Document: 512 U.S. 622114 S.Ct. 2445129 L.Ed.2d 497 TURNER BROADCASTING SYSTEM, INC., et al., Appellantsv.FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION al. No. 93-44. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Jan. 12, 1994. Decided June 27, Rehearing Denied Aug. 24, Syllabus * Concerned that a competitive imbalance between cable television and over-the-air broadcasters was endangering broadcasters' ability to compete for viewing audience thus necessary operating revenues, Congress passed Cable Television Consumer Protection Competition Act 1992. Sections 4 5 require systems devote specified portion their channels transmission local commercial public broadcast stations. Soon after became law, appellants, numerous programmers operators, challenged constitutionality must-carry provisions. The District granted intervenor-defendants summary judgment, ruling provisions are consistent with First Amendment. court rejected appellants' argument warrant strict scrutiny as content-based regulation sustained them under intermediate standard set forth in v. O'Brien, 391 367, 88 1673, 20 672, concluding they sufficiently tailored serve important governmental interest preservation broadcasting. Held: judgment is vacated, case remanded. 819 F.Supp. 32, (DC 1993) vacated 1 Justice KENNEDY delivered opinion respect Parts I, II, III-A, appropriate by which evaluate level applicable content-neutral restrictions impose an incidental burden on speech. Pp. ____. 2 (a) Because special obligations upon operators burdens programmers, heightened Amendment demanded. less rigorous now reserved regulation, see Red Lion Broadcasting Co. FCC, 395 89 1794, 23 371 should not be extended since rationale such review — dual problems spectrum scarcity signal interference does apply context cable. Nor mere assertion dysfunction or failure market, without more, sufficient shield speech from standards nonbroadcast media. Moreover, while enforcement generally law against members press may sometimes only rational basis scrutiny, laws single out treatment pose particular danger abuse State always subject some degree scrutiny. 3 (b) rules content-neutral, They neutral face because distinguish speakers programming market based manner transmit messages viewers, carry. purposes underlying also unrelated content. Congress' overriding objective favor content, but rather preserve access free 40 percent Americans provisions' design operation confirm this purpose. acknowledgement stations make valuable contribution Nation's communications structure indicate regarded more than programming; rather, it reflects recognition services provided have intrinsic value worth preserving threats posed It incorrect suggest enacted effort exercise content control over what subscribers view television, given minimal extent Federal Communications Commission influence offered 2458-64. (c) None additional arguments suffices case. do intrude editorial operators. application, force alter own respond must In addition, physical connection network gives bottleneck, gatekeeper, most into subscribers' homes. Miami Herald Publishing Tornillo, 418 241, 94 2831, 41 730, Pacific Gas & Electric Public Utilities Comm'n Cal., 475 1, 106 903, distinguished. Strict triggered preference each group offers, belief economic peril. warranted fact certain here, disfavored treatment. Such differential justified characteristics medium namely, operators' bottleneck monopoly dangers power poses viability structured carries inherent risk undermining interests. Arkansas Writers' Project, Inc. Ragland, 481 221, 107 1722, 95 209 Minneapolis Star Tribune Minnesota Comm'r Revenue, 460 575, 103 1365, 75 295 (d) Under will if furthers suppression expression restriction alleged freedoms no greater essential furtherance interest. Viewed abstract, interests asserted benefits free, stations, promoting widespread dissemination information multiplicity sources, fair competition important. P. 6 KENNEDY, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, BLACKMUN, SOUTER, concluded Part III-B abstract mean advance those Government demonstrate recited harms real, merely conjectural, alleviate these direct material way. Thus, adequately show health broadcasting genuine jeopardy need protections afforded must-carry. Assuming affirmative answer, still bears showing remedy adopted substantially further On state record developed, absence findings Court, possible conclude has satisfied either inquiry. there issues resolved record, erred granting Government. 7 STEVENS, though favoring affirmance, concurred otherwise disposition would supported five Justices he substantial agreement KENNEDY's analysis 8 J., announced unanimous II-A II-B, REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, SCALIA, THOMAS, GINSBURG, JJ., joined, II-C, II-D, III-B, BLACKMUN joined. filed concurring opinion. part judgment. dissenting part, SCALIA I III part. 9 H. Bartow Farr, III, Washington, DC, appellants. 10 Drew S. Days, New York City, appellees. 