Document: 387 U.S. 253 87 S.Ct. 1660 18 L.Ed.2d 757 Beys AFROYIM, Petitioner,v.Dean RUSK, Secretary of State. No. 456. Argued Feb. 20, 1967. Decided May 29, Edward J. Ennis, New York City, for petitioner. Charles Gordon, Washington, D.C., respondent. Mr. Justice BLACK delivered the opinion Court. 1 Petitioner, born in Poland 1893, immigrated to this country 1912 and became a naturalized American citizen 1926. He went Israel 1950, 1951 he voluntarily voted an election Israeli Knesset, legislative body Israel. In 1960, when applied renewal his United States passport, Department State refused grant it on sole ground that had lost citizenship by virtue § 401(e) Nationality Act 1940 which provides shall 'lose' if votes 'in political foreign state.'1 Petitioner then brought declaratory judgment action federal district court alleging violates both Due Process Clause Fifth Amendment 1, cl. Fourteenth Amendment2 grants persons like Because neither nor any other provision Constitution expressly Congress power take away once has been acquired, petitioner contended only way could lose was own voluntary renunciation it. Since Government took position empowers terminate without citizen's renunciation, argued section is prohibited Constitution. The District Court Appeals, rejecting argument, held constitutional authority forcibly voting based its implied regulate affairs. Consequently, have regardless intention not give up. This precisely what Perez v. Brownell, 356 44, 78 568, 2 603. relying same contentions about rejected upholding Perez, urges us reconsider case, adopt view minority there overrule That decided 5—4 vote almost 10 years ago, source controversy confusion ever since, as emphatically recognized opinions all judges who participated case below.3 Moreover, cases with4 since5 consistently invalidated case-by-case basis various statutory sections providing involuntary expatriation. It done so grounds hold citizens can be expatriated their citizenship. These cases, well many commentators,6 cast great doubt upon soundness Perez. Under these circumstances, we granted certiorari it, 385 917, 232, 17 142. recent dissents comprehensively discussing issues involved,7 deem unnecessary treat subject at length. 3 fundamental issue before here, whether with enact law stripping never renounced or given majority do because withdrawal 'reasonably calculated effect end within achieve'. U.S., 60, S.Ct., 577. conclusion reached chain reasoning: deal affairs indispensable attribute sovereignty; power, plus Necessary Proper Clause, elections; expatriation 'ample scope' 'appropriate modes' effectuate general regulatory power. Id., 57—60, 575—577. Then, summarily concluding 'there nothing * warrant drawing from restriction otherwise possessed withdraw citizenship,' id., 58, n. 3, 576, specifically 'notion depends assent,' 61, 578. 4 First reject idea xp ressed that, aside Amendment, express implied, assent. cannot, indicated, sustained sovereignty nations. Other nations are governed constitutions, any, draw no support theirs. our people sovereign cannot sever relationship taking Our governs must forget limits those powers necessary proper carry out ones. course, strip citizenship, exercise And even adoption views were expressed under pass uniform rule naturalization, determine conduct should result loss On three occasions, 1794, 1797, 1818, considered proposals laws would describe certain resulting expatriation.8 each occasion considering bills concerned recognizing right some means exercising right. 1795 members still adhered English doctrine perpetual allegiance doubted renounce citizenship.9 By however, one existence expatriation, but several judicial decisions indicated exercised consent Federal form enabling legislation.10 Therefore, bill introduced provide person relinquish declaring such relinquishment writing departing country.11 opponents authority, either Naturalization act constitute expatriation.12 They pointed proposed Thirteenth subsequently ratified, provided accepting office emolument government.13 Congressman Anderson Kentucky argued: 5 'The introduction article declares declare acts amount citizenship; necessity last resort. When settled acceptance pension Emperor amounted disfranchisement citizen, surely conceded they did. amendment confessedly did extend, very strong, induce belief cause 'a cease citizen.' want this, where individual strongest evidence attachment potentate entire feelings principles certainly establishes absence present one. Although title insure foster direct inevitable bill, assumption committed citizenship.' 