Document: 466 U.S. 435 104 S.Ct. 1883 80 L.Ed.2d 428 Howard ELLIS, et al., Petitionersv.BROTHERHOOD OF RAILWAY, AIRLINE AND STEAMSHIP CLERKS, FREIGHT HANDLERS, EXPRESS STATION EMPLOYES, al. No. 82-1150. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Jan. 9, 1984. Decided April 25, Syllabus Section 2, Eleventh Railway Labor Act permits a union and an employer to require all employees in relevant bargaining unit join as condition continued employment. The collective-bargaining agreement between respondent national airline required that airline's clerical or pay agency fees equal members' dues. Petitioners, present former who objected use their compelled dues for specified activities, filed separate suits (later consolidated) Federal District against respondents—the union, its board adjustment, three locals—who conceded that, was held Machinists v. Street, 367 740, 81 1784, 6 1141, statutory authorization shop did not permit spend objecting employee's money political ideological had adopted rebate program under which were ultimately reimbursed shares such expenditures. parties disagreed about adequacy scheme, legality charging with expenses (1) union's quadrennial Grand Lodge convention, (2) litigation involving negotiation agreements settlement grievances, (3) publications, (4) social (5) death benefits employees, (6) general organizing efforts. Granting summary judgment petitioners on question liability concerning six at issue, court, after trial damages, existing adequately protected employees' rights, ordered refunds expenditures issue. Affirming part reversing part, Appeals upheld plan, but ruled because challenged activities benefited efforts, it could finance them collected from employees. Held: 1. Petitioners' challenge is properly before Court. Although claim injunction would appear be moot has been decertified representative petitioners' additional form interest illegally period time, remains case. Pp. 441-443. 2. pure approach refunding portion expended improper purposes employee objects inadequate. Even if amount refunded, still obtain involuntary loan objected. Given existence acceptable alternatives, advance reduction dues, cannot allowed, ground administrative convenience, commit dissenters' funds uses even temporarily. 443-444. 3. While primary submission violated First Amendment, initial inquiry whether statute charge any purpose § authorizing make possible members fair share costs performing function exclusive agent, thus eliminating "free rider" whose behalf obliged perform functions, refused contribute cost thereof. When object being burdened particular expenditures, test must are necessarily reasonably incurred duties dealing labor-management issues. 444-448. 4. With regard specific here, applicable help defray conventions, elect officers, establish goals, formulate overall policy. Such conventions essential discharge agent. Petitioners may also charged which, though central collective bargaining, sufficiently related allows monthly magazine insofar reports those can doing, funds. does authorize incident negotiating administering contract settling grievances disputes arising unit. authorizes participation benefit need upon, no longer agent involved program. assuming have right future collections benefits, they entitled refund past contributions since enjoyed insurance premium. 448-455. 5. There Amendment barrier contributions. significant interference rights resulting allowing justified by governmental industrial peace. Forced affairs do increase infringement rights. And while both publications direct communicative content, there little none interests behind itself. 455-457. 685 F.2d 1065, affirmed reversed remanded. Michael E. Merrill, San Diego, Cal., petitioners. Laurence Gold, Washington, D.C., respondents. Justice WHITE delivered opinion 1 In 1951, Congress amended (Act RLA) what previously prohibited—the shop. 45 U.S.C. 152, Eleventh.1 1141 (1961), support causes. ends unrelated Congress' desire eliminate riders" resentment provoked. Id., 768-769, S.Ct., 1799-1800. express view "expenditures area led directly complaint 'free riders,' activities." 769-770, n. 18, 1800, 18. just 2 * 1971, Brotherhood Railway, Airline Steamship Clerks (union BRAC) Western Airlines implemented negotiated requiring Western's within 60 days commencing As interpreted, become formal activities.2 They contest such, nor they. See Employees Hanson, 351 225, 76 714, 100 L.Ed. 1112 (1956). contend, however, more than pro rata Airlines.3 Respondents—the locals—concede see supra, covering disagree burdening fall extremes identified Hanson Street: 3 Southern California granted liability. Relying entirely found issue among others, "non-collective activities" supported protesting employees.4 After court concluded program, charitable causes, good-faith effort comply legal requirements exhibits presented respondents, approximately 40% paid here. It annual thereafter reduced spent chargeable during prior year. seems envisioned this scheme supplant already-existing included figured into reduction. 