11 except III-B. 12 1992 This presents question whether abridge freedom press, violation 13 Columbia States, holding remain unresolved developed far, we vacate Court's remand proceedings. 14 A. 15 role system undergone dramatic change past 45 years. Given pace technological advancement increasing convergence other electronic media, industry today stands at center ongoing telecommunications revolution undefined potential affect way communicate develop our intellectual resources. 16 earliest were built late 1940's bring clear signals remote mountainous communities. purpose replace enhance it. See Southwestern Co., 392 157, 161-164, 1994, 1996-1998, 1001 (1968); D. Brenner, M. Price, Meyerson, Other Nonbroadcast Video § 1.02 (1992); Hamburg, All About Cable, ch. (1979). Modern much reception nearby With capacity carry dozens import distant via satellite microwave relay, today's independent source programming. 17 Broadcast distinguished different technologies through reach viewers. radiate electromagnetic central transmitting antenna. These can captured, turn, any within antenna's range. systems, contrast, rely physical, point-to-point facility sets individual subscribers. like telephone companies, using optical fibers strung aboveground buried ducts homes businesses construction infrastructure entails use rights-of-way easements often results disruption traffic streets property. As result, depend its very existence express permission governing authorities. Community Boulder, 660 F.2d 1370, 1377-1378 (CA10 1981). 18 technology affords two principal broadcast. First, eliminates encountered viewers undistorted Second, capable many available broadcasting, giving far variety. More half 30 53 channels. 1994 Factbook I-69. And about served Ibid. Newer hundreds channels, older being upgraded fiber optic rebuilds digital compression increase channel capacity. See, e.g., Cablevision Systems Adds Rapid Fiber Growth Systems, Daily, pp. 6-7 (Feb. 26, 1993). 19 includes both (those who viewer) produce programs sell license operators). cases, acquired ownership vice versa. Although create programming, drawn outside sources. sources include national regional networks emerged recent years, CNN, MTV, ESPN, TNT, C-Span, Family Channel, Nickelodeon, Arts Entertainment, Black Entertainment Television, CourtTV, Discovery American Movie Classics, Comedy Central, Learning Weather Channel. Once operator selected functions, essence, conduit others, continuous unedited Freedom Expression, 1988 Duke L.J. 329, 339 ("For personnel networks. . [C]able conscious program others"). contrast charge generate revenues selling time advertisers, monthly fee right receive lesser advertising. instances, choose selecting among various plans, "tiers," service. typical offering, basic tier consists plus number operator. For cost, obtain devoted subjects interests, recent-release feature movies, sports, children's sexually explicit like. Many offer pay-per-view service, allows subscriber order pay one-time movie day. J. Goodale, Cable: Legal Business Aspects Pay 5.05[2] (1989); supra, 334, n. 22. B 21 October 5, 1992, overrode Presidential veto enact Pub.L. 102-385, Stat. 1460 (1992 Act). Among things, rate (FCC) municipal franchising authorities; prohibits municipalities awarding exclusive franchises operators; imposes affiliated directs FCC promulgate regulations imposing minimum technical At issue so-called provisions, contained §§ Act, 22 Section requires carriage "local stations," defined all full broadcasters, qualifying "noncommercial educational" operate same system. 4, 47 U.S.C. 534(b)(1)(B), (h)(1)(A) (1988 ed., Supp. IV).1 active 300 subscribers, required aside up one-third request carriage. 534(b)(1)(B). fewer three 534(b)(1)(A).2 If requesting slots made obligated request. If, however, available, permitted 534(b)(2).3 carried provision transmitted continuous, uninterrupted basis, 534(b)(3), placed numerical position when air. 534(b)(6). Further, few exceptions, carrying fulfillment obligations. 534(b)(10). 24 similar requirements regarding referred educational stations." 535(a) IV).4 A one stations; 36 three; station 535(b)(2)(A), (b)(3)(A), (b)(3)(D). circumstances provides protection duplication noncommercial 535(b)(3)(B), (e). schedule entirety position. 535(g)(1), (g)(5). 25 Taken together, therefore, smallest nationwide obligations, confer privileges qualified C 26 conducting years hearings industry. S.Rep. 102-92, 3-4 (1991) (describing hearings); H.R.Rep. 102-628, p. 74 (1992) U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1133, 1135, 1136 (same). conclusions drew factfinding process text itself. 2(a)(1)-(21). brief, found transmission, compounded concentration industry, revenues. determined video correct imbalance. 27 particular, 60 households subscribe cable, 2(a)(3), replaced primary provider 2(a)(17). so, found, "[m]ost cannot maintain antennas services, input selector switches convert antenna system, services." due extraordinary expense constructing geographic area," overwhelming majority 2(a)(2). "The result," determined, "is undue compared consumers programmers." 