Document: 526 U.S. 687119 S.Ct. 1624143 L.Ed.2d 882 SyllabusNOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as being done in connection with this case, at the time opinion issued. The constitutes no part of Court but has been prepared by Reporter Decisions for convenience reader. See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 321, 337. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES CITY MONTEREYv.DEL MONTE DUNES AT MONTEREY, LTD. et al. CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT No. 97 1235. Argued October 7, 1998Decided May 24, 1999 After petitioner city imposed more rigorous demands each five times rejected applications to develop parcel land owned respondent Del Monte Dunes and its predecessor interest, brought suit under 42 U.S.C. § 1983. District submitted case jury on Dunes' theory that effected regulatory taking or otherwise injured property unlawful acts, without paying compensation providing an adequate postdeprivation remedy loss. court instructed find if found either had denied all economically viable use city's decision reject final development proposal did not substantially advance legitimate public purpose. Dunes. In affirming, Ninth Circuit ruled, inter alia, err allowing takings claim tried jury, because right trial §1983; whether denial advanced interests were, facts questions suitable jury; reasonably could have decided these favor. Held: judgment affirmed. 95 F.3d 1422, Justice Kennedy delivered Court, except Part IV A 2, concluding that: 1 1. Circuit's discussion rough-proportionality standard Dolan City Tigard, 512 374, 391, irrelevant Court's disposition case. Although believes inapposite such one, instructions mention proportionality, let alone require unless actions were roughly proportional asserted interests. discussion, furthermore, was unnecessary sustain jury's verdict, given holding proffered evidence sufficient rebut reasons denying plan. Pp. 10 11. 2 2. plan related interests, impermissibly adopt rule wholesale interference judge municipal land-use policies, laws, routine decisions. As itself proposed essence instructions, cannot now contend provide accurate statement law. any event, are consistent previous general discussions liability. See, e.g., Agins Tiburon, 447 255, 260. Given challenge below applicability continued viability authorities, declines suggestions amici revisit them. To extent contends based upon determination reasonableness zoning laws argument can squared neither nor which tried, confined question whether, light case's history context, particular deny justifications. argues that, matter law, decisions immune from judicial scrutiny circumstances, position contrary settled principles rejected. 12 15. 3 3. properly liability jury. 15 19, 27 32. 4 (a) propriety submission depends statutory constitutional trial, and, did, nature right. Because §1983 does confer when authorizes "an action law" redress deprivation federal color state must reached. interpretation Seventh Amendment provides "[i]n Suits common . shall preserved" guided historical analysis comprising two principal inquiries: (1) cause law founding least analogous one was, (2) so, fall order preserve substance common-law existed 1791. Markman Westview Instruments, Inc., 517 370, 376. 17. 5 (b) purposes. 17 19. 6 That applies only causes also ordinarily English courts late 18th century, opposed those customarily heard equity admiralty. E.g., Feltner Columbia Pictures Television, 523 340, 348. P. 7 seeking legal relief within Amendment's meaning. It undisputed adopted there equivalent §1983. however, guarantee extends claims unknown so long said "soun[d] basically tort," seek relief. Curtis Loether, 415 189, 195 196. There doubt sound tort. Heck Humphrey, 477, 483. Here sought form damages unconstitutional just compensation. Damages violation remedy. Teamsters Terry, 494 558, 570. 8 (c) issues proper 30. 9 making determination, looks determine issues, ones, suits adopted. clear answer, precedent functional considerations. Markman, supra, 384. 27. precise analogue specific test although some guidance provided fact sounding tort money damages, usually rather than judge. 11 (3) None precedents addressed allocation determinations between explicit terms. Williamson County Regional Planning Comm'n Hamilton Bank Johnson City, 473 172, 191, assumed submitting county planning commission plaintiff landowner property. However, direct holding, further considerations process function. 28 29. (4) purview Amendment, issue deprived his predominantly factual, Pennsylvania Coal Co. Mahon, 260 393, 413, most cases allocated see, Baltimore Carolina Line, Inc. Redman, 295 654, 657. 