Document: 421 U.S. 213 95 S.Ct. 1591 44 L.Ed.2d 121 Albert JOHNSON et al., Petitioners,v.State of MISSISSIPPI al. No. 73—1531. Argued Feb. 26, 1975. Decided May 12, Syllabus Petitioners, six Negroes, who had been picketing and urging boycott certain business establishments in Vicksburg, Miss., because their alleged racial discrimination employment, were arrested with others charged unlawfully conspiring to bring about a boycott. Those then sought removal the prosecutions from state federal court pursuant 28 U.S.C. § 1443(1), which provides for proceedings '(a)gainst any person is denied or cannot enforce courts such State right under law providing equal civil rights citizens,' alleging that conspiracy statutes underlying charges unconstitutional, groundless made solely deprive those federally protected rights, more particularly activities by 18 245 (Title I Civil Rights Act 1968). Section 245(b)(5), inter alia, makes it crime 'force threat force' injure, intimidate, interfere he has 'participating lawfully speech peaceful assembly' opposing but 245(a)(1) shall not be construed as indicating Congress' intent prevent exercising jurisdiction over offense would have absence 245. The District Court removal, Appeals affirmed, holding 'confers no whatsoever' statute must 'provide' citizens before can invoked basis 1443(1). Held: Removal 1443(1) was warranted based on petitioners' allegations there fact charges, arrest prosecution otherwise them constitutional rights. Georgia v. Rachel, 384 780, 86 1783, 16 925; City Greenwood Peacock, 808, 1800, 944. Nor does furnish adequate Pp. 222-227. (a) Mississippi undoubtedly cases brought law, a)(1) appears disavow interrupt prosecution, conclusion also implicit 245's operative provisions, since 245(b) its face focuses use force, legislative history confirms central purpose punish violent interferences exercise specified aimed at interrupting frustrating orderly processes law. 223-227. (b) Viewed context being directed crimes violence, proceeding characterized an application within meaning 245, whatever 'rights' section may confer, none criminal boycott, 'federal statutory should even attempt prosecute (petitioners) conduct,' supra, U.S., 826, S.Ct., 1811. P. 227. (c) evidence Congress intended accomplish what failed refused do directly through amendment 1443 necessitates rejection this case, addition are other avenues relief open petitioners vindication will violated. 227-228. 488 F.2d 284, affirmed. Frank R. Parker, Jackson, petitioners. Ed Davis Noble, Jr., respondents. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 This case concerns permitting defendants remove district conditions, light Title 1968, 101(a), 82 Stat. 73, 2 * During March 1972, petitioners, Negro along various demands upon mercnants city officials generally relating number Negroes employed serving positions both local government enterprises. In late March, began some Vicksburg urging, word mouth leaflets, until time realized.1 On 2, 13, 14, 21 year, 43 arrested2 warrants charging, general terms, complicity merchants businesses.3 At least these arrests took place when engaged protest allegedly practiced Vicksburg. Following arrests, police officers, transported jail where they each remained after processing posting bail. There indication record subsequent detentions persons so detained involved force arresting officers beyond verbal directions issued coercive custody normally incident arrest, processing, detention. 3 25, filed petition Federal compliance procedures established 1446 seeking transfer trial against 1443, reads, pertinent part,4 follows: 4 'Any following actions prosecutions, commenced removed defendant United States division embracing wherein pending: '(1) Against States, all thereof . ..' 5 petition, alleged, prosecuted several statutes5 'on applied repugnant Constitution .,' that: 6 'The effectuated exclusively effect depriving Federally including punishing, injuring, intimidating, interferring (sic) attempting punish, class participating demonstrations, peacefully conduct publicize seeks remedy denial (s) 245.' 7 December 29, evidentiary hearing held testimony presented chief police, one named respondents remanded courts. affirmed,6 reasoning statute, whatsoever 287 (CA5 1974), that, Court's decisions 925 (1966), 944 Rehearing rehearing en banc, Fed.Rule App.Proc. 35, denied, five Circuit Judges dissenting opinion.7 491 94 1974). We granted certiorari, 419 893, 171, 42 137 (1974), and, reasons stated below, affirm judgment Appeals. II 8 Our most recent construing companion supra. satisfy two-pronged test. First, appear petitioner arises 'providing specific terms equality.' 