Document: 505 U.S. 42 112 S.Ct. 2348 120 L.Ed.2d 33 GEORGIA, Petitionerv.Thomas McCOLLUM, William Joseph McCollum and Ella Hampton McCollum. No. 91-372. Argued Feb. 26, 1992. Decided June 18, Syllabus Respondents, who are white, were charged with assaulting two African-Americans. Before jury selection began, the trial judge denied prosecution's motion to prohibit respondents from exercising peremptory challenges in a racially discriminatory manner. The Georgia Supreme Court affirmed, distinguishing Edmonson v. Leesville Concrete Co., 500 ----, 111 2077, 114 660—in which this held that private litigants cannot exercise strikes manner—on ground it involved civil rather than criminal defendants. Held: Constitution prohibits defendant engaging purposeful discrimination on of race challenges. Pp. 46-59. (a) offends Equal Protection Clause when offending made by State, Batson Kentucky, 476 79, 106 1712, 90 69; Powers Ohio, 499 1364, 113 411, and, cases, they litigants, Edmonson, supra. Whether prohibition should be extended turns upon following four-factor analysis. 46-48. (b) A defendant's inflicts harms addressed Batson. Regardless whether is State or defense invokes them, harm individual juror subjecting him open public racial community undermining confidence country's system justice. 48-50. (c) constitutes state action for purposes under analytical framework summarized Lugar Edmondson Oil 457 922, 102 2744, 73 482. Respondents' argument adversarial relationship between prosecution negates challenge's governmental character rejected. Unlike other actions taken support defense, challenge determines composition body. fact exercises further his interest acquittal does not conflict finding action, since whenever actor's conduct deemed fairly attributable government, likely motives will have animated decision. 50-55. (d) has third-party standing use challenges, suffers concrete injury fairness integrity its own judicial process undermined; since, as representative all citizens, close relation potential jurors; barriers suit an excluded daunting. See Powers, U.S., at 413, 414. S.Ct., ----. 55-56. (e) against violate constitutional rights. It affront justice argue right fair includes discriminate group citizens based their race. Nor Sixth Amendment effective assistance counsel, counsel can normally explain reasons without revealing strategy confidential communication, neither nor attorney-client privilege gives carry out through unlawful course conduct. In addition, impartial respect both parties. Removing whom believes harbors prejudice different invidiously jurors account 57-59. 261 Ga. 473, 405 S.E.2d 688 (1991), reversed remanded. BLACKMUN, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, STEVENS, KENNEDY, SOUTER, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion. THOMAS, judgment. O'CONNOR, SCALIA, dissenting opinions. Harrison W. Kohler, Atlanta, Ga., argued petitioner. Michael R. Dreeben, Washington, D.C., amicus curiae, special leave Court. Robert H. Revell, Jr., Albany, respondents. Justice BLACKMUN 1 For more century, consistently repeatedly reaffirmed Clause. See, e.g., Strauder West Virginia, 100 303, 25 L.Ed. 664 (1880). Last Term litigant's also violates 660 (1991). Today, we asked decide 2 * On August 10, 1990, grand sitting Dougherty County, returned six-count indictment charging aggravated assault simple battery. App. 2. alleged beat assaulted Jerry Myra Collins. Respondents white; victims Shortly after events, leaflet was widely distributed local African-American reporting urging residents patronize respondents' business. 3 moved explained expected show victims' factor assault. According had indicated clear intention manner, arguing circumstances case gave them exclude participating trial. Observing 43 percent county's population African-American, contended that, if statistically panel assembled selection, 18 would African-American.1 With 20 therefore able remove jurors.2 Relying 69 (1986), Amendment, Constitution, sought order providing succeeded making prima facie respondents, latter required articulate neutral explanation 4 State's motion, holding "[n]either federal law defendants manner." 14. issue certified immediate appeal. Id., 15 18. 