Document: 421 U.S. 240 95 S.Ct. 1612 44 L.Ed.2d 141 ALYESKA PIPELINE SERVICE COMPANY, Petitioner,v.The WILDERNESS SOCIETY et al. No. 73—1977. Argued Jan. 22, 1975. Decided May 12, Syllabus Under the 'America Rule' that attorneys' fees are not ordinarily recoverable by prevailing litigant in federal litigation absence of statutory authorization, respondents, which had instituted to prevent issuance Government permits required for construction trans-Alaska oil pipeline, cannot recover from petitioner based on 'private attorney general' approach erroneously approved Court Appeals, since only Congress, courts, can authorize such an exception American rule. Pp. 247-271. 161 U.S.App.D.C. 446, 495 F.2d 1026, reversed. Robert E. Jordan, III, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Dennis M. Flannery, respondents. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 This was initiated respondents Wilderness Society, Environmental Defense Fund, Inc., and Friends Earth attempt Secretary Interior were pipeline. The Appeals awarded against Alyeska Pipeline Service Co. upon court's equitable powers theory entitled because they performing services a general.' Certiorari granted, 419 823, 39, 42 47 (1974), determine whether this award appropriate. We reverse. 2 * A major field discovered North Slope Alaska 1968.1 In June 1969, companies constituting consortium owning Alyeska2 submitted application Department rights-of-way pipeline would transport across land owned United States,3 part system carry its ultimate markets lower 48 States. special interdepartmental task force studied proposal reported President. Federal Task Force Alaskan Oil Development: Preliminary Report President (1969), App. 78—89. An amended December requested 54-foot right-of-way, along with applications 'special use permits' asking additional space alongside right-of-way road one segment pipeline.4 3 Respondents brought suit March 1970, sought declaratory injunctive relief grounds he intended issue land-use violation § 28 Mineral Leasing Act 1920, 41 Stat. 449, as amended, 30 U.S.C. 185,5 without compliance National Policy 1969 (NEPA), 83 852, 4321 seq.6 On basis both NEPA, District granted preliminary injunction permits. Society v. Hickel, 325 F.Supp. 422 (DC 1970). 4 Subsequently State allowed intervene.7 20, 1972, released six-volume Impact Statement three-volume Economic Security Analysis.8 After period time set aside public comment, announced be Alyeska. 105—138. Both NEPA issues at point fully briefed argued before That court then decided dissolve injunction, deny permanent dismiss complaint.9 5 Upon appeal, Columbia Circuit reversed, basing decision solely Act. 156 121, 479 842 (1973) (en banc). Finding very complex important, deciding them necessary enjoined result Act, involved fact still dispute, it desirable expedite much possible, declined decide merits respondents' contentions been rejected Court.10 denied here. 411 917, 93 1550, 36 309 (1973). 6 Congress enacted legislation allow granting Alyeska11 declared no further action under could proceed.12 7 1651 seq. (1970 ed., Supp. III). 8 With effectively terminated legislation, turned questions request fees.13 1026 (1974) Since there applicable authorization award, proceeded consider fee fell within any exceptions general 'American rule' party may costs or otherwise. who acted bad faith inapposite, position taken state parties 'was manifestly reasonable assumed good . ..' Id., 1029. Application 'common benefit' spreads cost those persons benefiting 'stretch totally outside basic rationale Ibid.14 nevertheless held vindicate 'important rights all citizens .,' id., 452, F.2d, 1032; ensured governmental functioned properly; lest great kind, particularly well-financed defendants Alyeska, deter private desiring see laws protecting environment properly enforced. Title 241215 thought bar taxing States, also deemed inappropriate burden award.16 But held, fairly pay one-half full having performed functions general. Observing '(t)he should represent value rendered, taking into account surrounding circumstances, including, but limited to, labor case, benefit public, skill demanded novelty complexity issues, incentive factor,' U.S.App.D.C., 456, 1036, remanded case assessment dollar amount award.17 II 9 is collect loser. asked fashion far-reaching Rule'; considered origin development, we convinced Judiciary, legislative guidance, reallocate burdens manner extent urged Appeals. 