29 13 (5) advances probably best understood mixed here, narrow viewed context protracted application process, bore reasonable relationship This essentially fact-bound nature, thus 14 (d) limited various respects: address role ordinary inverse condemnation suit, attempt demarcation respective provinces determining governmental would extend other contexts. followed ordinances policies so. often true actions, disputed government acting outside bounds authority, resulting damages. These 30 Kennedy, joined Chief Justice, Stevens, Thomas, concluded request create exception governing alleging violations Fifth Takings Clause 19 16 declined contexts classify underlying asserted, persuasive justification adopting different 20. Even analyzed simpliciter, uncompensated taking, remains Contrary submission, formal proceeding right, Reynolds, 397 14, 18 controlling analogy here. rendered fundamental differences taking. Most important, initiates proceedings, concedes landowner's receive seeks mere amount due. Liability simply issue. difference renders unhelpful inapposite. Bonaparte Camden Amboy R. F. Cas. 821, 829 (No. 1, 617) (CC NJ). Moreover, condemns use, forum required Constitution. First Evangelical Lutheran Church Glendale Los Angeles, 482 304, 316. If proceedings do not, fact, compensation, government's unlawful. Williamson, 195. even it. original understanding practice support conclusion sounds lay recover Feltner, 349. Constitution allows take purpose tortious unlawful, When repudiates duty English, 315, violates Constitution, tortious. 20 Scalia concluded: respondents their claim. All treated alike insofar concerned. Section 1983 establishes unique, distinctive, action, basis ultimately defined claim-creating statute itself, extrinsic body refers, namely "federal rights elsewhere conferred." Baker McCollan, 443 137, 144, n. before then what generic should characterized same way, Wilson Garcia, 471 261, 271 272, recovery personal injuries, id., 276. 5. 8. raised respondents' they presents primarily appropriate consideration. petitioner's rejection building plans purpose, subquestion challenged represents interest removed cognizance, furthered is, highly particularized present question. 10. 21 J., announced unanimous respect Parts I II, III, B, C, V, Rehnquist, C. Scalia, JJ., joined, Stevens joined. filed concurring judgment. Souter, dissenting part, O'Connor, Ginsburg, Breyer, Opinion 22 NOTICE: subject revision publication preliminary print Reports. Readers requested notify Decisions, Supreme States, Washington, D. 20543, typographical errors, corrections may made goes press. 1235 23 PETITIONERv.DEL LTD.,andMONTEREY-DEL CORPORATION 24 ON WRIT 25 [May 1999] 26 began attempts respondent, Dunes, jurisdiction petitioner, Monterey. city, series repeated rejections, proposals property, imposing developers. Northern California, Rev. Stat. §1979, litigation, Appeals erroneous We need decide presented we examine points affirm. apparent concession correct conclude * (landowners) 37.6 acre ocean-front located Monterey, near boundary north, where Highway enters. With ocean park northeast, virtually surrounded railroad right-of-way properties devoted industrial, commercial, multifamily residential uses. zoned ordinance. 31 untouched urban industrial proximities. sewer line housed 15-foot man-made dunes covered jute matting snow fencing traversed Trash, dumped accumulated premises. used many years oil company terminal tank farm large quantities delivered, stored, reshipped. stopped using site, tanks left behind pads, complex, pieces pipe, broken concrete, oil-soaked sand. introduced nonnative ice plant prevent erosion control soil conditions around tanks. Ice secretes forces out plants compatible parcel's natural flora. By landowners spread percent parcel, absent human intervention, continue advance, endangering perhaps eliminating remaining vegetation. 32 flora encroached included buckwheat, habitat endangered Smith's Blue Butterfly. butterfly lives week, travels maximum feet, mature, flowering buckwheat survive. Searches 1981 through 1985 yielded single larva, discovered 1984. No specimens quite isolated possible habitats butterfly. B 33 conformance requirements. requirements permitted up housing units per acre, 1,000 entire landowners' 344 units. 1982 stated 264 favorable keeping suggestion, revised 1983, again application. once reduction scale development, saying 224 received returned drawing board units, which, statements notwithstanding, appealed council, overruled commission's referred project back commission, consider 190 34 reduced scope comply request, four specific, detailed site plans, total whole parcel. later Once council. council finding conceptually satisfactory regarding, density, number location access. approved conditions, granted 18-month conditional permit development. 