Document: 491 U.S. 58 109 S.Ct. 2304 105 L.Ed.2d 45 Ray WILL, Petitionerv.MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF STATE POLICE et al. No. 87-1207. Argued Dec. 5, 1988. Decided June 15, 1989. Syllabus Petitioner filed Michigan state-court suits under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 alleging that respondents, the Department of State Police and Director in his official capacity, had denied him a promotion for an improper reason. The judge ruled petitioner, finding both respondents were "persons" 1983, which provides any person who deprives individual or her constitutional rights color state law shall be liable to individual. However, Court Appeals vacated judgment against Department, holding is not remanded case determination Director's possible immunity. Supreme affirmed part reversed part, agreeing but acting fficial capacity also such person. Held: Neither States nor officials their capacities are within meaning 1983. Pp. 62-71. (a) That supported by statute's language, congressional purpose, legislative history. In common usage, term "person" does include State. This usage particularly applicable where it claimed Congress has subjected liability they been subject before. Reading would decidedly awkward way expressing intent. language falls short satisfying ordinary rule statutory construction must make its intention alter balance between Federal Government unmistakably clear language. Moreover, doctrine sovereign immunity one well-established common-law immunities defenses did intend override enacting Cf. Newport v. Fact Concerts, Inc., 453 247, 101 2748, 69 616; Railroad Co. Tennessee, 337, 25 L.Ed. 960. "Dictionary Act" provision includes "bodies politic corporate" fails evidence Court's ruling Monell New York City Dept. Social Services, 436 658, 98 2018, 56 611—which held municipality 1983—is contrary, since protected Eleventh Amendment while municipalities not. 63-70. (b) A suit rather officials' offices and, thus, no different from itself. 70-71. 428 Mich. 540, 410 N.W.2d 749, affirmed. WHITE, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. BRENNAN, dissenting opinion, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, joined, post, p. 71. 87. William Burnham, Detroit, Mich., petitioner. George H. Weller, East Lansing, respondents. Justice WHITE Court. 1 presents question whether State, Rev.Stat. 1979, 2 Will Circuit various violations United Constitutions as grounds claim 1983.1 He alleged he data systems analyst position with reason, is, because brother student activist "red squad" file maintained respondent. Named defendants respondent here.2 3 Civil Service Commission grievance hearing. While was pending, petitioner Claims raising essentially identical claim. ultimately found petitioner's favor, refused promote "partisan considerations." App. 46. On basis finding, judge, cases, concluded established violation Constitution. action barred could go forward. persons purposes 4 Police, damages. granted discretionary review part. Smith Pub. Health, 749 (1987). agreed itself 5 conflicts number state- federal-court decisions contrary.3 We certiorari resolve conflict. 485 1005, 108 1466, 99 696 (1988). 6 Prior 611 (1978), answered this negative. Monroe Pape, 365 167, 187-191, 81 473, 484-486, 492 (1961), "[T]hat being case," we reasoned, "could have intended parties defendant." Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 452, 96 2666, 2669, 49 614 (1976). 7 But Monell, overruled Monroe, U.S., at 690, S.Ct., 2035. Since then, members debated see Hutto Finney, 437 678, 700-704, 2565, 2578-2581, 57 522 (1978) (BRENNAN, concurring); id., 708, n. 6, 2583 (Powell, concurring part), never expressly dealt issue.4 8 Some courts, including here, construed our decision Quern Jordan, 440 332, 1139, 59 358 (1979), implication See supra, 581, N.W.2d, 767. also, e.g., Green, 633 P.2d 1381, 1382 (Alaska 1981); Woodbridge Worcester Hospital, 384 Mass. 38, 44-45, 7, 423 N.E.2d 782, 786, (1981); Edgar 92 Wash.2d 217, 221, 595 534, 537 cert. denied, 444 1077, 100 1026, 62 760 (1980). State's immunity, concurrence sugges ed "patently dicta" effect person, 350, judgment). 