10 At common law, allowed; centuries England has costs, including fees. Although matter discretion court, counsel regularly party.18 11 During first years federal-court system, provided through courts follow practice respect awarding States located,19 district admiralty maritime jurisdiction specific schedule.20 Those statutes, 1800, either expired repealed. 12 1796, appears have ruled Judiciary itself create rule, independent statute, allowing awards courts. Arcambel Wiseman, (3 Dall.) 306, L.Ed. 613, inclusion damages21 overturned ground oposition (sic) it; even if strictly correct principle, till changed, modified, statute.' consistently adhered early holding. See Day Woodworth, 13 How. 363, 14 181 (1852); Oelrichs Spain, 15 Wall. 211, 21 43 (1872); Flanders Tweed, 450, 203 (1873); Stewart Sonneborn, 98 187, 25 116, 40 703 (1879); Fleischmann Distilling Corp. Maier Brewing Co., 386 714, 717—713, 87 1404, 18 475 (1967); F.D. Rich Inc. ex rel. Industrial Lumber 417 126—131, 94 2157, 2163—2166 (1974). after 1799 until 1853 continued before, is, referring rules governing fees, although express expired.22 By 1842, did give authority prescribe items amounts taxed took mandate.23 S. Law, Jurisdiction Powers Courts 271 n. (1852). 1853, undertook standardize allowable litigation. support proposed asserted diversity among losing litigants being unfairly saddled exorbitant victor's attorneys.24 specifying detail nature taxable One purposes limit allowances charged parties. disclaimed intention his client might agree between themselves, collectible expressly stated Act: 'That lieu compensation now law attorneys, solicitors, proctors clerks circuit marshals, witnesses, jurors, commissioners, printers, several following other shall allowed. act construed prohibit charging receiving their clients, than Government, services, addition accordance usage respective agreed parties.' Feb. 26, 161. 16 proceeds list sums proctors.25 17 control loser repeatedly enforced Baltimore, 75 (8 Wall.) 377, 613 (1869), $500 allowance aside, reviewing history concluding: 'Fees officers therein named, regulated 26th February, provides, 1st section, proctors, clerks, 19 'Attorneys, charge clients reasonably nothing opposite party, incident judgment, except described enumerated. They tax docket twenty dollars final hearing admiralty, libellant recovers fifty dollars, less proctor ten dollars.' 392 (footnotes omitted). 20 (1872), counsel's $6,000 included jury damages award. forbade allowances: named passed purpose, provides that, previously Attorneys, recovered trial jury, restricted cases where judgment rendered jury.' 452—453 (footnote 22 re Paschal, 483, 493—494, 992 (1871). 23 Although, will seen, made provision certain changed rule specified statute. carried forward Revised Statutes 187426 Judicial Code 1911.27 Its substance, apparent intent change controlling rules, 1948 §§ 192028 1923(a).29 various specified, 'docket fees' 1923(a). section '(a)ttorney's proctor's follows Against background, understandably 1967 small 1923, 'has long attorney's Corp., U.S., 717, S.Ct., 1407. Other recent reaffirmed absent statute enforceable contract, own F. D. 128—131, 2164—2166; Hall Cole, 412 1, 4, 1943, 1945, 702 24 To sure, statutes allow, excess permitted 1923. Trustees Greenough, 105 527, 26 1157 (1882), read interfering historic power equity permit trustee fund property, preserving recovering others himself, property directly enjoying benefit.30 followed. Central Railroad & Banking Pettus, 113 387, 915 (1885); Harrison Perea, 168 311, 325—326, 129, 134—135, 478 (1897); Equitable