Document: 518 U.S. 668116 S.Ct. 2342135 L.Ed.2d 843 BOARD OF COUNTY COMMISSIONERS, WABAUNSEE COUNTY, KANSASv.UMBEHRCertiorari to the United States Court of Appeals for Tenth Circuit. No. 94-1654. Supreme Argued November 28, 1995 Decided June 1996 Syllabus During term his at-will contract with Wabaunsee County, Kansas (County), haul trash, respondent Umbehr was an outspoken critic petitioner Board County Commissioners (Board). After commissioners voted terminate (or prevent automatic renewal of) contract, allegedly because they took Umbehr's criticism badly, he brought this suit against two them under 42 U. S. C. Section(s) 1983. The District granted summary judgment, but Circuit reversed in relevant part and remanded, holding that First Amendment protects independent contractors from governmental retaliation their speech, extent protection must be determined by weighing government's interests as contractor free speech at stake accordance balancing test applied government employment context Pickering v. Ed. Township High School Dist. 205, Will Cty., 391 563, 568. Held: termination or prevention contracts exercise freedom test, adjusted weigh rather than employer, determines protection. Pp. 4-17. (a) Because obvious similarities between employees respect issue, is guided its precedents. Among other things, those precedents have recognized workers are constitutionally protected dismissal publicly privately criticizing employer's policies, see, e.g., Perry Sindermann, 408 593, also acknowledged does not guarantee absolute Connick Myers, 461 138, 146, required a fact-sensitive deferential legitimate employees' rights, Pickering, supra, parties' attempts differentiate unavailing. Each arguments imposition liability has some force, all can accommodated applying existing employee framework. Moreover, application nuanced approach superior brightline rule giving carte blanche exercising rights. Although both individual's typically-though always-somewhat less strong case, fact such similar most respects compels conclusion same form analysis should apply each. 4-12. (b) Neither dissent's fears excessive litigation, nor assertion allocation on basis political bias longstanding tradition, deprive Its own description ``lowest-responsible-bidder'' requirements wide range contracting laws voluntarily adopted federal state authorities suggests norms incompatible proliferated without unduly burdening government, long history. 12-16. (c) courts below assumed nonrenewal) activities, did pass balance interests, do enjoy requires affirmance Circuit's decision remand case. To prevail, show initially motivated matter public concern, see Connick, 146; therefore prove more mere criticized members before terminated. If so, will valid defense if it show, preponderance evidence, that, light knowledge, perceptions, policies time termination, would terminated regardless speech. See Mt. Healthy City Bd. Doyle, 429 274, 287. prevail demonstrate County's contractor, deferentially viewed, outweigh stake. See, And, prevails, evidence discovered facts after led later anyway, mitigation loss means subsequent trash hauling cities assessing appropriate remedy. concerns nonrenewal pre-existing commercial relationship need address possibility suits bidders applicants new who cannot rely relationship. 16-17. 44 F. 3d 876, affirmed remanded. O'Connor, J., delivered opinion Parts I, II-A, II-B-2, III, which Rehnquist, Stevens, Kennedy, Souter, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined, Part II-B-1, joined. Scalia, filed dissenting opinion, Thomas, NOTICE: This subject formal revision publication preliminary print Reports. Readers requested notify Reporter Decisions, States, Washington, D.C. 20543, any typographical errors, order corrections may made goes press. Justice O'Connor Court.1 1 case us decide whether, what extent, I. 2 Under law, (County) obliged provide disposal solid waste generated within borders. In 1981, and, renegotiation, 1985, contracted him exclusive hauler county rate specified contract. city reject or, 90 days' notice, opt out of, By terms, automatically renewed annually unless either party notice least 60 days end year renegotiation instituted notice. Pursuant hauled six seven 1985 1991 uninterrupted basis. 