Document: 465 U.S. 848 104 S.Ct. 1519 79 L.Ed.2d 860 Joseph A. KOSAK, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. No. 82-618. Argued Nov. 7, 1983. Decided March 21, 1984. Syllabus Petitioner's art collection was seized by customs officials when he suspected of smuggling the into country. Subsequently, petitioner acquitted charge, and objects were returned to him upon his petition for relief from civil forfeiture. He then filed an administrative complaint seeking compensation alleged damage property occurring while it in Customs Service's custody. When Service denied relief, suit Federal District Court under Tort Claims Act (FTCA), damages injury property. The granted Government's motion dismissal or summary judgment on ground that claim barred 28 U.S.C. § 2680(c), which exempts coverage FTCA "[a]ny claims arising respect . detention any goods merchandise officer customs." Appeals affirmed. Held: Section 2680(c) precludes recovery against United States petitioner's Pp. 851-861. (a) fairest interpretation 2680(c)'s language "arising of" is such means out goods, including a resulting negligent handling storage detained property, not limited caused itself. That 2680(b) expressly bars actions loss, miscarriage, transmission" mail does undercut this reading language, but merely suggests Congress intended be less encompassing than 2680(c). 851-855. (b) legislative history supports above interpretation. Moreover, accords with Congress' general purposes, creating exceptions FTCA, ensuring "certain governmental activities" disrupted threat suits, avoiding exposure liability excessive fraudulent claims, extending suits adequate remedies already available. 855-861. 679 F.2d 306, Jeffrey L. Naftulin, Doylestown, Pa., petitioner. Kathryn Oberly, Washington, D.C., respondent. Justice MARSHALL delivered opinion Court. 1 question presented case whether customs," private sustained during temporary Service. 2 * While serviceman stationed Guam, assembled large oriental art. transferred Guam Philadelphia, brought him. In declaration,1 stated keep contents himself. acting information that, contrary representations, planned resell portions collection, agents obtained valid warrant search house. executing warrant, various antiques other 3 Petitioner charged country, violation 18 545. After jury trial, acquitted. notified subject forfeiture 19 1592 (1976), at time permitted confiscation "by false statement." Relying 1618, forfeiture.2 goods. 4 Alleging some had been injured custody Service, requesting damage. relief. Act, §§ 1346(b), 2671-2680, Eastern Pennsylvania, approximately $12,000 property.3 Government moved motion.4 5 Appeals, one judge dissenting, 306 (CA3 1982). reasoned may held liable torts committed its employees only basis statutory provision evincing "clear relinquishment sovereign immunity." Id., 309 (quoting Dalehite v. States, 346 15, 31, 73 956, 965, 97 L.Ed. 1427 (1953)). court's view, as qualified fails provide necessary Governmental immunity alleging damaged lost On contrary, court observed, language" shields "all officers purport distinguish among types harm." 308. basis, failed state could granted. 6 We certiorari resolve conflict circuits regarding injuries negligence their possession.5 --- ----, 103 722, 74 948 (1983). now affirm. II 7 enacted 1946, provides generally shall liable, same extent party, "for loss personal death wrongful act omission employee within scope office employment." 1346(b); see also 2674. Act's broad waiver is, however, 13 enumerated exceptions. 2680(a)-(n). One those exceptions, statute customs. ."6 asks us construe foregoing cover itself destruction possession service." By "damage itself," appears mean harms attributable illegal detention, decline economic value (either because depreciation drop price will fetch), deprivation ability make use period consequential lack access goods.7 read exception all officials.8 8 starting point our analysis these competing interpretations must, course, "[W]e assume 'that purpose expressed ordinary meaning words used.' " American Tobacco Co. Patterson, 456 63, 68, 102 1534, 1537, 71 748 (1982) Richards 369 1, 9, 82 585, 591, 492 (1962)).9 At first blush, certainly expansive enough support construction; phrase, of," seems sweep associated way "detention" It must admitted initial ineluctable; Judge Weis, dissenting pointed out, possible (with effort) "in equivalent "as regards" thereby infer "the directed fact itself, alone." F.2d, 310. But we think crucial portion springs mind: "any includes 9 Second Circuit Alliance Assurance 252 529 (1958), argues plain context appears. 