Document: 541 U.S. 677 REPUBLIC OF AUSTRIA ET AL.v.ALTMANN No. 03-13. Supreme Court of United States. Argued February 25, 2004. Decided June 7, Upon evidence that certain her uncle's valuable art works had either been seized by the Nazis or expropriated Austria after World War II, respondent filed this action in Federal District to recover six paintings from petitioners, and its instrumentality, Austrian Gallery. She asserts jurisdiction under § 2 Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976 (FSIA Act), 28 U. S. C. 1330(a), which authorizes federal civil suits against foreign states "as any claim for relief personam with respect state is not entitled immunity" another section FSIA "any applicable international agreement." further petitioners are immunity FSIA's "expropriation exception," 1605(a)(3), expressly exempts cases involving "rights property taken violation law." Petitioners moved dismiss based on, inter alia, two-part (1) as 1948, when much their alleged wrongdoing took place, they would have enjoyed absolute sovereign suit States courts, (2) nothing retroactively divests them immunity. Rejecting argument, concluded, among other things, applies pre-1976 actions. The Ninth Circuit affirmed. Held: conduct, like petitioners' wrongdoing, occurred prior Act's enactment even States' 1952 adoption so-called "restrictive theory" Pp. 688-702. (a) This has long deferred Executive Branch decisions. Until 1952, policy was request all actions friendly sovereigns. In year, State Department began apply theory," whereby recognized regard a state's public acts, but private acts. Although change little impact on continued abide Department's suggestions, Verlinden B. V. v. Central Bank Nigeria, 461 480, 487, threw decisions into some disarray: nations' diplomatic pressure sometimes prompted file suggestions available restrictive theory; nations failed ask immunity, courts determine whether existed, so responsibility such determinations lay two different branches, ibid. To remedy these problems, codified principle transferred primary Judicial Branch. grants over carves out expropriation exceptions general grant action, district court's subject-matter depends applicability one those exceptions. Id., at 493-494. 688-691. (b) case controlled Landgraf USI Film Products, 511 244. describing presumption retroactive application statute, there declared, that, if law enacted events does prescribe own proper reach operate — i. e., impair rights party possessed he acted, increase his liability past impose new duties transactions already completed it govern absent clear congressional intent favoring result. 280. Though seemingly comprehensive, inquiry provide answer here. None three examples retroactivity mentioned above fits clarification law. However, preliminary conclusion appear "operate retroactively" within meaning Landgraf's default rule creates tension Court's observation simply jurisdictional codification "the standards governing an aspect substantive S., 496-497 (emphasis added). And while preamble suggests preenactment statement itself falls short requisite express prescription. Thus definitively resolve case. While antiretroactivity aims avoid unnecessary post hoc changes legal rules parties relied shaping however, immunity's principal purpose give instrumentalities present protection inconvenience suit, Dole Food Co. Patrickson, 538 468, 479. sui generis context, more appropriate, contraindications, defer most recent decision political branches take jurisdiction, FSIA, than presume inapplicable merely because postdates conduct question. 692-696. (c) Nothing circumstances surrounding should be applied 1948 Indeed, Congress intended lies preamble's states' "[c]laims ... henceforth decided [American] conformity principles set forth chapter," 1602 perhaps sufficient satisfy "express command" requirement, 280, language unambiguous: Immunity "claims" protected assertions arising relevant regulated "henceforth" courts. Thus, claims "in [FSIA] principles" regardless underlying occurred. overall structure strongly supports conclusion: Many provisions unquestionably before 1976, see, e. g., Co., supra, procedural undoubtedly pending cases. anomalous isolated provision (such exception relies) purely prospective statutory effect. Finally, applying consistent purposes: clarifying judges resolving eliminating participation resolution claims. 697-700. (d) holding extremely narrow. review lower courts' determination 1605(a)(3) here, comment "act state" doctrine prevent filing statements interest suggesting decline exercise particular implicating opinion deference granted filings covered FSIA. issue here concerns only interpretation "pure question construction well province Judiciary." INS Cardoza-Fonseca, 480 421, 446, 448. 700-702. 