Document: 543 U.S. 551 ROPER, SUPERINTENDENT, POTOSI CORRECTIONAL CENTERv.SIMMONS No. 03-633. Supreme Court of United States. Argued October 13, 2004. Decided March 1, 2005. At age 17, respondent Simmons planned and committed a capital murder. After he had turned 18, was sentenced to death. His direct appeal subsequent petitions for state federal postconviction relief were rejected. This then held, in Atkins v. Virginia, 536 304, that the Eighth Amendment, applicable States through Fourteenth prohibits execution mentally retarded person. filed new petition relief, arguing Atkins' reasoning established Constitution juvenile who under 18 when his crime. The Missouri agreed set aside Simmons' death sentence favor life imprisonment without eligibility release. It held that, although Stanford Kentucky, 492 U. S. 361, rejected proposition bars punishment offenders younger than national consensus has developed against those since Stanford. Held: Amendments forbid imposition penalty on their crimes committed. Pp. 560-579. (a) Amendment's prohibition "cruel unusual punishments" must be interpreted according its text, by considering history, tradition, precedent, with due regard purpose function constitutional design. To implement this framework propriety affirmed necessity referring "the evolving standards decency mark progress maturing society" determine which punishments are so disproportionate as unusual." Trop Dulles, 356 86, 100-101. In 1988, Thompson Oklahoma, 487 815, 818-838, plurality determined did not permit any offender 16 at time next year, Stanford, 5-to-4 referred contemporary decency, but concluded proscribe over 15 because 22 37 permitted 16-year-old offenders, 25 it 17-year-olds, thereby indicating there no consensus. S., 370-371. A also "emphatically reject[ed]" suggestion should bring own judgment bear acceptability penalty. Id., 377-378. That same day Penry Lynaugh, 302, 334, Amendment mandate categorical exemption from persons only two enacted laws banning such executions. Three Terms ago Atkins, however, evolved now demonstrated is cruel punishment. noted objective indicia society's standards, expressed pertinent legislative enactments practice, executions become truly fair say them. 314-315. returned rule, decisions predating contemplates Court's brought question 312. observing mental retardation diminishes personal culpability even if can distinguish right wrong, id., 318, offenders' impairments make less defensible impose retribution past or real deterrent future crimes, 319-320, ruled constitutes an excessive sanction entire category places substantive restriction State's power take offender's life, 321. Just reconsidered issue decided Penry, reconsiders 560-564. (b) Both consensus, particular legislatures have addressed question, determination exercise independent judgment, demonstrate juveniles. 564-575. (1) As here — rejection majority States; infrequency use where remains books; consistency trend toward abolition practice provide sufficient evidence today society views juveniles, words used respecting retarded, "categorically culpable average criminal," 316. similar, some respects parallel, Atkins: 30 prohibit penalty, including 12 altogether maintain but, express provision judicial interpretation, exclude juveniles reach. Moreover, 20 formal prohibition, infrequent. Although, contrast rate change reducing incidence taking specific steps abolish it, been dramatic, difference between case respect counterbalanced consistent direction abolition. Indeed, slower pace may explained simple fact impropriety executing years old gained wide recognition earlier retarded. 564-567. (2) Rejection required Amendment. Capital limited commit "a narrow most serious crimes" whose extreme makes them deserving execution." 319. general differences adults cannot reliability classified among worst offenders. Juveniles' susceptibility immature irresponsible behavior means "their conduct morally reprehensible adult." 835. Their vulnerability comparative lack control immediate surroundings mean greater claim forgiven failing escape negative influences whole environment. See supra, 395. reality still struggle define identity supportable conclude heinous crime irretrievably depraved character. recognized import these characteristics 16. 833-838. applies all 18. Once juveniles' diminished recognized, evident neither penological justifications deterrence prospective e. g., 319 provides adequate justification imposing Although deny overlook brutal too many committed, disagrees petitioner's contention given insistence individualized consideration sentencing, arbitrary unnecessary adopt rule barring An unacceptable likelihood exists brutality cold-blooded nature would overpower mitigating arguments based youth matter course, immaturity, vulnerability, true depravity require severe When commits crime, State exact forfeiture basic liberties, extinguish potential attain mature understanding humanity. While drawing line subject objections always raised rules, point draws purposes childhood adulthood ought rest. deemed longer controlling issue. 568-575. (c) overwhelming weight international opinion here, respected significant confirmation See, Thompson, 830-831, n. 31. country world continues give official does lessen fidelity pride origins acknowledge affirmation certain fundamental rights other nations peoples underscores centrality within our heritage freedom. 575-578. 112 W. 3d 397, affirmed. KENNEDY, J., delivered Court, STEVENS, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. concurring opinion, joined, post, p. 587. O'CONNOR, dissenting SCALIA, REHNQUIST, C. THOMAS, 607. CERTIORARI TO THE SUPREME COURT OF MISSOURI. James R. Layton, Solicitor Missouri, argued cause petitioner. With him briefs Jeremiah (Jay) Nixon, Attorney General, Stephen D. Hawke Evan J. Buchheim, Assistant Attorneys General. Seth P. Waxman respondent. brief David Ogden Jennifer Herndon, appointment 541 1040.