10 "That bar based destruction, control authorities best illustrated immediately preceding 'arising transmission' mail. 2680(b). If similarly wished agencies postal system undertook handle, shows would have equal task. conclusion inescapable did choose bestow absolution carelessness belonging others." 534.10 11 find reached far "inescapable." specificity 2680(b), contrast generality suggests, if anything, former latter. motivation intent hard find. principal purposes waive auto accidents Postal System fault.11 order ensure governs mailmen, effect barring precisely sort most concerned authorize, draftsmen carefully delineated misconduct assuming financial responsibility—namely, transmission letters matter"—thereby excluding, implication, motor vehicles. absence analogous desire limit reach pertaining explains comparable nicety phraseology B 12 though meager, derived context. Two specific aspects evolution are telling. First, person who almost drafted consideration clearly thought covered officials. written Alexander Holtzoff, major figures development Act. Report explicating proposals, Holtzoff explained: "[The proposed exempt Act] [c]laims assessment tax duty. This previous drafts. expanded, so include connection excise. additional proviso has special reference imported appraisers' warehouses houses, well seizures law enforcement officials, internal revenue officers, like." Proposed Bill 16 (1931) (Holtzoff Report) (emphasis added).12 14 Though cannot definitively established relied Holtzoff's report, significant apparent draftsman believed petitioner.13 15 Second, Congressional committees submitted reports bills ultimately became suggested become like immunity, designated conduct. Thus, example, House Judiciary Committee described follows: "These exemptions miscarriage matter; taxes assessments; officers; admiralty maritime torts; deliberate assault battery; H.R.Rep. 1287, 79th Cong., 1st Sess., (1945).14 17 Committees' casual words, exemption substantially undermines contention designed sorts provision.15 Of perhaps greater importance two clues prepositional phrase contained what know Act.16 three objectives often mentioned rationales are: suits; claims; available.17 consistent purposes. important sanctions available compliance laws power detain owned violators laws.18 dampen efforts exposing disgruntled owners 20 expose claims. staff resources need inspect seizes them. Lacking record condition piece took it, poor position defend owner item condition.19 frequency obliged pay undeserving claimants waived offset inequity, retention persons legitimate grievances. 21 To lesser extent, third articulated common law, (and retains) right bring individual official negligently goods.20 2006 judgments paid federal Treasury certifies there existed probable cause directions appropriate supervisor.21 1946 concluded mode obtaining recompense (or officer) "adequate."22 sure, limitations common-law remedy, requirement plaintiff prove part particular official.23 Such proof difficult come by. circumstances able demonstrate open door number suits.24 III 22 commentators argue should construed fashion denies effectual remedy many whose through tortious conduct officials.25 force, properly addressed Congress, leaves no choice affirm 23 ordered. 24 STEVENS, dissenting. 25 construction "first springs" my mind. Ante, 854. Rather, I goods" expressing Congress's preclude interference owner's opposed physical me normal employed, Members voting proposal given it. reading, unlike Court's,1 supported examination used subsections section See (e) (h). Absent persuasive evidence uses different series similar provisions, intends express intention. 26 thus clear persuade intend would, agree plainly identifying congressional intent, effect. do believe, proper attach weight kind "clues" discusses, concept "general purposes" motivated statute. Because done so, respond both parts rather creative approach construction. 27 entire year enactment finds believes shed light so-called "Holtzoff Report"—is nothing Department working paper prepared 1931 never even There indication Congressman ever heard document knew existed. majority—that "significant" "apparent draftsman" relevant himself "believed petitioner," ante, 856-857 —is manifestly ill-advised. lobbyist—no matter how public spirited been—should attributed without positive elected legislators aware shared lobbyist's intent. Unless more about collective can gleaned action, guided sensible statement construing worst responsible drafting. very much disposed confuse employed." Hilder Dexter, [1902] A.C. 474, 477 (Halsbury, L.C., abstaining).2 cases one, failed. 