31 Annals Cong. 1038—1039 (1818). 6 Pindall Virginia notion, later accepted nature gives expatriate citizens: 7 '(A)llegiance imports obligation subject, correlative resides power: due Congress, people, whom found; is, therefore alteration made existing institutions respect allegiance.' 1045. 8 merely sought Lowndes South Carolina 9 'But, intended delicate granted. ought loosely inferred, appeared strong light, said, denied, manner may equivalent determining how divested assuming will be, man released liabilities, privileges citizen. If you step further go, say presumption expatriate, thus him (Q) uestions affecting questions regulated, General Governments, Constitutional provisions. anything essential notion Constitution, this: while employment physical force hands Legislature, rules constitutes rights matter provision.' 1050—1051. finally defeated.14 setting six later, Osborn Bank States, Wheat. 738, 827, L.Ed. 204, Court, speaking through Chief Marshall, declared appears mature well-considered dictum becomes deprive status: 11 '(The citizen) member society, possessing native standing, constitution, footing native. constitution does authorize enlarge abridge rights. simple national prescribe exhausts far respects individual.' 12 statements regarded inconclusive historical context made,15 prior passage against obtained removed unequivocal terms itself. language completely control status citizenship: 'All *.' There indication words fleeting good moment acquired destruction time. Rather most reasonably read defining keeps unless relinquishes Once shifted, canceled, diluted Government, governmental unit. 13 true chief interest giving permanence security desire protect Negroes. Dred Scott decision, Sandford, 19 How. 393, 15 691, shortly greatly disturbed Negro But Civil Rights 1866, 14 Stat. 27, already attempted confer States. Nevertheless, passed House containing definition sponsors Senate insisted inserting fears recently conferred Negroes just easily them subsequent Congresses, insuperable obstacle every effort newly first clause added Amendment.16 Senator Howard, sponsored Senate, explained purpose clause: 'It settles question removes We desired put civil beyond Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2890, 2896 (1866). undeniable make permanent secure frustrated holding rob simply proceeding o ome generally Though framers particularly problem seems used wanted unit destroy. 1868, two after proposed, Several impose acts.17 With little discussion, defeated. bills, defeated himself citizenship.18 Representative Van Trump Ohio, vehemently denied supporting measure party dissolving tie between statute prescribes proceed perpetuate intention, election, expatriation.' 40th 2d 1804 (1868). 'inasmuch entirely part citizen,' 1801, 'the whole exercise, rests solely exclusively individual,' 1804.19 terms, contradicted during debates, concluded: 16 'To enforce exile anywhere belonging Government. No conservativeminded statesman, intelligent legislator, sound lawyer maintained branch lawless precedents created delirium war sending men into exile, punishment opinion, violations debated 1818 failed see distinction. comprehend individual, (I)t belongs appertains Government; right, itself, legitimate legislation. been, legislation itself.' Ibid. Trump's proposal, than evidencing intent defeated.20 Act, passed, 'right expatriation' inherent people.21 history 1868 makes abundantly clear feeling abandonment himself. statement Wong Kim Ark, 169 649, 456, 42 890. Chinese aliens whether, nevertheless, excluded Exclusion 22 58. Ark though might 'renounce become country,' so. 704 705, 478. held22 affect Amendment. Quoting Marshall's oft-repeated naturalization away,' said: 'Congress having congress, fortiori congress birthright itself *. fourteenth amendment, leaves before, restrict birth, sufficient complete 703, 477. 