Document: 128 S. Ct. 2783 (2008) DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA et al., Petitioners, v. Dick Anthony HELLER. No. 07-290. Supreme Court of United States. Argued March 18, 2008. Decided June 26, *2787 Walter Dellinger, for petitioners. Paul D. Clement, the States as amicus curiae, by special leave Court. Alan Gura, respondent. Thomas C. Goldstein, Christopher M. Egleson, Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld LLP, Washington, DC, Matthew Shors, Mark Davies, Brianne J. Gorod, Not admitted in D.C.; supervised principals firm, Joseph Blocher, O'Melveny Myers Peter Nickles, Interim Attorney General, Todd Kim, Solicitor Counsel Record, Donna Murasky, Deputy Solicitor, Lutz Alexander Prager, Office General District Columbia, Robert A. Long, Jonathan L. Marcus, Covington Burling Petitioners. Levy, Clark Neily III, Gura Possessky, PLLC, Alexandria, Virginia, Respondents. Frederick Whitmer, Thelen Reid Brown, Raysman Steiner New York, NY, Charles Dyke, San Francisco, CA, English, Jeffrey R. Gans, Elizabeth Walsh, Emily Jones, Laura P. Bourgeois, Professors Linguistics and English Dennis E. Baron, Ph.D., Richard W. Bailey, Ph.D. Kaplan, Support Justice SCALIA delivered opinion We consider whether a Columbia prohibition on possession *2788 usable handguns home violates Second Amendment to Constitution. I The generally prohibits handguns. It is crime carry an unregistered firearm, registration prohibited. See D.C.Code §§ 7-2501.01(12), 7-2502.01(a), 7-2502.02(a)(4) (2001). Wholly apart from that prohibition, no person may handgun without license, but chief police issue licenses 1-year periods. 22-4504(a), 22-4506. law also requires residents keep their lawfully owned firearms, such registered long guns, "unloaded dissembled or bound trigger lock similar device" unless they are located place business being used lawful recreational activities. § 7-2507.02.[1] Respondent Heller D.C. officer authorized while duty at Federal Judicial Center. He applied certificate he wished home, refused. thereafter filed lawsuit seeking, grounds, enjoin city enforcing bar handguns, licensing requirement insofar it carrying firearm trigger-lock use "functional firearms within home." App. 59a. dismissed respondent's complaint, see Parker 311 F. Supp. 2d 103, 109 (2004). Appeals Circuit, construing his complaint seeking right render operable about condition only when necessary self-defense,[2] reversed, 478 F.3d 370, 401 (2007). held protects individual possess city's total ban well its be kept nonfunctional even self-defense, violated right. id., 395, 399-401. directed enter summary judgment granted certiorari. 552 U.S. ___, 645, 169 Ed. 417 II turn first meaning Amendment. A provides: "A regulated Militia, security free State, people bear Arms, shall not infringed." In interpreting this text, we guided principle "[t]he Constitution was written understood voters; words phrases were normal ordinary distinguished technical meaning." Sprague, 282 716, 731, 51 220, 75 640 (1931); Gibbons Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1, 188, 6 23 (1824). Normal course include idiomatic meaning, excludes secret meanings would have been known citizens founding generation. *2789 two sides case set out very different interpretations Petitioners today's dissenting Justices believe connection with militia service. Brief 11-12; post, 2822 (STEVENS, J., dissenting). argues unconnected service militia, arm traditionally purposes, self-defense home. 2-4. naturally divided into parts: prefatory clause operative clause. former does limit latter grammatically, rather announces purpose. could rephrased, "Because Militia Arms Tiffany, Treatise Government Constitutional Law 585, p. 394 (1867); Amici Curiae 3 (hereinafter Linguists' Brief). Although structure unique our Constitution, other legal documents era, particularly individual-rights provisions state constitutions, commonly included statement Volokh, Commonplace Amendment, 73 N.Y.U.L.Rev. 793, 814-821 (1998). Logic demands there link between stated purpose command. nonsensical if read, petition redress grievances That logical cause resolve ambiguity ("The separation church important objective, teachings canons jurisprudence." preface makes clear refers interpretation clergymen.) But clarifying function, expand scope Dwarris, Statutes 268-269 (P. Potter ed. 1871) Dwarris); T. Sedgwick, Interpretation Construction Statutory 42-45 (2d 1874).[3] "`It nothing unusual acts . enacting part go beyond preamble; remedy often extends particular act mischief which suggested necessity law.'" Bishop, Commentaries Written Laws Their 51, 49 (1882) (quoting Rex Marks, East, 157, 165 (K.B.1802)). Therefore, will begin *2790 textual analysis clause, return ensure reading consistent announced purpose.[4] 1. Operative Clause. a. "Right People." salient feature codifies "right people." unamended Bill Rights phrase people" times, First Amendment's Assembly-and-Petition Clause Fourth Search-and-Seizure Ninth uses terminology enumeration certain rights, construed deny disparage others retained people"). All three these instances unambiguously refer "collective" rights exercised through participation some corporate body.[5] Three "the context than "rights"the famous preamble ("We people"), 2 Article (providing choose members House), Tenth those powers given remain States" Those arguably acting collectivelybut deal exercise reservation powers, rights. Nowhere else "right" attributed anything right.[6] What more, all six mention people," term political community, *2791 unspecified subset. As said Verdugo-Urquidez, 494 259, 265, 110 1056, 108 222 (1990): "`[T]he people' seems art employed select parts [Its uses] sugges[t] `the protected Amendments, whom reserved class persons who national community otherwise developed sufficient country considered community." This contrasts markedly militia" describe below, "militia" colonial America consisted subset people"those male, able bodied, age range. Reading protecting "keep Arms" organized therefore fits poorly clause's description holder start strong presumption individually belongs Americans. b. "Keep Arms." move now right"the people"to substance right: "to Before addressing verbs "keep" "bear," interpret object: "Arms." 18th-century today. 1773 edition Samuel Johnson's dictionary defined "arms" "weapons offence, armour defence." 1 Dictionary Language 107 (4th ed.) Johnson). Timothy Cunningham's 1771 "any thing man wears defence, takes hands, useth wrath cast strike another." Complete (1771); N. Webster, American (1828) (reprinted 1989) Webster) (similar). applied, then now, weapons specifically designed military capacity. For instance, gave example usage: "Servants labourers bows arrows Sundays, c. arms." also, e.g., An Act trial Negroes, 1797 Del. ch. XLIII, 6, 104, State Delaware 102, 104 (J. Cushing ed.1981 (pt. 1)); Duke, 42 Tex. 455, 458 (1874) (citing decisions courts "arms"). one founding-era thesaurus limited (as opposed "weapons") "instruments offence made war," source constituted "arms." Trusler, Distinction Between Words Esteemed Synonymous 37 (1794) (emphasis added). Some argument, bordering frivolous, arms existence 18th century do constitutional way. Just modern forms communications, Reno Civil Liberties Union, 521 844, 849, 117 2329, 138 874 (1997), applies search, Kyllo States, 533 27, 35-36, 121 2038, 150 94 (2001), extends, *2792 prima facie, instruments constitute bearable arms, time founding. arms" "bear Johnson as, most relevantly, "[t]o retain; lose," custody." 1095. Webster hold; retain one's power possession." No party has apprised us Thus, natural "have weapons." prevalent period found, few examples, favor viewing William Blackstone, example, wrote Catholics convicted attending Church England suffered penalties, permitted houses." 4 55 (1769) Blackstone); M., 15, 4, Eng. Stat. Large 422 (1689) ("[N]o Papist House any ."); Hawkins, Pleas Crown 26 (1771) point laws required service, conclude militia-related connotation. 16-17 Delaware, Jersey, Virginia). like saying that, since many statutes authorize aggrieved employees "file complaints" federal agencies, employment-related simply common way referring possessing militiamen everyone else.[7] *2793 At founding, "bear" meant "carry." 161; Webster; Sheridan, (1796); Oxford 20 ed.1989) Oxford). When "arms," however, purposeconfrontation. Muscarello 524 125, 118 1911, 141 111 (1998), analyzing "carries firearm" criminal statute, GINSBURG "[s]urely familiar is, Constitution's indicate[s]: `wear, bear, upon clothing pocket, armed ready offensive defensive action conflict another person.'" Id., 143, 1911 (dissenting opinion) Black's 214 (6th ed.1998)). think accurately captured implies weapon "offensive action," connotes structured organization. From review sources, had century. numerous instances, outside militia. prominent examples relevant Amendment: Nine decades 19th, enshrined defense themselves state" himself state."[8] formulations did unit. James Wilson interpreted Pennsylvania arms-bearing right, recognition "of house"what called "self preservation." Collected Works 1142, n. x (K. Hall eds.2007) Pa. Const., Art. IX, 21 (1790)); Walker, Introduction 198 (1837) *2794 ("Thus self-defence [is] guaranteed [Ohio] constitution"); 157 (equating provision Ohio Constitution). adopted pre-Civil War courts.[9] These demonstrateagain, analogous linguistic contextthat significantly meaning: serve soldier, fight" wage war." 18; 2827-2828 unequivocally bore followed preposition "against," target hostilities. 21. (That how, Declaration Independence ¶ 28, phrase: "He constrained fellow Citizens taken Captive high Seas against Country .") Every petitioners' amici either includes "against" clearly idiomatic. 18-23. Without preposition, normally continues mean today) what GINSBURG's said. event, petitioners STEVENS propose (sometimes) meaning. Rather, manufacture hybrid definition, whereby actual (and really idiom) ever indicates carried easy why dissent driven definition. Giving consist soldier waran absurdity commentator endorsed. Origins 135 (1999). Worse still, incoherent. word "Arms" once: "weapons" object "keep") "bear") one-half idiom. filled kicked bucket" bucket died." Grotesque. justify limitation pointing unremarkable fact contextthe same mistake respect especially sources (such records congressional debate) focus inquiry. little occasion except discussions standing army And primarily "carry arms," "possess arms"though *2795 thinks meanings. Barnett, Was Right Keep Bear Conditioned Service Organized Militia?, 83 L.Rev. 237, 261 references "fit matched nonmilitary contexts where concept relevant. See, 30 Journals Continental Congress 349-351 Fitzpatrick ed.1934). Other frequently contexts.