28 According Congress, incentive harm competitors. derives operator's ability, owner facility, "terminate retransmission signal, refuse new signals, reposition disadvantageous position." 2(a)(15). reality "[c]able increasingly advertising revenues." 2(a)(14). By refusing practical matter, reduce thereby capture dollars go 29 increased vertical integration making even harder secure financial programmers. 2(a)(5). characterized horizontal concentration, sharing common ownership. resulted "barriers entry reduction media voices consumers." 2(a)(4). light conditions, unless "[t]here likelihood deleted, repositioned, carried," 2(a)(15); "marked shift share" continue erode revenue base sustains 2(a)(13)-(14); that, consequence, "the originate quality seriously jeopardized." 2(a)(16). D 31 appellants consolidated actions (hereinafter collectively Government), challenging Appellants, plaintiffs below, After parties intervened, three-judge convened 2284 hear actions. 23, 555(c)(1) IV). Each motion judgment; several cross-motions cross-motion dismiss. had asked divided opinion, intervenor-defendants, 32 enacting employed "its regulatory powers economy dysfunction." Id., 40. "simply industry-specific antitrust trade practice legislation," ibid., said "are essentially designed balance whole, redress effects anti-competitive practices." contention "are, intent well form, (in recondite sense) [the] contemplation deliver." proceeded sustain 672 (1968), interest, F.Supp., 45-47. 33 Judge Williams dissented. He acknowledged "very real problem" "cable 'bottlenecks' medium," id., 57, address problem extending rights his view, based, might exclude, decision grant favorable rested "in quite explicitly, finding content." 58. Applying advanced support inadequate justify While assuming "as matter" compelling, "no evidence jeopardy." 62. Likewise, insufficiently diversity "now vast effect all, "it mix chosen cablecasters whose livelihoods largely satisfying demand derived congressional dictate." 61. 34 appeal followed, IV), noted probable jurisdiction. 509 ----, 114 38, 125 787 (1993). II 35 There disagreement initial premise: engage speech, entitled Leathers Medlock, 499 439, 444, 111 1438, 1442, 113 494 (1991). Through "original exercising discretion repertoire," "see[k] wide variety topics formats." Los Angeles Preferred Communications, Inc., 476 488, 494, 2034, 2037, 90 480 (1986). requiring regulate respects: unfettered control, render difficult limited remaining. Nevertheless, every triggers Amendment, decide outset We first Government's analyzed applies television. true cases intrusive Compare (1969) (television), National 319 190, 63 997, 87 L.Ed. 1344 (1943) (radio), 730 (1974) (print), Riley Federation Blind N.C., 487 781, 108 2667, 101 669 (1988) (personal solicitation). But applying whatever validity elaborating it, regulation. 37 justification distinct approach rests unique limitations medium. League Women Voters 468 364, 377, 104 3106, 3116, 82 278 (1984); Lion, U.S., 388-389, 396-399, S.Ct., 1805-1806, 1809-1812; 226, 1014. general would-be frequencies spectrum. attempt frequency locale, interfere another's so neither could heard all. 212, 1007-1008. establishment mechanism divide assign specific broadcasters. Voters, 3116. ("The fundamental distinguishing characteristic [b]roadcast scarce resource [that] portioned applicants") (internal quotation marks omitted); Citizens Comm. Broadcasting, 436 775, 799, 98 2096, 2114, 56 697 (1978). limitation been thought adjustment traditional permit place restraints, licensees. 390, 1806-1807. "[w]here individuals want allocate, idle posit unabridgeable comparable speak, write, publish." 388, 1806; System, Democratic Committee, 412 94, 101, 93 2080, 2085-2086, 772 (1973). 38 courts commentators criticized inception,5 declined continuing jurisprudence, 376, 11, 3115 reason here. inapposite present suffer characterize Indeed, rapid advances optics technology, soon attempting share channel. differences application relaxed inapt determining Bolger Youngs Drug Products Corp., 463 60, 74, 2875, 2884, 77 469 (1983) ("Our decisions recognized readily translate means communication") (footnote omitted). 39 say ignored affecting not. infra, relevance evaluation regulations, alteration settled principles jurisprudence. acknowledges Brief Appellees 22, second framework asserts foundation jurisprudence spectrum, "market dysfunction" characterizes market. beset dysfunction, maintains, agree suffers structural impediments, flawed respects. discussed above, underlies 3116; 2114; Austin Michigan Chamber Commerce, 652, 657-658, 110 1391, 1396-1397, 652 (1990); Election Massachusetts Life, 479 238, 256-259, 616, 626-629, 539 (1986); 248-258, 2835-2840. related course reasoning, appellees nothing legislation, "precedents legislative efforts commodity speech," Associated Press 326 65 1416, 2013 (1945), Lorain Journal 342 143, 72 181, 96 162 (1951). 