* JUSTICE KENNEDY Court. 1 requires us address, second decade half, whether permissible execute older 361 (1989), divided group. We reconsider question. 2 * junior high school, Christopher Simmons, About nine months later, after tried There little doubt instigator Before commission said wanted murder someone. chilling, callous terms talked about plan, discussing part friends, Charles Benjamin John Tessmer, aged respectively. proposed burglary breaking entering, tying up victim, throwing victim off bridge. assured friends they could "get away it" minors. 3 three met a.m. night murder, Tessmer left before out. (The later charged conspiracy, dropped charge exchange testimony Simmons.) entered home Shirley Crook, reaching open window unlocking back door. hallway light. Awakened, Mrs. Crook called out, "Who's there?" response Crook's bedroom, her previous car accident involving both. admitted confirmed resolve her. 4 Using duct tape cover eyes mouth bind hands, perpetrators put minivan drove park. They reinforced bindings, covered head towel, walked railroad trestle spanning Meramec River. tied hands feet together electrical wire, wrapped face threw bridge, drowning waters below. 5 By afternoon September 9, Steven overnight trip, found bedroom disarray, reported wife missing. On fishermen recovered victim's body river. meanwhile, bragging killing, telling killed woman "because bitch seen my face." 6 day, receiving information involvement, police arrested school took station Fenton, Missouri. read Miranda rights. waived attorney answer questions. hours interrogation, confessed perform videotaped reenactment scene. 7 burglary, kidnaping, stealing, first degree. 17 outside criminal jurisdiction Missouri's court system. Mo. Rev. Stat. §§ 211.021 (2000) 211.031 (Supp. 2003). He adult. trial introduced confession along discussed advance bragged later. defense witnesses guilt phase. jury having verdict proceeded 8 sought aggravating factors, submitted money; avoiding, interfering with, preventing lawful arrest defendant; involved mind outrageously wantonly vile, horrible, inhuman. husband, daughter, sisters, presented moving devastation lives. 9 mitigation attorneys officer justice system, testified prior convictions charges him. mother, father, half brothers, neighbor, friend stand tell jurors close relationships formed plead mercy behalf. particular, responsibility care brothers grandmother capacity show love 10 During closing arguments, both prosecutor counsel age, judge instructed consider factor. Defense reminded drink, serve juries, see movies, wisely individuals aren't responsible enough." huge [the jurors] deciding just exactly what sort make." rebuttal, gave following response: "Age, says. Think age. Seventeen old. Isn't scary? Doesn't scare you? Mitigating? Quite contrary I submit. contrary." 11 recommended finding proved each factors it. Accepting jury's recommendation, imposed obtained counsel, moved conviction sentence. One argument received ineffective assistance trial. support contention, attorney, neighbors, clinical psychologists evaluated 13 Part submission "very immature," impulsive," susceptible being manipulated influenced." experts background difficult environment dramatic changes behavior, accompanied poor performance adolescence. absent long periods, spending using alcohol drugs teenagers young adults. matters sentencing proceeding. 14 violation reason denied motion relief. consolidated sentence, denial post-conviction 944 2d 165, 169 (en banc), cert. denied, 522 953 (1997). courts writ habeas corpus. Bowersox, 235 F.3d 1124, 1127 (CA8), 534 924 (2001). proceedings run 304 (2002). agreed. ex rel. Roper, 397 (2003) banc). eighteen states bar twelve altogether, lowered below five legislatively law minimum last decade." 3d, 399. resentenced "life probation, parole, release except act Governor." 413. 19 granted certiorari, 540 1160 (2004), affirm. II provides: "Excessive bail shall required, nor fines imposed, inflicted." Furman Georgia, 408 238, 239 (1972) (per curiam); Robinson California, 370 660, 666-667 (1962); Louisiana Francis Resweber, 329 459, 463 (1947) (plurality opinion). guarantees subjected sanctions. flows "`precept graduated proportioned [the] offense.'" 311 (quoting Weems States, 217 349, 367 (1910)). protecting convicted reaffirms duty government dignity persons. 21 punishments," like expansive language Constitution, we unusual. 100-101 (1958) 815 (1988), do 818-838 (opinion joined Brennan, Marshall, Blackmun, JJ.). lower 826-829. observed "[t]he conclusion offend civilized person offense professional organizations, share Anglo-American heritage, leading members Western European community." 830. further juries exceeding rarity; carried out 1948, 40 prior. 832-833. 23 Bringing permissibility 15-year-old offender, stressed reasons why trusted privileges responsibilities adult explain According plurality, lesser made inappropriate form retribution, while low engaged kind cost-benefit analysis attaches possibility execution" deterrence. 836-838. O'CONNOR narrower grounds, 848-859, offender. 24 four Justices, and, 17-year-old These numbers, view, indicated "sufficient label 377-378 White JJ.); 382 (O'CONNOR, judgment) (criticizing plurality's refusal "to `"nexus defendant's blameworthiness"' proportional"). 302 (1989). offense. 334. statutes prohibiting added completely, [did] present consensus." Ibid. 26 Atkins. minority rare. U.S., basis "has unusual, it." 27 inquiry into end there. repeated relied upon statement bearing Instead "`the will Amendment.'" 312 Coker 433 584, 597 (1977) opinion)). Mental retardation, said, wrong. 318. likely effect. 319-320. Based considerations "`places life' offender." 