Document: 523 U.S. 767118 S.Ct. 1726140 L.Ed.2d 993 State of NEW JERSEY, Plaintiff,v.State YORK. No. 120 Orig. Supreme Court the United States Argued Jan. 12, 1998. Decided May 26, Syllabus * An 1834 compact between New York and Jersey, approved by Congress pursuant to Compact Clause, set boundary line as middle Hudson River, Article First; provided that Ellis Island, then three acres, was part York, despite its location on Jersey side river, Second; had exclusive jurisdiction submerged lands waters two low-water mark shore, subject certain exceptions, including Jersey's right boundary, Third. The agree Second gave sovereign authority over this has determined, inter alia, retained ultimate rights side, Central R. Co. N.J. v. City, 209 473, 478-479, 28 592, 592-593, 52 L.Ed. 896. After 1891, when decided use Island receive immigrants, National Government began filling around Island's shoreline next 42 years added some 24.5 acres original Island. In 1954, immigration diverted from Since then, been developed a national historic site, but have asserted rival claims filled land. 1993, invoked Court's try dispute. trial, Special Master concluded First marks sovereignty States; although accords it existed in 1834, does not address issue portions; portions fall under common-law doctrine avulsion. He rejected York's affirmative defense having obtained prescription acquiescence laches. pegged exact dimensions mean he recommended area covered pier extending shore at time should be treated Finally, recommended, for reasons practicality, convenience, fairness, adjust States, placing main building land immediately surrounding within York. Both filed exceptions. Held: exception portion Master's report concerning is sustained. other exceptions are overruled. Pp. ____-____. (a) did give absence any description metes bounds merely shows everybody knew what was. Compact's failure consequences landfilling support argument such Harbor so common practice render unnecessary mention Second. Rather, era's law, "avulsion,'' which no effect Nebraska Iowa, 143 359, 361, 12 396, 397, 36 186. This rule fills silence leads conclusion remained property landfill them. Neither intuition nor history supports additional parties would hardly wanted divide because division frustrate purpose giving control navigation commerce harbor. (b) through exercise prescriptive acts exercise. As an defense, plaintiff's burden showing preponderance evidence, Illinois Kentucky, 500 380, 384, 111 1877, 1881, 114 420, exercised dominion made with consent 1890, add vigorously claim. task difficult facts: must supposed know that, referred official dealings, meant something than original, concededly territory; States's occupation affected opportunity act claim-e.g., establishing towns, roads, or public buildings-as well degree attention may reasonably paid whatever performed asserting jurisdiction. evidence-the recording vital statistics people Island; inclusion voting districts, together registration lists names living personal impressions belong York; States' understanding sovereignty-is too slight finding prescription. occurred off were either equivocal their territorial references ill-calculated notice Jersey; they leave officials actual occupants, settled consistent might sovereignty. (c) chargeable laches delay bringing action. Even if correct there more better evidence brought suit earlier, cannot relieve proof defense. (d) line, not, argues, high-water line. assumes aware general rule, recognized Court, most appropriate sovereigns, see, e.g., Handly's Lessee Anthony, 5 Wheat. 374, 383, 113, explicitly intended. It unsound infer Third's specification jurisdictional intended elsewhere. (e) agrees falls authority. 1819 map relied, appears show pier's location, expert credibly testified pilings create piers still uncommon mid-1800's much easier shallow build piers. (f) lacks considerations practicality convenience. Congressional approval "transforms interstate [the Compact] Clause into law States,'' Cuyler Adams, 449 433, 438, 101 703, 707, 66 641. Unless unconstitutional, court order relief inconsistent express terms. Texas Mexico, 462 554, 564, 103 2558, 2565, 77 1. difficulties created divides just island buildings price success litigating whose fair construction calls definite. P. ____. Exceptions overruled sustained part, case recommitted Master. SOUTER, J., delivered opinion REHNQUIST, C. O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. concurring opinion, STEVENS, dissenting opinion. SCALIA, THOMAS, 1 Joseph L. Yannotti, Trenton, NJ, plaintiff. 2 Jeffrey Minear, amicus curiae, special Court. 