[10] dictionary, cited above, usage sentence unrelated affairs ("Servants arms"). looks contexts. Cramer Olson, Did "Bear Mean Amendment?, Georgetown J.L. Pub. Pol'y (forthcoming Sept. 2008), online http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract= 1086176 visited 24, 2008, available Clerk Court's file) (identifying period). points study supposedly showing context. 2828-2829, 9; 24. Of course, said, show context, and, Moreover, study's collection appears (who knows how times) against," irrelevant. dismiss "`bear killing game'" because "expressly qualified." (Justice excuse dismissing identify private-use purposes can asserted. 2828.) faulty. purposive qualifying contradicts modifies unknown side looking glass *2796 (except, apparently, courses Linguistics). If means, think, modifier carriage ("for self-defense" make war King"). cannot add "for game." game" worthy mad hatter. positively establish use.[11] places great weight Madison's inclusion conscientious-objector original draft "but religiously scrupulous bearing compelled person." Creating 12 (H. Veit, K. Bowling, Bickford eds.1991) Veit). establishes drafters intended 2836. always perilous derive deleted drafting process.[12] case, follow. exempt objected going scruples personal gunfights. Quakers just violent whatsoeverso much so Quaker frontiersmen forbidden defend families, though "[i]n circumstances temptation seize hunting rifle knife must sometimes almost overwhelming." Brock, Pacifism 359 (1968); Hirst, Peace 336-339 (1923); Clarkson, Portraiture Quakerism 103-104 (3d 1807). 1757 exempted "scrupling arms"a contends 5 613 Mitchell H. Flanders eds. 1898) text potential confrontation "compelled service," required.[13] *2797 Finally, suggests sort art, presumably akin "hue cry" "cease desist." (This suggestion usefully evades problem evidence whatsoever support arms.") believes unitary established calling (singular) "rights" (plural). 2830-2831. There this. constitutions routinely grouped multiple (related) guarantees under singular "right," [singular] peaceably assemble, grievances." XII, XVI, Thorpe 3083-3084; Arts. VIII, 11, 19 (1802), 2910-2911.[14] phrase, find (which art), found 1780 debate Lords, Lord Richmond described order disarm private (not members) "a violation Protestant subjects own defense." London Magazine Gentleman's Monthly Intelligencer 467 (1780). response, member Parliament referred defence," making discussion. 467-468.[15] Meaning Putting elements together, guarantee confrontation. strongly confirmed historical background look widely codified pre-existing implicitly recognizes pre-existence declares "shall Cruikshank, 92 542, 553, 588 (1876), "[t]his Neither manner dependent instrument existence. *2798 amendment infringed ."[16] Restoration Glorious Revolution, Stuart Kings succeeded using militias loyal them suppress dissidents, disarming opponents. Malcolm, To 31-53 (1994) Malcolm); Schwoerer, Rights, 1689, 76 (1981). Under auspices 1671 Game Act, Catholic ordered general disarmaments regions enemies. Malcolm 103-106. experiences caused Englishmen extremely wary concentrated forces run jealous arms. They accordingly obtained assurance Mary, Rights), Protestants never disarmed: "That suitable conditions allowed law." 2, 7, 441 (1689). predecessor Dumbauld, Means Today (1957); Rawle, View 122 (1825) Rawle). having whatever sure, whole population, restricted Protestants, Crown, Parliament. Hold Arms: Perspective, Bogus 207, 218; Story, 1858 (1833) Story) (contending "limitatio[n] parliament" well). secured individuals, according "libertarian principles," fighting force. 283; 78; G. Jellinek, Man 49, 7 (1901) 1979). By become fundamental subjects. 122-134. whose works, "constituted preeminent authority generation," Alden Maine, 527 706, 715, 119 2240, 144 636 (1999), Englishmen. Blackstone 136, 139-140 (1765). His possibly thought tie was, resistance self-preservation," 139, self-preservation 140; 2-4 (1768). contemporary authorities concurred. Sharp, Tracts, Concerning Ancient Only True Legal National Defence, Free 17-18, 27 1782); de Lolme, Rise Progress 886-887 (1784) (A. Stephens 1838); Blizard, Desultory Reflections Police 59-60 (1785). 1689 result Stuarts' abuses *2799 both public violence. And, Stuarts tried enemies, George III colonists. tumultuous 1760's 1770's, began inhabitants rebellious areas. provoked polemical reactions Americans invoking York article April 1769 "[i]t themselves, Journal Times: Mar. 17, Journal, Apr. 13, 1769, Boston Military Rule 79 (O. Dickerson ed.1936); Shippen, Gazette, Jan. 30, Writings Adams 299 ed.1968). enable individuals themselves. early Blackstone's (by professor Antifederalist St. Tucker) notes self-preservation" permitting citizen "repe[l] force force" intervention society behalf, too late prevent injury." 145-146, (1803) Tucker's Blackstone). Duer, Outlines Jurisprudence 31-32 (1833). doubt, basis history, conferred unlimited, speech not, see, Williams, 553 1830, ___ L.Ed.2d (2008). read protect confrontation, speak turning limitations determine comports 2. Prefatory reads: State. ." "Well-Regulated Militia." Miller, 307 174, 179, 59 816, 1206 (1939), explained comprised males physically capable concert definition sources. bodied men companies, regiments brigades attend exercises days only, times left pursue usual occupations"); Federalist 46, pp. 329, 334 (B. Wright ed.1961) Madison) ("near half million hands"); Letter Destutt Tracy (Jan. 1811), Portable Jefferson 520, (M. Peterson 1975) ("[T]he say, every take seemingly narrower view stating "[m]ilitias state- congressionally-regulated Clauses (art. I, 8, cls. 15-16)." 12. agree interpretive assumption means *2800 wrong thing, namely, Unlike armies navies, create ("to raise Armies"; provide Navy," 12-13), assumed already "provide forth militia," cl. 15; create, "organiz[e]" itand organize "a" expect creation, "the" connoting body existence, ibid., 16. fully able-bodied men. pool, plenary units up effective specified "each white male respective states, resident therein, eighteen years, forty-five years (except herein after excepted) severally respectively enrolled militia." May 1792, 271. need conscript exercising organize, discipline, entire body. consists men, federally them. adjective "well-regulated" more imposition proper discipline training. 1619 ("Regulate": "To adjust rule method"); Rawle 121-122; cf. Va. 13 (1776), 3812, 3814 (referring well-regulated composed people, trained "Security State." "security polity," each several below argued, F.3d, 405, 10. Story treatise `state' various senses [and in] enlarged sense, composing nation 208; 1890 (in reference clause: "The defence country"). true "State" elsewhere close variations seem terms discourse, "`free country'" polity. "Necessary Security State," Notre Dame (2007); 151 (1769); Brutus Essay (Nov. 1787), Essential 251, 253 (W. Allen Lloyd eds., ed.2002). "state" typically accompanied modifiers States"each state," "several states," "that "particular "one "no state." presence "foreign shows single reasons "necessary 1890. First, useful repelling invasions suppressing insurrections. Second, renders large unnecessaryan argument Hamilton control *2801 over 29, 226, 227 Hamilton). Third, organized, better resist tyranny. 3. Relationship reach question, then: Does fit creates arms? perfectly, once history generation knew above. showed tyrants eliminated consisting banning taking away people's enabling occurred prompted codification Rights. desirable (all agreed was) needed During 1788 ratification debates, fear government impose pervasive rhetoric. Letters Farmer (Oct. 10, Anti-Federalist 234, 242 Storing ed.1981). John Smilie, worried Congress's "command "select all," separate concern, "[w]hen formed; disarmed." Documentary History Ratification 508-509 Jensen ed.1976) Hist.). Federalists responded abridge ancient oppress people. Pennsylvanian (Feb. 20, 1788), Origin 275, 276 (D. Young ed., ed.2001) Young); White, Feb. 22, 1788, 280, 281; Citizen America, 1787) 38, 40; Remarks Amendments Nov. 556. across spectrum helped secure ideal might oppose oppressive broke down. entirely sensible codified: elimination suggest preserving reason valued right; undoubtedly hunting. threat new destroy citizens' rightunlike rightswas BREYER's assertion merely "subsidiary interest" 2841, profoundly mistaken. bases solely prologuebut right's codification; central component itself. Besides ignoring reality lay down "novel principl[e]" *2802 "inherited ancestors," Robertson Baldwin, 281, 17 326, 41 715 (1897), achieve If, believe, 8if, sole institutional beneficiary guaranteeit assure "citizens' safeguard retains say belong force.[17] Act's whites enroll amend exclude blacks. Siegel, Government's Power Enact Color-Conscious Laws, Nw. U.L.Rev. 477, 521-525 correct, gun organization kings useful, concern B Our preceded immediately adoption Four analogues independence Two themPennsylvania Vermontclearly Pennsylvania's 1776 said: state. ..." XIII, 3082, 3083 1777, Vermont identical provision, inconsequential differences punctuation capitalization. Vt. 3741. North Carolina 1776: XVII, 2787, 2788. plausibly militiabut peculiar constitution repeatedly mentions explicitly. §§14, 35, 2789, 2791, 2793. Many public-safety reasonssuch 1770 Georgia province internal dangers insurrections" qualified fire *2803 worship." Colonial Records 137-139 Candler ed.1911 2)) broad understanding connotation State's 1843. Huntly, 25 N.C. 418, Ired. 422-423. Massachusetts presented variation theme: defence. Pt. 1888, 1892. Once again, gives narrow "common defence" state-organized again highest court otherwise. Writing 1825 libel Chief wrote: liberty press unrestrained, responsible cases abuse; him annoyance destruction." Commonwealth Blanding, Mass. 304, 313-314. analogy sense all. Kates, Handgun Prohibition Original 82 Mich. 204, 244 (1983) (19th-century service). likely four pre-Second purposes. pre-1789 constitutionsalthough Virginia analogue proposed (unsuccessfully) Jefferson. (It read: "No freeman debarred [within lands tenements]."[18] Papers 344 Boyd ed.1950)). 1789 1820, nine analogues. themKentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Missourireferred supra. Another StatesMississippi, Connecticut, Alabamaused individualistic phrasing ibid. StatesTennessee Maine language Massachusetts. Tenn. XI, (1796), 3414, 3424; Me. 16 (1819), 1646, 1648. protections enacted least seven citizen's conceived possible exception discuss Part II-D-2, 19th-century commentators self-defense. 