5 Georgia, 4-3 vote, affirmed court's ruling. McCollum, court acknowledged found manner "would constitute impermissible injury" juror. S.E.2d, 689. noted, however, "Bearing mind long history trials essential element protection human rights," "decline[d] diminish free defendant." Ibid. Three justices dissented, decisions establish Constitution. 689 (Hunt, J.); id., 475, 690 (Benham, 479, 693 (Fletcher, J.). reconsideration denied. 60. 6 We granted certiorari resolve question left our prior cases—whether challenges.3 --- 370, 116 322 II 7 Over last almost unbroken chain decisions, gradually abolished consideration service. (1880), invalidated statute only white men could serve jurors. While stating no "petit composed whole part persons race," 305, tried whose members selected nondiscriminatory criteria. Neal Delaware, 103 397, 26 567 (1881); Norris Alabama, 294 587, 599, 55 579, 584, 79 1074 (1935) (State African-Americans venire false assumption they, group, qualified jurors). 8 Swain 380 202, 85 824, 13 759 (1965), confronted equal petit jury. 209-210, 830. Although rejected attempt claim premised solely pattern case, proof systematic exclusion peremptories over period time might such violation. 224-228, 838-840. 9 discarded Swain's evidentiary formulation. may prosecutor's 87, 1718. "Once makes showing, burden shifts come forward challenging black jurors." 97, 1723.4 10 applied contexts. 411 defendant, prosecutor prohibited excluding basis decided manner.5 11 deciding must answer four questions. First, Second, action. Third, prosecutors raise challenge. And fourth, rights nonetheless preclude extension precedents case. III A. 12 majority recognized "Batson 'was designed "to multiple ends," ' one protect 1368. As context remedy done "dignity persons" "integrity courts." 1366. ago Strauder, denying person participation service unconstitutionally discriminates 308. Batson, "[a]n sit any particular jury, . he she possess race." 409, 1370. challenge, there doubt same—in subjected discrimination. 14 But "the extends beyond inflicted touch entire community." One goals impress verdict conviction given accordance fair." 1372. Selection procedures purposefully juries undermine confidence—as well should. "The overt wrong, often apparent panel, casts obligation parties, indeed adhere throughout cause." ---- - 1371. generally Underwood, Ending Race Discrimination Jury Selection: Whose Right Is It, Anyway?, 92 Colum.L.Rev. 725, 748-750 (1992). need especially high cases involving race-related crimes. emotions affected inevitably heated volatile. Public preserving peace Alschuler, Jury: Voir Dire, Peremptory Challenges, Review Verdicts, 56 U.Chi.L.Rev. 153, 195-196 (1989) (describing Miami, Fla., peremptorily struck accused beating, outrage riots followed defendants' acquittal). 16 Be hands allows because bias, willing participant scheme very foundation justice—our citizens' it. Just undermined where occurred so assisted strikes, obtains acquittal.6 B 17 end inquiry. Racial discrimination, although repugnant contexts, Moose Lodge 107 Irvis, 407 163, 172, 1965, 1971, 32 627 (1972). Thus, second answered Until presented problem assertions prosecutor, quintessential actor. contrast, contested exercised determine present setting, used 482 (1982).7 19 first inquiry "whether claimed [constitutional] deprivation resulted having source authority." 939, 2755. "There question" satisfy requirement, "are permitted decisional law, deems appropriate allow parties number otherwise requirements jury." 2083. scope established provision law. Ga.Code Ann. § 15-12-165 (1990). party described Lugar, 941-942, 2755-2756. resolving issue, useful apply three principles: 1) extent actor relies benefits"; 2) performing traditional function"; 3) caused unique way incidents 21 principle, system, whole, "simply exist" "overt significant government." 2084. provides compilation lists board commissioners each county establishes general criteria sources creating pool representing cross section community. 15-12-40. specified process, 15-12-42; summoned authority 15-12-120; paid expense allowance 15-12-9. At court, placed panels facilitate examination 15-12-131; administered oath, 15-12-132; questioned voir dire impartial, 15-12-164; subject cause, 15-12-163. 22 light these procedures, "governmental benefits" equivalent those Edmonson. "By enforcing 'has elected place power, property prestige behind [alleged] discrimination.' " 2084 (citation omitted). 