321 Ford Wainwright, 477 399, 405 (1986)). 28 beginning review data essential instruction. determine, III 29 decided, prohibited number comprised abandoned maintained excluded 313-315. similar calculation case, comprising Appendix A, infra. emphasized Since executed known IQ 70. too, six prisoners years, done so: Texas, Virginia. V. Streib, Juvenile Death Penalty Today: Sentences Executions Crimes, January 1973-December 31, 2004, 76, (2005), available http://www.law.onu.edu/faculty/streib/documents/JuvDeathDec2004.pdf (last updated Jan. 2005) (as visited Feb. 25, 2005, Clerk file). December 2003 Governor Kentucky spare Kevin commuted one declaration "`[w]e people who, legally, children.'" Lexington Herald Leader, Dec. 2003, B3, WL 65043346. ensured add itself list very defendant upheld Kentucky. is, sure, least case. Impressive Sixteen heard contrast, slower. Five allowed intervening decision. 5, 7; Furman, 122 Wash. 440, 858 1092 (1993) 31 Though ("telling," borrow word describe difference, 315, 18), significant. "[i]t much significant, change." 315. wake already passed legislation reinstate 315-316. smaller Penry; yet think demonstrated. previously reinstated fact, coupled carries special force light popularity anticrime legislation, recent cracking down respects, H. Snyder & M. Sickmund, National Center Justice, Offenders Victims: 1999 Report 89, 133 (Sept. 1999); Scott Grisso, Evolution Adolescence: Developmental Perspective Justice Reform, 88 Crim. L. 137, 148 Any thus change. 32 moreover, explanation. 17. If anything, shows Court: "It ultimate irony inappropriateness broadly sooner continue barred." 408, 10. 33 Petitioner resists supports position observation Senate ratified International Covenant Civil Political Rights (ICCPR), 19, 1966, 999 N. T. 171 (entered Mar. 23, 1976), President's reservation regarding Article 6(5) treaty, Brief 27. best faint argument. First, 1992; then, Second, Congress considered enacting Federal Act 1994, extend § 3591. ICCPR minimal 34 criminal." B 35 hold 36 Because punishment, force. 856 judgment). principle implemented throughout process. precise definition result Godfrey 446 420, 428-429 (1980) latitude raise factor "any aspect [his her] character record circumstances proffers death." Lockett Ohio, 438 586, 604 (1978) opinion); Eddings 455 104, 110-112 (1982); Johnson 509 350, 359-362 (summarizing jurisprudence 238 curiam), sentencer's factors). beyond absolute terms, commission. 584 (rape woman); Enmund Florida, 458 782 (1982) (felony kill, attempt intend kill). classes 16, insane, how supra; 399 (1986); supra. rules vindicate underlying reserved parent knows scientific sociological studies amici cite tend confirm, "[a] maturity underdeveloped sense more often understandable young. qualities impetuous ill-considered actions decisions." Johnson, 367; Eddings, 115-116 ("Even normal customarily lacks adult"). "adolescents overrepresented statistically virtually every reckless behavior." Arnett, Reckless Behavior Perspective, Review 339 (1992). immaturity irresponsibility almost voting, serving marrying parental consent. Appendixes B-D, 38 area vulnerable pressures, peer pressure. 115 ("[Y]outh chronological fact. condition influence psychological damage"). prevailing circumstance control, experience Steinberg Scott, Less Guilty Reason Immaturity, Diminished Responsibility, Penalty, 58 Am. Psychologist 1009, 1014 (hereinafter Scott) ("[A]s legal minors, [juveniles] freedom extricate themselves criminogenic setting"). 39 third broad well personality traits transitory, fixed. generally E. Erikson, Identity: Youth Crisis (1968). render suspect falls 835 395 (Brennan, dissenting). From moral standpoint misguided equate failings minor adult, minor's deficiencies reformed. relevance derives signature transient; mature, impetuousness recklessness dominate subside." 368; ("For teens, [risky antisocial] behaviors fleeting; cease individual becomes settled. Only relatively small proportion adolescents experiment risky illegal activities develop entrenched patterns problem persist adulthood"). 41 42 apply distinct social served penalty: "`retribution offenders.'" Gregg 428 153, 183 (1976) (joint Stewart, Powell, JJ.)). remarked "[i]f murderer insufficient justify State, surely merit retribution." conclusions follow Whether viewed community's outrage balance wrong strong Retribution proportional law's blameworthiness diminished, substantial degree, immaturity. 43 deterrence, unclear measurable effect petitioner acknowledged oral Tr. Oral Arg. 48. leave assessment efficacy various schemes, Harmelin Michigan, 501 957, 998-999 (1991) (KENNEDY, Here, absence concern suggest teenage remote nonexistent." 837. extent might residual effect, worth noting parole sanction, 44 concluding Alabama et al. Amici Curiae. Certainly argued, concede point, rare arise maturity, demonstrates depravity, linchpin pressed amici. assert assuming truth observations general, nonetheless related case-by-case basis, cases justified. central feature system designed circumstances, youth, Given consideration, maintains 45 disagree. marked understood risk allowing youthful receive despite culpability. counted above, rather mitigating. Supra, 558. overreaching corrected ensure overlooked, address larger concerns. 46 expert differentiate reflects unfortunate transient irreparable corruption. 1014-1016. understand difficulty underlies forbidding psychiatrists diagnosing patient antisocial disorder, disorder psychopathy sociopathy, characterized callousness, cynicism, contempt feelings, rights, suffering others. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic Statistical Manual Disorders 701-706 (4th ed. text rev. 2000); 1015. trained advantage testing refrain, diagnostic expertise, assessing refrain asking far graver condemnation merits 47 Drawing subject, rules. disappear turns token, attained level never For discussed, drawn. drew challenged. logic extends adulthood. conclude, 48 1989, 370-371, suffices note changed. observed, furthermore, 370, 2; decision Last, idea proportionality class opinion), inconsistent decisions, 833-838 Enmund, 797; Coker, premises 312-313, 317-321. 49 holding account seeking outweigh few pending arise. IV 50 Our finds stark controlling, task interpreting responsibility. Yet Trop, countries authorities instructive interpretation punishments." 102-103 opinion) ("The virtual unanimity statelessness crime"); 317, (recognizing "within community, overwhelmingly disapproved"); (noting "by community," "[w]e community determining unusual"); 796-797, (observing doctrine felony abolished England India, severely restricted Canada Commonwealth countries, unknown continental Europe"); 596, ("It ... irrelevant 60 major surveyed 1965, retained rape ensue"). 51 emphasize, Nations Convention Child, save Somalia, contains Art. 37, Nov. 20, 1577 3, I. 1448, 1468-1470 Sept. 2, 1990); Respondent 48; Union Curiae 12-13; President Earl Carter, Jr., 9; Former Diplomats Morton Abramowitz Human Committee Bar Wales 13-14. No ratifying Parallel prohibitions contained covenants. ICCPR, 6(5), 175 (prohibiting anyone offense) (signed noted, 567); Rights: Pact San José, Costa Rica, 4(5), 22, 1969, 1144 146 July 1978) (same); African Charter Welfare 5(3), OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/ 24.9/49 (1990) 29, 1999) (same). 52 submitted, contest, seven 1990: Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Nigeria, Democratic Republic Congo, China. either public disavowal practice. 49-50. sum, stands alone 53 covenants date, Kingdom came being. Kingdom's bears historic ties origins. modeled parallel English Declaration 1689, provided: "[E]xcessive Bail Fines imposed; Punishments M., ch. 10, Eng. Large 441 (1770); 100 now, entirety; decades step, penalty; separate matter. 1930 committee 21. House Commons Select Punishment (1930), 193, 44. Parliament Children Young Person's 1933, Geo. 12, prevented date And Criminal Act, 6, 58, 56 authority there, established. 54 proper resting large instability emotional imbalance 10-11. outcome, conclusions. 55 Over time, generation next, come earn even, Madison dared hope, veneration people. Federalist 49, 314 (C. Rossiter 1961). document sets forth, rests upon, innovative principles original experience, federalism; proven political mechanisms separation powers; accused cases; provisions secure preserve human dignity. doctrines remain present-day self-definition identity. Not honor know own. simply 57 setting ordered. APPENDIX OPINION 59 STATES THAT PERMIT IMPOSITION DEATH PENALTY ON JUVENILES Ala. Code 13A-6-2(c) (West 2004) (no age) Arizona Ariz. Ann. 13-703(A) Supp. (same) Arkansas Ark. 5-4-615 (Michie 1997) Delaware Del. Ann., Tit. (Lexis 1995) Florida Fla. 985.225(1) Georgia Ga. 17-9-3 Idaho 18-4004 Ky. 640.040(1) (minimum 16) La. 14:30(C) Mississippi Miss. 97-3-21 2000) 565.020 Nevada Nev. 176.025 New Hampshire 630:1(V) 1996) 17) North Carolina Gen. 14-17 2003) prison penalty) Oklahoma Okla. 21, 701.10 2002) Pennsylvania Pa. Cons. 1102 (2002) South 16-3-20 2004 main ed.) Texas Tex. Penal 8.07(c) 2004-2005) Utah 76-3-206(1) 61 Virginia Va. 18.2-10(a) 62 II. RETAIN PENALTY, BUT SET MINIMUM AGE AT 63 California Cal. 190.5 Colorado Colo. 18-1.4-102(1)(a) Connecticut Conn. 53a-46a(h) (2005) Illinois Ill. Comp. Stat., 720, 5/9-1(b) Indiana Ind. 35-50-2-3 (2004) Kansas Kan. 21-4622 (1995) Maryland Md. Law 2-202(b)(2)(i) Montana Mont. 45-5-102 Nebraska Neb. 28-105.01(1) Jersey 2C:11-3(g) Mexico 31-18-14(A) York Y. 125.27 Ohio 2929.02(A) Oregon Ore. 161.620, 137.707(2) Dakota Codified Laws 23A-27A-42 Tennessee Tenn. 37-1-134(a)(1) (1996) Washington Minimum Wyoming Wyo. 6-2-101(b) 64 65 highest invalidated States' statutes. Marsh, 278 520, 102 445 (invalidating equal balance); People LaValle, 88, 817 341 mandatory requirement instruct deadlock appropriate years). Due appear books, practical until course respective remedy problems identified. 524-526, 544-546, 452, 464; 99, E 2d, 344. III. WITHOUT 66 Alaska Hawaii Iowa Maine Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Rhode Island Vermont West Wisconsin 67 STATE STATUTES ESTABLISHING VOTE 68 STATUTE Const., Amdt. 579 V, 1; 15-05.010 VII, 16-101 2001) 9-25-101 1-2-101 9-12 15, 1701 District 1-1001.02(2)(B) Columbia 97.041 ¶ 21-2-216 Haw. II, 11-12 34-402 III, 5/3-1 3-7-13-1 48A.5 69 145 I, 10; 18:101 Me. 2004); 21-A, 111, 111-A 1993 Elec. 3-102 Mass. 51, Mich. 168.492 1989) Minn. 201.014(1)(a) 241 VIII, IV, 13-1-111 VI, 32-110 293.485 Pt. [no XXVI] 5-102 1998) 163-55 3503.01 (Anderson 2811 (1994) 17-1-3 7-5-610 12-3-1 2-2-102 11.002 20A-2-101 Vt. 2121 70 3-1-3 Wis. 6.02 22-1-102, 22-3-102 71 72 Twenty-Sixth citizens older, vote abridged age." C 73 FOR JURY SERVICE 74 12-16-60(a)(1) 09.20.010(a)(3) 21-301(D) 16-31-101, 16-32-302 Civ. Proc. 203(a)(2) 13-71-105(2)(a) 51-217(a) 4509(b)(2) 11-1906(b)(1)(C) 40.01 15-12-60, 15-12-163 612-4(a)(1) 2-209(2)(a) 705, 305/2 33-28-4-8 607A.4(1)(a) 43-156 (jurors qualified electors); (person elector) 75 29A.080(2)(a) 401(A)(2) 14, 1211 1980) Cts. Jud. 8-104 234, vote); vote) 600.1307a(1)(a) Dist. Ct. Rule 808(b)(2) 13-5-1 494.425(1) 3-15-301 25-1601 6.010 (juror elector); 500-A:7-a(I) 2B:20-1(a) Pamphlet) 38-5-1 (1998) 510(2) 9-3 Cent. 27-09.1-08(2)(b) 2313.42 38, 9-9-1.1(a)(2) 14-7-130 16-13-10 22-1-101 Govt. 62.102(1) 78-46-7(1)(b) 4, 962(a)(1) majority); 173 (age 18) 76 8.01-337 2.36.070 52-1-8(b)(1) 756.02 1-11-101 adults); 14-1-101 D 77 MARRIAGE PARENTAL OR JUDICIAL CONSENT 78 30-1-5 25.05.011, 25.05.171 25-102 9-11-102, 9-11-208 Fam. 301 14-2-106 46b-30 123 46-411 741.04, 741.0405 19-3-2, 19-3-37 (those obtain consent unless female applicant pregnant applicants