35 spent next year revising steps fulfill conditions. Their plan, 1985, 17.9 acres open space (including beach areas restoration preservation habitat), 7.9 open, landscaped areas, 6.7 private streets parking access beach). Only 5.1 buildings patios. designed, accordance demands, beach, buffer zone adjoining park, view corridors visible motorists nearby highway; called restoring preserving much sand dune structure 36 review buildings, roads, facilities, architectural committee Following hearings professional staff satisfied make findings effect recommended approved. 37 January 1986, less months expire, recommendation requesting 12-month extension allow them additional might impose. extended until hearing held June 1986. hearing, declining specify measures satisfy concerns refusing concerns. council's decision, moreover, came moratorium issued another agency prevented delayed new 38 base failure meet earlier prescribed city. Rather, (even though twice changed maintained objections extension), plan's layout damage environment necessitated corridors, park), disrupt Butterfly remove encroaching restore almost half larva ever property). C 39 years, decisions, Tr. 1294 1295 (Feb. 9, 1994), circumstances. commenced against California alleging, Due Process Equal Protection provisions Fourteenth uncompensated, unconstitutional, 40 dismissed unripe 172 (1985), grounds obtained definitive court. reversed. 920 F.2d 1496 (CA9 1990). reviewing length implicate about repetitive unfair procedures expressed MacDonald, Sommer Frates Yolo County, 477 350, (1986), sufficiently render ripe review. F.2d, 1501 1506. State compensatory temporary denial, see 304 (1987), pursue precondition 1506 1507. 41 On remand, determined, over objections, submit equal protection reserve substantive due argued regulate combined invisible highway, force into "bowl" area result, argued, subsequent bowl contained sensitive disturbed blocked portion 1288 1294, 1299 1302, 1317 1994). While conceding legitimacy purposes, emphasized tortuous well shifting sometimes inconsistent positions taken throughout irrational manner. designed undermine validity factual premises suggest considered buying, inducing buy, early 1979, reserving delaying abandoning financial reasons. 1303 1306. California's purchase during pendency litigation bolstered credibility position. At close argument, "the plaintiff's unit purpose." App. 303. first inquiry, instructed, relevant follows: 43 "For claim, you if, result permissible beneficial proving enough show after diminished value suffer serious economic loss actions." Ibid. 44 second following instruction: 45 "Public bodies, authority interest[s] include protecting environment, agriculture, health safety citizens, regulating quality community looking So your jobs jurors here 46 "The advanc[e] bears objective. 47 "Now, preponderance favor plaintiff. motives inquired into." Id., 304. 48 (June 17, 49 verdict separate award $1.45 million. ruled stating ruling Pet. Cert. 39. motions 50 1422 1996). 1428, §1983, 1426 1427, 1430. 1430 1434. upholding 1426. 51 petition certiorari allowed reweigh erred assuming 374 (1994), applied certiorari, 1045 (1998), reverse order. II 52 course stated: "[e]ven Monte's application, 'roughly proportional' furthering City's 'both impact development.' " F.3d, 1430, quoting Dolan, 391. 53 sense proportionality animate Clause, Armstrong 364 40, (1960) ("The bar Government forcing people bear burdens fairness justice, borne whole"), beyond special exactions conditioning approval dedication use. 385; Nollan Coastal Comm'n, 483 825, 841 (1987). considers dedications demanded development's anticipated impacts. address, readily applicable to, arising where, excessive believe, accordingly, one. 54 Appeals' rough conclude, verdict. "[s]ignificant supports disproportional both development," 1432, 55 "Del [for proposal]. Taken together, invalid unfairly intended forestall Monte, incorrectly rational juror lacked nexus objectives." 1431 1432. 56 discuss proportionality. our III 57 challenges somewhat obscure, cast sufficiency evidence; rather, maintains juries second-guess policy. 58 elements thorough explanation requirement regulation exactions, cf., Nollan, 834 835, 3, note court's Lucas South Council, 505 1003, 1016 (1992); Yee Escondido, 503 519, 534 834; Keystone Bituminous Assn. DeBenedictis, 480 470, 485 (1987); Riverside Bayview Homes, 474 121, 126 (1985); (1980). recited authori- ties appear modeled. posture us, decline precedents. 59 sustained tried. ask unreasonable purpose," 303, "there Furthermore, lawyers "[t]his land." 1286 1287 (proposals "keeping mind regulations requirements, heights, setbacks, densities that. That's about"); ("They set height limits. They talk want about. accept today's society, cities counties tell owner property"). Though review, treatment owners similar properties, confirm complaint decision. 