Document: 457 U.S. 731 102 S.Ct. 2690 73 L.Ed.2d 349 Richard NIXON, Petitionerv.A. Ernest FITZGERALD. No. 79-1738. Argued Nov. 30, 1981. Decided June 24, 1982. Syllabus During the waning months of Presidency Lyndon B. Johnson in 1968, respondent, a management analyst with Department Air Force, testified before congressional Subcommittee about cost overruns and unexpected technical difficulties concerning development particular airplane. In January 1970, during petitioner M. Nixon, respondent was dismissed from his job departmental reorganization reduction force, which eliminated. Respondent complained to Civil Service Commission, alleging that separation represented unlawful retaliation for testimony. The Commission rejected this claim, but concluded respondent's dismissal offended applicable regulations because it motivated by "reasons purely personal to" respondent. thereafter filed suit damages Federal District Court against various Defense officials White House aides allegedly responsible dismissal. An amended complaint later named as defendant. After earlier judicial rulings extensive pretrial discovery, only three defendants were involved: two (petitioners Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 800, 2727, 396). Denying defendants' motion summary judgment, court held had stated triable causes action under federal statutes First Amendment, not entitled claim absolute Presidential immunity. Petitioner took collateral appeal immunity decision Appeals, summarily. Held: 1. This has jurisdiction determine question. Pp. 741-744. (a) case "in" Appeals purposes 28 U.S.C. § 1254, authorizes Court's review "[c]ases in" courts appeals. here lack jurisdiction. However, petitioner's falls within "collateral order" doctrine Cohen Beneficial Industrial Loan Corp., 337 541, 69 1221, 93 L.Ed. 1528, raising "serious unsettled question" law. Although previously ruled another President immunity, never so held. 741-743. (b) Nor controversy mooted an agreement liquidate entered into between parties after petition certiorari opposition. Under terms agreement, paid $142,000; agreed accept liquidated $28,000 if immunity; no further payments would be made upheld claim. limited left both considerable financial stake resolution question presented Court. Cf. Havens Realty Corp. Coleman, 455 363, 1114, 71 214. 743-744. 2. Petitioner, former United States, is liability predicated on official acts. 744-758 there blanket recognition all executive civil resulting constitutional violations, certain officials—such judges prosecutors—because special nature their responsibilities, require exemption liability. Butz Economou, 438 478, 98 2894, 57 895. Determination guided Constitution, statutes, history, public policy. 744-748 President's functionally mandated incident unique office, rooted tradition powers supported Nation's history. Because singular importance duties, diversion energies concern private lawsuits raise risks effective functioning government. While separation-of-powers does bar every exercise over President, court, exercising jurisdiction, must balance weight interest served dangers intrusion authority functions Executive Branch. warranted merely suits based 748-754. (c) extends acts "outer perimeter" duties office. Pp.755-757 (d) A rule leave Nation without sufficient protection misconduct. There remains remedy impeachment, well deterrent effects constant scrutiny press vigilant oversight Congress. Other incentives avoid misconduct may include desire earn reelection, need maintain prestige element influence, traditional historical stature. 757-758. Reversed remanded. Herbert J. Miller, Jr., Washington, D. C., Nixon. Elliot L. Richardson, petitioners Butterfield. John E. Nolan, Justice POWELL delivered opinion 1 plaintiff lawsuit seeks relief States. rests actions taken capacity tenure issue us scope possessed 2 * 1970 A. Fitzgerald lost Force. Fitzgerald's occurred context announcing reorganization, Force characterized promote economy efficiency Armed Forces. 3 Respondent's discharge attracted unusual attention Congress press. attained national prominence approximately one year earlier, Johnson. On November 13, appeared Economy Government Joint Economic Committee States To evident embarrassment superiors Defense, cost-overruns C-5A transport plane could approximate $2 billion.1 He also revealed arisen aircraft. 4 Concerned might have suffered testimony, convened hearings dismissal.2 reported those prominently, announcement being eliminated Defense. At news conference December 8, 1969, Nixon queried impending service.3 responded promising look matter.4 Shortly asked Chief Staff H. R. Haldeman arrange assignment administration.5 It appears suggested Budget Director Robert Mayo offered position Bureau Budget.6 5 proposed reassignment encountered resistance administration.7 internal memorandum 20, aide Alexander Butterfield " 'Fitzgerald doubt top-notch expert, he given very low marks loyalty; all, loyalty name game.' "8 therefore recommended '[W]e should let him bleed, while at least.' "9 evidence efforts reemploy subsequent memorandum. 