Document: 449 U.S. 456 101 S.Ct. 715 66 L.Ed.2d 659 State of MINNESOTA, Petitioner,v.CLOVER LEAF CREAMERY COMPANY et al. No. 79-1171. Argued Nov. 3, 1980. Decided Jan. 21, 1981. Rehearing Denied March 23, See 450 1027, 1735. Syllabus For the stated purposes promoting resource conservation, easing solid waste disposal problems, and conserving energy, Minnesota Legislature enacted a statute banning retail sale milk in plastic nonreturnable, nonrefillable containers, but permitting such other as paperboard cartons. Respondents filed suit District Court, seeking to enjoin enforcement on constitutional grounds. The Court held that violated,inter alia, Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment Commerce Clause. Finding "the evidence conclusively demonstrate[d] discrimination against nonrefillables [was] not rationally related Act's objectives," Supreme affirmed equal protection ground without reaching issue. Held: 1. ban nonreturnable containers bears rational relation State's objectives must be sustained under Pp. 461-470. (a) does deny authority one type container conceded cause environmental merely because another already established is permitted continue use. Whether fact will promote more environmentally desirable packaging question. satisfied if could have decided its jugs might foster greater use alternatives. 465-466. (b) state legislature, having concluded pose hazards, most recent entry field, thus, effect, "grandfathered" at least temporarily, make arbitrary or irrational. Cf. New Orleans v. Dukes, 427 297, 96 2513, 49 511. 466-468. (c) Where whether would help conserve energy was "at debatable," erred substituting judgment for legislature by finding, contrary production required less than paper containers. 468-469. (d) Similarly, legislature's finding based reputable study, take up space landfills present fewer problems do 469-470. 2. violate constituting an unreasonable burden interstate commerce. 470-474. discriminate between intrastate commerce regulates evenhandedly prohibiting all retailers from selling their products regard milk, sellers are outside State. 471-472. incidental imposed excessive putative local benefits. Milk may move freely across border, since dairies package container, inconvenience conform different requirements surrounding States should slight. Even granting out-of-state plastics industry burdened relatively heavily pulpwood industry, this "clearly excessive" light substantial interest conservation natural resources problems. These benefits amply support Minnesota's decision 472-474. Minn., 289 N.W.2d 79, reversed. Kenneth E. Raschke, Jr., St. Paul, petitioner. Harlon L. Dalton, Washington, D. C., United States, amicus curiae, special leave Court. Leonard J. Keyes, respondents. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court: 1 In 1977, 1977 Minn.Laws, ch. 268, Minn.Stat. § 116F.21 (1978). Respondents1 contend violates Clauses Constitution. 2 * purpose set out 1: 3 "The finds presents management problem state, promotes waste, depletes resources. therefore, furtherance policies Statutes, Section 116F.01,[2] determines discouraged returnable reusable these preferred encouraged." 1, codified 4 Act forbids fluid products, sour cream, cottage cheese, yogurt, rigid semi-rigid composed 50% plastic.3 5 introduced with Pollution Control Agency, Department Natural Resources, Agriculture, Consumer Services Division, Energy Agency,4 debated vigorously both houses legislature. Proponents legislation argued it ease energy. Relying results studies information,5 they stressed need stop introduction before became entrenched market. Opponents Act, also presenting empirical evidence, goals asserted proponents, increase costs prolong ecologically undesirable 6 After passed, respondents enforcement. court conducted extensive evidentiary hearings into probable consequences, found "in sharp conflict." App. A-25. Nevertheless, itself "as factfinder . obliged weigh evaluate evidence," ibid., resolved conflicts favor respondents, "will succeed effecting Legislature's published policy goals. ." Id., A-21. further that, statement "actual basis" "was economic interests certain segments dairy industries expense industry." A-19. therefore declared "null, void, unenforceable" enjoined enforcement, basing substantive due process Constitution Art. 7, Constitution; Amendment; prohibition burdens I, 8, A-23. 