9 present actions court, places squarely before us apply courts. Maine Thiboutot, 448 1, 9, 2502, 2507, 65 555 For reasons follow, reaffirm today what prior some considered implicit Quern: 10 observe initially if section read saying "every who, statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, Territory District Columbia, subjects. . ." intent liability. At very least, reading statute so clearly indicated reason depart often-expressed understanding " 'in 'person' sovereign, [and] statutes employing [word] ordinarily exclude it.' Wilson Omaha Tribe, 442 653, 667, 2529, 2537, 61 153 (1979) (quoting Cooper Corp., 312 600, 604, 742, 743, 85 1071 (1941)). Mine Workers, 330 258, 275, 67 677, 687, 91 884 (1947). 11 approach Indian followed construing phrase "white person" contained 194, enacted Act 30, 1834, Stat. 729, "sovereign Union." 2537. strong indication used likewise State.5 12 far ends "usual Government," do "unmistakably statute." Atascadero Hospital Scanlon, 473 234, 242, 3142, 3147, 87 171 (1985); Pennhurst School Halderman, 465 89, 99, 104 900, 907, 79 (1984). case, similar applied other contexts. should "clear manifest" intends pre-empt historic powers States, Rice Santa Fe Elevator 331 218, 230, 1146, 1152, 1447 (1947), impose condition on grant federal moneys, 451 16, 1531, 1539, 694 South Dakota Dole, 483 203, 207, 107 2793, 2796, 97 "In traditionally sensitive areas, legislation affecting balance, requirement statement assures legislature fact faced, bring into issue, critical matters involved judicial decision." Bass, 404 336, 349, 515, 523, 30 488 (1971). 13 Our conclusion reinforced Congress' purpose statute. Rights 1871, 17 13, precursor shortly after end War "in response widespread deprivations civil Southern inability unwillingness authorities those protect punish wrongdoers." Felder Casey, 487 131, 147, 2302, 2311, 123 Although establish courts exclusive forum remedy these deprivations, ibid., plain "Congress assigned paramount role" endeavor, Patsy Board Regents Florida, 457 496, 503, 102 2557, 2561, 73 172 (1982). 14 Section many liberties, provide litigants seek liberties. bars unless waived Welch Texas Highways Public Transportation, 468, 472-473, 2941, 2945-2946, 389 (1987) (plurality opinion), exercised undoubted power Fourteenth Congress, passing disturb States' federal-state respect made Quern. Given principal behind enactment claims, claims cannot accept argument nevertheless create cause brought precisely sought allow claimants avoid through 15 mean, suggests, think scope separate issues. Certainly are. deciphering consideration, decline adopt disregards it.6 16 further holdings law. "One important assumption underlying area 42d familiar principles, previously recognized tort litigation, likely principles obtain, absent specific provisions contrary." 2755, 616 (1981). Stump Sparkman, 435 356, 1099, 1104, 55 (1978); Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 94 1683, 1692, 40 90 (1974); Pierson Ray, 386 547, 554, 1213, 1217, 18 288 (1967); Tenney Brandhove, 341 367, 376, 71 783, 788, 95 1019 (1951), effect. "The principle elementary sued own without consent." 339, 960 (1880). It "established jurisprudence" consent. Beers Arkansas, (20 How.) 527, 529, 991 (1858). conclude disregard consent.7 history suggest conclusion. contends debates 1871 indicate extend full reach thereby 'against all forms federally rights.' Brief 700-701, 2040-2041). refers parts vigorous accompanying passage revealing failure take appropriate undoubtedly motivating force inference drawn, urged, themselves unconstitutional more among whom lie. Construing "official rights" than confirm directed "under of" Al hough there sharp heated debates, discussion bill, extended. And although respects impact sovereignty much talked about, suggested damages Quern, 343, 1146. There complaint officers liability, suggestion expose themselves. Cong.Globe, Cong., 1st Sess., 366, 385 (1871). find nothing substantial leads believe word included Union. surely rises expressed necessary permit construction. 