Document: 128 S. Ct. 2605 (2008) EXXON SHIPPING COMPANY, et al., Petitioners, v. Grant BAKER al. No. 07-219. Supreme Court of United States. Argued February 27, 2008. Decided June 25, *2611 Walter Dellinger, Washington, DC, for petitioners. Jeffrey L. Fisher, respondents. E. Edward Bruce, Covington & Burling LLP, D.C., Counsel Record, John F. Daum, Charles C. Lifland, Jonathan D. Hacker, O'Melveny Myers Petitioner Exxon Mobil Corporation. James vanR. Springer, Dickstein Shapiro Brian B. O'Neill, Faegre Benson Minneapolis, MN, David W. Oesting, Stephen M. Rummage, Tarshes, Wright Tremaine Anchorage, AK, Respondents. Justice SOUTER delivered the opinion Court. There are three questions maritime law before us: whether a shipowner may be liable punitive damages without acquiescence in actions causing harm, have been barred implicitly by federal statutory making no provision them, and award $2.5 billion this case is greater than should allow circumstances. We equally divided on owner's derivative liability, hold that does not bar top economic loss, but here limited to an amount equal compensatory damages. I On March 24, 1989, supertanker Valdez grounded Bligh Reef off Alaskan coast, fracturing its hull spilling millions gallons crude oil into Prince William Sound. The owner, petitioner Shipping Co. (now SeaRiver Maritime, Inc.), Corp. (collectively, Exxon), settled state claims environmental damage, with payments exceeding $1 billion, action respondent Baker others, including commercial fishermen native Alaskans, was brought losses individuals dependent Sound their livelihoods. *2612 A tanker over 900 feet long used carry from end Trans-Alaska Pipeline Valdez, Alaska, lower 48 night spill it carrying 53 million oil, or barrels. Its captain one Joseph Hazelwood, who had completed 28-day alcohol treatment program while employed Exxon, as his superiors knew, dropped out prescribed follow-up stopped going Alcoholics Anonymous meetings. According District Court, "[t]here evidence presented jury after Hazelwood released [residential treatment], he drank bars, parking lots, apartments, airports, airplanes, restaurants, hotels, at various ports, aboard tankers." In re A89-0095-CV, Order 265 (D.Alaska, Jan. 1995), p. 5, App. F Pet. Cert. 255a-256a (hereinafter 265). also heard contested testimony officials members management knew relapse. See ibid. Although clear policy prohibiting employees serving onboard within four hours consuming alcohol, see 270 F.3d 1215, 1238 (C.A.9 2001), monitored return duty considered giving him shoreside assignment, 265, supra, 256a. Witnesses testified left port disaster, downed least five double vodkas waterfront bars intake about 15 ounces 80-proof enough "that non-alcoholic would passed out." F.3d, 1236. ship sailed 9:12 p.m. 23, guided state-licensed pilot first leg out, through Narrows. At 11:20 p.m., took active control and, owing poor conditions outbound shipping lane, radioed Coast Guard permission move east across inbound lane less icy path. Under conditions, standard move, which last taken, cleared cross lane. accordingly steered toward clearer waters, put path underwater reef Island, thus requiring turn back west around Busby Light, north reef. Two minutes required turn, however, bridge went down cabin order, said, do paperwork. This decision inexplicable. expert that, even if presence strictly necessary, captains simply quit during maneuvers like this, paperwork could justified it. And fact Hazelwood's required, both because there two officers all times departure only one, person entire licensed navigate part To make matters worse, below autopilot, speeding up, trickier, any mistake harder correct. As left, instructed remaining officer, third mate Cousins, once came abeam Light. unlicensed those alone helmsman Robert Kagan, nonofficer. For reasons remain mystery, they failed later emergency maneuver attempted Cousins too late. ran aground *2613 Reef, tearing open 11 After returned reported grounding Guard, tried rock reef, spilled more caused founder.[1] Guard's nearly immediate response included blood test (the validity disputes) showing blood-alcohol level .061 eleven spill. Supp.App. 307sa. Experts much bloodstream so accident, time must .241, 256a, legal limit driving most aftermath spent $2.1 cleanup efforts. States charged company criminal violations Clean Water Act, 33 U.S.C. §§ 1311(a) 1319(c)(1); Refuse Act 1899, 407 411; Migratory Bird Treaty 16 703 707(a); Ports Waterways Safety § 1232(b)(1); Dangerous Cargo 46 3718(b). pleaded guilty agreed pay $150 fine, reduced $25 plus restitution $100 million. civil State Alaska harms ended consent decree $900 restoring natural resources, paid another $303 voluntary settlements fishermen, property owners, other private parties. B cases were consolidated against others. plaintiffs seeking classes: Native landowners. Exxon's behest, court certified mandatory class damages, whose number topped 32,000. Respondents here, whom we will refer convenience, class. purposes case, stipulated negligence disaster ensuing liability designed trial accordingly: Phase recklessness potential liability; II set Alaskans; III determined each liable. (A contemplated IV, setting compensation still plaintiffs, obviated settlement.) I, extensive alcoholism conduct spill, *2614 well conflicting officials' knowledge backslide. close "[a] corporation responsible reckless acts managerial capacity acting scope employment. act omission officer employee corporation, course performance duties, held corporation." K 301a. "[a]n supervises has responsibility for, authority over, particular aspect corporation's business." Ibid. did dispute under definition, G, id., 264a, n. 8, found potentially L, 303a.