3 petitioner, (Board), three-member governing body County. spoke Board's meetings, wrote critical letters editorials local newspapers regarding landfill user rates, cost obtaining official documents alleged violations Open Meetings Act, mismanagement taxpayers' money, topics. His allegations violation Act were vindicated consent decree signed members. ran unsuccessfully election Board. 4 threatening newspaper censorship publishing writings. 1990, voted, 2-to-1, That attempt failed technical defect, 1991, succeeded terminating again 2-to-1 vote. subsequently negotiated five had previously served. 5 1992, majority individual capacities 1983, alleging moved judgment. suffered consequential damages. But held "the prohibit [the Board] considering [Umbehr's] expression factor deciding continue contract's annual term," because, entitled afforded employees. McClure, 840 Supp. 837, 839 (D. Kan. 1993). It claims barred qualified immunity, id., 841, ruling appeal issue here. 6 (except immunity), "an retaliatory action, just be," we used determine rights 568 (1968). 883 (CA10 1995). remanded capacity further proceedings, including consideration whether retaliatory. original defendants resigned positions Board, so Court, substituted petitioner. Court's Rule 35.3. 7 We certiorari resolve conflict Courts Amendment. Fifth Eighth Circuits agree Blackburn Marshall, 925, 931-935 (CA5 1995); Copsey Swearingen, 36 1336, 1344 1994); North Mississippi Communications, Inc. Jones, 792 2d 1330 1986); Smith Cleburne Hospital, 870 1375, 1381 (CA8), cert. denied, 493 847 (1989); Sweeney Bond, 669 542 459 878 (1982). Abercrombie Catoosa, 896 1228, 1233 1990) (allowing sue based activities). Third Seventh have, however, property interest no right freedoms affiliation participation. Horn Kean, 796 668 (CA3 1986) (en banc); O'Hare Truck Serv., Northlake, 47 (CA7 1995), reversed, post, ___; Downtown Auto Parks, Milwaukee, 938 705 (CA7), 502 1005 (1991); Triad Assocs., Chicago Housing Auth., 892 583 1989), 498 845 (1990). 8 protected, affirm. II. A. 9 considered restricts federal, state, governments relationships contractors' several occasions. obvious. needs poor performance, improve efficiency, efficacy responsiveness service public, appearance corruption. absent contractual, statutory constitutional restriction, reason all. type provides valuable financial benefit, threat chill matters concern who, dealings "are often best position know ails agencies work," Waters Churchill, 511 ___, ___ (1994) (slip op., 11) (plurality opinion). these similarities, turn our guidance. 10 Those since rejected Holmes' famous dictum, policeman "may talk politics, policeman," McAuliffe Mayor New Bedford, 155 Mass. 216, 220, 29 N. E. 517 (1892). Recognizing "constitutional arise deterrent, `chilling,' effect [efforts] fall short direct prohibition rights," Laird Tatum, 1, 11 (1972), modern "unconstitutional conditions" doctrine holds deny benefit person infringes . speech" even entitlement 597 (1972). refusing take oath affiliation, Wieman Updegraff, 344 183 (1952); Keyishian Regents Univ. State Y., 385 589 (1967), Perry, supra; 274 (1977); Givhan Western Line Consol. Dist., 439 410 (1979), expressing hostility prominent figures, Rankin McPherson, 483 378 (1987), except where reasonably job qualification, supporting affiliating particular party, Branti Finkel, 445 507 (1980). Treasury Employees, 513 (1995) (government undue burdens expressive activities created accepting honoraria); Abood Detroit Ed., 431 209, 234 (1977) conditioned making contributions causes). While protecting freedoms, create tenure Amendment's concern. 146 (1983) (speech merely private unprotected). conduct substantial motivating termination. discharges burden, escape showing taken action absence conduct. Healthy, And justified when countervailing sufficiently strong. Government depend "balance [employee], citizen, commenting upon State, promoting efficiency services performs through employees." S., striking balance, concluded "[t]he achieving goals effectively efficiently possible elevated relatively subordinate acts sovereign significant one employer." Waters, 12) therefore, "consistently given greater deference predictions harm justify restriction restrictions large." Id., 10); accord, ___. 12 parties each invite urges "extend" contractors. Umbehr, joined Solicitor General amicus curiae, contends proof viewpoint-based actions narrowly tailored serve compelling interest. 