19 Likewise, Feb. 25, 2, 431 (the Act"),8 relied 688-689, 2034-2035, counsel contrary here. As noted Act, adopted 1866, derived. 341, 11, 1145, 11. disagree BRENNAN time Dictionary passed "the 'bodies corporate' understood States." Post, 78. Rather, examination era suggests mean corporations, private public (municipal), States.9 view, like history, liable. 20 Finally, contrary. True, reasoned then 2669. undercutting logic. follow States. not, 54, 2035, consequently limited "to local government units purposes," ibid. Conversely, here cast doubt applies only governmental entities "arms State" purposes. See, Mt. Healthy Bd. Ed. Doyle, 429 274, 280, 568, 572, 50 471 (1977). 21 asserts, alternatively, even though capacities. named defendant capacity. 22 Obviously, literally persons. official's office. Brandon Holt, 469 464, 471, 873, 877, 83 878 (1985). such, Kentucky Graham, 159, 165-166, 3099, 3104-3105, 114 55, 55. context, when circumvent mere pleading device.10 23 hold neither 24 ordered. STEVENS join, dissenting. 26 Because concedes, inapplicable ante, 63-64. Like guest leave, however, lurks everywhere today's truth, determines outcome. 27 * renders certain rights. presented 28 One might expect generate careful thorough analysis general background If expects, will disappointed decision. decided method construction; instead, disposes means rules interpretation summons aid each looks close. Specifically, invokes following interpretative principles: sovereign; affect manifest"; abrogate appear apparently believes obviates need close Properly applied, last effect, pertinent us. 29 invokes, first, "often-expressed understanding" Ante, 64, quoting (1979). refute demonstrates defendants, overcome based Act's definition bodies corporate, 69-70. ironic, say chooses interpretive explaining why decisive, relevant definition. When considers origins content guideline, moreover, realizes defeat support result. idea excludes can traced "familiar King bound act Parliament therein special particular words." Dollar Savings Bank 86 (19 Wall.) 227, 239, 80 (1874). sovereign." California, 297 175, 186, 421, 425, 567 (1936). Jefferson County Pharmaceutical Assn., Inc. Abbott Laboratories, 460 150, 161, 21, 103 1011, 1019, 74 882 (1983). Furthermore, explained Herron, 251, 255, 275 (1874), limitations: "Where good, advancement religion justice prevent injury wrong, king act, therein; general, prerogative, right, title, interest divested taken king, bound, express difficult imagine designed "for publ c good," wrong," 31 Even invocation exclusion error. clear, merely "an consistent doubt, require aim fairly inferred disregarded explicitly stated." 425. Indeed, immediately quoted today, using "ordinarily exclude" stated: 32 "But hard fast exclusion. matter, executive aids may intent, use term, nation 33 34 "Decision reached strict words application artificial canons natural sense, doubts remain, them light, policy served enactment, but, well, available construction." 604-605, 743-744, (1941). 35 2537 ("There 'no exclusion,' [312 600,] 743-744 [(1941)]; depends interpretation"); Pfizer India, 434 308, 315-318, 584, 589-591, 54 563 Guarantee Title & Trust Guaranty Surety Co., 224 152, 155, 457, 458, 706 (1912); Lewis 618, 622, 513 (1875); Green 76 (9 655, 806 (1870). 36 second comes cases (1947); 207-208, (1987); (1971), expression change aspect relations. 