792, 1790. Claims conviction violate provisions applicability protecting discrimination, suffice. That due process vague assertedly sham, corrupt, without not, standing alone, requirements 825, 9 Second, appear, accordance 'denied enforce' 'in (the) State.' provision requires 'denial manifest formal expression law,' 803, 1796, provision, "rather than first case." Id., 799, 1794. Except unusual 'an equivalent could shown equally firm prediction court,' id., 804, expected protection effected pending proceedings, criminal. Under 10 'the defendant's left except rare situations clearly predicted reason operation pervasive explicit inevitably very act bringing court.' 828, 1812. 11 branches rule. claimed arose §§ 201(a) 203(c) 1964, 2000a(a) 2000a—2(c). forbids refusals sevice in, exclusions from, public accommodations account race color; prohibits 'attempt privilege secured 201 fairly tried 'solely result attempts obtain service places accommodation.' 793, 1790.8 concluded if true, trespass Georgia, 'burden having defend itself explicitly conferred 1964.' 805, 1797. 12 contrary, state-court petitioning obstructing streets, assault battery, crimes.9 said arise well 1971 1981, former guaranteeing vote grounds color forbidding interference therewith, latter access enjoyed white persons.10 assumed contemplated went hold showing petitions offenses helping assert laws, completely innocent them, (2) unable fair held, however, enough support allege illegally corruptly administrative advance trial, false, particular Id. 827, Petitioners point conferring engage charged; conduct.' III 13 With our prior mind, apparent, further discussion here convinced s 245,11 principally rely, court. 14 Whether 'specific equality 1790, evinces intention manner seek expressly provides: 15 'Nothing part ..'12 law; section. persons, individual activities. 17 antidote prescribed deter forcibly suppress free enumerated statute. bill eventually became I, H.R. 2516, substantially identical 14765, passed House V 1966.13 enacted background violence described Report adopted House: brutal committed years encouraged aided need recital. Violence threats resorted order discourage voting, using accommodation facilities, attending desegregated schools, engaging Frequently victim recently right. cases, worker—white Negro—who assembly denial. still known anything activities, killed assaulted asserting rights.' H.R.Rep.No.473, 90th Cong., 1st Sess., 3—4 (1967).14 19 Senate likewise explained measure 'to meet problem interference, discriminatory reasons, person's S.Rep.No.721, 3, U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News, pp. 1837, 1838 (1967). concern racially motivated acts pervaded report, see 4, 5, 6, 8, 9. debate floor Senate, frequent references bill's made,15 relevant here: 20 'This new provide enforcement officer totally abandons his duty violently intimidate individuals punished like citizen. '. So long reasonably believed doing duty, is, perceived violation then-valid knowing him.' 114 Cong.Rec. 2268 (1968). 22 context, seems quite evident furnishes circumstances. But Here, 1181.16 IV 23 think observations order. Peacock: 24 '(I)f changes long-settled interpretation century-old make them. Fully aware given consistent series Court, 1964 declined proposals amend All did remand orders appealable, thus invite contemporary judicial consideration unchanged 1443.' 834—835, 1816. 25 When we decided introduced fewer bills which, enacted, enlarged way another cases. 833 n. 33, 1815. None reported cognizant committee Congress; intervening years; parties informed us comparable active present Congress. considered case. Also, noted varied violated, 828—830, 1812—1813; indeed, avenue pursued early continues pursued.17 26 Affirmed. 27 DOUGLAS decision MARSHALL, whom BRENNAN joins, dissenting. 29 believe dissenters correctly 1443. See New York Galamison, 342 255, 275 (CA2) (Marshall, J., dissenting), cert. 380 977, 85 1342, 272 (1965). broader view plainly proper here, determined used deny required dismiss prosecution. 