13 Both observe general, particular, work remove officials view, key feature contractor's give supervise control details how done. argues lack day-to-day accentuates done someone trusts, cf. Branti, (certain implicate trust award justified), resort sanction unsatisfactory performance.2 hand, maintaining harmonious working environments cases attenuated workplace interact daily officers He points perceived statements confused mitigated. dissent, 12-15, retort fending off potential practices ossify into prophylactic rules avoid litigation liability, contractors, typically financially dependent 14 force. framework assures ability activity. interests. dangers burdensome de facto rigid necessitate attentive requirement causation deference, mandated reasonable view per se denial liability. Nor generalization employees, 12, tests established judicially administered sensitivity needs, neglected. 15 claim threatens employer inform test. correct exercised power citizen response cases, contractual power, provider, being intensive judicial supervision management functions, potentially implicated. Deference due assessments contractor. 16 believe proper accommodate differences There ample approach, recognizes variety distinguishing proposed dissent leave law labels provider's services, distinction very proxy Comment, Political Patronage Public Contracting, 51 Chi. L. Rev. 518, 520 (1984) ("no legally exists terms using patronage speech"); (the unconstitutional conditions applies "regardless employee's job"). Determining distinctions, manipulated largely concerned, Logue 412 521, 532 (1973) (noting employed perform "tasks otherwise performed salaried employees"), enterprise consistently eschewed. Lefkowitz Turley, 414 70, 83 (in privilege self-incrimination, "we fail difference magnitude contractor"); Colorado Republican Campaign Committee Federal Election Commission, (1996) 15) (opinion J.) ("the `cannot foreclose [First Amendment] labels'") (quoting NAACP Button, 371 415, (1963)); Escobedo Illinois, 478, 486 (1964) (declining "exalt over substance" determining temporal scope Sixth protections); Crowell Benson, 285 22, 53 (1932) ("regard had, limits invoked, substance required"); Chicago, B. & Q. R. Co. 166 226, 235 (1897) ("In process regard substance, form"); Browning-Ferris Industries Vt., Kelco Disposal, Inc., 492 257, 299 (1989) (O'Connor, concurring part) applicability provision Constitution never depended vagaries law"). 17 Furthermore, far clear, general matter, favorable cases. Our span spectrum whose close important claimants tax exemptions (Speiser Randall, 357 (1958)), users facilities (e.g., Lamb's Chapel Center Moriches Union Free 508 384, ___-___ (1993); Healy James, 169 (1972)), recipients small subsidies FCC League Women Voters Cal., 468 364 (1984)), much like ordinary citizens viewpoints repressing. permits neither firing janitors discriminatory pricing lottery tickets disagreement certain expression. Independent appear lie somewhere closest precedents, involve persons government. assertion, 2, represents unwarranted "extension" special protections is, persuasive. 1. 18 exception precedent "long unbroken tradition people." Post, 4. legitimizes contracting, approaches role adjudication perspective I Rutan 2-3 Party Ill., 497 62, 95 (1990) (Scalia, dissenting)) (a practice "`bears endorsement open, widespread, unchallenged use dates back beginning Republic'" presumed constitutional) (emphasis added), Holmes, compare 5-6 discussion traditional usage legal terminology case) Abrams 250 616, 630 (1919) (Holmes, dissenting) (rejecting self-interested "logi[c]" history suppression Sedition 1798 common seditious libel," favor true "theory Constitution," values essential to, vicissitudes system). 