9, supra; Simpson 356, Yer. 360 narrative endorse thus treat odd outlier, law, based *2804 overreading C relies  proposals conventions debates Congress. dubious rely codify fashion one. assuming legislative relevant, flatly misreads record. true, says, abolish institution 2832-2833. expression, precursors conventions, structural concurrent nonpre-emptible failed so. Veit (Virginia proposal); Eliot, Debates Several Conventions Adoption 244, 245 1836) 1941) (North Hist. 624 (Pennsylvania minority's proposal). precursors, contrast, probably four) constitutions. Federalist-dominated chose reject virtually major revisions favored Antifederalists, including amendments. popular uncontroversial (though, Federalists' view, unnecessary) individuals' assuage Antifederalists' concerns Centinel, Revived, XXIX, Philadelphia Independent Gazetteer, 1789, 711, 712. significant "embedded ... group principles distinctly meaning," statements danger armies. Post, 2833-2834. highly influential minority proposal Pennsylvania, yet proposal, hunting, plainly 624. erroneous point, brought forward absolutely Hampshire's Adams' time. 16, (New Hampshire 1452, 1453 Kaminski Saladino 2000) (Samuel STEVENS' proposition, unsupported evidence, vastly conceptions comport longstanding venerable, liberties. D address end 19th proceeding, *2805 equating postenactment comparison betrays misunderstanding court's task. 2837, 28. "Legislative history," pre-enactment drafted voted law; persuasive some, reflect disputed terms, legislators heard understanding. Ibid. "Postenactment deprecatory contradiction enactment hence effect vote. certainly examination variety ratification. inquiry critical tool interpretation. show, interpreters do. Post-ratification Commentary scholars published writings. version Commentaries, Blackstonian equated absent religious class-based restrictions, 143. Note D, entitled, "View States," Tucker elaborated "This palladium liberty. nature: governments rulers confine narrowest limits possible. Wherever up, colour pretext whatsoever, prohibited, liberty, annihilated, brink 300 (ellipsis original). believed game abridged prohibiting "keeping engine destruction Ibid; nn. 40 41. later passed congress, prohibiting" "be judiciary pronounce constitutional, not; acquit accused. 357. unlikely person's "accused" violating militia.[19] 1825, lawyer Assembly ratified *2806 treatise, analyzed follows: [principle] declaration state; proposition dissent. corollary, position infringed. general. construction give congress Such flagitious attempt pretence legislature. blind pursuit inordinate power, should it, appealed restraint both." 121-122.[20] Like Tucker, regarded 122-123. differentiated militia: "In accustomed rudiments properly citizens, bands, instructed part, 140. further ought abused disturbance peace," assembling unlawful purpose"statements extend 1833. "[t]here whisper" Story's explanation favors view. 2840. wrong. discussed, 1858. "§ 1891. [to Amendment] favour protestants (for confined) bill 1688, declared, `that subjects, protestants, condition, law.' pretences greatly narrowed; present nominal real, privilege." (Footnotes omitted.) protected. Tennessee recognized 38 passage to, enjoyed such, rights." Andrews 50 165, 183 (1871). cite viewed *2807 1890, 2; 1891, addition, shorter 1840 work "One modes, accomplish resistance, substituting regular stead resort Familiar Exposition 450 1986). Antislavery advocates invoked Joel citing self defence; guaranty hardly worth paper consumed." Unconstitutionality Slavery 117-118 (1849); Spooner, 116 (1845) (right enables "personal defence"). Senate 1856 "Bleeding Kansas" conflict, Sumner proclaimed: companion pioneer God, tutelary protector red beast forest. Never efficient self-defence, Kansas, blotted out, before complete impeached. madness hour, defiance solemn guarantee, embodied infringed,' Kansas arraigned keeping them, Senator South face openly, floor, disarmedof fanatics Slavery, allies constituents, meet impediment." Crime Against 19-20, 1856, Speeches: Political Oratory Revolution 606-607 (2006). conditioned militiaand prevailing contrary. constitution, declaring apply [militia-related] legislatures states armed. however it." B. Oliver, 177 (1832). Pre-Civil Case universally Houston Moore, (1820), preempted Agreeing "organize, arm" absence conflicting regulation, "may perhaps, point. have, confirms illustrates, impugns reasoning suggested." 51-53. "protect[ed] maintain dissenting), enormous *2808 obvious derived States' nonexclusive nature "confirms illustrates" importance Even clearer Baldwin. fugitive-slave Tompkins, Cas. 840, 850, 852 (CC 1833), sitting circuit judge, conclusion property person, assailed force, numbers violence protection safety either." indicated subject restrictions. 1824 holding blacks "numerous restrictions imposed [blacks] Statute Book, inconsistent letter spirit respects whites, demonstrate, here, equally classes population. instance restriction migration Aldridge Commonwealth, 447, 449 (Gen.Ct.). claim obviously prevented guns militia.[21] Waters Gill 302, 309 (Md.1843) (because treated "dangerous population," "laws State; arms; guard assemblages watchfulness"). 1829 decision Michigan grants grant privilege keeps neighbor. unjustifiable purpose." Sheldon, Transactions Territory 337, 346 Blume ed.1940) Blume). discussing "unlawful purpose," whatsoever. *2809 Nunn Ga. 243, 251 (1846), "natural self-defence" struck pistols openly. Its perfectly furthers continuity old young, women boys, description, infringed, curtailed, broken upon, smallest degree; attained: rearing vitally Federal, repugnant void, contravenes originally belonging forefathers, trampled foot I. wicked sons successors, re-established revolution conveyed land colonists, finally incorporated conspicuously Magna Charta!" Likewise, Chandler, La. Ann. 489, 490 (1850), Louisiana openly: calculated incite manly noble necessary, country, tendency advantages unmanly assassinations." preserves militia-centered reliance Aymette 154. stand proposition; fact, all, quoting prohibit concealed weapons. descendents (erroneously, contrary authorities) "protect[ion of] liberty" "keep[ing] awe power," 158. middle position, formal banding together adoptbut either. More importantly, earlier conferring Simpson, Yer., 360; portion self-defense: "[T]he involves, necessarily, modes adapted, duties good peace." Andrews, Tenn., 178; Amendment). Post-Civil Legislation. aftermath War, outpouring discussion debated *2810 newly slaves. Halbrook, Freedmen, Fourteenth 1866-1876 (1998) Halbrook); Institute Amicus Curiae. Since took insight Yet born educated faced widespread effort ownership number citizens; origins continuing significance instructive. Blacks disarmed Southern War. injustices blacks' Needless prohibited Report Commission Freedmen's Bureau 1866 plainly: civil [of Kentucky] colored authorities. provided H.R. Exec. Doc. 70, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 233, 236. joint decried: "in [South Carolina], parties are, authority, engaged seizing fire-arms hands freemen. conduct direct infringed.' freedmen shown peaceful orderly safely trusted fire-arms, kill subsistence, crops birds animals." Joint Comm. Reconstruction, H.R.Rep. pt. 229 (1866) (Proposed Circular Brigadier Saxton). expressed reported apparently held. editorial Loyal Georgian (Augusta) February 3, 1866, assured "[a]ll distinction color, homes, families themselves." Halbrook 19. July 1866. Section 14 stated: full equal benefit proceedings concerning security, acquisition, enjoyment, disposition estate, real personal, race previous slavery. 176-177. freed reflected bill, opponent "were house, castle, Cong. Globe, 362, 371 (Sen. Davis). Similar attended 1871 Representative Butler Act: "Section eight enforce well-known guaranteeing *2811 `keep arms,' provides whoever away, violence, threats intimidation, defense, deemed guilty larceny same." 37, 41st 3d 7-8 With Pomeroy "indispensable" "safeguards Constitution" man's family homestead." 1182 (1866). Nye unnecessary "[a]s protection, self-defense." 1073 post-Civil 4. Commentators. late-19th-century scholar judge Cooley, massively 1868 Limitations. "Among defences mentioned alternative `a militia,' exist How far legislature regulate undertake happily courts." 350. Cooley connected securing ensuring populace 1880 work, Principles Law. "was modification enlargement stood protest arbitrary overturned dynasty 270. section entitled General," continued: "It supposed phraseology militia; warranted intent. explained, who, liable performance duty, officered upon. enrolment perform small wholly omit all; enrolled, defeated altogether neglect hold check. taken, permission regulation something mere keeping; learning handle *2812 use; words, voluntary observing doing order." concurred Cooley. One decade convey flavor: "[The is] well-armed militia.... useless enabled warlike preserve privilege, ability usurpations government, enemies without, proceeding invade freedom press. Freedom, secured; fair use, libellous abuse, protected." Pomeroy, 152-153 (1868) Pomeroy). "As less comprehensive, declare grave discussion, courts, statute persons, journey, travellers, wearing weapons, constitutional. difference question." Kent, *340, Holmes 12th 1873) Kent). "Some knowledge welfare; impossible, war, promptly volunteers familiarity war. secures pistol judicious precautions, practices safe due teaches same, residence involve peril prudent self-defence." Abbott, Judge Jury: Popular Explanation Leading Topics Land 333 (1880) Abbott). distinctive Aside self-protection represents among nations coupled jurisdiction. [I]t existed." Ordronaux, Legislation 241-242 (1891). E ask precedents forecloses conclusions reached 588, vacating convictions mob depriving anyone Government. "is [or] *2813 second Congress." U.S., 553. restrict powers. Cruikshank supports, anything, victims deprived indeed, Governor disbanded local unit year mob's attack, Lane, Day Freedom Died 62 "`bearing purpose'"[22] [must] fellow-citizens recognizes" power. militia.[23] Presser Illinois, 252, 580, 29 615 (1886), forbade "bodies associate organizations, drill parade cities towns 264-265, 580. refute Amendment; supporting contended groups. presses joining Presser's brief (to Amendment) plaintiff Unfortunately deals plaintiff's nonmembership "suggested that... 2843, scope, paramilitary organizations. overwhelming (1939). "[H]undreds judges," told, relied endorsed there," 2823, "[e]ven arguments evenly balanced, well-settled views predecessors Court, itself *2814 jurists endorsing dramatic upheaval law," 2824. STEVENS, Miller obeisance? "protects curtail legislature's 2823. Nothing demonstrates weakness case. that. upheld challenge men's transporting short-barreled shotgun interstate commerce, Firearms 48 1236. defendants "bear[ing] purposes" "nonmilitary use," type eligible protection: tending [short-barreled shotgun] reasonable relationship preservation efficiency instrument." 