60 regarding reasonableness, se, customized, ad hoc property's otherwise. contrary, disclaimed express terms: partnership file lawsuit complaining giving [the development] shed, devoting [giving] area. One-third [of the] going away forever. about." 1288; 1289 (conceding "ask give third getting dime lots butterfly, boardwalks"). 61 regard issue, free rein policies. unmistakable terms, purposes 62 asked evaluate isolation particular, introduce challenging bases highlighted inconsistency staff, 1300. longstanding acquiring 63 short, couched, instruction objection. 64 Thus, despite protests amici, principles. error. 65 (Before agreed assess Supplemental Memorandum Petitioner Re: Court/Jury Trial Issues C86 5042 (ND Cal.), p. Record, Doc. 111.) recognized, answer asserts conferred Amendment. 66 Under precedents, "[b]efore inquiring 'first ascertain construction fairly [constitutional] avoided.' 345 (1998) (quoting Tull 481 412, 417, (1987)); accord 192, (1974). 67 character vital analysis, Tull, at, 3) ("[W]e discern 'any congressional intent grant trial' "). party who equity, redress." phrase "action term art implying trial. disagree, necessary implication. 68 Lorillard Pons, 434 575, 583 (1978), authorized "legal relief." Our rest solely statute's relied incorporation Fair Labor Standards Act, interpreted actions. 580. decline, authorization law." 69 consequence, reach controversy exceed twenty dollars, preserved ." Consistent textual mandate preserved, inquiries. "[W]e ask, first, dealing was." 376 (1996). "If belongs category, 1791." 70 recognized "suits "not merely suits, among old [also] ascertained contradistinction equitable remedies administered." Parsons Bedford, 433, (1830). 'analogous admiralty.' 348 Granfinanciera, S. A. Nordberg, 492 33, (1989)); Curtis, 193. 71 pursuant vindicate rights. hold meaning Scalia's comprehensive convincing conclusion. agree 72 framed terms vindicating U.S., 73 explains, post, 8, Just protected invasions Recognizing essential statute, '[w]e repeatedly noted creates species liability,' (1994) Memphis Community School Dist. Stachura, 299, 305 (1986)), "background liability," Monroe Pape, 365 167, 187 (1961) (overruled grounds, Monell New York Dept. Social Servs., 436 658 (1978)); Heck, compel 74 entitled proceed because, takings. 308 311. injury alleged, therefore, Had paid available, suffered alone. 194 accrue strict se 570 (1990) ("Generally, 'the traditional offered law' ") 196). 75 simple believe "We 'general rule' monetary legal." 352 570). differs restitution available lost, taker gained." Boston Chamber Commerce Boston, 217 (1910). name suggests, then, like "traditionally associated 352. sounded relief, 76 avoid conclusion, urges us look asserted. very least, asks Port Largo, 1084 (CA11 1996) (finding, tension §1983). estimating unclear adopted, "that eminent domain proceedings." (1970); accord, Bauman Ross, 167 548, 593 (1897). submits controlling, 77 notes, 5, 78 spring incorporated 315 (citing Jacobs 290 13, (1933)), important respects analogy, little 79 takes initiating "shifts burden discover encroachment affirmative compensation." Clarke, 445 253, 257 dispute seizure obligation pay it, "shifting initiative condemning condemnee" place "at significant disadvantage." 258; cf. 255 ("There practical proceeding"); 84 1906, §304, 4654 (recognizing, implicitly, added attorney's fees seizes cases). Where, denies fails (thus impartial arbiter), disadvantage becomes greater. untenable. 80 confirmed precedent. Early ground involve undisputed: 81 therefore inviolate constitution, criminal cases, civil secured party. description [condemnation proceedings], take, admitted; amount, tribunal legislature designate." Railroad (CCD N. J. 1830) (Baldwin, Justice). 82 (Although Souter's distinction, arguments unpersuasive. First, correctly notes procedures, raises establish all. dissent recognizes, desired contention injunction; surprise, entitlement equity. Second, refers diversity rationales condemnee decided." Post, 10-11. mentions rationale qualify dispensing cited proposition state-court antedating adoption off-point sovereign immunity retains vitality applicable, 316, coextensive claims. apply Federal municipalities Third, distinction drawn cases. obvious equally principle passages quoted dissent, rely perception Colonial Nothing detracts authorities draw Finally, existence distinguishes defendant 11, 5.) 83 Condemnation differ instant well. proscribe property; proscribes compensation"). 'unless loss.' Hudson Palmer, 468 517, 532, (1984)). gravamen practice. 85 opinions, nearly contemporaneous Bill Rights, suggested took failed means obtaining Lindsay Commissioners, Bay 38, (S. 1796) (opinion Waties, J.) ("But suppose sue, action? founded contract, none. tort; trespass, reparation Is acknowledging act [in authorizing takings] act?") (emphases original); Gardner Village Newburgh, Johns. Ch. 162, 164, 166 (N. Y. 1816) (Kent, Ch.) (uncompensated nuisance). 