4 Ninth Circuit part. 1065 (1982). plan adequate allowed collect full objectionable purposes, only year later. suggestions Court's cases method acceptable, itself approved earlier address imposed 1069-1070. Turning permissible framed "the [a]s expenditure germane work realm bargaining. . [That is, it] seen promote, maintain effective agent." 1072, 1074-1075. each strengthened whole helped run smoothly, making better able negotiate administer agreements. Because free One judge dissented, arguing these "institutional expenses" forced pay. 1075-1076. 5 sought review Appeals' ruling scheme. We certiorari. 460 1080, 103 1767, 341 (1983). hold inadequate erred finding RLA II A. some us. 1980, month entry judgment, Airlines' Thus, presently represented it. therefore moot. But damages,5 damages illegal time. That undeniably minute. long concrete interest, however small, outcome litigation, case Powell McCormack, 395 486, 496-498, 89 1944, 1950-51, 23 491 (1969). 7 Respondents argue addressing validity supplanted order, appealed. contend same reason, old system "not justiciable" "academic." Brief 11, disagree. specifically vindicated dissenting affirmed. ones contribute, thereby basis order reduce prospectively. event, future, receive allegedly precisely lower courts circumstances, us.6 B 8 pointed out, language Street suggested "restitution individual his expended, despite notification, causes he advised opposed." U.S., 775, 1803. Abood Detroit Board Education, 431 209, 238, 97 1782, 1801, 52 261 (1977). On other hand, we precise Allen, 373 113, 122, 83 1158, 1163, 10 235 (1963), where described "practical decree" comprising exacted proportion bore total exactions proportion. Those opinions not, purport to, pass upon constitutional remedies.7 Doing so now, 9 By exacting using then months later exact first place, effectively charges outside scope authorization. course, much less never returned, difference degree only. harm respondents so. obtains objects. justification borrowing convenience. readily available and/or interest-bearing escrow accounts, place slightest burden, any, union. A reduces violation. III 11 Amendment. This argument assumes unconstitutional exactions. constitutionality challenged, ascertains construed avoid difficulty. E.g., Califano Yamasaki, 442 682, 692-693, 99 2545, 2553, 61 176 (1979); Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 347, 56 466, 483, 688 (1936) (concurring opinion); Crowell Benson, 285 22, 62, 285, 296, 598 (1932). noted when faced similar restraints unnecessary decisions counsel against" claims "unless conclude Congress, meant labor organization receiving should free, objection, money" activities. 749, 1789. inquire IV 12 contains one explicit limitation agreement: tender "fines penalties" normally members. Eleventh.8 If nothing else, inference drawn limited exception payments obtained voluntary membership them. Indeed, several witnesses appearing congressional Committees absence compelled.9 enacted provision over objections arguably indicates willing tolerate broad 13 Furthermore, well aware traditional hearing referred terms "[a]ctivities organizations procurement benefits," House Hearings, (testimony George Harrison), "policies unions," id., 50 Weaver). out "securing maintaining expensive undertaking ., many programs union" financial moral workers. 275; Senate 236 (statement Theodore Brown). short, informed aimed benefiting members, and, light limitations plausibly argued purported collection regular view, squarely rejected dissents Justices, followed 14 observed riders," machinery without financially supporting purpose, held, intended achieved "vesting unions unlimited power money." 768, 1799. Undoubtedly, needed entailed adjusting disputes. authority impose restricted least "extent denying right, opposes," 1799, historically candidates "members" expressed grievances. 15 reaffirmed taken fairly "germane bargaining." 121, 1163. Still later, (1977), municipality teachers' every service fee administration, grievance adjustment. consistently Constitution, sums neither Allen Abood, find necessary further define line justify dissenters. 16 remain convinced riders—employees Only certified authorized Until executed, union; token, obligatory terminate ceases Hence, Under standard, disputes, undertakings employed implement effectuate 17 considerations mind, turn insist charged. V 18 Conventions. Every four years, BRAC holds convention goals priorities, very trouble holding conventions. Surely corporate associational existence, officers manage carry affairs, consult Conventions here normal events thoroughly informed10 seem us "activities guide effectiveness agreements." F.2d, 1073. fact, like unions, either referendum five years election officers. 