178, 816 "Certainly," continued, "it judicial notice equipment contribute Beyond content with, suggests, confers (though militia"). Had serving examine character note crooks militiamen. "not muskets sawed-off shotguns, turned, rather, basic guns," 2845, prove declined decide despite General's (made alternative) collective, O.T.1938, 696, 4-5. stands nature, types wrongheaded purport thorough claims, "[a]fter reviewing discussed greater length today." many, fault. respondent appearance neither filing nor appearing oral argument; (reason enough, beginning consideration Frye, Peculiar N.Y.U.J.L. Liberty 48, 65-68 *2815 spent pages concluding crime" terrorizing dangerous weapons) unrestricted 9-11. went 154, relate 12-18. final "some property," launched criminals," 18-21. scant Amendmentand counterdiscussion. itself, discusses none assumes prologue dispute), reviews materials dealing expected possess, 178-182, 816. word) mighty rock rests case.[24] eventually) permits. Read isolation, Miller's "part equipment" warfare startling opinion, machineguns challenged Miller) unconstitutional, 1939. "ordinary tandem comes after: "[O]rdinarily [militia] [able-bodied] appear supplied kind time." traditional formed pool bringing time" revolutionary [small-arms] Kessler, 289 Ore. 359, 368, 614 P.2d 94, 98 (1980) Neumann, Swords Blades 6-15, 252-254 (1973)). Indeed, precisely preface. *2816 possessed law-abiding shotguns. accords infra.[25] unsurprising matter judicially unresolved. applicable citizens. similarly remained unilluminated lengthy violate 1931, ratified, Near Minnesota ex rel. 283 697, 625, 1357 (1931), until World invalid Establishment Clause, Illinois McCollum Board School Dist. 71, Champaign Cty., 203, 68 461, 649 (1948). question proscribable addressed 1964, nearly centuries Times Co. Sullivan, 376 254, 84 710, 11 686 (1964). demonstrably 2844-2845, invalidity Second-Amendment-based objections regulations settled uncontroversial." unlimited. cases, 346; 123; 152-153; Abbott 333. majority prohibitions Ann., 489-490; Ga., 251; Kent Students' 84, (G. Chase 1884). exhaustive today doubt *2817 felons mentally ill, forbidding sensitive schools buildings, imposing qualifications commercial sale arms.[26] recognize sorts fairly supported tradition 148-149 Wilson, Honourable (1804); Dunlap, New-York 8 (1815); Humphreys, Compendium Common Force Kentucky 482 (1822); Russell, Crimes Indictable Misdemeanors 271-272 (1831); Stephen, Summary Criminal (1840); Lewis, Abridgment 64 (1847); Wharton, 726 (1852). Langford, 10 381, 383-384 (1824); O'Neill Ala. 65, 67 35 473, 476 (1871); Lanier, 71 288, (1874). serviceM-16 rifles likemay banned, completely detached conception bring duty. century, require sophisticated large. amount modern-day bombers tanks. developments degree change IV here. totally bans disassembled rendering inoperable. quotations inherent amounts overwhelmingly chosen moreover, self, family, acute. standards scrutiny enumerated rights,[27] *2818 preferred `keep' family," 400, fail muster. Few Nation come severe District's ban. openly (even weapons). 251. likewise "publicly privately, regard place, circumstances," 187, guns. Reid, 612, 616-617 (1840) ("A which, regulating, borne unconstitutional"). answer do, permissible (i.e., guns) allowed. enough note, observed, quintessential weapon. prefer defense: easier store location readily accessible emergency; easily redirected wrestled attacker; upper-body strength lift aim gun; pointed burglar hand dials police. Whatever reason, invalid. handgun) rendered inoperable times. impossible core unconstitutional. element contain 56-57. precluded unequivocal exceptions: "Except enforcement personnel ..., registrant unloaded device business, Columbia." 7-2507.02. nonexistence Appeals' forbids *2819 stop intruders, McIntosh 395 A.2d 744, 755-756 (1978).[28] Apart asked forbid license." invalidate requirement, [a handgun] moved throughout house." 400. "consistent [respondent's] prayer relief." 401. "if registers handgun, obtain disqualified," felon insane. 58. conceded licensing" enforced capricious manner." Tr. Oral Arg. 74-75. assume issuance license satisfy relief requirement. BREYER devoted says valid. tries precedent, restrictive period. "imposes burden owners proportionately adopted." 2848. cites, offers marginal assertion. 1783 "take into" "receive Dwelling House, Stable, Barn, Out-house, Ware-house, Store, Shop Building" loaded seizure found" there. 1783, Acts 218. statute's prologue, eliminate firefighters posed "depositing someone temporarily confront intruder (despite law's application case). stake city, regarding cites gunpowder-storage concedes excess gunpowder container top floor 2849-2850. fire-safety undermines *2820 analysis; remotely absolute Nor, correspondingly, regulating storage accidents. "restricted firing degree" Boston, York. 2848 Churchill, Gun Regulation, Power, Early Rev. 162 (2007)). levied fine shillings fired (including houses) Year's Eve January, aimed preventing "great Damages done [those days] Guns intoxicated Liquor." 244-246 (1894). inconceivable drunken hooligans. off fireworks obtaining governor. Aug. 1721, 253-254. Given Wilson's event amounted regime) Rhode Island 5-shilling streets taverns, inapplicable Mischief town Newport, Government, 1731, Session Laws. "discharg[ing] Pistol charged Shot Ball Town Boston." 1746, X, Bay 208. implausible preambulatory indiscreet Guns." (preamble) broader cites: punished discharge (or loading) forfeiture stay jail), penalties.[29] penalties minor infractions speeding jaywalking. although exceptions jaywalking ticket deter disregarding "Do Walk" sign flee attacker, circumstances. era *2821 him. fine, threatens prison (five violation) place. 7-2507.06. moves jurisprudential point: criticizes declining level evaluating proposes, explicitly least, levels (strict scrutiny, intermediate rational basis), judge-empowering "interest-balancing inquiry" "asks burdens interest extent proportion salutary effects governmental interests." 2852. After control, arrives interest-balanced answer: problem, urban area, somewhat (a false discussed), interest-balancing results constitutionality QED. know subjected freestanding "interest-balancing" approach. governmenteven Third Branch Governmentthe case-by-case insisting future judges' assessments usefulness (yes) judges broad. approach neo-Nazi march Skokie. Socialist Party Skokie, 432 43, 97 2205, 53 96 (1977) (per curiam). contains freedom-of-speech obscenity, libel, disclosure secrets, expression unpopular wrong-headed views. different. product peoplewhich anew. leaves evaluation, surely elevates above interests law-abiding, hearth chides leaving applications providing extensive justification permissible. 2869-2870. in-depth clarify field, Reynolds 145, (1879), Exercise area utter certainty. expound justifications us. sum, *2822 immediate Assuming disqualified permit register * aware seriously raised solution. tools combating measures supra, 2816-2817, 26. enshrinement necessarily policy choices table. Undoubtedly outmoded pride Nation, well-trained serious problem. perhaps debatable, debatable role extinct. affirm Appeals. ordered. SOUTER, GINSBURG, join, dissenting. "collective right" "individual right." Surely individuals. tell hunt, commit crimes, sporting activities, duties. rob bank; encompass Whether question. response during intolerable sovereignty advanced proponents evidenced slightest limiting civilian firearms. Specifically, indication Framers enshrine common-law 1934, law.[1] Upholding conviction *2823 `shotgun barrel inches length' Millerthat Legislature's weaponsis faithful adoption. hundreds there;[2] ourselves affirmed 1980. Lewis 445 55, 65-66, 100 915, 63 (1980).[3] surfaced 1980 misuse rejected broadened coverage uses. fails Unable stakes strained unpersuasive text; *2824 Constitutions; commentary decided Miller; ultimately, feeble distinguish emphasis decisional process W.T. Grant Co., 416 600, 636, 1895, 406 (1974) (Stewart, law.[4] Cardozo observed ago, "labor increased breaking past reopened bricks foundation laid gone him." Nature Process 149 (1921). explain revealed history. comment postratification abundantly purely brief. portions merit focus: introductory defining purpose, encompassed reach, protects. State" points. identifies purpose; explains "well regulated." comparable Declarations roughly contemporaneously *2825 Independence.[5] highlight attached maintenance militias; underscore profound shared armies.[6] While centuries, obscure animated Framers. parallels declarations, omission related striking light expressly XIII *2826 Schwartz 266 added); 43 fowl hunt seasonable hold, therein inclosed," 274. XV 1777 "[t]hat 324 contrast declarations reinforces preamble. Framers' single-minded crafting militias. sets informs remainder text. surplusage, presumed effect." Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 60 (1803). denigrate returning Ante, 2790. ordinarily reads texts, adopted. novel "logical connection" acknowledge 2789.[7] identifying proceeds "find" best ambiguous concludes foreclosed Perhaps acceptable advocacy, centerpiece insistence Amendments. According *2827 preamble, Amendment"the subset." 2790-2791. "subset" Amendments; drills substantive "law-abiding, citizens," ante, 2821. limited; irresponsible well) invoke provisions. harmonize pronouncements. overlooks define speak, publish, worship; grievances, contemplate collective action. assemble participating assembly, group, individual. petitioning nature. effective, petitions groups concert. Similarly, back remind directly ultimate share created describes unreasonable searches seizures officials. sense. observation settle For, seen, quite Petition abstract activity. interference affirmative engage conduct, interest. enlarge treats "phrases"as keep" bear"they conjunction *2828 threshold matter, pausing oddity Appeals, "lawful, purposes." 382 (C.A.D.C.2007). Instead, confrontation." 2797. urged interpretation; fashioned cloth. lacks limitation: idiom; unadorned additional fight." 634 ed.1989). Latin arma ferre, translated literally, [ferre] [arma]." Johnson, (1755), contemporaneous "[b]y understand war; swords, kinds (exclusive fire-arms), offensive, occasions." (1794).[8] addition themselves," unmodified literally dozens texts.[9] *2829 tailors identified preamble.[10] ignores "qualifying glass." 2795. fundamentally grasp stand-alone conveys signals intended. When, qualifier, one; appropriate confirm text.[11] *2830 objection puzzling contention changes Compare 2793 (defining "carrying weapon] purposeconfrontation"), 2794 `bear Arms' fight `against.'" (citations quotation marks omitted)). contrary, necessary. "every officers, non-commissioned privates, constantly aforesaid accoutrements, ammunition, produced whenever commanding officer." Regulating Disciplining 1785 added).[12] "[K]eep responsibilities framing-era member. two. necessary.