Document: 332 U.S. 301 67 S.Ct. 1604 91 L.Ed. 2067 UNITED STATESv.STANDARD OIL CO. OF CALIFORNIA et al. No. 235. Argued April 8, 9, 1947. Decided June 23, Mr. Frederick Bernays Wiener, of Providence, R.I., for petitioner. Frank B. Belcher, Los Angeles, Cal., respondents. Justice RUTLEDGE delivered the opinion Court. 1 Not often since decision in Erie R. Co. v. Tompkins, 304 64, 58 817, 82 1188, 114 A.L.R. 1487, is this Court asked to create a new substantive legal liability without legislative aid and as at common law. This case first impression here seeks such result. It arises from following circumstances. 2 Early one morning February, 1944, John Etzel, soldier, was hit injured by truck Standard Oil Company California street intersection Angeles. The vehicle driven Boone, an employee company. At Government's expense $123.45 Etzel hospitalized, his soldier's pay $69.31 continued during disability. Upon payment $300 released company Boone 'from any all claims which I now have or may hereafter on account arising out of' accident.1 3 From these facts novel question springs whether Government entitled recover respondents tort-feasors amounts expended hospitalization pay, loss Etzel's services. A jury being waived, District made findings fact conclusions law favor upon issues, including those negligence contributory negligence. Judgment rendered accordingly. D.C., 60 F.Supp. 807. Circuit Appeals reversed, 9 Cir., 153 F.2d 958, we granted certiorari because novelty importance principal question.2 329 696, 670. 4 As reaches us, number issues contested been eliminated.3 Remaining basic respondents' interference with government-soldier relation consequent United States, together questions issue be determined federal state law4 concerning effect release.5 In view take it not necessary consider relating release,6 reached conclusion that are liable injuries inflicted Government. 5 We agree creation negation matter aspect governed rule Clearfield Trust 318 363, 63 573, 87 838, National Metropolitan Bank 323 454, 65 354, 89 383, rather than supra. case, involving liabilities forged indorsement check issued said: 'The authority had its origin Constitution statutes States no way dependent laws Pensylvania other state. Cf. Board Commissioners (of Jackson County) 308 343, 285, 84 313; Royal Indemnity 313 289, 61 995, 85 1361. duties imposed rights acquired result issuance find their roots same sources. Deitrick Greaney, 309 190, 480, 694; D'Oench, Duhme & Federal Deposit Ins. Corporation, 315 447, 62 676, 86 956. absence applicable Act Congress courts fashion governing according own standards.' pages 366, 367, page 575, 838. 6 Although applied principles situation contractual relations Government, they equally where affected non-contractual tortious character. 7 Perhaps between citizen more distinctively character members armed forces. To whatever extent apply govern soldiers others forces persons outside them nonfederal governmental agencies, scope, nature, incidents consequences service fundamentally derived sources authority. See Tarble's Case (In re Tarble), 13 Wall. 397, 20 597; Kurtz Moffitt, 115 487, 148, 29 458. So also think interferences relationship involve. For, has exclusive power establish define virtue military powers,7 clearly execution functions protect once formed harms others.8 8 Since purse affected, well relationship, fiscal powers, available against financial injury, add weight basis excluding intrusion. Indeed, greatly different paramount control over property, both prevent unauthorized use destruction secure indemnity injuries.9 moreover, quite apart positive action Congress, neither primarily interest nor exclusively determination within spirit purpose decsion. great object courts, diversity cases, application would if suit were brought court sits. so-called 'federal law' utilized substitute power, enforce relationships area set our scheme control, threw out. Its thus bring judicial under subjection matters essentially local control. 10 Conversely there broadening determining nature. jurisdiction created special problems sort. Accordingly decision, related only exercise jurisdiction, effect, intended none, governance federal, so constitutional valid congressional command, vitally affecting interests, powers require uniform national disposition diversified rulings. 