parents living child, marry 572-2 32-202 750, 5/203 31-11-1-4, 31-11-1-5, 31-11-2-1, 31-11-2-3 595.2 23-106 402.020, 402.210 Children's Arts. 1545, 1547 (minors 79 consent); 19-A, 652 1998 2-301 proof pregnancy 207, 7, 24, 551.103 517.02 15/17 93-1-5 (female 15; male 451.090 40-1-202, 40-1-213 42-105 marry); 43-2101 (defining "minor" 19) 122.020 457:5 1992) 37:1-6 40-1-6 (1999) N.Y. Dom. Rel. 51-2 14-03-02 3101.01 43, 106.060 1304 (1997) 15-2-11 20-1-250 25-1-9 36-3-106 2.101-2.103 30-1-9 5142 80 20-45.1, 20-48, 20-49 26.04.210 48-2-301 765.02 (2001) 20-1-102 Notes: ofamici curiae urging reversal Troy King, General Alabama, Newsom, A. Vernon Barnett Deputy follows: Jane Brady Delaware, Drew Edmondson Greg Abbott Mark Shurtleff Utah, Jerry Kilgore Briefs affirmance Eliot Spitzer, York, Caitlin Halligan, Daniel Smirlock, Jean Lin Julie Loughran, Solicitors Thomas Miller Iowa, Phill Kline Kansas, Joseph Curran, Maryland, Mike Hatch Minnesota, Patricia Madrid Mexico, Hardy Myers Oregon, Darrell McGraw, Virginia; Association Dennis Archer, Amy Sabrin, Matthew Estes; Psychological Days Beth Brinkmann, Sherri Blount, Timothy Lambert, Nathalie F. Gilfoyle, Lindsay Childress-Beatty; Coalition Tydings; Project Laurie Webb Sloan; Michael Bochenek, Audrey Anderson, William Speedy Rice; Marsha Levick, Lourdes Rosado, Drizin, Barbara Bennett Woodhouse, Small, Jeffrey Kehne; Ban Luby; NAACP Legal Educational Fund, Inc., Theodore Shaw, Norman Chachkin, Miriam Gohara, Christina Swarns, Shapiro, Diann Rust-Tierney; Conference Catholic Bishops Chopko Moses; Harold Hongju Koh, Donald Donovan, B. Bright. Richard Wilson; Medical McLaughlin, Joshua Rosenkranz, Stephane Clare; All Alliance Dan Cutrer; Murder Victims' Families Reconciliation Kate Lowenstein; Aid Defender Mello; Geraghty. 81 whom GINSBURG joins, concurring. 82 Perhaps important reaffirmation informs meaning frozen originally drafted, impediment 7-year-old children today. 368 (1989) (describing common adoption). driven construction critically Bill foreclose reading tradition law, evolution continuing debate; settled Marshall breathed text. great lawyers day—Alexander Hamilton, example—were sitting today, expect join KENNEDY's events, hesitation. 83 dissenting. 84 establishes 18th birthday, deliberate, wanton, Neither societal values, analysis, tandem suffice ruling. 85 disallow refrains asserting compelled genuine fails conclusively emerged period constitutionality 86 Instead, decreed rests, ultimately, disproportionately subscribe judgment. Adolescents undoubtedly therefore misconduct, But adduced impeaching seemingly reasonable reached legislatures: murderers sufficiently deserve Nor shown incapable accurately giving associated youth. 87 record—and especially changed Stanford—I substitute judgments Nation's legislatures. Rather, demand clearer showing categorically 89 Let me begin making clear agree description guide jurisprudence. inherently "`barbaric,'" "`excessive' relation committed." 592 inflict "no contribution" acceptable penal goals "grossly severity crime." "precept offense," (1910), cases, demands tailored "personal guilt." 782, 801 825 dissenting); Tison Arizona, 481 149 (1987); 111-112 (1982). 90 dispute static command. Its dead letter barred sanctions—like seven—that repudiated 1791. ante, 587 (STEVENS, concurring); cf. (discussing adopted). concept nothing man," "must draw society." discerning look "objective maximum possible extent." "clearest reliable values." 331 reflecting available, afford "`a index'" mores. 596 181 91 entitled weight, inquiry. reaffirms, 563, 574-575, Amendment," "[P]roportionality—at regards punishment—not legislators jurors, involves notion magnitude degree harm inflicted blameworthiness." "constitutional obligation" ourselves judgment); 797 ("[I]t ultimately permits penalty"). 92 Twice decades, applied adolescent Justices concurred grounds. "definitely exposed threat execution," legislature affirmatively endorsed 849 acknowledging likely" exist, declined evidentiary support. Nor, type advanced Granting premise "that blameworthy crimes," wrote, "it necessarily 15-year-olds punishment." 853. Similarly, deterred prospect penalty." instead inconclusive under-16 concerns rooted rule. statute specify punishable death, authorize 857-858. 93 16- violate again wrote separately, under-18 lacked altogether. 370. developed," arrived. 381-382. reaffirmed view obligation proportionate blameworthiness. 382. Nevertheless, ibid. (citing 853-854 judgment)). 94 twice year specifically others all. Much revisited reversed forbids wave theoretically permitting history. 314-316. evidence, "fair ha[d] against" 95 rest solely tentative conclusion. dispositive. suffer cognitive behavioral deficits, i. e., "subaverage intellectual functioning" "significant limitations adaptive skills communication, self-care, self-direction became manifest 18." "Because impairments, [such persons] capacities process information, communicate, abstract mistakes learn engage logical reasoning, impulses, reactions others." deficits measurably contribute principal intended serve—retribution 319-321. Mentally diminish highly unlikely ever improbable deter committing crimes. Having "`le[ft] State[s] developing ways enforce [their] sentences.'" 317 416-417 96 ground, applying us. preliminary matter, failure reprove, acknowledge, unabashed Stanford's historical recency, binding premised obsolete values. apart error. 97 "draw[s] decency," 101 mores reevaluate "this prerogative overrule precedents." Oil Co. Khan, (emphasis added). factual developments "significantly undermined" rationale holding. Hatter, 532 557, 567 (2001); Co., 20; Rodriguez de Quijas Shearson/American Express, 490 477, 484 exception contrary, clear, predictable, uniform desirable sphere. affirming court's slap hand, today's threatens invite frequent disruptive reassessments precedents. 