Document: 489 U.S. 656 109 S.Ct. 1384 103 L.Ed.2d 685 NATIONAL TREASURY EMPLOYEES UNION, et al., Petitionersv.William VON RAAB, Commissioner, United States Customs Service. No. 86-1879. Argued Nov. 2, 1988. Decided March 21, 1989. Syllabus The Service, which has as its primary enforcement mission the interdiction and seizure of illegal drugs smuggled into country, implemented a drug-screening program requiring urinalysis tests Service employees seeking transfer or promotion to positions having direct involvement in drug incumbent carry firearms handle "classified" material. Among other things, requires that an applicant be notified his selection is contingent upon successful completion screening, sets forth procedures for collection analysis requisite samples designed both ensure against adulteration substitution specimens limit intrusion on employee privacy, provides test results may not turned over any agency, including criminal prosecutors, without employee's written consent. Petitioners, federal employees' union one officials, filed suit behalf covered positions, alleging drug-testing violated, inter alia, Fourth Amendment. District Court agreed enjoined program. Appeals vacated injunction, holding that, although effects search within meaning Amendment, such searches are reasonable light their limited scope Service's strong interest detecting use among positions. Held: 1. Where Government produce urine analyzed evidence use, subsequent chemical must meet reasonableness requirement Cf. Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives' Assn., 602, 616-618, 1402, 1412-1413, 639 (1989). However, because testing serve ordinary needs law enforcement—i.e., used prosecution consent, purposes deter those eligible sensitive prevent users positions—the public balanced individual's privacy concerns implicated by determine whether warrant, probable cause, some level individualized suspicion required this particular context. Executives, U.S., at 619-620, S.Ct., 1413-1414. Pp. 665-666. 2. A warrant balance governmental interests context case. Such would only divert valuable agency resources from mission, compromised if warrants were necessary connection with routine, yet sensitive, employment decisions. Furthermore, provide little no additional protection personal since defines narrowly specifically circumstances justifying permissible limits intrusions; affected know they tested, aware proce ures follow, subject discretion officials field; there special facts neutral magistrate evaluate, implementation process becomes automatic when pursues position. 666-667. 3. who apply directly involving drugs, require firearms, despite absence cause suspicion. 667-677. (a) In demonstrating national crisis caused smuggling illicit narcotics, compelling ensuring front-line personnel physically fit have unimpeachable integrity judgment. It also preventing risk life citizenry posed potential deadly force persons suffering impaired perception These outweigh diminished expectation respect intrusions occasioned virtue special, obvious, physical ethical demands 668-672. (b) Petitioners' contention unreasonable it based belief will reveal evinces unduly narrow view was implemented. Although motivated perceived problem employees, nevertheless justified extraordinary safety security hazards attend question. Moreover, mere circumstance all but few tested innocent does impugn program's validity, substantial harm could much detect actual use. 673-675. (c) Also unpersuasive petitioners' sufficiently productive mechanism justify Amendment can easily avoid detection temporary abstinence surreptitious specimens. Addicts unable abstain even period unaware "fade-away effect" certain drugs. More importantly, pattern elimination given cannot predicted perfect accuracy extend long 22 days, information likely known available event, he reasonably expect deceive abstaining after date assigned. Nor attempts succeed, precautions built each sample. 676-677. 4. record inadequate purpose determining where reasonable, clear occupying apparently gain access information. On remand, should examine criteria what materials classified deciding whom under rubric should, assessing consider pertinent bearing expectations supervision already subject. 677-678. 816 F.2d 170 (CA5 1987), affirmed part, remanded. KENNEDY, J., delivered opi ion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, BLACKMUN, O'CONNOR, JJ., joined. MARSHALL, dissenting opinion, BRENNAN, joined, post, p. 679. SCALIA, STEVENS, 680. Lois G. Williams, Washington, D.C., petitioners. Sol. Gen. Charles Fried, respondent. Justice KENNEDY opinion Court. 1 We granted certiorari decide violates seek 2 * A. 3 bureau Department Treasury, responsible processing persons, carriers, cargo, mail States, collecting revenue imports, enforcing customs related laws. See U.S.A., Fiscal Year 1985, An important responsibility contraband, Ibid. 1987 alone, agents seized retail value nearly $9 billion. 