29 second "clue" majority consists brief casually introduce truncated list 857. "casual" latter committee report understandable insignificant. introduction. introduction, precision naturally knowingly sacrificed interest brevity. 30 Court's reliance explain why might reasonably decided create exception.3 Those motivating effected 31 hypothetical internally inconsistent. policy, determined entertained possibility fraud, majority's suggestion Tucker quite inexplicable.4 Similarly, "may property," 859 added), failure abrogate inexplicable. For officers' dampened liability. Reliance assumed reluctance "adequate" simply begs question. A basic reason was, inadequacy existing remedies, considered area adequate. 32 discussion reasons drafting enlightening issue here sought achieve enacting reform legislation. 33 floundered shoals nearly decades.5 finally propelled movement culminated Legislative Reorganization 1946. E.g. Yellow Cab Co., 340 543, 549-550, 399, 404, 95 523 (1951). "overwhelming purpose" remove burden dealing tort adjudicated form passing bills, "reports session omitted discussions tended restrict bill." Ibid. Hence, Joint Organization recommended "Congress delegate authority Courts hear settle Government," explaining recommendation, shortcomings resolving 34 poorly equipped serve judicial tribunal settlement States. method work either claimant, cost legislating exceeds total amounts involved. 35 "Long delays Government, consumed Committees Senate, crowded calendars combine inefficient procedure. 36 "The courts decide them justice equity claimants. pursuant H.Con.Res. 18, Sen.Rep. 1011, 1675 2d (1946).6 37 narrow before rationalized central purpose. involved case, bases surely overwhelming up task discovering fraud centuries; completely unrealistic suggest judiciary task, wanted reserve own adjudication better weed 38 final analysis, conclude guidance case. policy argument favor making question, just exception. government's arguments respecting potential arguments, "are Court." 862. 39 Therefore, "a applying canon wag said, doubtful, go statute." Greenwood 350 366, 374, 76 410, 415, 100 412 (1956). acknowledge—indeed acknowledge—that entirely plausible. tilt scales attaching And disagree underlying importantly, eschew lobbyist record. 40 therefore respectfully dissent. outside territory therefrom duties. 1202. 1618 permits Secretary remit mitigate "if incurred willful intention defraud violate existence mitigating justify remission mitigation ." requested related seizure property: cork pagoda house, accidental sales receipt stereo receiver (without unable obtain warranty repairs). App. 6-7. brief, segregable primary merit separate analysis. present consider Lovasco, 431 783, 788, n. 2044, 2048 52 752 (1977). Civil Action 81-2054 (ED Pa. Oct. 1981). identify grounds ruling. doubt inference drawn persuaded suit. 307 2. practice, noted judgment. cases, ways & D International, Inc. 665 669 (CA5 1982); A-Mark, Secret 593 849 (CA9 1978); (CA2 1958). Third (1) Douglas A-26B Aircraft, 662 1372 (CA11 1981); 1972 Wood, Foot Custom Boat, 501 1327 1974). Hatzlachh Supply 444 460, 462 3, 647, 649 62 614 (1980), acknowledged divergence views declined issue. full text provides: provisions [28 2671-2680] 1346(b) apply to— (c) Any duty, excise law-enforcement officer." occasion kinds "law-enforcement officer[s]," view "money death," unclear whether, recoverable Cf., e.g., Idaho ex rel. Trombley Army, 666 1982), cert. denied, 53, 58 (adopting restrictive 1346(b)). theory, event limitation built mere surplusage. unattractiveness statute, Colautti Franklin, 439 379, 392, 99 675, 684, 596 (1979), cast considerable position. However, briefed argued rely inferences decision today. conceded below occurred after lawfully term emphasizing ruling, structure affect read. principles "sovereign rule, departures rule strictly construed," waiving broadly construed. 308-09. unhelpful. correct "nullif[y them] interpretation," id., 309, unduly generous run risk defeating 548 5, 403 (1951); cf. Block Neal, 1089, 1094, 75 67 (1983) (" 'The involves hardship where consent withheld. add rigor refinement announced.' ") Anderson Hayes Constr. 243 N.Y. 140, 147, 153 N.E. 28, 29-30 (1926) (Cardozo, J.)). objective attempting 2680 "those exception"—no more. (1953). reiterations argument, 672; 850. General Bill: Hearings Before Subcomm. Comm. Claims, 72d (1932) (testimony Asst. Atty. Gen. Rugg). went "[t]his draft bill Crown Proceedings England 1927. 