366—368, 574—576, Hence, although deal common-law cut down realm governable law, remained unimpaired dealing independently, wherever appropriate, matters, even though acted affirmatively about specific question. 11 sense therefore remains what termed, want better label, perhaps accurately 'law independent decision,' realm, untouched decision. points out, demonstrated broadly but decisions went down,10 correct saying foreshadowed day Hinderlider La Plata River Cherry Creek Ditch Co., 92, 110, 803, 811, 1202, unanimous likewise Brandeis.11 12 true, course, many situations, supposed influence rights, interests specifically. 'In choice occasionally selected law.' instance, place itself position necessarily determinable when purchases real estate whose title invalid another's claim. Fox, 94 315, 24 192.12 situations fairly taken consented acting partially functions, through failure make provision ordinarily governed.13 And still furnish convenient solutions inconsistent adequate protection interest. But do undertake delimit categorize instances properly aegis. enough present purposes point exist, cover variety generally involve affords fair mode disposition, either inescapable, illustration given above, does substantially treatment uniformity indicated nature subject 14 Whether not, therefore, decided rule. except simply substituted successor policy, merely establishment groundings action, relations, factor controlling types cases producing ruling. answer considerations always relevant effects applying These include supremacy performance need and, some instances, inferences drawn cognizant particular problem, change long-settled ways handling it. 15 Leaving account, nevertheless should issue. know good reason why right indemnified circumstances, lack right, vary accordance rulings several states, soldier marches today flies across lines. 16 Furthermore, sought essential state's citizens harms, indeed personal security, remotest sense,14 wrongdoer fully protected reference loss.15 principal, only, whole treasury losses sstained, f lowing obligations soldier. question, chiefly peculiar concern states citizens. appropriate has, fittingly varying policies. 17 turn, finally, consideration policy wrongdoer, immunity past. Here puts forward interesting views support claim responsibility. appeals principle can never wholly static. Growth, urges, life living things. expansive creative process, further reminded, institution must continue large pliant, restrained steady, hand. Moreover, problem ancient soil tort wherein chief plowman judge, notwithstanding furrow covered up widened legislation. 18 Bringing argument point, counsel favored us scholarly discussion origins foundations considered analogous later expansion originally comprehended. embrace particularly standing various relationships, causing harm person also, services assimilated injuries, whom he bound relation's tie. Such, obvious examples, master's recovery servant apprentice;16 husband's similar marital relation, consortium wife's services; parent's child's services, daughter's seduction.17 19 Starting long-established illustrating leads effort show is, identical, strongly analogous;18 analogies destroyed variations, highly anomalous,19 characterizing settled liability; exertion strangers proper exemplification law's capacity catch times. Further elaboration argument's details interesting, attractive scene broad field compendously labe led torts, none engrossing areas human relations. forego tendered opportunity. For ignores factors distinguishing into companionate disposition. centered very involved, assertedly comparable arose; narrower compared allowed general matters. 21 deny premise growth, work judges. Soon become antiquated strait jacket then dead letter, lacking. hand stiffen mortmain part creation. work, modest freedom liabilities, Tompkins witnesses. Hudson, Cranch 32, 259. 22 recognizes phase other,20 creating tort.21 grounded field, comes final consequence coupled appropriateness means used executing established. analogy forth, indeed, step expanding recognized such, ones. advanced instrument establishing regulatory policies executive arm thinks prevail traditionally established liabilities. 