3 Daniel Smirlock, Albany, NY, defendant. ON BILL OF COMPLAINT 4 Justice SOUTER modest boundary. fill whether We find does. 6 April dispute jurisdiction, see Const., Art. III, §2, cl. 2, seeking file bill complaint against granted petition, 511 1080, 1828, 128 458 (1994), appointed Paul Verkuil Master, 513 924, 115 309, 130 273 (1994). denying parties' cross-motions summary judgment, conducted trial July 10 August 15, 1996, submitted Final Supplemental Reports us June 16, 1997, 520 ----, 117 2451, 138 209, subjected resolved here. 7 lies 1,300 feet one mile tip Manhattan. At first European settlement mostly mud, sand, oyster shells, nearly disappeared high tide. Mohegan Indians called "Kioshk,'' Gull while Dutch Amsterdam, after thrifty acquisition, renamed (along nearby specks) oyster, recognition rich beds. England seized 1664, same year Charles II included grant his brother, Duke water present Jersey. turn territory Lord Berkeley Sir George Carteret, proprietors domain described "bounded east sea, Hudson's river.'' 8 Having wasted words, noble grantor all guaranteed succession legal fees expenses arising disputes, now fourth century since conveyance received seal. Revolutionary War, long disagreement about lower Harbor, arguing preserved entire contending co-equal emerging Revolution entitled river. Between competing lines, course, lay Oyster Islands, which, 1785, came private ownership eponymous Samuel Ellis, heirs last owners. 1800, ceded "jurisdiction'' reserving only serve judicial process there. Act Feb. ch. (1797-1800 N.Y. Laws p. 454). 1808, obtaining title well, "right, interest'' "for providing safety city port New-York.'' Mar. 18, 51 (1808 Laws, 273); 20, 1807, (1807 67); Deed 30, 1808. Before War 1812 began, Army taken improved barracks magazine, fortified battery 20 guns. 9 meantime neighboring tried settle controversy. each commissioners prepare compromise agreement, none forthcoming allowed controversy simmer another years, new appointed. they, too, failed agree, 1829 seek resolution establish "rights property, sovereignty'' west mid-point River Bay. Exh. 293 (Complaint 22 (1829)). clear papers, however, concern islands conceding Bill Equity during colonial period possession "in dividing "that thus acquired ha[d] . acquiesced in'' Id., 22-23. Although we took suit, Pet. 284, 127 (1831), never judgment. Instead, once again negotiated 1833 actually reached agreement. Each enacted terms 8; 1833-1834 pp. 118-121, jointly sought Constitution, I, §10, 3. 28, 126, Stat. 708. 11 comprises eight articles, directly sets relevant stretch "boundary line'' "except hereinafter otherwise particularly mentioned.'' provides "New shall retain Bedlow's[1] Ellis's islands; also lying above mentioned state.'' Under Third, enjoy waters'' "of said low water-mark westerly thereof.'' is, "subject [certain] state Jersey.'' That State, example, "shall water'' "the wharves, docks, improvements, congressional close provision "nothing therein contained construed impair manner affect, form agreement.'' already addressed meaning these 896 (1908), where held authorized tax watermark shore. expressed Holmes, determined them fell 478, S.Ct., 592-593. even though Third grants "exclusive jurisdiction'' "ultimate rights'' beneath waters. noted term used broader sense (relating islands) center line), latter being "to promote interests navigation, take back consequence I.'' 479, 593. " [w]hether power police regulation conferred upon [by third article] need now.'' Ibid. explained Bedlow's "present' them, seem face simply preserve status quo ante, be.'' current litigation, recognize Islands reference retention "present'' cession save 13 Compact, continued fortress until 1861, dismantled fortifications proceeded munitions magazine berth ships defending 1880's, radical change. left largely up time, swelling number immigrants overwhelming systems, point leading Washington impose regulation. While traditionally come ashore Castle Garden, located Manhattan owned operated ideal place station view frauds, robbery, crookedness seemed inseparable landing immigrants.'' 488, (V. Stafford, Immigration Problems: Personal Experiences Official (1925)). turned out chosen. 14 small, opened January 1892, enough double acres. By 1897, go growing almost 40 more. 15 wood stucco depot burned expanded larger quarters. depot, 1900, sat approximately spot prior building, joined hospital placed separate 1899. often southwestern ferry slip. A gangway built piles connected islands, soon more, before occurrence step 16 Because 1900 could provide sufficiently isolated wards patients contagious diseases, sent City care treatment. When, 1902, Health Department announced longer own disease hospital, planned gangway. Construction stopped, challenged Government's appropriation December 1904, Riparian Commissioners conveyed "all right, title, claim interest every kind, Jersey'' 48 surrounded exchange $1,000. America, Recorded, County Hudson, Dec. 23, 1904. pressed 1906 completed 4.75 Here constructed 1909 occupied 1911. 