86 understanding, practice, redress, Richards Washington Terminal 233 546 (1914) (nuisance); Pumpelly Green Wall. (1872) (trespass case); Barron ex rel. Tiernan Mayor Baltimore, 243 (1833) (unspecified tort); Bradshaw Rodgers, 103 1822) (trespass). Tort descriptions W. Blackstone, Commentaries Laws England, ch. (1768) (trespass; trespass nuisance), 349 ("Actions juries"). 87 (Justice criticism reliance misses point analysis. always successful. makes clear, prior concomitant variety obstacles including immunities, lack possibility legislative stood way attempted ironic invokes article discussing Constitutional Tort: Remedial Revolution Nineteenth-Century Compensation Law." 15-16 Brauneis, Vand. L. (1999)). true, observes, quasi contract Lynah, 188 445, 458 465 (1903) Chicago, M., St. 312 592 (1941)) (comparing quasi-contract just-compensation tort). nothing since frequently victim elected waive instead contract. Prosser, Law Torts §110 (1941). G. Restitution §§1.2, 2.2 2.3 (1978); Woodward, Quasi Contracts §6 (1913).) 88 acts lawfully when, authorization, lawful assumes duty, Jacobs, 16). sought, circumstances 166, 168 ("[T]o exercise [eminent domain] power valid," "fair compensation"; "[u]ntil, provision affording him unjust, government" deprive rights; provision, "would interruption right"); Beatty 203 620, 626 (CA4 1913) compulsory. will. committed sovereign, condition inflicted complete"). 89 (The reveals misunderstanding. Simply put, measured he surprising significant.) 90 Having 370 "to resolution ultimate dispute," guaranteed 377. possible, "by method, characterizing issues] arise." 378. 91 exact identified know judge, resolving heart defendant. observations answer. 92 existing none surprising. reviewed 121 Hodel Virginia Surface Mining Reclamation Assn., 452 (1981), courts, (1994); 1003 825 injunctive 470 Lehman Nakshian, 453 156, 160 (1981) (suits States); court); Parsons, Pet., relief). 93 sued 182. Whether 12. point, procedure. 191 ("It eight met variance Accordingly, Commission determines variances granted, impossible find, record, 'will unable derive benefit' land"). 94 guidance. turn 657 (1935). rests firm foundation, E. Coke, Institutes 155b (1628) ("ad quaestionem facti non judices; juris juratores"), serves 96 Almost inception doctrine, far facts." 413 (1922); Coal, 474. described 'essentially hoc, inquiries,' Lucas, 1015 Penn Central Transp. 438 104, 124 (1978)), requiring "complex assessments effects actions," Yee, 523. pronouncements, implied acknowledgment procedure 98 doctrine difficult inquiry involves component, 523, aspect well, 99 supra. "essentially [in] nature." (internal quotation marks omitted) (alteration Appeals). narrow, factbound 100 limitations holding. suit. courts. court, entertain arose, facially circumscribed conceptual reach. occasion define precision claim; objected all, 101 For reasons, sustaining uniformity eviscerate local subjecting plenary, potentially inconsistent, specter. bring broad constitutionality sort. legitimate, policy, province Nor arise context. premised restrictions previously V 102 stated, ordered. 104 105 106 107 108 109 join Kennedy's opinion. my view, concerned; exists sought; sent there. 110 refrain others, duty. Since confers found, guarantees dollars." "[s]ui[t] 1791 cause, (1989), 421 111 (1979). speak, prism lights pass. Unlike analyzing focus ray happens passing 112 action. (1998). "statutory action" breach underlies rise besides so-called (according opinion) seems me irrelevant. central fortuitous inverse-condemnation surely Indeed, violations, alternative exist practically useful, addition theoretically sound, refracted light. 113 exactly approach 261 (1985) whose precisely gives distinct deja vu. analogize purpose: jury-trial identify limitations. period provided, 1988(a), event "deficient furnish punish offenses modified constitution statutes wherein having held, govern [federal] applying here: evaluated differently depending varying theories individual case." 268. (as here) way. have) "a uniquely remedy," purest coincidence remedies; analogies bound imperfect." 272 (citations, footnotes, internal omitted). And affected am difficulties course, 114 "Almost every favorably analogized ancient forms governed 115 "A catalog alleged encompass numerous diverse topics subtopics: discrimination employment race rights, discharge demotion procedural mistreatment schoolchildren, deliberate indifference medical needs prison inmates, chattels notice opportunity few." 273 (footnotes 116 "tort action[s] injuries." 