Trust 283 738, 51 639, 1379 (1931); Sprague Ticonic Bank, 307 161, 59 777, 1184 (1939); Mills Electric Auto-Lite 396 375, 90 616, 593 (1970); supra; cf. Hobbs McLean, 117 567, 581—582, 870, 876—877, 29 940 (1886). generally Dawson, Lawyers Involuntary Clients: Attorney Fees From Funds, Harv.L.Rev. 1597 Also, assess 'willful disobedience order fine levied defendant(,) Toledo Scale Computing 261 399, 426—428, 458, 465—466, 67 719 (1923),' supra, 718, 1407; when 'acted faith, vexatiously, wantonly, oppressive reasons 2165 (citing Vaughan Atkinson, 369 82 997, 88 (1962)); Universal Products Root Refining 328 575, 580, 66 1176, 1179, 1447 (1946). These unquestionably assertions inherent particular situations, unless forbidden none here.31 reliance them. 245. repudiated judicially fashioned substantial fees; neither retracted, repealed, modified limitations contained successors.32 Nor extended roving otherwise whenever deem warranted. What done, however, while recognizing accepting make explicit provisions selected rights.33 available variety differ considerably themselves. antitrust laws, instance, plaintiff treble mandatory.34 patent litigation, contrast, exceptional party.' 35 285 (emphasis added). Civil Rights 1964, 2000a—3(b),35 successful circumstances. Newman Piggie Park Enterprises, 390 400, 402, 964, 966, 1263 (1968). Northcross Board Education Memphis City Schools, 427, 2201, 37 scheme things, circumstances range making matters determine.36 It true some, most, providing opted rely heavily enforcement implement policy so encourage Fee shifting connection treble-damages prime example; Hawaii Standard 405 251, 265—266, 92 885, 892—893, 31 184 (1972); noted 1964 'not simply penalize deliberately advance arguments know untenable but, more broadly, individuals injured racial discrimination seek judicial II.' Newman, 966 congressional utilization private-attorney-general concept sense grant jettison traditional nonstatutory furthered important enough warrant 27 presumably pick choose others. difficult, indeed, some unimportant former. If limitation widths gravest importance, appear wide arguably satisfy criterion importance justify litigant. And, must encouraged how actions 1983 seeking constitutional rights? Moreover, embark course opt defendant, plaintiff?37 Should discretionary mandatory?38 Would presumption operating ordinary case? supra.39 As exemplified itself, evident rational immediately collide 2412.40 Except 'but expenses attorneys,' civil agency official acting capacity. If, argue, main call officials insist enforce Indeed, claim case.41 2412 face, light history, bars awards,42 which, all, as, example, 2000a—3(b).43 need further. us suggested here adopted inroads reserved itself. carve out beyond limits free drastic new plaintiffs sue others, depending courts' policies cases. purport adopt initiative operate Government.44 do demerits criticized years,45 find it.46 our national experience encouragement viewed desireable followed survived. deeply rooted policy; invade legislature's province redistributing Appeals.47 below therefore 32 So ordered. 33 Reversed. 34 DOUGLAS POWELL consideration case. BRENNAN, dissenting. I MARSHALL rationale. Judge Wright hold proper exercise power. concluded: 'Acting attorneys general, (respondents) functioning government, advanced protected concrete interests. unjustly discouraged (petitioner) defending court. And denying well deterred undertaking heavy litigation.' 1036. 38 MARSHALL, 39 reversing respondent environmentalist groups, today disavows well-established interests justice require. While Rule refrain recognized classes seemed favor shifting. 