Document: 529 U.S. 861120 S.Ct. 1913146 L.Ed.2d 914 SyllabusNOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as being done in connection with this case, at the time opinion issued. The constitutes no part of Court but has been prepared by Reporter Decisions for convenience reader. See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 321, 337. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES GEIER et al.v.AMERICAN HONDA MOTOR CO., INC., al. CERTIORARI TO APPEALSFOR DISTRICT COLUMBIA CIRCUIT No. 98_1811. Argued December 7, 1999 Decided May 22, 2000 Pursuant to its authority under National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act 1966, Department Transportation promulgated Federal Standard (FMVSS) 208, which required auto manufacturers equip some not all their 1987 vehicles passive restraints. Petitioner Alexis Geier was injured an accident while driving Honda Accord that did have such She her parents, also petitioners, sought damages District Columbia tort law, claiming, inter alia, respondents (hereinafter American Honda) were negligent equipping driver's side airbag. Ruling claims expressly pre-empted Act, granted summary judgment. In affirming, Appeals concluded that, because petitioners' state posed obstacle accomplishment objectives FMVSS those conflicted standard ordinary pre-emption principles, consequently lawsuit. Held: Petitioners' "no airbag" lawsuit conflicts 208 therefore Act. Pp. 3_23. (a) Act's provision, 15 U.S.C. § 1392(d), does pre-empt presence saving clause, says "[c]ompliance with" federal safety "does exempt any person from liability common law," §1397(k), requires provision read narrowly only statutes regulations. clause assumes there are significant number common-law cases save. And reading express exclude actions gives actual meaning clause's literal language, leaving adequate room law operate where, example, creates minimum standard. 3_5. (b) However, bar working conflict principles. Nothing suggests intent save words "[c]ompliance" exempt" sound if they simply defense compliance automatically exempts defendant whether Government meant absolute, or minimum, requirement. This interpretation purpose preserves seek establish greater than achieved regulation intended provide floor. Moreover, repeatedly declined give broad effect clauses where doing so would upset careful regulatory scheme established concern applicable here. together, reflect neutral policy, specially favorable unfavorable one, towards application pre-emption. itself favors suits, disfavors least time. nothing natural two provisions favor one policy over other jury-imposed actually 5_11. (c) itself. DOT saw standard, way manufacturer range choices among different restraint systems gradually introduced, thereby lowering costs, overcoming technical problems, encouraging technological development, winning widespread consumer acceptance-all promote 208's objectives. standard's history helps explain why how these began instituting requirements 1970, always permitted options. Public resistance ignition interlock device forced occupants buckle up manual belts influenced DOT's subsequent initiatives. 1984 version reflected several considerations regarding effectiveness seatbelts likelihood passengers leave unbuckled, advantages disadvantages restraints, public's installation use then-available devices. Most importantly, deliberately variety, rejecting "all perceived real concerns threatened backlash more easily overcome mix A help develop data on comparative effectiveness, allow industry problems high production costs associated airbags, facilitate development alternative, cheaper, safer systems, building public confidence necessary avoid interlock-type fiasco. phase-in starting 10% requirement vehicles. conditional stay two-thirds adopt mandatory buckle-up laws. rule imposing duty install airbags cars presented variety devices imposed. It made adoption seatbelt laws less likely. Court's assume question, do turn compliance-related private party ignore legal obligations likely enforced. Finally, weight placed upon conclusion suit stand execution thorough understanding own uniquely qualified comprehend impact requirements. Because reason suspect Solicitor General's representation views reflects anything agency's fair considered judgment matter, failure promulgating address explicitly determinative. Nor views, here, lack coherence. 