317 F. 3d 954 327 1246, STEVENS, J., delivered Court, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. concurring opinion, post, p. 702. joined, 704. KENNEDY, dissenting REHNQUIST, THOMAS, 715. 1 CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT. Scott P. Cooper argued cause petitioners. With him briefs were Charles Sims Jonathan E. Rich. 3 Deputy Solicitor General Hungar amicus curiae urging reversal. brief Olson, Assistant Attorney Keisler, Kneedler, Jeffrey Minear, Mark Stern, Douglas Hallward-Driemeier, William H. Taft IV, Elizabeth M. Teel. 4 Randol Schoenberg respondent. Donald Burris.* 5 JUSTICE STEVENS Court. 6 1998 journalist, access Gallery's archives, discovered collection donated rightful owners Republic II. journalist provided respondent, who turn possession Gustav Klimt paintings. Prior Nazi invasion Austria, hung palatial Vienna home respondent's uncle, Ferdinand Bloch-Bauer, Czechoslovakian Jew patron arts. Respondent ownership will executed uncle fled 1938. alleges Gallery obtained through wrongful years during 7 defendants (petitioners here) (Gallery), instrumentality motion complaint asserting, defenses, denied motion, 142 Supp. 2d 1187 (CD Cal. 2001), Appeals affirmed, (CA9 2002), amended, 1246 (2003). We certiorari limited et seq., cases, including "case[s] issue," respondent's, enactment, adopted 1952. 539 987 8 * Because comes us denial pleadings, we assume truth following facts complaint. 9 Born 1916, Maria Altmann escaped country annexed Germany settled California 1942 became American citizen 1945. niece, sole surviving named heir, died Zurich, Switzerland, November 13, 10 1938 Ferdinand, then wealthy sugar magnate, maintained residence Vienna, where housed. His wife, Adele, subject 1925, leaving she "ask[ed]" husband "after death" bequeath Gallery.1 App. 187a, ¶ 81. attorney estate advised comply wife's request, legally obligated do he, owned never document transferring He remained legitimate owner until death. bequeathed entire nephew. 11 On March 12, 1938, what known "Anschluss," invaded claimed annex Austria. Jewish supported efforts resist annexation, ahead Nazis, ultimately settling Zurich. absence, according complaint, "Aryanized" company directed, home, divided up artworks, included Klimts many paintings, 400-piece porcelain collection. A lawyer, Dr. Erich Führer, Klimts. sold 19412 third 1943, kept himself, Museum City Vienna. immediate fate sixth known. 2d, 1193. 12 1946 declaring motivated ideology null void. did result return looted artwork exiled Austrians, proscribed export "artworks deemed important [the country's] cultural heritage" required anyone wishing obtain permission Monument Agency. 168a, 32. Seeking profit Agency allegedly practice "forc[ing] Jews donate trade artworks [Gallery] exchange permits works." 33. 13 next year Robert Bentley, brother fellow retained Viennese Rinesch, locate stolen war. January Rinesch wrote requesting purchased Führer. representative responded, asserting falsely, Adele Gallery, permitted retain lifetime. 170a, 40. 14 Later same enlisted support officials Ferdinand's remaining art. exchange, purporting represent heirs, signed "acknowledg[ing] accept[ing] declaration event death wished follow wishes deceased wife donate" 177a, 56. addition, assisted obtaining both painting Führer himself Vienna.3 At no time transactions, "to negotiate behalf allow paintings." 178a, 61. 15 examining files documents revealing times knew neither nor had, fact, published series articles reporting findings, specifically noting Klimt's first portrait "which publications represented having museum 1936," actually received 1941, accompanied letter "`Heil Hitler.'" 181a, 67. 16 response revelations, restitution individuals coerced donating museums could reclaim property. believed, journalist's investigation, "freely donated" war immediately sought recovery 178a-179a, 61, 182a. committee Government historians agreed drawings settings family 1948. After terms "sham" proceeding, declined concluding, purposeful misreading Adele's will, precatory created binding obligation 185a. 17 announced lawsuit court costs proportional value (and total several million dollars, amount far beyond means), requested waiver. 189a. part still pay approximately $350,000 proceed. Ibid. When appealed partial waiver, voluntarily dismissed California. II 18 Respondent's advances eight causes violations Austrian, international, law.4 It 1330(a). law," commercial connection agency owns engaged activity here.5 19 raising defenses immunity.6 Their argument proceeded steps. First, courts.7 Proceeding premise, contended understood divest retroactively. 20 rejected concluding extends specific Only former Presuming our 244 (1994), governed analysis, "first consider[ed] stated [FSIA's] reach." 1199. Finding statement, asked "would [petitioners] [they] [them], [their] conduct." "a statute alter rights," answered second negative accordingly found controlling. 