16. referred explicit: "No proceedings lie section— deterioration occasioned to, delay release of, anything such. 11(5)(c), pp. 17-18 (April 1927). (It England.) Mr. wrote serving Special Assistant Attorney General. "assigned Mitchell co-ordinating departments" Borchard, Bill, U.Chi.L.Rev. (1933). contained, Rugg, turn transmitted Accounting Office Comptroller Insofar embodied Executive stage debates over bill, likely point, attention Congressmen considering bill. dissent introduced record, ideas therein great determining legislature. post, 863-864. But, direct members understood senseless ignore draftsman. S.Rep. 1400, (1946); 1196, 77th (1942); 2245, (1942). Cf. Kosak (Weis, J., dissenting) (discussed, supra, 854). effort test conformity underlie whole, principally take inadequate account "central Post, 866-869. mistakes nature Our inclusive looking meant narrowly. sparseness 855-858, advisable excluding certain objectives, throw analytical net wider. variety expressions Claims: H.R. 5373 6463 Comm., (1942) Shea); Against States: 7236 76th 3d (1940) Holtzoff); Hearings, supra note 11, Rugg); Report, 15. knowledge, arguably testimony subcommittee Senate Committee. emphasized adequacy justification improperly collected taxes; proffer explanation S. 2690 Judiciary, (1940). See, 1594 (authorizing vessel vehicle" force payment assessed penalties); 1595a(a) facilitate importation goods). vulnerability especially shipper owner. contend exercised due care received condition. extensive accounting movements treatment custody, pressed establish fault. dilemma automatically give rise States; course depend substance pertinent law. uneasiness prospect scenarios influenced carved Marine Lines, Schultz, 498 1146, 1149 (CA4 1974); Dioguardi Durning, 139 774, 775 1944); J. Story, Commentaries Law Bailments 613, 618, 387, 390 (1832). State 1149-1150. exists least remedial enable someone Government. implied-in-fact contract bailment between 1491. (1980). oral contended recover theory bringing Director official. Tr. Oral Arg. 28-29. issue, doctrine questionable us. Except authorized subordinate, malfeasance "internally inconsistent" "hypothetical rationales" 865. 22, makes unlikely chary suits. 865-866. owner, entered operate screen rationally filter inadvisable extend implausible feared creation inhibit vigorous laws, 859, 860-861. 866. explained above, official, 860-861, 23, combined obligation indemnify acted authority, 860, minimized extant willingness adopt policies implement policies. increased degree curtail exercise Comment, Liability Officials' Negligence: Minn.L.Rev. 1040 (1983); Note, Using Remedy Property Damage Following Seizures, U.Mich.J. Reform 83 maintains of' property." ----. puts cart horse. essence placing legal primarily research composition. Framing embody ascertaining entirety. member, be) process wants do, counsel assist alternative proposals. Even Congressman) settled outlines measure, subsidiary questions seem unfold endlessly. decide. accomplish envisage application ramifications." K. Kofmehl, Professional Staffs 189 (3d ed. 1977). Many initially executive branch. today's decision, anticipate searching long dormant files documents Report. parties attempt capitalize new reservoir "legislative" well, discovery Freedom Information presumably assert material privileged Finally, lobbyists. doubts Congress. Some ipse dixit response. told, citation statements history, detains. 859. Notwithstanding undertakes inspections Inspector's Handbook, 3.54(b), 5.72 (1982), CFR 158.21-158.30 (1983), wonders items doing inspecting them, they onerous, want citizen's free prudent undertake. answer, seem, "Government, defendant, exert unctuous persuasiveness clothe interest. unanticipated consequences government influence side lax standards defends." 50, 975, (1953) (Jackson, dissenting). Compare Feres 135, 139, 153, 156, 152 (1950) ("This fit, comport workable, equitable whole. isolated spontaneous flash generosity. marks culmination unjust suit.") largely relies All legislation germinal period, intentions proponents secondary aid descendent earlier reasons, offered unconvincing justified rationales, rationale enacts measure defines recognized extremely utility, sometimes misleading nature, plethora command consensus, acknowledging "new aspect" Part IV 550-552 8, 404-405, 29-31 24-25, 962, (1953); 548-550, 403-404, (1951) (The "merely substitutes agency determine validity [tort] claims." 549, S.Ct., 404); (1950). product E.g., Rep. (1946). Committee, empowered Sess. (1945). embodying work, 2177, sponsored Senator La Follette (the chairman Committee) chaired Follette, created reporting Res. 260, House, Rules reported permitting floor passed substitute Representative Monroney vice-chairman Committee). H. 717,

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