[2] awarded $287 fishermen. deducted claims, settlements, payments, balance outstanding $19,590,257. Meanwhile, $20 million, opted settlement ultimately total $2.6 III, management's omissions arguably relevant 1291-1320, 1353-1367. evidence, jurors emphasizing provide relief punish deter defendants. Brief Opposition 12a-14a. consider reprehensibility defendants' conduct, financial condition, magnitude mitigating facts. Id., 15a. $5,000 $5 Exxon. appeal, Appeals Ninth Circuit upheld instruction corporate agents precedent. 1236 (citing Protectus Alpha Nav. North Pacific Grain Growers, Inc., 767 F.2d 1379 1985)). With respect size award, remanded twice adjustments light Court's due process itself remitting billion. 1246-1247, 472 600, 601, 625 (2006) (per curiam), 490 1066, 1068 (2007). granted certiorari allows basis agents, (CWA), 86 Stat. 816, 1251 seq. (2000 ed. Supp. V), forecloses cases, excessive matter common law. 552 U.S. *2615 ___, 492, 169 Ed. 2d 337 now vacate remand. question, says error instruct "is . employment."[3] Courts split issue,[4] relies primarily Amiable Nancy, 3 Wheat. 546, 4 456 (1818), Lake Shore Michigan Southern R. Prentice, 147 101, 13 261, 37 97 (1893), argue precedents available shipmaster's recklessness. former suit admiralty owners Scourge, privateer crew boarded plundered neutral ship, Nancy. upholding Story observed "if original wrong-doers, might proper visit upon them shape exemplary punishment belongs such lawless misconduct. But considered, privateer, has, motives policy, devolved yet, nature service, can scarcely ever able secure themselves adequate indemnity loss. They innocent demerit transaction, having neither directed it, nor countenanced participated slightest degree. circumstances, opinion, bound repair real injuries personal wrongs sustained libellants, extent vindictive damages." 558-559 (emphasis original). takes statement rule barring shipowners underlings "directed," "countenanced," "participated in" owners. further confirmed Shore, railway relied Nancy announce, pre-Erie Tompkins, 304 *2616 64, 58 817, 82 1188 (1938), general law, "[t]hough [a] principal [intentional torts] agent, punished intent participate." U.S., 110, 261. Because remains never revisited issue, argues endures sound control, urges fall modern-day variant adopted context Title VII Civil Rights 1964 Kolstad American Dental Assn., 527 526, 544, 119 2118, 144 494 (1999), employers subject discriminatory show maintained enforced good-faith antidiscrimination policies. supports instruction, Co., 1379, followed Restatement recognizing employees, (Second) Torts 909(c) (1977) Restatement). offers nothing dictum, merely rejected railroad conductor, saying higher up ladder, captains. He makes broader points criticized failing reflect majority own time, mention conflict respondeat superior overwhelming share land-based jurisdictions today. conform modern where employee, others follow Restatement, imposing agents. "[i]f judges divided, reversal cannot had, order made." Durant Essex 7 Wall. 107, 112, 19 154 (1869). therefore leave Circuit's undisturbed respect, though go disposition precedential question. See, e.g., Neil Biggers, 409 188, 192, 93 375, 34 401 (1972); Ohio ex rel. Eaton Price, 364 263, 264, 80 1463, 1708 (1960) (opinion Brennan, J.). next whatever availability CWA preempts them. responds procedural merits arguments, although dispose issue procedure, short foray history worthwhile cautionary tale. pretrial stage, controlled flood motions staying purpose except discovery. case-management plan allowing receipt seven specific summary judgment already scheduled, party additional obtain court's leave. One scheduled sought ground Authorization 87 584, 43 1651-1656, displaced foreclosed *2617 denied motion. punitive-damages verdict September 16, 1994, parties post-trial Federal Rules Procedure 50 59 filed 30, ordered. 1410-1411. several new along rest. October 1995, almost months deadline, moved suspend stay, 28a-29a, file "Motion Renewed Motion Judgment Punitive Damages Claims" 49(a) 58(2) "to applicable, pursuant 50(b), 56(b), 56(d), 59(a), 59(e),"[5] 30a-31a. accompanying memorandum asserted recent Glynn Roy Al Boat Management Corp., 57 1495 Guevara Maritime Overseas 1496 (C.A.5 suggested statutes, CWA. November 2, summarily request motion, 35a, January 1996 (following IV claims) entered final judgment. renewed preemption argument Circuit. recognized raised verdict, decided claim "should treated waived," "consistently argued preemption" throughout litigation, question "massive significance" given "ambiguous circumstances" case. 1229. merits, preempt 1230. agree conclusion, reaching up. First, reason thought waived alleged grounds outset trial. enough. It true "[o]nce properly presented, *2618 support claim; precise arguments made below." Yee Escondido, 503 519, 534, 112 1522, 118 153 (1992). principle stops legitimizing untimely If "statutory sufficient give license rely newly cited statutes anytime wished, litigant add constitutional along, argued" challenged regulation unconstitutional. 