20 To uphold Congress' man's violation 'abridge,' 'affect,' 'restrict of,' 'take away' prevents doing things, agree Justice's dissent 401(e).23 21 preceded followed history, contains conflicting inferences drawn, unwarranted rested principally history. not. think stand construction believe, comports more nearly liberty equal justice adopted guarantee. Citizenship light trifle jeopardized decides name instances, mean left protection world—as country. Nation cooperative affair. Its citizenry citizenry. free government incongruous group temporarily another designed to, does, congressional forcible whatever creed, color, race. own, remain Brownell overruled. reversed. 23 Reversed. 24 HARLAN, CLARK, STEWART, WHITE join, dissenting. 25 Almost 603, upheld constitutionality 1940, 54 116. deprives nationality election. reasoned derived intentionally commits prejudicial relations deemed indicate dilution held, appropriately consider purposeful act. 26 today overrules unconstitutional remarkable process circumlocution. First, fails dispute reasoning Perez; essentially content conclusory quite unsubstantial assertion 'any implied,' 'without assent.'1 Next, embarks lengthy, albeit incomplete, survey background stake yet, end, concedes susceptible 'conflicting inferences.' acknowledges conclusions warranted alone, disclaims decision relies, 'principally,' Finally, bottomed 'language purpose' Amendment; explanation, offers contention 'completely incogr uous,' arcane observation 'citizenry citizenry.' 27 I find extraordinary series circumventions permits, less compels, imposition constraints Congress. respectfully dissent. 28 need here rehearse Frankfurter's proved proves my satisfaction Congress.2 suffices supplement examination recites, apparent Court's conclusions. As seen, available inadequate but, regard restraints surround invalidation confirm Perez' soundness. I. 29 Not much period then-prevailing attitudes now determined. pertinent tangentially debated; centered instead wider circumstances and, might, conditioned formal prerequisites.3 Even discussion seriously clouded widely incidents retained, least part, States.4 remembered necessarily represent carefully considered, prevailing, viewpoint pressent issues. 30 Measured limitations, remarkably inconclusive; relies rejection isolated Marshall b. 204. This, appear, conclusion, notice. unwilling apparently discussed lengthy debates 1794 1795, culminated eventually Uniform 1795.5 414. Little contained here. connection offered Hillhouse Connecticut permitted repatriate obscure proposal scarcely relevant issues, understood require automatic second consumed substantially day, debate Congressmen, Hillhouse, recorded Annals.6 Murray Maryland, reasons immaterial supported proposal. response, Baldwin Georgia urged often mark esteem, unfair domestic honored fashion. believed forbidden reported vote, analogous Senate. Insofar brief exchange desirable, larger number determined, utterly obscure, adopted. 32 next 1797. entry service state time war; sixth included machinery himself.7 citizens, include pronounceen ts issue. difficult failure probative 33 1817 heavily revealing. Debate bill8 wished open court, thereafter depart His terminated renunciation. House; permitting Nonetheless, selects portions dicta are, generous standard, broad conclusion. observed deductions premises abandoned. stemmed Jeffersonian owed State, spokesmen supposed dissolve since 'we control' over 'allegiance *.'9 bill's relation therefore, long continues States.'10 Any statute, thought, dissolved remained 'would inoperative.'11 Surely revive discredited doctrine; yet not, significant ruling relies. premises, done, transform meaning expressions convey. 34 Congressmen; indicates doubts shared substantial 67 opposed bill. plainly 58 favor. repeatedly validity, imprudent undesirable. Virginia, example, asserted employed provisions 'motives idleness criminality,'12 'much evil.'13 McLane Delaware feared use escape armed forces warned would, moreover, weaken love country, happiness prosperity.'14 commission treason, objects plunder spoil, equally legalized bill.'15 cautioned difficulties again arise governments seamen passed.16 Given vigorous repeated arguments, impossible assume, has, portion motivated wholly, pat, particular set assumptions. taken representative beliefs members, premised chiefly doctrines rejected, directly involved. 