19 examples cites, 3-4, not, "`the stuff principles formed,'" Rutan, 96 dissenting)). Consider, example, "courtroom patronage," whereby "[e]lected judges, owe nomination organization lucrative refereeships, trusteeships, receiverships yield fees unjustified required," M. Tolchin Tolchin, Victor: Clubhouse White House (1971); Wolfinger, Why Machines Have Not Withered Away Other Revisionist Thoughts, 34 J. Politics 365, 367, (1972) (similar), "gift[s]" supporters guise research grants, 61, "contributions resulting compound bribery extortion" "kickbacks," Heard, Costs Democracy 143, 144 (1960), "`beer politics,'" "wholesale liquor licenses issued traded campaign contributions," 144, extortion support "campaign contributions" pain branded "Communist," Caro, Power Broker: Robert Moses Fall York 726 (1975), "favorable agencies" expected clients "`political' attorneys part-time jobs," 389, question reportedly asked businessman reluctant contribute mayoralty campaign, "`Look, you [expletive deleted], want snow-removal don't you?,'" 368. These examples, cited many appointments Patronage, n. ("patronage systems traditionally centered around distribution jobs") suggest abuses name "highly unusual," 27. victims chilled extracted "`honorable prudent businessmen.'" 145). establish "open unchallenged" allocating bias-much disapproval sources note report denied disavowed practitioners, 372-373, 11, secret specialized contexts "operat[e] atmosphere uninhibited usual challenges representative government," 233, illegal, 143-144, course "obnoxious[ness]," 5, criminality make unconstitutional. Nor, covert, widely condemned sometimes illegal legitimize discrimination viewpoint one's affiliations involved 2. 20 "lowest-responsible-bidder" other, covering Government, 50 authorities, adopted, 6-10, fact, lowestand lowest-responsible-bidder history, survey 19th century constitutions territorial legislation reveals. Ala. Const., Art. IV, 30 (1875) Constitutions 161 (F. Thorpe ed. 1909); Civil Alaska Tit. (1900) 243; Ark. XIX, 15, (1874) 366; Colo. V, (1876) 485; Del. XV, 631; Permanent Columbia (1878) 645-646; Ill. 39 (1848) 991; 25 (1870) 1022; XVI, (1858) 1236; Ky. 247 (1890) 1353; La. (1879) 1447-1478; (1898) 1529; Mich. 22 (1850) 1948-1949; Miss. 4, 107 2102; Mont. (1889) 2308; Neb. II, 23 (1866-1867) 2353; Ohio (1851) 2932; Pa. (1873) 3127; Tex. 21 3658-3659; W. Va. VI, (1872) 4044; Wisc. 4083; Wyo. 31 4124; 164 1341 ("highest bidder" municipal franchise awards); (1817, 1832) 2033, 2049 shall molested opinions whatsoever, suffer civil incapacity, acquire advantage, consequence opinions, provided constitution"). aware abusive provisions. unlike 14-15, unreasonably poses complex detailed array regulatory rules. sum, persuaded there "difference magnitude," Lefkowitz, 83, context. although speaker's conclude III. stake, affirm initial him. showing, perceptions (1977). persuade cities, remedy appropriate. Finally, emphasize limited nature today. 24 Subject limitations caveats, recognize judgment affirmed, proceedings consistent opinion. ordered. 26 whom Thomas joins, dissenting. 27 Taken together, today's decisions Comm'rs, Waubansee Cty. ante, p. Service, why Constitution-making called "reasoned adjudication" only formalistic sense. 28 Six years ago, barest margins, expanded Elrod Burns, 427 347 (1976), (1980), fired affiliation. 62 four dissenters argued desirability policy decided people's representatives" "a ever one." 104, 114 dissenting). They "convinced" been "wrongly decided," 114; indeed, "not wrong, recent, contradicted prior unworkable practice" "should overruled," 110-111. At least, maintained, extended beyond facts," 114. Today, addition another believes proscribing violate explicit text regarded framing, Bennis Michigan, 516 1-2) (Thomas, concurring), think inconceivable massive field contracting. Yet amazingly, opinions-and lopsided votes, that. profoundly disturbing varying across vast country, coast coast, transformed overnight institution conviction fickle. basic my today reasons gave (this O'Connor) Rutan: "[W]hen expressly prohibited Bill Rights bears Republic, down. Such venerable accepted laid examining table scrutinized conformity abstract principle devised Court. contrary, traditions themselves formed. are, uncertain areas, reference legitimacy illegitimacy figured out. When appears latest `rule,' `three-part test,' `balancing test' placed collision landmark practice, former recalculated us, latter abandoned citizens. way formulate jurisprudence reflects, should, adhered time, American people, favored personal (and necessarily shifting) philosophical dispositions Court." 95-96 (footnote omitted). 