11_23. 166 F.3d 1236, affirmed. Breyer, J., delivered Court, Rehnquist, C. O'Connor, Scalia, Kennedy, JJ., joined. Stevens, filed dissenting opinion, Souter, Thomas, Ginsburg, Opinion 1 NOTICE: subject formal revision before publication preliminary print Reports. Readers requested notify Decisions, Supreme States, Washington, D. 20543, typographical errors, order corrections may goes press. 98_1811 2 ALEXIS GEIER, al., PETITIONERSv.AMERICAN COMPANY, 3 ON WRIT AppealsFOR 4 [May 2000] 5 Justice Breyer Court. 6 case focuses 80 Stat. 718, 1381 seq. (1988 ed.). We ask pre-empts action plaintiff manufacturer, who should nonetheless equipped automobile airbags. conclude taken together 7 * 1992, petitioner Geier, Accord, collided tree seriously injured. car shoulder lap had buckled 8 sued car's Company, Inc., affiliates Honda), law. They claimed, things, designed negligently defectively lacked App. 3. dismissed court noted gave choice lawsuit, standard-i.e., airbag requirement-was "any standard" identical same aspect performance, 1392(d) ed.); Civ. 95_CV_0064 (D. D.C., Dec. 9, 1997), 17. (We, like courts below parties, refer pre-1994 statute throughout opinion; recodified 49 30101 seq.). 9 agreed somewhat reasoning. doubts, given existence "saving" 1397(k) ed.), involved potential creation kind "safety refers. But resolve question found state-law For reason, thus affirmed dismissal. 1238_1243 (CADC 1999). 10 Several held contrary, namely, neither nor suit. See, e.g., Drattel Toyota Corp., 92 N. Y. 2d 35, 43_53, 699 E. 376, 379_386 (1998); Minton America Mfg., Ohio St. 3d 62, 70_79, 684 648, 655_661 (1997); Munroe Galati, 189 Ariz. 113, 115_119, 938 P.2d 1114, 1116_1120 Wilson Pleasant, 660 327, 330_339 (Ind. 1995); Tebbetts Ford 140 H. 203, 206_207, 665 A. 345, 347_348 (1995). All Circuit Courts however, One rested provision. Harris 110 1410, 1413_1415 (CA9 1997). Others, below, instead principles virtue suits pose objectives, Montag 75 1414, 1417 (CA10 1996); Pokorny 902 F.2d 1116, 1121_1125 (CA3 1990); Taylor General Motors 875 816, 825_827 (CA11 1989); Wood 865 395, 412_414 (CA1 1988). certiorari differences. now hold authorized 11 reaching our conclusion, we consider three subsidiary questions. First, lawsuit? think not. Second, apply? do. Third, hence itself? does. II 12 first action. reads follows: 13 "Whenever motor vehicle subchapter effect, State political subdivision shall either establish, continue respect item equipment[,] performance equipment standard." 14 points out majority said similar statutory statute-a uses word "requirements"-may well actions. Medtronic, Inc. Lohr, 518 470, 502_504 (1996) (plurality opinion); id., 503_505 (Breyer, concurring judgment); 509_512 (O'Connor, part). Petitioners reply speaks pre-empting standard," "requirement," involve Hence, conclude, apply. need determine precise significance "standard," rather contains another resolves disagreement. That law." excludes operate-for floor, i.e., Brief Amicus Curiae 21 (explaining claim lacks antilock brakes CFR 571.105 (1999), establishing brake performance). Without arguably might actions, for, just mentioned, possible standing alone, applying standards imposed contained legislation so, nonidentical covering even merely On little, any, "liability law" remain. few, remain convincing indication Congress wanted pre-empt, regulations, circumstances. Hence cannot correct. language permits narrow Given must read. III 16 removes scope clause. Does more? particular, foreclose limit operation insofar instruct us (including rules) "actually conflict" thereunder? Fidelity Fed. Sav. Loan Assn. De la Cuesta, 458 141, 153 (1982). concede, light Freightliner Corp. Myrick, 514 280 (1995), itself, (through negative implication) possibility implied [conflict] pre-emption," 288 (discussing Cipollone Liggett Group, 505 504, 517_518 (1992)). argue very effect. 