1201. As finding, noted provides "`[c]laims chapter.'" (quoting 1602) opinion). view, "is plaintiff's may accrued." 21 case.8 Rather endorsing reliance nature, panel reasoned Austria's impermissibly legitimately expected receive rested analysis then-prevalent deferring case-by-case Department, expressed policy, 1949, "`reliev[ing] restraint upon pass validity acts officials.'" 3d, 965 Press Release 296, Jurisdiction Courts Re Suits Identifiable Property Involved Forced Transfers deleted)). 22 certiorari, (2003), now affirm judgment Appeals, though reasoning. III 23 Chief Justice Marshall's Schooner Exchange McFaddon, Cranch 116 (1812), generally viewed source jurisprudence. case, libellants French ship refuge port Philadelphia. emphasized persons territory susceptible limitation imposed itself," thus sovereigns right 136. Marshall went explain, matter comity, members community implicitly waive classes ministers person sovereign.9 Accepting suggestion advanced Branch, see id., 134, concluded implied waiver theory also served exempt national armed vessel . emperor France" jurisdiction. 145-146.10 24 accordance grace comity rather constitutional "consistently particular, jurisdiction" instrumentalities. 486 (1983) (citing Ex parte Peru, 318 578, 586-590 (1943); Mexico Hoffman, 324 30, 33-36 (1945)). followed 486. "immunity longer types cases."11 Brief 1a. Acting General, Legal Adviser Secretary State, Jack Tate, explained thereafter immunity: 25 "A study reveals existence conflicting concepts each widely held firmly established. According classical cannot, without consent, made sovereign. newer (jure imperii) state, gestionis). [I]t hereafter consideration requests governments immunity." 1a, 4a-5a. 26 unanimous Verlinden, wrought "Tate Letter" little, any, approach analyses: "As past, initial deciding questions fell primarily acting Department," "abid[e] by" "`suggestions immunity.'" 487. did, throw disarray, "foreign often placed considerations led "suggestions theory." 487-488. Complicating matters further, Department: 27 "[T]he reference variety factors, considerations. Not surprisingly, uniformly applied." problems enacting comprehensive containing "set every subdivisions, agencies, instrumentalities." 488. "codifies, law, immunity," ibid., transfers decide principles. 1602. 29 states, 1330(a),12 diversity plaintiff, 1332(a)(4); contains venue removal provisions, §§ 1391(f), 1441(d); prescribes procedures personal 1330(b); governs extent attachment execution, 1609-1611. relies. See 685-686, n. 5. These central functioning: "At threshold must applies," "subject-matter depends" application. IV 30 covers 1202, affirmed holding, 967-969, 974. above, opinions, confining specifically, 681, 687-688, 8. begin explaining why, contrary assumption 1199-1201, 963-967, control outcome 31 considered 102 Civil Rights 1991, seek compensatory punitive damages intentional employment discrimination, Rev. Stat. 1977A, added, 105 1072, 42 1981a(a), demand jury trial sought, 1981a(c), discrimination appeal enacted. forced confront "`apparent tension'" between "`a effect renders decision,'" 264 Bradley School Bd. Richmond, 416 696, 711 (1974)), "axiom `[r]etroactivity favored law'" "`congressional enactments construed unless requires result,'" Bowen Georgetown Univ. Hospital, 488 204, 208 (1988)). 32 Acknowledging just presumption, command13 examined rationales it. noted, example, "[t]he Legislature's responsivity pressures poses risk tempted use legislation means retribution unpopular groups individuals," Landgraf, 266, statutes upset expectations "`tak[ing] away impair[ing] vested acquired existing laws, creat[ing] obligation, impos[ing] duty, attach[ing] disability, past,'" 269 Society Propagation Gospel Wheeler, Cas. 756, 767 (No. 13,156) (CC NH 1814) (Story, J.)). observed pressing "new affecting contractual rights, predictability stability prime importance." 271. 33 contrast, sanctioned future "intervening" "confe[r] ous[t] jurisdiction." 274. Such application, stated, "usually takes tribunal hear case." (internal quotation marks omitted). Similarly, "diminished interests procedure" permit rules'] about retroactivity." 275. 34 Balancing competing concerns, described terms: 35 "When implicates task prescribed statute's reach. If done so, course, need resort judicial rules. When, command effect, party's completed. retroactively, traditional teaches result." 280.14 36 infra, 697-698, "expres[s] prescri[ption of] Under therefore, appropriate affects conduct) addresses procedure occurred). But defies categorization. with, none justifiable expectation (provided recommend otherwise), "right" Moreover, opens plaintiffs pre-existing states; "increase[s states'] conduct" "impose[s] completed." rule. 37 That conclusion, "concern[ing] courts" sovereign, plaintiff barred States" applies, 497 added), elsewhere "creat[e] otherwise exists "spea[k] power well," Hughes Aircraft ex rel. Schumer, 520 939, 951 (1997) original). statutes, continued, "even phrased `jurisdictional' terms, [are] other[s]." Ibid.15 38 strictly confined helpful context. Cf. 271, ("[T]he great majority relying involved intervening burdening parties"). aim conduct. shape promise Rather, reflects current realities relationships, "protection gesture comity." 