6 Absent any offer alternative employment, Commission. letter alleged truthful testimony Committee.10 closed hearing allegations May 4, 1971. however, preferred present grievances public. brought won injunction, Hampton, 152 U.S.App.D.C. 1, 467 F.2d 755 (1972), commenced 26, 1973. again generated publicity, much devoted Secretary Seamans. denied Seamans received "some advice" abolished.11 But declined more specific. several questions invoking "executive privilege."12 7 31, 1973, Mr. Seamans' opportunity assume responsibility dismissal: 8 "I totally aware fired or discharged resign. I approved been talking someone who discussed matter me. No, some person down line deciding go. submitted stick it."13 9 day later, office issued retraction statement. According spokesman, confused employee. behalf spokesman asserted "put regarding Fitzgerald."14 10 4,000 pages Examiner September 18, Decision Appeal reprinted App. 60. service regulations. Id., 86a-87a.15 conclusion finding job, though purportedly implemented measure, fact 86a. As impermissible basis force,16 reappointment old comparable authority.17 Examiner, explicitly distinguished narrow found "the record support [Fitzgerald's] allegation abolished separated . having overrun Proxmire 1968." 81a. 11 Following Commission's decision, raised essentially same claims Commission.18 eight Department, Butterfield, "one More" unnamed "White Aides" styled "John Does." 12 Columbia's 3-year statute limitations, Seamans, 384 F.Supp. 688 (DDC 1974), affirmed defendant, 180 75, 553 220 (1977). reasoned reason suspect involvement least until year, reasonable grounds suspicion arisen, most notably through publication "bleed while" administration. 80, 84, F.2d, 225, 229. Holding concealment illegal activity toll remanded proceedings 13 remand discovery thereafter, second July 5, 1978. complaint—more than years Commission—that first party defendant.19 Also included Bryce other Additional ensued. By March 1980, remained: proceed trial. Its order 26 Amendment Constitution.20 14 Columbia Circuit. apparently did ground its recent Halperin Kissinger, 196 285, 606 1192 (1979), aff'd pertinent part equally divided Court, 452 713, 101 3132, 367 (1981), claimed defense. 15 available we granted decide important issue. 959, 3106, 969 (1981). II 16 Before addressing merits case, consider challenges our opposition certiorari, argued nonfinal immunity.21 We argument controversy. 17 invokes invests appeals.22 When sought interlocutory denying Emphasizing "jurisdictional" Appeals' appealable "case" properly meaning 1254. do agree. 18 1528 (1949), small class orders are immediately defined Cohen, embraces "conclusively disputed question, resolve completely separate action, [are] effectively unreviewable final judgment." Coopers & Lybrand Livesay, 437 463, 468, 2454, 2458, 351 (1978); see supra, U.S., 546-547, S.Ct., 1225-26. additional requirement, established "presen[t] serious question." 547, 1226. twice criteria. See Helstoski Meanor, 442 500, 99 2445, 61 30 (1979) (claim Speech Debate Clause); Abney 431 651, 97 2034, 52 651 (1977) Double Jeopardy Clause). previous cases Circuit treated Cohen. Briggs Goodwin, 186 179, 227-229, 569 10, 58-60 (Wilkey, J., dissenting appealability issue); McSurely McClellan, 172 364, 372, 521 1024, 1032 (1975), en banc, 101, 107-108, n. 1277, 1283-1284, (1976), cert. dism'd sub nom. McAdams McSurely, 189, 3116, 704 (1978). 19 "dismissing" lay outside pressed dismiss court's "controlling" supra. 20 circumstances cannot agree failed unsettled" Kissinger And pending time dismissed. light solicitude due threatened breach essential prerogatives powers, 418 683, 691-692, 94 3090, 3099-3100, 41 1039 (1974), conclude Appeals. follows 1254 jurisdiction.23 B 21 opposition, reached damages.24 sum $142,000. consideration, event ruling upholding made. 22 recently involving similar contract: "Given respondents' continued active pursuit monetary relief, 'definite concrete, touching legal relations adverse interests.' 371, 1120, 214 (1982), quoting Aetna Life Ins. Co. Haworth, 300 227, 240-241, 461, 463-64, 81 617 (1937). III 23 consistently recognized government form damages. Spalding Vilas, 161 483, 631, 40 780 (1896), considered Postmaster General upon Drawing principles developed English common law, "[t]he interests people" required grant officers. 498, 637. absence reasoned, hesitate discretion way "injuriously affect[ing] individuals," id., 499, 637, even when bold unhesitating action. Considerations "public policy convenience" compelled arising 24 "In head keeping limits authority, apprehension motives control conduct may, time, become subject inquiry seriously cripple proper administration affairs entrusted branch government, subjected such restraint." 25 Decisions extended defense besides Tenney Brandhove, 341 367, 783, 95 1019 (1951), whether passage 42 1983, express provision official, abrogated privilege accorded state legislators not. Examining 1983 "presuppositions political history" heritage legislative freedom, incredible "that impinge grounded history reason" indication intent explicit general language statute. 376, 788. Similarly, Pierson Ray, 386 87 1213, 288 (1967), judge, validity role. 'not benefit malicious corrupt public, whose liberty independence fear consequences.' 554, 1218, Scott Stansfield, L.R. Ex. 220, 223 (1868). Bradley Fisher, Wall. 335, 646 (1872). police officers qualified protecting them performed "good faith." 557, 1219. Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 1683, 90 violation rights. officials' instead faith" violations. Balancing imperatives policy, "in varying scope, variation dependent responsibilities they reasonably based." 247, 1692. 