533, 1522 (rejecting substantive takings petitioners preserve below); Browning-Ferris Industries Vt., Inc. Kelco Disposal, 492 257, 277, 109 2909, 106 219 (1989) Eighth-Amendment petitioners). That motion addressed discretion, "massive" significance said relevant. "It rule, course, appellate below," Singleton Wulff, 428 106, 120, 96 2868, 49 826 (1976), when deviate being "left discretion courts appeals, exercised facts individual cases," 121, 2868. previously stating contain courts' ibid., exercise same restraint today.[6] late-raised fail. ways construe CWA's penalties water pollution, 1321 remedies here. tort predicated preempted unless expressly preserves Section 1321(b) protects "the navigable waters States, adjoining shorelines,. [and] resources" saving clause reserving "obligations publicly owned privately resulting discharge oil," 1321(o). arguing *2619 preserving preempted. so, categories awards correct provisions thwarting activity or, matter, physical, injury spills pollution. find hard conclude statute geared protecting "water," "shorelines," "natural intended eliminate sub silentio companies' duties refrain injuring bodies livelihoods individuals. Perhaps account overbreadth, disclaims taking position, admitting displace consequences harms. Reply Petitioners 15-16. concession, leaves untenable somehow text fragmenting recovery scheme way, similar attempts sever causes action. Silkwood Kerr-McGee 464 238, 255-256, 104 615, 78 443 (1984). All all, indication congressional occupy field pollution remedies, see, Texas, 507 529, 113 1631, 123 245 (1993) ("In abrogate common-law principle, speak directly law" (internal quotation marks omitted)); perceive frustrating effect remedial scheme, point preemption.[7] Finally, raises impression falls jurisdiction decide manner court, Congress legislate otherwise disagrees judicial result. Const., Art. cl. 1; Edmonds Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, 256, 259, 99 2753, 61 521 (1979) ("Admiralty judge-made great extent"); Romero International Terminal Operating 358 354, 360-361, 79 468, 368 (1959) (constitutional grant "empowered continue development [maritime] law"). addition resistance disposed of, challenges award. Other argument, offer concluding none exceeds bounds *2620 goal deterring (or worse) behavior consequently heightened threat harm. goes our understanding place reasonable standards administering subjects call starting brief behind today's Anglo-American doctrine dates 1763, pair decisions Common Pleas "for received." Wilkes Wood, Lofft 1, 18, 98 Eng. Rep. 489, 498 (1763) (Lord Chief Pratt). foundations Fourth Amendment, Secretary State, unlawful search Wilkes's papers, spectacular £4,000. generally Boyd 116 616, 626, 6 524, 29 746 (1886). Huckle Money, 2 Wils. 205, 206-207, 95 768, 768-769 (K.B.1763), judge recorded gave jury's £300 (against government again) confined oath mere only, perhaps [£20] sufficient." Awarding beyond not, wholly novel idea then, codes ancient Middle Ages called multiple certain especially harmful acts. Code Hammurabi 8 (R. Harper ed.1904) (tenfold penalty stealing goat freed man); Statute Gloucester, 1278, Edw. Ch. ch. 1 Large 66 (treble waste). innovation untethered strict numerical multipliers, promptly crossed Atlantic, Genay Norris, S.C.L. 6, (1784); Coryell Colbaugh, N.J.L. 77 (1791), become widely accepted middle 19th century, Day Woodworth, How. 363, 371, 14 181 (1852). Early offered rationales awards, then dubbed "exemplary," implying these verdicts extraordinary wrongdoing, Sometimes, though, element emphasized itself, example's sake," Tullidge Wade, 19, 909 (K.B.1769) Wilmot), proceeding future," Wilkes, Rep., 498-499. Coryell, (instructing sake, prevent offences [the] future"). historical justification, showed some early noted commentators, need compensate intangible injuries, narrow conception prevalent time."[8]Cooper Industries, *2621 Leatherman Tool Group, 532 424, 437-438, 11, 121 1678, 149 674 (2001) (citing, inter alia, Note, Exemplary Law Torts, 70 Harv. L.Rev. 517 (1957)). Sebok, What Did Do? Chi.-Kent 163, 204 (2003) (arguing "punitive served function attributed Cooper"). century progressed, types ... broadened," Cooper 437, consequence tended separate distinct Day, 371 (punitive "hav[e] view enormity offence rather measure plaintiff"). Schlueter, 1.3(C)-(D), 1.4(A) (5th ed.2005) Schlueter) (describing "almost eclipse function" decades following 1830s). Regardless alternative years, consensus today punitives aimed principally retribution conduct.[9] informs jurisdictions, juries customarily twin goals awards. Cal. Jury Instr., Civil, 14.72.2 ("You determine you defendant[s]... sake example way punishment"); N.Y. Pattern 2:278 (2007) ("The plaintiff defendant thereby discourage prevailing limits what spoke "enormity," defendant's "outrageous," 908(2), "gross negligence," "willful, wanton, indifference rights others," deplorable, Schlueter 9.3(A).