35 piece evidenc obiter written Marshall. unpersuasive, plain reach presented central bank bring suit equitable relief courts counsel although dis follow involving arisen laws. Counsel analogy alien readily said new actions courts. 813—814, surprisingly, analogy, remarked 'does give, regulate, capacities,' demands 'on native.' meant counsel's broken inability offer capacities differ native-born birth. Johnson's confirms purpose. 875—876, 36 meaning, wrenches context, attributes extraneous beore requires decide debated, referred, All recalled, area steadfastly avoided comment. See e.g. M'Ilvaine Coxe's Lessee, Cranch 209, 212 213, 598; Santissima Trinidad, 283, 347—348, 454. material assistance case.17 37 Before turning overlooked attention incident refers, places relatively reliance. 1810, thirteenth Reed Maryland; modified, nobility, pension, state, married royal blood, 'cease States.'18 was, modified form, Houses, approval requisite States.19 found certainty why thought necessary,20 suggest themselves amendment. sanction Art. I, 9, 8;21 appropriate placed Second, student dismissed preference explanation dominant jurisdiction states; usurpation power.'22 fully substantiated 1818; were, noted, follows 'obscure enterprise'23 guidance solution important us. 38 virtually Twice immediately suggests lacking. Houses citizens. 39 spring summer 1864, intensively Wade-Davis reconstruction seceded Confederacy. Among 14, 'every hereafter rebel hereby States.'24 Much bll center provision, critical attention.25 signed President Lincoln adjournment law, issued troubled 14.26 Passage 'suffices destroy drafted felt 'absolute."27 40 Twelve months year Section Enrollment 1865 deserters military 'shall relinquished forfeited *.'28 extended disabilities departed avoid 'draft naval *.'29 bitterness neglect requirements Constitution; ex post facto, constitutionally impermissible.30 Significantly, suggested lay authority. Members examined section's undisturbed matters 41 Some doubt, phrase 'rights expressed31 tha d isfranchisement, reasons, unconvincing. also explicitly citizens';32 additional necessary. executive authorities afterwards construed causing expatriation.33 Third, expatriation; particular, Strong, Supreme Pennsylvania, 'forfeiture Huber Reily, 53 Pa. 112, 118, point reached, understanding approved Kurtz Moffitt, 115 487, 501, 148, 153, 458. 1867 exemption deserted termination hostilities, described disability 'loss 14. choice occurs debates.34 twice, unequivocally affirmed 43 summarized follows. statements, associated abandoned ambiguous inapposite Osborn. Inconsistent Congressmen 1864 authorized heat discounted origins, suggests, contrary, nationality. II. 44 supports thesis rest persuasive. consists quotations Howard Michigan, sponsor Representatives Ohio. generously, presumably drawn large Court; shown, mistaken purposes clause's draftsmen. 45 initially defined citizenship.35 debates; assumed guarantee sprang derive indicatio t hat deny 1865; concerned, 'at involved.'36 46 evidently defined, classification substituted, freedmen premise Amendment's protection. Stewart inserted citizenship,37 Wade alternative elimination term 'citizen' section.38 After caucus supporters announced behalf favored addition Clause.39 47 cursory indications effect. Senators decision,40 scope agreed 'courts stumbled subject,' prudent remove 'doubt thrown over' it.41 Scott, place freedmen's suggested, creating indisputably independent preclude legislatures circumvent denying citizenship.42 Nothing draftsmen expected unreservedly adhered, overturning restrictions primary preserving methods 48 narrow, definitional reflected declarations revise prevailing Henderson Missouri stated 'section leave is.'43 relied upon, 'This (the Clause) land already, Uit ed jurisdiction, States.'44 Senate's consideration bill.45 actively Act.46 measures recorded, wisdom constitutionality. prominent imagined, demands, 'declaratory' 'where is,' twice presence. 49 positive Between response question, following: 50 'I except crime forfeited.'47 (Emphasis added.) 