7 appealed Minnesota, which federal grounds, state-law issues. 79 (1979). Unlike "to encouraging reuse recycling materials reducing amount material entering stream," acknowledged legitimacy purpose. 82. relying Court's findings fact, full record, independent review documentary sources, demonstrates objectives." Ibid. We granted certiorari, 445 949, 100 1596, 63 784, now reverse. II 8 parties agree standard applicable case familiar "rational test. Vance Bradley, 440 93, 97, 99 939, 943, 59 171 (1979); 303, 2516, 511 (1976).6 Moreover, cited legislature—promoting energy—are legitimate purposes. Thus, controversy centers narrow issue legislative classification nonplastic achievement statutory purposes.7 9 apparently challenged theoretical connection nonreturnables articulated legislature; instead, there no two. They produced impressive supporting trial prove consequences deplete resources, exacerbate consumers unable purchase turn cartons, allegedly harmful product. 10 But convince courts correctness judgments. Rather, "those challenging facts reasonably conceived true governmental decisionmaker." U.S., 111, S.Ct., 950. Day-Brite Lighting, Inc. Missouri, 342 421, 425, 72 405, 408, L.Ed. 469 (1952); Henderson Co. Thompson, 300 258, 264-265, 57 447, 450-451, 81 632 (1937). 11 Although introduce claim irrational, Carolene Products Co., 304 144, 153-154, 58 778, 82 1234 (1938),8 cannot prevail so long "it evident considerations presented [the legislature], those we judicial notice, question debatable." 154, 784. classification, litigants procure invalidation tendering mistaken. 12 candidly admitted conflict," A-25, conflict struck down statute. however, did reverse basis patent violation principles governing rationality analysis analyzed afresh Clause, reached conclusion constitutionally invalid. contends impermissibly substituted argument. B 13 identifies four reasons why If any substantiates claim, sustain Act. 14 First, argues elimination popular jug encourage superior There serious doubt consume require disposal, nor refillable bottles pouches superior. Citing popular, gallon carton cumbersome well regarded buy time during preferable alternatives developed promoted. 15 As Senator Spear Senate debate: 16 "[T]his bill designed prevent beginning system non-returnables going very, very difficult [to stop] once begins. It our alternative terms bottles. Hopefully eventually able kind system, never allow non-returnable investment vested involve begin." Transcript Full Floor Discussion H.F. 45, p. (May 20, 1977), reprinted Plaintiffs' Exhibit 17 Accord, id., 1-2 (statement Sen. Luther). 18 dismissed "speculative illusory." N.W.2d, 86. expressed Agency steps sound packaging, cartons cease used Minnesota. 19 find approach fully supportable precedents. This has made clear "strike evils same way," Semler Oregon Board Dental Examiners, 294 608, 610, 55 570, 571, 1086 (1935), "may implement [its] program step step, adopting regulations only partially ameliorate perceived evil deferring complete future regulations." 2516. Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 657, 86 1717, 1727, 828 (1966); Williamson Lee Optical 348 483, 489, 75 461, 465, 563 (1955); Railway Express York, 336 106, 110, 69 463, 93 533 (1949). type, market, question: 20 Second, reduce dislocation foreseen movement toward notes recently been wide scale considering many were preparing invest large amounts capital production. Representative Munger, chief sponsor House Representatives, explained: 21 "Minnesota's market verge making major change over essentially primarily single use, throwaway ordered blow-mold equipment manufacture plant bottle. Members House, I feel ideal when firmly manufacturing marketing bottle." Debate Representatives (Mar. 10, 22 J Milton); Schaaf); 10-11 Perpich). 