27 construed cases, two-tiered division defenses suits. For varied proportion range decisions conceivably "functional" approach tier, especially sensitive officials—notably prosecutors—required See, e.g., Imbler Pachtman, 424 409, 96 984, 47 128 (1976) (state prosecutors possess respect initiation prosecutions); Stump Sparkman, 435 349, 1099, 55 331 (1978) judge possesses acts). reviewed detail Econo mou, 895 (1978), kind sued violations.25 argument, charged common-law torts, high right actions. Concluding anomalous standard applied officials, 504, 2909, generally 1983. doing reaffirmed holdings prosecutors, "because responsibilities," 511, 2913, "require full liability." 508, 2911. InButz itself administrative engaged analogous prosecutors. Ibid. open show requires scope." 506, 2910. 29 Our Additionally, guidance, informed 2911; 421, 990. necessarily weighed concerns illuminated structure 990; 637.26 now presents shielded inquiries independently tend converge. exist analysis draw primarily structure. Historical thus merges almost inception policy" appropriately undertaken court. involves policies implicit system structured achieve constitutionally powers. IV 31 Here asserts kinds. stands defendant direct Constitution statutory laws applicability. neither acts.27 32 Applying kind, hold petitioner, Story's persuasive: 33 "There incidental belonging department, implied functions, confided it. Among these, power perform president cannot, therefore, liable arrest, imprisonment, detention, office; purpose deemed, least, inviolability." Story, Commentaries 1563, pp. 418-419 (1st ed. 1833). 34 occupies scheme. Article II, provides Power shall vested ." establishes chief officer Branch, supervisory utmost sensitivity. These enforcement law—it "take Care Laws faithfully executed";28 foreign affairs—a realm "[i]t intolerable courts, relevant information, perhaps nullify information secret";29 Branch—a task "imperative reasons requir[e] unrestricted [in President] remove subordinates duties."30 35 arguing relies governors cabinet E.g., (1974). find these inapposite. status distinguishes officials.31 judges— whom established—a himself matters likely "arouse intense feelings." 1218. Yet, recognized, precisely exists greatest providing maximum ability deal fearlessly impartially with" Ferri Ackerman, 444 193, 203, 100 402, 408, 62 355 (1979). compelling where officeholder make far-reaching system.32 can sheer ignored. view visibility effect countless people, easily identifiable target damages.33 Cognizance vulnerability frequently distract detriment designed serve. 36 Courts traditionally factors counseling deference restraint.34 example, looked law official's evidentiary privilege,35 "rooted Constitution." 708, 3107. settled supra; Burr, F.Cas. 187, 191, (No.14,694) (CC Va.1807); cf. Youngstown Sheet Tube Sawyer, 343 579, 72 863, 1153 (1952).36 Administrator Services, 433 425, 443, 2777, 2790, 53 867 (1977); 703-713, 3105-3110. needed serve broad interests—as acts, derogation balance, vindicate ongoing criminal prosecution, supra —the warranted. not.37 C 37 defining privilege, sphere protected related closely immunity's justifying purposes. Frequently extend performance 508-517, 2911-2916; 430-431, 994-995. refused functional lines finer support. 637 (privilege "committed [an official's] supervision"); Barr Matteo, 360 564, 575, 79 1335, 1341, 1434 (1959) (fact outer perimeter duty enough render ."); 363 12, 1108 (judicial applies occurring normal attributes proceeding"). think appropriate recognize responsibility. 38 discretionary variety areas, many highly sensitive. difficult innumerable "functions" encompassed argues Congress—a 7211 (1976 ed., Supp.IV) 1505. underlying efficiency. Assuming ordered avoided theory dissent. Inquiries intrusive. 39 acted ordering employee lawfully retain 'such cause will service.' Brief 39, citing 7512(a). protection, argues, could, satisfying prescribed proceedings. construction trial virtually unlawful, forbidden purpose. Adoption deprive intended effect. clearly prescribe manner business 8012(b). mandate reorganizations reductions wrongful authority. V Executive.38 impeachment.39 addition, formal informal checks apply equal force officials. Vigilant deter abuses credible threat impeachment.40 existence remedies deterrents place "above law."41 precludes advance ends. VI 43 opinion, reversed, consistent opinion. 44 So ordered. 45 BURGER, concurring. 46 join write separately underscore derives Indeed, nearly centuries.1 reaching bear mind focus simply judging individual fact-bound setting; rather, familiar Marshall, expounding. Constitutional adjudication often bears unpalatable fruit. needs sometimes outweigh individuals collect strains words used say places law." dissents wide mark extent imply today recognizes sweeping thing. claims. Moreover, like Members Congress, judges, aides—all immunity—are immune duties.2 Ante, 753-755. Even Clause limits.3 48 WHITE confuses "judicial process" subpoena sense suit. Post, 778, 23. quotes 706, relevance damages: 49 "[N]either nor confidentiality more, sustain absolute, unqualified process circumstances." 782. (Emphasis added.) 50 First, remember prosecution. Second, referred was, No.14,692d Va 1807) (Marshall, C.J., sitting Justice), produce No involved either Burr short, quoted bearing whatever thing quite dismissing If reinstated backpay, done here. infra. 