32 dispute rewarding allies, correlative act reward opponents-and bottom exactly that-is old Republic. matters, Powell discussed Elrod, 377-379, 522, area contracts, 233-241, 273-277 143-145 (1960); 723-726, 738, 740-741, 775, 799, 927 (1975); Royko, Boss: Richard Daley 69 367-368, 372, 389 (1972); Bond Game Remains Same, Nat'l July 1996, pp. A1, A20-A21. people then does? assuredly susceptible meaning other; circumstance, constitutes "law abridging else libel "abridgment"? satisfactory answer were. What wonder, breathed lawyers become Justices enables discern clearly proscribe, 200 years, unconstitutional? seeks charge ignores centuries-old understandings recounting, , 13-14, shocking raw unlawful rudimentary law. (It selects, course, worst cited, omitting permit author say, undeniable accuracy, "honorable businessmen competing ventures desire [is] thought necessary remain eligible," "[m]any routinely parties." 145.) "examples action," says, "legitimize discrimination." 14. City's burden mine) "legitimize" practices; O'Hare's Court's) "illegitimate" vague moral precise sense, suffices error Republic; objected grounds. thinks "covert, illegal" displays persistent tendency equate things proscribed social few proscribe Constitution. inescapable point this: No court held, indeed thought, could contest point, becloud obnoxious universally simply feebleness 33 today, observes "have `may policeman.'" (1892)); O'Hare, same). activist repeatedly rejects aphorism expresses fundamental philosophy once inseparable challenging constitutionality estate ground unapportioned Article 9, Holmes wrote: "[The] disposed ., scientific distinction, difficult, interpretation language use-on practical historical kind always antithesis Upon page worth volume logic." Trust Eisner, 256 345, 349 (1921) added). 35 enter (if justification) democratic institutions paying adequate attention problems presents. evidently influence entirely constitutional, desirable, set about passing instances. As consequence, extraordinary number regulations levels. Code contains categorical negotiating performing 441c, competitive bidding executive agencies, 41 252-253, corruption statutes, 201, countless restrict officials' discretion awarding contracts. "There already thousand provisions affect [Defense Department's] procurement process." Pyatt, Procurement Competition Work: Navy's Experience, Yale Reg. 319, 319-320 (1989). widespread. handbook explained, "[t]heir procedural substantive dictate, oftentimes astonishing specificity, entire conducted." ABA Practice Section, Regulations: Policy, Procedures (1987). surprise find 253-page book setting forth "fundamentals," Massengale, Fundamentals Contract Law (1991), "deskbook" runs 436 pages, Section Law, Law: Deskbook Professionals (1995). "summaries" indispensable when, comprise "Federal Acquisition Regulations System" total 5,037 pages fine print. Title 48 CFR 37 Similar statutes exist throughout States. various criminalizing bribes forms corruption, enacted imposing types government.3 standard regulation model code developed, 265-page complete regulations, explanations. Urban, Local Model Governments (1981). 1989, code. Annotations Code, vii-viii (2d 1992) cited). 38 jurisdictions ix, thousands counties municipalities measures. City, "[e]ach enter[s] approximately 40,000 almost $6.5 billion," regulated myriad codes seek assure "scrupulous neutrality choosing [consequently impose] multiple layers investigation accountability." Anechiarico Jacobs, Purging Corruption Contracting: `Solutions' Are Now Problem, 40 Y. 143-144 (hereinafter Jacobs). codes, ordinances, multiplied fill volumes. regulated, addressed, founding Procedures, 11-196 (describing regulation). degree discrimination, discernment, predictability achieved blunt instrument prohibition. contain 5,000+ permitting acquisition areas prohibiting others. Similarly, exceptions for, written include, dollar amount,4 matters,5 time-sensitive.6 A unit's enact suspend circumstances, amounts favoritism. discuss shortly, selectivity-or none known over. inattention organs plausible entry field, is? accepts (any sane accept) premise utterly impossible erect, enforce system intentionally disadvantaged beliefs. say rare brush real world, "O'Hare constituency chance ignored larger process-for residing doing business region rewards spurns construction works." Ante, 8. Of course. favors views, disfavors disagree, every day-in builds works, kinds taxes imposes collects, prescriptions, design grant programs-in million ways, letting business. good separating last way, declaring (as others not) "abridgment speech"? separate permissible impermissible Nation's traditions, sound requires. criterion-but said sense: powerful price pay politics. found itself fabled slippery slope Holmes's logic warned about: logical proposition detached leads another, until produces result resemblance America know. next step motivation hiring. third extends fourth anon) refusal relationships. 