," 580. transparent articulate "absurd face." 592. Apparently,

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