17 Two 1920's dock basin 3, 1934 northern end, enlarged roughly total nine times original. 18 Ironically, rose fell. million disembarked 1892 arrivals dropped 5,000 daily 1907 200 day November Naturalization Service (INS) closed station. 19 Soon General Services Administration (GSA) classified surplus entertained various proposals using home educational institutions, clinic alcoholics, historical site recreation, facility mentally retarded. Prospects future clouded, fact carried rolls intention collect taxes owner GSA sanguinely [t]he question will becomes eligible taxation grantee disposal consummated (letter Administrator, GSA, Senator Clifford Case, dated 1958), reason fear kill disposition like make. 1960, Council Governments mediate dispute, negotiations impasse. 134 Regional Director, Governments, Associate Counsel, 1960). offered sale commercial market several times, Secretary Interior 1964 stop trying sell instead develop advantage course supposition "any opening hostilities obviated. 161 (N.Y. Times, Oct. 22, 1964, 37, col. 4). But optimism premature, Park given alone exercises it, restoration 1976, assert purposes taxation, zoning, environmental protection, elections, education, residency, insurance, codes, preservation, labor welfare laws, civil criminal generally. 1986, efforts resolve naught enact proposed agreement deposit revenues fund homeless. Seven later, prompted bring instant action Appeals Circuit Collins Promark Prods., Inc., 956 F.2d 383 (C.A.2 1992), tort governed determine B 21 complaint, seeks declaration follows balance asks permanent injunction prohibiting enforcing laws it. establishes states midpoint States. Next, 1834,2 avulsion, affirmatively defensive acquiescence. barred inapposite actions. 23 concluding limited went dimensions, [i]n fairness,'' Report 24 excepted recommendations. amount following claims: (1) (2) exercise; (3) adopted; record contains credible partially landfill, jurisdiction; across follow modify 25 successful points raised, meritless. 26 rests 27 party takes our holding established line.3 carves existing They "present suffices bar contention land; says not. concedes argues "Ellis Island,'' without describing mass bounds, extended cover; became fast contiguous position allegation adding subaqueous adjacent make consequences. who agreed driving harbor.4 29 arguments unavailing. To begin with, highly dubious inference beyond obvious one, drafters' silence, can convert name definitional Proteus validating claims.DB1SNor draw favor landfilling, however been.5 There do so, understood 1834.6 case, Georgia South Carolina, 497 376, 404, 110 2903, 2919-2920, 309 (1990), expansion "was caused adjoining Corps Engineers.'' littoral owner, "cannot extend [its] purposefully causing accretion.'' (citing Seacoast Real Estate American Timber Co., 92 N.J.Eq. 219, 221, 113 A. 489, 490 (1920)); California, 381 139, 177, 85 1401, 1422, 296 (1965) Marine Railway & Coal 257 47, 65, 32, 34-35, 124 (1921)) (referring artificial belongs onto deposited''). owner's traditional governing avulsive changes, "recognized boundaries nations are, treaty, found running water.'' 186 (1892). sudden change known avulsion (as distinct accretion, gradual configuration) "has boundary,'' ibid, ""is point, laid down writers authority,''' id., 362, 397 (quoting Op. Atty. Gen. 175, 178 (1856)), William Blackstone, U.S., 364, 398 Commentaries 262 (1766)). See Mayor Orleans 662, 717, 573 (1836) (common accretion "is less applied public, rights''); W. Hall, Treatise International Law 122 (J. Atlay 6th ed.1909) (explaining application rules disputes States). speaks conclude them.7 30 merit depriving primary Compact. framers thought necessary assure able regulate Harbor. neither argument. object water-borne evident declared acts. conceded speak unaffected literal presence fill, think recognizing affect ability 31 On assumption fails carry gained subjecting considerable period. Again, State's unsound. 32 other's expense, substantial period, impositions 384-385, 1881-1882, 420 (1991); supra, 389, 2911-2912; Arkansas Tennessee, 310 563, 570, 60 1026, 1030, 84 1362 (1940); Vermont Hampshire, 289 593, 613, 53 708, 715-716, 1392 (1933); Louisiana Mississippi, 202 1, 53, 408, 422-423, 50 913 (1906); Virginia 148 503, 522-524, 728, 735-736, 37 537 (1893). "For security rights, individuals, protected. And great principle involved greater justice propriety disputed boundary.'' Rhode Massachusetts, How. 591, 639, 1116 (1846). founded supposition, confirmed constant experience, person naturally him; fairly drawn neglect, defect relinquish it.'' Phillipson, Wheaton's Elements 269 (5th ed.1916). From expectations, derived "moral prevent disturbance lines; springing regard natural sentiments affections grow places persons resided; attachments country, family, based dearest valuable life.'' 524, 736. 