Document: 528 U.S. 167120 S.Ct. 693145 L.Ed.2d 610 FRIENDS OF THE EARTH, INCORPORATED, et al., PETITIONERSv.LAIDLAW ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES (TOC), INC. No. 98-822. SUPREME COURT UNITED STATES Argued October 12, 1999 Decided January 2000 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press. Syllabus Defendant-respondent Laidlaw Environmental Services Inc., bought a facility Roebuck, South Carolina, included wastewater treatment plant. Shortly thereafter, Carolina Department Health and Control (DHEC), acting under Clean Water Act (Act), 33 U.S.C. § 1342(a)(1), granted National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit. The permit authorized discharge treated water into North Tyger River, but limited, among things, pollutants waterway. began various waterway; these discharges, particularly mercury, an extremely toxic pollutant, repeatedly exceeded limits set by On April 10, 1992, plaintiff-petitioners Friends Earth Citizens Local Action Network, Inc. (referred collectively here, along with later joined plaintiff-petitioner Sierra Club, as "FOE"), notified their intention file citizen suit against it Act, 1365(a), after expiration requisite 60-day notice period. DHEC acceded Laidlaw's request lawsuit company. last day FOE's period expired, reached settlement requiring pay $100,000 civil penalties make "every effort" comply its obligations. June FOE filed this Laidlaw, alleging noncompliance NPDES seeking declaratory injunctive relief award penalties. moved for summary judgment on ground lacked Article III standing bring lawsuit. After examining affidavits deposition testimony from members plaintiff organizations, District denied motion, finding plaintiffs had standing. also motion dismiss was barred §1365(b)(1)(B) DHEC's prior action initiated suit, rendered 22, 1997, violated mercury limitation 13 times committed monitoring 10 reporting violations. In issuing judgment, found gained total economic benefit $1,092,581 result extended permit's limit; nevertheless, court concluded penalty $405,800 appropriate. particular, judgment's "total deterrent effect" would adequate forestall future violations, given have reimburse significant amount legal fees itself incurred expenses. declined because began, achieved substantial compliance terms appealed Court's did not appeal denial relief. Fourth Circuit vacated remanded instructions action. Assuming, arguendo, initially standing, appellate held case become moot once complied failed equitable Citing Steel Co. v. Better Environment, 523 83, reasoned only remedy currently available FOE, payable Government, redress injury suffered. added failure obtain merits precluded recovery attorneys' costs such "prevailing substantially prevailing party" §1365(d). According entire Roebuck has since been permanently closed, dismantled, put up sale, all discharges ceased. Held: erred concluding suitor's claim must dismissed when defendant, commencement litigation, come Pp. 8_25. (a) Constitution's case-or-controversy federal judicial authority, Art. III, §2, underpins both mootness doctrine, two inquiries differ crucial respects. Because persuaded moot, simply assumed initial See Arizonans Official English Arizona, 520 43, 66_67. But concludes Appeals mootness, obligation assure at outset litigation. 8_9. (b) satisfy III's requirements, show "injury fact," causation, redressability. Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 555, 560_561. An association behalf sue own right, interests stake germane organization's purpose, neither asserted nor requires individual members' participation Hunt Washington State Apple Advertising Comm'n, 432 333, 343. relevant showing environment plaintiff. To insist former rather than latter raise hurdle higher necessary success citizen's enforcement suit. Here, fact adequately documented asserting pollutant affiants' reasonable concerns about effects those directly affected recreational, aesthetic, interests. See, e.g., Club Morton, 405 727, 735. These submissions present dispositively more mere "general averments" "conclusory allegations" inadequate Wildlife Federation, 497 871, 888, " `some day' intentions" visit endangered species halfway around world insufficient Wildlife. U.S., 564. 9_13. (c) argues seek offer no plaintiffs. For who injured threatened due illegal conduct ongoing time sanction effectively abates prevents recurrence provides form redress. Civil can fit description. Insofar they encourage defendants discontinue current violations deter ones, afford unlawful conduct. need explore outer principle provide sufficient deterrence support redressability, sought here carried effect likely, opposed merely speculative, injuries-as reasonably assessed $405,800. contrary. That private assess wholly past 106_107, address complaint could continue if undeterred, see id., 108. 