17 recognize when previously pre-emptive statute's appeared open how, extent which, saves regulations Freightliner, supra, 287, n. (declining prevents "us[ing] immunize liability"). (like provision) 18 exempt," special defense, absolute one. Restatement (Third) Torts: Products Liability §4(b), Comment e (1997) (distinguishing between pre-emption). difficult understand insisted compliance-with-federal-regulation precondition provision's applicability wished "save" regardless threat say rendering ineffectual. As explained, still makes clear force 4_5. 19 "decline[d] Locke, , (2000) (slip op., 14); see Telephone Telegraph Co. Central Office Telephone, 524 214, 227_228 (1998) (AT&T); Texas Pacific R. Abilene Cotton Oil 204 426, 446 (1907). find present case. foresees-it foreclose-the conflicts. dissent disagree, acknowledges apply, sometimes. Post, 14_16 (opinion J.). 20 Neither believe both create "special burden" beyond inherent principles-which disfavor Cf. post, 14. provisions, hand, desire single, uniform set standards. Its standards, harmony conflict, uncertainty, cost, occasional risk too many safety-standard cooks otherwise create. Rep. 1776, 89th Cong., Sess., (1966) ("Basically, preemption subsection result uniformity guided criteria multiplicity diverse standards"); S. 1301, (1966). rules judges juries apply themselves similarly uncertainty say, reach decisions facts. congressional determination nonuniformity small price pay system create, enforce, simultaneously providing compensation victims. pre-emption, can policies 22 Why, event, objective stake? Some principle needed. absence, could impose duties directly mandates, premising windshield retention requires. 571.212 (1999). Insofar argument permit take enforce ability achieve law's congressionally mandated Constitution, through seeks protect. To into particular toleration forbid, defeat potentially, put before, " `destroy itself.' AT&T, 228 (quoting Cotton, 446). constitutional power write mandates complex type state/federal relationship. 15, 16. 23 dissent, said, contends burden," "on party" refers burden." basis precedents. true context interpreting "[a]t best" "inference forecloses pre-emption." Id., 289 (emphasis added). statement course entirely foreclosed 288. statement, headed qualifier best," without inferences burdens," obviously survive, 289_290, possibility. burden necessarily arises limits purpose, administrative workability, underlying doctrine discussed above, make imposes unusual, against reasons, burden. 24 promise practical difficulty further complicating well-established already contend penalizes what requires-i.e., impossibility. 8, 6, 15_16, then when, describing spoken "under circumstances th[e] _ stands full purposes Congress"-whether "obstacle" name "conflicting; contrary to; repugnance; difference; irreconcilability; inconsistency; violation; curtailment; interference," like. Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 67 (1941); Jones Rath Packing 430 519, 526 (1977). driven wedge-only terminological one-between "conflicts" prevent frustrate "impossible" parties comply Rather, forms conflicting "nullified" Supremacy Clause, U.S., 152_153; 17); English Elec. 496 72, 78_79 (1990), assumed want conflict. refused general tolerate involving impossibility, see, 228, "frustration-of-purpose" cases, 11_20); International Paper Ouellette, 479 481, 493_494 (1987); Chicago North Western Transp. Kalo Brick Tile 450 311, 328_331 (1981). grounds, then, attempting distinguish types federal-state analyzing warrants analysis, moreover, engender inevitable systemwide (e.g., conflicts, delay, expense) tried sensibly varieties "conflict" (which often shade, other) complicated contain form both. complicate experience-proved added, Indeed, dissent's willingness here stems ultimately view "frustration-of-purpos[e]" freewheeling, "inadequately considered" "eliminate[d]." 24, 22. word, grounded longstanding precedent, Hines, 67, new doctrine. IV 25 basic 208. 26 view, sets far concerned, sooner, better. Secretary's view. comments, accompanied promulgation provided Those bring about introduced time; lower encourage win generally Reg. 28962 (1984). 