33 proponent occupy itself claiming doctrine; "show continuous of, assertion over'' those 1881. presupposes knowledge, bound direct knowledge acted land, open, notorious, visible, uninterrupted adverse presumed. 393, 2914 (stating ""that open notorious notice; only, held' '') Landes Brant, 348, 375, (1850)); 1030 (noting won lost "open, long-continued territory''); Michigan Wisconsin, 270 295, 307-308, 46 290, 293-294, 70 595 (1926) (rejecting Michigan's "excusable ignorance'' ground material facts authorities, shown, necessarily assumed''); 423, (1906) "Louisiana always [ownership area]; Mississippi repeatedly recently it''); MacGibon, Scope Acquiescence Law, Brit. Y.B. Int'l 143, 173 (H. Lauterpacht ed., 1954) ("The proposition fulfil [sic] requirement notoriety scarcely doubt'').DBSIt essential appreciate extent claimant shoulder. terra nullius, volcanic abandoned former sovereign, others planting flag rearing monument. 19th generous discovery accompanied symbolic "an inchoate option, states, consolidate steps proceeding effective reasonable time.''8 I. Brownlie, Principles Public 146 (4th ed.1990); Hyde, 329 (rev.2d ed.1945); Oppenheim §§222-223, 439-441 5th ed.1937); Hall 102-103; J. Moore, 258 Phillimore, (2d ed. 1871); E. Vattel, Nations, §208, 99 Chitty Am. 1844). Thus, remote Pacific atoll STEVENS's dissent, post, __, "a solitary fingerprint,'' day. underscores Hence law's emphasis length continuity activity, prove knowing claimant's demonstrated design. Conversely, titleholder's obligation refusing acquiesce hostile behavior disputing earlier title.9 start equals pretension, single fingerprint suffice fail abjectly holder independently established. 34 turning word threshold issue, agree. thought, ripened sovereignty, all, 1890 1954. 1954 undisputed most, rely 64 years,10 insufficient matter law. sure, minimum perfect territory, "no regards circumstances Everything depends merits individual indeed immeasurable imponderable influences besides mere lapse work conviction stability possessor considered rightful territory.'' §242, 456-457. have, adequate (1926), door litigation 35 door, outset, note discount probative force presents. First, vested Second, throughout arguable prescription, entirely seen recognizes then-existing So referent indication grew, expressly pertaining falling short physical vague further territory.11 Island'' roll statute outlining confines district sound (so far concerned) making old. So, registrations refer events (though geography hospitals instances). mailing addresses York'' likewise (a underscored postal district, political be). vagueness important, significance stems run. __. suffers nothing unless least attempt deal officially (on all). realize how particular activities range possibly information convey intentions. argued exclusively precluded requisite (and point; cf. 2911-2912 (finding Engineers dispute); 571-572, 1030-1031 possible holds land)), standard case. buildings, 306-307, 293-294; Maryland West Virginia, 217 40, 268, 277, 54 645 (1910), 2913-2914 (charging Carolina cultivating question). Procurement Division Treasury controlled improvements. Nor assess generate kind persuasive cases. 385, 1881-1882; 392, 2913; 567, 1029; 40-41, 277-278; 515, 732-733. Until passage Buck Act, 787, 1059,12 1940, municipality federal municipality, collected taking 1991, over. significant register deeds actions produced cases assessing acts, 614-615, 716; Indiana 136 510, 1051, 1054, (1890); 1904 normal agencies meet governmental responsibility fire protection area. firefighting equipment rarely help showed furnished assistance occasions, 1897 ground, 1903, cheating employee working telegraph office Ludlow Street jail 1916, German saboteurs barges floated ignited seawall.13 38 residents populated enclave wholly vote; likely resident population maintain idea registered vote absentees. Governor Rockefeller put remarked 1959 [f]or fifty [of Island] relatively little importance Federal administered Island].'' 123 Louis Harris, 4, 1959). 39 sum, peculiar capacity invoke sovereign's adduces character. rendered statement equivocal, purposes, tended limit perform. weigh appreciation twin hurdles STEVENS charges, resort hypertechnicality, good designs accordingly examine activity up, closer famine feast. four principal categories. recorded certificates five births probably Island,14 deaths 4-month 1924, five15marriage certificates, 1901 1914.16 For much,17 meager diminished Of marriage 1914 indicates reflect marriages Main Building, solemnized apparently concerned complying passed required couples getting married obtain license town woman resided. 