391—392, 625, 5, 9, 1946, 1948, imposing absolute takes extremely narrow view area—a flies squarely face prior relies primarily docketing-fees-andcourt-costs concluding grounded intended. created past explained constructions Ante, 257. addition, notes number concludes selective treatment authorized, course. Finally, suggests bearing ones equipped handle, quickly degenerate arbitrary lawless process. Because does reach question my answered. precedent holding require recovery, fit comfortably sanctioned Rule. regarded Legislature, certainly docketing-fees Court's concern difficulty applying meaningful standards 'public legitimate one, overstates theory. guidelines developed closely analogous readily applied bar. disagree flat rejection equities Accordingly, respectfully dissent. A. Contrary suggestion opinion, unequivocally establish withholding construction, bond sales, petitioners' success accrue similarly situated persons. foundation serious question: 'Allowance appropriate situations courts.' 164, 779. 'Plainly reimbursement conventional (statutory) original chancellor situation.' 166, 780.1 45 cases, reiterated same theme: litigant, Legislature 625; 1946. judge-made exceptions, assessed, willful order, (1923); practices, 530—531, 999, (1962); recovery class, supra.2 acknowledges vitality these turns back underlying them, generous given common-benefit 46 Mills, found barrier extending include nonmonetary benefits stockholders' derivative suit. Discovering Securities Exchange 1934 indicate 'to circumscribe remedies,' 391, concluded allotment. lawsuit accrued corporation shareholders, permitting efforts contributing form unjust enrichment, petitioners assessed corporation. acknowledged common-fund undergone considerable expansion earliest ordered contribution produced nonparty beneficiaries. doctrine apply, wrote, 392, sort conferred class sought. 393—394, 626. over entity effected, fairer relieve exclusive responsibility burden. impossible assign monetary conferred, 'the stress placed fair informed corporate suffrage leads conclusion vindicating policy, service shareholders.' 396, 627. discerned went simple relief: shareholders 'an means proxy Ibid. Only two ago, member's union 'free speech' Labor-Management Reporting Disclosure members speech court-ordered LMRDA promoted Congress' afford protection employees generally, aggrieved member unlikely able finance 13, 1950, 'consistent (LMRDA) justice.' 14, 1950. 49 view, squared majority's availability entirely authority. plainly rather rubrics. says am loss understand say succumbs Procrustean restrictions—indeed, silence—as soon far bright line crossed. conclude willing tolerate 'equitable' analysis, it, too established casually dispensed with. B 50 tension today's rigid reflected analysis embodiment restrict implication,3 (1967), refused construe 1923 plenary restraint awards. Starting fee-bill narrowly interposed restriction (1881), imposed collected plaintiff's efforts, since: 52 '(The bill addressed) chargeable (did not) regulate charges solicitor .. contains deprive Chancery long-established exercised 535—536. 53 Sprague, again distinction suits entailed identified 'between party' sole target successors. termed 'as client'; expenses, fairness permit, subject restrictions 2, 779—780. Whether controlling. 166—167, 779—780; 392—394, 625—626. 54 More recently, gave formal sanction defendant unjustifiably put expense obtain latter entitled. (1962). Distinguishing 463 relies, 'costs' sense, legitimately primary entitled, ancillary adjustment expenses.4 55 comprehensive review actions. noting 'when overriding considerations compel result,' 1407, meticulous remedies Lanham unsuccessful attempts precluded implying right trademark not, Rule, treated 'general exception' embodiment. 718 11, 56 My Brother concedes language indicating longer told indication revision revisers alter meaning Yet think creating suffice dispose argument. seems uncompromising 57 drawn failure provide statutes. Confronted forceful argument sections twice specific-remedy interpreted evidencing mention 1949; 390—391, 625 silence prohibition, attorneys'-fees coordinate, 625. rejecting Hall, relied implied disfavored. Hecht Bowles, 321 321, 329, 64 587, 591, 754 (1944).5 principle applies, fortiori, implication presence other, unrelated pieces legislation.6 58 sum, contention—that enjoys hegemony docketing-fee occasional fees—will withstand most casual reading precedents. recognition demonstrates inadequacy analysis. Whatever wisdom misstep abdicate area name construction. points difficulties formulating swallow problem vexing majority does. fact, exception. 