Document: 524 U.S. 498118 S.Ct. 2131141 L.Ed.2d 451 EASTERN ENTERPRISES, Petitioner,v.Kenneth S. APFEL, Commissioner of Social Security, et al. No. 97-42. Supreme Court the United States Argued March 4, 1998. Decided June 25, Syllabus * In 1946, a historic labor agreement between coal operators and Mine Workers America (UMWA) led to creation benefit funds that provided for medical expenses miners their dependents, with precise benefits determined by UMWA-appointed trustees. Those trusts served as model Welfare Retirement Fund (1947 W&R Fund), which was established National Bituminous Coal Wage Agreement 1947 NBCWA). The used proceeds royalty on production provide families, trustees levels other matters. 1950 NBCWA created new fund (1950 fixed amount royalties benefits, gave authority establish adjust so remain within budgetary restraints, did not guarantee lifetime health retirees dependents. continued operate subject revision until Employee Income Security Act 1974 (ERISA) introduced specific funding vesting requirements pension plans. To comply ERISA, UMWA Operators' Association entered into NBCWA, four trusts. It first expressly reference retirees, but it alter employers' obligation contribute royalties. extend liability beyond term agreement. Miners who retired before 1976 were covered Benefit Plan Trust Plan), those retiring after 1975 (1974 Plan). increase in factors-the decline production, retirement generation miners, rapid acceleration care costs-quickly caused financial problems Plans. ensure Plans' solvency, 1978 obligated signatories make sufficient contributions maintain long they business. As Plans suffer financially, employers began withdraw, leaving remaining absorb increasing cost covering left behind. Ultimately, Congress passed Industry Retiree Health 1992 (Coal Act) stabilize merging (Combined Fund) provides substantially same is funded premiums assessed against signed any or requiring Respondent, assigns signatory according following allocation formula: first, most recent subsequent employ retiree industry at least 2 years, 26 U.S.C. §9706(a)(1); second, industry, §9706(a)(2); third, operator employed longest period time prior effective date §9706(a)(3). Petitioner Eastern Enterprises (Eastern) every executed 1964. "in business'' Act's meaning, although 1965, transferring its operations subsidiary (EACC) ultimately selling interest EACC respondent Peabody Holding Company, Inc. (Peabody). Under Act, assigned Combined respecting over 1,000 had worked company 1966. sued respondents, claiming violates substantive due process constitutes taking violation Fifth Amendment. District granted respondents summary judgment, First Circuit affirmed. Held: judgment reversed, case remanded. 110 F.3d 150, reversed Justice O'CONNOR, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, SCALIA, THOMAS, concluded: 1 1.The declaratory injunction petitioner seeks are an appropriate remedy alleged this case, district courts' power award such equitable relief. Tucker may require just compensation claim under Takings Clause be filed Federal Claims, does seek from Government. situations analogous one here, has assumed lack compensatory relief violations without discussing applicability. See, e.g., Babbitt v. Youpee, 519 234, 234-235, 117 727, 729-730, 136 696. Pp. ____-____. 2.The Clause. 3 (a) Economic regulation effect taking. Industrial Bank, 459 70, 78, 103 407, 412, 74 235. party challenging government action bears substantial burden, destruction injury property constitutional A regulation's constitutionality evaluated examining governmental action's "justice fairness.'' See Andrus Allard, 444 51, 65, 100 318, 327, 62 210. Although inquiry lend itself set formula, three factors traditionally have informed Court's regulatory takings analysis: "the economic impact regulation, interference reasonable investment backed expectations, character action.'' Kaiser Aetna States, 164, 175, 383, 390, 332. P. ____. 4 (b) analysis previous decisions considering somewhat similar legislative schemes: Usery Turner Elkhorn Mining Co., 428 1, 96 2882, 49 752 (Black Lung Benefits 1972); Connolly Pension Guaranty Corporation, 475 211, 106 1018, 89 166 (Multiemployer Amendments 1980); Concrete Pipe & Products Cal., Construction Laborers Southern 508 602, 113 2264, 124 539 (same). opinions clear considerable leeway fashion legislation, including affect contractual commitments private parties; impose retroactive some degree, particularly where "confined short limited periods required practicalities producing national legislation,'' Corporation R.A. Gray 467 717, 731, 104 2709, 2719, 81 601. decisions, however, open possibility legislation might unconstitutional if imposes severe class parties could anticipated liability, extent disproportionate parties' experience. 5 (c) scheme, applied Eastern, presents when traditional considered. impact, Eastern's substantial, clearly deprived $50 $100 million must pay Fund. An employer's statutory multiemployer plan should reflect proportionality experience plan. Pipe, supra, 645, S.Ct., 2291. contributed Funds, ceased mining 1965 neither participated negotiations nor agreed connection 1974, 1978, NBCWA's. latter agreements, suggest commitment During years far less extensive than unvested, fully alteration termination. able indemnification arrangements insure liabilities arising out former operations, indemnity enhanced supplanted availability sought here. Respondents' argument moderates mitigates allocating employees unavailing. That forced bear burden all mean significant burden. 