13_17. (d) automatically company came A defendant's voluntary cessation challenged practice ordinarily does deprive power determine legality practice. City Mesquite Aladdin's Castle, 455 283, 289. If did, courts compelled leave defendant free return old ways. Thus, standard determining whether mooted stringent: might subsequent events absolutely clear allegedly wrongful behavior expected recur. Concentrated Phosphate Export Assn., 393 199, 203. heavy burden persuading cannot recur lies party mootness. Ibid. incorrectly conflated law see, Co., Mesquite. Such confusion understandable, repeated description "the doctrine frame: personal interest exist litigation (standing) throughout existence (mootness)." E.g., Arizonans, 68, n. 22. Careful reflection, however, reveals comprehensive. example, claiming moots bears formidable burden. By contrast, plaintiff's burden, brought force compliance, establish demonstrating that, unchecked will likely occur certainly impending. Whitmore Arkansas, 495 149, 158. plain lesson there circumstances which prospect engage (or resume) harmful too speculative overcome Further, were "standing frame," exception acts "capable repetition, yet evading review" exist. Olmstead L. C., 527 ___, 6. Standing admits similar exception; lacks commences, dispute capable repetition review entitle complainant forum. 109. ensures, resources devoted disputes parties concrete stake. Yet issue, abandonment prove wasteful frugal. Courts license retain jurisdiction over cases one plainly continuing interest, 67, foregoing examples highlight important difference between doctrines, generally Honig Doe, 484 305, 329_332 (Rehnquist, J., concurring). argument doomed failing misconceives statutory scheme. Under §1365(a), district discretion best suited abate ones. Weinberger Romero&nbhyph;Barcelo, 456 313. Denial necessarily mean deter. Indeed, meant thing case; relief, expressly based deterrence. properly conclude injunction intrusive, entail burdensome superintendence holder's activities court. Mesquite, Both closure case, event disputed factual matters aired lower courts; remain open consideration remand. 18_23. (e) resolve entitled theory §1365(d) "catalyst" triggered favorable outcome. Although Circuits divided validity catalyst following Farrar Hobby, 506 103, premature question here. stayed petition until expired resolved. addressed availability counsel fees, either denying awarding fees. It Court, first instance reimbursement costs, including 23_25. 149 F.3d 303, reversed remanded. ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR FOURTH CIRCUIT Ginsburg, delivered Rehnquist, Stevens, O'Connor, Kennedy, Souter, Breyer, JJ., joined. concurring opinions. Scalia, dissenting opinion, Thomas, Justice Ginsburg Court. 1 presents concerning operation citizen-suit provisions Act. Congress entertain suits "a person persons having adversely affected." (g). impel prescribe suit; additionally alternatively, impose Treasury. §1365(a). now us, determined inappropriate institution 956 F. Supp. 588, 611 (SC 1997). Id., 610. reasoned, taking account "will required has, itself, expenses." 610_611. 2 order. 303 (CA4 1998). became declared, fully "[C]ivil government," stated, "would Plaintiffs suffered." 307. Nor order, noted, absent merits, qualify parties. 307, 5. 3 We reverse Appeals. albeit compliance. directing dismissal grounds our 83 (1998), post-commencement 283 (1982). suffice case. misperceived remedial potential serve, alternative injunction, thereby injuries prompted suitor commence 4 * 5 1972, enacted known Federal Pollution 86 Stat. 816, amended, 1251 seq. Section 402 1342 issuance, Administrator Protection Agency (EPA) permits. permits limitations pollutants, related improve cleanliness safety Nation's waters. Noncompliance constitutes violation §1342(h). 6 §505(a) enforce "citizen," defined Sixty days initiating would-be give alleged EPA, occurred, violator. §1365(b)(1)(A). "[T]he purpose violator opportunity complete thus _ render unnecessary suit." Gwaltney Smithfield, Ltd. Chesapeake Bay Foundation, 49, 60 (1987). Accordingly, we citizens lack ceased filed. 56_63. bars suing EPA already commenced, "diligently prosecuting," 1365(b)(1)(B). 