51 imagine unqualified position; sponsor, unimpaired citizenship.48 52 Additional confirmation expectations wholly Relief Soldiers Sailors, 1867. exception Union hostilities. Had clearly noted final invalid. sort occurred; unfair,49 suppose unconstitutional. consequences discovered Court.50 Expatriation materially Clause. Initially, began committee 1867, Second Session Act; interpretation outset, supposition absent July vividly following January. Further, forgotten. stimulated requests Andrew Johnson public assert Americans former countries.51 'primarily assail British (chiefly toward resident Ireland) allegiance';52 accordingly, plain, amendments interstitial comments, citizens,53 implications untouched debates. order establish fastens speeches sponsored, similar me ndments create citizenship.54 spoke length proposal; principal speech consisted detailed citizenship.55 Never catalog materials mention Amendment;56 seen comments floor, characteristic Houses; supporters, unnoticed. inescapable discussions surrounding minimal indeed clause, exceedingly slight.57 55 evidence, mistaken. While progress, negotiations completed bilateral treaties, 'initiated country's policy divestment specified relations.' supra, 48, 571. Seven treaties negotiated 1869 alone;58 ratified If, 'abundantly clear' understand conventions negotiated, why, repudiated Senate.59 56 acted, automatically short regularly Interested others, unaware practice; early 1874. Grant Sixth Annual Message declaration 'be citizenship.'60 satisfactory practice led appointment Board 1906, Acts 1907 1940. administrative emphasize ventured explain should, adoption, construction, misunderstood. 57 recites inconclusive, recognizes; irresistibly draftsman intend, expected, had, knowledge, exercised. demanded consistent purposes, consequence birth attaches. served overturn foundation fashion effectively guaranteed withheld intended. forbids understood, approprate Constitution's commands. denies exhausted classes individuals obtained, course protected arbitrary around additional, unwarranted, rests, analysis, ipse dixit, evincing more, apparent, majority's distaste 59 believe rightly decided, affirm Appeals. 1168, amended, 746, U.S.C. §§ 801 (1946 ed.): '(A) by: '(e) Voting participating plebiscite territory.' re-enacted 349(a)(5) Immigration 1952, 66 267, 1481(a)(5). thereof, ** 250 F.Supp. 686; 361 F.2d 102, 105. Trop Dulles, 86, 590, 630; Nishikawa 129, 612, 659. Kennedy Mendoza-Martinez, 372 144, 83 554, 644; Schneider Rusk, 377 163, 84 1187, 218. concurring Brennan 'felt correctness 187, See, e.g., Agata, Involuntary U.Pitt.L.Rev. (1965); Hurst, Can Take Away Citizenship?, Rocky Mt.L.Rev. 62 (1956); Kurland, Foreward: 'Equal Origin Equal Title Legislative Executive Branches Government,' Harv.L.Rev. 143, 169—175 (1964); Comment, Mich.L.Rev. 1142 (1958); Note, Forfeiture Through Congressional Enactments, U.Cin.L.Rev. (1952); Cornell L.Q. 365 (1955); S.Cal.L.Rev. 196 (1952). see, 1954, 64 Yale L.J. 1164 (1955). 62, 578 (dissenting Justice), 79, 586 Douglas); 91—93, 593—594 (part Court); 618 138, (concurring Black). For including proposals, Roche, Early Development (1949); Tsiang, Question America Prior (1942); Dutcher, Right Expatriation, Am.L.Rev. 447 (1877); Loss Statutory 99 U.Pa.L.Rev. (1950); Slaymaker, Citizen Expatriate, 191 (1903). 1005, 1027—1030 (1794); 349 et seq. (1797). Talbot Janson, Dall. 133, 540. 495 (1817). 1036—1037, 1058 opponents, believing mode careful Legislatures vest us.' 1039. 11th Sess. America, S.oc .No. 39, 88th 77—78 (1964). 1071. interesting note proponents Cobb Georgia, act, natual performed' lead creation 1068. dissenting points fact War militiary Southern side Measures kind days emotional stress hostility reliable criteria means. Cong.Globe, 2768—2769, 2869, 2890 generally, Flack, Adoption 88—94 (1908). Jenckes Rhode Island government, performed duties up domicile return. 968, 1129, 2311 characterized covering 'cases 1159, Chanler 'So swear remains statu quo, unaltered unimpaired.' 1016. Proposals Pruyn (id., 1130) Ohio 2311). disagreed wholeheartedly being recognize mutual violated prescribed 'how citizenship) option vested.' 2317. Banks Massachusetts, Chairman Committee Foreign Affairs enacted refrained expatriation: which, legislated upon. (T)his comes character natural confer. wherever alluded Constitution—* legislate matters.' 2316. 