23 regard perform function government: "Their sole purpose permit assist government trier fact] fact." And, recognized, turn "performs critical functions guarding 'insur[ing] continued acceptance laws people' 2085 omitted).] These same conclusions even greater force fulfills constitutionally compelled function. Compare Duncan Louisiana, 391 145, 88 1444, 491 (1968) (making applicable States Fourteenth Amendment) Minneapolis & St. L.R. Co. Bombolis, 241 211, 36 595, 60 961 (1916) (States do provide cases). Cf. Atkins, 487 42, 53, n. 57, 108 2250, 2257, 2260, 101 40 (1988) (private physician hired medical care prisoners doctor fulfill attend necessary prison inmates). avoid responsibilities delegating Terry Adams, 345 461, 809, 97 1152 (1953) political party's determination qualifications primary voters action). 24 Finally, courtroom setting intensifies harmful effects act contributes characterization concerns equally precipitated jurors' removal, perception reality excused race, outcome attributed State.8 contend rely Polk County Dodson, 454 312, 445, 70 509 (1981), sued, U.S.C. 1983, defender represented him. violated failing adequate representation. This determined qualify engaged representation defendant.9 did hold precludes action—it prevented attorney's employment alone being sufficient Instead, depends nature performing. example, Branti Finkel, 445 507, 1287, 63 574 (1980), defender, personnel behalf comply requirements. Dodson itself deciding, color while certain administrative, possibly investigative, functions. 325, 453. 27 differs significantly defense. wielding power choose body indeed, institution depends. "a confers government's employees officials, bound mandate neutrality." 2085. 28 Lastly, Whenever "fairly attributable" Indeed, constituted though motive underlying interest. 2086.10 C 29 Having violation protection, move 1370, wrongfully limited exception, litigant third demonstrate suffered injury, party, exists some hindrance ability interests. 1370-1371. analysis 30 applying prong analysis, cognizable "because 'casts process,' places proceeding doubt." 1371 sphere. 2088. Surely, similar undermined. 31 permits "establish relation, bond trust, jurors," "continues trial." "Exclusion severs invidious way." closer relationships approved logical proper assert invasion forbids within jurisdiction laws. final individuals bring behalf, "barriers daunting." 1373. 2087. less formidable context. Dunnigan, Colum.L.Rev., 367; 757 (summarizing juror). Accordingly, D 34 interests served give defendant. preliminary matter, important recall protected fundamental rights; rather, but state-created means stated withheld altogether impairing guarantee Frazier United States, 335 497, 505, 11, 201, 206, 93 187 (1948); Wood, 299 123, 57 177, 185, 81 78 (1936); Stilson 250 583, 586, 28, 29-30, 1154 (1919); see Swain, 219, 835. 35 Yet reviewed "very old credentials," 212, 831, noted "long belief 835; 212-219, 831-835. likewise role determining jury's reason wide verdicts." believe decision contribution administration Nonetheless, "if stereotypes price fair," reaffirm today "price too meet standard Constitution." Defense "legitimate, lawful conduct." Nix Whiteside, 475 157, 166, 988, 994, 89 123 (1986) (defense render ineffective informs client disclose client's perjury withdraw representation). 37 counsel. Counsel ordinarily anything about communications. rare entail communications reveal strategy, camera discussion arranged. Zolin, 554, 109 2619, 105 469 (1989); cf. 1723 (expressing judges develop implement Court's holding). event, Nix, 994; 562-563, 2625-2626. Swift, Defendants, Racism Challenge, Colum.Hum.Rts.L.Rev. 207-208 38 goal "jury impartiality contestants." Holland Illinois, 493 474, 483, 110 803, 905 Hayes Missouri, 68, 350, 578 (1887). 