[10] umbrellas aim deterrence, degrees relative blameworthiness apparent. Reckless intentional malicious, necessarily callous risk harming opposed unheedful *2622 500, Comment a, pp. 587-588 (1964) ("Recklessness consist either different conduct. actor knows, know create high degree of... harm another, deliberately proceeds act, fail conscious disregard to, risk. knowledge, know, facts, realize appreciate involved, man position so"). Action taken omitted augment profit represents enhanced punishable culpability, willful malicious action, injure. 908, e, 466 determining trier circumstances wrongdoer ..."); cf. 09.17.020(g) (higher applies motivated gain adverse known defendant); Ark.Code Ann. 16-55-208(b) (2005) (statutory apply intentionally pursued damage). heavier justifiable wrongdoing detect (increasing chances getting away it), BMW America, Gore, 559, 582, 1589, 134 809 (1996) ("A ratio detect"), value corresponding small (providing low incentives sue), ("[L]ow if, example, particularly egregious resulted damages"); c, 465 ("Thus nominal tort, committed outrageous purpose, significant resulted"). And, broadly analogous object, regulatory schemes induce litigation supplement official enforcement unaided. Reiter Sonotone 442 330, 344, 2326, 60 931 (discussing antitrust treble damages). C varies. few rarely, all. Nebraska entirely, grounds. Distinctive Printing Packaging Cox, 232 Neb. 846, 857, N.W.2d 566, 574 curiam). Four permit authorized statute: Louisiana, Massachusetts, Washington New Hampshire codifying tradition. Ross Conoco, XXXX-XXXX, (La.10/15/02), 828 So. 555; Flesner Technical Communications 410 Mass. 805, 813, 575 N.E.2d 1107, 1112 (1991); Fisher Properties Arden-Mayfair, Wash.2d 826, 852, 726 P.2d 23 (1986); N.H.Rev. 507:16 (1997); Fay Parker, N.H. 342, 382 (1872). recognize supportable compensatory, truly punitive, Peisner Detroit Free Press, Mich.App. 59, 68, 814, 817 (1981), Connecticut "expenses bringing *2623 attorney's fees, taxable costs," Larsen Chelsey Realty Larsen, Conn. 480, 517, 38, 656 A.2d 1009, 1029, 38 (1995). instance, "determination reviewed ensure reasonable." Mut. Life Ins. Haslip, 499 15, 111 1032, Honda Motor Oberg, 512 415, 421-426, 114 2331, 129 336 (1994).[11] Many gone form absolute monetary caps, Va.Code 8.01-38.1 (Lexis 2007) ($350,000 cap), maximum Rev.Code 2315.21(D)(2)(a) 2001) (2:1 cases), frequently, combination two, 09.17.020(f) (greater 3:1 $500,000 actions). multiplier variety ratios, ranging 5:1 1:1.[12] Despite limitations, overall frequent anywhere else. Gotanda, Damages: Comparative Analysis, 42 Colum. J. Transnat'l 391, 421 (2004); 22.0. England Wales, exemplary, oppressive, arbitrary, unconstitutional servants; yield larger likely cost damages; statute. Rookes Barnard, [1964] E.R. 367, 410-411 (H.L.). Even allowed, strict, judicially imposed guidelines. Appeal Thompson Commissioner Police Metropolis, [1998] Q.B. 498, 518, rarely appropriate; £5,000 unnecessary; £25,000 exceptional; £50,000 top. contrast practice, Canada Australia issue. 22.1(B), (D). Noncompensatory civil-code tradition unavailable countries France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland. 22.2(A)-(C), (E). systems decline refuse enforce foreign judgments contrary public policy. *2624 Charting Developments Concerning Is Tide Changing? 45 507, 514, 528 (noting refusals Japanese, Italian, German courts, positing decline, concluding, "American anticipate smooth sailing domestic countries"). D target audible criticism decades, Developments, Paths Litigation, 1783, 1784-1788 (2000) (surveying criticism), studies tend undercut 1787-1788. survey literature reveals mass-produced runaway dollar amounts growing terms,[13] accounts median remained 1:1.[14] Nor data substantiate marked increase percentage past decades.[15] figures *2625 suggest many instances substantially necessary deter. problem, seems, stark unpredictability concerned fairness consistency, zone, infrequent, fails tell us spread between acceptable. not. comprehensive study trials just 0.62:1, mean 2.90:1 deviation 13.81. Juries, Judges, 269.[16] unsophisticated statistics, thrust clear: great, outlier defendants dwarf compensatories. distribution narrower, remarkable, among assessed judges: 0.66:1, 1.60:1, 4.54. fully 14% 2001 Cohen 18% 1990s trebling Ostrom, Rottman, Goerdt, Step Above Anecdote: Profile 1990s, Judicature 233, 240 (1996). "financial injury" using 34% Financial Injury Verdicts 333. Starting premise regime, ranges variation acceptable desirable judges' juries' refining reach optimal deterrence involving wide range producing fairly consistent results Cf. TXO Production Alliance Resources 509 443, 457-458, 2711, 125 366 (plurality opinion). anecdotal suggests *2626 sort on. leading $4 Alabama jury, second strikingly produced "a comparable damages" "no all." 565, 1589. candidly explained, disparity [w]as reflection inherent uncertainty process." 646 619, 626 (1994) aware scholarly work pointing consistency circumstances.