223, R.S. 1999. referred holding, Mt.L.Rev., 78—79; Mich.L.Rev., 1153—1154; others dictum, U.Pa.L.Rev., 26—27. Whichever serious entitled weight. Of dissent, 66, S.t. , 580; unlawfully procured side. Knauer 328 654, 1304, 90 1500; Baumgartner 322 665, 1240, 88 1525; Schneiderman 320 63 1333, 1796. outset ambiguity intimates, declare, adopts acknowledged 'actions derogation undivided country' 'long recognized' 68, 581; argued, logically insufficient 76, 586. semblance reasoning, momentary reference Justice, approach today; area. Whatever position, voluntariness fixed meaning; fact, specific uncoerced conclusively Until greater precision 'assent,' today's law. useful, reiterate facts summary unfortunately situation applied. emigrated stage proceedings, 'has 686, 687. Knesset 1951, Identification Booklet indicates, elections followed. Transcript Record 1—2. Israel, determined return Consulate Haifa passport. application Certificate Nationality, participation issued. Petitioner's 'no claim (petitioner) deprivation render stateless person.' Expiration 1907, 25—70; Cases, 1963 Sup.Ct.Rev. 325, 327—330; Roche. West.Pol.Q. 268. 329. letter Albert Gallatin, rather ambiguous, Jefferson Writings Gallatin 301—302 (Adams ed. 1879). primary, attached 25. Gallatin's 'states' rights'; 268, 271. 1004 cursorily 1028—1030. 349. 495. 1046. 1057. Roche describes states' opposition.' 276. 1047. 1050. 1059. 1051. Similarly, obtain invocation 649. 477, child nationals domiciled reiteration Osborn, conceivably McKenna, Mackenzie Hare, 239 299, 106, 60 297. Despite 302 303, hld marriage Amercian alien, unaccompanied her nonetheless Mrs. Mackenzie's there, restored marital relationship; she loss, temporarily, proposition today, condition subsequent. argument Kin 732, 488, White, joined Mackenzie, required today. Nor, supposed, despite Ark. revisions traced 530, 549, 572—573, 635, 671. Ames, Proposed Amendments Century History, Ann.Rep.Am.Hist. Assn. Year 1896, 188. speculates presence Jerome Bonaparte few earlier caused apprehension, concludes expression 'animosity foreigners.' 'No Nobility States: Person Office Profit Trust them, shall, Consent accept present, Emolument, Office, Title, whatever, King, Prince, State.' 335. Richardson, Messages Papers Presidents 226. Brown Missouri, 38th 3460. 'unprepared' 'inflexibly committed' single plan restoration,' 'fully satisfied' 222—223. 343. 490. recodifications, 630. A invalid lacked event, Act's reduce evidentiary value 1865, intimates did, 491. 642—643, 1155—1156. 336. Hearings H.R. 6127, 76th 38. remarks Hendricks, 661. events 83—94. 84. 2560. emplyed formula 'persons thereof' 2768 2769. 2869. precise remained, unknown. contemporary comment, 2939. Sanford, 393. Cong.Golbe, 2768. 2893. Slaughter-House Wall. 36, 74, 95, 394. tenBroek, Antislavery Origins 71—93. 3031. 93. fashion, 215—217, 'declaratory confirmatory.' 217. 2890. Baker, App. 255, 256. Lane Indiana 'simply reaffirmation' Bill. Fairman, Does Incorporate Bill Rights? Stan.L.Rev. 5, 74. 21, 641, recorded. 643. Cong.2d 632. 2895. ratification legislatures, them. Relations Texas 'proposes transfer Government.' 'object' 'to negroes States.' Tex. Governor legislature 'prominent feature (section) definitely thereby depriving future discretionary respective limits, Governments proper.' Ga.Sen.J. message Cox Stan.L.Rev., 96 Fletcher Mo.Sen.J. (1867). combination, ec lare attaches, lamented unfairness, 'embarrassment' 'is longer.' 660—661. 1885, 501—502, 95. emphasized Third prevalent. 558, 580—581. Moore, Digest International Law 579—580. 1129 1131. 1801; ultimate suggestion, help impermissible 1800—1805. Trump, 'framer' Biographical Directory 1774 1961, H.R.Doc. 442, 85th 1750. Banks, Affairs, emphasized, produce compel countries negotiation settlement'; stood 'for more.' Cong.Globe. 2315. treaty North German Union, concluded February 22, March 26, 1868. Malloy, Treaties, Conventions, Acts, Protocols Agreements Powers 1298. Similar Bavaria, Baden, Belgium, Hesse, Wu rttemberg; Norway Sweden. An Mexico significantly, rebuttal supra 88. relevance 4205, 4211, 4329, 4331. attacked none opinionfo r 4211. 284, 291. Borchard, Diplomatic Protection Citizens Abroad 319, 324, 325.

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