98 comports begins values"—the 331. emphasizes, overall jurisdictions currently forbade decided. Ante, 564. present, additional Government 27-28 (Appendix A). fraction relevant actually history: Six 316; pp. 15-23 file) Streib). indeed, "similar, to" 99 similarities undeniable, marginally weaker here. Most importantly, opposition countervailing affirmative Cf. (attributing significance unequivocally endorsed" offenders). prohibitory legislation. eight current expose 579-580 A).* presently row (six included count), Streib 24-31, 15-23. all, different (13 respondent). 11, 24-31. suggests measure availability murderers. "not [States retarded] [was] uniformly towards abolishing expressly 565.020.2 (2000); 2004). Furthermore, itself, action context considerably fewer banned comparison, plus Government, legistlatively construed 458, 1092, 1103 partially attributable, says, 566-567. extraordinary provided halting gives pause. supporting merely highlights dispositive cases. confirms, "`in bear'" rubber stamp tally actions. integral struck 595-596 (striking woman, authorized punishment); 792 aiding abetting felony-murder, practice). standing alone, dictate compelling played decisive role persuading significantly bolstered confidence did, herald emergence flawed little, any, analytical proves weak lingering ambiguities 103 Seventeen-year-old exempted "cannot offenders." 569. perceived "adults," birthdays, "juveniles," not. 569-570. surroundings. third, juvenile's fully characteristics, determines guilty crimes; 17-year-olds sentence; "irretrievably depraved." 570-572. 572. However, argues age-based justified prophylactic culpability." 572-573. 104 cavil responsible, adults, ("There circumstance"); 376 dissenting) ("[T]he vicissitudes directly ("Our history replete adults"). accepting premise, 105 adduces whatsoever sweeping conclusion, 572, "rare" ever, warrant misconduct most, murderer. nevertheless bad enough imply effectively act. Surely necessary margins adolescence "adults" "juveniles" kind. follows reasonably culpability, execution, warranted 106 appears premeditated, extreme. Well declared kill several occasions, (ages plan burglarize house pushing "`get it'" 3. accord accomplice broke middle night, forced bed, bound her, There, river, "hog-tied" cable, completely tape, pushed alive, trestle. She drowned water 4. scarcely imagine terror suffered ordeal Whatever unquestionably reflect consciousness materially "depraved" of' . murderer." (1980)). prediction impunity though inaccurate certainly grounds "ha[d] maturity" horrific "at demonstrate[d] 107 suffers closely defect: establish universal bright-line former. aggregate frequently comparing individuals. quite mature. Chronological unfailing development, "adult." short, diverse prohibition. drawn indefensibly protect 108 qualitatively "Mentally retarded" defined precisely definition," fall minimum. 318; 308, retardation); (leaving development exempt punishment). Accordingly, inherent accurate fit believes defies somehow equivalent Seventeen-year-olds may, average, equated major, lifelong 109 issues clearly implicate properly arbitrary, cognizance consequences actions, forth. way meant remedy. guards "insufficient[ly] culpab[le]," 573, part, requiring "reflect[s] reasoned background, character, Brown, 479 538, 545 (1987) concurring). sentencer full constitutionally evidence. Tennard Dretke, 542 274, 283-285 (2004); paradigmatic example 115-116. 110 prosecutor's apparent respondent's troubling, challenged specificity suggests, "overreaching" addressed, narrowly 573. evaluate But, again, presents contain none claim. from, than, qualitative quick safeguards, judges place reliance inadequate context. 111 turn, finally, discussion foreign law. Without global Very few, 576-577. outcome inquiry, asserts [its] conclusions." 578. believe developed, justifies categorical, assign confirmatory described alter not, disagree SCALIA'S 622-628 (dissenting nearly century, consistently decency. 21; 22; which, values society. Obviously, distinctive exposition dictate. 624-625 (SCALIA, distinctively Fourth Establishment Clause). wholly isolated odds countries. surprised find congruence domestic agreement least, existence confirm reasonableness consonant instant otherwise 113 114 obligated weigh hand. inconclusive; durable emerge, arrive. acting soon pre-empts democratic debate simultaneously runs considerable inviting (though than) adopted argument: group rendered unlikely, perhaps impossible, fell class. 116 fail adopts weight," 116, opportunity carefully assess limit. have, unable factor, end, 117 Reasonable minds differ Many office legislator, judge, inclined potentially "inevitably subjective judgment" democratically elected 854 respectfully dissent. 118 CHIEF THOMAS join, 119 approval constitution life-tenured nullify people's representatives, Alexander Hamilton this, judiciary ha[s] FORCE WILL judgment." 78, 465 traditional judiciary, "bound strict precedents comes them." 471. Bound down, indeed. What mockery Hamilton's expectation, announcing you, reaches implausible purporting advert, 561 (internal quotation marks omitted), finds, flimsiest barely solidly exists. Worse still, says matter: "[I]n Amendment." 563 omitted). proclaims sole arbiter discharging awesome purports guidance Members like-minded foreigners, 120 unusual" considers, accordance modern mistaken) jurisprudence, "national consensus," contravene "standards decency,"1 (1958). attitude sanction" namely, "statutes representatives." (2002), dutifully recites test claims halfheartedly 47% 565. 121 Words 50% constitute 342-345 time. (1977), "[a]t rape." 593. (1986), insane unconstitutional, tracing roots union insane." (1982), participation robbery 78% Even hesitation, "neither `wholly unanimous legislatures,' Coker." 793. 