[17] E far level, announced every pass. Farm Automobile Campbell, 538 408, 425, 1513, 155 585 (2003); 574-575, "we consistently notion line simple mathematical formula," "few single-digit degree, satisfy process," Farm, 1513; "[w]hen substantial, lesser ratio, outermost guarantee," Today's enquiry differs review arises jurisdiction, reviewing conformity outer allowed process; examining authority, precedes obviate application standard. Our contrary, involved instance 414, 1513 (fraud infliction emotional distress Utah law); 563, 3, 1589 TXO, 452, 2711 opinion) (slander title West Virginia 7, 1032 law). These, state-law occasion "common-law excessiveness," 279, today, considers intersection Constitution, desirability regulating *2627 remedy lies source absence Whatever feature happenstance tension implication unfairness eccentrically carries system commonly rests sense dealing another. Thus, reasonably predictable severity, Holmes's "bad man" look ahead ability stakes choosing Path Law, 10 457, 459 (1897). bad man's counterparts face ought threaten fair probability suffering wreak damage. Koon 518 81, 113, 2035, 135 392 reduce unjustified disparities" sentencing "and evenhandedness neutrality distinguishing principled justice"). justice surely people think ourselves, basic approaches consider, verbal quantitative. mentioned before, criteria traditional "shock conscience" "passion prejudice" tests. Maryland, forth nonexclusive list nine factors include "degree heinousness," [the award]," "[w]hether award] bears relationship awarded." Bowden Caldor, 350 Md. 4, 25-39, 710 267, 277-284 (1998). criteria, "actual [from conduct]," reprehensibility," wrongful profitable defendant." Green Oil Hornsby, 539 218, 223-224 omitted). McClain Metabolife Int'l, 259 1225, (N.D.Ala.2003) deciding unconstitutionally vague inadequate"). These bear render instructions offering, best, guidance appropriate penalty. torts characterized malice," Gypsum Mayor City Council Baltimore, 145, 185, 647 405, 424-425 (1994), "An be: "(1) "(2) Proportionate wrongfulness pay. "(3) bankrupt financially destroy 10:13 (4th ed.2007). Alabama, fix considering character *2628 wrong shown necessity preventing wrongs." Ala. 23.21 (Supp. 2007). examples skeptical formulations, superimposed instructions, best insurance unpredictable outliers. Instructions promoting systemic tied specifically proven items damage medical treatment, say), take approach produce dint valiant effort, experience business doubtful anything quantified work. glance explain skepticism. similarity obvious. "[P]unitive advance interests advanced law." 275, 2909.[18] 1977 (purposes same" fine conviction crime"); 18 3553(a)(2) (requiring sentence offense" afford conduct"); Sentencing Commission, Guidelines Manual 1A1.1, comment. (Nov.2007). instructive, quarter "indeterminate" system, relatively unguided range, "similarly situated offenders sentenced [to], actually serve, disparate sentences."[19] Instead became detailed guidelines exactly results, Reform 1984, 3551 V). importance old cohort seasoned penalty-givers defied consistency. Judges alike "[l]eft large, wandering deserts uncharted discretion," Frankel, Criminal Sentences: Without 7-8 (1973), very juries, lack maximum; core limit. development, parallels, strongly *2629 "as guidelines, inevitable arbitrary." Mathias Accor Economy Lodging, 347 672, 678 (C.A.7 2003). why better eliminating outlying rigorous probably looked criminal-law pattern limits. option cap 2623, come closest term years. trouble is, "standard" contract injury, difficult settle figure board. selection serious drawback; legislature pick figure, index inflation, revisit whenever seems tinkering, say docket again. Jones Laughlin Steel Pfeifer, 462 523, 546-547, 103 2541, 76 768 (1983) (declining adopt fixed formula inflation discounting future wages present value, rates lost-earnings cases). promising effects assesses actual pegging multiple. ALI Enterprise Responsibility Personal Injury: Reporters' Study 258 (1991) Study) ("[T]he successful calculating award"); ABA, Report Special Comm. Damages, Constructive Examination 64-66 (1986) (recommending presumptive punitive-to-compensatory ratio). earlier canvass showed, model adopted, 12, legislation providing antitrust, racketeering, patent, trademark actions, 1117 V); 1964(c); 35 284.[20] relevance indisputable, central analysis. 580, Still, murmur smacks little principle. Moviecolor Ltd. Eastman Kodak 288 80, 83 (C.A.2 1961). answer review, faced perceived defect remedy. Traditionally, primary *2630 evolution, legislation, derived door how judiciary wash hands problem created, calling legislative. 438, (GINSBURG, J., dissenting) legislative design handiwork 1-to-1 benchmarks hardly questioned"); 257 adoption "probably legislatively, possibly judicially"). History certainly use numbers. 21-year period perpetuities innovation, Cadell Palmer, Clark Finnelly 372, 956, 963 (H.L. 1833), exact limitations periods sometimes borrowing Preston G. Newsom, Limitation Actions 241-242 (2d ed.1943), often draw on, H. Limitations ed.1916). examples, Blackstone, Commentaries Laws 451 (1765) (listing age cut-offs apparent basis). adopting admiralty-law picking constitutionality 1513.[21] *2631 landscape populated ratios multipliers expressing policies suffer features stand paradigms suited While slim 3:1, fit Colo.Rev.Stat. 13-21-102(1)(a) (1:1); 2005) (2:1), higher, Mo. 510.265(1) (Supp.2008) (5:1). Judgments differ weight slight dissuades selecting exceptions, physical Ala.Code 6-11-21(j) (2005); (2005), board (as multipliers). upper tortious worse negligent malicious,[22] exposing tortfeasor sanctions actions;[23] quite dangerous carried increasing tortfeasor's gain.