6 For reasons, interferes investment-backed expectations. operates retroactively, reaching back 30 50 based activities 1946 1965. Retroactive generally disfavored. unfairness because can deprive citizens legitimate expectations upset settled transactions. General Motors Corp. Romein, 503 181, 191, 112 1105, 1112, 328. distance past reaches magnitude raise fairness questions. pre-1974 NBCWA's do demonstrate there implicit wide involved industry. participated, operated pay-as-you-go basis classes beneficiaries trustees' discretion. Not ERISA revisions no longer been viewed promised. Thus, scheme calibrated either actions company. Nor would Government's pattern involvement given notice guaranteed several decades later. also differs operators' responsibility Black 1972, spread employment-related disabilities profited fruits employees' labor, Elkhorn, 18, 2893-2894. Finally, nature quite unusual Congress' solution grave problem identified singles certain conduct past, unrelated made caused. 7 KENNEDY concluded application violate proper bounds principles. hesitant scrutiny general matter, country's law harbored singular distrust statutes, reflected jurisprudence. example, 15, 2892, 752, held requires whether legislature acted arbitrary irrational way enacting law. This formulation repeated numerous cases, Carlton, 512 26, 31, 114 2018, 2022, 129 22, recognition lawmaking particular concern temptation use means retribution unpopular groups individuals, Landgraf USI Film Products, 511 244, 266, 1483, 1497-1498, 128 229. Because change legal consequences transactions closed destroy certainty security very objects ownership, protection understood incorporate tradition laws great severity. instant rare instances exceeded limits imposed process. relation Government asserts supports statute. degree effect, determinant statute's constitutionality, 32, 2022-2023, unprecedented scope since events occurring 35 ago. While upheld imposition employment relationships remedial statutes designed actual, measurable business employer avoid 19, 2894, serve purpose. beneficiaries' expectation promises agreements business, responsible perilous condition jeopardized benefits. 8 O'CONNOR J., announced delivered opinion, REHNQUIST, C. SCALIA JJ., joined. concurring opinion. KENNEDY, opinion dissenting part. STEVENS, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, 9 John T. Montgomery, Boston, MA, petitioner. 10 Edwin Kneedler, Washington, DC, federal respondents. 11 Peter Buscemi, 12 THOMAS join. 13 considers challenge Due Process Clauses Constitution Act), §§9701-9722 (1994 ed. Supp. II), establishes mechanism We conclude Enterprises, effects 14 15 good part century, (UMWA Union) regarding provision employee miners. When formed 1929, through prepayment system payroll deductions. rural location mines, facilities frequently substandard, many professionals willing work areas "company doctors,'' often selected reasons skills training. available families deficient respects. addition, company-provided services, housing care, consumed bulk miners' compensation. Dept. Interior, Report Mines Administration, Medical Survey Bituminous-Coal (1947) (Boone Report); Commission, Doc. 195, 68th Cong., 2d Sess. (1925). 16 late 1930's, demand changes manner essential services become critical issue collective bargaining Union bituminous companies. breakdown resulted nationwide strike, President Truman issued Executive order directing Secretary Interior Julius Krug take possession mines negotiate "appropriate terms conditions employment'' UMWA. Fed.Reg. 5593 (1946). week L. Lewis produced Krug-Lewis ended strike. App. 96-1947(CA1), p. 610 (hereinafter (CA1)). 17 agreement, described "an almost complete victory miners,'' M. Fox, Stand 405 (1990), funds, financed compensated dependents survivors wages lost disability, death, retirement. committed undertake comprehensive survey living assess improvements necessary bring communities up "recognized American standards.'' §5, (CA1) 613. study needs more effectively "a broad system, sound actuarial principles.'' Boone 226-227. 18 Shortly issued, returned control NBCWA), 615, "United Fund'' modeled families. specify entitled. Instead, appointed determine "coverage eligibility, priorities among amounts methods providing arranging provisions trust related matters.'' 146, 619. 19 Disagreement continued, leading execution another 1950, trust, 1950'' Fund). 30-cents-per-ton produced, payable "several joint'' duration Agreement. 63, 640. Fund, governed chosen vested level Id., 59-61, 638-639. Between amended occasion, adopted 1968 1971. Except increases payments, structure remained essentially unchanged. 1951 amendment recognized (BCOA), association, became primary representative Union. 647-648. 20 promised Fund's Annual fiscal year ending 30, 1955 (1955 Report) explained: 21 "Under obligations . [by Agreement], basis, maintaining relationship revenues expenditures. Resolutions Trustees governing Benefits-Pensions, Hospital Care, Widows Survivors Benefits-specifically these termination, revision, amendment, discretion time. No extends beneficiary.'' 3-4, 869-870. 22 Funds Robinson, 455 562, 565, n. 2, 102 1226, 1228-1229, 71 419 (1982). using royalties, having constraints. 