17. unavailing. involved brought Sherman Antitrust application. compare Cohen Cowles Media 501 663, 670, 2513, 115 586 (1991), Barnes Glen Theatre, 560, 566-567, 2456, 504 elements thereof, "pose State," 228, 1727, (1987), least 496, 2038 ("Where subjected colorable challenge, rule rationality legislation constitutional challenges typically controlling force"). measure Tribune, 583, 1370-1371. 42 heart lies principle person him herself ideas beliefs deserving expression, consideration, adherence. Our political cultural life rest ideal. 449, 1444-1445 (citing California, 403 15, 91 1780, 1787-1788, 284 (1971)); West Virginia Bd. Ed. Barnette, 624, 638, 640-642, 1178, 11885, 1186-1187, 1628 (1943). action stifles account message, utterance message favored Government, contravenes right. Laws sort seeks legitimate goal, suppress unpopular manipulate debate coercion persuasion. "rais[e] specter effectively drive viewpoints marketplace." Simon Schuster, Members Crime Victims Bd., 502 112 501, 508, 116 (slip op., 9). 43 reasons, narrow well-understood countenance expressed private individuals. R.A.V. St. Paul, 505 2538, 2547, 120 305 Texas Johnson, 491 397, 414, 109 2533, 2545, 105 (1989). precedents exacting suppress, disadvantage, 509-10; ---- (KENNEDY, judgment) 2-3); Perry Education Assn. Local Educators' Assn., 37, 45, 948, 954-955, 794 (1983). compel utter distribute bearing 798, 2678; supra. Clark Creative Non-Violence, 288, 293, 3065, 3068-3069, 221 (1984), excising dialogue. 44 Deciding simple task. "principal inquiry content-neutrality government [agreement or] conveys." Ward Rock Against Racism, 791, 2746, 2754, 661 R.A.V., 2544 8) [speech] hostility favoritism towards expressed"). purpose, justification, evident face. Frisby Schultz, 474, 481, 2495, 2500-2501, 420 (1988). content-based, cases. Cf. 508 10) (" 'illicit sine qua non Amendment' ") (quoting 592, 1375-1376, (1983)). enough save which, face, discriminates 231-232, 1728-1729; Carey Brown, 447 455, 464-469, 100 2286, 2292-2295, 263 (1980). rule, terms views content-based. Burson Freeman, 1846, 1850, 119 5) ("Whether free-speech near polling places depends entirely campaign"); Boos Barry, 485 312, 318-319, 1157, 1162-1163, 99 333 (plurality opinion) (whether ordinance permits "picket front foreign embassy picket signs critical not"). reference instances content-neutral. e.g. City Council Taxpayers Vincent, 466 789, 804, 2118, 2128, 80 (1984) (ordinance prohibiting posting property indeed silent concerning speaker's point view"); Heffron International Society Krishna Consciousness, 452 640, 649, 2559, 2564, 69 298 (1981) (State Fair sales solicitations take designated locations "applies evenhandedly wish written materials solicit funds"). 46 Insofar pertain rules, speech.6 compelling regardless past. Nothing restriction, penalty, views, programs, select. capacity, 534(b)(1), 535(b)(2)-(3) IV); hence, avoid mitigate altering offers 256-257, 2838-2839 (newspaper refraining candidates). reducing compete. But, again, extends irrespective Boos, 319, 1162-1163 (individuals long government). finally, conferred benefit noncommercial, network-affiliated, English Spanish language, religious secular. aggregate broadcaster eligible must-carry, operates 48 carry: Broadcasters, airwaves, favored, not, disfavored. too, burdened conduit. So subtle preference, speaker distinctions nature presumed invalid 49 That end manifest conveys. Eichman, 496 310, 315, 2404, 2408, 287 (1990) ("Although Flag contains scope prohibited conduct, nevertheless expression") (emphasis original) Ward, 791-792, 2753-2754; 3068-3069; cf. Church Lukumi Babalu Aye, Hialeah, 2217, 2032, 124 472 50 Appellants contend, regard, promote agree. persuades us viewpoint, format, televi sion 51 unusually detailed statutory findings, ____, explained revenue, 2(a)(14)-(15), vested 2(a)(5), built-in "economic delete, reposition, signals." absent requirement continued availability threatened. sought elimination because, words, "[s]uch signals," 2(a)(12), especially unable afford receiving programming." 52 preventing ensure retain large earn or, viewer contributions, 2(a)(8)(B) operation. doing, guarantee survival become vital communication disseminated speakers. held "protecting noncable loss regular service systems," permissible "important federal interest." Capital Cities Crisp, 467 691, 714, 2694, 2708, 81 580 Midwest 406 661-662, 664, 92 1860, 1867-1868, 1869, 390 (1972) opinion). 54 enactment scheme mentioned, prohibit points view. penalize affirm disagree. net decrease amount leave requirements. 55 dissent describing behind "an news[,] affairs informed electorate," 2(a)(11); 2(a)(10), "provides informational citizens." 2(a)(8). think, references cast doubt character orientation played educating Rather, and, thus, ("Congress' solicitousness simply assumption audience"). undermines suggestion "local" "educational" stated, fact, bump programmer room station, stop displacing local- education-oriented little. moreover, (state tax exempting lack "differs systematically communicated newspapers, magazines"). 57 short, acknowledgment clear, prevent exploiting detriment Americans, 58 likewise reject suggestion, dissent, "automatically requirements." unlike restraints imposed statute regulation.7 follow mandated ensuring shown, systems. 