[24] confront, *2632 instead, profitless tortfeasor, substantial injury. type somewhat reasons, pertinence 2:1 treble-damages (offering bounty amount) govern areas afield concerns (not other);[25] governing rules patent say, best. instances, considerations devised eye supplementing inducing rare day. Reiter, 2326. concern traction staggering inevitably provoking governmental enforcers indict sue. 3571(d) provides crime victim's impose option, 3571(a)-(c), wary reading Congress's choice provision. support: thing, insofar appear negligence, Gen. Laws, 130, Del. Ann., Tit. 1401 (1989), undershoot overshoot chosen multiples. N.H.Rev.Stat. 146-A:10 (damages one-and-a-half discharge); Minn.Stat. 115A.99 (civil 5 costs removing solid signposts clearly penalty, verdicts, reflecting hundreds 2624-2625, 14. assume studied collections *2633 cases. cover blameworthy triggering malice avarice, recklessness, gross jurisdictions. gamut 1:1, 14, meaning well-functioning expect roughly express jurors' earmarks exceptional spectrum (cases driven desire gain, example) (again one) modest odds detection opened suppose above median; theory factfinder's deliberation awry sport, issues coming naturally side, (ratio 145:1); 500:1). assumptions, 0.65:1[26] near largely grouped. Accordingly, protect possibility (and disruptive system) unnecessary, measured retribution, 1:1 cases.[27] *2634 respecting daily fines confirms type. $25,000 per day restrictions, $50,000 knowing ones. 1319(c)(1), (2). Discretion compares meriting treatment. explanation low. guarantee." 1513.[28] V Applying calculation $507.5 236 1043, 1063 (D.Alaska 2002). yields amount. remand remit accordingly. ALITO consideration SCALIA, THOMAS joins, concurring. join portions prior opinions argumentation based holdings, believe holdings error. 429, (SCALIA, dissenting). STEVENS, concurring dissenting part. Parts II, Congress, empirical expressed Part IV. "`is extent,'" ante, 2619 (quoting *2635 (1979)), extent; indeed, "[m]aritime dominated statute." Miles Apex Marine 36, 317, 275 (1990). reason, performing task acceptability hand, embarking lawmaking venture, other, carefully [we], body, equipped perform hand." Boyle Technologies 487 531, 108 2510, 101 (1988) (STEVENS, Evidence affirmatively restrict favors adherence special justification. ignores counsel limitation announces abuse-of-discretion affirm Appeals. explained "an vigilant overstep well-considered boundaries legislation." wish restricting Shipowners' Liability (Limitation Act), U.S.C.App. 183[1], fabric since 1851, part: "The owner vessel, foreign, embezzlement, destruction property, goods, merchandise shipped collision, forfeiture, done, occasioned, incurred, privity shall provided subsection (b) section, exceed interest her freight pending." 183(a) added). operates shield knowledge; Act's protections large functionally swath cases.[2] evidently *2636 invoke protection futility attempting establish lacked "privity knowledge" Captain drinking.[3] existence resolve chose generous counsels extending benefit conclusion. (TAPAA), 1651 seq., altered regime spills, capping recovery; notably, damages.[4] (Exxon unsuccessfully TAPAA precluded stage 101-107.) rightly decides passing diminish remedies. Ante, 2618-2619. viewed invitation domain evaluate analysis assembled problematic reasons. unique uncritical reliance cases: General Some purely distress, T. Schoenbaum, Admiralty 5-15 ed.2004),[5] *2637 precludes "economic absent direct proprietary interest," 14-7, 124.[6] land-tort context, serve sorts recoverable rubric compensation. (2001): "Until frequently operated time. broadened, Nates, Kimball, Axelrod, Goldstein, Tort 3.01[3][a](2000) (pain species damages), shifted understanding." ordinary appears continues treat compensable, compensable sphere other. Second, caps discussion typically legislatures, courts. deal acted telling identify single authority. legislatures done course; indeed encounter obstacle doing assess data, competing interests, choice.[7] *2638 concedes decades," "most [that criticism]." 2624. acknowledges awards." concludes seem out. explains antidote Until orders rigid employ familiar standard: "If raised, role `determination standard,'" 433, 1678; ("Under approach, initially gravity determination reasonable"). standard, am persuaded invalidate award.[8] lapsed alcoholic command tens treacherous Sound, endangering depended livelihoods, expression "moral condemnation" 432, 1678. adhere "`it becomes humane liberal proceedings withhold remedy, established inflexible rules.'" Moragne Lines, 398 387, 90 1772, 26 339 (1970) Chase Sea Gull, 21 Cas. 909, 910 (CC 1865)). * possesses power craft my errs so. respectfully dissent *2639 GINSBURG, V. unlike forays banner process. 418-428, (reining state-court damages); 574-585, (same). controversy "arises jurisdiction," 2626 Court), today," 2638 part). therefore, competent nevertheless Congress. stated lead. close, STEVENS' decisionmaker. urgent break "traditional approach" trial-court, appellate-court (1991). "has awards," 2624, endangered negotiations, 15. insufficiently checked occur governed assuming solution, prompts questions. good believes, ranked scale: profit," "with injure," 2622. maliciously pursuit gain? 2631-2632. Should much? Horrendous was, result attempt boat 2613 Court); 460-462, (using loss guide excessive). end, holding maritime-law ceiling, signaling limit"? 