23 explains, enormous disruption few pouches. while continuing permit becoming reliant new avoiding severe dislocation. 24 directly address justification, supported precedents well. supra, upheld city regulation pushcart food vendors, exempting two vendors who had operated eight years. Noting "city decide newer businesses likely built reliance continued operation," "could choose initially eliminate vintage." 305, 2517. Maryland Savings-Share Ins. Corp., 400 4, 6, 91 16, 17, 27 (1970). significantly different. field. effect 25 Third, points resin, oil gas derivative, whereas pulpwood, renewable resource. point proponents Luther commented: "We through crisis know what like go looking here total blatant petroleum gas. Munger said similar vein: 26 "A sweep bottle size alone enough additional heat 3,100 homes each year compared 1,400 system. Plastic non-renewable forest products." held, misunderstood facts. reliable study9 consumed nonreturnables, but, after crediting testimony respondents' expert witness altering factual assumptions,10 "production requires containers." 85. 28 correct sensible means reiterate legislatures, courts, wisdom utility legislation." Ferguson Skrupa, 372 726, 729, 83 1028, 1030, (1963). Since view clearly 29 Fourth, problem. Most consumer wastes disposed landfills. A study indicated occupy volume containers.11 concerns. example, introducing asked rhetorically, "Why legislation?" Part his answer query non-refillable state." 30 82-85. ruling rejected reason concerning conservation: function substitute evaluation 31 conclude objectives, Clause.12 III 32 unconstitutional Clause13 imposes commerce.14 agree. 33 When legislating areas concern, nonetheless limited Lewis BT Investment Managers, Inc., 447 27, 36, 2009, 2015, 64 702 (1980); Hunt Washington Apple Advertising Comm'n, 432 333, 350, 97 2434, 2445, 53 383 (1977); Southern Pacific Arizona ex rel. Sullivan, 325 761, 767, 65 1515, 1519, 89 1915 (1945). law purporting reality "simple protectionism," applied "virtually per se rule invalidity." Philadelphia Jersey, 437 617, 624, 98 2531, 2535, 475 (1978).15 "evenhandedly," "incidental" commerce, nevertheless strike benefits." Pike Bruce Church, 397 137, 142, 90 844, 847, 174 extent tolerated course depend nature involved, promoted lesser impact activities." 34 "regulates evenhandedly" plastic, unlike statutes discriminating consistently down. g., supra (Florida scheme advisory services bank holding companies principal offices State); Hughes Oklahoma, 441 322, 60 250 (1979) (Oklahoma export minnows (New Jersey importation liquid (North Carolina imposing North Carolina, apple shippers). 35 controlling 847. not. 36 minor. containers,16 Box & Basket White, 296 176, 184, 56 159, 162, 80 138 (1935). Within business presumably shift manufacturers producers bottles, pouches, suspect gainers firms, losers firms. Indeed, three dairies, sole retailer, producer litigation firms.17 37 Pulpwood benefit raw jugs, entirely non-Minnesota paperboard, exaggerate degree interests, itself, absorb some generated 38 reviewed context analysis. 465-470. ample "a activities," available. suggested several schemes, either burdensome (as, nonreturnables) effective providing incentives recycling). Brief 32-33. 39 Exxon Corp. Governor Maryland, 117, 2207, (1978), barring refiners products—all businesses—from retailing gasoline "protects particular prohibitive 127-128, 2214-2215. nondiscriminatory serving invalid simply causes predominantly in-state industry. Only outweighs 40 41 Reversed. 42 REHNQUIST took part consideration case. 43 POWELL, concurring dissenting part. 44 bans permits validity Clauses. agreed violated unnecessary reach 45 today reverses merit alleged grounds invalidity. concur survives challenge, join reversal ground. Parts opinion. 46 not, issue, remand expressly found: 47 "12. Despite purported enacting Chapter actual Pet. Cert. A-24. 