59 exaggerates matters forbidden engaging "censorship" promulgating "which shall [broadcasters'] speech." 326. aware jurisdiction, having "has authority barred [§ 326] interfering journalistic judgment." Hubbard F.C.C.2d 517, 520 (1974). FCC's oversight responsibilities ordain type although inquire licensees done determine needs community propose serve, notions ought hear." Network Programming Inquiry, Report Statement Policy, Fed.Reg. 7293 (1960); Commercial TV Stations, 1076, 1091-1092 modified, 358 (1986), remanded grounds sub nom. Action Children's 821 741 (CADC 1987). Stations licensed counterparts. Noncommercial nonprofit accept consideration exchange promotional announcements advertisements behalf for-profit entities. CFR 73.621(d)-(e) (1993); 746, 751 Educational 895 (1982), 97 255 (1984). What purposes, quantity programs. licensees, counterparts, adhere convenience necessity." En Banc 2303, 2312 (1960). itself "a come unnecessarily close impinging run collateral stifling creativity innovative 751; Radio Programming, 716, 728-729, 732, &Par; 29-30, (1981); Georgia Ed., 70 948 61 funding Corporation (CPB) supports foreclosed gain leverage decisions. 396(g)(1)(D) (directing CPB "carry functions activities ways assure maximum entities with, of, activities"), 398(a) (CPB department, agency, officer including FCC). 62 narrow, abundant choices. 378-380, 386-392, 3116-3118, 3120-3124 (invalidating forbidding receives "engage editorializing"); 126, 2098 enlargement discussion issues" "critical importance" Amendment). actually regime where exercised weight. concerns foundation. disadvantage meant protect unfair existing permitting concomitant expansion development remains Appellants' hypothesize little speculation Arizona 283 423, 455-457, 522, 526-527, 1154 (1931). "[i]t familiar strike down illicit motive." 383, 1682, (1968) McCray 195 56, 769, 776-777, 78 (1904)). 64 contend (1) (2) (3) trigger choosing. Relying principally (1974), intrusion amounts forced per se invalid, narrowly 66 Tornillo affirmed proposition: protects independence press. right-of-reply newspaper assailed candidate's print, candidate reply equal space prominence. did censor sense newspapers others impermissible elected print matter candidates, "exact[ed] penalty 256, 2839. recognize, statutes newspapers' "editorial 258, 2839-2840. 67 effect, Florida's deter speaking unfavorable candidates: 68 "Faced penalties accrue published news commentary arguably right-of-access statute, editors safe controversy. Therefore, Florida electoral coverage blunted reduced." 257, affording mandatory disagreed, induced candidates' replies preferred silent. 909, (1986) led invalidate Electric. privately-owned utility, quarterly bills newsletter consumer utility's ratemaking practices. plurality applied. Like opposing 13, 910, 911. observed appearance agreed group's utility "feel compelled allegations [the group] utility's] customers." 16, "kind response," explained, antithetical foster." 71 following reasons. struck activated spoken exact penalty. 795, 2676-2677 (solicitation funds government-favored message). ground counterbalance Instead, power, Electric, 14, 910 (access "awarded disagree appellant's hostile interests"). suggest, nor think case, L.J., 379 ("Other adding offensive, insightful tedious [speaker cable] agenda"). cable's history serving appears assume convey endorsed identify themselves once hour, 73.1201 (1993), disclaim identity viewpoint management facility. PruneYard Shopping Center Robins, 87, 2035, 2044, (1980) (noting shopping "not likely identified owner"). aspect cause controversy," 2839, doing diminish flow ideas. 73 Finally, analogy ignores difference daily enjoy status exercises relevant newspaper, how monopoly, possess obstruct readers' competing publications weekly cities. copy, distributed willing recipients locale. When subscribes (if all) channeled subscriber's home. Hence, virtue pathway obtaining chooses exclude. operator, silence voice flick switch.8 avenue overlooked. Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. Conrad, 546, 557, 1239, 1246, 448 (1975) ("Each assessed suited problems"). Amendment's command impede disable taking steps restrict, communication, 20, 1424-1425. 76 urge (broadcast programmers) another (cable programmers). consequence secured dropped. language Buckley Valeo, 424 612, 659 (1976), "restrict society relative others." 48-49, 649. To Turner 29, mistaken. spending $1,000 year oppose candidate. "equalizing groups outcome elections." Buckley, 48, observation "abridge persons segments society." 49, 55, 55. broad speaker-partial invalid. proposition speaker-based reflect substance (or aversion say). Regan Taxation Representation Wash., 461 540, 548, 1997, 2002, 129 (rejecting challenge veterans charitable organizations, noting "indication intended demonstration effect"). expenditure limit wealthy drown concerned communicative impact regulated 17, 634 ("it beyond dispute regulating [of] money 'arises harmful' 382, 1682). perceived "equaliz[e] ability" interested elections. legislature's preference. 