23 Subsequent annual reports reiterated change. Year Ending 1956 (1956 Report), 929 ("Resolutions time''); 1958, pp. 20-21, 955-956 ("Trustee regulations specifically authorized suspension, Each beneficiary officially notified his authorized'').1 persons occasional statements intimating see 1899, 1971-1972, not, terms, fact, widows during receive death 565-566, 1228-1229; 14, 913. 24 exercised prerogative budget. 1960, instance, " [t]he recognizing soundly administer took close year, curtail excess expenditures income,'' "limit[ing] terminat[ing] eligibility [certain] Benefits.'' 1960 1011. Similar concerns prompted reduce monthly 25% point, limit range 1961 11-12, 1044, 1053-1054; 1963 13, 16, 1121, 1124. 25 Reductions always acceptable wildcat strikes erupted 1960's. Labor's Advisory Commission Benefits, 22-23 (1990) Comm'n 1352-1353. Nonetheless, "pay-as-you-go'' (ERISA), 29 §1001 seq., BCOA trusts, hours replace U.S., 566, 1229. Two Plan) nonpension January 1976, Plan, while active Plan. thus retirees; mention explained amending Services card remarriage. 99, 105 (Summary Principal Provisions, Benefits), 755, 758. Despite expanded only life id., Art. XX, §(d), 749. 27 result broadened coverage number eligible recipients jumped dramatically. 1977 3, 1253. 1993 House Committee Ways Means 28 "The liberalization both plans, contract disabled mine workers, spouses, extended surviving spouses '' Means, Financing Miner "Orphan Retiree'' 103d 1st Sess., (Comm. Print 1993) (House Report). combined various circumstances-such escalation response, next own employees. §(c)(3), 778. cover whose included "guarantee'' clause obligating "evergreen'' clauses incorporated regardless §(h), 787-788; 5. result, shifted defined contribution obligation, predetermined form 31 changes, financially costs increased withdrew continue nonunion exit altogether. abandoned Plans, behind exiting employers. spiral soon developed, rising participation withdraw resulting onerous remained. 1988, attempted relieve situation imposing withdrawal seceded 1988 §§(i) (j), 805, 828-829. Even so, 1990, incurred deficit about $110 million, continuing surpass revenues. 9; 43-44, 1373-1374. B 32 response unrest lengthy strike followed Pittston Company's refusal sign Labor Elizabeth Dole Commission). charged "recommend[ing] ensuring orphan Trusts will care.'' 1333. [h]ealth emotional life, contracts traded lower pensions better benefits.'' Report, Summary vii, 1324. plans current [NBCWA],'' disagreed "whether entire [coal] resolution retirees.'' vii-viii, 1324-1325. Therefore, proposed two alternative consideration. 33 First, recommended fee entitled fund's inception. retirees' 61, 1390. codify 1392. 34 industry-wide suggested across base contracts,'' apparently referring 58, 1387, 1394. members agreed, fair assign Four Commissioners [i]ssues elemental involved'' "respectable move different locales, invest technology, pursue respect union presence.'' 85, 1414 (statement Michael J. Mahoney, Carl Schramm, Arlene Holen, Richard Holsten); 81-82, 1410-1411 Holsten). After report, considered proposals retirees. At 1991 hearing, Senate subcommittee advised 120,000 promised.'' Retired Miners: Hearing Subcommittee Medicare Long-Term Care Finance, 102d 45 (1991) Chairman K. Reilly). Commission's submitted statement urging assistance needed "to fulfill nearly ago 306 (prepared W.J. Usery, Jr.). Some Senators expressed them. Sen. Dave Durenberger) (describing involving whole bunch lot people 1940s 1950s totally unknown''); 59 Orrin G. Hatch) (stating "miners believe leaders companies [health] benefits''). 36 1992, larger bill, Houses proposal, tax future production. H.R. Conf. Rep. 102-461, 268-295 (1992). Bush, vetoed bill. 102-206, 37 responded passing modified version purported identify [1950 Plan] allow §19142(a)(2), Stat. 3037, note §9701; 138 Cong. Rec. 34001 (1992) (Conference (explaining that, "those question, thereby benefitted agreements''). 38 merged called §§9702(a)(1), (2).2 "substantially same'' receiving §§9703(b)(1), (f). "signatory operators,'' i.e., §§9701(b)(1), (3); §9701(c)(1). Any "conducts derives revenue activity, industry,'' liable premiums. §9706(a); §9701(c)(7). Where levied "related person[s],'' successors businesses corporations common control. §9701(c)(2)(A). 39 (Commissioner) calculates operators: 40 "For purposes chapter, shall each (or person which) remains order: 41 (1) which- 42 (A) wage 43 (B) years. 44 (2) Second, paragraph (1), 46 47 (3) Third, (2), agreement.'' §9706(a). 48 third prong §9706(a)(3), we review case.3 II organized Massachusetts name Gas Fuel Associates. Its holdings include Boston Company barge operator. meaning Act. Until conducted centered West Virginia Pennsylvania. 1964, $60 Funds. Brief 6. 1963, decided transfer coal-related subsidiary, Associated (EACC). completed end income return assume marketing exchange receipt EACC's stock. representations SEC filings, describing successor 117-118. time, positive balance $145 million. 1966 1207. 51 retained stock corporation, Properties (CPC), 1987, received dividends period. 6, 13. sold CPC effecting transfer, Peabody, CPC, payments "Benefit Represented Employees Subs.'' 206a, 210a. reported surplus assets, totaling $33 9. 52 Following enactment 1966, status pre-1978 whom premium 12-month $5 16. 53 suing Commissioner, well trustees, Massachusetts. asserted face applied, challenged Commissioner's interpretation claims, upholding constitutionality. Shalala, 942 F.Supp. 684 (Mass.1996). 