27 Mfrs. Farm Mut. Automobile Ins. 463 29, 34_38 (1983). 1967, DOT, lives, seat automobiles. 32 2408, 2415. became apparent, most belts. 34 11148 (1969). investigate feasibility requiring "passive restraints," automatic seatbelts. Ibid. amended include protection requirements, 35 16927, making "equally acceptable" `favored' [n]or expected introduction systems." 1971, added permitting nondetachable belts, 36 12858, 12859, 1972, front manufactured after August 1975, 37 3911. Although focus originally (1969) (notice proposed rulemaking); Farm, 4; 46, (noting commentators `a de facto mandate' technology), point formally require From start, 1984, 28 1972 1975. Manufacturers retain add "ignition interlock" preventing turning on. 3911 (1972). soon popular manufacturers. 1974, agency approved detachable seatbelts, conditioned approval continuous warning buzzer reattachment belt. 39 14593. unpopular public. Congress, responding pressure, passed forbade requiring, means of, Schoolbus Amendments §109, 88 1482 (previously codified 1410b(b) ed.)). 29 experience 1976, Secretary William Coleman, fearing continued resistance, suspended He acceptance demonstration project half million 37. his successor, Brock Adams, canceled project, amending principally 42 34289 30 Andrew Lewis, administration, rescinded Adams primarily learned planned satisfy almost exclusively 46 53419_53420 rescission unlawful. 34, 46. stage then-DOT Secretary, Elizabeth Dole, amend once again, us. B 31 Read history, contemporaneous explanation following considerations. vital ingredient safety. 29003; 52 ("We start accepted ground used, unquestionably thousands lives tens crippling injuries"). despite enormous unnecessary risks passenger runs buckling 80% unbuckled. 28983 (1984) (estimating 12.5% belts). dangers caused unbuckled them entirely. 28986 (concluding although plus belt "effective" system, alone effective Fourth, disadvantages, with, intrusiveness corresponding dislike 28992_28993. Fifth, brought safety, danger out-of-position (usually children) cars. 28992, 29001; 65 30680, 30681_30682 (finding 158 confirmed airbag-induced fatalities April 2000, test procedures, injury ensure "future air bags serious injuries current bags, particularly women young children"); Dept. Transportation, Highway Administration, Accident Sampling System Crashworthiness Data 1991_1993, p. viii (Aug. 1995) approximately 54,000 1991 1993). 33 Sixth, significantly expensive devices, raising average cost $320 frontal (and potentially much volumes low). 28990 worried replacement cost-estimated $800-could lead owners refuse replace deployment. 28990, 29000_29001; total investment $1.3 billion compared $500 seatbelts). Seventh, public, reasons fear, physical intrusiveness, resist 28987_28989-a 29001 "[a]irbags engendered largest quantity vociferously worded, comments"). ways. variety-a systems. setting allowing choose mechanisms, technologies 28996. explained produce. 28997. wrote rejected (perceived real) "backlash" "if airbags" "not complying." 29001. 29001_29002. build confidence, 29001_29002, gradual 28999_29000. fleet September 1, 1986, 28999. increased percentage annual stages, 100% 1989. phased-in other, better, information nonseatbelt played prominent role result, acceptance. 29000_29001. Of course, out, 19_20, guarantee ceiling each device. fact, extra credit nonbelt devices) airbag-installed counted 1.5 meeting 571.208 S4.1.3.4(a)(1) (1999); 29000 bothered desired arose install, quickly, few none all? After all, years earlier, Dole's predecessor discovered meet then-current (more 99%) affordable 53421 (1981); 38. credit, "encourage airbags." added) (responding comment mandate mean "end technology"); "should better alternatives developed" added)). reinforces developing devices; show contrary. Finally conditional. believed produce amount costs-if up. 28997_28998. Thus, if, 1989, place nations, met specified standard). 