79 here offers. no. peril incentives facing call precedents. Appellant Time Warner 28-30. support, provide analogous delivery multichannel multipoint distribution (MMDS) master (SMATV) invalidating discriminatory taxation see, (1987); (1983); Grosjean 297 233, (1936), Regulations discriminate medium, serious concerns. Star, example, considered paper ink used production newspapers. reasons: first, applied press; second, fell small 585, 591-592, 1375-1376; Grosjean, supra Louisiana circulations above 20,000, approximately 135 State). magazines exempted religious, professional, trade, sports magazines, along suffered infirmities. operation, levied publishers discriminated matter. 229-230, 1727-1728. selective 231, 1728-1729. error conclude, mandates subset thereof) others. upheld scrambled taxation. illustrates, singles insufficient raise concerns." 452, 1446. "constitutionally suspect circumstances." 1442. taxes invalidated targeted speakers, threatened "distort ideas." 448, 1444. motive taxes, raised suspicions was, 228-229, 1727-1728; 1371-1372. unwarranted "justified of" regulated. 83 medium: argue, appear, MMDS SMATV demonstrable threat surprise, then, decided only. 84 broad-based, almost country, just select few. 534(b)(1) IV) (only must-carry). manipulation Project. Leathers, 453, 1447 (upholding "offering programming" "likely stifle ideas" "danger suppress[ion]"). 85 sum, censorship manipulation, (1968). 86 interest; expression; 1679. satisfy standard, speech-restrictive advancing "Rather, tailoring 'so promotes achieved regulation.' " 2758 Albertini, 675, 689, 2897, 2906, 536 (1985)). Narrow requires, "burden government's interests." 2758. declared interrelated interests: 58, (1991); 102-6 28, (1992), 1191; 2(a)(8), (9), (10). "suppression expression," 1679, speakers' messages. viewed difficulty 1934, created directed facilities across country "fair, efficient, equitable" manner. 307(b), 1083, 307(b). allocation appreciable size outlet concern. 173-174, 2003, Wollenberg, Arbiter Interest, Convenience, Necessity," Legislative History 1934 61, 62-70 (M. Paglin ed. 1989). importance outlets "can scarcely exaggerated, demonstrably entertainment great population." 177, 2005. maintaining evaporate scene. ushered alternatives nearly systems" 2708. assuring highest order, values 'it tenet policy widest diverse antagonistic welfare public." ' 668, 1870-1871, 1424-1425), WNCN Listeners Guild, 450 582, 594, 1266, 1274, 521 Committee 2112, eliminating substantial, engaged expressive activity protected (1951); supra; FTC Superior Trial Lawyers 493 411, 431-432, 768, 779-780, 851 (1990). mean, defends anticipated harms, "posit disease cured." Quincy TV, 768 1434, 1455 1985). Edenfield Fane, 507 1792, 1798-99, 123 543 (1993) 8-9); ("This abridgment activity") Home Box Office, 567 9, 1977) ("[A] 'regulation perfectly reasonable highly capricious exist' (citation O'Brien ask shown answer foregoing question, defending factual necessity relies "seriously 31-32. contends finding, predictive nature, accorded weight inquiry, when, "address relationship technical, rapidly changing, closely interdependent industries cable." 30. accord deference judgments Congress. 103, 2087, (1973) (The "judgment Branch" [appellants] cas[t] [their] claims umbrella Amendment"). Sound policymaking legislators forecast future events anticipate deductions inferences complete empirical unavailable. 814, 2121-2122; FPC Transcontinental Pipe Line 365 435, 450, 377 (1961). institution, better equipped judiciary "amass data" complex dynamic presented Walters Radiation Survivors, 473 305, 331 3180, 3194 220 (1985). obligated, statutes, administrative agency accommodate judicial review. insulated meaningful altogether. contrary, stressed foreclose facts law." Sable 492 115, 129, 2829, 2838, Landmark Virginia, 435 829, 843, 1535, 1543-1544, obligation implicated reweigh de novo, predictions own. formulating judgments, evidence. Century Corp. 835 292, 304 1987) ("[W]hen trenching amendment incidentally, able adduce sound reasoning measures"). propositions: significant numbers refused systems; denied deteriorate fail proposition, study showing, reported dropping occasion. System Signal Carriage Survey, Staff Policy Rules Division, Mass Bureau, 10, Table (Sept. 1988), cited 42-43, 1175, 1176. indicate, frame drops occurred, dropped temporary period then restored indicates shifting positions repositioning "marketing" "technical" 19, Tables 13). significance statistics. accepts repositioned affected difficulties result. Without elaboration historical relied, introduction establish difficulty, overcome significant, instance, fallen bankruptcy, turned licenses, curtailed operations, result from, disadvantaged by, paucity indicating deficiency record. Also lacking actual i.e., will, changes current selections; broadcasters; devoting previously unused answers perhaps questions step analysis, know "substantially necessary" fails efficacy