43 dig cleats slope-before up potholes wards any) Democratic ones-would defensible indefensible employment? individual, highest level (which exempt Elrod) virtually rich; livelihood. usually corporation; loses rarely business, Judge Posner put it: "Although firms sell customers. get bids, outs incumbent requiring low bidder enforced), world him; entities bid ones well. losing your job." LaFalce Houston, 712 292, 294 1983). 45 Another stop extension entails. litigating numerous personnel hirings firings category; resources infinitely applicants. Anyone brief exposure intricacies knows lawsuit device stay frustrate competitor. Delta Data Systems Corp. Webster, 744 197 (CADC 1984); 755 1985). mean entities, small, risk 1983 lawsuits adopt (at great money efficiency) cumbersome procedures favoritism lawsuit) easily defended against. 46 shrugs "[w]e bear [to context] defending contractors." 12. suggested, likely context; determinant) "can bear" it, inconvenience bearing outbalanced abridgment supposed (of corporate shareholders, occur imposed.7 dismisses analogy context, government-contracting discussed. "We aware," "of provisions." 15. am sure existed, "nonexcessive" conveniently imprecise term) provisions, scant indication Uncertainty breeds litigation. Government-contracting clear detailed, violated easy ascertain: bid, not. Amendment, contrast, sensitive "balancing" case; factual disfavored litigable. short, experience little predictive value. additionally asserts line drawn law.'" part)); 10-11 (citing cases). so. frequently plays dispositive applicable. invented revolved Fourteenth Due Process Clause, deprived plaintiff "property" process. protection? " [P]roperty interests," said, Rather, dimensions defined stem source Texas teacher respondent's tenure, [federal constitutional] defeated." 602, (internal quotation marks citation 280-281 (whether entity possesses Eleventh immunity "depends, part, spoken thus though problem here one: though, worlds, manage desirable disadvantage whatever hands solely views-no employment, programs, potholes. guarantees (subject tradition-based exceptions, obscenity "fighting words") going jail fined. ought simple assumes. discourage eccentric views mild historically employed, now face against, well cohesion. uncomfortable example life: An (I call Aryan Supremacist Party, actual incident mind) undoubtedly entitled, Constitution, maintain propagate racist antisemitic views. Department Urban Development lets security forces units housing, really treat others? Or wishes "subsidize" funds, hold exemplar residents housing? described earlier takes account reality. Even competitive-bidding applicable always), invariably require awarded lowest "lowest responsible bidder."8 "The word `responsible' `lowest,'" H. Cohen, Construction Contracts 81 (1961), interpreted elected discretion. "Some courts," upheld agency refusals while technically capable, morally responsible." Jacobs 146-147. leading Picone York, 176 Misc. 967, 539 (Sup. Ct. 1941), stated bidder," permissibly "whether bidder] possessed integrity worth." 969, 2d, 541. Jersey similarly "[i]t settled legislative mandate embraces surely supply labor materials." Trap Rock Industries, Kohl, 59 471, 481, 284 161, (1971). future, presumably, permitted verbalized, produce lawsuit. 49 treading area, left realm entered domain science." 113 rightly perceived, disposes textbook "raises profound questions science exceed competence answer." 294. IV. If, newly announce granting withholding coherent statement expect. decisions, contradict points. improvement Elrod-Branti-Rutan trilogy recent proved "narrowly vital interests." 74. explained "[t]hat strict-scrutiny finds cases," invented, criterion announced [v. 563 (1968)]." 98, 100 happy development explicitly suggestion, urged "on interest," 7; instead "that [independent contractors'] protection" balancing, case-by-case assessment "Pickering progeny post hoc impact responsibilities." 