7 authorizes proceedings enter injunctions penalties, penalty, take seriousness (if any) resulting violation, history good-faith efforts applicable impact violator, justice require." §1319(d). addition, "may (including attorney expert witness fees) party, whenever determines appropriate." B 8 1986, defendant-respondent hazardous waste incinerator (The changed name Safety-Kleen (Roebuck), simplicity refer "Laidlaw" throughout.) acquired facility, authorizing River. permit, effective 1, 1987, placed several river, including-of particular relevance case-mercury, pollutant. regulated flow, temperature, toxicity, pH effluent imposed 9 Once received repeatedly, despite experimenting technological fixes, consistently meet stringent 1.3 ppb (parts per billion) daily average limit discharges. 489 occasions 1987 1995. Supp., 613_621. (FOE) (CLEAN) together "FOE") took step They sent letter notifying period, i.e., 1992. lawyer then contacted ask consider filing Laidlaw. reason requesting bar proposed through 890 470, 478 1995). agreed Laidlaw; company's drafted paid fee. 9, `every effort' 479_481. 11 evidence fact, therefore Record, Doc. 43. opposition submitted organizations. 71 (Exhs. 41_51). record organizations' earlier 21 5_10). evidence, finding-albeit "by very slimmest margins"-that App. 97_1246 (CA4), pp. 207_208 (Tr. Hearing 39_40 (June 30, 1993)). 12 1365(b)(1)(B) appearing amicus curiae, opposing motion. extensive analysis Laidlaw-DHEC reached, prosecuted"; consequently, allowed proceed. 499.1 indicates times. 621. during 601. recorded occurred 1995, long years rendered. issued judgment. 588 603. concluded, light guiding factors listed 1319(d). stated lesser appropriate effect." reaching determination, "considered fees." grant stating "Laidlaw parameters least August 1992." 611. 14 arguing inadequate, cross-appealed, arguing, qualified diligent prosecution precluding continued participate curiae FOE. 15 July 16, 1998, 303. without deciding action, 306, 3, went hold moot. first, elements standing-injury, redressability-must persist every stage review, else becomes 306. decision [FOE]-civil government-would [FOE has] 306_307. footnote, "failure [its] claims precludes `prevailing party.' (quoting 1365(d)). 16 certiorari, Respondent's Suggestion Mootness 3. 17 525 1176 (1999), inconsistency Circuit's decisions Appeals, Atlantic Legal Stroh Die Casting 116 814, 820 (CA7), cert. denied, 522 981 (1997); Natural Resources Defense Council, Texaco Rfg. Mktg., 493, 503_504 (CA3 1993); Pan American Tanning Corp., 993 F.2d 1017, 1020_1021 (CA2 Tyson Foods, 897 1128, 1135_1136 (CA11 1990). II 18 jurisprudence, respects critical proper resolution so them separately. held, 66_67 (1997) (court assume exists analyze mootness). declaring ourselves turning 19 560_561 (1992), (1) suffered fact" particularized actual imminent, conjectural hypothetical; (2) fairly traceable defendant; (3) redressed decision. otherwise 343 (1977). 20 contends even organizations sustained faced threat activities. contention points finding, course setting amount, "no demonstrated proof harm environment" 602; ibid. ("[T]he issue health risk environmental harm."). purposes upon part inquiry (as dissent essence does, post, 2_3) Focusing plaintiff, member Kenneth Lee Curtis averred he lived half-mile facility; occasionally drove looked smelled polluted; like fish, camp, swim, picnic near river miles downstream teenager, do concerned polluted 41, 42). reaffirmed statements testimony. testified fish specific spot used boy, his (Exh. 52_53; Exh. 44, 33). 22 Other presented effect. CLEAN Angela Patterson attested she operated picnicked, walked, birdwatched, waded River natural beauty area; longer engaged discharged pollutants; her husband purchase home intend so, 10). Judy Pruitt one-quarter mile hike, refrained 7). Linda Moore use south land surrounding recreational contained pollutants. 45, 46). deposition, length picnic, boat, drive 48, 29, 36_37, 62_63, 72). Gail home, value homes located further believed accounted some discrepancy. 9). Norman Sharp canoed approximately 40 canoe closer point, 8). 23 sworn statements, determined, fact. allege aver area "for whom aesthetic values lessened" activity. 735 (1972). 562_563 ("Of course, desire observe animal species, purely esthetic purposes, undeniably cognizable standing."). 24 Our 871 (1990), organization assailed Bureau Land Management's "land withdrawal program," program covering millions acres, illegally opened public lands mining challenging initiate Administrative Procedure 702. survive offering "averments state [the organization's] uses unspecified portions immense tract territory, activity probably virtue governmental action." 