[13] Different intent played *2831 effect, So appears, contemplated terms. genuinely susceptible interpretation, advocating departure evidence. offered embraced falls short sustaining heavy burden.[14] emphatic right," 2804, beside supports overwrought "elevat[ing] interests" allocation compromises ultimately reached, I's represent Framers'"splitting atom sovereignty."[15] themes current task ran "On hand, Army States." Perpich Department Defense, 496 334, 340, 2418, 312 (1990).[16] Edmund Randolph, reporting Convention Convention, explained: "With army, feel indignation institution." Elliot, *2832 1863) Elliot). On relying inadequately "as primary defense," Perpich, 2418; Revolutionary armed, largely untrained, deficiencies bitter complaint." Wiener, 54 Harv. 181, 182 (1940).[17] respond twin concerns, compromise reached: Army[18] Navy, arm, 12-16. President, time, empowered "Commander Navy II, But, States: call forth,[19] govern "such appoint officers train accordance prescribed 16.[20] retention creation allay fears army. perceived contained gap: *2833 militia's disarmament. Mason argued Constitution: here destroyed method practiced world before; uselessby pretences, arming disciplining exclusive them." Elliot 379. sentiment echoed conventions; voiced Anti-Federalists unsuccessful persuading approval eventual amendment. amendments reflecting desire sent Carolina, focused reiterated differed others; broadly tying Maryland, Congress, delegates advocated Maryland exclusively concerned conscientious objectors, worded tied Faced options, telling Madison craft did. Ratifying "17th, proper, avoided, Community admit; strict subordination governed power." 659. "19th. exempted, payment equivalent employ stead." Virginia's own, actually ratify 932-933; 182-183 (N. Cogan ed.1997) Cogan). language. Arms; People *2834 natural, State.... Armies, Peace, Liberty, Cases necessity; Subordination Power." 912. Notably, eventually Madison. embedded meaning.[21] armies,[22] involved "Twelfth, Actual Rebellion." 758, 761. circulated pamphlet form, "4. peace, consent thirds branch "10. conscientiously personally soldier." 729, 735. critique titled Address Reasons Dissent Minority Constituents (1787)," signed (those Constitution), 628, 662, 7. game; crimes committed, injury individuals; peace up; powers." 665. compiled list alterations, motion following language: "[T]hat *2835 peaceable 181. motion, support, excluded 674-675. ratifying principal draftsman Amendment.[23] him, of, formulations. member, earlier, committee tasked tenements]." 363 ed.1950). language, adopting instead Mason.[24] draw, strikingly omitted repeated essence combining succinctly one, infringed; country; 169. model revealing, prepared draft, modified, participants choice represented rejection initial exemption objectors sheds revelatory both. *2836 Senate, removed, survive, illuminate problems "can scrupulous, arms."[25] removal therefore, serves Amendmentto disarmament, "Quakers whatsoever," 2796, squared 2833-2834, stead" added).[26] plausible military: compel "confrontation," 2793, overriding pose, danger. effectively check prospect disarmament needed.[27] Miller: continuation effectiveness made. view." refutes motivated record ambiguous, introduce facts "`newly ascertained,'" Vasquez, 474 266, 106 617; unable arguments. shrift *2837 dwells sources: 17th-century Rights; England; history.[28] shed indirect us, offer conclusion.[29] VII Rightswhich, today, Miller[30] *2838 misguided coextensive. narrow, monarchs; King causing Subjects Papists Employed Law." selective disarmament; Armes Suitable (App. 295, 297) distinct ways: adequate social economic status ("suitable Condition"); second, ("as Law").[31] correct (but Parliament). rightadopted framed languagetells invocation "`the self-preservation,'" 2798, defence'" excerpt differently worded, historically situated, instruction preambles allows. Counseling fairest legislator, exploring intentions made, signs probable," "[i]f happen still dubious, context; compare word, sentence, equivocal, intricate. proeme, help parliament." (1765) *2839 generation,'" 2798 (1999)), disregard guidance matters striking. Postenactment excerpts, analysis, scholars, near framing post-dating relevance clear,[32] tended collapse unfamiliar Amendment.[33] Story. Contrary assertions, "palladium" led 1833 Statesthe Miller[34]merits reproducing length: [the scarcely doubted duly subject. *2840 sudden foreign invasions, domestic insurrections, rulers. sound establishments expenses facile afford ambitious unprincipled subvert trample justly liberties republic, moral usurpation rulers, generally, successful triumph yet, truth clear, undeniable, disguised growing indifference system disposition, burdens, rid regulations. practicable organization, difficult see. lead disgust, disgust contempt; gradually undermine 1897, 620-621 (footnote omitted). paramount drove Amendmentspecifically, danger, suggested, "well-regulated 621, borne. whisper relation activities extolling virtues bulwark tyranny, decry "growing discipline." wrote, "[h]ow see," underscored indissolubly linked. warned indifference" "gradually rights," vitality becoming obsolete. downplay commentary, characterized "`similar provision,'" 2807. indeed similar, characterization scope. *2841 writings "self-defense" disconnected dissented "had jurisdiction" try disobeyed delinquent." 31-32. Congress' organizing, arming, acted, plenary; action, "I am legitimacy [state] authority." 52. 52-53. "enormous point." 2808. backwards: civilians "confirm[ation] illustrat[ion]," Houston, Wheat., 53, 19, militias? Legislative period, contention, 2809-2811, limited, any, weight. supply Framers; pitched advocacy good-faith attempts decidedly "[b]lacks 2810. hastily "[n]eedless claims Reconstruction-era Republican serve. Because allow alongside southerners refused join bodies dubbed "Negro militia[s]." Cornell, Well-Regulated 176-177 "arming Negro met fierce .... sight incensed opponents Reconstruction intensified campaign Klan terror. beaten lynched stolen." 177. *2842 chilling account black recounted memoir Louis "Carpetbagger" (1925). Post murder Jim captain company," 59, way: "[A] cavalcade sixty cowardly masks gowns, rode night March, 1871, house Captain Williams wood [they] hanged shot] they] pinned slip inscribed, remember grim words: `Jim last muster.'" 61. members. brilliance resulted faded oblivion ensuing generated lived. purported "an Uniform commanded ages 18 45 musket firelock" weaponry.[35]Ibid. significant, ownership: linked enacted, ignored century," repealed 1901. 341, 2418. similar. appearances mentioning. sustained respondents' Enforcement 1870 conspiring deprive "`any States.'" 548. counts indictment: `bearing purpose.' this, government." *2843 majority's "described `"bearing purpose,"'" 2813 553), accurate. defective indictment indictment's respondents prosecutor's belief victimsmembers mostly white, rounded Sheriff, sworn posse courthouse, attacked mobbore resemblance Died: Colfax Massacre, Betrayal petitioner organizations Guard associating companies parading conviction, asserting, "We sections consideration, infringe conclusive legislation lies error volunteer troops ingredient sentenced. disobedience company, State? conferred." Presser, Cruikshank's obstacle governments, "authorized law" Government.[36] *2844 1901 President revitalized creating States,'" 9-10, meanwhile, dominant inapplicability continued 20th restricting firearmsthe 1927 mail delivery "pistols, revolvers, person," Ch. 75, 44 1059, 1934 shotguns machine guns vast participated debates.[37] Members clashed wisdom efficacy crime-control measures. specter uncontroversial.[38] *2845 Act. usage. unanimously concluded key belatedly 2813-2815, shotguns; protection? standard, inquire suitability purposes? discounted appellee file appearance, (albeit reasoned opinion). 60, appeared arguments, demonstrates, adversarial presentation alone refusing accord stare decisis Bloch, Redux, Arguing Tushnet ed.2005). demonstrated overrule prior claim, cannot. brief, 2814-2815, turns on. heavily quoted detailing leading pp 12-13; 12, 15. reduced critiquing length)! Would satisfied four? Ten? intones word" 2815. looked construe "Militia," noting *2846 Troops disfavored armies; Militiacivilians primarily, soldiers occasion. signification Colonies approved commentators." 178-179, evidence; approve Standing alone, insufficient unanimous substantial placed 70 years. V "enshrine[d]" 2822. "enshrined" law-changing decision. exegesis utterly home" "elevate[d] Until interfere announcement upsets understanding, formidable craftsmen confidently asserted denies citize[n]" "off table." abiding, oneself suddenly arise host locations dominoes knocked table.[39] increase labor *2847 "breaking point" envisioned Cardozo, rise active 18th, centuries. disclaims specific pay heed choicethe 200 elected officials wishing lawmaking contours policy. Absent compelling nowhere choice. reasons, respectfully BREYER, majority, seeks holds my not. independent reasons. STEVENS militia-related, self-defense-related, interests. intertwined. well. concern. absolute. permits serves. irrespective arewhether self-defensethe inappropriate opinion. reason. focuses high-crime areas, serious, life-threatening, Thus objective (but, concedes, 2801, objective) so, reasonably advance goals importance, saving lives, injury, reducing crime. tailored *2848 affects geographic size urban; specially deaths injuries, favorite criminals; imposes circumstances, zone open legislatures. that: applying starting propositions, precedent opinions, subscribes: (1) "individual" righti.e., separately possessed, enforced, conferred. 2799 (opinion Court); (2) "[w]ith forces." (1939); 2801 (3) "must (4) absolute, regulation. 281-282, (1897); 2799, 2816 Court). My involving points, fourth. shall, furthering degree. nevertheless adopt embodies untouchable shoot burglars. presents cannot, convincingly pristine, unregulated form. compatible Constitutions, law. obstacles Philadelphia, City, largest *2849 Dept. Commerce, Census, Gibson, Population Largest Cities Urban Places 1790 1990 (Table 2), http://www.census.gov/population/documentation/twps0027/tab02.txt Internet file). 1746 "discharge" Town" penalty shillings, revived 1778. 