29 481(a). fault choosing rather referendum. 19 Social Activities. Approximately 0.7% go toward purchasing refreshments business meetings occasional 1074. These formally open nonmember noted, "[t]hese small important bring harmonious working relationships, promote closer ties create pleasant environment meetings." Ibid. 20 say de minimis beyond Act. Like standard feature operations. revealing statement, Senator Thomas, Chairman Subcommittee, made clear disinclination normal, minor objectors; want bill kinds take up giving party, something nature." 173-174. indication Members inclined scrutinize incidental running 21 Publications. puts magazine, Clerk/interchange, treasury. magazine's contents varied include articles negotiations, demands, strikes, unemployment health proposed recently legislation, news, products boycotting, recreational 1074; Findings Fact, App. 236; 22; 32, 19. "is means communicating information BRAC." policy, devoted "political causes." Exhibits 436. calculating number lines issues lines. Tr. Oral Arg. 38. 22 channel including ones, assumed known publications; accepted basic activity. "worker education" mentioned hearings. 236. carrying representational obligations reasonable way reporting constituents. Respondents' publication one, however. activity, spending writing activity.11 surely doing. 24 Organizing. efforts stronger successful table. Despite attenuated connection think Several conclusion. 25 First, notion tool expansion appears nowhere legislative history. To contrary, BRAC's president expressly disclaimed strengthen unions.12 "Nor seriously advanced membership." 763, 13, 1797, 13. organizational enhance 26 Second, enforced, already organized. definition, therefore, represented.13 Using recruit workers afford most payer. 27 Third, free-rider rationale extend far. image smug, self-satisfied nonmember, stirring enjoying earned through time money, completely comes accepts good proposition strenuously deny, will ride rider mind represent whom withhold Nonbargaining directed employee. Organizing people distant works paying Any problem roughly comparable pro-labor candidates. far cry concerned. 28 Litigation. clearly representative. true representation unit, jurisdictional agencies concerns conducted having Contrary Appeals, unless concerned, industry mutual aid pact; seeking protect generally bankruptcy proceedings; defending alleging violation nondiscrimination Title VII Civil Rights 1964. 6. Death benefits. pays $300 designated beneficiary member adjudicate citing example state case, 117, 1161. reach correctness 30 Here, said played role organizations, mandatory subject providing employer, position higher wages. added "provision tends consistent affidavit expert effect "death provide desirable economic serve strengthening internally." Affidavit Lloyd Ulman, 210. press all, let alone warrant forcing participate system. 31 rule question. system, entitled, prevent remained dues; premium.14 doubt equities call payments. VI 32 compel violates contention perceive barrier. 33 limit put countenanced impingement principles demands "To might thought interfere freedom associate advancement ideas, refrain doing so, sees fit." 222, 1793. settled Ibid.; 776, 778, 1805 (Douglas, J., concurring); 721. At minimum, constitutionally "expend uniform union-shop involve nonetheless interest. 34 explicitly implicate serious interests. determine contributing act triggering protection. extent content inherent act, stems involvement objection hours. Therefore, fact contribution feel well-spent, mean complaint. 35 serious; expression ideas. Nonetheless, accepted, discussion indicated, "relat[e] 235, 719. nature overcoming certain flexibility " 'The furtherance common cause leaves leeway leadership group.' 221-222, 1792, quoting concurring). range. 36 litigating expenses, misuse remanded proceedings opinion.15 37 ordered. 38 POWELL, concurring 39 I am accord Parts I, II, III, opinion, Part except Subdivision 1, addresses "convention" agree analysis arguments disposed summarily. 40 For considers nonunion primarily rely, decision addressed VI. construing Act, dispose grounds. 41 principles, shown, settled. (1956); (1961); (1963). No Court, "define[d] dissenters." Ante, 447. today adopts identifying viewed employees: 42 "[W]hen [in case] issues." 448. 43 reflects intent reasonable. people—and judges—may differ application types categories (BRAC): above, concur disposition BRAC. 44 single paragraph, concludes appropriate "help conventions." policy respect major enable functions questioned opportunities—that often fully exploited—to objectives convention. findings based record 25th Its $1,802,000. minutes indicate prominent politicians, Senators Humphrey, Kennedy, Hartke, Schweiker, Mayor Congressmen. shown how politicians contributed remotely Before meet burden showing "necessarily [collective-bargaining] representative." 