51 derived interpretation Absolute exist. holds mandates allow independent each coequal assigned responsibility, free risk control, interference, intimidation branches. Gravel 408 606, 617, 92 2614, 2623, 583 (1972). prior adoption after, instances necessary balances. Den Dem. Bayard Wife Singleton, N.C. (1787); Cases Judges Va. 135 (1788). Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 60 (1803). Judiciary always hesitant probe elements decisionmaking, just branches decision-making. Such intervention tolerated absent imperative necessity. 709-716, 3108-3111.4 correctly observes improperly impinges hence interferes President. Exposing inevitably undue harassment. enormous impact decisions—far beyond Member Congress—inescapably means persons themselves aggrieved feels bring damages, suit—especially involve questioning including how arrived at, based, supplied information. day-to-day Branch bound occur individuals. indeed sustained injury, prevent large-scale invasion function far outweighs decided Houses Congress—and aides—must acts; interest, words, redress claiming injury Member.5 (and emphatic expressed WHITE's dissent) "unremedied wrongs" citizens seem odd compares potential "wrongs" thousands aides, theoretically inflict—with immunity—on expressed. 2, 54 Judicial inhibit processes decisionmaking impede Office defend diverting since defending today—even ultimately frivolous significant expenditures money, learned sorrow. graphically illustrates point. litigation tightly controlled—and not—they mechanisms extortion. Ultimate vindication repair damage.6 fully concept dictates office.7 Far placing above holding footing recognized. 56 WHITE, BRENNAN, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN join, dissenting. four take connection duties. That knowledge contrary controlling violative Constitution. Fortunately, majority approach: although entitle attaches functions—not offices. Officials performing enjoy violated well-established realized illegal. 58 President: acting boundaries what Presidents normally do, liability, deliberately number knows violates tramples rights injured. trumped-up knowing laws, absolutely token, following procedures wiretap break home installing listening device, comply request, regardless damage inflicts, knew be, purpose.1 59 intimates provide wholly inapplicable unacceptable. operate effectively, holder permitted, performing, inflict others scatter-gun cases. attach member Cabinet specific essential. work done, immunize tasks perform. things Senators Representatives regularly repeatedly importune agencies rooms halls, violate Brewster, 501, 2531, 507 makes clear. Neither secure deemed investigation, breaks house carries away records. function, then Dennis Sparks, 449 183, 188, 66 185 (1980); O'Shea Littleton, 414 488, 503, 669, 679-80, 674 likewise prosecutorial function. prosecutor directs investigation carried out patently immune. 1675 (1803), speaking Justice, observed "important powers" committed appointees accountable legality act department examinable justice not, depend act." Cranch, 165 nevertheless refuses follow course effort distinguish categories qualify level concludes however injure employees Government. Attaching rather activities perform, reversion notion King wrong. Until now, survived country sovereign forecloses latter actually sovereign. Larson Domestic Foreign Commerce 682, 687, 1457, 1460, 1628 (1949). Suit officer, maintained 698, 1465. Now, clothes law.2 63 163, observed: "The emphatically termed men. certainly cease deserve appellation, furnish right." adhered proposition. unanimous Governor State position, 64 "[i]n higher complex choices—whether formulation legislation, budgets, decisions—is infinite. options principal broader subtle less comparably broad." 246-247, 1691-92. 65 BRENNAN McGautha California, 402 252-253, 91 1454, 1489-90, 711 (1971) (dissenting opinion): principle men strongly woven fabric provisions Constitution" (footnote omitted). THE CHIEF JUSTICE said Complete Auto Transit, Inc. Reis, 451 401, 429, 1836, 1851, 68 248 (1981) "Accountability lies core law—indeed, organized societies. trend eliminate modify unrelated development; moved 'The wrong.' accountability fundamental society eroded anarchy impotence, justice." 67 Unfortunately, abandons basic powerful guides decision. particularly unfortunate judgment few, any, indicia decision; choice, choice substantial events ambiguous reach import. 'in large making.' 501-502, 2908-2909, 569, 1338, (1959). mean "enacted" own best convictions policy—whether wise—have played part, constrained tradition, background, dealing constructions privileges abolish predecessor violations respecting officials—including work—also reflect views, conclusions interest. little today. casually, candidly, run decisions. 