Document: 539 U.S. 461 GEORGIAv.ASHCROFT, ATTORNEY GENERAL, ET AL. No. 02-182. Supreme Court of United States. Argued April 29, 2003. Decided June 26, Georgia's 1997 State Senate districting plan is the benchmark for this litigation. That drew 56 districts, 11 them with a total black population over 50%, and 10 voting age 50%. The 2000 census revealed that these numbers had increased so 13 districts at least exceeding 50% in 12 those districts. After census, Georgia General Assembly began redistricting once again. It uncontested substantial majority voters vote Democratic, all elected representatives are Democrats. Senator who chaired subcommittee developed new testified he believed as district's beyond what was necessary to elect candidate, it would push more toward Republicans, correspondingly diminish power African-Americans overall. Thus, part Democrats' strategy not only maintain number majority-minority increase Democratic seats, but also so-called "influence" where be able exert significant—if decisive—force election process. therefore "unpacked" most heavily concentrated plan, created influence drawing majority-black population, additional between 30%-50%, 4 other 25%-30%. When adopted Senators voted it. House Representatives passed 33 34 No Republican either body making votes legislators passage. Governor signed into law 2001. Because covered jurisdiction under § 5 Voting Rights Act 1965, must submit any "standard, practice, or procedure" preclearance by States Attorney District Columbia order ensure change "does have purpose [or] effect denying abridging right on account race color," 42 U. S. C. 1973c. should precleared if "would lead retrogression position racial minorities respect their effective exercise electoral franchise." Beer v. States, 425 130, 141. In preclear its 2001 filed suit seeking declaratory judgment does violate 5. To satisfy burden proving nonretrogression, submitted detailed evidence documenting, among things, percentage registered voters, overall each district; about how statistics compared districts; testimony from numerous participants plan's enactment designed strength throughout well help continued Senate; expert nonblack equal chances electing preferred candidate when district 44.3%; and, response States' objections, statistical three proposed found objectionable—Districts 2, 12, 26—and two challenged intervenors—Districts 15 22. argued because changes boundaries Districts 26 unlawfully reduced voters' ability candidates choice. focused permit court assess impact. intervenors, four African-Americans, occurred 22, presented alternative plans an report critiquing State's report. A three-judge panel held violated 5, entitled preclearance. Held: 1. did err allowing private litigants intervene. intervenors' analysis identifies interests adequately represented existing parties. Private parties may intervene actions assuming they meet requirements Federal Rule Civil Procedure 24, NAACP New York, 413 345, 365, abuse discretion intervention case, see id., 367. Morris Gressette, 432 491, 504-505, which decision object belongs General, distinguished concerned administrative, judicial, itself recognized difference two. See 503-507. Pp. 476-477. 2. failed consider relevant factors examined whether resulted franchise. 477-491. (a) argument 2 Act, 1973, rejected. dilution violation independent reason deny preclearance, inevitably make compliance contingent thereby replace standards Reno Bossier Parish School Bd., 520 471, 477. Instead showing nondilutive prove nonretrogressive 477-479. (b) determine meaning "a franchise," Beer, supra, 141, statewide first whole: First, diminution minority group's franchise violates cannot show gains whole offset loss particular district. Second, circumstances examined, such choice, extent opportunity participate political process, feasibility creating plan. See, e. g., Johnson De Grandy, 512 997, 1011-1012, 1020-1021. assessing totality circumstances, comparative choice important factor, dispositive exclusive. Thornburg Gingles, 478 30, 47-50. maximize success, choose create certain "safe" highly likely will see, 48-49, greater likely, although perhaps quite candidates, 88-89 (O'CONNOR, J., concurring judgment). Section dictate pick one methods other. Id., 89. considering factor inquiry—the process—a examine adds subtracts "influence districts" can play substantial, decisive, role cf., Johnson, 1007. districts' weight, "the likelihood without decisive support willing take minority's account." Thornburg, S., 100 Various studies suggest way coalitional allows risk having fewer achieve representation group increasing sympathetic voters. 