42% correctly 574, 372. keep afloat assertion throws overboard observed," ...; juveniles." 574. insinuation method counting contradicts Court" misleading. None dealing alleged limitation counted, limitation, eliminated entirely. Ford, 789; 594. good reason. Consulting concerning old-order Amishmen consumer-preference poll electric car. Of don't sheds whatever something absolutely immunity repealing puts forth determinative young, recklessness, etc. relevant, perhaps, treated noncapital offenses. (They do;2 murder.3) turn remarkable faux nomological desperation. Recognizing national-consensus compared distinguished explaining "[a]lthough apparently threshold Now, "significant" trigger prohibition.4 566. amazing subtle shift numbers entirely table debate. 124 voted (by pronouncement Court) irreversible. form, surged ebbed explained: 125 "The instructs danger inferring statistics 1846, succeeding continued Later, particularly World War ensued steady decline 1950's 1960's, radically ceased 1968.... 126 "In 1972, suggested relic, implicitly consensus.... inference rejecting mistaken. outlawed able revive mistaken refute reject." 854-855 (1988) 127 Relying voters correct Legislatures Arizona5 Florida6 ballot initiative. Thus, circumstances. 128 executions, murderers, 564-565, 567, credits explicitly explained, undisputed percentage 18," 374, possible, probable, induce [respondent] [his] supporters prosecutors rarely imposed." 374. 129 decreased Between 1990 3,599 sentences, 3.4%, 1973-September 30, 75, (Table 3) Oct. 2004), http://www.law.onu.edu/faculty/streib/documentsJuvDeathSept302004.pdf (all Internet materials Today). 2.1% 1982 1988 373 Imposition Offenses, 1982, Through April (paper Cleveland-Marshall College Law, 1989)). actual constituted 2.4% total 1973. Today 2% 1642 1986 373-374 Juveniles 55, (1987)). slightly increased takes 130 driving legislatures, "`"own judgment"'" counterparts. (in quoting opinion))). usurpation "retur[n] rul[e] Stanford," 563. supposed reflected dicta once supplant Justices' views7 foundation logic. ordinary indeed is. pronounced ever-changing reflection decency" society, prescribe discern practices evolving-standards hypothesis, legitimate identify conceivable presume authoritative conscience Nation?8 131 primacy obvious fundamental: "`[I]n courts, respond consequently people.'" 175-176 JJ.) 383 (Burger, dissenting)). consulted juries: Juries "`maintain link system'" itself. Gregg, Witherspoon Illinois, 391 510, 519, (1968)). 132 Today's perfect ill equipped insists looks studies, picking choosing position. explains methodologically sound; tested adversarial "[M]ethodological errors affect validity estimates opinions attitudes population derived sampling techniques. Everything variations survey methodology, choice target population, design used, questions asked, statistical analyses interpret skew results." 326-327 Groves, Survey Errors Costs (1989); Turner Martin, Surveying Subjective Phenomena (1984)). 134 words, another context, heads crowd pick friends. Conroy Aniskoff, 507 511, 519 135 need contradicting points (APA), ability taken opposite Hodgson 497 417 (1990), APA "rich research" decide abortion involvement. Amicus Curiae, O. 88-805 etc., brief, citing psychology treatises numerous asserted: "[B]y 14-15) abilities dilemmas, laws, [and] interpersonal problems." 19-20 (citations nuances methodology conflicting views, science one. "are better `evaluate results local conditions flexibility approach courts.'" McCleskey Kemp, 279, 186). 136 putting cited offer scant opines appreciate 137 do. Murder, behavior. impetuously premeditated sometimes shy birthday murdered beforehand "[i]n terms," 556 commit. innocent bridge alive conscious. 556-557. examples murders involve monstrous acts. 16-year-old, 19-year-old picked hitchhiker, bottles kicked stomped approximately minutes she died. sexually assaulted lifeless finished, cliff. scene mutilate corpse. 9-10; Loggins 771 So. 1070, 1074-1075 (Ala. App. Duncan 827 838, 840-841 1999). Other equally shocking. assuredly cites imperative prevents treating exceptional acts happy-go-lucky teenagers, 138 "almost consent," 569, patently resurrection decent burial (What Equal "Sorry that" sparing refusing another?) "absurd drive carefully, drink responsibly, intelligently, order murdering profoundly conform one's standards." Serving entering marriage sophisticated another's life. 139 lists "set ages operation determinations gross, tests." defendant. determination, includes weighing 115-117. contexts provided, minors considerations. instance, allow bypass notification provisions. Bellotti Baird, 443 622, 643-644 (1979) J.); Planned Parenthood Central Danforth, 52, 74-75 (1976). hard different. complex cold blood. 140 concludes, 572-573, delicate startling undermines foundations entrusts "mak[ing] uniquely defy codification `buil[d] discretion, equity, system.'" McCleskey, Kalven Zeisel, Jury 498 (1966)). faced details evidence; acknowledges "infrequent" "without juveniles," 564, suggesting seriously 141 stopping reasoning. kinds deficient? deficient irrespective Why abuse poverty, well? "overpower[ed]" nature" adequately either. 142 transparently false. "[r]etribution diminished," 571, extension earlier, false generalization defeats "juveniles deterrence," ibid., "`[t]he nonexistent,'" 572 837). unsurprisingly astounding proposition, facts encouraged assuring 419 (Mo. (Price, influenced refuses entertain unsubstantiated ignores 143 essentially so-called center stage. 144 "Article [1577 1468-1470, 1990,] 576 discusses 175, 576, reads: reserves right, Constitutional constraints, (other woman) duly existing Foreign Relations, Rights, Exec. Rep. 102-23, Unless arsenal ratify treaties behalf favors, refutes, actors empowers enter treaties, announces. 