acceptable restrictive means" achieving hold Anderson Liberty Lobby, 477 242, 250, 2505, 2511, 202 questions, industries, conflicting statistics presented, thorough allow resolve disputes remaining, before passing 102 below proceedings ordered. concurring. join aptly identifies analyzes guide expanding write emphasize paramount according (1973), particularly where, body compiled extensive reaching Nonetheless, high, stake far-reaching importance. appropriate. occasion submit portions today, portions, submitted defeat adequate one. fit present. djQ ably "overriding purpose" "guarantee system," "unrelated expression." Ante, protecting millions sources" unquestionably substantial. amply television." inappropriate II(C), II(D), III(A) my sustaining affirmed. evaluated instructs remand. reached around. Economic measures second-guessing; inevitably provisional uncertain forecasts legal conditions. Whether accomplished goals efficiently means; correctly interpreted emerging trends protean industry; imprudent repealed successor legislation. fairly threatens minimizing risk.1 recognizes, ante, deliberations, merit Court.2 Accorded proper deference, facial attack. Congress's conclusion, potentially terminal harm, 2(a)(16), "further demonstration." 60% solely certainty harm. (but exclusively) exploit gatekeeper terminations refusals already occurred,3 reasonably infer together high motivate conduct future.4 main thrust pertinent carriers eliminated grand scale, so.5 An death throes act monopoly. fashioned dealing fast becoming preeminent transferring relief laws; refer undisputed plausible. find acting vulnerable ones, valid throughout Nation. assist jeopardy. thriving avail remunerative "retransmission consent" procedure 6, route apt economically ones. Precisely developments; unpredictability militates allowing proceed documented ex ante justification. asks panel really 4-5 "will way," selections," id, ----. wisdom constitutionality.6 predicate ultimate consequences implementation susceptible reliable answers. Some lead broadcasters," ____ voluntary best, factors speculation; invite adjust litigation (perhaps opting drop seeking total capacity). ultimately prove ineffective needlessly meddlesome goals. However, conclusion confidently drawn, ever, tested experience. rationally calculated discerned lengthy investigation industries. Court. Were vote affirm, accommodation therefore necessary. Screws 325 91, 134, 1031, 1051, 1495 (1945) (Rutledge, result). Accordingly, am concur vacating remanding whom GINSBURG join, THOMAS joins 1460, choice: reserving ensured retained. choice comports commands implicates classes tells carry, keeps prefer. Though show, holds are, Selecting retransmit is, example publishing houses, theaters, bookstores, Reader's Digest, creating place. 117 deprives class entire appealing rules. ordered theaters reserve screening films bookstores shelf publishers. explains II-B stand 118 normally speak fora. time, place, restrictions, precisely treat equally relatively poor tools debate, generality creates check prevents unduly burdensome. dangerous, draw distinctions. 584, 1371, 1375, 447, 1443-1444, genuinely looking issue, justifications clear. "There multiple media." 2(a)(6). "[P]ublic citizens, 2(a)(8)(A). "A origination continuation." 2(a)(10). "Broadcast electorate." 2(a)(11). Similar reflected operative Act. "afford attention localism [eligible station] concern sporting community." 534(h)(1)(C)(ii) low-power "would 534(h)(2)(B) distinguishes latter. 5. technically severable strong statute's justifications. 121 Preferences viewpoints, localism, desire controversial offensive. benignly motivated. benign motivation, consistently held, 508-509, 10-11); (1987). bar intentionally suppressing disapproves. excepting kinds thinks valuable. Time, 641, 648-649, 3262, 3266-3267, Metromedia, San Diego, 453 490, 514-515, 2882, 2896, 800 (plurality); 466-468, 2292-2294, (1980); Police Department Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 96, 2290, 212 (1972); Cox Louisiana, 536, 581, 470, 471 (1965) (Black, concurring); 122 why mistaken "access multiplicity" "diverse sources," omitted) neutral. "related added internal omitted), neutrality. break professional speech; labor picketers exemption picketing ban, impact. information, praiseworthy, directly tied say. dismisses quoted speculating reveal content; suggests, "nothing rare states, itself, decision. does, decision, statute. Aye - 2223-2224, 12-13) (relying recitals city council resolution ordinance). seem obviously best explanation seems me, represent reasons adopting preference; "impose correct, care restrictions. other, mind never presence lessens impropriety relying impermissibly indubitably (striking exemptions measure); anticounterfeiting statute); (plurality) discrimination urban beautification ordinance); 2293-2294 aimed residential privacy). Of course, possibility voted ignore another, 126 Content-based unconstitutional 321, 1163-1164, test. legitimate, reasonable, praiseworthy. pressing necessity, preserved; restrict goal. 127 opinions listeners' neighbors reporting community, described "compelling" certainly foster providing subsidies fisc rise listeners, government, fraction international) viewpoints: subsidize novel theory conventional. Metro 547, 612-613, 2997, 3034-3035, 445 (O'CONNOR, dissenting); Comm'n, 913-914, (plurality). 