87-89, 99. Another method process representatives' legislative leadership, influence, power. 1020. Maintaining positions while itself, lack retrogressive effect. And significant, though dispositive, very protected 479-485. (c) factors. acknowledging importance whole, too narrowly examining increases many improperly rejected representing plan; maintains influence; affirmatively decided best adopt high concentration face difficult 26. Given met nonretrogression. gives flexibility implement type has preclearance—a even means some somewhat Cf. 89 While courts Justice Department vigilant ensuring neither reduce nor discriminate against them, properly interpreted, encourage transition society no longer matters. 485-491. (d) better reweigh facts record instance light Court's explication retrogression. P. 491. 195 F. Supp. 2d 25, vacated remanded. O'CONNOR, delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, SCALIA, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined. post, p. 492, opinions. SOUTER, dissenting opinion, STEVENS, GINSBURG, BREYER, joined, 492. 1 APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR OF COLUMBIA David Walbert cause appellant. With him briefs were Thurbert E. Baker, Georgia, Dennis R. Dunn, Deputy Mark H. Cohen. 3 Malcolm L. Stewart federal appellees. brief Solicitor Olson, Assistant Boyd, Clement, Gross. Marshall Braden appellee intervenors. Amy M. Henson, Frank B. Strickland, Anne W. Lewis.* JUSTICE O'CONNOR Court. 6 we decide been 79 Stat. 439, renumbered amended, requires before jurisdiction's goes effect, color." Whether procedure depends 141 (1976). We previous, 7 * 8 Over past decade, propriety state congressional subject repeated 1991, after 1990 census. Miller 515 900, 905 (1995), revised enacted previous nevertheless refused failure Miller, 929 1529, 1537, n. 23 (SD Ga. 1996). made attempt again Again, contain sufficient 1539. Finally, third approving spring 1992. 1537. 9 1992 court. 1533-1534. Its however, unconstitutional Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. Shaw Reno, 509 630 (1993). 1995, engaged stereotyping Amendment forbids" "predominant, overriding explaining" decisions. 928, 920. "safe say end required obtain preclearance," justification engage gerrymandering. 921. served "building blocks" Johnson. Supp., 1533, (internal quotation marks omitted); 1536. Clause. 1540. Accordingly, attempted cure perceived constitutional problems passing another 1995. 1995 maintaining retrogressed 1540-1541. subsequently brought action challenging constitutionality 1533. reviewing "[i]t clear maximization policy become integral section . review. net DOJ's objection[s] require plans, already ameliorative reasonable concept non-retrogression." 1539-1540. noted specifically disapproved Justice's analysis. Indeed, objections "driven maximizing districts." 924. "[i]n utilizing wherever possible, expanded authority statute Congress intended upheld." 925. stated "artificially push[ed] within possible." eventually received "represented Assembly's surrender DOJ." then gerrymander. 1543. Under direction, reached mediated agreement 1997, quickly redrawn map resembled large degree Justice, accommodate Miller. All here concede litigation time effort. Record, Doc. 148, Pl. Exh. 1C (hereinafter Exh.). 39 (DC 2002). 14 party contests goal leadership—black white—was seats. 41-42. For example, Director Legislative Redistricting Office, Linda Meggers, Black Caucus "`wanted maintain'" same "`not waste'" votes. 41. Vice Chairman Reapportionment Committee, Robert Brown, goals black, issue here. 42. Brown necessary, "pus[h] thing towards [the] Republican[s]." 20, 24. "correspondingly," stated, you overall." Ibid. Charles Walker leader Senate. "we [African-Americans] chance than majority." 19. At members could chair committees. 2d, 16 Brown's committee kept true dual attempting Part As testified, "in past, know, up doing packing. You put blacks whites district, [a] white That's good strategy. bring people together, divides population. But together precincts brings together." 17 30% 25% 30%. 2C. According five excess 60%. Compare 1D Yet one, four. larger. old figures, 1C. thus three, five. 18 August 10, 2001, 29 Ten eleven 55. 