10; Reviving Continuing Sundry Expired, Expiring, 1778 5, 193, 194. jail paid), setting "governor's Mitchell, City 20-shilling surrounding Day. 1501, (1894); Suppress Disorderly Practice Firing Guns, c., Therein Mentioned, 1770-1776, 410-412 (1902) (similar "inhabited parts" Pennsylvania). (prohibiting, offense subsequent offenses, Streets Towns Tavern dark, Night whatsoever"). Furthermore, Boston) regulated, gunpowder, operational firearm. Cornell DeDino, Well Regulated Right, Fordham 487, 510-512 Boston's impacted £10 Person" Dwelling-House, Shop, Building, Fire-Arm, Gun-Powder." Addition Storage Gun-Powder 218-219; 751 1773) "firearms" "[a]rms owe fire; guns"). assuming, does, 2819-2820, implicit exception, homeowner pick intruder. get load gun, operation perform. Hicks, Shoulder 1795-1935, Am. Foundation 23, (1937) (experienced could, cartridges plain ball, 3-to-4 per minute); 26-30 (describing loading process); Grancsay, Craft Gunsmith, Metropolitan Museum Art Bulletin 54, (1947) (noting slower muskets). *2850 would, practical anywhere carrier plans building willing unload discard inside. defence"a "secur[ing] XVII (1780), Charters, Organic 1892 (F. ed.1909) Thorpe); 2802-2803 stored containers, towns, story in-home 1784, 1784 N.Y. 627; Erecting Carlisle, County Cumberland, Borough, XIV, XLII, 1782 49; Reading, Berks, LXXVI, 211. unclear laws, inside reload shot happened extra kept. Encyclopedia 1297 Oehser 1967) ("Until 1835 [were] single-shot requiring reloading shot"). Massachusetts, self-defense-guaranteeing relies. 3083). citation laws. 2819-2821. tries, ignore suppose practice exceptions. existed actsan methodology roundly derides. (interpreting preambles), 2789-2790, preamble). shown, burdened it. beginning, end, impacts raises questions constitutionality. (that unconstitutional) practicalities, rationale, being, objectivesin details. conceptual answers questions. asking process-based question: *2851 (here, handguns) Amendment? standard use? protective hurdle erect? matters. unconstitutional "[u]nder 2817. be? under, "rational basis" uphold bears relationship" "legitimate Doe, 509 312, 320, 113 2637, 125 257 (1993). gun-related accidents, "legitimate" life-saving objective. mandates fall. 177, 186-187, 192 (1871) (striking down, 1870, statewide revolvers); 246, 250-251 (1846) States); 614-615, 622 (upholding concealed-weapon challenge). (80, respectively) framing; narrowly us; determinative questions, Garcia Antonio Transit Authority, 469 528, 549, 105 1005, 1016 (1985) Martin Hunter's Lessee, (1816)). proposes "strict scrutiny" test, care "narrowly interest." Abrams 74, 82, 1925, 285 (1997); 54-62. implicitly, appropriately, rejects approving lawsprohibitions criminals locales, saleswhose clear. 2816. strict-scrutiny impossible. gun-control seek does) "primary governmenta lives citizens." Salerno, 481 739, 755, 2095, 95 697 (1987). interest, crime," "compelling," 750, 754, wide sufficiently forceful liberties, Brandenburg 444, 89 1827, 430 (1969) curiam) (First *2852 rights); Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 403, 1790, 965 (1963) Brigham Stuart, 547 403-404, 126 1943, 164 650 (2006) (Fourth home); Quarles, 649, 655, 2626, 81 550 (1984) (Fifth Miranda Arizona, 384 436, 86 1602, 694 (1966)); 755 (Eighth bail rights). theory inquiry, other, impermissibly advancing latter. lie equation presume rational-basis review) unconstitutionality scrutiny). "where implicates competing constitutionally complex ways," asks Nixon Shrink Missouri PAC, 528 377, 402, 120 897, 145 886 (2000) (BREYER, concurring). Any superior alternative. "proportionality" unprecedented, 2820-2821, contexts, election-law cases. 897 approach); Thompson Western Medical Center, 535 357, 388, 1497, 152 563 (2002) dissenting) (commercial speech); Burdick Takushi, 504 428, 433, 112 2059, (1992) (election regulation); Mathews Eldridge, 424 319, 339-349, 893, 47 (1976) (procedural Pickering Township High 205, Will 391 563, 568, 88 811 (1968) (government employee speech). defers empirical expertise factfinding Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. FCC, 520 180, 195-196, 1174, 137 369 Nixon, Nonetheless, court, legislature, conclusion, "independent judgment" exceeds boundaries. Randall Sorrell, 548 230, 249, 2479, J.) Bose Corp. Consumers Union Inc., 466 485, 499, 1949, 80 502 (1984)). above-described preferable rigid Experience logic *2853 stronger typical other. 518 515, 531-534, 2264, 735 (1996) (applying heightened gender-based classifications, experience cases); Williamson Lee Optical Okla., 348 483, 488, 99 (1955) legislation, cases). Here, experience. Courts uniformly empirically-based deference. Winkler, Scrutinizing 683, 687, 716-718 (2007) gun-law issued half-century "surprisingly variation," deferential controlling, Cf., Bartkus 121, 134, 676, 684 (1959) (looking "experience courts" informative question). comfort suggest. suit involves challenges "pistol," i.e., District. 22-4504(a) (2001); 22-4501(a), assures meets statutory eligibility criteria, criteria facially 2818-2819. owner dispute operated charge). (case below); 2817-2818 52-54. exists. used) definitively species Whalen 684, 687-688, 1432, (1980); Griffin 336 704, 716-718, 69 814, 93 993 (1949). preclude avoid Ashwander TVA, 297 348, 56 466, 688 (1936) (Brandeis, puzzled unwillingness unspoken refuses *2854 accept concession 2817-2818. refusal, (1978), Legislature homes business. precludes described. did, lower third cases) 7-2502.02(a)(4). prerequisite possession, determining serves, protect, burdensome ways legitimate objectives, disproportionate. doubts lives. 2095. considerable helps perspective (namely, Council Columbia) 1976, evaluate Council's saw statute. council recommended adoption, goal reduce potentiality occurring Hearing Disposition Committee 94th Con. Res. 694, Ser. 94-24, DC Rep.) (reproducing, inter alia, report). concluded, "extensive hearings" "lengthy research," availability factor contributing drastic years." 25. "startling statistics," crime, deaths, focusing proliferation 25-26. informed "responsible day," "[a]pproximately 25,000 gun-deaths year," along 200,000 injuries. thousand report stated, accidental. quarter accidental children 14. committee, "[f]or *2855 stopped accidents murders 1974a number. "[c]ontrary subject, relatives friends premeditated activities." Citing Psychiatry, "[m]ost committed previously situations spontaneous anger, passion intoxication, killer victim acquainted." "Twenty-five percent murders," Council, "occur families." furthermore statistics correlating 1974, 155 aberration, "handguns [had been] 54% murders" 87% officers) nationwide preceding Nor murders, 60% robberies 26% assaults. pistol," reported, lethal weapon." noted "become juveniles obtain," then-current committee's violence," "cope District" generally. "becomes statelike jurisdiction approach." 27. tragedies horrors previously" report, "pistols longer justified jurisdiction." 31; (handgun "denotes handguns... environment District"). reflects undesirable environment. "urban area." recommendations, sought prohibition. bill), 7-2502.02). Next, Turner, 195, 1174 (discussing *2856 factfinder amici, recent told ago. second-guess 1993 1997, 180,533 firearm-related average 36,000 year. Justice, Statistics, Zawitz Strom, Firearm Injury Death Crime, 1993-97, (Oct.2000), http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/fidc9397.pdf Crime). Fifty-one suicides, 44% homicides, 1% interventions, 3% unintentional undetermined causes. Over 411,800 nonfatal injuries hospitals, 82,000 these, 62% assaults, 17% unintentional, 6% suicide attempts, 13% adolescents. 20. Academy Pediatrics, Firearm-Related Injuries Affecting Pediatric Population, Pediatrics 888 Injuries). Firearm-related 22.5% teenagers die causes combined. Dresang, Deaths Rural Settings, Bd. Family Persons accounted 47% hospital-treated 1992 31, 1993. 891. Handguns 888. 81% firearm-homicide killed handgun. 4; Perkins, Weapon Use Violent (Sept.2003), 10), http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/wuvc01.pdf Crime) (statistics indicating rate 1993-2001). 41% known, 82% approximately 70% deaths. 890. particular, teenage suicides 1996 889; Zwerling, Lynch, Burmeister, Goertz, Choice Weapons Suicides Iowa, Public Health 1630, 1631 (1993) 1) (handguns 36.6% Iowa 1980-1984 43.8% 1990-1991). criminals. 1997 survey inmates incarcerated, 83.2% 86.7% Harlow, Offenders, 2001), http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/fuo.pdf; 2) *2857 84% nonlethal 2001). objects well: FBI received 274,000 reports stolen 1985 1994, Zawitz, Used (July 1995), http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/guic.pdf. studies adult juvenile offenders. Statistics District, death, densely populated rural disproportionate occur offenders commission Duhart, Urban, Suburban, Victimization, 1993-98, 2000), http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/usrv98.pdf. Homicide areas; 1993, "half homicides 16% nation's population." Wintemute, Future Violence Prevention, JAMA 475 overall death 1989 1999 homicide high; adjusting variables, twice high. Branas, Nance, Elliott, Richmond, Schwab, Urban-Rural Shifts Intentional Death, 1750, 1752 (2004); areas higher suicide). adolescents 1987 2000 counties nonurban counties. Nance Rural-Urban Continuum, 156 Archives Adolescent Medicine 781, 782 (2002). linkage "[S]tudies date hypothesis whereas handguns." 108. injuriesthey 784. disagree figures subsection, predictive solve accident disclose. assessment "freezing population District," Rep., past, future. increased, decreased. Criminologists al. 4-8, 3a Criminologists' Brief); Racial Equality *2858 35-36; Rifle Assn. 28-30 NRA reveals substantially relative effect. Academics 7-10 Academics' 6-9, 3a-4a, 7a. Respondent's comparing rates neighboring (neither restricts degree), whole. 11-17; 6a, 8a. statistical regresses European nations. Kates Mauser, Banning Reduce Murder Suicide? 651-694 correlated fewer. 23; 25-28. studies, data cities, whole, suggesting reduction 17-20. argue rates, 28-31, 9a, children, International Educators Trainers 7-15 ILEETA beneficial Based survey, authors estimated 2.2-to-2.5 (mostly brandishing, gun) annually. Kleck Gertz, Armed Resistance J.Crim. 150, (1995); 1-6 (summarizing guns). months ending 503,481 incidents confronted homeowner, 497,646 (98.8%) successfully scared away. Ikida, Dahlberg, Sacks, Mercy, Powell, Estimating Intruder-Related Retrievals Households, Victims (1997). gun-armed non-gun-armed injured resisting robbery assault. Barnett Fire, Emory L.J. 1139, 1243-1244, (1996). deterred burglary gun. Kleck, Control Through Private Force, Social Problems 15 (1988) (reporting drop Atlanta suburb heads households guns); 17-18 decrease sexual assaults Orlando Fourth, criminalizing self-defeating, criminals, acquiring Pro Tempore 36, argue, pronounced proximity *2859 steady Heartland remediessuch ownership, liberal authorization weaponsbetter 35-37 (advocating obtainable licenses); Southeastern Foundation, SLF Brief) "widespread ownership" deterrent crime); Lott, Less ed.2000). minimum remedy, ban, solve. 