117 sure, §1988 entirely "common fashion guarantee. But imagine why "unique remedy" determined innumerable dependent. search (often nonexistent) analogues major headache. Surely, Souter explain adhere Wilson, reaffirmed refined Owens Okure, 488 235 action.1 118 methodology case: created regarded as, Thomas Cooley's treatise published contemporaneously enactment tracked Blackstone's England 119 (1768), torts certain security, liberty, T. Cooley, (1880). assuredly fits description. Like injuries duties, Carey Piphus, 435 247, 254 thereby, deter future violations. countless "creates Imbler Pachtman, 424 409, 417 (1976); (1986); Smith Wade, 461 30, (1983); Carey, 253; Hague Committee Industrial Organization, 307 496, 507 (1939) Roberts, (describing "tortious persons authority"). commonly creating "constitutional litigated Crawford-El Britton, 574, 600 601 (1998); Jefferson Tarrant, 522 75, (1997); McMillian 520 781, 784 Richardson McKnight, 521 399, 401 Jones, 515 (1995); Albright Oliver, 510 266, 269 Siegert Gilley, 500 226, 231 (1991); Louis Praprotnik, 112, (1988); Daniels Williams, 327, 329 Dist., 307; Smith, 35; Servs. 658, 691 (1978). explicitly personal-injury tort, "[a] [§1983] person," "Congress unquestionably established Civil Rights Act 1871] than, example, contract." 277. 120 earlier, §1983's identity 1988(a). immunity, Kalina Fletcher, 118, 125 (1997), recoverable 483; 306, liability, (1961). Owen Independence, 622, (1980), attributes change keep modern developments torts: "Doctrines significantly past notions responsibility reflect evolution. [T]he loss-spreading fault factor distributing costs official misconduct." attaches juries. 347 initial "suit provided. obviously yes. Common-law writs generally Milsom, Historical Foundations Common 283 313 (2d ed. 1981). Trespass remedied direct, forcible while developed indirect consequential harms. Dix, Origins Action Case, Yale 1142, 1163 (1937); Krauss, Private Ordering, U. 623, 637, (1991). Claims triable Plucknett, Concise History 125, (4th 1948); Baker, An Introduction Legal 1979). (1974) [Title VIII 1968] defines compensate caused defendant's wrongful breach"); Pernell Southall Realty, 416 363, ("This person jury"); Ross Bernhard, 396 531, 533 (1970) entitle[s] parties 122 lower reference Caban-Wheeler Elsea, 837, 844 1996); Perez-Serrano DeLeon-Velez, 868 (CA1 1989); Laskaris Thornburgh, 733 260, (CA3 1984); Segarra McDade, 706 1301, 1304 1983); Dolence Flynn, 628 1280, 1282 (CA10 1980); Amburgey Cassady, 728, 730 (CA6 1974); Brisk Miami Beach, 726 Supp. 1305, 1311 1312 (SD Fla. Ruth Anne M. Alvin Independent 532 460, 475 Tex. 1982); Mason Melendez, 525 270, 282 (WD Wis. 1981); Cook Cox, 357 120, (ED Va. 1973). 123 sum, eliminated, virtue unified system, injunction sought. Dairy Queen, Wood, 369 469, 479 (1962); Scott Neely, 140 106, (1891). revert altered (an suit) obtain or, asserts, peculiar attach transformed fraud trustee could, instead, accounting. say function again, 377 (1996), guide. methodology, ante, 27, 29, absence analogue, recognizes preference judges resolve questions. fact-law dichotomy routinely deciding instance, retaliatory employee speech motivated termination constitutionally speech, speech. Horstkoetter Department Public Safety, 159 1265, 1271 1998). asserting harm harmed Myers Orange, 157 66, (CA2 1998), cert. denied, ___ (1999). answering questions: "all use" 1986 "substantially advance[d] [a] interes[t]." concur assessment "economically consideration Ante, advance[s] interes[t]"2 break down (insofar subquestions: interest. involving put cognizance: "legitimate development." subquestion, hand, jury: "[O]ne Ibid.; 127 128 129 LTD.,andMONTEREY- DEL 130 131 132 whom Breyer join, part. 133 commits error objection, Fed. Rule Civ. Proc. 39(a)(2). unsuccessfully (or condemnation) Respondents Constitution; misconceives draws false respectfully 134 eye issues. rejecting "rough proportionality" majority thinking language insufficient 16, consequence trial: 'whether was' "; "whether 1791.' 376). soundly invoking procedures. accordingly remitted implication results enquiry raise. launching agreement ends. 135 ones intuitively sensible, source link sovereign's domain. Accord, 1084, 1092 ("We indication framework"); Northglenn Grynberg, 846 P.2d 175, 178 (Colo. 1993) ("Because 'takings' clause proceeding"). Grant, Revolutionary View Nw. 205 136 intuition closer proceedings. identical actions: fair market [taken] date appropriated," measure Kirby Forest Industries, 467 (1984). follows, Brandeis Hurley Kincaid, 285 (1932), "[t]he [a owner] [an condemnation] awarded [government] instituted proceedings," 104. This, indeed, cases; commencement owners, government, go either. (1987): 137 'The d[oes] rested Amendment.' (1933)). 138 Boom Patterson, 403, 407 (1879) proceeding] land; words, taken. question, value"). presumably reason speak government. 258, (1980) ("Inverse 'a shorthand manner recovers instituted' (1980)). (1960); 192 193 inheres 'character' former Landowner latter States"). 