101 71. Thirty-three thirty-four sought B 19 Pursuant like option administrative through judicial instituting comports 1973c; 411 526 (1973). chose latter method, filing 20 bears proof action, Pleasant Grove 479 462 (1987), intent documenting (i. e., Democratic), things. 36; Exhs. 2C, 2D. 1C, 1D, 1E (revised). 21 participated enacting law, Congressman John Lewis, represents Atlanta area. These witnesses African-American non-African-American 44.3%. raised objectionable— intervenors challenged—Districts 22 precleared. Brief Appellees 8; 72. dropped 60.58% 50.31%; 55.43% 50.66%; 62.45% 50.80%.1 Moreover, just racially polarized 69-71. acknowledged limited maintained 70-71. offered various witnesses, including lay living asserted contours Regina Thomas Eric questioned affect Vols. 25-27 177, 707-736 (Depositions). extremely scope—focusing contested impact [the plan]." 37. permitted citizens identified districts—Districts 22—where alleged occurred. "present[ed] little report." 24 apportionment 97. Judge Sullivan, joined Edwards, concluded "not demonstrated preponderance African American voters" lesser existed win 93-94. reductions "diminish districts," "failed present evidence" "will 88. 25 concurred. Edwards emphasized §§ "procedurally substantively distinct provisions." He preserving satisfies politicians supported his view, address polarization occurring 101-102. Oberdorfer dissented. given "greater credence expertise motivation leaders inferences drawn data statistics." 102. answered "whether preserves fair every remain improve probability victory, super-majority far level needed 117. 27 largely similar here, except added 204 (2002). amended. asserts use originally receives 28 probable 537 1151 (2003), now vacate below. II Before addressing merits claim, incorrect lawsuit. allowed subjected stratagems disagrees argues question moot participation ruling appeal court's ruling. 30 do think moot. prevailing addressed submitted, front proper still relevance argue correctly retrogressive. 31 governs case. permits "an judgment." limit application Rules lawsuit, terms bar intervening. 365 (1973), "[i]ntervention governed Fed. Civ. Proc. 24." 32 argument, relies 491 (1977). Morris, judicially reviewable. 504-505. Here, granted motion "analysis the.. pla[n] parties." App. Juris. Statement 218a. granting III "has substantive goal: "`to insure voting-procedure franchise.'" 926 (quoting [at 141])." Bush Vera, 517 952, 982-983 (1996). merely "current strength" City Lockhart 460 125, 134, (1983); 983. discriminatory 528 320, 341 (2000). "no matter be," 336. "[P]reclearance affirms nothing absence backsliding." 335. 35 1973. have, "consistently understood" "combat different evils accordingly, impose duties upon States." 477 (1997) (Bossier I). jurisdictions, applies inquiry differs significant respects inquiry. contrast 5's standard, "essence" claim structure. cause[s] inequality opportunities enjoyed representatives." 47 (1986); 48-50 (enunciating three-part test establish dilution); 85-100 judgment); 1973(b). Unlike "by definition, comparison plan." I, 478. parts overlap inquiry, sections "differ structure, purpose, application." Holder Hall, 874, 883 (1994) (plurality opinion). 36 holding straightforward: "[R]ecognizing violations basis Doing would, intents purposes, 2." 37 makes flip side I—compliance suffices fails reasons I. refuse equate standard. "shift focus nonretrogression dilution, [would] hypothetical, undiluted 480. 38 automatically result Appellant 32, 36. never determined "effective case us detail. acknowledge retrogressive, encompass entire whole. 73; Tr. Oral Arg. 28-29. 40 assessment examination 1020-1021 (1994); Richmond 422 358, 371-372 (1975); 97-100 "No single statistic provides shortcut whether" retrogresses benchmark. 41 solely standard simple— often complex practice determine. success group, 48-49; 87-89 Alternatively, likely—although plan—that cf. Pildes, Is Voting-Rights Law Now War Itself? Social Science 2000s, 80 N. Rev. 1517 43 another. Either own array risks benefits," presents "hard choices truly `maximize' success." On hand, smaller safe virtually guarantee few constitute unlawful packing Voinovich Quilter, 507 146, 153-154 (1993), isolating rest State, narrowing fraction 648-650. "descriptive representation" mirror areas. Pitkin, Concept Representation 60-91 (1967). 