39 recognize, course, view animus, distorted have, accordingly, mechanism removing specific incapable confronting suppressing racism. Ham South Carolina, 409 524, 526-527, 848, 850-851, 46 (1973); Rosales-Lopez 451 182, 189-190, 1629, 1634-1635, 68 (1981) (plurality Morgan 2222, (1992) (exclusion capital permissible showing considering sentences death). distinction prejudice. firmly assumptions partiality legitimate disqualifying just "[w]e accept stereotype condemns." "In heterogeneous society policy considerations militate divisive assumption—as per se rule—that pigmentation skin, accident birth, choice religion." Ristaino Ross, 424 589, 596, 8, 96 1017, 1021, 47 258 (1976). either party. IV 41 demonstrates defendants, judgment remanded proceedings inconsistent ordered. "state action" Amendment. I join 44 matter impression, think shared opinions: involve Yet, agree THE CHIEF JUSTICE term governs requires opposite conclusion. Because consequences. concur reversing 45 write separately express my dissatisfaction continuing attempts regulate (1986); (1991); view, restricting takes us reasoning result departure produce favorable contrary, am rue day ventured down road inexorably lead elimination strikes. notes, blacks serving juries. decision, observed affect explained: "It known prejudices exist classes community, sway jurors, which, therefore, operate deny full enjoyment others enjoy." 309. thus century ago, precise point O'CONNOR today. Simply stated, securing help overcome bias better chance Post, 68-69. basic premise become obsolete. public, general, continues makeup instances. Consider, how press reports trials. Major newspapers regularly note whites cases.1 Their editors readers apparently recognize conscious unconscious persists influence Common experience common sense confirm understanding. 48 began depart actual suppositions possibility harbor legitimacy. said, particular, justify "by merely challenged assumption—or intuitive judgment—that partial 1723. rested precisely "assumption" "intuition." reasonably surmised, direct evidence all-white unfairly. 49 Our negative produces serious misordering priorities. put foremost. Today's protecting leaves themselves. Unless actually admit during dire, run risk animus verdict. Fed.Rule Evid. 606(b) (generally testimony impeach verdict). effect, exalted faces imprisonment death. minimum, inversion priorities pause. 50 slope stopping point. strike veniremen Eventually, veniremen.2 Carr, 845, 413 192 Next sex. De Gross, 960 F.2d 1433 (CA9 1992). consequences future remain seen. whatever benefits perceived class 309-310, evaporated. 51 dissenting. 52 reaches remarkable conclusion prosecuted adversary selection. purports follow precedents, compel perverse result. To specifically lawyers actors 53 properly settled Constitution's fashion. 449 1369, affords "Embedded jurisprudence dichotomy scrutiny Amendmen[t] ., conduct, shield, unfair be." National Collegiate Athletic Assn. Tarkanian, 488 179, 191, 454, (footnote appears face "No shall laws." Const., Amdt. 14, (emphasis added). straightforward presents lawyers, actors. 54 (1982), developed two-step approach identifying this. ask Next, whether, facts allegedly "appropriately" "in fairness" characterized Ibid.; 2083, creation authority, 400 2084, breaks new ground. supra, disposing threshold task What require, what neglects, realistic appraisal brought discussed "under law" 1983 "when lawyer's proceeding." explaining defender's obligations toward her attorney. 318, 449-450. attributing acts State: "[T]he duties lawyer personal counselor advocate. said 'officers court.' Courts Appeals agreed not, virtue officer ." went stress inconsistency theories make system," characteristically opposes designated representatives State." posture rests best serves "not acting concert it, advancing 'the undivided client.' 318-319, 449-450 (quoting Ferri Ackerman, 444 193, 204, 402, 62 355 (1979)). Moreover, pointed independence attorneys control dimension. Gideon Wainwright, 372 335, 83 792, 799 (1963), "established guiding hand every step [them]." 322, 452 (internal quotation marks Implicit "is control. There unless receives services independent advocate." defense's freedom empirically true, mandated attribute system. requirement satisfied identical Amendment's 929, 2749-2750, simply squared today's away concerned exclusively status defenders. ante, 54. reasoned defenders occupy position relevant respects. 319-325, 450-454. heels determination: defending essentially function," 319, 450. refusal acknowledge Dodson's initial holding, turned, go away. 58 seeks evade logic spinning theory transmogrify adversaries into then change back carrying administrative investigative outside courtroom, vested Since plainly qualifies "traditional function" 831-835, (1965); Lewis 146 376, 136, 138, 1011 (1892), forecloses functional 59 Even aside rejection fails. "[A] responsible coercive provided encouragement Blum Yaretsky, 991, 1004, 2777, 2786, 534 (1982). allowed amount initiative comes [the party] Jackson Metropolitan Edison 419 345, 357, 95 449, 457, 477 (1974). Flagg Bros., Inc. Brooks, 436 149, 165, 98 1729, 1738, 185 (1978) "permits compel"). influences traditions vest entirely accused. "may, chooses, 'on dislike, cause;' reason, arbitrarily capriciously." Pointer 151 396, 408, 410, 414, 208 (1894) E. Coke, Institutes 156b (19th ed. 1832)). control." 