28963, 28993_28994, 28997_28999. "coverage large people enforced largely negate incremental increase requirement." enact laws, remained 38 sum, tells General, "embodies best promoted installed alternative fleets every car." 25; 28997 "had design, manufacture, distribute sell safe including, limited to, (Complaint, ¶ 11). depends Accord. Such law-i.e., duty-by terms interiors. sought. entire District-of-Columbia-related portion fleet, though manufacturer's nationwide all. stood addition, petitioners "as important means-related discussed, pre-empted. 67; 493; 156 availability option essential ultimate objectives). 40 calculate size "obstacle," aim minimizing it, considering successful action's incentive-related timing-related effects. 45_50. agrees. 17_20. ordinarily practice obligations-paying, fine instead-or question. occasion suggested different, related considerations-for modifying one's behavior-may relevant purposes. Goodyear Atomic Miller, 486 174, 185 (1988); Cipollone, 536_539 (Blackmun, part, part); English, 86; Silkwood Kerr&nbhyph;McGee 464 238, 256 engaging analysis. 494_497; Brick, 324_332. try differences incentive relies cannot, themselves, change result. rest speculation, (predicting manufacturers' response liability); critical dissenters' purposes-a reject, 17_20 (suggesting pre-existing unnecessary); others, correctly, seem persuasive, complied installing device). concluding, "put proving petitioners. 23. unpersuasive arguments undermine Government's 41 final point: forth brief, `stan[d] execution' 25_26 67). delegated implement statute; matter technical; background extensive. "uniquely qualified" 496; 506 J,. judgment). interference thereto, consistently O. T. 1994, 94_286, pp. 28_29; 89_46, 11_16. circumstances, difference. City New York FCC, 57, 64 Hillsborough County Automated Medical Laboratories, 471 707, 714, 721 (1985); 158; Blum Bacon, 457 132, 141 (1982); 321. "the matter." Auer Robbins, 519 452, 461_462 cf. County, (expressing reluctance, absence strong evidence, not, subsequently, existed). Register 43 prerequisite concluding exists. portions thereof, California Coastal Comm'n Granite Rock 480 572, 583 Hillsborough, 718. turns identification "actual conflict," intent. 78_79; 720_721; Jones, 540_543. While "[p]re-emption fundamentally intent," 78, traditionally distinguishes "express" "implied" intent, treats instance latter. 287; 545, 547_548 (Scalia, looked specific claimed mere "volume complexity" demonstrate implicit displace area, 717; 25, 23-so-called "field pre-emption"-the never specific, identifying fact intend certainly accept position readily evidence 90, above insist expression notice-and-comment rulemaking, certain agency, unlikely intended. apparently welcomes issue. 44 agree 21_22. points, ibid., brief stating 45 "a chosen model design features . purposes." 26, concession 21. say. italicized phrase emphasizes, case-one issue design-related circumstance concerning seeking escape pre-emption-say, affect mixed-fleet, objective. claimed. argued safe, 4. 47 Regardless, enough-even giving weight. safety-related reasons. foresees 48 ordered. 50 whom Ginsburg join, dissenting. 51 Airbag technology available years. There agreement proposition "that, airbag." Ante, 30127; S4.1.5.3 (1998). raised petitioner's sufficiently obvious Honda's feature actionable theories negligence defective design. holds interim motivated Transportation's foster deprives jurisdiction answer I respectfully holding, especially unprecedented extension preface my regulation, observations appropriate. "This federalism," Coleman Thompson, 501 722, 726 (1991), is, sovereign entities." Alden Maine, 527 706, 713 raises questions exercise undoubted oust traditional enforces today enacted text Executive Order regulation. unique origin: product commentary accompanying generally. Like judge-made rules, contours precisely defined. believe, adopted 53 "No entertain based airbag; 54 "Provided, cars; 55 "Provided further, preclude driver wearing whatsoever, another." 56 Perhaps wise component legislative reform system. quite me so. equally frustrated whit life-saving become omission constitute defect submit wrong characterize rejection presumption reliance text, "ordinary 11. 57 1966 (Safety Act), ed.),1 §§571.208, S4.1.3_S4.1.4 (1998), "an (1983), reviewed chapters "complex convoluted history" "unacceptably high" rate deaths accidents led enactment 1966. 