2705. turns declaring diverse profoundly important, clothed officewide, my view, poor 70 deliberate statute, history."3 749. earmarks pronouncement—absolute disclaim this, ante 748-749, 27, read coherently standing narrower proposition: Attempts Bivens (Bivens Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 1999, 619 (1971)) proceeding powers.4 generalized examined sources. amicus,5 rely principally arguments liability: "incidental power" Presidency, historically doctrine. address contentions. Clause, Art. I, 6, guarantees Congress; nowhere, directly immunity.6 debates Convention early demonstrate assumption items: preratification remarks discussion impeachment Federalist; second, meeting Senate; third, views Story. debate impeachable touch subjecting branch, Legislature.7 Gouverneur Morris, dependency "[the Coadjutors punished. re-elected, proof innocence."8 Colonel Mason asking "any man [shall] Justice" "who commit injustice."9 Madison "it [is] indispensable Community incapacity, negligence perfidy Magistrate."10 Pinckney side, believing power, Legislature "as rod effectually destroy independence."11 74 delegates meant exclusive personally misdeeds, electoral politics. conclusion, hardly debate. limiting independence, voted favor impeachment. Whatever sufficient, sufficiently shared, insulate process. 75 wrongs individuals, method state.12 Thus, examples concerned betrayal, oppression, bribery; feared mechanism "tumults insurrections" people response suchabuses. Farrand 67. drawn understood total consequences improper acts.13 76 Much reliance Federalist 77. essay, Hamilton combines requisites safety republican sense—a dependence people—a responsibility." 77, p. 520 (J. Cooke 1961). answered plan met test possibility restraining abuses. This, follows. Convention, larger abuses—"wrongs state"—that commit. individualized grievances.14 77 omission exclusion illustrated comparing ratifying conventions Hamilton's North Carolina convention, adequacy misdeeds. defended distinguishing accountability: 78 "If commits offence individual, amenable crimes state, indicted Impeachment misdemeanors mode pointed great public."15 surely contemplate availability forms accountability; character Maclaine, delegate believed remain seeking injuries caused acts: 80 superior put execution. maladministration Were possible suppose give wrong instructions deputies, whereby distressed, ordinary law."16 distinction different Wilson Pennsylvania convention: 82 "[The placed high, contemptible; yet single annexed character; citizen, impeachment."17 83 Wilson: members Convention; instrumental securing ratification importantly, contradiction statements. inference silence create contradiction. surrounding inference. 84 piece cited exchange Senate, Vice Adams Ellsworth Maclay. started President" beginning writs, writs ran King's name. Senator Maclay thought combine turn, led relation two. proposition 85 personally, whatever; whatever, him; justices, &c. [that] him, stop whole machine government."18 86 ardently opposed committing "murder street." resurrection law; "loyal Maclay, recorded exchange, notes remark none "is worth minuting, shows amazingly fond leaven are."19 supporters comprehended difference American British Monarch. Again, nothing accountability, process, clearer now. item supports late date contributes understanding original intent. published 1833, Story described 88 "Among [his functions] obstruction impediment whatsoever. inviolability. use discretion, conscience. His exercised, conclusive."20 89 firmly Pinckney, opposite 1800.21 floor contrasted President.22 "well oppressively undefined exercised Great Britain, determined ever here." Annals Cong. (1800). Therefore, "[n]o your Executive, except Legislature." 74.23 emphasized afforded (1976). Clearly sort context, relevant. From above, finds text explanations earliest commentators. too weak declaration source sought. implicitly concedes text, sources merit footnote 750-752, 31. bright refers policy." doctrine: "[I]n determining Act disrupts coordinate branches, focuses prevents accomplishing functions." 706-707, 3106-07, (1974); 635, 870, (1952) (Jackson, concurring). favors execute obligations impaired. convergence superficially apparent analysis. degree. maximize worthwhile disrupt Insofar origin, "accomplishing [his] lower disruption appropriate. burden; believe either. Taken face value, injunctive prosecutions and, indeed, contention prosecution enacted matter. credible. "Indictment, Trial, Judgment Punishment, according Law." 3, cl. 7. indicate Supra, 765-766. insulates money courts' Co., Korematsu 323 214, 194 (1944); Panama Refining Ryan, 293 241, 446 (1935). Petitioner's attempt analogy 45, "to possibly hostile judiciary," "for Debate" Congressmen "shall questioned Place," thus, assures Congressmen, capacity, Executive. indicate, rule, exception, actions—including immediate direction President—are review.24 Regardless then, constitutionality review. set aside pursuant necessitated declaratory 1807. (No. 14,692d) Va.1807) Justice). "squarely directed President." Sirica, 159 58, 67, 487 700, 709 (1973). Marshall flatly suggestion itself, constitutes unwarranted interference Presidency: guard, furnished protect harassed vexatious unnecessary subpoenas, subpoenas issued; circumstance precede issued." F.Cas., (emphasis added). rearticulated 3106: establish, determination constitutionality, intrusive justify judicially declared With this. problem here, involved. unfair know insisting awareness unduly interfere 506-507, 2910-2911. Today's 396, clear knew, objective known, abuse power. circumstances, injury—the wrongdoer victim. 103 guide long ago Marshall: essence consists whenever receives injury." recently, role enforcing federally guaranteed rights: "Historically, regarded liberty." 395, 2004.25 denies otherwise remedy, victim laws."26 104 remedial toward injures surprising fairness followed—that wrongdoer, victim, ordinarily costs injury—has outweighed "thought governmental process." 