479 Throughout history, resolved "decisions think namely, question.16 V 39 leaves anything negative, find 40 expresses Congress' understanding postenactment provides: 41 "Claims chapter." Act;17 observed, 687 1201), forth" Act, occurred.18 43 conclusion. 1976. 468 entity qualifies "instrumentality" purposes relationship brought upheld challenge 1330's dispute contract predated Act. 482-483, 497. doubt relating venue, removal, indicates "henceforth," body includes numerous 44 accomplish purposes, established framework 45 "We text demonstrate intention basis Sections 1604 1330(a) work tandem: bars exercising confers citizens aliens said `must since specified Argentine Amerada Hess Shipping Corp., 428, 434-435 (1989) 493). 46 respondents' concerned postdated occasion consider retroactivity. Nevertheless, observations inclusiveness case: Quite obviously, scheme frustrated if, concerning continue ambiguous politically charged "`standards'" replaced. 691 487-488). 47 endorse reasoning Appeals. precisely kind detailed historical guidelines obviate. panel's freed clearly and, matter, immunity.19 VI 48 conclude emphasizing narrowness holding. although determined determination. Nor wrongdoing. Unlike raises defense, act defense merits. doctrine, (acts jure performed borders, controversy litigants standing acts.20 Underhill Hernandez, 168 250, 252 (1897); Banco Nacional de Cuba Sabbatino, 376 398, 401 (1964) ("The formulation precludes inquiring committed territory"). principally rely assertion expropriations which, 18-20. Applying expectation, argue, Landgraf. way shields 49 reject recommendation bar pre-enactment Amicus Curiae, prevents immunity.21 us, Curiae addressed, 448 (1987). views considerable merit special deference. See, choose implications conduct,22 might policy.23 486; Ins. Assn. Garamendi, 396, 414 (2003) (discussing President's "`vast share relations'"). 50 51 ordered. Notes: Briefs ofamici reversal Japan Craig A. Hoover, Franklin, Lorane Hebert; Mexican I. Blackman. amici affirmance Community al. G. Moerdler, James Shifren, Thomas R. Kline, Marc D. Stern; Bet Tzedek Services Janie Schulman, Sinensky, David J. Bederman; Michael Berenbaum Edward McGlynn Gaffney, Jr., Arthur Miller, Melvyn Weiss. Andreas Lowenfeld Société Nationale des Chemins Fer Français curiae. mentions Bloch-Bauer I, Apple Tree Beechwood, Houses Unterach am Attersee, Schloss Kammer Attersee III. last these, III, 1936. Amalie Zuckerkandl, will. For details, 1187, 1192-1193 2001) More precisely, traded I painting, disappeared apparently hands 1988, dealer GalleryId., claims: "[Respondent's] declaratory pursuant 2201; [she] seeks returned [Her] replevin, presumably law; rescission agreements lawyer due mistake, duress, and/or lack authorization. fourth conversion, fifth imposition constructive trust, seventh unjust enrichment. [her] eighth disgorgement profits Unfair Business Practices 1197. reads: "(a) shall immune "(3) exchanged carried state; operated States." "they 1602-1611, "does strip immunity"; "should offorum non conveniens"; (3) "fail[ed] join indispensable Fed. Civ. 19"; (4) improper. noted,id., 1201, 16, form concealment paintings' true provenance deliberate misinterpretation actions, address alternative subsequent sufficient, itself, establish 954, 974 2002). ruling. "Th[e] perfect equality independence sovereigns, th[e] common impelling mutual intercourse, interchange good offices other, given rise class wave[sic] complete exclusive territorial attribute nation." Exchange, Cranch, 137. sovereign'sprivate property: "Without indicating question, safely manifest distinction happens prince, military force power, maintains dignity nation. acquiring country, possibly subjecting jurisdiction; laying down assuming character individual; cannot presumed portion force, upholds crown, nation entrusted govern." 145. Letter Adviser, Dept. Philip Perlman (May 19, 1952), reprinted Bull. 984-985 (1952), inAlfred Dunhill London, Inc. Cuba, 425 682, 711-715 (1976) (App. Court). defines term include 1603(a) seeLandgraf, 266-268 (identifying principle, Post Facto Clause, Art. 10, cl. 1, prohibition "Bills Attainder," 9-10). 1991 enactment. 