2634, 28. opportunity, definitively, ceiling requires claims? Heightening reservations solution comment venturesome decision. observes, legislatures; identified "[any] ratio" lieu looking limitation. 2637. *2640 stated, STEVENS BREYER, opinion. disagree conclusion reduced. Like need, assure according meaningful notice harshly help uniform similarly persons. 587, (BREYER, concurring). Legal standards, objectives rigidity demands. foresaw exceptions constraint. view, exception warranted clear, mine-run behavior. believed knowingly relapsed repeatedly vessel filled livelihood Given crash occurred. GINSBURG easily worse. 2639. 2614 Court). agreed. "engaged exacting review" "not twice, times, penetrating inquiry time," reconsideration chance consider. 296 1071, 1110 2004). concluded case," "Exxon's highly reprehensible," (slightly) demanded Ibid.; 1075. When finally hands, 2006) "egregious" apparently "justifie[d] considerably applied adopts reasoned Appeals' justifying majority's rule. 50% reduction appropriate. uphold NOTES [1] turned survived accident fleet, subsequently transferred subsidiary, "was renamed Mediterranean, Persian Gulf Japan, Singapore, 12 2002, pulled service `laid up' (just won't say) prepared retirement, although, reports, flag." Spill Anniversary Marked, 30 Intelligence (Mar. 29, [2] asked fault record sent shows findings 164, reason; [3] emphasizes independently reckless, fixing revolved supervising enforcing argues, entirely possible right, 36-39. remains, finding Hazelwood's. Any instructing latter overlooked, "when impossible permissible impermissible ground, reversed remanded." Greenbelt Cooperative Publishing Bresler, 1537, [4] Compare 1386 1985) (adopting rule), CEH, F/V Seafarer, 694, 705 (C.A.1 1995); P Rentals, 872 642, 652 1989); Fuhrman, 1143, 1148 (C.A.6 1969). [5] Most inapplicable face. Fed. Civ. Proc. 49(a), (d), 58(2). inapt: allow, respectively, entry alteration amendment (At oral Rule 50. Tr. Oral Arg. 25.) inapt apt. 50(b) movant 50(a) submitted jury. 50(b); also, Zachar Lee, 363 70, 73-74 2004); 9B A. Miller, Practice 2537, 603-604 (3d ed.2008). 59(e) permits alter amend judgment, "may relitigate matters, raise judgment." 2810.1, 127-128 ed.1995) (footnotes Where unable demonstrate supported choose worst, last-minute Suffice supposed be, very, [6] shrift commendable gargantuan propriety exceeded discretion. Instead, implied unusual regular way. Of complex significant, fact, divide phases, oversee 32,000 people, manage industry threatened halt progress completely. complexity waiver forfeiture rules, possible, orderly progression. game, golf, arbitrary skill players. Rather, `winnowing process,' procedures waiving machinery decided." Poliquin Garden Way, 989 527, 531 1993) (Boudin, J.) (citation sensible efforts play deserve respect. [7] invoked Middlesex County Sewerage Authority National Clammers 453 2615, 69 435 Milwaukee Illinois, 304, 1784, 68 plaintiffs' nuisance amounted effluent-discharge Here, Baker's interference resources.". [8] Indeed, 19th-century treatise writer authentically `punitive' "judgments ostensibly [were] reality full compensation." judgment) Greenleaf, 235, (13th 1876)). "This view," shared." prominent treatises). subterfuge been, declined. [9] Moskovitz Mount Sinai Medical Center, St. 3d 638, 651, 635 331, 343 plaintiff, Hamilton Development Broad Rock Club, 248 Va. 40, 45, 445 S.E.2d 140, 143 (same); Loitz Remington Arms 138 Ill. 404, 150 Dec. 510, 563 397, (1990) 222 (Ala. 1989) Masaki Motors 71 Haw. 780 570 "intended wrongdoing"); 416, ("[P]unitive retribution"); a. [10] context; [11] procedure objection. [12] Mo.Rev.Stat. (Vernon Supp.2008) cases); 6-11-21(a), (d) $1.5 suits, actions); N.D. Cent. 32-03.2-11(4) (Supp.2007) $250,000); (1:1). Oklahoma graduated turning Okla. Stat., 9.1(B) (West $100,000 "reckless disregard"); 9.1(C) 2:1, $500,000, defendant, conduct); 9.1(D) (no intentional, life threatening). [13] RAND Institute Justice, Hensler Moller, Trends table 1995) (finding 1980s San Francisco Cook Counties); Pace, Carroll, Verdicts, 28 Studies 283, 307 (1999) Verdicts) (studying "Financial Injury" six County, late 1990s); Peterson, Sarma, Shanley, Empirical Findings (RAND 1987) Findings) increased 1960s 1980s, period). Eisenberg Analyses Using Survey 1992, 1996, Data, 278 Damages) (analyzing Bureau Statistics 2001, "[n]o statistically exists inflation-adjusted periods"); Dept. Statistics, Cohen, Damage Awards Counties, (Mar.2005) Cohen) (compiling Nation's 75 populous counties decreased 1992 2001). [14] 269 (reporting 0.62:1 0.66:1 bench 2001); Vidmar Rose, Juries Florida, Legis. 487, Florida 1989 1998 0.67:1). 1.4:1 1990s). [15] counties, prevailed, 6.1% 5.6% decrease 15.8% 12.7% 9 Counties 1960 1984). posit ill clearest shadow casts negotiations decisions. 287; Polinsky, Are Really Insignificant, Predictable, Rational? 663, 664-671 (1997). again correlation. Eaton, Mustard, Talarico, Effects Seeking Processing Claims, 343, 357, 353-354, 365 Georgia seek impact" "whether settlement," means settled"); Kritzer Zemans, Shadow Punitives, Wis. 157, 160 (1998) cast exception, systematic notion" deleted)). [16] examined representative sample States," "tort, contract, fiscal year 1991-1992 calendar years 2001. sets random States." 