1987, 40. routine discharge duties, many contact traffic profit. Drug import operations, often directed sophisticated syndicates, Mendenhall, 446 544, 561-562, 100 1870, 1880-1881, 64 497 (1980) (Powell, concurring), effected violence threat. As response, operatives official duties. App. 109. 4 December respondent, Commissioner Customs, established Screening Task Force explore possibility implementing Id., 11. After extensive research consultation experts field, task concluded "drug screening through technologically reliable, valid accurate." Citing conclusion, announced intention applied for, occupied, 10-11. stated "Customs largely drug-free," noted "unfortunately segment society immune threat use." 10. become agency's stressed "there room break laws prohibiting possession drugs." 5 May 1986, made condition placement more three criteria. first laws, activity deemed fraught obvious dangers lives agents. 17, 113. second criterion "[p]ublic arms prepared make instant death decisions free." third material, determined might fall hands smugglers accessible who, reason own susceptible bribery blackmail. 114. 6 qualifies position program, advises him letter final rug screening. independent contractor contacts fix time place reporting test, photographic identification remove outer garments, coat jacket, belongings. sample behind partition, bathroom stall so chooses. To specimen, another person, monitor same sex remains close hand listen normal sounds urination. Dye added toilet water using adulterate 7 Upon receiving inspects proper temperature color, places tamper-proof custody seal container, affixes label indicating specimen number. signs chain-of-custody form, initialed monitor, placed plastic bag, sealed, submitted laboratory.1 8 laboratory presence marijuana, cocaine, opiates, amphetamines, phencyclidine. Two used. initial uses enzyme-multiplied-immunoassay technique (EMIT). Any identified positive then confirmed gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Confirmed reported "Medical Review Officer," "[a] licensed physician . knowledge substance abuse disorders appropriate medical training interpret evaluate result ogether her history relevant biomedical information." HHS Reg. § 1.2, 53 Fed.Reg. 11980 (1988); 2.4(g), Fed.Reg., 11983. verifying result, Medical Officer transmits agency. 9 offer satisfactory explanation dismissal Test not, however, B 10 official, commenced Eastern Louisiana current Petitioners alleged Custom agreed. 649 F.Supp. 380 (1986). court acknowledged "the legitimate drug-free work force," plan constitutes overly intrusive policy seizures suspicion, violation privacy." 387. ordered applicants 11 divided panel Fifth Circuit injunction. (1987). petitioners testing, held further Commissioner's directive "[t]he attempted minimize intrusiveness search" visual observation act urination affording notice tested. 177. considered significant ibid., aspect relationship, id., 178. 12 found reasoned casts doubt ability duties honestly vigorously, undermining confidence concomitantly impairing efforts enforce Illicit users, found, blackmail, tempted portions shipments interdict, may, "endanger fellow agents, well own, performance "Considering nature responsibilities jobs being search," stated, exaction consent assignment new job unreasonable." 179. 13 judge effective method achieving goals. He argued principally "given five day notification need user." 184. employed test. Because did believe achieve purposes, 14 certiorari. 485 903, 108 1072, 99 232 (1988) now affirm judgment upheld involved firearms. vacate extent materials, remand proceedings. II 15 639, decided today, we regulations private railroads implicate invade privacy. Our earlier cases settled protects individuals conducted Government, acts employer, O'Connor Ortega, 480 709, 717, 107 1492, 1498, 94 714 (1987) (plurality opinion); see 731, 1505 (SCALIA, concurring judgment), and, our Executives searches, follows 16 While emphasized, reiterate supported, general matter, issued see, e.g., Griffin Wisconsin, 483 868, 873, 3164, 3168, 97 709 (1987); Karo, 468 705, 104 3296, 3304, 82 530 (1984), decision reaffirms longstanding principle neither nor nor, indeed, measure indispensable component every circumstance. Ante, 1413-1416. New Jersey T.L.O., 469 325, 342, n. 8, 105 733, 743, 83 720 (1985); Martinez-Fuerte, 428 543, 556-561, 96 3074, 3082-3085, 49 1116 (1976). note establish serves needs, beyond enforcement, Government's impractical 17 enforcement. interests, less than concern safe rail transportation issue present departure probable-cause requirements. 18 do contend context, withstand scrutiny. recognized before procure work-related "would conflict 'the common-sense realization government offices function became constitutional matter.' " supra, 722, 1500, quoting Connick Myers, 461 138, 143, 1684, 1688, 75 708 (1983). 