33. stated "to reduce traffic persons resulting accidents." 1381. directed delegate "shall practicable, terms." §1392(a). defines term "minimum performance." §1391(2). 58 covers "[o]ccupant crash protection." "is occupants, severity injuries, specifying crashworthiness [and] active S2 issued Two later occupant systems," depend occupant. system.2 proposal series amendments various culminating 1977 restraints year 1984. commercially seatbelts; allowed install. 1981, extended deadline altogether. Assn., decision holding arbitrary. remand, Dole 59 beginning year. year, Ms. equipped, undisputed models. 25% 1988 models 40% 1989 models; "after 28999 (1984); amendment 1998 right passenger's positions.3 60 invalidating predecessor's requirement, she phase initial 3-year delay compliance. restraint, seatbelt, retard 29000_29001 An fear "public backlash" consumers fully understand. believed, objections unfounded. 28991. 61 cars, wider conclusions "[a]utomatic totally rely offer additional intrusive; encouraged appropriate incentives." 28963; 28966, used conjunction all" injuries). included period (perhaps effective) develop, seatbelts.4 technologies, count determining 10, during period. With oblique exception,5 mention, 62 Before discussing issue, note vast difference threshold prevail claims. merit, observe, good-faith complete merits,6 admissible tending charges design.7 liable, presumably weigh award punitive damages. Kerr-McGee 485 F. Supp. 566, 583_584 (WD Okla. 1979) substantial damages, noting "[g]ood faith belief in, efforts government conduct inconsistent mental requisite damages" law).8 63 called attention appellate opinions merits no-airbag standard-a automobiles 1986. arguable exist until promulgated, reasonable infer assessment compensatory claims-even defense-did sufficient engage Turning argues event impliedly imposition discuss turn. When statute, rule, cause axiomatic Const., Art. VI, cl. 2; 516 (1992). Clause unelected carte blanche ideas States.9 separate sovereigns long presumed laws-particularly those, remedies compensate personal within States' historic police powers-are unless manifest (1996); Gade Solid Wastes Management 88, 116_117 (1992) (Souter, dissenting) ("If [federal] controls inferred"). 66 task construction plain wording [that provision], Congress' intent." CSX Transp., Easterwood, 507 658, 664 (1993). claims, §1397(k). former provides: standard."10 latter states: 68 "Compliance law."11 69 Relying §1392(d) national standards,12 success perfectly clear, sections prescribed legislature encompass case-specific times sections; consistently. Gustafson Alloyd 513 561, 570 references rule. 1392(a). "State State," therefore, naturally convey meaning. compelling liability, other. distinction rational draw liability-unlike rulemaking-necessarily performs remedial compensating 251, 70 recent broadly phrased commands encompassed thought 1965 Cigarette Labeling Advertising applied "rulemaking bodies," 518, command 1969 "[n]o prohibition 548_549 part).13 Railroad 1970 railroad incompatible `law, order, relating safety,' "14 governing maximum train speed excessive. recognized reference requirement" subdivisions duties. 502_503 71 construed differed respects. broader §1392(d). Unlike includes positive enactments, judicial cases. 72 CSX, Medtronic preserving remedies. unambiguously expresses liability. surely Environmental Defense Fund, 511 328, 338 (1994) acts intentionally section omits another). 73 disagree superfluous, follow purpose: limit, possibly entirely, Secretary. approach altogether.15 74 cumulative §1397(k) `as Congress.' 10. Properly construed, relying temporary policy-rather regulation-to Even 208-of force-implicitly 76 "We implicitly overrides indicates occupy field exclusively, `impossible requirements,' 79, `stands (1941)." 280, 287 77 "intended acting non-arbitrarily force. 153_154 last arguing 78 Both persuasive argument. denies promulgate remedies.16 am persuaded 79 argues, agrees, decision, safety-including experimentation systems,"17-would implementation comply, require- ment mandating vehicle. supporting Honda, submission. known liable "would cars," frustrating goals interfering methods them. 25. 