889. 25 assert affiant Federation. 888. conditional statements-that nearby recreation discharging it-be equated 26 Los Angeles Lyons, 461 95 (1983), relied dissent, weigh police chokehold policy credibly realistic policy. 107, 7. footnote Lyons cited noted "[t]he reasonableness Lyons' fear dependent likelihood conduct," "subjective apprehensions" place enough 108, 8. undisputed conduct-discharging excess limits-was occurring then, "subjective" [the] fear" led affiants respond concededly refraining areas. Unlike nothing "improbable" proposition continuous pervasive cause residents curtail waterway harms. entirely reasonable, true 27 next Here defect plaintiffs, argues, government, never them. 28 right demonstrate separately each sought. 109 (notwithstanding pursue damages, relief); Lewis Casey, 518 343, 358, (1996) ("[S]tanding dispensed gross."). wrong maintain facing 29 recognized numerous "all Hudson 93, 102 also, Revenue Mont. Kurth Ranch, 511 767, 778 (1994). More specifically, promote immediate limiting incentive delay attainment limits; congressional determination warrants attention respect. "The legislative wanted retribution deterrence, addition restitution, [The may] basing impact." Tull 481 412, 422_423 30 scarcely doubted faces extent committing consequence 31 imposition deters polluter pollute. Post, 11_12. misses mark First, overlooks interdependence imposition; unless credible out. Second, quantum above what dissuaded books, hit pocketbook surely think twice polluting again.2 32 recognize point insubstantial remote vanishing easy ascertain detract ordinary Frankfurter's observations different context nearly ago, well: "How effectuate policy-the adaptation means legitimately ends-is most intractable problems. Whether proscribed deterred qui tam triple damages criminal prosecution, defense actions contract, some, all, remedies combination, matter within legislature's range choice. Judgment weapons armory lay little scientific basis." Tigner Texas, 310 141, 148 (1940).3 34 abating preventing ones-as 35 reasoning directs conclusion disagree. established suitors abated 106_107. specifically allegation imminent basis appeared 108; Gwaltney, 59 ("the future, past"). short, unlike reach undeterred.4 36 Satisfied turn 37 conceivable conduct-either achievement 1992 recent shutdown facility. well settled practice." "[I]f `[t]he ways.' 289, (citing W. T. Grant 345 629, 632 (1953)). accordance principle, announced "A recur." 203 (1968). "heavy persua[ding]" start again 38 justified disposition reference relying confused described English, Parole Comm'n Geraghty, 445 388, 397 (1980), quoting Monaghan, Constitutional Adjudication: Who When, 82 Yale J. 1363, 1384 (1973)) (internal quotation marks omitted). 39 reflection long-recognized exceptions frame" As just continue, "threatened [is] impending." 158 (1990) (citations internal arising 105_110. Elsewhere citywide moratorium chokeholds-an diminished slim choked police-would valid permanent. 101. Furthermore, arises mentally disabled patient files confinement segregated institution, postcomplaint transfer community-based (1999) (slip. op., 8, 6), transfer. (" `the . revive commenced' ") Renne Geary, 501 312, 320 (1991)). 41 acknowledged distinction recently Co.: 42 constitute remediation `there presumption [future] voluntarily response litigation,' occurs makes sword out shield. `presumption' Government refers applied refute assertion who, sued alleges injury, ceases complained-of unacceptable stretch call service substitute based." 43 functions ensure, scarce litigated, often here) years. abandon advanced sunk costs5 pursuing nonsurviving died. DeFunis Odegaard, 416 312 (1974) (per curiam) (non-class-action challenge constitutionality school admissions process admitted pursuant neared graduation conceded policy, finish final term); 67 constitutional amendment official language employee bilingual skills, left employment). highlights doctrines. (1988) 44 brief, appears argue regardless Brief Respondent 14_17. suited, "[A] judge sitting chancellor mechanically obligated law." Romero-Barcelo, 313 notes, should aim ensure framing broader precise facts.' Schlesinger Reservists Comm. Stop War, 418 208, 222 (1974). aim, excessively intrusive remedy, court-a holder alike. 289 (although "[s]uch factor bearing exercise enjoin renewing practice"). 45 asserts, supplemental suggestion decision, closure, but-we reiterate-only matter. out, example-and appear contest-that retains issues remand.6 C 46 1365(d) precedent construed 103 require rejection theory. F.3d, S_1 & S_2 Bd. Ed. N. 51 1994) (en banc)). Cf. Foreman Dallas County, 193 314, (CA5 1999) (stating, dicta, "[a]fter serious doubt"). 