293 Of differs amendment inHughes Aircraft. attached 3730(b)(1) (1982 ed.), 96 978; 3730(b)(1), 100 3154, entertaining bound apply, 3730(e)(4)(A), 3157. "jurisdictional" adheres fashion essentially substantive. limits entertain create modify purport limit countries' entertain. Even dissent Aircraft, "create[s] before," 723 (opinion J.), characteristic less aspects tension, turn, inconclusive examine light Between similarly Tate disputes letter. See,e. National N. Y. China, 348 356, 361 (1955) (assuming, dicta, treasury notes 1920 1947-1948). Our parallels advocated SCALIA concurrence inLandgraf: "The critical issue, think, `vested rights,' substance procedure, regulates. Absent otherwise, occurs effective date covered. Most meant regulate hence trials date. therefore event." 291 judgment). quite "`[a] become arguably suggest earlier date.'"Post, 719. 8, "Act ninety days enactment." 90 2898, note office word make asserted. Notably, asserted necessarily related place latter marked shift scope Whether significant aLandgraf-type various relevance rationale finding redress grievances channels Flatow Islamic Iran, 305 1249, 1251-1252, (CADC 2002) (statement located States); Sea Hunt, Unidentified Shipwrecked Vessel Vessels, 221 634, 642 (CA4 2000) vessels); Third Ave. Assoc. Consulate Socialist Yugoslavia, 218 152, 157 (CA2 successor Yugoslavia). indicated 243a (Letter Hans Winkler, Ministry Affairs, Treasury Stuart Eizenstat (Jan. 17, 2001)). enforceability indication, Mislabeling "constitutional conclusion," permitting "[u]ncertain law."Post, 734, 737. hold, executive intervention trump neutral principles; Executive's area expertise greater opinions regarding Furthermore, fail understand how somehow injects uncertainty dissent's approach, require, status offending nonexistence subject. 52 concurring. 53 add few thoughts my own. 54 244, 292 (1994) judgments, joined KENNEDY JJ.), "consistent giving ground conferring forbid power" occurred, invoked. 293. "retroactive" sued predates statute. jurisdiction-restricting "deny litigant forum entirely, [to] leave alternate deny collateral reason." 292-293 (citations logical corollary jurisdiction-expanding creating existed. 55 rejects instead undertakes case-specific Post, 720-728 J.). justifies 939 (1997). reasons ante, 695-696, 15, mistaken. (FSIA), regime replaced, rights; 685, 4. sovereign-immunity claims, 1604-1605, elsewhere. enough entertain, can accidental rendering enforceable previously unenforceable. unlike Aircraft-type "jurisdiction" brought, accidentally, necessary consequence Statutes parties," happen affect them. 56 whom SOUTER joins, 57 judgment, rest additional 58 59 following: 60 1. 1925. Her "`kindly'" donate, "upon death," (Gallery). later, "formally assured probate honor gift." 682; 959 2002); 2001); 6. 61 2. Switzerland. assets, liquidated estate. disposed five follows: gave Gallery; Vienna; one. (The ended collector 1988.) 683, 3; 959-960. 62 3. Switzerland mention name residuary legatee, Altmann, citizen. legatee 681; 960, 968; 6-7. 63 members, large number artworks. prohibited heritage." Altmann's recognition, agreement, three, fourth, family, recovered fifth, kept, Gallery.) 683; 960; 1193-1195; 6-8; 168a. 64 Fifty newspaper stories suggested Nazi-looted allowing properties false donation permits. advisory board 684; 1195-1196; 65 1999, items told wrongly irrespective looting (title flowing donative court). agreement amounted donation. ordered (16 settings), belonged 960-962; 66 7. Government, Los Angeles. B 67 concern title passed looting. nowhere condones bases activity. rests 1925 probate-court confirmation, agreement. locus Angeles reflect merits procedures. 684-685. conveniens claim, posting $135,000 fee potentially refundable, 229a-231a, mainly age, 973-974. 68 exception" withdrawing state[s]" "agency instrumentality" state. 1603, 1605(a)(3). deprives entitle case," 1605, 69 conceded "engaged publishing advertising activities condition. 968-969; 1204-1205. embrace decision. (2003); 692. 70 element: Is "case issue"? (falsely extorting acknowledgment permits) violated customary 1907 Hague Convention. 203a-204a; 4, 35; Convention (IV) Laws Customs Land, 2277, 2309, (1907) ("All seizure forbidden, proceedings"). 71 replies "retroactive." exception, almost upshot 1604, (as undisputed here), successfully assert preventing pursuing claim. 72 then, takings Congress, thereafter. 1602; 697. believes inconsistency reading came force." 718-720 agree similar words) disagreement themselves. Nonetheless convince me correct. argues, removing property" "taken taking 73 literal Altmann. Several conventions temporal explicitly stating, "not proceedings coming Act." 1978, 23(3), Halsbury's 829, 845 (4th ed. 2001 reissue) (U. K.) added); 1979, 1(2) (Singapore); 1985, 7(1) (Austl.); European Immunity, 35(3). says limitation. 74 Second, concept traditionally applied, defendant's suit. King Farouk's ignore Christian Dior's payment "frocks coats" bought (while king) wife; once king lost royal status, Dior sue collect (for clothes abdication). Ex-King Farouk Egypt Dior, 84 Clunet 717, L. 228, 229 (CA Paris 1957) (Christian bring" ex-King debts contracted" abdication "when, abdication, "Hea[d] State"); Queen Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate (Ex Pinochet Ugarte), [2000] C., 147, 201-202 (1999) Lord Browne-Wilkinson) head itself. too loses ratione personae ceasing state"); cf. Ter K. Netherlands, Surinam & Indonesia, 223 (DC 1951) (affording Indonesia independent pending). 