139 strength fatal Reaffirming already well-established principle, explained century ago estimate domain, jury," (1897) (citing, Custiss Georgetown Alexandria Turnpike Cranch (1810); 513, 519 (1883); Shoemaker 147 282, 300, 301 (1893)),1 thought "long (1970).2 Wright, Miller, Marcus, Practice Procedure §3051, (1997) absolutely cases"). carry fail "Suits common-law" guarantee, assume indeed proceedings,3 Kohl 367, (1876) law"); Louisiana Power Light Thibodaux, 360 25, (1959) ("[A]n deemed classification 'suit "preserve[s]" framing, then. Const., Amdt. ("In preserved"). Moore, Wicker, Moore's ¶38.32[1], 268 ("[T]he courts; [instead] preserves law"). carried "no uniform colonies adopted." Atlas Roofing Occupational Safety Health Review 430 442, (1977) ("Condemnation jury"). Reynolds expressly considerations, shown Professor Congress with, lead domain." 239 1969) omitted)). 141 solid footing. Parliament payment parliamentary supremacy enabled Randolph, Eminent Domain, Q. 314, 323 (1887) ("That sub nomine included, absolutism Parliament. technical approximating 'compulsory powers' granting companies associations use"). McNulty, "Compulsory Purchase" 639, 644 646 (1912). prescribe whatever saw fit, chosen, methods Blair, Proceedings Harv. (1927); ample sanctioned method imperative Amendment"). 1A Sackman, Nichols Domain §4.105[1], 115, §4.107, pp. (rev. 3d 1998) become thirteen states constitutions refer [high]ways viewers appraisers, three number"); ("[I]t tribunal"). 142 framing notion yet derived, closest then-unborn condemnation, foreign era. accepted sake known crucial time. strong 143 plurality avoids ways. One disparage comparison proof onerous landowner. disparagement plurality's avoiding down, purported endorsing opinion, selecting such, tort-like alternative, wanting, prefers 144 145 conceded, leaving assessed, premise partially true. overwhelming always. Now fight condemn, claiming object unauthorized statute. Hawaii Housing Authority Midkiff, 229, 240 (1984) play legislature's [if] 'extremely narrow' one" (citation omitted)); Shoemaker, 298. 2A 82, nn. (listing clauses contest acquire purposes); Lewis, §417, 923, 1900). What more, stake, defense closely resembles, duplicate, Agins, contribute realization purpose.4 murkier still plaintiffs lawfulness money, infra, 18, defends unauthorized. §7.03[11][a], really declared one"), fare differently. 146 recognition underlie absence-of-liability-issue reasoning distinguishing resonate commenting cites Baldwin, sitting Circuit, position, 1,617) NJ 1830)), citation leaves reader skewed perspective denied. Several secure conducted Ligat Commonwealth, Pa. 456, 460 (1852) ("A liable her consent; has, case"); German Congregation Pittsburgh, 449 (1866) road corporation] exercises [and] never belong citizen himself powers domain"). McElrath 426, 440 significantly, decision.5 reflects says ought dollars-and-cents "factual" (to invoke criterion suitability connection, 30), provokes price house home. emphasis vigorously contested identifying something favored plurality. 148 doubting comparability heavier shoulder beginning initiate 257. varieties distinguishable. enjoined allegedly object. §7.03[12], challenger purpose"). why, condemnee's heavier, difference. Some plaintiffs' easy difficult, front (except assumption apt David advantage Goliath, point). Neither shift ease proof. Cf. 101.88 Acres Land, More Less, Situated Mary's Parish, La., 616 762, 772 (CA5 1980) 5th just, meted convenient sovereign"). 149 efforts torts. Whereas posits litigating treatments, not. treatments turned State's withholding end, citations consistently concepts 150 introduces claimed emphasizing sees real condemnations, admits refuses inasmuch effective process) (1985). Thus explains 151 "[a]lthough well." 26. 152 According plurality, mechanism 23, reasoning, distinguish possibly suit," 153 seeing akin nuisance, cases,6 analogy. 162 Ch.); (1872). arguably authority; (1914), ambiguous, nuisance enjoyment chose condemnation; (not explained) partial 154 Beyond prospect disappears. 1822), reversed Rogers Bradshaw, 735 1823). concept garden defending officer's land. 743 ("I exceedingly, uses officer, enters specially trespasser, for. know, justify justice carrying extent"). Law, 57, (1999) (demonstrating pre-Civil War owner-initiated retrospective "stripped [legislative] justification"). Leader Moxon, Black. 924, 927, Eng. Rep. 546, 547 (C. 1773) (commissioners acted Boulton Crowther, Barn. Cress. 701, 707, 544, (K. B. 1824). officer interfering wholly authority. recovery, fades. damaging flows conduct odds effecting lawful.7 Lutheran, 314 (1985)); 264, 297, (1981); 104; Monongahela Nav. 312, 336 (1893); 518). wrong action), orders "just compensation" incurred. 155 collection add reflecting conventionally treat grounding 16. quasi-contractual cousin conception resemblance strain contract8 unjust enrichment, Farnsworth, Farnsworth §2.20, (3d whereas 317 369, 373 (1943). 