742. both nonresidents performed. Obtaining therefore implication residence, were, undomiciled America.18 foregoing claimed practice, entries six decades arguably circumstantial acting 41 presented statutes ordinances indicated lived manifest. specific read doing Albany Manhattan, legislation awareness changes time. establishment Senate Assembly districts covering purport include so-called dredged existence 1916 373; 1917 798; 1943 359; fact, deleted 1953, 1953 893, related maps missing late 1945. depiction remains size shape. Exhs. 957-963 (maps Borough 1st 2d Dists., issued Bd. Elections N.Y.C. (1918, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1930, 1939, 1945)). effort update eliminate specifically intent alteration representation maps, legislative overtly districts. lists, hand, tendency suggest (1917, 1918, 1919, 1925, 1936, 1945, 1953), why evidence. category proffered covers belief inhabitants citizens inconsiderable importance.'' (1820); 41, 44, 277-278, 279 allegiance Virginia); 527, 737-738 handful themselves Tennessee). strongest items sort numerous individuals list residence York.'' declarations qualified, given, rest worth mentioning. includes, documents indicating men witnessed Commissioner Immigration's signature contracts different 1908 listed residences NY''; witness 1908. petition naturalization 1911 applicant her York,'' witness. Hewitt, officers' quarters family September 1940 old, recollection'' Tr. 3144-3145 (Aug. 5, 1996).19 43 final noteworthy indications tantamount activity. proxy. California Nevada, 447 125, 131, 100 2064, 2067-2068, 65 (1980) reestablish lines). may, succeeded object.20 44 contain favorable way. full reveals understandings inconstant 45 1903 1925 wages benchmark raise workers specifications projects inspectors alluded codes bases comparisons; inspector occasionally remark regulations, condemned, once, 1935, Works Branch accepting contractor's request bolt, counterparts bolt used.21 References regulations benchmarks indicate Davis-Bacon 1494 (1931), comes understanding. originally enacted, "on States'' rate "not prevailing similar nature city, town, village, located,'' ibid., 1931 applied.22 1910, 1920, censuses, correspondence.23 47 pluralistic views matter. requested kitchen restaurant announcement stated Building Ordinances apply matters.'' 775, sheet OO. 1911, spokesmen saying Line Board prepared surveys pierhead bulkhead lines titled "Pierhead Bulkhead Lines Ellis' Board.'' App. 21a, 22a.24 before, Commission Attorney General, Moody, previously "proceeded theory changed "it Bay 351 Moody Comm'n 1-2, 1904).25 1933, got nod INS permission construct sea wall received.26 Within yet land's agencies, members Hamilton F. Kean Representative Mary T. Norton, wrote Labor expressing contractors hiring union locals 24-27. asked advice [s]ince clearly outside either, equal proportions states.'' 24, 33-35. When chapter Bricklayers, Masons, Plasterers Union neutrality managed lob Labor, solicitor (later Judge) Wyzanski, Jr., response: [I]t seems me perfectly apparent your answer sound: Bedloe's Philippine Hawaii are. territories forty-eight 43. matters long, contractor, Driscoll Company, later learned employ workers, calling agency unaware. With skillful evasiveness, replied fact: limits determination Review.'' 51. contractor protest hire responded "Article Island.'' 52. local Norton protested decision, Solicitor Wyzanski 1933 permit seawall, deed conveying lands. Division, erroneously citing refused budge. 49 reveal ever impression markedly Treasury. 1940's, moved solicitor's rejection acceptance Jersey's, issuing decisions 1947-1949 proper wage rates County, ruled trade applicable [is in] 1949 apply; "additional data assembled.'' end day, understanding, grab-bag opinions shifting forth between, within, Government. reviewing presented, maintenance shown sporadic regarded prescriptive. compilations shared characteristic occurring Surely C asserts laches, ""requires lack diligence whom asserted, prejudice defense.''' Kansas Colorado, 514 673, 687, 1733, 1742, 131 759 (1995) Costello 365 265, 282, 81 534, 543, 551 (1961)). presses spite explanation 388, 1883, [a]lthough account broad policy disfavoring untimely underlies limitations, acquiescence.'' seemingly hopes benefit possibility 687-688, 1742-1743, available compacts. explore here, plain really asserts. raises guise includes insofar argue going result Indeed, amici extensive bearing avail footnote supra), relied records practices suggesting contributed loss prejudice, rather, presenting seen, acquire independent protest. elements persuasion, therefore, raising "defense,'' aid prejudiced: many ago officials, lay, enable burden. 55 hard say. effectively plaintiff escape necessity proving III 56 second questioning choice levels define shoreline, challenging miniscule detail Its questions improve located. 