75 Term, unanimously reaffirmed classic now-private corporation government owner. added "[f]oreign "chilling" chilling business." (KENNEDY, objective "sovereign (in contrast conduct-related doctrines) "some protection," "from Ibid.; 694-695, 696. Compare discussed in, Nixon Fitzgerald, 457 731, 749 (1982) (absolute official immunity); Harlow 800, 813 (qualified Pinochet, 202 (conduct-related "public acts"). 76 Third, view. issued adopting view Alfred acknowledges: 77 "After Letter's issuance, evaluated pre-Tate standard determining submit likewise, seems require sort [v. 356 (1955)], pre-1952 careful there. [Id.], 361." 725 alterations 78 Accord, 696-697, 16; also, Arias Fletero, Adm. 7492 (ED Va. Digest Practice International Law 1025-1026 (1977) (State May issued, standard); New York Mail Steamship Korea, 132 684, 685-686 (SDNY 1955) issuance Letter); (applying Act). 79 Fourth, contention, 724-725, 729-730, "reliance" "expectation" justify nonretroactivity Does mean something real, expropriating nation's actual protect lawsuits continuing doctrine? exist fact. What norms likely influenced, politics revolution, knowledge of, speculation about, America's immunity? possibility, Communist regimes, aware, realm fantasy. dramatic, individualized, takings, difficult imagine. 80 likely, thinking "`reasonable reliance,'" 723, construct designed unfairness. sovereign's unreasonable, warranted. aware counterparts respects status; right, "grace Dole, 479; 708-709. 81 ignores insofar assumes awareness intervene rules, promulgating 725-726, (Austria 1948), (same). convincingly explain (with approval) "codify" efforts. Rep. 94-1487, (hereinafter Rep.); 94-1310, 488; (1976). 82 Fifth, attempt read qualification "expectation," complications anomalies. States, proposes solution may, glance, seem simple: Choose roughly cutoff "taken" time. 11-12. complicates proposal pointing out, correctly, separate paragraphs 1605(a) evolved common-law origins consequently ("commercial 1952; "waiver events). General's entities (say, "sovereign"). 1603-1604 Restatement (Second) Relations 66(g), Comment c, Reporters' Note (1965) (government corporations functions); Harvard Research 483 (1932) `State' results excluding subdivisions ."). 83 complicated. all, remand fallen outside matter. 727-728. Letter, four later. But, importantly, sets courts: Determine 2004 1952-1976 thought rarified speculation, threatens very enactors hoped put rest. 699. Sixth, principles, adequately "open[ing] worldwide vast potential regards generations ago, negotiation 730. 85 thing, limitations, requirements, 969-974; Dayton Czechoslovak Republic, 672 1986) limitations claim). correct consensus 1605(a)(3)'s "violation law" cover belonging country's nationals. (Third) 712 (1986) (3d)). 86 "an territory." W. Kirkpatrick Environmental Tectonics Int'l, 493 400, 405 (1990); 700-701; 423-424 (1964). `act state' applicable." Rep., 20; 19; 701. Second Hickenlooper Amendment restricts confiscation 1959." U.S.C. 2370(e)(2). restricted freeing "`pass Bernstein Nederlandsche-Amerikaansche Stoomvaart-Maatschappij, 210 375, 375-376 1954) (per curiam) press release). decide. 87 Further, enter counseling dismissal. Ante, 701-702; 517. refer, grounds dismissal, presence superior remedies, 1621-1645o (Foreign Claims Settlement Commission); Dames Moore Regan, 453 654, 679-683 (1981) (describing settlement claims), nonjusticiable nature reasons) issue. 701, (collecting cases); Hwang Geum Joo Japan, 172 52, 58, 64-67 (finding raise agreements). 88 show absence remedies compensate taking. (3d) 713, f ("Under ordinarily injury exhausted domestic sham inadequate, unreasonably prolonged"); Monterey Del Monte Dunes Monterey, Ltd., 526 687, 721 (requirement exhausting postdeprivation law); Kirby Forest Industries, 467 (1984) chooses litigate disregard "expropriating" trouble showing "tak[ing] 89 reasonable CHIEF THOMAS join, dissenting. 91 interpreting seq. illustrates, difficult. respectful incorrect. 92 outset, summary opinion: weaken diminish fairness expectations; abruptly tells unavailable courts; despite fact treaties reached background rejects; mitigate harsh result, adds inherent this; this, inconsistent design FSIA; reintroduces, degree before, influences eliminate determinations; implies problematic separation-of-powers avoided; ultimate inviting sue, nuances affairs, instability sensitive relations. 93 majority's treatment rejection behind questionable dissent. 94 passage academic legislative effort haled Rep.). (1983), preceding emerging (1952) Letter). 