1163.1 Apparently identify attributable deductions suggest allocation mathematical exactitude. estimates made. ibid. felt responsibility allocate material carried publications. ante, 450-451. 46 foregoing, understand meeting qualify new reverse remand consideration articulated 47 issue: reasoning me. agrees, must, "does employees," 455 (citing (1977)). Nevertheless, conclusion ignore constraint. 48 my disagreement apparent determination compulsory interpretation not. Where used nonmembers disagree, bear conclusory ignores force decisions. 234, 1799; 777-778, 1804-05 concurring).2 49 prohibit matter, determined prohibits 451, assume applies bar representative."3 reasons stated IV, V. subdivision, believe conventions; implicated dissent V, remainder result reached provides part: "Eleventh. Notwithstanding provisions law States, Territory thereof, State, carrier carriers defined duly accordance shall permitted— "(a) agreements, requiring, employment, sixty following beginning date whichever representing craft class: Provided, employment conditions denied terminated reason failure periodic initiation fees, assessments (not fines penalties) uniformly acquiring retaining membership. "(b) deduction wages class payment ." 64 Stat. 1238, Eleventh. consolidation two suits, brought Ellis Clerks, action did, Fails Clerks. Each sent letter union: "As Airlines, protest 'agency fee' retain job. addition, hereby Legislative office, kind nature, activity behalf. demand accounting me so-called fee.' 234-235. interlocutory appeal 1292(b). appeal. complaints, generalized "monetary injuries sustained defendants' unlawful unwarranted deprivation constitutional, civil, contractual rights." Not questions petition certiorari, it, reveal ever implemented. considered divided. Compare Robinson New Jersey, 547 F.Supp. 1297 (NJ 1982); School Committee Greenfield Education Assn., 385 Mass. 70, N.E.2d 180 (1982); Robbinsdale Assn. Federation Teachers, 307 Minn. 96, 239 N.W.2d 437, vacated remanded, 429 880, 160 (1976) (all suggesting employees), Seay McDonnell Douglas Corp., 533 1126, 1131 (CA9 1976); Opinion 401 A.2d 135 (Me.1979); Association Capitol Powerhouse Engineers Division Bldg. & Grounds, Wash.2d 177, 570 P.2d 1042 (1977) upholding programs). Perry Local 2569, 708 1258, 1261-1262 (CA7 1983). Hill, bill's sponsors, explained floor 'assessments' 'fines penalties.' Thus fined infraction bylaws constitution, event refuses fails fine imposed." 96 Cong.Rec. 15736 (1950). Jacob Aronson, vice York Central Railroad, complained proposal number, kind, union." Hearings H.R.7789 Interstate Foreign Commerce, 81st Cong., 2d Sess., 121 (1950) (House Hearings). S.3295 Subcommittee Public Welfare, 173-174 (Senate Daniel Loomis, Railways, "[w]ithout levy voice assessments. raised indiscriminately solely discretion organizations." 160; 316-317. example, Harrison, BRAC, took asked explain assessments: "It international expense assessment cover fireman extra above distribution internally different funds." 257-258. 128 Paul Monahan Railroad Workers) (conventions "an extremely costly proposition"; give "our bargain best cost" biannually annually) (emphasis added). our "strengthen your industry-wide exists railroad industry," Harrison replied: "I affect other. get majority vote got stage development have. man going scab—he scab difference." 20-21. administered provision. terms, shop; read NLRB General Motors 734, 1453, 670 (1963) (interpreting equivalent National Relations Act). perverse attempting convince oral argument, complaints filed, eligible 9. pretrial filings, relied breach duty representation. Record, Doc. 75, p. 40. Nor correct factual matter. 155, 47, (defendants' memorandum opposition judgment). hesitation holding, lacks nonmembers' receive. presumption equally put. remand, recalculated. applied preponderance-of-the-evidence, clear-and-convincing, proof. plain bears proving went dissenters, heightened situation. "[a]bsolute precision calculation expected required; mindful difficult problems arise." invoke insufficient opponents, abandon preponderance civil damages. Addington Texas, 441 418, 423-425, 1804, 1807-09, 323 (1979). brief emphasizes relate—even sometimes tangentially—to deals lightly speeches "appearances Washington public officials created BRAC," "if [such honoraria] deducted [the of] employees." 29, 16. explanation unanswered questions. defrayed travel, hotel, speakers staff attending show considerable entertaining likely provided distinguished above. standard. me, Court—on us—to disassociated facts. observed: "[The employees] Union's views meritorious one." "social activities," analysis. points "de minimis," "implicate interests." 456. Within limits, occasions fraternal aspect capability,

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