1992 otherwise, addition Child punishing going get reassurance really needed, sanction," comfort. 147 interesting whereas content accept say, inquiring (specifically, allow), willing nation tyrannical makeup however subservient incompetent adheres inquire forsworn (on paper least) have: authority, Simon Blaskovich, Comparative Analysis Punishment: Statutes, Policies, Frequencies, Public Attitudes 26, idea, typically jury, can, does, withhold except, warranted. authorities, speak More fundamentally, explicit grand indictment, interpretations prescribed Court-pronounced exclusionary example, American. Mapp 643, 655 (1961), "unique jurisprudence." Bivens Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 415 (1971) "universally rejected" searches "appears alternative discipline effective search violations." Bradley, Goes Abroad, Case Res. 375, 399-400 England, excludes during seizure recently begun excluding illegally confessions. Slobogin, Procedure: Regulation Police Investigation 550 (3d 2002). admission "bring administration disrepute." 550-551 introduction seized trial" Rights. 551; oblivious Constitution's "Congress establishment religion. ." 1. religious neutrality insist church requires. "we Clause dangers money payments sectarian institutions," Rosenberger Rector Visitors Univ. Va., 515 819, 842 cases), Netherlands, Germany, Australia funding schools ground neutral secular perspectives key service education, expression funding." Monsma Soper, Challenge Pluralism: Church Democracies 207 (1997); 67, 103, 176. teaching religion schools. 142. France, "America's rival strictness church-state separation," contracting educational services widespread." Glenn, Ambiguous Embrace: Faith-Based Schools Social Agencies (2000). 150 let forget viability. Larsen, Importing Norms "Wider Civilization": Lawrence Rehnquist Use Domestic Interpretation, St. 1283, 1320 Reproductive World's Abortion (June http:// www.reproductiverights.org/pub_fac_abortion_laws.html. Roe Wade, 410 (1973), urged lead, deaf ears. McCrudden, Main? Physician-Assisted Suicide Cases Methodology End Life: Assisted 125, 129-130 Schneider 2000). 151 indefensible opinion. Kingdom, consult sources asked written backdrop 18th-century thought. easy 973-974 (1991), "Cruell Unusuall Punishments" "`out Judges'] Power'" statute, administered Crown Crown's judges. Under easily survive challenge. has, wrongly purely originalist undertakes majestic (and prescribing) comprehension look, purpose, centuries Revolutionary increasing speed dominated jurists legal, political, culture directive seriously, relaxing double jeopardy British Commission published report prosecution acquittal judge's ruling legally incorrect. Commission, Double Jeopardy Prosecution Appeals, LAW COM 267, Cm 5048, 1.19 (Mar. 2001); Spencer, System Procedures 142, 204, (M. Delmas-Marty Spencer eds. curtail since, system's deep shared magistrates jury. Feldman, Wales, Worldwide Study 91, 114-115 Bradley 152 profess willingness else foreigners' decisions. invoke alien agrees thinking, ignore decisionmaking, sophistry.9 153 responds freedom." "other peoples" buttress commitment (what logically follow) disapproval weaken commitment. flatly misdescribes underscore "fidelity" "pride origins," "our [American] heritage." centuries-old letting whether, withholding "affirm," repudiate, be, diktat henceforth America. parting downplay extensive unconvincing. "Acknowledgment" parades 154 insult injury, affirms admonishing flagrant disregard precedent Until "`changes doctrine' ha[ve] holding, Hatter 647, 650 (CA 1995)), decisions," Today, silently approves state-court blatantly precedent. 155 admit action, indulgent reaction, are, way, understandable. statutory adopted, "law" ordinarily signifies fixed meaning. Such change, (confessing error) overrule. purported mirror passing changing sentiment penology. can; saw relationship looking scene, judgment? 156 However sound philosophically, penology, purport snapshot (with timeframes shortened mere treat represented prescriptions people, (rather sequentially) Allowing reinterpret whenever leaves "evolution" criteria. behave do, "updating" destroys stability unreliable designing officials. crown arbitrariness chaos. transfer Seeante, 850-852 judgment): "There reasons, motivate [minors] channeled process." opposing indirect mechanism unequivocal complies Amendment: "modes adopted."Ford (1986). unusually 7-year-old, rebuttable presumption incapacity (or other) 14. Blackstone, Commentaries *23-*24; Hale, Pleas 24-29 (1800)). 47.12.030 2002); 571-22 (1999); 232.45 (2003); 3101(4) 2003); 119, 764.27 260B.125 27-20-34 14-1-7 33, 5516 49-5-10 938.18 (2003-2004); Trying Sentencing Adults: Transfer Blended (Oct. exempts harshest parole. 22-2104 notes, judicial, legislative, decisionState (1993), limit avoid difficulties, popular sentiment. 1996, Arizona's Ballot Proposition automatically transferring courts. implementing county manner fifteen, sixteen seventeen murder." 13-501 2001). scheme SeeState Davolt, 191, 214-216, 456, 479-481 (2004). approved amendment wording "cruelor unusual," (2003). Commentary 25B 180 Brennan 754 (Fla. adopting language, Weaver, Word May Allow Execution 16-Year-Olds, Miami Herald, 2002, 7B. See,e. ("[W]e th[e] [of legislatures] construing Amendment"); strongly confirms judgment"). here,ante, 594-598 prepared (like majority) override America's "moral proportionality," 598. dissents votes offending selected lawyers' sentiments predictable "special character," "draws society."Ante, 604-605. Nothing "maturing values" brave Process Protection Clause. 539 558, 571-573 518 515, 532-534 (1996); Southeastern Casey, 505 833, 847-850 "serve 605. unreasonableness Either own, world; ways. Finally, consensus" confirmed. announce requirements proportionality" powerful proportionality.

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