54 Appeals Chater, 150 (C.A.1 1997). court rejected Addressing claim, "entitled deferential judicial scrutiny,'' explaining [w]here, piece purely abridge fundamental rights, challenger show way.'' 155-156 (internal quotation marks omitted). court's view, permissible [a]s supported purpose furthered rational means,'' "judgments wisdom exclusive province executive branches.'' 156. rationally objectives, 157. borne post-1974 operators, reasoning proposal never employed. 158, noted EACC. 158. 55 analyzed uncompensated 225, 1026, (1986): claimant, claimant's F.3d, 160. With observed "does involve total deprivation asset.'' Ibid. found, "reflec[t] proportionality'' "whom relevant (and relatively long) time,'' then post-1977 person) found. contention unreasonably intervention role fostering meant "had reason anticipate upon engendered.'' 161. assessing action, physical invasion permanent appropriation property, merely "adjusts burdens promote good.'' disbursed privately entity. concluded, "there whatever [Eastern's] [Coal Act] transgresses Clause.'' 56 Other Courts challenges.4 view importance issues raised certiorari. 522 ----, 118 334, 139 259 (1997). III 57 begin threshold jurisdictional respondents' answer complaint: Whether petitioner's properly rather Claims. 40. challenges adjudication Respondent 38-39, clarify our jurisdiction claims. 58 §1491(a)(1), Claims render money damages exceeding $10,000 "founded Constitution, department, express implied liquidated unliquidated cases sounding tort.'' Accordingly, brought unless withdrawn grant Ruckelshaus Monsanto 986, 1016-1019, 2862, 2879-2781, 815 (1984). requests corresponding enforcement Eastern. Such arguably Mitchell, 463 206, 216, 2961, 2967-2968, 77 580 (1983) "cognizable Act,'' "must States''); also, Bowen Massachusetts, 487 879, 905, 108 2722, 2737-2738, 101 749 (1988). 60 accepted apply suits seeking relief, re Chateaugay Corp., 478, 493(C.A.2), cert. denied sub nom. LTV Steel Co. 516 913, 116 298, 133 204 (1995); Southeast Kansas Community Action Program, Agriculture, 967 F.2d 1452, 1455-1456 (C.A.10 1992), others hypothetical, therefore jurisdiction, refused Bay View, Ahtna, Inc., 1281, 1286 (C.A.9 1997); Rose Acre Farms, Madigan, 956 670, 673-674 (C.A.7 1997), denied, 506 820, 68, 121 61 On hand, precedent read support conclusion sought, renders premature court. Preseault ICC, 494 11, 914, 921-922, (1990); Monsanto, 1016, 2879-2880. one, cannot said monetary remedy. 30. mandated calculated agency, paid contemplated Treasury compensate [e]very dollar pursuant statute presumed generate compensation.'' 493. "presumption statute, burdening real direct funds'' situation, "would entail utterly pointless activities.'' Student Loan Marketing Assn. Riley, 397, 401 (C.A.D.C.), 295, 227 Duke Power Carolina Environmental Study Group, 438 59, 71, 98 2620, 2629, 595 (1978), Declaratory Judgment "allows individuals threatened declaration disputed potentially uncompensable sustained.'' Moreover, applicability 243-245, ---------, 696 (1997); Hodel Irving, 481 704, 716-718, 107 2076, 2083-2084, 95 668 (1987). Without addressing schemes challenges. 641-647, 2289-2292, (1993); Connolly, 221-228, 1024-1028. "While bound exercises act questioned silentio, disregard implications exercise proper'' cases. Brown Shoe 370 294, 307, 82 1502, 1513-1514, 510 (1962) (citations Based constitute circumstances, IV 63 Amendment provides: [N]or taken public use, aim prevent "from forcing alone which, justice, whole.'' Armstrong 364 40, 49, 80 1563, 1569, 1554 (1960). 64 present "classi[c] taking'' directly appropriates use. 235 commonly presented characterized government, arises program adjusting good,'' Penn Central Transp. New York City, 104, 124, 2646, 2659, 631 (1978) (citation omitted), nonetheless taking, 412. Calder Bull, Dall. 386, 388, L.Ed. 648 (1798) (Chase, J.) ("It justice'' presume entrusted enact takes A. gives B''). By operation "permanently assets satisfy Government, [the Fund],'' 222, 1024, strong desire improve enough warrant achieving shorter cut paying change,'' Pennsylvania Mahon, 260 393, 416, 160, 67 322 (1922). 65 Of course, Sperry 493 52, 60, 387, 393-394, 290 (1989). "curtails potential exploitation property,'' 326, 210 (1979), "not "taking' sense,'' Armstrong, 48, 1568. light understanding, evaluating involves examination fairness'' action. Andrus, 327. inquiry, nature, ibid., determination fairness' injuries [must] disproportionately concentrated few persons,'' ad hoc fact intensive, 332 (1979) factors, significance: Ibid.; 224-225, 1026. 66 Our schemes. (1976), occasion §901 disability black lung disease mines. relating arguing violated unexpected acts legally and, part, unknown dangerous time.'' 2892. rejecting challenge, "legislative Acts come presumption complaining stricter manner, 16-17, 2892-2893, assignment "justified measure labor,'' 2893. 68 Several later, confronted Multiemployer 1980 (MPPAA), 94 1208. 601 MPPAA enacted supplement (PBGC) insurance temporary period, PBGC discretionary termination mandatory. If authority, five faced proportional share 720-721, 2713-2714. 69 effort precarious position mandatory approached. series hearings debates, MPPAA, payment withdrawing plan, depended plan's unfunded retroactively withdrawals months preceding enactment. 721-725, 2713-2716. 70 Gray, stemming enacted. Relying decision claim. rational, determined, advantage [by] debated statute.'' 