65. These substitution absolutist analysis. undertook detailed consideration. inapposite source employs, observes that, according conventional pre-emption analysis, "scheme" "purpose" 1152. 37 employed justify perfunctory inconclusive irrelevant case. notion "that 'usual Government,' 'unmistakably statute.' 65, notes, case; "constitutional balance" struck come interpret it. wishes otherwise, announced unique involving Amendment. 38 Where applies, devised clear-statement robust clarity situation. just intimated simply discerning Dellmuth Muth, 223, 2397, 2402, 181 (1989) (concluding rely "permissible inference" structure abrogation immunity); 238-239, 2405-2406 dissenting); Pennsylvania Union Gas 2273, (1989). drafting hardly "a consideration," 67, apply. 39 generated uniquely daunting explains decide today. permits principle, Jordan tells about matter thus compel, suggest, result singularity refutes given holding, sense construe "persons." 66. so, major deprived (1961). answering themselves, reserved cases. Employees Missouri Health Welfare, 411 279, 287, 93 1614, 1619, 251 (1973); Atascadero, 240, 3146, answer be, most often kind provided applying 75, pretend have, suits, backwards "intent" proceed court. 41 short, 1983's cases—a action. my II provides: "Every subjects, causes subjected, citizen jurisdiction thereof deprivation rights, privileges, secured Constitution laws, party injured law, equity, proper proceeding redress." 43 define "person," word. "Any begin Act." 719, 2050, (REHNQUIST, dissenting). Passed two months "suppl[y] legislation," provided: 44 "That acts hereafter corporate context shows sense. 431. allowable mandatory, requiring consideration "by terms called deviation practice." 689-690, 53, 53. Thus, concluded, "context" "call[s] restricted 'person,' [statute] prima facie politic' sued." Ibid. 46 Both passed, J. Bouvier, Law Adapted Laws America 185 (11th ed. 1866); W. Shumaker G. Longsdorf, Cyclopedic (1901); Chisholm Georgia, (2 Dall.) 419, 447, (1793) (Iredell, J.); 468 (Cushing, Cotton 52 (11 229, 231, 675 (1851) ("Every necessity body politic, person"); Poindexter Greenhow, 270, 288, 903, (1885); McPherson Blacker, 146 24, 3, 869 (1892); Heim McCall, 239 188, 78, 82, 60 206 (1915). Maurice, Brock. 96, 109, F.Cas. 1211 (CC Va.1823) (Marshall, C.J.) ("The government, consequently, corporate"); Van Brocklin 117 151, 154, 670, 672, 845 (1886) (same). legislators referred terms. Cong. Globe, 661-662 (1871) (Sen. Vickers) ("What State? Is corporate?"); Edmunds) ("A corporation"). 47 simple: corporation entity agents, "[t]he political body, command laws." 12-913. Black's 159 (5th 1979) ("[B]ody corporate": "A social compact whole people covenants citizen, people, governed laws good"). "body corporate," "person." 48 certainly true 69, draw Phrases may, course, multiple referents. every dictionary cited accords broader realm—one comfortably, explicitly, gives 1B. Abbott, Terms Used American English Jurisprudence 155 (1879) ("[T]he way, power, city implying distinct incorporation"); Anderson, 127 (1893) politic": governmental, power: State"); 143 (1891) "It used, loose designate county municipality, distinctly connoting charter"); 1A. Burrill, Glossary 212 (2d 1871) succession, framed policy"; "[p]articularly old books, Corporation sole"); 383 ("Corporation sole" England). I recognize uses deemed valid accuses me "confus[ing] [the] precise [this] way,' refer (as opposed State)." 70, Black, 143. occurred me, "precise" definitions counted ones. face attached phrase, usually—and properly—are loath meant hypertechnical said so. Nor distinction state" force. suggestion, it, nations states nation; explain sources addition nations. utterly devoted sovereigns, surprising indeed distinguishing Nation. deciding means, furthermore, relevance "public corporation." 