60 (1968), discretionary-fee-award 'unless render unjust.' 966. reasoned bad-faith 402 stands necessity significant impact. relief. Absent fee-shifting provision, suffer financial 'that highest priority.' attorneys'-fee generously, 'successful routinely forced bear few interest invoking 61 Analyzing Amendments Bradley School Richmond, 416 696, 2006, 2019, 452 similar point. There school board, publicly funded entity, engaged parents schoolchildren district. observed vastly disparate resources 'rendered bringing mandate, community large securing flow nondiscriminatory educational system.' 2019. directed construing statutory-fees enactment, broadly quite well. 62 already factors emphasized remedy misconduct regulations. beneficiaries benefit, available. Similarly, pointed imbalance litigating members: ensure enforced, Additionally, members, justified assessing treasury union. 63 possible discern confidence guide determining appropriate.7 representation (1) actually necessarily shared thereof; (2) pecuniary outcome, any, normally incurring counsel; (3) place hardly room doubt criteria met present Significant derived citizen expressions policy. supra. revise 1920 evasion. Pub.L. 93—153, 576. 1973 amendments impose stringent safety liability standards, market monitoring right-of-way. 65 decided, served catalyst thorough pipeline's environmental Requiring comply draft impact statement satisfied public's information about consequences project, 853, 4332(C), delay safeguards conditions grants.8 Petitioner contends 'beneficial results occurred' Brief 36—42. record unwilling observe Private assure Act; environmental, technological, written traceable like manner, needed prod filing statement; prepared proceed piecemeal considering overall risks physical integrity second equally Respondents' willingness undertake largely altruistic. did, course, stand protections potentially affected Sierra Club Morton, 727, 1361, 636 (1972), direct organizations truly dwarfed demands proportion. Extensive factual discovery, expert scientific legal research broad required. Affidavit Counsel (Re Bill Costs), 213—219. disparity stake outcome pursue exceeded opponents—the giant companies. 68 fulfills third criterion, spread undertaken public. Interior, bears adopting later determined unlawful. probably coextensive citizens, representation. But, 2412, (does) includ(e) attorneys.' cross-petition point, occasion correctness statute.9 69 Before advocated adoption playing role aspects case.10 economic principals affording confident incidence applicant indeed shift applicant.11 connection, business 20% market, redistribute ability pass consuming warrants bypass avoid instance Alyeska's Interior. punish recognizes effective substitute successfully challenged accountable share ease public-minded litigators, affirm below. For discussion chronology events Dominick Brody, Pipeline: Morton Trans-Alaska Authorization Am.U.L.Rev. 337 1968, Atlantic Richfield Humble British Petroleum formed System, 80; 337—338, 3. System replaced stock ARCO Sohio Mobil Phillips Amerada Hess Union California. 338 3; 105. feet, parallel, adjacent another 100 feet Prudhoe Bay town Livengood, distance slightly half length 128, 842, 849 single side 200 width Livengood. 128—129, 849—850; 89—98. 185 pertinent part: 'Rights-of-way lands, forest reserves pipe-line transportation natural gas possessing (prescribed) qualifications occupied said pipe twenty-five each regulations survey, location, application, prescribed condition lines constructed, operated, maintained carriers accept, convey, transport, purchase discrimination, lands vicinity proportionate may, due notice thereof interested finding facts, reasonable: Provided further, hereafter provisions, limitations, section. Failure forfeiture thereof, located proceeding.' heart contention adequately alternative trans-Canada 166—168, 887—889. interventions occurred September 1971, approximately months preventing Secretary. January 1971. reported. 