81 flaws grounds it. unrealistic factual predicate. Whatever prior If realistic consequence, unavailable reduced enabling therewith Part II, supra. pre-1984 installation, hardly compel cars-or exclusively. 82 proved wrong, frustrated. interval eventual filing alleging resolution (if any) "compliance question," ante, 19, designs future, ended specter deemed adjust increasing allay unfounded resolved manufacturers, modify (as hoped) airbag, failing free respond airbag.18 seems 83 acknowledgement "preserves floor," completely ignores definition Act-like British governed capacity lifeboats aboard Titanic19-impose fixed maximum, 1391(2); Norfolk Southern Shanklin, ___, ___ concurring) 1) ("federal action"); (1985). program stages 40, 100%. ceilings, favored rapid increase. exposure accelerate goal mentioned itself: reducing occupants. Had gradualism independently method achieving goals, floor installations. evident independent importance (such seatbelts), developed future. act placing ceilings complying requirements.20 Standard, commentary, support notion advance regard detrimental consequences achievement avowed vehicular injuries. 257. 84 My disagreement deeper flaws, however. concedes "[a] 23.21 described Government: complaint discusses seat) allegedly rendered unreasonably dangerous chose fail anything, Government-e.g., seatbelt-would trench severely behind 208: having Government, behalf, failed articulate coherent V 85 crossed purposes: demonstrated go forward obligation irreconcilably contradicts primary clarity (Kennedy, 111 ("A freewheeling inquiry [state law] tension undercut [and agencies,] courts[,] pre-emp[t] law"). Furthermore, bother quote opinion), unlike 158, repeated emphasis 663_664; Rice Santa Fe Elevator 331 218, 230 (1947), silence lends continuation whatever poses 721; 251 ("It [the Secretary] would, comment, remove recourse illegal conduct."). 86 close 20_21 (relying bolster finding Under 11, control. Instead, presumption, preferring 19_20 "cannot, result"). founded, manner profoundly unwise. 87 Our rooted concept federalism. recognizes legislates "in occupied _[,] assumption powers superseded Congress." 230; 525 signal virtues placement squarely hands suited Judiciary strike balance (particularly areas regulation), speak clearly exercising power. way, structural safeguards normal process defend interests undue infringement. Garcia San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 528, 552 Morrison, 6_9); Kimel Florida Bd. Regents, 528 (Stevens, 2); Allied-Bruce Terminix Cos. Dobson, 265, 292_293 (1995) (Thomas, dissenting); Gregory Ashcroft, 460_464 (1991). serves limiting running amok boundless perhaps inadequately considered) frustration purposes-i.e., "stands 67.22 assessing statutes, becomes crucial agencies represent yet relative ease comprehensive detailed ramifications addressed heightened federalism nondelegation using procedural bridge across accountability gap agencies. "expect declare intention specificity."23 717_718 implying embodied jurisprudence," "because normally means, including preambles, interpretive statements, responses expect intentions exclusive"); 154 initiated "[w]hen administrator promulgates expectation, shared Branch,24 able dialog ex ante procedures Administrative Procedure (APA), 553. 89 underpinnings properly understood, slightest suits. mention tends suggest 5, "[t]he determinative," 21, consistent litigating since reveal Pre-empting bases blatantly consideration, afforded notice someday discerned rulemaking plainly opportunity post 90 identifies upheld frustration-of-purposes commentary. sources malleable history. snippets combined conception untempered vast, undefined area vulnerable "preemption analysis be, [or regulatory] free-form policymaking." L. Tribe, Constitutional Law §6_28, 1177 (3d ed. 2000). 