732, 1506 judgment); 340, 742 (noting requi ement unsuited school environment: teacher obtain searching child suspected infraction rules (or law) interfere maintenance swift informal disciplinary needed schools"). Even familiar most workers, mission. been entrusted pressing responsibilities, 19 nothing way primarily advise citizen authorized interpose between officer "engaged competitive enterprise ferreting out crime." Johnson 333 10, 14, 68 367, 369, 92 L.Ed. 436 (1948). But toxicological defined ., doubtless employees." 1415. Under seeks knows take likewise follow administering simply "to field." Camara Municipal San Francisco, 387 523, 532, 87 1727, 1732, 930 (1967). elects thereafter pursue, discretionary determination conditions present, "no evaluate." South Dakota Opperman, 364, 383, 3092, 3104, 1000 (1976) concurring). 20 dispense circumstances, ordinarily cause. 1416. teach, standard 'is peculiarly investigations.' Colorado Bertine, 479 371, 738, 741, 93 739 (1987), 370, 5, 3097, 5. particular, traditional unhelpful analyzing administrative functions, 741; 723, 1500-1501, especially development hazardous violations rarely generate articulable grounds person. 535-536, 1734-1735 building code inspections, unlike pursuant investigation, unintentional health safety"); 557, 3082 particularized stops major highways near Mexican border flow tends too heavy allow study car enable b possible carrier aliens"). precedents discover latent hidden conditions, development, entailed conducting E.g., ante, 1416-1417. think conduct suspicionless outweighs engaged interdiction, otherwise 21 Nation's line defense greatest problems affecting welfare population. adverted veritable narcotics." Montoya de Hernandez, 473 531, 538, 3309, 381 (1985). Florida Royer, 460 491, 513, 1319, 1332, 229 (BLACKMUN, dissenting). reflect traffickers' seemingly inexhaustible repertoire deceptive practices elaborate schemes importing 538-539, 3309-3310; Ramsey, 431 606, 608-609, 1972, 1974-1975, 52 617 (1977). case confirms adroit source locations, routes, increasingly methods concealment, traffickers managed bring country large quantities 111. indicates, known, hesitate protect lucrative trade apprehension. Many exposed element controlled substances smuggle country. 3311. these threatened, bribes deal, vast sources contraband indicated below [o]fficers shot, stabbed, run over, dragged automobiles, assaulted blunt objects while performing duties." 109-110. At least nine officers died duty 1974. targets numerous occasions, several removed accepting violations. 31 (reporting internal investigations resulted arrest 24 54 civilians); 32 334 serious during fiscal year, resulting 37 284 1985 51 civilians). 23 readily apparent fit, Indeed, here travelers entering enter stopped submit founded "because self identify himself entitled come in, belongings lawfully brought in." Carroll 267 132, 154, 45 280, 285, 69 543 (1925). 3308; 617-619, 1979-1980. This self-protection irreparably damaged charged safeguarding were, unsympathetic interdicting narcotics. user's indifference basic or, worse, active complicity malefactors, facilitate importation sizable block apprehension dangerous criminals. measures bar firearm, plainly "discharge risks injury others momentary lapse attention disastrous consequences." 1419. agree bear suffer promoted employ force. creation itself values, violate circumstances. Tennessee Garner, 471 1, 7-12, 1694, 1699-1701, 85 25 Against weigh interference individual liberty classes undergo 1418. recognized, "operational realities workplace" render entirely supervisors co-workers viewed contexts. SeeO'Connor 1497; judgment). operational affect workplace, 716, 725, 1497, 1501, plain forms diminish searches. Employees Mint, example, leave workplace day. Similarly, join military intelligence services give contexts assurances trustworthiness probity, inquiries fitness Snepp 444 507, 509, 3, 763, 765, 62 704 (1980); Parker Levy, 417 758, 2547, 2562, 41 439 (1974); Committee GI Rights Callaway, 171 U.S.App.D.C. 73, 84, 518 466, 477 (1975). 26 Unlike citizens general, inquiry probity. Much true depends uniquely dexterity, keep bears fitness. re Caruso Ward, 72 N.Y.2d 432, 441, 534 N.Y.S.2d 142, 146-148, N.E.2d 850, 854-855 (1988). elicit infringe expectations, borders.2 27 Without disparaging importance support two particulars. First, argue unjustified employees. argument, point scheme response actually led discovery number users. Brief 37, 44; Tr. o Oral Arg. 11-12, 20-21. Counsel informed us oral argument 3,600 Second, "sufficiently [its] interests," Delaware Prouse, 440 648, 658-659, 1391, 1398-1399, 59 660 (1979), ease 46-47. contentions unpersuasive. 28 dispute, doubt, confronting today. There American workplaces pervasive social problem, amply illustrated Executives. Masino 589 1048, 1050, 218 Ct.Cl. 531 (1978) (describing marijuana inspectors). Detecting impairment part difficult task, where, here, feasible product kind day-to-day scrutiny norm office environments. almost unique gives off duty, creates blackmail guard. carrying substances, deterring promotions unreasonable. 