69-70, 9. chosen coterminous begs latter grasp significance Fox, 315, 192 (1877), York, "corporations" class land devised, authorize devises Noting determined [New York]," definition" Government, corporations created York. 320-321. pertinence state-law questions issue escapes me. Not confront entirely different, statement, corporate." 589, 15. 51 27,—the model Act—was similarly eludes chose presumptively category Its so—and presumption apply—demonstrate corporate. addition, dropped sky. Many above predate 1866 indicating thought Act. point helps small importance retroactively withdrawn revised 1874. T. Durant, Report Joint Committee Revision (1873). Only designating "persons," determining decisive three years later, withdrew presumption. fact, majority dissent emphasized version saw fit mention 1874 revision nn. 51, 53 (opinion Court); 2050 available, hesitated category. Stanley Schwalby, 147 508, 517, 418, 259 [the States] Ohio Helvering, 292 360, 370, 725, 727, 78 1307 (1934); Shirey, 359 257, 746, 747, 789 (1959). corporate—and hence States—is anything overrides supports mentioned almost century—until (1961)—it unclear authorized enduring first Amendment, pursuant lies prohibitions Cases, 18, L.Ed 835 (1883). setting, reasonably deny explicit focus Unimpressed arguments, asserts "States" mentions "decidedly awkward." 64. describe awkwardness perceives, objection under-color-of-law redundant necessarily extends well persons, act; order ensure needed requirement. remove redundancy sees eliminate catchall altogether, separately circumstances situation imposed unforgiving Congress. Taking example closest observed clumsily written municipalities, these, too, authority. Nevertheless, municipalities. Similarly, persons" 'corporations, companies, associations, firms, partnerships, societies, joint stock individuals,' 666, despite evident doing virtually individual, flesh-and-blood results. Wilson, understand linguistic control good "awkward" overridden presumption, discussed detail 357-365, 1153-1158, cover ground again Suffice provision, spare, accepted satisfies heightened show historical too easily forget, think, existing country early passed. "[V]iewed events passions time," Price, 787, 803, 1161, 267 (1966), little brief description Reconstruction period illuminating: ended April 1865. Relations Negroes whites increasingly turbulent. entire process former Confederate declared governments 'unreconstructed' illegal set up military administrations place. ref sed seat representatives until constitutions guaranteeing Negro suffrage, ratified Constitutional conventions 1868. Six fulfilled requirements 1868, four 1870. "For few 'radical' Republicans dominated played role. countermeasures swift violent. Ku Klux Klan organized southern organization appeared romantic title Knights White Camellia. 1868 wave murders assaults launched assassinations keep polls. helpless, resort extreme measures making legal hunt down shoot disguised man. "Within pressures mounted war 1870 drastic measures. ratification Thirteenth December 1865, 1866. proposed, July February 1869 Fifteenth May 31, 1870, Enforcement enacted." Id., 803-805, 1161-1163 (footnotes omitted). midst altering 'balance Government.' 3147. fighting save Union, transformed system. difficult, therefore, same threatening Nation time. III To breadth demonstrate unwisdom. regardless consented suit. if, words, formally plaintiff defendants. 63 exceptional holding. Alabama Pugh, 438 781, 3057, 3058, 1114 suit, 340, 1144, ineffective choices them. Della Grotta Rhode Island, 781 F.2d 343 (CA1 1986). served, federalism comity promoted, refusing give consent 64 appears driven peculiar view law." 67. assert defense immunities, existence excluded actor see, Forrester White, 484 219, 538, (1988), mistake Such entrenches waived. reverse judgm nt below remand resolution assertion preclude 66 court enjoys Constitution, 641-642, 793-794 (Boyle, concurring), possibility lacks waiver discriminate one. Testa Katt, 386, 810, 967 Martinez 277, 283, 553, 558, 481 resolved favor defense, remain reasonable attribute cognizance Martinez, 284, 8, 8; Owen Independence, 445 647-648, 1398, 1413, 673 disposed pass upon questions. therefore instance. 