91 position, [legal brief], arrived after, adjudication rulemaking[,] do[es] warrant Chevron-style deference." Christensen 10). precedents APA coherent, lesser deference paid inappropriate. contention he quoted 2, ease, reluctant informal effort recast mold.25 512 part) entitled deference"); Smiley Citibank (South Dakota), A., 517 735, 743_744 (1996). Requiring rulemaking-whether contemporaneously apparent 26-respects underlie APA's substantially modifies 551(5); Paralyzed Veterans Arena P., 117 579, 586 1997); Family Planning Reproductive Health Sullivan, 979 227, 240 1992). 93 action, convinced dissent. Notes 94 1. changes recodification substantive, Appeals. 95 2. "The inflatable concealed dashboard steering column. inflates sensor deceleration forces exceeded preset rapidly deflates dissipate forces. lifesaving immediately recognized, 1977, on-the-road estimated Administration (NHTSA)] 12,000 100,000 annually. 34298." 96 consequent alteration 30127(f)(2). 97 "If 1987, phasing-in easier interiors." 98 5. cheapest "that competition, deficient systems[,] pride this." 99 6. 417 1988) (collecting cases). challenging standard-e.g., Principles §14(b), g (Discussion Draft, Apr. 1999) actor's rejection] precaution actor violate reject] precaution"); 8_9 problem basing merits); Lime Avocado Growers, Paul, 373 142_143 (1963) exclusion inescapable [regulations impossibility _"). 100 7. Contini Hyundai 840 23_24 (SDNY (Second) Torts §288C, (1964) (negligence); McNeil Pharmaceutical Hawkins, 686 567, 577_579 1996) (strict liability). 101 8. cast doubt premise. 667 908, 921_923 1981) (reversing damages), rev'd remanded, 238 (1984), 769 1451, 1457_1458 1985). 102 9. Regrettably, honored scrupulously former. Boyle Technologies 487 500 (1988). 103 30103(b)(1). construing referred "§1392(d)," practice. Section sentences: "Nothing enforcing thereof procured higher 104 30103(e). nn. 105 12. (1966); 106 13. read: `No smoking health advertising promotion cigarettes packages labeled conformity Act.' 515 Smoking 1969, 88). 107 §205, 972, amended, 434 II)). 108 15. 109 contends, essence, cites point, interpreted fore- pre-emption; purposes, importantly purposes) deprive pursuant 12_15); 493 (1987) ("Given limits, Louisiana Pub. Serv. 476 355, 374 (1986). interpretation, purposes-that "tolerat[ion of] 11-when forward. textual preserve favoring bear valid 1243 18. "understand [this point] correctly," 20, attributable fundamental misconception nature verdict Geier's) immutable, "rule [to airbag]." 18; (referring "jury-imposed standard"). jury's breached due care designing reasonably design-"including, airbags," 3-could foreseeable harm product. §2(b), d §1, §2(b) concepts strict exists render care. consequence verdict, enable 112 19. Statutory Rules Orders 1018_1021, 1033 (1908). Nader Page, Automobile-Design Compliance Standards, Geo. Wash. Rev. 415, 459 Titanic "complied governmental left port final, fateful voyage boats capable carrying [half] board"); W. Wade, Titanic: End Dream 113 20. proceed freedom 16, 18_19. 114 Compare 18_19 (disagreeing tort-law "requir[ing] [present] sought"), difference," contending above-quoted here"). 115 Recently, commentator (or "obstacle") supported attempt measure rationality jurisprudence eliminating Nelson, Preemption, Va. 225, 231_232 ("Under occurs everything get purposes"). Obviously, criticizes). matters stand, reduces deeply politically unaccountable 116 brushes aside specificity relied correct distinction, firmly alike instances [turn] Ibid.; (quoted page supra); 79_80, (1990) rests inference "may understood species pre-emption"); persuasively context. 24. Exec. 12612, §4(e), 252, 255 (1988) ("When department proposes rule-making preempt affected participation proceedings."); 13132, 43255, 43257 (1999) (same); 808.5 FDA request advisory pre-empted, Device 1976). 118 cited (1988), faced FCC "reaffirmed Commission's local quality cable television." 65. issuance proper authority, expressed 64; Capital Cities Cable, Crisp, 467 691, 700_705 (regulation); 158_159 141_142 (1982) (Action Transmittal Social Security Administration); 327 (order Interstate Commerce Commission); Shimer, 367 374, 377 (1961) (regulation). situations, observe situations 119 26. "can monitor, continuing basis, effects requirements" imperils program).

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