2718. explained, "as [MPPAA] progressed process, advanced encompass believed accomplish purposes.'' exemplified "customary congressional practice'' "retroactive confined legislation.'' again (1986), question effected constituted notion "such prohibited Amendment.'' 1025. "In course regulating commercial human affairs,'' "Congress routinely creates others.'' 223, Consistent reasoned unlawful solely upsets otherwise 72 holding "it surprising indeed discover'' limiting [c]ontracts, however express, fetter Congress'' disregards destroys existing rights transform illegal taking.'' 223-224, 1025 Focusing "particular significance''-the action-we 73 assets; rather, "safeguard[ed] participants association plan.'' found important assessment [was] vacuum, depend[ed] contributions.'' Further, moderate[d] mitigate[d] individual liability.'' 225-226, "nothing actually w[ould] proportion 226, interfere for, MPPAA's enactment, [p]rudent currently regulated, trigger additional obligations.'' 227, 1027. "fairness anyone once (1993). focused liability. notwithstanding higher contemplated. 636-641, 2286-2289. Clause, meanwhile, resolved Connolly. occupied destroyed property. 643-644, 2290-2291. severity shown ""out plan''' 2291 (quoting 1027). Turning observation "pension regulation.'' ERISA's original cap "no expect [ERISA's] ceiling lifted.'' 646, 2292. sum, "voluntarily negotiated maintained strictures ERISA,'' making unfair unjust. 646-647, 2292 75 parties. 2719 C 76 case. reach applying analysis. BREYER acknowledge indicate framework germane sort. post, __ (KENNEDY, part); (BREYER, dissenting). factor occurred, doubt estimate cumulative ($100 million); Respondents ($51 million). 1024-1025. specified negate impact. turn timetable threat penalty fails comply. §§9704(a) (directing computed Commissioner); §9707 (imposing, exceptions, per day accordance §9704). 78 occupation kind se Loretto Teleprompter Manhattan CATV 458 419, 441, 3164, 3179, 868 But "proportion[ality] omitted); 1026 (noting "directly contributions''). 1027-1028, consequently, linked conduct. 79 Here, family members. 1987 ownership EACC; itself, EACC, employed, §§9706(a). purport, suggests, __, ""last man out' problem'' developed significantly 1974. Before notes, deceased __-__, likely substantial. Accounting Office Miners' (reporting comprised 45% Jan. 1992); 45, (citing affidavit 75% dependent children miners). correlation tenuous, resembles calculation "made vacuum.'' company's depend roster regard responsibilities adopted. true Peabody. preserves right indemnification, §9706(f)(6), confer reimbursement. Conference Rec., 34004 allows "enter litigation enforce indemnification,'' create action''). seeks. persuaded "moderate[s] mitigate[s] impact'' 1026-1027. later §§9706(a)(1), departure contrast, moderating 8, 1027, 8. mere even though mandates "attaches [an relationship] enactment.'' 270, 1499, 229 (1994). 83 Retroactivity disfavored law, Georgetown Univ. Hospital, 488 204, 208, 109 468, 469-470, (1988), "fundamental notions throughout history, Aluminum Chemical Bonjorno, 827, 855, 1570, 1586-1587, 842 (SCALIA, concurring). Dash Van Kleeck, Johns. 477, (N.Y.1811) principle English ancient omnipotent parliament, retrospective effect''); H. Broom, Legal Maxims (8th 1911) ("Retrospective are, rule, questionable policy, contrary mankind regulated ought deal acts, carried faith law''). Commentaries Story reasoned, [r]etro-spective indeed, unjust; forcibly said, accord principles social compact.'' Story, §1398 (5th 1891). abounds nations. Gustavson Drilling (1964) Ltd. Minister Revenue, D.L.R.3d 449, 462 (Can. 1975) (discussing rule construed impair rights); French Civil Code, Preliminary Title, art. ("Legislation future; effect'') (J. Crabb trans., rev. 1995); Aarnio, Statutory Interpretation Finland 151, Interpreting Statutes: Comparative (D. MacCormick R. Summers eds. 1991) prohibition legislation). "Retroactive "presents serious posed prospective transactions.'' 328 84 expresses provisions, Ex Post Facto Clauses. Landgraf, 1497-1498. (1798), directed retroactivity penal suggesting safeguard concerning rights. 394 ("The restraint ex post facto considered, framers constitution, extending prohibit depriving citizen property; provision, "that compensation,' unnecessary''). Bankruptcy Code permitting debtors liens, possibly predating "substantial appellees' liens comport[ed] Amendment,'' lien interests effect. 78-79, 412-413. down bankruptcy affected acquired Louisville Joint Stock Land Bank Radford, 295 555, 601-602, 854, 868-869, 1593 (1935). 85 Like divesting settled. And reaching. tolerated, suggested. Darusmont, 449 292, 296-297, 549, 551-552, 513 (1981) (per curiam) practice confining "short periods''). questions fairness. 229, 1028 (O'CONNOR, concurring) (questioning "employers accrued funded''); 265, 1497 ("Elementary considerations dictate opportunity know what conform accordingly; lightly disrupted''). 86 amici curiae assert justified implicit, qualifying contention, drawn isolated see, 8-10, Members responses perhaps continue, much broader beneficiaries. event, 87 Evergreen Guarantee agreements. 