689-690. due. "considerable uncertainty," 9, "troublesome" determinations, U.S., predictable administrations shifting pressures. acted bring order uncertainty: "[U]niformity desirable disparate adverse relations consequences." 13. "[FSIA] urgently needed legislation"). emphasis citizens, "reduc[e] assur[e] crucial insure process." There along provisions. end, So structured, implement objectives influence questions. (under "U. conform virtually country—where exclusively affairs agency"). 95 announced, nearly litigants. (1994). Landgraf; old well-established principle. "It English ancient omnipotent parliament, retrospective effect." Dash Van Kleeck, Johns. 477, 503 (N. 1811) (Kent, J.); 265 deeply rooted jurisprudence, embodies centuries older Republic"). stems fundamental concerns. ("Elementary dictate opportunity know accordingly; lightly disrupted"). single acknowledged ("`[C]ongressional result'" (1988))). 97 meet requiring concedes outset saying "falls `expres[s] reach.'" 694 (alterations original) 280). 98 awkward twist, "[Act's] unambiguous," 697, "suggests [foreign immunity] `in forth' occurred," 697-698. clear, apply. "unambiguous," yet `express command.'" really thinks unambiguous, premise. 99 event, unambiguously right. pertinent isolation. context full section, speak "Congress finds serve justice concerned, levied satisfaction judgments rendered activities. [statute]." 101 sentences describe replace court-controlled regime. sentence, phrase, serves replaces point on. ("immunity [claims] [Act's] principles") Webster's Dictionary 1056 (defining on"). topic whenever filed, time," "henceforth." type 257 (analyzing "`take enactment'"). date." retroactivity, (i. commenced, pending, determined). confirm compare interpreted Carpenter Wabash 309 23, (1940) `equity receiverships railroad States'"); Freeborn Smith, Wall. 160, 162 (1865) ("`all heretofore prosecuted heard States'"). 255-256 (explaining enacted, bill vetoed President "language calling [retroactive] provisions"); 255, example applications: "`[These] sections commenced Act'"). own, precision clarity 103 BREYER's measured bear authored analysis. 708 (concurring accept interpretive abandon usual insistence statement. 104 liabilities creates, parties. 280 ("When command, i.e., completed"). does, refuse manner. essential jurisdictional. allows (or denies) follows (the involves courts"). By denying cases— succeeding provisions—the disputes. admits states." 695. 106 mechanism establishing effects it) hand, class, tend Landgraf: "Application usually `takes case.' Present normally situations `speak obligations parties.'" 274 107 subclass jurisdictional, confer none. is, altogether omitted): 108 "Statutes addressing fairly secondary litigation all. 1986 amendment, allocate forums. existed; speaks well. other." 109 incomplete asks before. Again, recognizes import Aircraft's affirms existed sued-upon "Such statutes," acknowledges, "`even other[s].'" 695 951). 110 controls instructs jurisdiction—including stripped courts—we fear working Lindh Murphy, 521 320, 342-343, (REHNQUIST, dissenting) ("Although recently jurisdiction-creating disparaged longstanding jurisdiction-ousting cases" (citation omitted)). C 111 point, points—the contain command; nature; Now, paths diverge. issues, lead: none? asking obvious retreats sequitur. recitation causal it, concludes: "Thus, steps undertake omits, end pre-FSIA regime, 112 begins St. Cyr, 533 289, 321 (2001) `should informed guided "familiar fair notice, reliance, expectations"'" Martin Hadix, 527 343, 358 (1999), quoting 270)). parties' formed 113 Parties future, whatever "discovered" (if subscribes Blackstone's law) "created" Holmes') being Blackstone, Commentaries *68 method proving, maxim shewing hath always custom observe it"), Holmes, Path Law, Harv. 457, 466 (1897) ("Behind [of decisionmaking] relative worth importance grounds, inarticulate unconscious true, root nerve whole proceeding"). force. 114 litigants, valid expectations. Nations expect baseline They (3), able petition behalf. N.Y. 358-361 (summing questions); 366-368 (Reed, principles). 115 passed. announce doctrinal development. category, post-Tate practices operation built. N.Y., 361. 117 weight detract have—that statements. submitted 364 ("[O]ur slightest intimation allowance counterclaims situation embarrass China"). 118 Today, measure discussed, interlocking expected. produced ("Determining properly turns branch States"). unmanageable inquiry; usurps authority Executive, constituted today, essence, assumed 119 Answering above: look displaces least degree. established, rule, followed. general, Bull., 984. control, position instant imposing 120 appearing curiae, argue jurisdiction) expropriation. say relies jurisdiction: development [I]n Victory Transport Comisaria Abastecimientos y Transportes, 336 354 1964), cert. denied, 381 934 (1965)[,] [t]he enjoy respecting `nationalization' property." 12. 