44 spreading out creates Such potential "substantive coalitions aspirations group. 114. also, lose. 1020: 45 "[T]here communities form ethnic groups, need Those represent perfection voter, immune obligation pull, haul, trade find common ground, virtue slighted applying meant hasten waning racism politics." theory 46 addition "`[T]he winning elections.'" 99 judgment) Davis Bandemer, 109, 132 (1986)); White Regester, 412 755, 766-767 (1973); Whitcomb Chavis, 403 124, 149-160 (1971); 1011-1012. districts"—where Hunt, 899, 947, (1996) (Stevens, dissenting); Hays Louisiana, 936 360, 364, (WD La. 1996); 1011-1012; 98-100 weight fact, suggested Lublin, Racial Representation: Critique "Do Majority-Minority Maximize Substantive Congress?" 93 Am. Pol. Sci. 183, 185 (1999) (noting early 1990's, "less initiatives blacks"); Cameron, Epstein, & O'Halloran, Do Congress? 90 794, 808 (concluding "[d]istricting schemes necessarily representation"); Swain, Faces, Interests 193-234 (1995); Rev., 1517; Grofman, Handley, Drawing Effective Minority Districts: Conceptual Framework Some Empirical Evidence, 1383 (2001). 48 leaves room types ultimately descriptive preferable. 142; choose, consistent 49 legislator, less ground." representative democracy, delegate chosen pass laws. control core exercising lawmaker set agenda, closed-door meetings, negotiate stronger position, shake hands deal. 50 89; 503 (SOUTER, dissenting). dissent recognizes, asks "voters probably act live." Post, 509. knowledge act" decrease 51 determining non-retrogression announce today situation hard anything left of" 495. ignores remains feature 98 agrees subtraction 504. fact-intensive both SOUTER context, course 37; 100-104 755 Zimmer McKeithen, 485 1297 (CA5 1973) (en banc). 52 "cannot right" 494. general statement cites contention himself, writing recognized, "extent enjoy processes" vote-dilution apply C 53 explore meaningful depth so, paid inadequate attention maintenance representatives. 54 75-78. Nevertheless, consideration ignored "presen[t] regarding 26" clearly erroneous. 94. Like dissent, accept findings marginally note introduced approximately one-third 66, admitted results elections "there `very chance' reconstituted 71; 84-85. regardless diminished narrow. 55 apart introduce rebut offsets districts: "[T]he "was impact" marginal Using overlay numbers, "unpacking" apparent. two, 2C; 470-471. 57 striking. districts—out 56—where figures indicated drops 59.27% 50.31%. 53.45% 50.80%. actually increases, 46.50% 50.66%. 2C.2 decline confirms suggest—that "unpack" blacks' 469-471. 58 Other supports implausibility finding An shows, anything, certainly indicate above 20% consist almost entirely exception 4, 30.51% 48.86%. ibid. fact bloc, always buttress designers relatedly prospects victory. 469-470. 59 Lewis easily dismissed. member stake personally outcome "giving real comes kind efforts made," give Americans" "you putting office going responsive." 21, 21-23. 60 dissent's presumes deciding 501-508. contrary, hold correct thorough issue, remand using today. leave indeed proof. justifies conclusion ground factual determination. appear dispute legal incorrect, below vacated. 61 prevent discrimination foster our transformation fixated race. 1020; 657. stated: "I that's [civil rights] struggle about, I call interracial democracy South. movement, beloved community, all-inclusive forget color people, human beings, citizens." 14. matters: integration color-blindness qualities proud of, simple life. IV 62 Columbia, vacated, remanded further proceedings opinion. 63 ordered. Notes: ofamicus curiae urging affirmance Coalition Peoples' Agenda Laughlin McDonald, Neil Bradley, Barbara Arnwine, J. Henderson, Anita Hodgkiss, Elaine Jones, Norman Chachkin, Todd A. Cox. slightly differing depend includes self-identify Hispanic. counts so. information, "including registration [black population] numbers." rely used count persons identify themselves black. white, involves groups. CfJohnson 997 952 believe look individuals summarily rejects passed. Seepost, 506. legislature. all, revolves around "irrelevant." Rather, one-person, one-vote principle Reynolds Sims, 377 533 (1964), progeny. decennial released, redistrict shifts operate fiction years later, constitutionally apportioned. enumeration, legally enforceable challenged, years. redistricted comply mandate next election. Branch Smith, 538 254 (2003); Lawyer 521 567 (1997); Growe Emison, 64 concurring. 