156 canvass materials, emergence spectrum employed respond problem experiments contemporary enforces owner's b 158 chosen too weak inability sin omission failing (which finds claim), element, matched fit reality "provision" thereby enforced, Golden Transit Corp. 493 103, other.9 otherwise; land, usual rules awards.10 c failure, prove much. wrote (erroneously) "both resemble trover conversion detinue replevin." 1427 Appeals, 620 1913), 26, Fourth compensation: 161 complete, definition indicated condemn lands be, follow defendant, stage assessed jury." F., 626. accepted, alone, runs squarely field condemnation. 163 pursues analytical begins sweeping claim: judgment). class forward serving undoubted virtues simplicity treating remedial "apply[ing] case," careful much: longer 7. subclass tortlike independent think inadequate. 164 serve originating pass feature appropriate, "suit[s] proceeding[s] vindicated injuction, Mitchum Foster, 225, 242 (1972) (§1983 falls "expressly authorized" Anti-Injunction injunctions staying proceedings), restitution, Samuel University 538 991, 994 995 1976) (restitution university collected violate Clause), declaratory judgments, Steffel Thompson, 452, 454, (declaratory invalid), implicate, Comparing lost. metaphor one: prism, procrustean bed. 165 Nor, mentioned, untoward refusal sine qua (and otherwise); behavior, sustainable, necessarily weaker specifically mandated amendment. values superior values, accepts do, stronger comparably Were uncertain, anomaly recognizing notwithstanding appears pronounced recalling substantial contribution purpose.11 includes component resolve, claims, rubric Nectow Cambridge, 277 183, (1928)).12 Substantive are, reserved Sacramento 833, 853 855 Glucksberg, 702, 722 723 FM Properties Operating Austin, (rational Sameric Philadelphia, 582, 590 591 (same action).13 charge objective adequacy means. perfect sense. subtleties deferential sort sorts accorded institutional competence Pearson Grand Blanc, 961 1211, 1222 1992) (deferential court). Scrutinizing "one things likely better unburdened training exegesis." 388. surprise aim (whether occurred Mid Gulf, Bishop, 792 1205, 1213 1214, 1215 (Kan. Gissell Kenmare Township, 2d 1994) (necessity Yegen Bismarck, 291 422, (taking vel law). Gray Highways, 427 899 closing intersection needed issue). practices great gulf realities assertion "in cases," 169 Perhaps apparently distance ramifications determination. disclaims "precise interests." 31. policies," judge." (And mean someone raise remedy, 26.) reticence cold comfort distinctions withstand tort-law purports rest. narrowness intentions cannot, limit consequences dissent.14 Notes 170 "trial lead, 21. Before merger enjoin High, Injunctions 476 1880). type purely nuisance. disentitle 198 (1974); 446 (1830); Re Re, Cases Materials Remedies required. requested, belief 171 forfeited objection standard, 12, propriety. Bauman, upheld (providing streets) contemplated "differing consisting twelve persons, unanimity," "may entrusted commissioners appointed executive, inquest fewer men 593. 302, (upholding ascertainment condemned presidentially commissioners); consequent made, inquisition taking; prosecuted boards intervention designate"). enforced immaterial; Crane Hahlo, 258 142, (1922) [determining compensation], especially board, sheriff's non-judicial tribunal, country provide"). 173 Similarly, Long Island Water Supply Brooklyn, 685, 694 (1897); Crane, 147; Dohany Rogers, 281 362, (1930). 174 commentators proceeding, else proceeding. H. Mills Abbott, §84, 225 1888); §91, idea writ quod damnum, sheriff incurred Nonetheless, Government's classified 175 4. Laitos, Property §12.04[A], police prohibition check power"; describing test"). 176 presence crucial, lost Such, Blazar Perkins, 463 203, 207 (R. I. 1983) defendants admitted removing alter th[e] [that trial]"). 177 6. Two offer tangential support. Plaintiff's 243, 249 (1833), jurisdiction, States. 1796), restraining laying street, relies favoring writ, actually divided equally, writ. dictum violation), 179 Williston §1.6, 1990) enrichment). 180 9. Of "is parts describes." Wisconsin-Eau Claire, (CA7 1995) pre-existing allege 'laws' 181 interim costs, fees, Complaint 15; Amended calculating damages: "[I]t's value, Multiply rate appropriate. computing recover." Record incremental "damages" (beyond compensation) Eide Sarasota 908 716 element confirms recognize Miller Campbell 854 71, (Wyo. (rejecting emotional distress actions). 182 indicate formed finding: purpose; 183 prong cognizable flowing Clauses Amendments. 184 13. concentrates aims "clearly arbitrary unreasonable, relation health, safety, morals, welfare." Euclid Ambler Realty 365, 395 (1926). 185 14. remand trial; advisory, recorded own 52(a).

Category: 3