220, 836. 321-322, 451-452; Lewis, 378, 139. Certainly, dead letters. distinguished saying: ordinary litigation litigant. jury-selection work end." 2086. nonpartisan partisan odds counterpart, design government. put, predisposed convict, acquit. clearly statement "an litigant" party." 61 From arrest, trial, possible sentencing punishment, antagonistic see. Rather squarely facing fact, points alter response choices. wanting controversies repeated here. 2089 (O'Connor, dissenting). thought correctly decided, simplistic How "c[an] actor?" accords sense, honor really seems bother prospect leaving motivated ideal espoused 85-88, 1716-1718. concept dictates, tenet legal order, obstacle circumvented. particularly trials, uniquely standards Brady Maryland, 373 83, 1194, 215 (1963) (disclosure accused); Berger 295 78, 88, 629, 633, 1314 ("The [prosecutor] controversy, sovereignty win done"). Considered purely pragmatic terms, moreover, fail advance now racism perceive minority perhaps guilt innocence. Developments Law—Race Criminal Process, Harv.L.Rev. 1472, 1559-1560 (1988); Colbert, Challenging Challenge: Thirteenth Prohibition Use 76 Cornell L.Rev. 1, 110-112 Using secure substantial distorting minimized mixed 112-115; Law, 1559-1560. NAACP Legal Educational Fund case: 64 crucial empaneling many African American, faced array underrepresented degree, sufficiently tries uses Brief Fund, Amicus Curiae 9-10 65 Association Lawyers 56-57; 2095 (SCALIA, world misconceptions biases cause implications good intentions. 66 That reach wipe land frustrating, sure. limitations intended consequence requirement. fighting prosecution, respectfully dissent. 67 follows logically Inc., dissents, wrongly decided. Barely year later, witness reduction terminally absurd: himself state, state. sheer inanity proposition (in mere suffice), contrived justifications. add discussion, differ views consider distinguishable principle—except principle bad illogical lie once again activist, "evolutionary" always evolves direction promoting supposedly relations (make mistake underlies this), destroy ages-old wish, fair. Under felony persons. 15-12-160 When indicted offense penalty years, "peremptorily impaneled try him." 15-12-165. Ninth Circuit recently gender. (en banc). been vacated granting rehearing en banc, Fifth Greer, 939 1076 (CA5), reh. granted, 948 934 reserved before 89, 12, 1719, 12. dissenters, "clear inescapable import" similarly limit 125-126, 1738. Marshall agreed, "our 'requires accused, prosecution. Between scales evenly held.' 70, 351, (1887)." 107, 1729 (concurring opinion). dissent SCALIA effect prosecutions. 2095. jurisdictions led recognition race-based regardless juror, Acting pursuant constitutions, courts ruled license prospective prosecutors. Levinson, 71 Haw. 492, 795 P.2d 845 (1990); People Kern, 149 App.Div.2d 187, 545 N.Y.S.2d Alvarado, 221 N.J.Super. 324, A.2d 440 (1987); Neil, So.2d 481 (Fla.1984); Commonwealth Soares, 377 Mass. 387 N.E.2d 499, cert. denied, 881, 170, (1979); Wheeler, Cal.3d 258, 148 Cal.Rptr. 890, 583 748 (1978). appropriately "jointly participates" officials seizure claims 932-933, 2751-2752, practice identity enhancing them. 751, 117. opposed subsequently inquiries same, see, Rendell-Baker Kohn, 830, 838, 2764, 2769-2770, 418 County's state-action cases. 1009, 20, 2788, Numerous commentators concluded Univ. Chi.L.Rev., 197-198; Chesney Gallagher, Action Evolution Treatment Implications Notre Dame 1049, 1061-1074 (1992); Defense: Challenges 355, 358-361 Sullivan, Prosecutor's Object Defendant's Abuse Dick.L.Rev. 143, 158-162 Tanford, Adversary System: S.Cal.L.Rev. 1015, 1027-1030 750-753. Chief concurring. continue remains controls disposition computer search, instance, reveals phrase "all jury" appeared hundred times past five years New York Times, Chicago Tribune, Los Angeles Times. submitted brief arguing, sincerity, purge quite issues 3-4. suppose technically open, difficult here black.

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