65 evident accurate description predominant lines map. If written preface challenge reader sound conclude succeed. Race 900 (1995). considerations doom seem save 66 agree decisions controlling 471 320 discord inconsistency noted, however; raised, confronted. There fundamental flaw, think, scheme directed ratify conduct statutory directive. This serious observed, summary precedents. observations, join 67 68 continue adhere views expressed my 891 (opinion fully 69 whom BREYER join, dissenting. 70 reducing amount barring 1965. ante, 480-482. prudential objective hardly betrayed supermajority power, coalition shown predictably supportive nonminority 1020 (explaining context "society's cleavages sometimes necessitate opportunity, obscure there choice"). 71 reliably along minority. (1997). translatable comparable scheme. demonstrate this, produce reports percentages; behavior prospect. 1517, 1539 convince factfinder unlikely, crossover demographic point effectiveness, reduction treated potentially fatally persuasion being State. 72 perfectly understood committed error. Error enters whose unmoors practical administrable conception rule mistakes significance supporting decision. 73 recognizing possibility alternatives majorities redefines anchoring reference alternatively suggesting "coalitio[n] created, 483, 484, provided groups particularly powerful 483-484. alternative, requirement substantially practically unadministrable. 74 holds carry demonstrating "`candidates account.'" Ante, 482 (1986) judgment)). right. 75 history demonstrates addresses perpetuate exclusion free change. (1976); 140-141 ("Section `to achieved participation] shall destroyed [discriminatory] procedures techniques'" Rep. 94-295, (1975))). retrogression, therefore, mean effectively. 76 says adequate avoid consists sentiment politicians: reflects willingness elected. holds, words, eliminated, long expected interests. 77 forgotten; forgotten. surprise cited precedential reconception, 482, footnote 899 (1996), dictum Western Louisiana. 78 trouble ahead, ask understanding, reviewers supposed measure nominally retains touchstone. purely ad hominem, looking apparent sentiments incumbents might run districts? Would enough incumbent previously promised measures? Whatever looks to, value falls short coalition? Nondecisive worth control, much less? district? three? Or four? guidance measuring member, let alone Nor possibly guidance. simply functional worlds. Identical comparability administrability gloss novel off undefined occupy official implies larger ordinary strength. approach chairman differently candidates. impossible ever imagined turning distinctions. event, allow weigh ambitiousness cast for, stopping point. suppose go extra points charisma attract following, chairmen equally? (The not.) legislator network proven dealmaker? again, problem measurement: shift Speaker House? 81 fault answers questions, fundamental, interpretation invites unanswerable questions error regime defies reviewable administration. hope party's advantage guise obtaining advantage. 82 One suffer unquantifiable turn actual, guaranteed losers: amorphous comparison. subsequent cases satisfied pretense equated drop safeguard "unremitting ingenious defiance Constitution" place. South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 309 (1966). 83 addresses, (coalition not) reach crucial theory:1 actual affected retreat central evidentiary invulnerable 84 review 917 462, 469 (1987); McCain Lybrand, 465 236, 258 (1984); 136 (1983). business disturbing "simply differently," based "on evidence, [we are] definite firm conviction mistake committed." Easley Cromartie, 532 234, 242 (2001) omitted). not, then, "decide 466. Our sole responsibility refusing not. 85 acknowledgment (to assent) (BVAP) retrogressive: "`Unpacking' positive negative consequences patterns forces segments BVAP strength." 86 ("[T]he states move formerly constituted divisions healed numerical translate power"); mere decreases 5").2 87 key understanding polarization. elements consistently separate blocs, decreasing proportion generally favored elected; whereas low bloc voting, ("[R]acial critically presence voter effects"). 88 indisputable recognition, determines purposes enquiry, nub boils down showed context. districts,3 86, issue. said, "provided competent, comprehensive information levels individual across State." particular, "impossible extrapolate" submissions lone witness. 