68 Legal doctrines flourish long raison d'etre perished.1 rests fictional premise "King wrong."2 plot assassinate James 1605, execution Charles 1649, Colonists' reaction III's stamp tax character doctrine's underpinnings, British subjects gracious compelling obey repudiating They advisers agents responsible.3 70 administration fictions illusion consent, accountable delicts Under settled course decision, contexts ranging school desegregation assistance benefits prison facilities, artifice naming officer nominal party. Once strips away overlay apparent treated real granting prospective ancillary relief denying retroactive relief. inapplicable, follows directly An official-capacity typical responsible duties explained, 'generally represent[s] another agent.' 165, 3104, (1985) (1978)); 101, 908, reality always balanced interests determine type available. seeks equitable money injuries suffered past, compensation deterrence insufficiently weighty Papasan Allain, 478 265, 278, 106 2932, 2940, 209 (1986); Mansour, 474 68, 423, 88 371 Edelman 415 651, 668, 1347, 1358, 662 (1974). hand, awarded "implicate[s] concerns," 426, "end[ing] conti uing law," outweigh award injunction operates Papasan, 282, 2942; 1143, (1979); Milliken Bradley, 433 267, 289, 2749, 2761, 745 72 example, unanimous upheld pay $5,800,000 fund educational components decree "notwithstanding [its] direct treasury." 2761 (emphasis added).4 Powell stated judgment, [had] adjudged participant violations, ordered participate prospectively otherwise appropriate." 295, 2764. Subsequent adhered relief—even expenditure funds," 2943—may future compliance substantive determination. 1143. treatment exemplified relief, attorney's fees, "liability merits responsibility fees hand hand; prevailed against, either merits, 1988 fee 3104. Nonetheless, challenging Arkansas system, attorneys 1988,5 700, 2578; 472, 878, (1985), assess bad faith litigation 'to paid out Corrections funds.' 692, 2574. Virginia Consumers 446 739, 1967, 1978, 641 (1980), reaffirmed entered agency, injunctive 1983.6 commenced independent sue nominally officer, name. 10-11, 2506-2507, (1980).7 "intended remedy, broadly construed, rights." 2040-2041. properly faithful profound mandate. No limit (1978). 7; Nevada Hall, 410, 1182, fiction 75 concludes, 1983," 71, 10, monetary cites proposition Osborn Wheat.) 738, 204 (1824), Chief Marshall auditor recover taxes illegally collected constitute line authority, states, "would foreign 19th-century 1983." 10. supposition, whethe sought, treasury. Governor Georgia Madrazo, (1 Pet.) 110, 124, (1828). least look (1974), recovery chattel property known 19th century. (1884); Lee, 196, (1882). quite follow,8 nonetheless permissible assume contemplate payable personally 77 having constructed edifice theory impelled demonstrated, textual draws illogical wrongs committed municipal other. import sovereign. Aside reasons, departs authority exactly premise. respectfully dissent. follows: redress. section, exclusively Columbia Columbia." Also Personnel Director, ere subsequently dismissed 349 1986); Gay Student Services M University, 612 160, 163-164 (CA5), 449 1034, 608, 495 (1980); Uberoi University Colorado, 713 894, 900-901 (Colo.1986); Stanton Godfrey, 103, (Ind.App.1981); Gumbhir Kansas Pharmacy, 231 Kan. 507, 512-513, 646 1078, 1084 (1982), 459 1103, 724, 950 (1983); Rahmah Navajo Bd., Bureau Revenue, N.M. 302, 310, 720 1243, 1251 (App.), 479 940, 373 (1986). larger Ruiz Estelle, 679 1115, 1137 modified grounds, 688 266 1042, 1438, 795 Toledo, P. R. Illinois, 744 1296, 1298-1299, (CA7 1984), 470 1051, 1751, 84 815 Harris Appeals, 787 427, (CA8), 851, 179, Aubuchon Missouri, 631 582 (CA8 1980) (per curiam ), 450 915, St. Mary's