47 rights awarded nominal 1988. 112. involved catalytic Recognizing Farrar, repudiate Marbley Bane, 57 224, 234 1995); Baumgartner Harrisburg Housing Authority, 541, 546_550 1994); Zinn Shalala, 273, 276 (CA7 Little Rock School Dist. Pulaski County Special Sch. Dist., #1, 260, 263, (CA8 Kilgour Pasadena, 53 1007, 1010 (CA9 Beard Teska, 942, 951_952 (CA10 Morris West Palm Beach, 194 1203, 1207 1999). likewise apply notwithstanding Farrar. Paris Dept. Urban Development, 988 236, 238 (CA1 Against Tax Waste Westerville School, 985 255, 257 (CA6 1993). 48 premature, us separate or, appealed, 305 (describing staying petition). accompanying "this considered fees," referred "potential fee awards." 49 50 reasons reversed, consistent opinion. ordered. NOTES: state&nbhyph;court agreement, fee." 489. agreement entered unusual haste, giving intervene." "most persuasive" "in imposing recover, calculate, complying permit." 491. suggests work pushed level "near top graph." 11. ignores far low remove noncompliance, 491_494, 497_498 And begins look especially farfetched recalls lawsuit, fee, complaint. supra, 5, 6, 1. rejected equal protection provision exempting agricultural producers Texas antitrust laws. insisting redressability requirement met, relies heavily R. S. Richard D., 410 614 (1973). reliance sorely misplaced. S., mother out-of-wedlock child absentee father support. 616. extraordinary drew special status prosecutions system," 619, carefully limited holding "unique non-enforcement of] statute," 617. S.-a which, successful, delinquent jail fixed term, 618, predictably negative earning power-would payments. regard, contrasted contempt model whereby `keeps keys pocket' released complies obligations." dissent's contention, post 7, "precisely same situation here" is, say least, extravagant. Putting aside mistaken charge carry "grave implications democratic governance," seems overdrawn. Certainly Executive Branch share view dissipate authority law. endorsed outset, submitting briefs foreclose undertaking opposes statute allows "intervene right" Government's views §1365(c)(2). Of system, litigants. Continental Bank 494 472 (cited 17) dealt latter, noting caution avoid carrying forward solely vindicate recovering note vacatur lost Bancorp Mortgage Bonner Mall Partnership, 513 (1994) (mootness attributable act nonprevailing justify review); Walling James V. Reuter, 321 671 (1944). 52 concurring. identified rejecting Appeals' respondent gone business posed States. No post-judgment retroactively invalidate unnecessary, warrant vacation money 54 petitioners' respondent's requirements petitioners (other below) uniformly polluter's post-complaint relief.1 structure attaches liability occurs. 1319(d) ("Any violates [certain certain conditions limitations] shall _"). character analysis, punitive damages; way. 55 discussion requests one, inability claim. 105, There precedent, I am aware, developments monetary Comfort Lake Assn. Dresel Contracting, 138 351, 356 1998); Council Refining 502_503 Am. 1134_1137 1990); Ltd., 690, 696-97 1989). Powell McCormack, 395 486, 496, (1969) ("Where forms subsequently still remaining requests"). 56 Difficult fundamental questions raised exactions fines litigants, delegation inferable authorization, permissible responsibilities Constitution certiorari identify particularity; briefing subject. my reserved With observation, join 58 Thomas joins, dissenting. vague undermined express caused demonstrable environment. proceeds marry union traditional principles standing-thereby permitting hands individuals. Finally, needs less outcome watered-down this. Plaintiffs, invoking jurisdiction, persuasion 561 (1992) (hereinafter Lujan); FW/PBS, Dallas, 493 215, 231 (1990). fell short cites enjoyment "concern" polluted, "believed" exceedances reduced homes. Ante, 10_11. averments alone plaintiffs' "concrete particularized" Lujan, 560. General allegations pleading stage, forth "specific facts" claims. 561. where, proceeded facts `supported adduced trial,' Gladstone, Realtors Village Bellwood, 441 91, 115, (1979)). themselves woefully facts," trial. 61 Typically, environment, injures him. route considering environment," 602 1997), "permit harm," ibid., "[a]ll data fail resulted River," 602_603, overall quality exceeds levels water," 600. 62 finds conclusions unproblematic plaintiff." 10. statement correct, goes. demonstration injury-in-fact how personally harmed. 