48 At subsequent opinion, even explicit language, reiterated commerce.1 highly relevant discriminated 2536, (1978) ("The crucial inquiry directed determining statute] basically protectionist measure, can fairly viewed concerns, effects upon incidental"). court's normally us engaging discrimination, That invalidated consider accept avowed stated: intended Minn.St. 116F.01; stream." reads implied rejection specific [purpose] interests" nonresident my view, assuming appropriate accept, analysis, ante, n. 7. so, express imply consider. drawing conclusions, included discussion whatever and, certainly, repeated purpose.2 50 inferring quite factfindings court. today, 268 flatly fact. barred doing act highest circumstances, unnecessary, inappropriate, See, e. FTC Anheuser-Busch, 363 536, 542, 1267, 1270, 1385 (1960); Ballard, 322 78, 88, 882, 887, 88 1148 (1944). Because offered departure customary restraint, instructions specifically 51 STEVENS, dissenting. 52 While seems nothing apply well-established statute, newly discovered principle law. According principle, explained majority, Federal defines relationship Congress legislatures courts. novel doctrine language prior decisions respectfully dissent. keystone pronouncement legislature." Ante, 470.1 concerned precedent. tribunals jurisdiction, whose powers confined Constitution, surprising, citation dealing properly perform reviewing constitutionality legislature.2 54 source—if indeed one—of power majestic announcement legislature? thought allocation functions within structure government matter determine. prohibits giving lawmaking courts.3 Nor anything prevents determinations agency.4 authorized tribunal sit Council Revision modify amend work product am aware. shall unquestionably matters One propositions respected unqualified consistency—until today—is bound respect interpretation announced State.5 case, acted legislation, implicitly own record proper. determined how resolve supplemented case.6 conclusions drawn deliberations entitled just much deference drafted incorporated preamble told unambiguous objective; me indifference, applying message conveyed itself. extraordinary feels free conduct de novo search rejected. precedent oversight process.7 Of course, law, State.8 review, disagree tribunal's process. tell meaning believe plainly intend, matter.9 Once recognized courts' re-evaluate result apparent. record,10 discriminatory admittedly irrational Amendment. acknowledges proper answered question.11 Whatever think about follows inexorably duty judges affirm affirmed, majority. Nonetheless, majority's treatment compels observations. errs undertaking all. addressed competing groups.12 On appeal, declined aspect decision, accordingly comment merits 87, Generally, state-court decisions, questions address. majority offers persuasive explanation unusual action case.13 absence justification action, deprive first opportunity suffers flaw rejects court, erroneous, exercise broad Legislature. 471, 15. rejecting findings, goes impose furthered 473. However, identified majority.14 believe, intrusion sanction precedential Accordingly, essential predicate "local [are] Clause," 473, absent. 61 observes provisions stringent 461-463, 6. observation invalidating reversed misinterpreted standard. disagrees perception role process, error application beyond authority. Respondents, plaintiffs below, owns producing leases equipment, company manufactures produces sells manufacturer polyethylene resin including trade association. Stat. 116F.01 provides part: "Statement policy. seeks reduction stream materials. Solid represents discarded people state. public requiring disposal." regulate 81, debate, see, Luther), Midwest Research Institute, Resource Environmental Profile Analysis Five Container Systems, I. STEVENS' challenge limits independently bearing legislation. argument, though novel, merit. may, equivalent Due Process Baker City Fairbanks, 471 P.2d 386, 387, 401-402 (Alaska 1970); Serrano Priest, Cal.3d 728, 764-765, 135 Cal.Rptr. 345, 557 929, 950-951 (1976), cert. denied, 907, 2951, 1079 Kaluna, Haw. 361, 368-369, 520 51, 58-59 (1974); see Brennan, Constitutions Individual Rights, Harv.L.Rev. 489 (1977). And dissent correctly notes, post,479-481, allocate branch choose. Uphaus Wyman, 360 72, 