57 saw awarded geographical specification, extends mark, persuaded heavily 1827, Robbins Reef, [the] .'' 280-292 (Report Legislature, 3). own, (given Compact) recognized, sovereigns. 606, 713; Wheat., 113. Lessee: 58 "This mankind. retains river constitutes extremely inconvenient bare receding Wherever main, boundary; mind embarrassed insurmountable difficulty attempting mark.'' 380-381. 59 assume precedent unsettled emphasized gives "lands rivers Harbor] thereof [subject exceptions].'' suggests other, high-water, elsewhere, 61 bounded water. followed water, crept inland generally academic potential If rising Lessee, conflict margin arise anything respect shoreline. question, indeed, confirms compacting general, rule. 62 narrower detail. challenges sufficiency 1819, pier, pilings,'' uncommon, landfill. 63 [n]o shall, Consent Congress, enter Agreement '' ago, approved, settles right; binding citizens, fully contested.'' 657, 727, 1233 (1838). 706, 641 (1981); accord, (1983). Just addressing statute, "first business'' interpreting compact.'' Texas, 567-568, 2566-2567. [U]nless consented somehow terms,'' equities invite. Arizona 373 546, 565-566, 83 1468, 1480-1481, 542 (1963) (" [C]ourts substitute notions "equitable apportionment' apportionment chosen Congress.''); Oregon, 211 127, 135, 49, 118 (1908) Oregon north channel, courts prescribed channel,'' waterway equity altering line); Delaware, 291 407, 415-416, 78 847 (1934); 46, 279-280. drawbacks definite.27 n. 13, 2567, obviously poor alternative negotiation interested States''). convenient arrangement themselves, Congress.'' 508, 1053, Minnesota 252 273, 283, 313, 319, 558 (1920) ("It repeat suggestion endeavor boundaries''). IV Part VII report, concerns preparation proposal decree ordered. 67 GINSBURG joins, concurring. 68 Many parents grandparents landed argued, I assumed bear parcel revealed. facts, (who disagree facts), shows, my view, 69 SCALIA custom, assumption, 19th-century in, explains, ambiguity sufficient, ambiguity. "relevant'' document, ambiguous. serious arises sections rely. __-__, nn. (discussing Third). basically rested Brief Respondent 11-15; Oral Arg. 33, 35-36, 46. Those Articles specify waters, border East. islands,'' silent happen i.e., creation out, 6, ambiguity; means ordinary background applies; island's owns island, found. (1990); 361-362, (1892); __-__. rightfully own. Too relies Government, Judge that: 71 72 virtually same. Perhaps specialized lawyers phrased conclusions ringing qualifications. But, still, expect mounted major assertions "sovereignty'' (modest were) boundaries, Jersey,'' World opportunities denied Old. Given background, "prescription'' surmounted barrier here problems fairness 73 reasons, particular, others, spelled belongs, join 74 dissenting. 75 analysis issues, appraisal sitting court, documentary uncontradicted oral testimony, findings inferences findings. judgment portions, years. finding, turn, govern 76 During served Gateway America immigrants. Thousands worked hundreds resided decades. believed What uniformly whenever multitude responsible authorities presumption temporary exception, belief. direction quantity supporting propositions large. pointing direction. preface factfinding, discounting evidence: Ante, undermines believe factfinding function comment probable expectations sovereigns participated decision enlarge made, construed. identified accorded waters.1 kind'' lands, thereafter possessed area, surface. 79 surprising enlarged, discussion 1955 representatives vociferously 1963 advanced split (and, consequently, Island). State. 80 Census nonimmigrants increased 93 1915, 182 1925.2 testimony employed cooks, maids, nurses, attendants. censuses counted voted elections. According 1945-1946, District. Moreover, 1894 1938 Constitutions Furthermore, district. 1925,3 enrolled voters "1944-1945'' identifies affiliation regularly elections offices candidates represent House Representatives. character voting. 82 weight census. accuracy census determines delegation, basis allocation benefits burdens among variety programs.'' Franklin 505 788, 814, 112 2767, 2782-2783, 636 (1992). shift hundred cause lose seats gain warranted relative increase population, count surely State.4 treatment sufficient prompt vigorous objection minimize slightest figures, thousands Presumably birth certificate death certificate. families decedents newborn infants 1907. uncertain, law.5 amendment domestic relations licenses City. Fiorello LaGuardia, interpreter escorted get married. trips engaged period.6 V millions entering journey steamship ticket destination Upon arrival, "certificate arrival'' newcomer marked York''; arrival Archives. pinned Landing Card newcomer; according representative card, stated, languages: "When card coat dress passenger prominent position.''7 certainly arrived 86 Similarly, Island-all Island-believed Documents executed consistently N. Y.,'' These appear records, miscellaneous well. Postal zone, presumably mail Y.'' 87 everyone Significantly, am aware, voluminous record8 immigrant whole VI 88 few occasions municipal enforcement services employees. fire, rushed twenty policemen keep panic-stricken immigrants.''9 firemen extinguished seawall cribbing. 