121 end; but, conclusive. nationalizations per se said: 122 try accommodate doing business free perform undergoing embarrassment hindrance defending propriety [immune] categories: 123 124 "(2) nationalization." 360 125 makes category nationalization example. act. 126 prevail not, ought instance. Neither addressed complex benefit briefing, arguments, sources bearing announced. vacate D 127 avoiding puts precedent serious rejecting approach. arguments distinguish suffice 128 rights. 696 ("[The] context"). unconvincing. undercuts position. confirms, presumptions equally favor governments. Per 129 "While parties, monetary government." 25. 130 government—and possible above-quoted language—the refers Government. mattered virtue authoring legislation, fully capable protecting degraded laws. Private said, built-in assurance. Here, party; is. vulnerable disruption caused recourse hold responsible election process. private-rights sustain departure 131 tries departing way. argues BREYER further. receiving 709-711. overlooks plain involved, surely stemming span range day. stake treaty negotiating defined expectations: "[The] [has been] extensively treaties, agreements, regime]." Lurking BREYER'S implication powers minor infrequent. Surely today's are, magnitude, carries weight; justification. conclusive frequently vindicate fully. consideration, rebut presumption." 285-286. diminished unfair surprise expectations—even existed—do displace presumption. why "concerns upsetting [were] attenuated ha[d] unlawful generation," nevertheless, 282-283, 35. 133 lastly, footnote "FSIA Aircraft" directly ensured it). 695, 15. action. implies, availability defeat entertain"); 703 (SCALIA, concurring). internal integrity allowed world. unsurprising, canvassing countries viable assign 134 "this [is a] context." Having new, extra frees entirely apparent 135 stark Circuit, 954. 332 679 2003); Carl Marks Union Soviet Republics, 841 1988) curiam); Jackson People's 794 1490 (CA11 1986). 136 leads shows lacks principled basis: "[W]e [decision question] FSIA." governs, interpret adopts instruct opposite. "[I]n statutes." Lindh, 342, dissenting). 137 supplement bounds mode path suit." 708. variant ("Dole case"). fails, defendants' alone misplaced (holding sovereign). reasoning, unacceptable. stake, factors intersect. assuredly, disown status-based creation turned rationale, implication. 138 710 (BREYER, concurring) (relying "`[T]his [by sub silentio holdings] finally brings us.' Hagans Lavine, 415 528, 535, (1974)." Will Michigan Police, 491 63, (alteration Reliance irrelevant. 709-710 139 Today's proposition damage Abandoning attempts reaches Executive. harm balance branches. 140 702 ("[S]hould Executive" (footnote invitation justified role only, implicated unilateral regard. removes possibility invitation. 141 "`"vast relations."'" (2003)). offers aside, inclined resolve—can supersede Congress—is presented insistence, superseded directive. Those Const., 2, 1; cls. 3, 9-11, 18; (setting enact FSIA). Bancorp, LLC Societe Bains Mer du Cercle Etrangers, 329 359, 367-368 2003) (noting complicated intersection responsibilities overlap, trade). implicate independence, compromised case-by-case, selective 143 presented. magnifies error proceeding explanation, particularly strong agrees "presents courts." textual assessment purposes. 144 abrupt announcement override undermines structure. [had thrown] `foreign Department,' `suggestions theory.'" 690 487). 716-717. unsatisfactory methodology decisionmaking. endorsed full, recommending introduction 6, signing presentment. surprising accomplished aims. directives circuited directive 145 disclaimer "express[es] [to Executive] disclaimer, inadequate invitation, belied "suggesting policy." 701-702 law). Taking face value, question: Its deference, gives 146 If, seems, dictates fears consign illogic creation. guards "ensur[ing] benefits outweigh unfairness." 268. 147 Where promises unfortunate disruption. reintroduce Before tended instances remain intervention. larger universe act/private categories expropriations. incentive 148 tried settle sovereigns' ensure evenhanded keeping strengthening ability secure negotiated Over time, tool Agreement Relating Oct. 24, 2000, Concerning Fund "Reconciliation, Peace Cooperation," Jan. 2001, S.-Aus., WL 935261 (settling Austria); Nationals, Nov. 5, 1964, S.-Yugo., T. 5750 (same Yugoslavia); July 1960, S.-Pol., 1953, 4545 Poland). Uncertain compromising predict assess 729-730 Curiae). 149 150 comprehended, comprehend, wide confront. overlooked. disregarded "widely intuitions operate," 272, treated precise particularized contexts. well: 151 "To Court] contends [Landgraf's stated] [it] misreads define outer impermissible Story, necessary, condition invoking 947. 152 unprecedented Article insufficient Application powerful intact difficulties. 153 respect,

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