437, 998 (WHITE, concurring judgment). will, should, responsibilities. unconstitutional, illegal, behavior. lead careful "less vigorous" Caution, course, virtue caution avoided. 105 influence ways cast terms, officers, federal: All regard lawsuit. Imbler, 436, judgment).27 Inevitably, reduces expression inclination encouraged "vigor," care.28 106 response, today, offices, evaluate substantive ends discouraged. examine implicated functions. 107 decisions29 converge principle: wholesale firmer communications analysis, true necessity areas responsibility,30 substantially impaired 108 proceeded action: statutes—5 1505—and Amendment. point litigation, us. correctness unconvincing. 109 Supp.IV), states committee thereof, interfered denied." 1505, crime obstruct insight assure access possession believes carry responsibilities.31 implicate accepted majority. enacting preserve recalcitrant Executive.32 addressed behavior intruded upon, burdened, Congress' furtherance ignores behind action; assumes valued 110 (as assumed case), adopted unconstitutional furthering ends, rest premise employment significantly interfere. contention. Perkins, 116 485, 449, 450, 700 (1886), "when vests appointment inferior heads Departments limit restrict removal deems interest." Humphrey's Executor 295 602, 869, 1611 (1935), fill bureaucratic positions, restrictions exception.33 demonstrates severe restraints operates area. 111 working fall "excepted" service, rules removals CFR 6.4 veteran protections. Veterans benefits "preference eligibles." 2108 Supp.IV). forth 7513(a) Supp.IV): "[A]n agency [adverse action] service." reduction-in-force regulation. §§ 3501, 3502 violated, 1973 recommendation reappointed 112 brief illustrate point: Personnel tolerate More "quantitative" degree decision-making permitted area, "qualitative" Part I-B above. 113 bias decisionmaker servants arbitrary illustrate, area demonstrably side encouraging "vigor" "caution" decisionmakers. is, steps able freely testify elsewhere justified contradicts reflected 114 fact, claims, superfluous. twice, forward before, "were remedies, [directly Constitution] obviated." Davis Passman, 228, 248, 2264, 2278, 846 Nevertheless, decides well, disagreement conclusion. 115 (1971), compensable Fourth invoke federal-question rested principles: '[t]he laws,' 397, 2005, 60; "[h]istorically, 2004. violations—a undercut Bivens. shield Finally, Congressman Bivens-type Due Process Clause. largely issues principles. prerogative Legislative violation. adequate legislatively permits equitable, injury. "judicial" problem: created instance arguments. imposing equitable Third, "qualified immunity" suits; showing exposure inconsistent retains judgments 117 fails already principles, violating Rather, assert impair successfully case. 118 valid simple character. 119 suggests variant argument. character, "difficult." 756.34 true, immunity: still whether, unclear instances, deserves function.35 120 problems action.36 Relying analytic general, particular. 121 reasoning 122 suffers ambiguity How President? "has acts." 748. told, why difference. propositions relied new propositions. 123 end, seems overcome initial hesitation, announces "[w]e [absolute] history," ante, 757 ("A Executive").37 States," bases jurisprudence Presidency. 2704.38 124 subpoenaduces tecum enjoined carrying directives. (1952). Not mere formalism appearing resolving 125 balance." 754. Without explanation, contends "merely damages" 126 law—i.e., applicability—does purpose, bizarre. sort, statutorily harm. idea offends passing 127 implies assertion action—the transgress authority—may offend concerns. perverse Constitution: untenable argue "unique" implement Focusing actual offers surprisingly little. section contentions draws Each makeweight; together suffice disregard questions. 129 informs "unique scheme," justice, affairs, 749-750. True says encompass that, 130 reason, uniqueness shifts burden prove apply. effort, suggests, "inapposite" 750. place. true. inappropriate. 131 "visibility" vulnerable 753, required. majority's admission "there numerous 33. granting 1971, handful Many dealt routine Department. future, currently unfounded litigation. 396 intrude time. develops. 132 "frequently duties." 753. Unless high-level logic President; extension, uniformly 2984, 985 396. Furthermore, unjustifiable cost. perceived virtues delegated fashioning pervert undercutting values expect Except empty generality 'the with' office,' 752, nowhere particular, disadvantageous comes requiring choices individuals' legally counted 133 correct "[a] Executive." 757. harms suffered. future plaintiffs substantiality comfort afford harms. valves. Politics domain courts; he, enforceable pursue peaceful legitimate grievances. 134 ironic, tragic, casually discard assuring laws," 60, Accordingly, BLACKMUN, MARSHALL 136 me, leaves unanswered unanswerable man, Lee, 196, 240, 260, 171 (1882),1 (1803).2 foundation jurisprudence. 137 understand concerns, expressly open, 748, congressionally concepts, coexist. 138 unalleviated parties' settlement key details disclosed counsel veritable "last minute," Halperins' intervene them. 743-744, 24. mention II-B 139 payment $142,000 smaller riding outcome favorable prevailed, does. publicly amount Court; ruling, substance Surely, known came denied. escape feeling long-undisclosed close wager implications entails. 140 recently—and, appears, conveniently—decided, affords comfortable retaining case.3 moot, Johnson, 319 302, 1075, 1413 (1943). 