1934, investigated fatality resulted accident 1942, Police formed squad assist arriving incidents not.10 89 1915 assault allegedly committed Island.11 1931, Circuit, District habeas corpus alien detained Island.12 judges Southern detention deportation aliens judge, federal, Jersey.13 VIII 90 discounts reminding instances happened or, narrowly, rather Pacific. geographic quarter away. Particularly teemed notorious. 90% event doubt, 91 Not presume outer State; predicated Judicial IX evidence14 accept relates Norton's 1935 persuade Bedloes Islands. letter 25, she advised contended15 "these Jersey.''16 March 19, ultimately submission, dropped. correspondence nonacquiescence reasons. demonstrates happening espoused manifestly untenable belonged makes advancing behalf State.17 X 94 BREYER's concurrence comment. reliance Wyzanski's consideration request. noted, consideration, 95 true exceptionally lawyer, instance wrong. Like enclaves unquestionably Nevertheless, wrong, BREYER shred anyone else statement. legislators drew takers supervised births, marriages, XI 96 supported preponderance, clear, convincing, evidence.18 respect, contrary hypertechnical focus overlooks whole. entered melting pot early century, obscured record. implausibility strange decreed. 97 Instead constituting borders share intersects buildings-the Baggage Dormitory Boathouse Building. Thin strips slip boats delivering visitors annually. ending large front slip's denies access to, over, intimately functionally operation correctly "neither York.''19 98 bizarre unfair commonsense contemplated lasted Unquestionably, Accordingly, respectfully dissent. THOMAS years,'' __ (dissenting opinion). reason. 102 permits oust undoubted justifiably demands very proof. Specifically, context requires, also, "acquiescence jurisdiction,'' requires "knowledge presumed.'' climb mountain eliminated contract Jersey-the 1834-that poorly drafted ambiguous.* hornbook practical ambiguous revealed conduct meaning. See, 17A Am.Jur.2d Contracts §357 Restatement (Second) §§202(4), 203 (1979); Uniform Commercial Code §2-208(1), U.L.A. 407 (1989). 104 treaty (the treaty). Air France Saks, 470 105 1338, 1340-1341, (1985), quoting Choctaw Nation 318 431-432, 672, 677-678, 877 (1943) (""to ascertain treaties] look written words adopted ''). reasoning precise disputes. 619, 717-718, (1933) ("the tends interpretation Order-in-Council 1764''). lengthy compact-New States-behaved privileges normally provides-the vote, protection. appears, them; behaving assuredly constitutionally decennial census, assignment zones, (in end) (1931). suffices, meant. "sufficient, ambiguity'' "basically Second'' "are "avulsion,''' apply. (concurring Second-as integrated contends "specify [Article First] East.'' Second) "guarante[e] Harbor,'' achieved Second's bay, language) bay. 16. purpose, defeated additions bay Third-and (when reads whole) unambiguously leaves totally unconnected hear disregard actively anamicus, submitting examining witnesses, bend backward pronounce clarity document none. syllabus Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 321, 337, 287, 499. commonly "Liberty sometimes "Bedloe's.'' scope 1800. pleaded curiae proceeding, occasion declare island. brief, government Enclave Clause'' §8, 17, case.'' Amicus Curiae Historical Society et al. Landmarks Conservancy "property'' variously preclude relying stare decisis pass named renounced provide. disparage scholarship briefs embody. (which Island) element "police power'' land-use, argue. Trust Historic Preservation Municipal Art Amici 12; Conservancy, League Districts 17-27. counsel power, harbor.'' 34. filled, "used anchorage, docking, storage areas, lighthouses 35. navigation; "this isn't [Third],'' 36, harbor navigation. Kowalskie Merchants Miners Transp. N.Y.S.2d 699, 700-701 (Sup.Ct.1947); re Gutkowski's Estate, 135 93, 102-103, A.2d 365-366 (N.J.Prerog.1943). courts' 2913, Durfee Duke, 375 106, 115-116, 242, 247-248, (1963), interpret broadly signed Beyond language cited already, governs expanding closest approach mistakes makes, applies assuming agreement's utter contractual translation modify. Prior permitted owners artificially docking out; repealed "without Commissioners] corporation erection reclaim tide-waters Comp. Stat., vol. 4385, §10 (1911). empowered ejectment trespassing occupying 219-220, (1920). 176, 1421-1422, (1965), unilaterally alter coastline. 