Center 150 Ariz. 721 669 (App.1986); Mezey 161 Cal.App.3d 1060, 1065, 208 Cal.Rptr. 40, (1984); Hill Florida Corrections, So.2d 129, 132 (Fla.1987), 1064, 1024, 989 (1988); Merritt ex rel. Idaho 20, 26, 871, 877 Bird Safety, 375 36, (Minn.App.1985); Shaw Louis, 664 S.W.2d 576 (Mo.App.1983), 849, ( 984); Fuchilla Layman, N.J. 319, 323-324, A.2d 652, 654 826, Burkey Correctional Facility, App.3d 170, 170-171, 528 607, 608 730 157-158 (Tex.App.1987); Boldt Wis.2d 566, 305 133, 143-144, 454 973, 524, 393 "assumed" Those ones name awarding supra; discussing 14, 3106, address none Petitioner's evidently "jurisdictional" "thus raised motion" assuming characterization correct, "this [by sub silentio holdings] subsequent finally brings jurisdictional us." Hagans Lavine, 528, 535, 1372, 1377, 577 Assn. (1983), relies, fully reconcilable County, Robinson-Patman §§ 13(a) 13(f). 155-157, 1015-1017. seeking defendant, Trustees Alabama; plaintiff's 153, 1014, 5. Had disposition resulted. Of faced over antitrust laws. 26. "state purchases competing enterprise retail market." 1015. assumed consumption traditional functions," "affec[t] balance." argues yet ederal-question attempt reconsider do. recognition reasoning. longer retained shared "[B]y century, regularly imposing duty charter impliedly city's nonperformance misperformance obligation," 646, result, multitude cases" immune activities, 646-647, 1413. sense." 321, (1877); B. ("most exact expression" corporation"); government"); ("body politic" "term corporation, usually designated 'body "is invested A. "). towns, cities, counties, 347; 264-265; 278; 352. confuse way," 143, State). confusion revealed BRENNAN's reliance 1979 edition Dictionary, defines "[a] good." 79. extent citation suffer confusion, best ambiguous, still incapable f supplying "official-capacity State." 14; Ex parte Young, 123, 159-160, 441, 453-454, 714 (1908). "commonplace doctrine," L. 3-27, 190, 1988), re Ayers, 443, 506-507, 164, 183-184, 216 (1887); 219-222, 259-262, (1882); Liquidation McComb, 531, 541, 623 (1876); (1824). Kenosha Bruno, 412 513, 2222, 2226, (1973), 93, "bifurcated depending nature them," surprising, Supra, 67-68, 7. phenomenon, this. customs, beliefs, needs primitive formula. centuries belief, disappears, remains. gave rise forgotten ingenious minds inquire how accounted for. of, seems reconcile things; adapts new enters career. form receives content, modifies received." O. Holmes, Common (M. Howe 1963). Blackstone, Commentaries *246 thinking wrong; thing"). chapter classic History England, published 1849, Thomas Macaulay wrote: "Of kindred was, period, justly reputed best. prerogatives extensive. ample, great ancient began exist, potent development, continued generations, produced things now live. ' First, legislate Parliament. Secondly, Thirdly, conduct land, broke responsible." Macaulay, England 28-29. required 297, 917, (1885) fancied inconvenience interference collection Virginia, collectors, vanishes once possible, except enforce contract States"); Davis Gray, (16 220, 447 (1873) ("Where concerned, party, done. done sufficient omission record"). 2574, (1978): [433 (1977) ], treasurer sum litigant, 'this remedial taxpayers Detroit Michigan,' Pet. Cert. O.T.1976, 76-447, pp. 116a-117a, affirming, 'the one-half costs' Bradley Milliken, 540 245 (CA6 1976)." evinced assessed State: equally plain: '[I]t attorneys' items costs, official, funds agency control, (whether party).' S.Rep. 94-1011, (1976) (footnote House accord: 'The greater resources ample base prevailing entities.' H.R.Rep. 94-1558, added footnote that: 'Of 11th bar governments. Bitzer.' 14. deeds words. rejected attempts amend immunize awards." Hutto, 694, 2575. incorrect unnecessary agency. 63, 4. imposition fees. questioned joined (1973) ("We [v. (1961) actually generic bifurcated them").

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