59-61. empirically proved convince legislatures, policy, bans. confidence reasonableness deeply uncertainties surround diminishes ineffective. soaring rate. students elementary know, ban? Higher? Lower? same? Experts differ; we, judges, say. rates? Which effect? harder grow before: lawsa answer. Further, householders' frighten intruders. assumption, death-related cost. provable work; illegal difference. sea regardless. respond, want dry sea, drop. worthwhile. policy-related succeed proving judgments controversial. incorrect; demonstrate consensus, academic otherwise, conclusion. surprising *2860 own. statistically speaking, positive effects. Loftin, McDowall, Weirsema, Cottey, Effects Restrictive Licensing Suicide 325 Med. 1615 (1991) Loftin study). Others Duggan, Pol. Econ. 1086 Kellerman, Somes, Rivara, Lee, Banton, Due Home, Trauma, Infection Critical Care 263 (1998); Azrael, Hemenway, Household Ownership Rates Epidemiology 517 Still claim. 17-19 APHA studies). reply responses; discredit methodologically flawed 9-17, 20-24; Physicians Surgeons, 12-18; 17-22; Britt, Bordua, Reassessment Law, Soc. 361 (criticizing produce counter-rejoinders, articles studies. Wiersema Using Quasi-Experiments Evaluate 381 (1996)). upshot counterstudies most, uncertain uncertainty enough. legislators, responsibility drawing fact. decisionmaking responsibility, firm "sole obligation" "predictive judgments" formulating judgments," "has drawn inferences evidence." (internal standard. judgment, "substantial depart suited make. deference solutions. Los Angeles Alameda Books, 425, 440, 1728, 670 (plurality ("[W]e *2861 Judiciary gather problems"); (statement Rep. Gude) deliberations"). localities ways, "city opportunity experiment solutions admittedly problems." Renton Playtime Theatres, 41, 52, 925, (1986) democracy occurs firsthand access 575, (Powell, Cooke Hamilton)). democratic calculus. life-preserving "compelling." next assess protect. include: Militia"; safeguarding marksmanship; assuring argument's sake, noted, agreement (if only) text: forces" Where implicated minimally all), ("In instrument"). presumes affiliated state-regulated citizenry inkling anytime foreseeable future, *2862 requested. 66 age, 49-401 (2001) (militia 45); Pet. Cert. 120a (indicating birth). training scholar, "learning [arms] use" 271 (1880); 2811-2812 agreeing point). "private "[m]ilitary recruits marksmen, accordingly, soldiers." Retired Officers 1-2 Officers' retired generals adds militiawhether ad hoc military depends firearmsrifles, pistols, shotguns." Major Altenburg, Jr., Generals' Both briefs 26-28; "civilians marksmanship minimal entering Regardless, military-training counterpart falling affect homes) 7-2502.01, 7-2502.02(a) (only rifles, 1976); (listing "rifles, shotguns" weapons; operate 7-2507.02; 7-2502.01(b)(3) (nonresidents "participating activity District). recreations contemplating ranges. 7-2507.03. prevents 61.4 square miles area. 1), 8). adjacent practice, subway ride Md.Crim. Code *2863 4-203(b)(4) (Lexis Supp.2007) (general wearing, carrying, with," shoot, informal sport shooting Natural Resources-sponsored hunter class"); Va.Code 18.2-287.4 range contest"); Washington Area Metrorail System Map, http://www.wmata.com/metrorail/systemmmap.cfm. rider buy ticket, costs money pistol, range, associated training, costs) burden. Crawford Marion Election Bd., 1610, 1614-1615, (acknowledging travel indigent voting transportation options limited). coplaintiffs basis, indicate 77a (respondent); 78a, 84a (coplaintiffs). little, briefly 2801. provisions, sportsmen." 33. inability live jurisdiction's subsectionthat opportunities nearby StatesI sports-related hunting-related objectives consequently householder defense. 400 C., 182-183). case: (with support) (particularly physical infirmities), carry, maneuver enclosed spaces, dial 911. 37-39; 32-33; 2818. 54-55 preferring self-defense). *2864 further. weighing needs possibility reasonable, alternatives. Are promote lesser restrictions? concurring) ("existence superior, alternative" proportionate). Here none. ban's allowing sees "effort diminish guns." attributes dangerous. use. ("[C]hildren young pull handguns"). maneuverable contributes rape robbery. 2). steal, 2797-2798, concealable, Court) (suggesting constitutional). symmetry measure will, extent, illicit 2856 suicides); Network End Domestic violence). believes, then, restrictive, substitutes outright initially thereby 2856-2857. Permitting others, market availability. devices locks, safe-storage requirements simultaneously disabling device) crimes. alternatives finds *2865 centers Chicago District's, suburbs Chicago, Ill., Municipal 8-20-030(k), 8-20-40, 8-20-50(c) (2008); Evanston, 9-8-2 Morton Grove, Village 6-2-3(C) Oak Park, 27-2-1 Winnetka, Ordinance 9.12.020(B) Wilmette, 12-24(b) Toledo Toledo, Code, 549.25 Francisco 2005 referendum residents; state-court deeming pre-empted Fiscal 158 Cal. 4th 895, 900-901, Rptr. 324, 326-328 (Indeed, pre-empt lack locally Violence, (2006), http://www.lcav.org/Library/reports_ analyses/National_Audit_Total_8.16.06.pdf. Puerto Rico assault semiautomatic Cal.Penal 12280(b) (West 2008); Conn. Gen.Stat. 53-202c Haw.Rev.Stat. 134-8 (1993); 4-303(a) 2002); Gen. 140, 131M 2006); Penal 265.02(7) Supp.2008); P.R. 456m (Supp.2006); U.S.C. 922(o) (federal machinegun ban). municipalities same. Albany, Y., 193-16(A) (2005); Aurora, 29-49(a) Buffalo, 180-1(F) (2000); 8-24-025(a), 8-20-030(h); Cincinnati, Admin. 708-37(a) (Supp.2008); Cleveland, 628.03(a) Columbus, 2323.31 Denver, Colo., 38-130(e) 6-2-3(B); N.Y.C. 10-303.1 27-2-1; Rochester, 47-5(f) Bend, Ind., 13-97(b), 13-98 549.23(a). bans, too, substitute compelling; adequately supported; secure; "permissible regulation" disproportionately Amendment-protected interests? considerations, me life-threatening address. ammunition. urban. Cf. Lorillard Tobacco Reilly, 525, 2404, 532 (varied *2866 "rural, urban, suburban" locales "demonstrates tailoring"). suffers handgun-fatality aims problem-related benefits seeks. maintaining intruders subsidiary speaking "self-defense." JUSTICE primary, exclusive, 2831-2837 Constitution." 2836 interestby Arms"may factual tells foremost minds. ("With made," view"). Framing urban-crime dangers. hundred Americans, living frontier, outbreaks Indian tribes, rebellions Shays' Rebellion, marauders, crime-related travelers roads, footpaths, waterways. Population: 4), http://www.census.gov/population/ censusdata/table-4.pdf (of 3,929,214 201,655about 5%lived areas). Insofar tiny fraction dwellers counterparts 2848-2850. settings central. development departments, diminishing heart amendment's ends. Sklansky, Police, 46 UCLA 1165, 1206-1207 (1999) (professional departments develop mid-19th century). lists particular. 180-182, (reproducing laws). *2867 listed "acceptable" 47. (generally, horseback), infantry. XXXIII, 271; 592 (1791); Connecticut (1784); 1774-1789 741-742 (1922). thought, think. Adams, lived "construed" "prevent eds.2000). doubtless protection. Bostonians house. impeded intruders? enact Boston-type regulation) know) (the Seat 17) Palmore 411 389, 397-398, 1670, 36 342 (1973) (Congress "legislate exceed unusual, delegated it"). identical. disabled wider (indeed, firearms). here) homeowner's burglar. York's unwritten gun-possession uninformative civil, criminal. 2820-2821. Murdock 319 105, 870, 87 1292 (1943) (invalidating $7 week solicitation fee group); Forsyth Nationalist Movement, 505 123, 2395, 101 tax tax"). *2868 precise regulatory save challenge? discover look, enact, enact. innumerable "frequently cautioned treacherous silence controlling Wells, 519 482, 496, 921, "treacherous" unalterable duplicates restriction, compared possible, enjoys justification. reveals. decision, unfortunate consequences. encourage Nation. decisions, resolving challenges. litigation litigation, important, severely knowledgeable, democratically problems. combating" replacement strikes merits measure, urbanized branches insist handgun-free facing environmental emergencies threaten breakdown order. derides "judge-empowering." criticism seriously, 2852-2853. Application approach, approachrequiring careful identification themlimits judge's choices; method's transparency lays bare criticize. transparent mine. minimum, underlie reaches. *2869 spends attempting rebut is. "Putting Amendment's] together," "we Then, later, 2799. Yet, confrontations count. unanswered. counts, 2846. finding right? touch newspaper 2810, 2810-2811, citations far-reaching bedside decides keep. "typically conveniently machineguns, 2818; 2816-2817. make? reasoning, reverse self-defense-related machinegun. tomorrow invents weapon, immediately, becomes essence, determines existing permit. believing circular reasoning. list, survive scrutiny. "prohibitions weapons"; felons"; ill"; buildings"; (5) "conditions qualifications" Why these? Is *2870 century? count, loaded-gun (along identified) count? 2849-2850, 2867-2868. anticipated? Assume, intend swimming pools, parks, playgrounds? cared parents' table? risk fire, 2849-2850) lacked bring? Unless generations matters, answering judgment framework guides transparent. inconclusive research ipse dixit. method, Far consequences spawn. throw launching potentially mission. crime-ridden VI proportionate, disproportionate, independently demands. respect, NOTES [1] prohibitions, [2] [3] Sutherland explains, preambles, Copeman Gallant, Wms. 314, 24 404 (1716), purview." Sutherland, Construction, 47.04 Singer 5th ed.1992). modified 1826 unambiguous terms." 2826. "whereas" clauses Or put differently, prologues prologues. [4] last. step ambiguous. suppose, factors determination ambiguousbut explain) than) dissent's infra, 2801-2802. [5] 2827, membership "assembly," dead "primarily nature." McDonald Smith, 472 479, 482-484, petition). [6] documents, collectively, "citizen," Heyman, 193-195 (C. ed.2000) Bogus). uniform. XIV 2788 Thorpe) (jury trial); Md. XVIII 1686, 1688 (vicinage requirement); XI (1777), 3737, 3741 (searches seizures); XII 3081, (free [7] Compleat Collection State-Tryals 185 (1719) ("Hath Subject Servants Person?"); Wood, Imperial (1730) ("Those publick Houses, Journeys Hunting, Sale Assembly, Now Colony 596 (1733) ("Free Negros, Mulattos, Indians, Owners Slaves, seated Frontier Plantations, Licence c."); Ayliffe, Pandect Roman 195 (1734) ("Yet Person Estate, Account Navigation, Travelling, Score Selling Trade accrued Inheritance"); Concise 270 (1781) ("if [papists] houses, seized justice peace"); Considerations (1796) ("Who law] defence? veriest pauper, sum purchase mounting Chimney Piece ?"); (1804) renewals Saxon `They bound,' Mr. Selden, `to kingdom, person'"); colonists' rights: allowance, self-preservation"); Burn, Parish Officer (1815) ("It Serjeant lessee, term, entry lessor, Dempsey, 31 384, 385 (1849) misdemeanor racial [8] ("That "); XV, Ky. (1792), 1264, 1275 questioned"); 2901, 2911 Ind. (1816), 1057, 1059 Miss. (1817), 2032, 2034 ("Every State"); (1818), 536, 538 state"); 96, Mo. 2150, 2163 ("[T]hat questioned"). Politics 191 [9] Bliss 90, Litt. 91-92 Schoultz, 128, (1857); Yen. purpose); 422-423 (1843) (same); (construing Amendment); 489-490 (1850) (same). [10] Brydall, Privilegia Magnatud apud Anglos (1704) (Privilege XXXIII) 21st Year Edward Proclamation Issued, London, Suburbs"); Bond, Guide (1707) ("Sheriffs, executing Offices, pursuing Hu[e] Cry arms"); Relative Scotland (1755) (entry "Arms": "And custody, thereof competent, summarily, forfeit Geo. Abridged 132-133 1769) ("Acts highlands" "exempting Vattel, Nations, or, (1792) ("Since custom rank gentlemen wear swords"); Roche, Proceedings Court-Martial, Held Council-Chamber, Cork (1798) (charge VI: traitorous conferences, conspired, intent, attacking despoiling King's (1822) ("[I]n guaranties manner, terrify unnecessarily"). [11] contends, 2830, assert adding concede alter alters clarifies (one military) arms' fight.'" 