230-231, 1029 (imposition "without actual [a benefit] promise employees'' Clause). unlike agreement-implicit otherwise-by "sufficient notice'' 88 1972. "liability bred [that] labor.'' Likewise, foreseen employment, There sacrificed behalf industrial development, dispute 1970's. we, STEVENS policy permit severely unusual. perceived understandable; complex sort typically call solution. When, amount, caused, implicates underlying expense circumstances D 90 claims succeed, "arbitrary irrational.'' correlated extent, 1025, invalidate legislation. Ferguson Skrupa, 372 726, 1028, 1031, 93 (1963) "our abandonment "vague contours' nullify majority believ[e] economically unwise'' (footnote omitted)); Williamson Lee Optical Okla., 348 483, 488, 461, 464, 99 563 (1955) gone uses laws, conditions, unwise, improvident, harmony school thought''). tier need address consider tiers §§9706(a)(1) tier. Cf. Printz 521 _________, 2365, 2383-2384, 914 V 91 responding problem, crafted improperly places severe, disproportionate, extremely §9706(a)(3) enjoined remanded further proceedings. 92 ordered. concurring. O'CONNOR'S correctly concludes I write separately emphasize I., §9, cl. reflects [r]etrospective unjust.'' §1398, 272 ed.1981). Since criminal context. convinced soundness limitation, principally unnecessary. (opinion Chase, J.). therefore, reconsider progeny civil passes muster jurisprudence Today's join O'CONNOR's well-reasoned full. plurality's careful history demonstrates necessity hold enact. my full conclusions, portions §9701 seq. invalidated principles, concur disagree analysis, submitted, incorrect unnecessary record respectful dissent issue. 97 final states: "nor Const., Amdt. known concept art, discussion begins staggering petitioner, regulates owner interest, applicable measured interest. appropriate, encumber estate land (e.g., property), valuable intangible intellectual bank account simply perform act, indifferent how entity elects so. affects interests, laws; today, none thought takings. matter imprecise respect, unwise. expanded, taught strict line difficult discern maintain. (1922), try span concepts subjected excessive regulation. is, goes too 415, quoted sentence genesis so-called doctrine. Lucas South Coastal Council, 505 1003, 1014, 2886, 120 798 ("Prior Holmes's exposition reached "direct appropriation' functional equivalent "practical ouster owner's] possession''') denigrating say proven explain theory implement practice. Cases attempting decide becomes litigated perplexing 123, proved difficulty''); (the "essentially hoc, factual inquir[y]''). constant limitation stake. properties prohibition: air high-rise buildings, Central, supra; zoning parcels MacDonald, Sommer Frates Yolo County, 477 340, 2561, 285 Agins City Tiburon, 447 255, 2138, (1980); trade secrets, (1984); access PruneYard Shopping Center Robins, 74, 2035, 741 Aetna, affix structures, (1982); devise intestacy, (1987); easement, Dolan Tigard, 374, 2309, 304 (1994); Nollan California Comm'n, 483 825, 3141, 677 build improve, Lucas, (1960); coal, Keystone DeBenedictis, 480 470, 1232, 472 sell personal (1979); extract mineral deposits, Goldblatt Hempstead, 369 590, 987, 130 (1962); Eureka 357 155, 1097, 1228 (1958). cited being destroy, take, requirement removing characteristic expand already uncertain vast category deemed, implicate difficulties determining counsel doctrine lacking specificity. existence outer boundary predictability entities. definition all, binding plurality throw confusion, subjecting municipalities unforeseen amounts. obliterated amorphous embraced today. True, appropriated plants, injures incongruous principle. terminology usual occurs physically acquires Chicago, B. Q.R. 581, 979 (1897), recognizes occur transferred (1982) (" [O]ur necessarily outright acquisitions itself''); Loretto, supra (transfer space landlords cable companies). lose sight identifying allegedly taken, lest compensation, attendant damages. asked implemented emphasis affected. 432, 3174 (physical "is unique factors''); Hodel, 715-716, 2082-2083 (declaring insignificant pass one's heirs, "has Anglo-American feudal times''); 2659 ("A readily good'') targets depends mechanisms. net worth value, adverse circumstance instead makes rely self-enrichment evident Webb's Fabulous Pharmacies, Beckwith, 446, 358 Causby, 256, 1062, 1206 (1946), capacity give immunity device another. Hawaii Housing Authority Midkiff, 2321, 186 parties, relate creditor's chattels debtor. acknowledged stake, resembled "fits awkwardly analytic framework'' 75, 410-411. "traditional interes[t],'' inapplicable holding, relied (1935), Frazier-Lemke interfered mortgages farms ""taking Act.''' 77, 411 601, 869). Unlike adopting novel expansive normative attempt; events. ante, [T]he fairness''). imprecision door decisions. 260, 2141 (zoning advance state interests''). uneasy tension basic understanding absolute act. conditional wants pays charge. presupposes intends constitutional: "As language indicates, noted, Clause] power. se, secure event amounting Evangelical Lutheran Church Glendale County Los Angeles, 482 304, 314-315, 2378, 2385-2386, 250 (1987) (emphasis citations Given appears legitimacy [I]n remedy''), passages (1986); 641, 2289, controlled "any formula,'' "on inquiries case.'' 224, three-factor forth examines finding Court, moreover, prefaced admonition discover instance attack rejected. 