25. Submerged Lands U.S.C. §1301 (1958 ed.), "would absolute infringement men, repugnant nature, destined earth supply wants mankind nation except hindering deriving secondary do. ("There Jersey''); [birth death] law''); (relying Island); __-__ ("Nor Jersey''). expand parts shorter. appear, niceties timing outcome pointed "upon Rettig John Moore Misc. 664, 154 N.Y.S. (N.Y.Sup. Term 1915), relieved liability payment collection accounting sales levied duly constituted taxing therein, levy tax, use, levied, area; area.'' §105(a). definition "Federal area'' premises department, establishment, agency, States.'' §110(e). spotty, arrested 1905 Port Authority historically fireboat waterfront areas Harbor.'' 917 Norman Steisel, Deputy Mayor, Apr. 1991). putting prescription; keeping leaving aside, helping aggrandizement afoot. complaints involving residents, but, admitted, Response Request Admission (Request 82). stating Harlan Unrau. assistance, Unrau letters requesting originating Germany. INS's 1942 year-end Navy intelligence services, Bureau Investigation, Coast Guard, Customs Service, cooperated plan whereby incoming passengers, citizenship, carefully investigated,'' 530, 8-9, interrogation. 1897. duplicate. augmented Edward Corsi's interview Frank Martocci, recalled "numberless'' weddings (said law) marrying instead. 74, 409 (E. Corsi, Shadow Liberty: Chronicle (1935)). One Unrau, historian La Guardia's memoirs describe tie knot. 3615-3618 8, 1996). amounts recording, 2719-2720, 2740 (July 31, arrived. hoped requiring young women marry fiances admitted country stem importation prostitutes. Post effect, tickets, cards accurate processed 1891 1956 published acquiesce. 129-130, 2066-2067 Geodetic Survey years); (there familiar resolutions locating Hampshire object); 53-58, 422-425, (1906). "must best quality strict accordance Water Supply, Gas Electricity, 638, 47. binding. workmen compensation injuries workmen's claims. Murray Joe Gerrick, 315, 432, 821 (1934). processing law; victims ex rel. Belardi Day, 816, 817 Courts Eastern [w]hen counties thereof,'' §178 (now §112) concurrent Districts. disturb statutory designation 1910.'' F.2d, 817. Thus (as, line) avoided determining brands ascription "obviously mistake.'' 17. mistake obvious. infra. Times reported chief vicinity 1904). transferred surface.'' Post, contrary, reasonableness belied transferring sounded 1808 (While transfer safety'' port, limitations converted military installation station.) If, assert, say relation weaker position: 1800 (saving process), comprehensive conveyances moveover, mistaken label 1890-1911 transfer, immune entity. Louisiana, 410 702, 714, 1215, 1221-1222, 646 (1973); 332 39-40, 1658, 1668-1669, 1889 (1947). INS, space asking [w]here contemplated.'' Corsi truly whimsical soul permit. contemporary inconvenience threat plausibility evaluation suggests. "over state,'' improvements 710. figures nonimmigrants. 1920 "patients'' "immigrants'' 717 50% total, risen percentage. #2 #3 fill. Commerce Montana, 503 442, 1415, record, licenses. conclude, does, typically Great constitute assume, plainly indicates, confirmation employee, remembered follows: ""Very brides witnesses. count, I'm sure helped nationalities types. numberless, York.''' Liberty (1969) (hereinafter Corsi). follows:FTISSCT(98)68-1,SIZE-23 PICAS,TYPE-PDI 2,000 (some pages long) 4,000 testimony. 114. discounted policed cited, incident 1966-over 3636-3637 1996); H. Statute Monument, York-New 1173 (1984). 1915). "The Station thereof. (28 §178, Code, §97) embracing "with thereof' Kings, Queens, Nassau, Richmond, Suffolk. *' relator, (4 708) run "submitted' in-or entirely' outside-the York.' Jurisdiction geography. expressly, exclusively, 1910. "Therefore hold judge writ prayed court.'' (C.C.A.3 1931). recent Third: acknowledgment (except case) component Congressional, §112, Const. art. VI, §6; 1915) (civil Island'). treats assigned zip code avoid However, counts Products, 387-388 roles. county, taxes; "exempt.'' Norton: "At Conservation Development latest edition printed revised 1932 feel Unions cover operation.'' (Letter Thomas Secretary, Bricklayers', Masons' Plasterers' Union, Local 10, Honorable Norton). "Since Bay, Executive Union. lie Representatives, Procurement, Department). equivocated nonacquiescence; nonetheless, None incidents, significant. labeled Yet mapmaker mistake; consequence, forward subsequent maps. purchased underwater 1904; purchasing owner. Navigation 1933. blanks contemplated''; 10. unclear permit, Fourth, jobs initially solution, eventually 1947 1949, reversed decision-because 90. undermine dwarfed repeated statements evidenced dozens Health, Department, Treasury, (Although noting Island.) addition, eminently sensible post. 163.

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