2828. contradictory word's [12] inference recorded House. representative [language the] conform Antifederalists] problematic." Rakove, Highest Stage Originalism, 81. [13] 19; Constitutions 1941). Certainly ("bear stead") refers, compulsory ("any arms") assuredly God country. [14] usage, resorts bizarre "to" (whereas "petition" Amendment), bear" established. 13. omitting repetition promise whit [15] Geo., 34, (1748) contained. having, keeping, bearing, Warlike Assistants, Execution Justice. ."). [16] assertion, 2831, [17] disciplining, governing reserving respectively, Appointment Officers, Authority "organizing" unlike "governing" "employed 2832 written, "select" ed.1961); [18] "instead" stressing 2835, proposal. [19] quotes unpublished notes, 32. armament afoul (since ordering disarmament). pertains [20] writing Barron Tiernan Mayor Baltimore, 672 (1833), conscripted [21] muster 497 (1998)). Aldridge, 498, 120. barring (we think), full-blown woman soldier" Aldridge's allusion "restriction" weapons," 497-498. [22] accusation accurate," "bearing explicit indictment, [i.e., purpose] [23] validity incorporation, (1886) Texas, 153 535, 538, 874, 812 (1894), reaffirmed [24] "hundreds overread Miller. uncontested unreasoned nullify millions shown) [25] (1980), appeal felony briefed party. rejecting challenge, commented gratuitously, footnote, "[t]hese suspect trench `some militia')." 915. footnote rest footnoted dictum argued. [26] presumptively examples; exhaustive. [27] correctly pass 2850-2851. mode commands irrational Engquist Oregon Agriculture, 2146, 2153-2154, 2008 WL 2329768, *6-7, guarantee. Obviously, test specific, speech, double jeopardy, counsel, Carolene Products 304 144, 152, 58 778, 1234 (1938) ("There review] ten ..."). overcome redundant [28] Equal Protection arbitrarily distinguishing residences businesses. A.2d, 755. tradeoff stopping [29] five contract 1792 "nominal consideration." Morris's Lessee Dall. 119, 120, 766 (Pa. 1792). amount; larger £ (200 shillings) earlier: 10% excise Revenue 1918, shipment concealable mails. 1059-1060 Act). Fifth Circuit's Emerson, 203 private, Haney, 264 1161, 1164-1166 (C.A.10 2001); Napier, 233 394, 402-404 (C.A.6 2000); Gillespie Indianapolis, 693, 710-711 (C.A.7 1999); Scanio, 97-1584, 1998 802060, *2 (C.A.2, 1998) (unpublished opinion); Wright, 1265, 1271-1274 (C.A.11 1997); Rybar, 103 273, 285-286 (C.A.3 1996); Hickman Block, 98, 100-103 (C.A.9 Hale, 978 F.2d 1016, 1018-1020 (C.A.8 1992); Portland, 730 (C.A.1 1984) curiam); 548, (C.A.4 1974) 1134, 1136 (C.A.5 1971); Sandidge 1058-1059 (D.C.App.1987). positions, considering Emerson. Lippman, 1039, 1043-1045 2004); Parker, 362 1279, 1282-1284 Jackubowski, Fed.Appx. 959, 961 2003) Silveira Lockyer, 1052, 1060-1066 Milheron, 231 376, 378 (Me.2002); Bach Pataki, 217, 224-226 (N.D.N.Y. 2003); M.J. 716 (C.A. Forces significant. receipt felon, "These entrench 178[, 1206] (1939) Vasquez Hillery, 617, 598 ("[Stare decisis] bedrock founded proclivities integrity inexorable command, observer discern detours straight path articulable felt obliged opinions ascertained.' Burnet Coronado Oil Gas 393, 412[, 52 443, 815] (1932) dissenting)"); Pollock Farmers' Loan Trust 429, 652, 673, 39 759 (1895) (White, hedged binding personality Break let predecessors, fill bench, bereft value provided: liberty; by, Schwartz, 235 (1971) Schwartz). Maryland's XXV-XXVII government"; Legislature"; 282. Delaware's 18-20 278. XXIV-XXVI (1783), sure state"; "Standing legislature"; 378. lawfulness thereto, equivalent." 377 (Art. XIII). closely tracks statutes, statements. Georgia's began, "[w]hereas disciplined essentially Safety, prosperity, 1778, (Candler 2)). Carolina's started "Whereas defending Sess. Connecticut's "Acts Militia" Defence (under God) Exertions heretofore inadequate designed." 585 Acts). notion compose regiments, brigades, divisions; command structures appointment officers; assembled training; prescribe nonappearance, delinquency, failure equipment. obligation detailed further, 14, accompanying required. Dwarris purview restrained clauses." 268 caution resorted 269. Explaining England," 2A Singer, 47.04, 146 (rev. ed.1992) length, parse, "clear unambiguous." 2794, illuminating borders risible. "carries" 924(c) (2000 V); passing placement glove compartment firearm.'" 1911. professors reviewed compilation books, pamphlets, disseminated 23-25. determined 115 texts usages remaining allows "`to fight,'" asserts "unequivocally `against,' hostilities," 2794. words. Printer, Providence (May 1775) ("By estimate 600,000 men"); Henry Laurens 21, 1778), Delegates 1774-1789, Smith 1981) ("Congress yesterday Canadians returned Saratoga Sir Guy Carleton Arms"); Manner Making Indians North-America, Courant 1785) fifteen, aside arrive sixty. southward, informed, continue fifty"); 28 1030 Hunt 1910) hostages mutually exchange day next"); 9th 217 1806) ("Whereas commanders British vessels impressed seamen, board vessels, assist battles amity States"); 15th 1819) ("[The petitioners] residing Canada, commencement owing attachment (1840), phrase. Aymette, Tennessee's 1834 defence.'" dress. secured, body, usually civilized warfare, equipment." elaborated: "[W]e remark, implies, deer, elk, buffaloes, day, forty dirk clothes, spear cane." 161. lucidly mandating sentencing enhancement "uses" drug trafficking crime: instrumentality asks, `Do you cane?,' inquiring your grandfather's silver-handled walking stick display hall; wants walk cane. `using firearm' exchange, `use' cane hall decoration `using' used." 508 223, 242, 2050, 124 (SCALIA, (some marks, footnotes, arraying 1781 N.J. ("And Enacted, aforesaid, Place Abode Pound merchantable Gunpowder Pounds sized Musket Rifle" added)); establishing fifty expense, firelock, bayonet, cartouch box twenty cartridges, priming wire, brush flints, order, next, pence default day" (second 590 Regional Quarter-Master quantity Ammunition stores Field Officers" added)). `right grievances.'" proves distinguishable ground. atomistic, word-by-word calls mind parable elephant, famously verse Godfrey Saxe. Poems Saxe 135-136 (1873). parable, approaches elephant; touching elephant's learned touches animal's leg, elephant tree; trunk snake; Each creature. "`split[ting] sovereignty,'" "`two capacities, federal, incursion resulting unprecedented form design, orders relationship, privity, mutual obligations sustain it.'" Saenz Roe, 526 504, 1518, 143 689 Term Limits, Thornton, 514 779, 838, 1842, 131 881 (1995) (KENNEDY, concurring)). colonists: Paragraph George, Armies Consent legislatures." September 1776, dependance assuredly, resting staff." 106, 1932). Congress: "Regular exigencies acquire habits force.... firmness requisite attained constant service." 49-50 (Sept. 1780). debates. 1787, "Here bulwark, doctrine, substance, lost independence.... things, science acquired perfected diligence, perseverance, practice." 25, 166 Rossiter ed.1961). "[B]ut Appropriation Money [raising Armies] Years." "calling forth" execute Insurrections repel Invasions." assumesincorrectly, viewthat enlistment 2802. confer "organiz[e], ar[m], disciplin[e], Militia," empty cautionary military, resembled became quartered owner, directs." Elliott Soldier Owner, Magistrate direct." "Tenth, Kept fourths Soldiers Time Houses Owners." Peters, preparing placate commitment follow: [Constitution] tacit compact [favor] head. [Virginia]. rejected, assurances pursued. honest avoided 234. 182. Elbridge Gerry, breath: "What, sir, militia? establishment bane Whenever ruins." 2834. casts "odd outlier," 2803; "outlier," federalism experiment, quarrel characterization. fixation puzzling, characteristics reliable ascertaining provision's drafters. enactment. `Subsequent history'which post-enactment enactmentis smuggle legislators' currently (which, goes, colleagues for), means. legislator passed." Sullivan Finkelstein, 631-632, 2658, (1990) concurring part). stretches scattered 2807-2810. coterminous dicta. provision. believes. 447 (Gen.Ct.1824), "muste[r] arms"; barred altogether. Laws: Originalist Inquiry, 497-498, Amendmentplainly premise militia-focused position. [30] "[I]t oppression obnoxious sanction tyrannical 11-12 situated [31] Parliament, provision; historians, announcing (after fly text), parliamentary supremacy. Jack Rakove 6-9. [32] heavily, consistently adhere "Blackstonian" 2805. series lectures, Amendments: "If chooses incur expense putting Hands ingenuity contravene Govt. alleged shaking union: plainest be, measures, with-held infringing contend maintained subversive Government; proposing viz., `That consequently, twelfth aments." Ten Notebooks Lectures, 1790's, Tucker-Coleman Papers, 127-128 (College Mary). Understandings Modern Misunderstandings, Wm. Mary 1123 [33] 2807-2808 (1832)). Oliver inquired Oliver's drafters; adverts simple nose-counting [34] 182, [35] weaponry included: bayonet belt, spare knapsack, pouch twenty-four cartridge powder ball: rifle, shot-pouch powder-horn, balls pound powder." [36] endorsed, albeit indirectly, Burton Sills, 812, 1486, 22 748 curiam), Jersey upholding, Jersey's turned constraint "Congress, amendment, impair active, states." 86, 248 521, (1968). [37] obstacle, grounds; Rec. 725-735 (1924). featured colloquy, legislate sphere; Hearings Ways 9006, 73d (1934). [38] "reliance Americans" "upon Presumably recreation, ownership. correctness observation. hard "relied," 2001, "relied" cut believed, "millions Americans," well-being, families. "reduce Columbia," (1976); 2854-2856 dissenting); [39] Frankfurter conservative) perils "political thicket" districting. Colegrove Green, 328 556, 1198, 90 1432 (1946) controversial thicket qualitatively Frankfurter: manifestly unequal districts, working exactly mediating control. impact unjustified ongoing debateor itselfis historians length. adherence wiser bold

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