11). 2) (Pickering "case-by-case application"); 378, 388-392 (1987); 150-154 (1983); 568-573 anticipates: 8-9 accords "[d]eference contractor," removed). "[S]uch approach," "which rule." 9-10. 52 sets down rips O'Hare. III makes single Pickering. 7-13. Indeed, quite astonishing, concludes "need inquire" serve-even generally, hand-"for coercion person's beliefs associations." 5. Leaving aside here,7 obviously contradicts companion decision. rejection evident elsewhere O'Hare-as irrelevant observation 292 (1983), elect "curr[y] diverse parties," [thus] mitigate overreaching, refrain complaining, excuse wrongs rights." 11. "wrong" precisely (per Umbehr) "balancing." One products different systems, presenting fertile material comparative-law paragraph veritable deus ex machina analysis, reconciles irreconcilable. penultimate portion 6-7, advises henceforth alluded divided categories: (1) "right speech," Pickering," (since presumably exhaust Speech Clause), (2) "political affiliation," Branti. Court) says "[t]here advantage confining inquiry alone allegiances probing testing government." 6. Frankly, "advantage" novel explanation (no difficult grasp) day. raises questions. Does (category (1), is) come play Republican, "I Republican"? (At fatal "probing testing" allegiance disappears.) still further, platform"? perhaps Rubicon affiliation" crossed authority's motivation, platform, (whatever believes) Republican. change, perhaps, authority nothing Republicans such, can't stand platform stands for. Except change actually Republican-or believed platform. variations endless diversion appeals. 54 sanguine involving segregated categories, arises, involved. expect (Elrod nonbalancing) prevail. certainly happens categorically liable defamatory statement, places immediate fear physical harm, utterance combines ("Sir, punch lying mouth!") portion) actionable. Where, told, "specific instances expression, intermixed requirement," result. 6-7. 55 Were confusion enough, explanatory doubly comprehensible adding, immediately following: "It true, one, inevitable imposed." "[w]hat anybody's guess." 111 Worse still, learn itself, "perhaps [be] includ[ed]" among "those balancing" "intermixed" above. Why, then, inclined ask, balancing? contained opinion: 56 Appeals, understanding pleadings, circuit precedent, outside consider disagree Appeals' conclusion." 7. 57 sent rescue machina, overwhelmed plot tragedy inconsistency. Unfortunately, adjutor adjutoris (to overextend, classical analogy) unequal task: defend alleged, be. When, here, review adjudicated motion dismiss, accept petitioners' complaint ask appropriate." Berkovitz 531, 540 (1988) highly arguable calls affiliation." count "FREEDOM SPEECH," App. 95-191, contended petitioners retaliated 17. central "John Gratzianna openly supported Paxson's opponent office Mayor. posters displayed place business." 16. particularly inexcusable hide behind treatment "simply case," yet learned Clause categories knew, "freedom whenever term, outcome. words, remotely "finding" involves Unavoidably, first believed-that paragraph, governed Pickering-there reversing directing proceed, depriving pleadings. 58 Unless, dismiss. confusion, Nothing explains assert acknowledge (3) reverse proceeding balancing. dismissal-proof, pre-trial discovery trial itself) useful harassment weapon competition. acknowledged, present unquestionable advantage: leaves district clean up, guidance assistance mess made-to figure saying "Vote Paxson," "Paxson hack," "Paxson's project 100,000-seat stadium wasteful," Mr. Gratzianna's might removes Affiliation Right Clause. final sweep holdings. having swallowed camel demonstrates deep-down conservatism ostentatiously straining following gnat: "Finally, relationship." "commercial government"; fuzzier used, appears, paid promised anything list tow-truck operators offered came up. company turned tow. infinity called) relationship" city: regularly called. quoted invites bar believe, declined draw Branti); nonhiring (Rutan); (Umbehr); "pre-existing government" (O'Hare); firm extending thing comes denying likely; believable. begun habit disclaiming natural foreseeable jurisprudential consequences pathbreaking (i.e., Constitution-making) opinions. major govern portrayed extremely sui juris. Romer Evans, op. 12), month, asserted amendment distinctive "defies conventional inquiry" "confounds [the] normal review." Virginia, (1996), purported "specifically educational opportunity `unique.'" decision." deceived. sits, major, undemocratic restructuring national mores constantly progress. 