563. normal translate, While perhaps possible harmed though not, articulating nature injury. Ongoing "concerns" enough, "[i]t reality inquiry, 's subjective apprehensions," 95, (1983). At expect supporting affidavits' bald assertions regarding decreasing usage declining values, improbable harmless somehow responsible effects. 115 (noting "convincing evidence" decline real estate conduct). attempt showing, rely unsupported unexplained affidavit "concern." 63 deposed cast doubt (in inadequate) actually Moore, said waterways concern pollution. twice, 1980 (when visited someone river) (Moore Deposition 23_ 24). Similarly, Curtis, claimed being deprived kid," (Curtis Deposition, pt. 2, p. 38), asked stopped visiting pollution, answered "no," 39. Curtis's "looke[d] smell[ed] polluted," condition, present, according "did harm." 602. deposed, not), 9), looks (which incompatible court's findings), apprehensions." 64 correct explicitly standing-albeit margins," "an awfully close call." cautious 1993, 1997 previously recognized, reexamination, proves inconsistent conclusion. 31; Wyoming Oklahoma, 502 437, 446 (1992). Circuit, question. Thus reviewed studies 65 Inexplicably, untroubled this, find casual fashion, confirming careful below. refused affidavit" 888 content today. accepting vague, contradictory, unsubstantiated face demonstrably harmed, sham. lives offending plant, difficult today's lenient standard. 66 requirement-which resolved correctly-is equally cavalier. discussed above, consisting decreased property values. recompense Instead, statutorily specified "penalty" Only Term, 106_107 (1998). nonetheless satisfied distinguishing violations; payment says, deterring 14. holds "remedies" harm, suffices sustain takes beyond "cases controversies" entrusted resolution. Even appropriate, moreover, allow indirect consequences new makes-like expansions limits-has grave governance. discuss three turn. 68 (1973), illegitimate child, sought, herself, others similarly situated, discriminatory application Penal Code. misdemeanor "any parent" refuse minor children age, enforced married parents. refusal, contended, father's fulfill obligation. `direct' relationship," said, "between adjudicated," will, can, best, termed speculative." 618. "[Our cases] jurisprudence judicially nonprosecution another." 619. 69 recited "logical nexus" Flast Cohen, 392 (1968), fallen desuetude, "it unlikelihood appellant's injury." Duke Power Study Group, 438 59, 79, (1978). nonenforcement S.'s receive payments support" "speculative," 618-that say, uncertain prevent injury.1 precisely another" applies owing State. 70 reads orders. so. were, tort fearing paid, himself victims well, beneficial preposterous "remediation" Anglo-American tailored sort incidental Just "generalized grievance" affects citizenry aggrieves everyone else, 573_574, generalized requirement, (among things) prospective traditionally afforded way scope 357_360 (1996); U. S, 105_107, overturn tradition invoke done do: convert "undifferentiated interest" "individual vindicable courts. 577; 106. scattershot approved today nonsense (1974), "insures facts." vehicle threshold lever move world. 72 discussed, controversy speak, "speculative 73 recognizes, "likely," "merely speculative," ante, 9. recognizes standard-though declines "explore limits" 16. concludes, "likely [rather than] speculative" explain why believes 74 imposed, anticipated awards, provided "adequate deterrence." 16; believe, "deterrence occur." mention general (much plaintiff) fixing penalty. (That element in, last, residual category "such 1319(d).) [and] ." Ibid; meticulously subsections portion "Civil Penalty," factors, then-under subsection (f) "Other Matters May Require," "1. Failure Avail Itself Reopener Clause," "2. Recent Compliance History," "3. Ever-Changing Mercury Limit." whatever-in anywhere else-of degree contains deterrence" statement) dealing Carolina's previous constituted "diligent prosecution" 1365(b)(1)(B), displayed awareness 75 quote approval passage began: `Civil pollution discouraging serve function, high insure polluters absorb cost doing business.' 122, PIRG Duffryn Terminals, 720 1158, 1166 (NJ When Penalty" section "[t]aken together, direct expenses case," 611, obviously harking back prescribed (and "as require" include deterrence) designed achieve. met standards. 