85. took "admitted cross-examination" polarization: analysis," "is per se. candidates." explained expert: "made court: proposal occur corresponding electability paucity expert's] unable 81. How it, speaks "Georgia's retrogressive," [in] rebut[tal]," 487? answer engaging Instead, reweighing de novo, discovering thinks overlooked, conclusions supposedly see. mistaken points. 91 Implicitly tries fill record's gap. says, "Georgia contested] 486. focuses relating pre-existing rather 66. calculate 65, ("The emphasizes Epstein table's calculations calculated existing, proposed, districts"). relying attributes disclaimed, pointed out. ("[I]t extrapolate Epstein's database. cross-examination: candidates" omitted)). 92 effort revise record, faults alleging "focused 26." 485. asked explicitly fashion: reject entirety. [T]he extends 73. vested final approve disapprove whole." "The `purpose color.'" 103 (Oberdorfer, part) 1973c). Though "[t]he population," 486, considered parties' according calculations, twelve thirteen; General's data, eleven"). try indeed, relied near unanimity legislators' overlook evidence; "legislators' is, end, probative effect." (emphasis original). politicians' testimony, contrary "credible," 88, witness "suggests existence ibid., competent" response, bounds (1) decreased (2) (3) evidence. 94 reasonableness treatment underscored concluding reflection possible nonretrogressive, that. "There are, doubt, ways, local elections, Yet, parties, compelled burden." gap center [and] estimable [legislators] come close filling void." 100. 95 plain, overturning thoughtful rejecting favor own. judgments competence, interest, character witnesses. conducting 96 Next, attempts holes favorable undisputed statistics. 487-489. closer others far. 97 place, futility Knowing decreases, stays better, worse, unvarying Any inference trends levels, turnout on.4 today, agree, turns point; comparing Lack contextual flaw arguments. 487, plan,5 mention 55% Similarly, range, range. 487. mention, 44.3% critical threshold 107, shows 40% My conclusively retrogression; percentages tell isolation, raw fail get indicating carried They error, otherwise, irrelevant. precedent uncertain ago: now. 334 (2000) (Under baseline status quo changed"); opinion) definition; status"); system effect"); CFR 51.54(b)(2) (2002) (when conditions submission"). assumption proceed obsolete superseded puzzling unprecedented. invitation perverse results, affairs ago, demand flatly diminishing 5.6 489. explains performance concludes "[t]hese bloc." doubtful, assumptions doubt know majority's taken table describing statewide, local, elections. offers correlates elections,7 different, identical, patterns. States's "African election[s] elections," 71, "compelling races differ races," 85-86. 102 assume something useful up. proceeds faulty premise BVAP, Democrats enough, whatever selected say, (all Democrats) 51% Democrats, obvious account; everybody (or stay-at-homes constant electorate) Democrat support. Even needs (say Democrats), ignore ideological major unresponsive situation, presumably prefer Democrat, adjust vote. reasoning, course, carries whiff lamp. behave x, maybe y, does. arguing abstractions, abstract arguments Much wrong. 104 abstractions. "to inertia perpetrators evil victim," 140 omitted) 94-196, pp. 57-58 (1970)), "had suppose" "try evade remedies discrimination" "uncommon power." 334-335. addressed, carried, populations live. evidence: worth, trier burden. respectfully dissent. establishing See,e. 2002) ("We explain why present"); (covered "bears color" omitted)); 480 (Section "imposes effect");Reno 332 ("In specific persuasion"); (1976) (Congress "freez[e] areas unless nondiscriminatory" approved 95, plan,ibid., interim Senate, 2002), included comment "`the plan.'"Ante, 474 37). explained: "[u]ltimately, lies present, several BVAPs." 86. premises ironic incorrectly, chastises committing engages in, "fail[ing] factors."Ante, discussion burden,"ante, disputed. eleven." 93. 1990, rapidly changing demography produced during ensuing setting calculus. preserve wanted predictors' utterly unclear. pulls exhibit titled, "Political Data Report," column labeled, "%OVER DEMVOTES," Seeante, document reflect average performance, prediction future else altogether.

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