77, 1040, 1044, 1090 (1959); Sweezy Hampshire, 354 234, 256-257, 77 1203, 1214-1215, 1311 (1957) (Frankfurter, J., result); Dreyer Illinois, 187 71, 83-84, 28, 32, (1902). reviews violative Amendment, restrictions imposed. Hass, 420 714, 719, 95 1215, 1219, 570 (1975). analysis—without judgment—is governed reviewable writ certiorari. U.S.C. 1257(3). STEVENS concedes argument he admits standard." Post, 489. today's "no decisions," post, 482, frequently ordinances sanctioned Idaho Dept. Employment Smith, 434 100, 327, 324 Arlington County Richards, 5, 24, Richardson Ramirez, 418 94 2655, 551 Lehnhausen Lake Shore Auto 410 356, 1001, 351 (1973). Dakota Pharmacy Snyder's Drug Stores, 414 156, 407, 379 (1973); Dean Gadsen Times Publishing 412 543, 2264, 137 McDaniel v.Barresi, 402 39, 1287, 282 (1971). Never judgments cases differs rather Indeed changed view. Previously "more requires," error. 104, 329 (STEVENS, part). agreement commentator: "In resolutions issues, differentiated reject claims right. instances, 'correct,' meaning, context, reach." Sager, Fair Measure: Legal Status Underenforced Constitutional Norms, 1212, 1243 (footnote omitted). instant unprecedented, wrong. citing Fact 12, A-19, assert illegitimate: "isolate competition industries." 23. assume unless examination circumstances forces goal Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 636, 648, 1225, 1233, 514 Here, history supports 29-31, easily understood, defense genuinely proposed reasons. invalidate legislators sought obtain votes measure beneficial side pleadings summary history, hearing evidence. 109-112, 951, Bayside Fish Flour Gentry, 297 422, 513, 772 (1936). supra. adopted higher possible measurements consumption production, lower figure contemplated sawdust, addition, measurement study. 84-85. Institute Petitioner 21. Conclusion Law A-23; 20. From protection, fortiori Amendment's 124-125, 2213, (1978); Power To among States. U.S.Const., cl. 3. amici briefed question, obvious balancing York Transit Authority Beazer, 568, 583, 1355, 1364-1365, 587 constitutes "economic protectionism" proof purpose, 352-353, 2446. advance "discriminatory purpose" considered Respondent Wells Dairy, Iowa firm, 60% remainder packages, Tr. 419, 426, 439. Chairman respondent Marigold Foods, dairy, firm sell despite passage 474. existence adversely affected powerful safeguard abuse. South Highway Barnwell Bros., 303 177, 187, 510, 514, 734 (1938). follows: "23. bases isolate industries. welfare remedies prescribed 268." A-27 (emphasis added). Under empowered disregard considers pretext. Madison, 340 349, 354, 71 295, (1951) ("A ordinance valid professes health mean limitations laid save rare instance where artlessly discloses goods"). 464, states "States judgments"; "litigants mistaken." cites (1963); (1938); (1937), 469. cursory reveals provide cases, actions federal, thus shed play Bradley Products, Courts exceeded scope re-evaluating congressional enactments. Vance, 111-112, 950-951; 152, Kansas reversed, 729-731, 1030-1031. supervise narrowly circumscribed. 730-731, 1031. Finally, Texas face challenge. affirming observed "[t]he needs Legislature." 264, 450. judgment. Missouri Contract theories. affirmed. superlegislature." 423, 408. activities Nothing Lighting construed source determine allocated legislatures. Responding Virginia improperly assigned arm government, Cardozo, writing Highland Farms Agnew, 612-613, 549, 551, 835 exhibited voice subject. removes objections worthy Congress. How distributed organs commonly, always, distribution attempted supplies exception. denial republican form government. IV, 4. were, guarantee, according settled doctrine, Congress, Telephone Oregon, 223 118, 224, 377; Davis Hildebrant, 241 565, 708, 1172; Ohio Bryant Akron Park District, 281 74, 80, 228, 230, 74 710. Cases Panama Refining Ryan, 293 388, 241, 446, Schechter Poultry 295 495, 837, 1570, appellants, beside point. What President administrative officers commissions, affecting national constitution. "So far objection delegation founded Virginia, Reynolds Commission, 163 Va. 957, 179 