128 somewhat weightier, restricting sorts on, say, newsstands, theaters; event appreciably education. arguendo C-SPAN, Inspirational Network, claim PBS affairs. 130 Even supposedly extend benefited. goals, good deal this. 1729-1730; Erznoznik Jacksonville, 422 205, 214-215, 2268, 2275-2276, (1975). 131 leads me restraint programmers' put prefer, avoid. This, puts squarely 14-15, 910-911 23-24, 915-916 (Marshall, judgment); 257-258, 2839-2840, 132 well. nonetheless too implicate 133 Sometimes, system's motivated anticompetitive impulses, going business. category causes whole category. wants business, preferring stake, that. 134 'narrowly tailored' lenient [standard restrictions] State's content-neutral] goals." ** 511-512, 15-16, **) littering, ban leafleting. Schneider (Town Irvington), 308 147, 146, 155 (1939). fraudulent fundraising, fraud, fundraising. Schaumburg Better Environment, 444 620, 826, 1799, householders unwanted solicitors, enforce "No Soliciting" up, cut off residents solicitors Martin Struthers, 141, 862, 1313 "Broad prophylactic area suspect. Precision touchstone. ." NAACP Button, 415, 438, 328, 340, 405 (1963) (citations fatally overbroad, analysis: motives, survive access. most, situations makes difference. Perhaps jeopardized, same: Protect markets thrive event. 136 Having this, acknowledge fact: gets control. limits. Most dictated preferences viewers; monopolists, viewers' prevail. bottomed discretion. 137 watch. relieve danger. taken 3(a), 543(a)(2) encourage creation inexpensive fiber-optic virtually unlimited devices let people easily switch 138 ways. finds leaving empty ease get 88, others' speech). conceivably obligate open lottery timesharing arrangement. Setting Takings Clause issues, companies carriers, companies; defect another. 139 understand premise trying concededly praiseworthy manner, compliance requirements, complied reverse below. 140 Substantially stated Circuit 1993), "must-carry" regime, hypothesizes imaginary. II-A, O'CONNOR's 141 differentiate "viewpoint," fall assiduously. 2568, (STEVENS, 15) ("[W]e implicitly latter pernicious."). 142 must-carry," unwilling airing centered allegedly overriding, intertwined discrete speculative, harmless surplus, plan dissenting). stated: 143 "Congress [local broadcast] 'an electorate.' quoting 144 persuasively "[the] inference risk," 63, 62-65; "[w]hatever completely failed materialize." 63. jeopardy," ____; persists remand, impel petitioners. syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions reader. Detroit Lumber 200 337, 282, 287, 499. 73.3555(d)(3)(i) authorized determinations effectuate 534(h)(1)(C) fill allotment, low them. 534(c)(1); 534(h)(2) (defining "qualified station"). Low secondary duplicates" 534(b)(5); re Implementation (Broadcast Issues), 92-259, March 1993, ¶ "substantial duplication" 50% overlap programming). network. duplicative credited 534(b)(5). "Noncommercial station[s]" station" have, grants Broadcasting; owned operated municipality "predominantly purposes." 535(l )(1)(A)-(B). Telecommunications Research 801 508-509 (CADC1986), cert. denied, 482 919, 3196, 684 L. Bollinger, Images Free 87-90 Powe, 197-209 Spitzer, Seven Dirty Words Six Stories 7-18 Note, Message Medium: Information Superhighway, Harv.L.Rev. 1062, 1072-1074 (1994); Winer, Sends I: Why Can't Be Broadcasting?, Md.L.Rev. 218-240 Coase, Commission, Law Econ. 12-27 (1959). carriage, circumstances, 534(c); 2, if, determines station's distance license." 534(h)(2)(B). recognize glancing for, prudent consider instance vein, eligibility proximity 534(h)(1)(C)(i), ineligible requests, give "attention localism" 534(h)(1)(C)(ii). Again, provision, 303b renewal applicant "served children"); 102-356, 16(a), 954, note 303 (restrictions indecent programming); 312(a)(7) (allowing revoke willful repeated airtime candidates elective office); 73.1920 (requiring notify victims on-air personal attacks opportunity air); (1960) air serves necessity"). commentator observed: dilemma yet producers plant. publisher, system." I. Sola Pool, Technologies 168 quarrel statement reviewing kind evidence," caveat compile formal factfinder. affirmance observes, abdicate responsibility violates accompanying supporting (1978) (both ____), agencies, (1987) (cited ____). 628, Cong., 2d Sess. 50-57 Sen.Rep. 102d 1st 43-44 1176, 1177. Jackson district court: "[E]ven parlous defendants indisputable attained dominance henceforth attendant power. improbable block non-cable bulk prospective audience; unconstrained, mercy. considerable amassed abilities nation's legislature, substantial." F.C.C., (D.C.1993) 2(a)(16) ("As jeopardized."); 2(a)(15), broader alone violate obligation, impairment choice, negligible.

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