1025; 2289 ("Given [the] arguments unavailing, discover' violating Clause'') 1025). best, equivocal like now us. My reading proceed reserving permissible. [H]ere, nothing nullified impose''); 94, 39, 2641, (upholding grounds Price-Anderson §2210 (1970 ed., V), placed nuclear accidents, declining request declared §1491(a)(1) (1976 ed.)). These authorities confirm well-settled laws. 111 comment resolve despite little briefing point divided Appeals. tested invalidated. Accepted forbidding type dispose consideration effects. today's centuries statutes. Ante, __. words Chancellor Kent, "A partake mischiefs ; principle.'' Law *455; ibid. (rule jurisprudence''). conclusion: "Retrospective (1833). distrust. way. carries [i]t follow legislate prospectively retrospectively. aspects [economic] aspects, meet test justifications suffice former.'' retroactivity-based challenges, questioning validity 2286-2289; (1992); 64, 396, (1989); Hemme, 476 558, 567-572, 2071, 2077-2080, 538 2717-2718, treat meritorious, confirming vitality tradition's disfavor Indeed, accident precedents relies grounded __-__ Pipe). 115 courts "tempt[ation] individuals.'' Hochman, Constitutionality Legislation, Harv. L.Rev. 692, 693 (1960) (a "may exact knowledge it''). closed, ownership. consequence, Groups targeted protection, fear protect Both stability confidence then, secured restrictions us represents Legislature convincing __-__. tradition, 2022-2023; curiam); Dunbar P.R. 181 Mass. N.E. 916, 917 (1902) (Holmes, explains creating occurred scope. relationships, remedial, "actual, employer's] past. 2894; accord, 638, 2287-2289; 191-192, 1112; 733-734, 2719-2720. Kent [s]uch valid reasonable, conducive welfare, rights.'' *455-*456. beneficiaries, put jeopardy. discusses detail, chaos outside Finding consistent "under standard mathematical precision fit justification means.'' 639, 2288 2894). Statutes egregious circumstances. permissive violated. 119 Application reversed. join, dissenting. appellate judges historians others. central am consensus circuit appraised accurate views majority.1 truce enabled 1950's 1960's value handshake fine print written documents. sides table kept earn handsome profits wholly-owned 122 shared Seventh Circuit,2 Sixth Circuit,3 Circuit.4 motivated "orphaned miners'' benefits.5 legislators political represented problem. 123 explicit unable agree "taking'' Rather, seems me substituted Congress.6 overcoming accorded Congress, demonstrating unsupported 125 GINSBURG 126 fundamentally stopped coal. benefited helped themselves retired. draw sizable wholly owned subsidiary. unjustly Consequently, constitutional. 127 preliminary wrong lens. Constitution's apply. refers "private heart lies concern, preventing property'' "public'' good. (1978); 384, 2316, (1994) (Clause ""forc[e] whole''' (1960))). involves, ordinary money, applies seizures eminent domain, "takings'' "compensation'' (1922) [W]hile taking''); (land deprives beneficial taking); (public easement taking). generated money. (1980). arose specific, identifiable itself. Here money; liability; runs, Cf., 1569 (Government "for advantage''); (1986) (no invade permanently use'') added). 131 violated, use.'' "whenever her another.'' second basically 2289-2292. violation. 2291-2292; 227-228, 1027-1028. 132 dearth surprising, here bristles conceptual difficulties. orders B, why assesses tax? Leckie Smokeless 573, 583 (C.A.4 1996) (characterizing "reachback'' "tax''), 520 1251, 137 498 (C.A.2 1995) (same), (1995). Would rules "routinely creat[e] others''? Regardless, law's invalidation, "compensation?'' 315, [The taking''). difficulties, torture involved-the liability-finds natural home neighbor. says "deprive[d] liberty, law.'' §1. safeguards offer unfairly might, sometimes suggested, arbitrary. 728-730, 730, 2718 [R]etroactive [imposing participating plan] process''); 733, 2720 [R]etrospective offend harsh oppressive'') 17, 2893, (1976). 2021-2022, (retroactive provision); Welch Henry, 305 134, 147, 121, 125-126, (1938) (same); Relations Board Guy F. Atkinson 195 141, 149, 151 1952) (invalidating administrative "arbitrary, capricious, abuse discretion,'' §706(2)(A), inequity thing abhors''). 134 automatically word "property'' both. midst phrases differences interpreted. Compare, Martin Linen Supply 430 564, 1349, 642 (1977) ("person'' includes Double Jeopardy Clause) Doe 201, 2341, 2345, 184 (1988) corporation Self-Incrimination 135 Insofar avoids reliance resurrecting Lochner York, 198 539, 937 (1905), doctrines "substantive process,'' misplaced. 75-76, 546-547 dissenting); Lincoln Fed. Northwestern Iron Metal 335 525, 535, 251, 212 (1949) (repudiating "Allgeyer [v. Louisiana, 165 578, 427, 832 (1897)] -Lochner -Adair 208 161, 277, 436 (1908)] -Coppage Kansas, 236 240, 441 (1915)] doctrine''). points out, undermines objective 1891) (criticizing failing "accord compact''); invalid "upon derived free governments, limitations thereby''); expectations''); Fletcher Peck, Cranch 87, 143, 162 (1810) (Johnson, (suggesting offends law). find protects unfairness-that specially means-is purpose: hearkens Magna Carta. resurrect long-discredited "freedom contract.'' 729-732, 1030-1032, (1963). inquire ask "deprive'' "property, taxpayer, instead, II). "fairness'' Eastern? lie pay, promise. participate promise, But, suit breach contract. old relationship. (STEVENS, Unless unjust, meets challenge. 1027; 645-646, 2291-2292. 140 features demanded special test. historical together, showing frustrates 127-128, 2660-2661. 141 thing, §9706(a) (imposing "reach-back'' presently operating firm ratified ever retiree, firm). They younger healthier. working risk conditions. help distinguish inevitably arise age. services''); Hearings Provisions Relating 8-9, (1993) Benefits); 50-51 142 "retroactive'' degradation resource, it. Comprehensive Response, Compensation, Liability (CERCLA), §9601 I). analogy, imperfect, calls attention tie employee, helps connection, justifying miner sources, producers consumers, work. 143 More importantly, "promise'' "promise,'' contractually enforceable, "develo[p]'' "expectation'' [retiree] outlined below, shows (including Eastern), forbearance, both) retired-regardless explicitly previously 144 1940's, insofar existed, doctors'' towns. 