130, 851. time, upheld Alaska. 158—163, 879—884. challenge issued Forest Supervisor predecessor, ripe adjudication. 163—166, 884—887. Tit. I, 101, 576, includes total 4,455 hours spent 209—219. '(T)his and, every citizen's government. proportionately beneciaries 40, infra. 'In appellee voluntarily participated suit, effect different version implications Taxing undermine goal emsuring adequate spokesmen interests.' 456 8, 1036 8. paid owed (respondents). serve obtainable believe interest. Litigation charity volunteering worked reimbursed despite obligation fees.' 457, 1037. 'As 1278, authorized 1607 English empowered plaintiffs. Rules administration related years. customary England, substantive claims terminated, conduct separate hearings 'taxing Masters' appropriateness size proceedings becoming unduly protracted burdensome, usually prescribed, letters drafted behalf client.' 1406, (1967) Goodhart, Costs, Yale L.J. (1929); C. McCormick, Law Damages 234—236 (1935). Sept. 24, 1789, 73, touched 11—12, 21—23, specifically 'shall receive therefor prosecutions be.' 35. Five days later, regulating processes, provided: made, rates judges, respectively used supreme same. (in causes jurisdiction) (shall be) last states exercising causes.' 29, 93. end next session, 3, twice. 1790, c. 123; 18, 1791, 191. 1792, 278. Prior repeal, Attorneys cover traveling expenses. Mar. 216. repealed enactment substituted Attorneys; 'such .' plus 277. February 28, 1799. new, Attorneys. 4. 5. 1793, courts: favour obtaining judgments therein, travel attendance, attornies counsellors' jurisdiction, superior states.' 333. year session 1795, 25, 419, 31, 451, Congress; expired. dealt infra, dealing 1841, 483. summary throughout period, 255—282 jurisdiction. 19, 332, proceedings. century. 390—392, (1869). $1,600 estimate $28.89 costs. Record Arcambel, 56. T. Street, Equity Practice 1986, pp. 1188 1189 (1909); 279; Costs Cases, Fed.Cas. 1058 (No. 18,284). (CCSDNY 1852). 'That, purpose diminishing Supreme authority, taxation payment therein; table suits, parties, clerk marshal district, deputies, serving process, whose bills table, costs; fixed low be, regard duties aforesaid, exceed existing laws.' Aug. 23, 7, 518. brief indicates states, reduce fee-bills Cong.Globe, 27th Cong., 2d Sess., 723 (1842) (remarks Sen. Berrien). opponents, Senator Buchanan, following: 'If conforms control, expected objection was, transfer Court.' remarks Bradbury, Cong.Globe App., 32d 207 (1853): 'There uniform compensating ministerial regulation suitors. prevails another; difficult ascertain attention whatever designed hence seen officers, depend degree 'When adopted, semblance equality, exist. sixteen prosecution defense suits. added Union, inconsiderable. Senate perceive systems prevail districts. suitors also, unequal, extravagant, often system. 'The abuses grown up compelled complaint. papers committee show swelled exceedingly suitors, altogether disproportionate magnitude taxed, bestowed. 'It evils defects House Representatives. simplify prescribing definite H.R.Rep.No.50, Sess. 1987, p. 1189. Solicitors, Proctors. criminal causes, referees, dollars: Provided, dollars. five cause discontinued. 'For scire facias recognizances, deposition admitted evidence cause, cents. 'A removed writ error appeal. 161—162. printers Territories, law. herein Rev.Stat. 823. schedule 824. remained 823 824 1911 'remain passed.' 297, 1169. When 1926, appeared 571 572 minor changes wording, deletion appeal error. judge '(5) Docket title.' (1946 II). '(a) Attorney's follows: '$20 civil, criminal, $50 $10; appeals involving $1,000; '$50 $5,000; '$100 '$5 discontinuance action; motion recognizances; '2.50 evidence.' 1923(a) contain nearly feed 'and allowed,' depart Reviser's Note '(s)ection consolidates 571, 572, 578 title U.S.C., 1940 ed.' Section limiting 572. 