267. information "gathered directly" clerks' offices litigants report." [17] body running parallel predictability conducting numerous "mock juries," "jurors" confronted hypothetical Sunstein, Hastie, Payne, Schkade, Viscusi, How Decide (2002); Kahneman, Deliberating About Dollars: Severity Shift, 100 1139 (2000); Juror Cases: Plaintiff's Requests Identity Awards, Hum. Behav. (1999); Assessing (with Notes Cognition Valuation Law), 107 Yale L.J. 2071 research funded [18] observation Browning-Ferris, Excessive Fines Clause Eighth Amendment 2909. reject rested animate Amendment" "plac[ing] steps individual," Thus "does constrain money prosecuted right receive similarities distinguished differing levels involvement. [19] Nagel, Structuring Discretion: Guidelines, J.Crim. 883, 895-899 hearings). [20] statutes. Gen.Stat. 52-560 (cutting destroying tree Christmas payment injured tree's value); 91, 59A (discharging lake, river, tidal water, flats tort). [21] post, 2634-2636 part), modify making. mixture amalgam modifications created rules," East River S.S. Transamerica Delaval 476 858, 865, 2295, 865 (1986), working principles. ("recognizing products liability... law"); Export Alvez, 446 274, 1673, 64 284 (1980) (recognizing cause consortium); death). reached creating occasion, follows free hand "entirely matter." 382, 1772. Reliable Transfer 409, 1708, 44 251 (1975), abrogated favor proportional urged creation collision Judiciary traditionally lead formulating flexible maritime, fashioning controlling footnote U.S.A. Sofec, 830, 1813, (holding proportional-liability proximately injury); McDermott, AmClyde, 511 202, 1461, 148 proportionate-fault nonsettling liability). creation. harms, unaccompanied property. K. Abraham, Forms Functions 247-248 ed.2007); Robins Dry Dock Repair Dahl, 266 449, 372 (1925) (imposing context). "[t]he have... occasionally noteworthy involve natural-resource action." 249 Union Oppen, 501 558 1974) fishermen)). agreement disagreement illustrate surveying. sure, "Congress retains matters," "[i]n era, enactments guidance." slough responsibilities constraining imply Rapanos 547 715, 749, 126 2208, 165 159 "oft-expressed skepticism towards tea inaction"). precedent revision. Transfer, 1708. [22] felt constrained assignment liabilities personnel initiate, consideration, existed, constitutes expense duty. [23] categorically finding. falling failings reprehensible. [24] slightly strategic subset (where behalf normal replaced aggregate received misconduct, $7 million); Fla. 768.73(1)(b), (c) (normal 4:1 $2 solely unreasonable unreasonably together likelihood managing director, defendant). [25] (antitrust); (racketeering); (patent); (trademark) 2564 (plant protections); 2607 (real estate antikickback provision); 1693f (consumer credit protection). [26] studies. [27] STEVENS's suggestion, 2638, judge's nonjury promise practical possibility. abuse yet practice signal sort. needs mitigate law's Post, 2636-2637. Instruction 21, 12a are: (1) misconduct; (2) warn same"), underlying bespeak inadequacy; supplementing. "[p]unitive definition party, extreme conduct." Newport Fact Concerts, 247, 266-267, 2748, 616 (1981); 2620-2621. applicability understood, quasi-compensatory, purpose. Philip Morris USA Williams, 549 346, 352, 127 1057, 166 940 ("This `[p]unitive State's legitimate punishing repetition'" 568, 1589)); 1678 ("[C]ompensatory purposes. redress concrete suffered. operate `private fines' wrongdoing"). [28] criterion "substantial" pure encourage suit, opportunity numbers involved: touchstone, facilitates $500 substantial. 1:1. codified amended 30505. Pub.L. 109-304, 120 1513. Lewis Marine, 446, 993, includes host rights, procedures. Among Act. occasioned vessel"); Phipps, 317 406, 412, 63 291, (1943) ("One selects men store inspect respects incurred explosion storage, `privity' `knowledge' empty words"). Testimony phase protracted much. hearing attorneys firm advised "`never sustain burden Hazelwood.'" 43a. resolved TAPAA, meant trans-Alaskan transportation oil. House Conference passage: "Under 1851 (46 183), entitled Conferees existing victims... event kind catastrophe occur. Consequently, discharges transported trans-Alaska $100,000,000." H.R. Conf. 93-624, U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1973, 2523, 2530. Glacier Bay, 944 577, 583 1991) ("[W]e repealed regard oil"). Schoenbaum "[n]either recognizes recover injury." 5-15, 239. Gough Natural Gas Am., 996 763, 765 (purely "satisfy `physical impact rule'"). roots "dry dock doctrine" Flint, 303, 134, 72 290 (1927) Holmes, Barber Lines A/S M/V Donau Maru, 764 Breyer, (tracing doctrine, resolving rule); Louisiana Testbank, 752 1019, 1020 (en banc) (affirming denying "physical unintentional tort"). Turner Broadcasting System, FCC, 622, 665-666, 2445, 497 ("As institution amass vast bearing dynamic here" Patsy Board Regents Fla., 457 496, 513, 102 2557, 73 172 (1982) (when "relevant invariably direction, vehement assumptions them[, t]he difficulty considerations, Congress' institutional competence pursue debate, solutions preferable"). illustrative "flexible maritime." precept," "simply bring cases." By contrast, brings expressions other) context. idiosyncratic posture something counterfactual, intervening steps, remitted Due Process 600 now, identical, de novo scrutiny would, review.

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