131, 193 substandard criticizing "noticeable deficiency'' doctors); 1350 bargaining, rallying cry urged 404, 416 I. Krajcinovic, From Doctors Managed Seltzer, Fire Hole (1985); Zieger, Lewis: Leader (1988); Lewis, head UMWA, owners ""remove fear''' sudden ""their minds insurance.''' 153. workers struck. seized together Union, managed operators. 58. 145 "Krug-Lewis Agreement'' "provide, arrange of, medical, hospital, dependents.'' §4(b), 612-613. One consolidated "Welfare (W&R (NBCWA) 621. successive (union, management, "neutral'') 144, 618. 146 (NBCWA's) Reports "employees , hospital 619; 60-61, 639 (continuing coverage); 50-51, 1952 40-42, 650-651 34-35, 655 28-29, 658 1958 661 1964 4-5, 668-669 688-689 children, parents, (and, 1955) orphans (for period). 28, 881, 894; 13-14, 912-913 (also noting "unprecedented liberality Program''); 7, 943; 1959 7-8, 975-976; 9, 1,018; 1,058-1,059; 1962 15-16, 1,090-1,091; 1,123-1,124; 22-23, 1,160-1,161; 1,187. inception bargained benefits.' '') 147 difference consists greater generosity widows, earlier repealed widows' remarriage death. 105, 148 (4) assurance (though obligation) management accept mechanization mining, concession layoffs smaller workforce. 11-14, 1,342-1,345 (75% 1969); 43-44; 36; Perry, Collective Bargaining Decline (1984) (detailing operators). 1953 "have grown accustomed to'' 2,000. management's trustee 1951, "mine worker[s], pensioners, duration.'' 1,972. too, "agreed oppose mines'' "increased wages'' "payments welfare fund.'' Pennington, 381 657, 660, 1585, 1588, 626 (1965); 698, 1608 (Goldberg, judgment) (improved wages, "quid pro quo'' automation). 149 Others conclusions. recently said: "Retired life; lives planned honored.'' 1,332. supporters showing, went assumption retired.'' 20121 (Sen. Wofford); 20118 Rockefeller) (Act "will tens thousands families''); 20119 Byrd) "assure them reneged upon''); 20120 Ford) assures "promise [retirees] kept''); ("Under [NBCWA's], 152 played developing "promises'' created. mentioned above, Agreement,'' framework. Supra, (1946) (President Truman's seizure order). 1948, intervened 1579 (1948) (Executive Order board strike); 37-38. hospitals, safety standards. 11-12 materials). Producers' 1950's, reduced, 153 "entirely conceivable [would] step assuming collections payment.'' 154 repeat deeds, along pre-1965 (which, eliminated relations, understandings absence enforceable contract, reasonably honored. relations spell war peace, look court, enforcement. important, mutual understand, legitimately expect, provided. 155 obtain coal-mining (EACC), 1980's. ran sharing officers, supervising 100% approximately dividends. 13; 2,172 (affidavit Gallagher, Counsel); 2,182 (Eastern Corporate Cash Manual); 2,170-2,173 from, over, EACC); 2,178-2,181; 2,192-2,205. officials, directors, post-1965 Association, Amicus Curiae 20; 14-15, aware deepening crisis. 156 Taken employed-rather taxpayers. diminishes reasonableness fall 157 elaborated record, knew 637-639, 2287-2288, frequency "last out'' exacerbate xvi; 34; Vice Henry Perritt, involvement, solve possibility. 12-13; 226-227, 1026-1027; 2892-2893. knew, future. And, Add mentioned-that provide, drawing doing usually, always, insulates liability). 158 upshot, "distinct expectations.'' 225-227, 1026-1027 (analyzing factors: "economic impact''; ""with distinct expectations'''; ""character action''' omitted)). Within framework, adding "character action'' party, narrows preserving (thereby helping liability), diminish well. 159 directly, however. convince sufficiently failed Because, met uphold syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Timber Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. 1959, 27-28, 995-996; (1960 19-20, 1028-1029; (1961 5, 1047; 1962, 1080; (1963 1113; 1146; 1191; (1966 1223. fund, §9712. unassigned §9704(d). sources. §9705; §1232(h). Holland Keenan Trucking 736, 739-742 1996); Lindsey 688, 693-695 (C.A.3 Blue Diamond 516, 521-526 (C.A.6 1996), 1055, 682, 608 Davon, 1114, 1121-1130 (C.A.7), 808, 50, (1996); 486-496(CA2), (plurality C.J., JJ.); --------- part). [E]very [National (NBCWA)] Imposing [Usery 2893-2894, (1976)] Every company, plaintiffs, development multi-employer fifty honored Again, light, anywhere signatories. Plaintiffs respond "guarantee' "evergreen' benefits-promises plaintiffs made. argue, rebut rationality dates 1940s, 1974.'' 1124-1125 argues undisputed NBCWAs contain However, [United (UMWA)] funds' 30-year continuous officials. 1124-25 ("Congress [in funds] benefits.'). Templeton [Co., 882 799, 825 (S.D.Ind.1995)] expectation). certainly concluding "me-too' NBCWAs, Diamond, toward members.'' (1996). [I]t [signatory operators] reviewed evidence furnish "Of appellant correct insisting distilled data text reads omission. sure, contractu -but review, rest promise; conclusions rational.'' firmly believes ..... today jeopardy.'' 237a, 245a-246a. wiser Nevertheless, Chief Hughes Justices Brandeis, Stone, Cardozo: govern interstate commerce wise, perfect.'' Railroad Bd. Alton 330, 391-392, 758, 780, 1468

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