141 Apprised developments, writ improvidently granted. brushes factor profound consequence Lacking dismissal, Economics Military Procurement: Hearings Committee, 90th Cong., 2d Sess., pt. 199-201 (1968-1969). embarrassed angered Within appearance, staff prepared outgoing Harold Brown, listing removed position. 209a-211a (memorandum Lang Jan. 1969). "reduction force"—the Brown's successor announced accordingly elimination 1970. Dismissal Defense: 91st 1st Sess. (1969). Some signed protesting "firing dedicated servant" "punitive action." 115-116. briefing anticipation forthcoming conference. Authored Patrick Buchanan, advanced good servant." 269a Buchanan Dec. retention 228a. 109a-112a (deposition Haldeman); 137a-141a Nixon). Haldeman's deposed handwritten 1969. 275a. 126a Mayo); 141a Both deputy, James Schlesinger, appear resisted partly lacked institutional spoke friends Capitol Hill. positions presently unavailable Budget. 146a-147a Schlesinger). Quoted (Sept. 1973) (CSC Decision), 60a, 84a. (Page citations CSC refer page Appendix.) 85a. added owe "first Fitzgerald" [Senator] tried hard hero [for exposing overruns].' Suspicion widely shared Decision, supra: "While 'Senator Proxmier's [sic] boy Force', honestly it, statement accept. top specifically saying so, that. note leaving employed consultant witness [Fitzgerald]." 83a. 61a. 83a-84a. ibid. 185a. few hours conference, repeated privately Charles Colson firing. 214a-215a (recorded conversation 1973). 196a (transcription secretary Ronald Ziegler, Feb. Ehrlichman, Colson, Ehrlichman corrected details, "thinkin' case." 218a 220a. "excepted service" covered competitive service. 755, 758 (1972); 63a-64a. nonetheless "legislative protection," eligible" protections Veterans' Preference Act. U.S.App.D.C., 4-14, 758-768. 758. superiors' dissatisfaction performance. 86a-87a. Their attitude evidenced "statements 'team player' team.' "adverse action" "inadequate unsatisfactory employee," 86a, procedures, current version codified 752 forbade employ force" "personal him. 87a. receive backpay. 87a-88a. order, equivalent employment. culminated agreement. reassign Management Systems Deputy Assistant 21, Settlement Agreement Hampton et al., Civ. 76-1486 (DC 15, 1982). continuing conspiracy deny reemployment, besmirch reputation. remained 688, 690-692 1974). unchanged. averring Nixon's participation "totally aware" "approved" Second Amended Complaint 74-178 (D.C.), 6. Pet. Cert. 1a-2a. "infer" confers sue first, "[T]he making "implied" explained infra, doctrine, denial enjoyed Columbia, subsequently abandoned Supplemental Opposition urge challenge jurisdictional, part: "Cases appeals Supreme methods: "(1) rendition decree appeals' jurisdiction—a routinely. Gardner Westinghouse Broadcasting 2451, 364 want insulated entirely Nor, merits. pure resolution. Especially now-binding presented, warrant presented. copy Clerk August 1981, appendix Morton, Ina, David, Mark, Gary relief. advised clients live Counsel submission. common-law—and constitutional—cause 493-495, 2904-2905. 2911, requisite policy," accurately viewed "inherent" "structural" assumptions scheme arise accords avoiding issues. Reviewing 742, inferred relies. must—in considering interpreting doctrine—assume runs 788, (1951) (construing [of immunity] covert inclusion us," immunity). Consequently, affirmative issue, disposition U.S.Const., 3. Chicago Southern Lines, Waterman S.S. 333 103, 111, 431, 568 (1948). Myers 272 52, 134-135, 31-32, 160 (1926). Noting textual Framers unpersuasive. prerequisite Yet settled. (1872); 511-512, 2913-14; (extending Branch). Farrand, Records 1787, (1911) (remarks Morris); Pinckney). expectation distraction disappointed citizens. Adams—both Convention—that Government." Journal William 167 (E. 1890). writing undistracted lawsuits. 1833) (quoted 749). Thomas Jefferson Va.1807), duces protested strongly, relationship leading Legislature, judiciary other, jealous judiciary. judiciary, commands latter, imprisonment disobedience; bandy pillar post, keep constantly trudging north south east west, withdraw duties? intention others, manifested each, enterprises attempted effectual diversified executive." Works 404 (P. Ford 1905) (quoting trial) original). Malone, Time: 320-325 fragmentary materials reflecting Framers' intent, Constitution's Judiciary's historic primary precedent misunderstood. upheld. dissent cites materials, comments publicist. cited. considered, contemporary Adams, Jefferson, Oliver Ellsworth. Prior explosion commencing 1971 fewer None persuasive supporting prospect cautious Judge Learned Hand wrote Gregoire Biddle, 177 581 (CA2 1949), denied, 339 949, 803, 1363 (1950), justification [denying recovery] impossible founded tried, submit innocent guilty, inevitable danger outcome, dampen ardor resolute (1971). traced back Mississippi 475, (1866) ("[W]e satisfied bill enjoin duties; ought us"); Kendall 524, 610, 1181 (1838) ("The constitution, constitution impeaching power"). Reynolds, 345 6-7, 528, 531-32, 727 (1953) (Secretary Force); Carl Zeiss Stiftung V. Zeiss, Jena, F.R.D. 318, 323-324 1966), V.E.B. Jena Clark, 979, 389 952, 334, 361 (1967) (Department officials). party, executing order. 583, 865. lesser than, prosecutions. Gillock, 445 360, 371-373, 1185, 1192-1193, 454 711-712, 19, 3109-3110 (basing decision). impose regrettable violated. But, dissent, supplies dissent's objections weigh official. attack implied-rights-of-action identify establish victims remedy. Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner Smith, Curran, 456 353, 1825, 182 (1982); Middlesex County Sewerage Auth. National Sea Clammers Assn., 453 2615, (1981); California Sierra Club, 287, 1775, undertakes "counseling hesitation" 2004; Carlson Green, 14, 1468, 1472, (1980) (in "independent inappropriate"). reliance, dubious best. 163. individual's come Marbury, remembered, turned gone seek Commission—a availed himself. 736-739, 17. presence 428-429, 994 ("We emphasize powerless punish occurs"). plays central Kaufman, Chilling Independence, Yale L.J. 681, 690-706 vote colleagues. resignation hearings. Report Representatives: H.R.Rep.No. 93-1305 opinions rhetorically chilling unjustified. misdeeds misbehavior, lift "above" suggest enters answerable damages; files indictment; engages speech error characterize law" recently. which, citizen Virginia, precluding Livingston 8,411 660 8,411) Va.1811). "parade horribles" lamentations, fail acknowledge perils 75,000 manifest astonishing blind pointing reliable "no difficulty expanding derivative Members. hint protected. seen derive citizenry malice once pervasive constant, prohibit accepting bribe Presidents, "could Fitzgerald—a personnel reasons." 767, permit recite "magic" pleadings incantation immunities vanish. errs fundamentally treating identical. Government—a office—is notes, changes wrong, provided. official—even President—had Tort Claims 1946 reflects distinction; waived pointedly excepted "discretionary abused." 2680(a). Act, compensation. Dalehite 346 956, 1427 (1953). uncompensated nonjudicial bills. route provided Congress: Similarly situated 797 dissenting). feelings: "After dozen experience litigant dread anything else short sickness death." Lectures Legal Topics, Association Bar City New York "we directly" 27. holding, resolves issue; alter result. Nothing suggesting overruled modified. hypothetical example. ironic tenth anniversary Watergate affair. popular affair shaken today's decision: lesson banality, cliche, Americans confused." Time, (June shares confusion. vigorously protests characterization 758, 41, abandonment result reached, credibility preconceived inapplicability JUSTICE, majority, misses unconvincing aides. "within Concurring 761, 4. existed reasons. judicial, legislative, attaches. JUSTICE's failure grasp accounts misunderstanding initially "our point, am JUSTICE. Solicitor Halperin, 3122, insofar addresses actions; 64-69 (hereinafter Farrand). 64. 65. 66. 65, p, 439 1961), offenses follows: "They peculiar propriety denominated POLITICAL, relate chiefly itself." arguments: puts appropriateness noting doubts "nothing [the] [civil actions]." 751, Of upheld." commentary did, major essays Independent Gazetteer Tench Coxe description "His Representatives; Documentary History Ratification Elliot, Debates (1876 ed.). 47. 480. W. Sketches Senate 1789-1791, (1969 reprint). 1569, 372 (4th 1873). Pinkney, objected Legislature. Two Pinckneys attended Convention. South Carolina. 559. Pinckney's 69-83 inquire origin libelous newspaper article. Reply occasion remarks, discuss embodied Clause: "[O]ur supposes infallible, considers men, passions, frailties, crimes, are, proceedings, constituents contrasting (or extended) evidence, Jefferson's suggests. points career. confrontation Marshall. became significance. regard, third drafts Virginia process: "[H]e tho' restraint wrongs." Papers 350, (1950). followers impeach Chase 1804-1805, Dr. Cooper sedition. Corwin, Powers 1957). middle Marshall's trial, solution confrontation: hope ensuing session legislature [the Justice] giving [Executive] functionaries cases." 407 George Hay, Attorney Virginia). General, "serves contain unauthorized powers," end. Petitioners O.T.1980, 79-880, Harlan's 407-410, 2010-2012 (concurring Contrary 754-755, 37, does, perspective questions, followed discards, reconciliation conflicting stake. reaches reversal Implicitly, Surely beneficiaries pronouncements gives appearance favoritism. Consumers Union 719, 1967, 641 speculate example participates Cong.Rec. 4653 (1912) ("During desirous learning postal inquiring conditions employees. surprise civil-service me information") Rep. Calder); 4656 ("I listen losing positions") Reilly); 5157 requested consult affecting respectful complaints") Evans). L.Ed.3d "5 1505 damages." Petitioners, O.T.1981, 80-945, 11. impetus imposition "gag rules" committees. Exec. Order (Jan. 25, 1906); 1142 (Nov. 1909). 7503, 7513, 7543 "function" past "subjective purpose." 756 ("an 'functional' ."). way. 362, 1107, judge's "relate i.e., expectations parties." 512-516, 2913-15, "enough characteristics process," qualities subjective 756. so. differ, case: differentiate reads [as spelled today] powers." dismisses result." 763, (1866), carefully reserved compel ministerial functions: "We objection, expressing required, positive amenable, crime." (4 Wall) 498. (1838), rejecting mandamus infringement Branch: postmaster duty, partaking enforce act, control." 610. "No defiance impunity. highest lowest, creatures obey it." One protection. Britain king petition, court." 370-371, 1120. fact. Further, preliminary Havens. $400 affirmed, reversed. Here, changed hands resting ultimate ruling. contemplated

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