S.E. 507, Appeals passed constitution decisive everywhere." (1902); result). earlier era, "Under created 1030. went explain limitation: returned original proposition social beliefs bodies, elected pass laws. Legislative bodies experiment 'subject intolerable supervision hostile basic Government wholly general clause secure.' " 730, 1031 consistent created" therein. coordinate branches prescribes powers. silent governments branches. authority, abundant readily Butler, 369, 376, 1755, 1759, 286 Ward 431 772, 2085, 2089, 738 Eastlake Forest Enterprises, 426 668, 674, 9, 2358, 2362, 132 (1976); Hortonville Joint School Education Assn., 488, 2308, 2312, Mullaney Wilbur, 421 684, 691, 1881, 1886, 508 (1975); Memorial Hospital Maricopa County, 415 250, 256, 1076, 1081, 306 Wardius 470, 477, 2208, Groppi Wisconsin, 505, 490, 491, 571 memorandum "substitute desirability act." With fact-finder, [it was] performed legislation: aware accorded propriety separating dependent Based footnote takes suggestion unprecedented (1977) (per curiam); Parts, incorrect legal standard; none reassess decision. Employment, generally failed goals, imperfect members class denied unemployment available full-time employment Smith 43, 43-44, 637, 637-638 Kerr 385, 545 473 (1976). imperfect, imperfection legally insufficient 101-102, 328. rational-basis test standard, then proceeded municipal noted relieve [parking] problems" directed. employed county deal problems—a residency "invidious discrimination." 217 645, 651, 231 S.E.2d 231, 235 ordinance's resulted invidious discrimination. 26. voting rights California re-examined Legislature, 41-56, 2665. Lehnhausen, Illinois essence, liability property tax must, matter, corporate noncorporate character property's owner. Korzen, Ill.2d 149-151, 273 N.E.2d 592, 598-599 inconsistent establishing distinctions individuals corporations rights. 359-365, 1003-1006. observes, Quite frankly, accord respective jurisdictions commands. 329. especially found, hearing, true. development record. revealed read inapposite My research uncovered State, limitation before, knowledge, undertaken define, (1976) Alexandria Scrap 794, 812, 2488, 2499, 220 (1970) Firemen Chicago, R. P. 393 129, 136, 138-139, 323, 327-328, (1968); 487-488, 1256 Secretary Agriculture Central Roig 338 604, 618-619, 70 403, 410, 381 (1950); Daniel Family Insurance 220, 550, 552, (1949); Clark Paul Gray, 594, 744, 750, 1001 (1939); 190-191, 516-517, 427-428, 430, 515, 516, (1936); Borden's Farm Ten Eyck, 251, 263, 453, 456, 669 Sproles Binford, 374, 388-389, 581, 585, 76 1167 (1932); Standard Oil Marysville, 279 582, 584, 586, 431, 73 856 (1929); Hebe Shaw, 248 125, 126, 255 (1919). instances statements judiciary "superlegislature," 124, 109, Olsen Nebraska, 313 236, 246, 862, 865, 85 1305 (1941); Zahn Public Works, 274 325, 328, 594-595, 1522 (1927); Cusack 242 526, 531, 190, 192, 472 (1917); Hadacheck Los Angeles, 239 394, 413-414, 143, 146-147, (1915); Price 238 452-453, 892, 894-895, 1400 Laurel Hill Cemetery San Francisco, 216 358, 365, 301, 302, 515 (1910). defer reasonable apparent, O'Brien Skinner, 524, 740, 743, (1974), construction invalidity, Landmark Communications, 435 829, 1535, 1540, appears attributed unusually inflexible command Kingsley Pictures Regents, 688-689, 1362, 1365, 1512 (1959). conflicting, 460, 469, "produced trial" indicating factually unsound. 463. concurrent significant difference impact, understand judges' skeptical scrutiny restriction whatsoever other. carefully avoids acknowledgment Not word suggests disagreement understanding rule. following fact: A-22. case: [sic ] real serve (paper, dairies) groups (plastic justified "because Clause." 14. (1979), rationale. inadequate, protectionist, environmental, reasons, inquiries necessarily suggests. acknowledges, purports actually design, virtually automatic balancing-of-interests test, applied. 471. 304, Beazer supreme discretion, elect questions, sovereign dictates casually divest it. Such record—they adequately supported, supra—but endorse

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