76 `all effect,' (1997)). unquestionably true: matter, class violating However, none focused single lawbreaker. focus sense III. pursued citizens. Hudson, 96; 773 (1994); 414 77 undertaken feared something this: Strictly speaking, pollution; virtually nonexistent knows emissions violators pass; scheme regularly notoriously enforced; object charges injunction; graph when, subjected marginal increase adding 78 zero; suffering going unharmed. "likely" farfetched. speculativeness much greater excessive Simon Eastern Ky. Welfare Rights Organization, 426 26, (1976), where §501(c)(3) charitable-deduction tax hospitals treat indigents sufficiently indigent 6_7, [for nonsupport] 79 sum, suggests, central core "deterrence" impossible imagine "outer possibly be. expressed reluctance define serves disguise promulgated revolutionary body handed 80 commits President "take Care Laws faithfully executed," II, §3, methods exercising executive appointed, §2. Kennedy's concurrence correctly observes, conformity legislation argued-and I, it. Schlesinger, 222, worth changes allows. 81 Treasury, mechanism sense, turns function enforcing self-appointed mini-EPA. Where, national association, choosing targets. aware reported member, 1_5. target chosen, meaningful control.2 vastly disproportionate gives massive bargaining power-which achieve settlements projects choosing. Greve, Private Enforcement Law, Tulane Rev. 339, 355_359 fine diverted interest. sure, bringing authorities direction undertaken-which constitutionally bizarre. Elected officials decide postponed.3 §1365(b)(1)(A) (providing wait government proceeding action). predictable inevitable allowing wrongs. few comments limits. disagree reaches. Assuming leaving fact-intensive remand, 23, sensible.4 disposition, engages troubling purported distinctions doctrines frankly puzzled all. squarely bounds "voluntary cessation" 23.5 interesting academic excursus differences rule.6 84 essential-indeed, relevant-to significance. Nonetheless, troubled too-hasty retreat characterization frame." (1997). essentially identical begin: justiciable "Simply `live' legally outcome." 496 (1969). proceed hear if, initiation, loses "its live kind is] advisory opinions abstract propositions Hall Beals, 396 curiam). Preiser Newkirk, 422 395, 401 (1975); Steffel Thompson, 415 452, 459, derives Constitution, Liner Jafco, 375 301, (1964), ignored inconvenient, Alaska 253 113, (1920) (moot decided, "[h]owever convenient be"), save "sunk costs," compare 17, 472, 480 ("[R]easonable needed sure pressed costs"). 85 wrinkles lacks. One refers. inaccurate regard reduction basic obtained beginning genuine stages. (by judgment) rights, rights. evidentiary reflected continues differ. "Where probability recur, real-life exist." 341 (Scalia, dissenting) (emphasis Part engendered compares hand, cessation, hand. 19. "absolutely clear" "could recur" heightened sensibly skeptical controversy. taxing, indeed characterized `standing frame.' (case change jobs "still vital relief"); Spencer Kemna, (1998) petitioner's completion sentence, "throughout suffered, with, decision") omitted); Lewis, 478_480 eliminated parties' "personal stake" outcome). 87 while parallel imperfect presumptions context, underlying .' (1980)). 88 89 uncritically turned "mere requirement," 561; approving novel wrongs, "mak[ing] vanish," 107. undesirable unconstitutional laws hands. respectfully dissent. R.S. turn, imaginatively short-term imprisoned. 4. comment imprisonment contempt, condition release payment. continued: future,"-i.e., imprisonment-"result intervene 17_18, 4; 1365(c)(2), "bring court," 18, 4, meager occur. Chief ability him par John Q. Public, intervene-whether likes not-when §1365(b)(1)(B). observes law," "endorsed outset." doubtful uninterrupted presidential acquiescence shed understanding. What here-acquiescence Administration-does deserve passing mention. plant-closure issues, remains remand foreclosed prosecuted." Nothing disposes issue. notes played role facilitating State's 15, 2. incompatibility whatever facilitation prosecution-as felons confess crimes demonstrate. prefer action; preference prudent-given receiving §1365(b)(1)(A), number agencies handle-for fall cracks. feigned minute contrivance. worked resolving problem many years, administrative consent 476 brief judges relitigate second-guess States." Amicus Curiae Stevens' concurrence, remedies, absence analogy inapt. Traditional compensate conduct, subsists not; privately assessable (according Court) Where impossibility true, civil-penalty rest prevented. attempts frame exposition corrective "confused standing." nonjusticiability rested belief (entirely view) appeal, 306 characterized, inadequacy pursue) whole Given erroneous rejects formulations-but necessitates discourse comparing

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