29 wrongdoing validity. householders housing (1967), motorists checkpoints approved Where, guard substantial, occurrence furnishes ample justification calculated advance goal.3 30 argument—that ineffective attempt brief abstention date, adulterating specimens—overstates noted, addicts time, F.2d, 180. avoidance techniques suggested uncertainty venture them. accuracy, employee. expert takes undetectable vary widely depending individual, days. 66. 1420 Appeals' reliance academic literature indicates 'for weeks ingestion drug' "). Thus, contrary suggestion, simple expedient taken collector persuaded relation goal positions.4 sum, demonstrated borders involve firearm. hold C unable, record, assess insofar covers material." 17. protecting truly "under compulsion reasons, compromise [such] Navy Egan, 484 518, 528, 818, 824, 98 918 Robel, 389 258, 267, 88 419, 425, 508 (1967) ("We Constitution invasions rights, withdraw power safeguard vital interests. deny secrets Nation"). category background investigations, examinations, expected 824 Executive Branch generally subjects desiring clearance "a investigation varies according degree adverse effect security"). 33 clear, encompasses include diverse "Accountant," "Accounting Technician," "Animal Caretaker," "Attorney (All)," "Baggage Clerk," "Co-op Student "Electric Equipment Repairer," "Mail Clerk/Assistant," "Messenger." 42-43. assume selected coverage incumbent's information, either categories considered. Yet evident discrepancy raises minds question broadly directive. 34 resolve ambiguity basis us, proceedings clarify testing. rubric. t III 35 adopted tests, reference usual presumption favor specified Warrant Clause, reasonable. 36 endanger enjoy find purpose. remanded consistent opinion. 38 ordered. 39 BRENNAN joins, dissenting. 40 For reasons my 635, 1423, I dissent Court's Here, Skinner, abandonment Amendment's express person rest unprincipled unjustifiable. believed balancing still today's SCALIA 680, relating tailoring plan. 170, 182-184 1987) (Hill, J.). STEVENS 42 constitutionally denied promotion, dismissed, single instance unlawful home work. They assuredly can. steps asserts demand perform "an excretory traditionally shielded great privacy," 626, 1418, sounds," 661, excretion thus produced analysis. agrees Amendment—and type particularly destructive offensive dignity. 43 Until today had bodily separate prison inmates, relying environment. Bell Wolfish, 441 520, 558-560, 1861, 1884-1885, 60 447 (1979). Today, railroad rain accidents. joined frequency alcohol targeted class grave harm, rendered means society. decline likely. immolation human dignity symbolic opposition 44 "right people secure houses, papers, effects, seizures." absolutes law, soon left comes down "reasonable," answer necessity prompts search. upholding student's purse school, began (documented report Congress) "[m]aintaining order classroom never easy, recent years, disorder ugly forms: violent crime schools problems." 339, When fixed stop cars aliens, observed outset Immigration Naturalization suggests million aliens illegally country," "[i]nterdicting entrants Mexico poses formidable 551-552, 3080, And substantive begins, old industry itself," goes cite statistics concerning accidents causes, 1979 finding "23% operating 'problem drinkers.' 607, 1407, case, searched vain real solved Instead, population," 668; "[m]any [drug smugglers] [they seek] 669; violations," ibid.; judgment," 670; "national narcotics," 671. paraphrase Churchill, contains obviously true, relevant; unfortunately, relevant, true. points, seems me, supported speculation, very plausible speculation that. me significantly bribed smuggler, wears diamonds diamond smuggler—unless, perhaps, addiction severe, money maintain, detectable benefit appreciably "sympathetic" drug-interdiction police exceed speed sympathetic (The difference officer's efforts, irreplaceable, theoretically availability supply—a prospect remote absurd motivation.) Nor, finally, marginally gun-carrying risking "impaired judgment" impaired, shot dead unequal combat unimpaired unless, again, severe detection. 46 What absent justifications—notably absent, revealingly far am concerned dispositively absent—is recitation speculated horribles occurred: instance, is, bribe-taking, poor aim, points past violations, 1974, 669, indication whatever incidents Perhaps concrete severity unnecessary courts judicial it; surely here. "believe[s] establishing program," "hope[s] expect[s] receive reports findings screening." 15. fulfilled hopes expectations. According counsel, 673. 47 lack "[t]here [the] problem" abuse. generalization suffice catastrophic tolerable—the secured areas nuclear plant, Rushton Nebraska Public Power District, 844 562 (CA8 1988). suffices demeaning bribing blackmailing agent, careless frail indeed. Bell, took pains existence seizure—a "pervasive combined field issue, rather well-known well-demonstrated evils consequences. pointed industry, 8-year train occurred alcohol- drug-impaired killing people, injuring 66, causing $28 property damage. 