27, Our longstanding statutorily consistent function Revisers consolidation codification. Consequently, interpretation altered 'no presumed clearly expressed." Tidewater 409 151, 162, 408, 415, 375 (1972) Marshall 162 covering 'great care meet substantially unanimous approval.' S.Rep.No.1559, 80th (1948). explains mandatory taxed' 'may 'in 54(d) Procedure, directs." Bradley, writing client, nor equity, funds (other government) 80, 161; Rev.Stat., sect. require, fund.' 535 536. 165 779, (1939), suggesting Greenough 'solicitor client' rationale, terms left unregulated statute; 'client-solicitor' client's adversary. (1869); R. Foster, 328—330 (1901); Conkling, Organization, 456—457 (5th ed. 1870); Boyce, Manual 72 Cf. Package Ready-Made Clothing, 310, 312 15,950) 1853). Marshall's proposition opponent, post, 278-279, thus misplaced conflicts situation presented sits '(I)n run counter valid giving thereto, reflects state, followed.' J. Moore, 54.77(2), 1712—1713 (2d 1974) Speiser, Attorneys' 14:3, 14:4 (hereinafter Speiser); Annotation, Prevailing Party's Right Recover Courts, 894, 900—901. Erie Tompkins, 304 64, 817, (1938), requiring '(I)t clear least anomalous thwarted destroyed removal People Sioux County Surety 276 238, 243, 239, 241, 547 (1928). deriving 243—244, 241. departure result. Hanna Plumer, 380 460, 467—468, 85 1136, 1141—1142, (1965). govern loses practical significance restrictive Speiser 12:3, 12:4. nn. 26—29, Freedom Information 502, 1(b)(2), 1561 (amending 552(a)); Packers Stockyards 210(f); Perishable Agricultural Commodities 535, 499g(b); Bankruptcy 104(a)(1), 641—644; Clayton 731, 15; Unfair Competition 798, 72; 1933, 82, 907, 77k(e); Indenture 77www(a); 1934, 84 890, 897, 78i(e), 78r(a); Truth Lending 157, 1640(a); Motor Vehicle Cost Savings IV, 409(a)(2), 86 963, 1989(a)(2) II); 116 (copyrights); Organized Crime Control 1964(c); 369, 1617 Norris-LaGuardia 7(e), 71, 107(e); Fair Labor Standards 16(b), 1069, 216(b); Longshoremen's Harbor Workers' Compensation 1438, 1259, 928 Water Pollution 505(d), added, 888, 1365(d) Marine Protection, Research, Sanctuaries 105(g)(4), 1415(g)(4) (patent infringement); Servicemen's Readjustment 1822(b); Clean Air 304(d), 1706, 1857h—2(d); II, 204(b), 78 244, 2000a—3(b), VII, 706(k), 261, 2000e—5(k); Housing 812(c), 88, 3612(c); Noise 12(d), 1244, 4911(d) Railway 578, 1192, 153(p); Merchant 1936, 810, 2015, 1227; Communications 206, 1072, 206; Interstate Commerce 16(2), 382, 384, 308(b), 940, 908(b); Fed.Rules Civ.Proc. 37(a) (c). 12:61—12:71; 922—942. 'Any person reason anything threefold him sustained, fee.' 1227. commenced pursuant subchapter, discretion, liable person.' examples Quite apart authorizations recently confronted economically unable retain attorney. Legal Services Corporation 1974, 93—355, 378, 2996 IV). 1006(f), 2996e(f) IV), addresses type shifting: recipient entered recipient's plaintiff, pursued harassment maliciously abused enter (which appealable final) incurred action, contravention applicability. Any Corporation.' hand, during debates 120 Cong.Rec. 15001 (Rep. Meeds); 15008 Steiger); 24037 (Sen. Cranston); 24052 Mondale); 24056 Kennedy). Thus, theory, Corporation. basis; approval instances see, e.g., 2000e—5(k), See, 216(b). governs. 35, 284-285, solve problems manageability raise. so, emasculates Instead straightforward winning undertakes embodying policies, proposed, expanded dissenting errs recognize disserves characteristic justifications. ill purported decisions, easily identifiable. traced accuracy, shifted exactitude benefiting. sophisticated gauge supposed beneficiary, distinguished elements familiar 'imposing apparently wrong. 