840—848, 1818—1823 (Douglas, dissenting). Even Peacock available facts 30 As today observes, Rachel imposed sharp limitations scope permit only (1) issue stemmed rights; arguably question; (3) question, conduct. Focusing third requirement, holds 1968 Act, my view, three satisfied extent necessary call full therefore vacate proceedings.1 31 ruling requirements, 'law reasoned requirement substantive merely supplied sanction elsewhere created. misses point.2 32 regarded creating penalties previously certainly 'provid(es) for' facilitating exercise. render meaningful, though themselves instances created legislation. 4—6, p. 1837 (1967); 5—7 If provided private legal equitable remedies pre-existing deemed protect rather relying difference. 33 event, rights: respects creates previous recognition. protects 'encouraging participate' opportunity participate,' (b)(5). S.Rep. 721, 4. Fourteenth Amendment Commerce Clause, goes protections laws particulars. noted: 34 '(T)he (245(b)) limited outlawing respect Accordingly, appropriate reach forcible regardless size character employer; types accommodation, whether happen fall Act; common carrier transportation interstate intrastate.' H.R.Rep. 473, 5. 35 Finally, misconduct acting concert It reaches well, extending against, for, misconduct. inclusion topic intense dispute during congressional debates Both advocates opponents recognized criminalize whole sphere significantly expand 7—8, 21—26; 113 22763—22764 319, 389—391, 539—544 statute's broad remedial purposes effects, grudging reading 'provid(e) 36 Although neither nor discussed second sufficient require below. charge includes unprotected available. included obstruction assault, officer—all forms 826—827, 1811—1812.3 37 contrast, observed violating leave requested owner. defenants premises privately owned restaurants course entitled Act. Thus fell outside Peacock. instructed determine ordered restaurant facilities law—in determining question coverage 805 31, 38 point, instant controlled affidavits conspired promote businessmen promoted 'injurious trade commerce among public.' App. 3—17. papers, wholly law.4 nothing rebuts claim. line between 'prosecutions constitute specifically circumstances petitioner, false desire penalize him exercised right.' Davis, 411 750, 754 (CA2), 396 856, 90 119, 105 (1969). Like falls into category. below protected. was, dismissed.5 39 Rachel-Peacock test defense conviction: immunize question. met, 203 provided: 'No 202.' U.S.C.A. 2000a 2(c). 'full enjoyment ground race.' 2000a(a). Viewing language construction Hamm Rock Hill, 379 306, 311, 384, 300 (1964), found immune 'not courts.' 794, 1791. 40 distinguishes 2000a—2(c), grant same immunity implied latter. To me, two sufficiently different distinction. While 'punish punish' sanctions anyone who, 'whether alw, willfully injures, intimidates interferes with, with' activity 'lawfully aiding encouraging describes seem include pretextual occurred case.6 41 Besides difference points factors contends denying here. find either dispositive. relies 245(a)(1), emphasized 'any argues 'nonpreemption' indicates 'appears (for boycotting conspiracy).' Ante, 224. agree means much. subsection avoid risk read bar violated parallel laws. fear potential breadth, might give pre-emptive authority prosecuting spectrum traditionally subject jurisdiction.7 defeat suggestion meant reduce beneficiaries way. heavily main 245: Certainly, primary target curbing drafters' sole aim. citizens, precisely officials, plausibly exert Perkins Mississippi, 455 7, 11, 39—41 1972) (Brown, C.J., correct, course, noting indicate removing vehicle removal. institution standard met here.8 45 effort group, although muffled, altogether stilled, cynical misuse process. reference possibility injunctive relief, show instituted bad faith harassment. Dombrowski Pfister, 479, 482, 490, 1116, 1118, 1122, (1965); Younger Harris, 401 37, 47—50, 91 746, 752—753, 669 (1971). hope values comity federalism restricting issuance injunctions quasi-criminal mislead forgetting times irremediably trampled. vindicated habeas corpus little restore lost: legitimate, unpopular, subjected inconvenience, expense, ignominy abandon merits claims, bought too great cost. 46 respectfully dissent. establishments, 40% employees managers drawn community. 