1408. contrast, thought "largely exist speculative. Except fact car, resembles prohibited random check drivers' licenses motor vehicle registrations. contribution practice highway safety, concluded, "marginal best" drivers unlicensed "will indeed." 660, 660. 48 Today's wrong, effect, approval confined assigned Relatively description. extending consisting exposes numbers needless indignity. Logically, course, guns treated fashion, whose work, performed influence others—automobile drivers, operators potentially equipment, construction crossing guards. similarly broad attaches "sensitive information."1 Since information" traffic, approves clearances—or, confidential impart. throughout trust taking feed habit, yielding why super-protection harms arising employees; similar instruments cars, constitutional. apart situations—but willing rely. minute driving feeble justifications put forward counsel accepted explanation, view, offered concluding sentence memorandum announcing program: "Implementation set example country's struggle security." 12. Or respondent's asserted: "[I]f seriously, effectiveness depends." Respondent 36. better show about "war drugs" front war invasion affront dignity? sure, slight chance world "clean," and—most all—will demonstrate eliminate scourge society! unacceptable; liberties making point; symbolism, symbolism worthy abolition validate 50 irony citation, position, Brandeis' statement Olmstead 277 438, 485, 564, 575, 944 (1928) "[f]or good ill, [our Government] teaches whole example." Brandeis admission obtained wiretap. praising vigor enthusiasm combatting crime, condemning end justifies means," 575. apt quotation famous following: "[I]t immaterial aid Experience teach beneficent. Men born freedom naturally alert repel evil-minded rulers. lurk insidious encroachment men zeal, well-meaning understanding." 479, 572. Those lose understanding begot exercise just offended, coarsening manners ultimately content, administration hardly greater small taught own. Appeals, Health Human Services, accordance recently enacted legislation, Pub.L. 100-71, 503, 101 Stat. 468-471, promulgated (hereinafter Regulations Reg.) governing programs. 11979 add to, depart from, control. 503(b)(2)(B), 470. Both parties conform Regulations. 6, 8; 4-5, therefore supplement displace original California Bankers Assn. Shultz, 416 53, 1494, 1513, 812 Thorpe Housing Authority Durham, 393 268, 281-282, 89 525-526, 474 (1969). One differs now-prevailing regime disclose plan, asked disclose, collected, medications last explain Failure considering licit result. Regulations, produces instead reviews records lawful 2.7, 11985-11986 prescribed "arbitrary oppressive individuals," 554, 3081, (1976), prevent. Only tentatively scheduled collection, reducing minimum "unsettling authority," 657, 1398, associated unexpected 559, 3083 minimized "are surprise know, of, location elsewhere"); Wyman James, 400 309, 320-321, 91 381, 387-388, 408 (1971) (providing recipient she visited caseworker visit). urination, stall. Further, examined prohibited. 2.1(c), And, combination EMIT GC/MS highly accurate, assuming storage, handling, measurement techniques. 181. Finally, unless positive, physician. Taken together, Federal passengers board commercial airliners, carry-on luggage, suspecting passenger untoward motive. Applying dealing lower consistently Judge Friendly explained leading searches: "When jeopardy hundreds millions dollars inherent pirating blowing up airplane, danger alone meets reasonableness, faith hijacking like damage liability choosing travel air." Edwards, 498 496, 500 (CA2 1974) (emphasis original). Skipwith, 482 1272, 1275-1276 1973); Davis, 893, 907-912 (CA9 1973). air piracy observable international crisis. 13. suppose validity conceded, precluded them demonstration airport airline. sufficient societal spreading think, deterrent necessarily turns putative pirates discovered years 9.5 billion screened, pieces luggage inspected. Aviation Administration, Semiannual Report Congress Effectiveness Civil Program (Nov.1988) (Exhibit 6). By overwhelming majority searched, scheme, proved innocent—only 42,000 detected period. lies conduct, low incidence impugning interest, logically hallmark success. 1884, objection features program—the provision failure observe urination—that contribute signific ntly 672-673, invasive application 677. Since, unsure "classified material" information," remands instructions "examine rubric." 678. sure mean. Surely classifies always considers "sensitive" sense—and indicate sort sensitivity crucial. unlikely classified" different President Order subject, Exec. 12356, CFR 166 (1982 Comp.)—and probably unlawful, 5.4(b)(2), idiosyncratic standards classification seem irrelevant, inasmuch rule i material includes (and to) elsewhere Government—for Bureau Investigation, Enforcement State Department—and conveyed 24-25.

Category: 0