288. accepts, do, forbids 42, becomes predict produce case—all contrast typical themselves laws. remains pressed agencies 1983. Even Eleventh Amendment hurdles overcome, 44, remaining opinion's description opponent's add three-part test administering purports enable first: manageable standard gauging 'importance,' apply applicable, virtually output. selectively substantive-law preferences priorities, breadth requires justification citing MARSHALL's raised assaying produced. '(t)here doubt' Post, 285. conflicting public-policy views, side. opinions Fact. 452—456, 1032 (majority opinion); 459—461, 1039—1041 (MacKinnon, J., dissenting); 462—464, 1042 1044 (Wilkey, dissenting). unavoidable calls 'Except enumerated capacity, action. shall, reimbursing whole Payment 2414 2517 States.' 246. 1887, covered section: joining issue. Such what summoning same, court.' 15, 508. 1911, 152, 1138. Tort Claims 'Costs claimant 410(a), 844. 2412(a) II) Congress.' Reviser observed: '(Section 2412(a)) new. well-known common-law sovereign law.' Noting many exempt embodied unnecessary.' 1966, form. 80 308. referred S.Rep.No.1329, 89th (1966), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 2527, 2529. H.R.Rep.No.1535, (1966). General, transmitting led amendment, makes 2531. Pyramid Lake Paiute Tribe Indians 163 90, 499 1095 cert. denied, 420 962, 1351, 439 (1975). Without departing pattern, 1946 settlement recovered, representing claimant.' 422, 846. 410(a). 2678 II), percentage 1966. 307. 93—502, 552(a)). foreclosed government raise permissibility Amendment, divided. Compare Souza Travisono, 512 1137 (CA1 1975); Class Norton, 505 123 (CA2 1974); Jordan Fusari, 496 646 Gates Collier, 489 298 (CA5 1973), petition rehearing en banc 500 1382 Brandenburger Thompson, 494 885 (CA9 Sims Amos, 340 691 (M.D.Ala.), summarily aff'd, 942, 290, 215 Jordon Gilligan, 701 (CA6 Taylor Perini, 503 899 Namel Individual Members Texas Highway Dept., 1017 Skehan Bloomsburg College, 501 (CA3 1974). declining Alaska, 16, address question. McLaughlin, Recovery Fees: New Method Financing Services, Ford.L.Rev. 761 Ehrenzweig, Reimbursement Great Calif.L.Rev. 792 (1966); Stoebuck, Included Costs: Logical Development, U.Colo.L.Rev. 202 Kuenzel, Fee: Why Not Litigation?, Iowa L.Rev. (1963); Expenses Element Damages, Minn.L.Rev. 619 Comment, Awarded Equal Access 122 U.Pa.L.Rev. 636, 648—655 (1974); Note, Where Shall Ultimate Burden Lie?, Vand.L.Rev. 1216 (1967). 12.8; Posner, Approach Procedure Administration, J.Legal Studies, 437—438 years, erroneously, think, employed Hoitt Vitek, 219 Knight Auciello, 453 852 1972); Cornist Richland Parish Board, 189 Fairley Patterson, 493 598 Cooper Allen, 467 836 Lee Southern Home Sites 444 143 1971); Morales Haines, 486 880 (CA7 1973); Donahue Staunton, 471 1972), 410 955, 1419, 687 (1973); Fowler Schwarzwalder, 498 (CA8 La Raza Unida Volpe, F.R.D. (N.D.Cal.1972). Fourth 472 318, 327—331 vacated grounds, 476 Bridgeport Guardians, Comm'n, 497 1113 affirmance acceptance indicated available—the defendants—upon base F.Supp., 694. Edelman 415 651, 670 671, 1347, 1359—1360, 662 Subcommittee Representation Citizen Interests conducted attempted 'fee-shifting' affords unrepresented interests, development needed, place, area.' Hearings Committee 93d pt. 788 Tunney). Miller 793, 270a seq., 'Congress aware issue.' 131, 2166 'arguments addressed Kansas Guardian 281 194, 197, 74 659 (1930); occasions jurisprudence. 129—130, 2165—2166, 718—719, (1968); 1709 claimants 'sums justly due.' 794, 270b(a). overturn improper, better context everyday commercial 2165—2166. possibly evincing seamen wards 1946; 129 17, 2165. Rolax Coast Line 186 473 (CA4 1951), nonadmiralty obduracy opposing claim. words hand: essence Chancellor mould decree necessities Flexibility rigidity it. qualities mercy practicality instrument nice reconciliation needs competing claims. tradition lightly implied.' 329—330, 592. precludes officers. true, fail supports jettisoned altogether. entities, sued why immunity matter. teachings lost explored. (NDCal.1972). Wyatt Stickney, 344 387 (MDAla.1972); NAACP (MDAla.1972). S.Rep.No.93—207, H.R.Rep.No.93—414, 970, 993, 1565 Insular Affairs, 56, 127 foreclose awards, above demands. event, Natural Resources Council, Protection Agency, 484 1331 1973). fee, correctly bar, equal Clients Public Interest 849, 902—905

Category: 5