61 hard bad blood boiling, arrogance seem display officials. Shall System let insolent, petty-tyrant politicians away this? tends forget heard plaintiffs' tale. dismissed trial, "facts" recites assume truth presented) plaintiffs. idea false-but unusual. Elected thrive arrogance. For extreme sort "favoritism" excited about. mayor gives city's bond firm-taking during previous, administration. new? declines opposed construction, tried built river State. expect? awards cable monopoly, (entirely responsible) Johnny-come-lately, "good citizen"-which efforts management, civic initiatives electorate favor, oppose. Hooray! Favoritism life, violated-of things-the 63 living world. Day day, busy designing country recognize. Depending chooses authoritative, (O'Hare) thrown numbers routine life rid apples; (Umbehr) purpose mind subjected endless, uncertain, case-by-case, balance-all-the-factors-and-who-knows-who-will-win 64 dissent. Chief joins II-B-1 insulated scrutiny Brief Petitioner 23-26, 37. raised petition, it. 14.1(a). servants capacities, Leatherman Tarrant Narcotics Intelligence Coordination Unit, 163, (1993), moot. 11-43C-70 24-1-83 (1992); 41-16-20 (Supp. Stat. Ann. 36.30.100 Ariz. 41-2533 14-47-120, 14-47-138, 14-48-117, 14-48-129 Cal. Pub. Cont. 10302, 10309, 10373, 10501, 10507.7, 20723, 20736, 20751, 20803, 20921, 21501, 21631 (West 1996); Util. 131285 1991); Tax. 674 24-103-202 Conn. Gen. 4a-57 Ann., 671 29, 6903(a) Fla. 190.033 287.057 (1991 Ga. 2-10-10 (1990); 32-10-7, 32-10-68 Haw. 103D-302 Idaho 33-1510 (1995); 43-2508 50-1710 (1994); 67-5711C 67-5718 (1995 Sess. Laws, ch. 198); Comp. Stat., 50, 20/20 65, 5/8-10-3 205/25, 225/25, 265/25, 280/1-24, 280/2-24, 290/26, 310/5-24, 320/1-25, 320/2-25, 325/1-24, 325/2-24, 325/3-24, 325/5-24, 325/6-24, 325/7-24, 325/8-24, 340/25, 2305/11, 2405/11, 2805/14, 2905/5-4 (1993 Ind. 2-6-1.5-2, 10-7-2-28, 4-13.6-5-2, 8-16-3.5-5.5 Iowa 18.6 49-417(a) 1990); 75-3739 75-3741 (1989, Laws); 162.070 (Baldwin 39:1594 1989); Me. 1743, 1743-A Md. 25, 3(l) 1995, 66); 25A, 5(F) Nat. Res. 3-103(g)(3), 8-1005(c) 149, 44A-44M (1989 Laws 247.661c Minn. 16B.07 (1988 27-35-101 31-7-13, 37-151-17 Mo. 34.040.1, 34.042.1, 68.055.1 7-3-1323, 7-5-2301, 7-5-2302, 7-5-4302, 7-14-2404 81-885.55, 84-1603 Nev. 332.065 (1984); 28:8 (1988); 186-C:22(VI) 228:4 28:1-7 1981); 13-1-102 Alt. Govt. 401 (McKinney 1993); Mun. 103 1986 133-10.1 143-49 D. Cent. 54-44.4-05 307.90, 511.12 3381.11 Okla. 24-114 52, 318 101 Ore. 279.015 Cons. 23308.1 45-55-5 (Supp 11-35-1520 Codified 5-18-2, 5-18-3 5-18-9 9-42-5 11-7-44 13-49-16, 42-7A-5 Tenn. 12-3-202, 12-3-203, 12-3-1007 (1992 Educ. 51.907 Loc. 252.021, 262.023, 262.027, 271.027, 375.221 Utah 17A-2-1195 Vt. 152(12) (1986); 11-41, 11-41.1 Wash. 28A.160.140, 36.32.250 4-7-7, 5-6-7 Wis. 30.32 60.47 35-2-429 (1994). 252a(b), 403(11) rendered inapplicable "to subcontract than" $100,000); 10507.7 1996) (lowest-responsible-bidder goods materials "contracts [annual] expenditure fifty dollars"); (1993) $5,000); 103.1 (not public-work $20,000 purchase $10,000 less); (requiring public-improvement "involv[ing] twenty-five dollars more"); 262.023(a) (applying exceeding $15,000"). e. g., (1981); (1991). 6903(a)(2) 287.057(3)(a) 16B.08(6) 228:4(I)(e) 12-3-202(3), 12-3-206 (1992). minimize seriousness pointing behalf respondents' [Rutan] Illinois officials." "at eighteen Officials Amici Curiae, includes officials, Illinois' 102 municipalities. statistics pertain suits, moreover-and discussed, numerous. reported claims, 1228 (1990)." 11-12. With respect, paragraphs) obscure located Circuit, cite jurisdictions. 837 (Kan. Abercrombie-which, noted, claim" "little reasoning" "suggested, analysis." 880 was, muffled clarion hear large. 20803 20/20, 25/3; 15/8, 15/9, 220/1-24, 220/2-24 1996). (1990), agreed, "it greatly exaggerates constraints entailed patronage] `coercion' all, generally inducement compulsion. bribe `coerced' party." 109-110

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