1972; Johnson, Eddie McBride, Charles Chiplin, James Odell Dixon again Johnson once 21. supported sworn total 49 'with felonious part, commit injurious wilfully, unlawfully, feloniously conspire, combine, confederate other, enter unlawful conspiracy, plan design themselves, businesses promote, encourage pleaded generally, position claim 1443(2) 815—824, 1805—1810, press filed, precise apparently unknown arrested. amended '(c)onspiracy 2056 2384.5 '2056' apparent 1942 Code, now recodified Miss.Code Ann. 97—1—1 (1972). '2384.5' 97—23 83 After filing notice appeal, stay mandate remanding courts, denied. Appeals, prosecutorial normal fashion 1973, grand jury cognizance 'no billed' 140. returned indictments remaining here; indicted 97—23—83 (1972), four 97—23—85 Tr. Oral Arg. 26. Shortly writ certiorari effective disposition Since handed down gone forward. earlier prohibiting 'prosecution covered establishment, color.' 389, (1964). variously interfering performance disturbing peace, disturbance place, inciting riot, parading permit, battery biting officer, contributing delinquency minor, operating motor improper license tags, reckless driving, profanity vulgar language.' 813 1804. part: '(a) qualified election people allowed elections, distinction race, color, condition servitude; constitution, custom, usage, regulation contrary notwithstanding. '(b) No person, otherwise, threaten, coerce, coerce choose take note similarity 1971(b) set out above infra. 1981 'All every Territory contracts, sue, parties, evidence, benefit security property punishment, pains, penalties, taxes, licenses, exactions kind, other.' Whoever, with— '(2) religion national origin been— '(C) applying enjoying perquisite thereof, employer '(4) been, from— '(A) participating, origin, benefits (subparagraph (2)(C)); '(B) affording participate; '(5) citizen participate, 2(C)), participate— 'shall fined (Emphasis added.) truncated quotation activity, subparagraph (2)(C), closely connected actually relate. recognize defendants' months expressed dissatisfaction contended areas employment. negative foreclose forbidden section: 'nor authorities responsibility violations law.' Proposed 1966, while House, pass Senate. stated: strengthen Government's capability violence.' 3. bulk report simply appeared 'Additional Views' Chairman Celler Committee Judiciary appended H.R.Rep.No.1678, 89th 2d pt. (1966). quoted text taken views abundantly clear 'is designed present-day recial reiterated arrived finally passing 1967: '(The version bill) reenacts passed, giving workers endeavoring express beliefs parts country, therein 6490 9559. 318—320, 333, 335, 399, 535, 538, 913, 928, 1391, 1392. A Department witness testifying subcommittee 'would afford Government deterring punishing rights,' '(t)he mere policeman performing good uses all.' Hearings 1967, Subcommittee Constitutional Judiciary, 82, 355 hearings, replete numerous 61, 81, 210—212, 222, 312, 322, 325, 349. Courts faced accord decision. Horelick, 424 697, 703 398 939, 1839, 273 (1970); Hill Pennsylvania, 439 1016, 1022 (CA3), 404 985, 92 445, 370 (1971) (alternative holding); Williams Tri-County Community Center, 452 221, 223 1971) (quowarranto proceeding). Brief 9: 'Simultaneously (with sub judice), complaint 1983 action, Concerned Citizens Sills, Civ. 72W—18 (N) (SD Miss. 24, 1972), temporary status quo final (Order 1972). action yet appeal.' initially factual findings adverse disposed reviewing review availability necessary. acknowledged dealing equality,' 286 addressed problems associated advocacy minority unlike rejected bases 245(b)(2) refers throughout premised discrimination. argument dissent looked proceeding. suggested elsewhere, protection. H. Hart Wechsler, System 1228 (2d ed. 1973); 31—33 C. dissenting); Comment, Limited Remedy, U.Pa.L.Rev. 351, 368 Specifically, 'began picket establishment (offending) urge establishments. members done lawful infringing 22. contend brief ranging secondary physically intimidating customer trading merchant. respond entering 'a harmful commerce.' 30. suit appeal. continuing court, correspondingly, remand. notes 245(b),' ante, 221 10. do, similar language, allegation voting. unnecessary 1971(b), prohibitory conduct, own 1971(b). Another 1973i(b), vote, reached engaged. Whatley Vidalia, 399 521 offered Representative Whitener. words, ensure: '(N)othing contained occupy field operates exclusion matter, invalidating unless inconsistent thereof. Without amendment, unwarranted deprivation fields touched bill.' 22745 22683 (Rep. Whitener). Senator Dirksen's bill. explanation 'Section expresses supersede interest substantial justice. continue apply, preempted However, unwilling effectively, undertaken. assure dual carefully made, certification Attorney General Deputy General.' 4907 analysis, statement Kennedy believing intentional literal

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