23 Whatever merits itsconversion ours. custodian purse. By token primary most arbiter affairs. comprehend, said, securing government however inflicted, requiring reimbursement them, filling itself. Moreover doubt conscious throughout history constantly sustains criminal conduct interfering funds, property relationships. cannot assume ignorant long arisen occurred here. which, argues, involved 'a well-settled concept situation, every respect old gave rise concept. * *' Among others, trouble new, rate presumed known light knowledge. 25 When thought steps end.22 done here, desire. do, wishes. 26 considerations, intruding Congress' seen fit action. accept challenge, making effective possible element surprise, contrary practice, avoid,23 told 27 Finally, precedents relied pertinent total especially aspects, liaility n o parties litigation determine. stood arbiters citizens, could determine outcome followed. party plaintiff suit. time liability. organ exists. That reasons stated, instance courts. Until acts liability, withhold touch. 28 judgment affirmed. Affirmed. 30 FRANKFURTER concurs 31 JACKSON, dissenting. 32 If defendant held negligently inflicting civilian, obliged among items damage, reasonable cost resulting care doctor, hospital nurse, earnings lost period civilian bore himself, damage; wife fell her husband, it; child, recoverable parent. who commits somebody elements costs wrongdoing. 33 What holds victim bears them. duty medical nursing loses while goes on. costs, fall sovereign-soldier recovered parent child husband wife. justice, see taxpayers relieve normal injury happens allow logically sustain case. 34 qualms well-known facts, unless directed Congress. torts developed almost judiciary England country methods. With few exceptions, depend function feel free vests facts. England, scruples legislating least sensitive ours normally are, hesitated say His Majesty's Treasury outlay cure British negligent wages meanwhile paid. Attorney General Valle-Jones (1935) K.B. 209. hold much suspected trying usurp function. release recited 'is construed as' admission petition asserted 'upwards 450 expense, compensation incapacitation, reported War Department past three years,' additional approximately 40 month. said representative already commenced, e.g., Atlantic Coast Line D.C.E.D.N.C., 64 dismissed ground master-servant existed, Klein, 55, expenses incurred Civilian Conservation Corps employee, Employees' Compensation Act, U.S.C. § 751 seq., U.S.C.A. afford method recoupment, concededly Including negligence, stipulation record appeal evidence forth omitted 'for appellants insufficiency prove negligence.' refused 'as plaintiff,' designated rely: cause paid expenditures; 'was master did employer exist them'; end 'all expenses.' Appeals, considering outset 'confronted apply,' 'Aside legislation conferring subrogation indemnification seem rules role private litigant. 71, 78, 819, 822, 1487; Moscow-Idaho Seed supra, 92 170, 173, 174.' 960. agreement appellant California's statutory namely, 49 Civil Code, concluded 'must fail two reasons: first, scope second, 'master' 'servant' meaning Code section.' 961. concluded, however, 'covered damage,' discharge 'without authority.' Finally stated: '* seems clear intend war, subrogated damages.' 963. note 3. claim, subrogation. owing directly deprivation 'indemnity' caused discharging him appellants. Robert Mary's Case, 113 a. third interest, tort-feasors. independently cf. 5, Only found reached. 'provide Defense,' 'raise Armies,' 'make Rules Regulation land naval Forces,' Const., Art. I, 'To declare War' Laws shall carrying Execution foregoing Powers *.' Ibid. predicated assumption override governs affirmative IV, 3, cl. 2: Power dispose needful Regulations respecting Territory Property belonging *'; Camfield 167 518, 524, 864, 866, 42 260: lands, ordinary proprietor, maintain possession prosecute trespassers'; Walter, 263 15, 17, 44 10, 11, 68 137: County 1361; D'Oench 956; Allegheny County, 322 174, 908, 88 1209; Holmberg Armbrecht, 327 392, 66 582, 90 743, 162 719. Notes, Common Law Action Tort (1946) 41 Ill.L.Rev. 551; Exceptions Tompkins: Survival 59 Harv.L.Rev. 966. ruling followed, waters interstate stream equitably apportioned flows arid regions West, characterized law,' marks off another or, existence different, acquire, example, purchase remedy Blair Commissioner, 300 57 330, 81 465; Reconstruction Finance Corporation Beaver 328 204, 992, 1172. potential added ever having deter commission imposition indemnify addition indemnifying solider conceivably incentive avoiding harms. existent Braction's day, Wigmore, Interference Social Relations (1887) Amer.L.Rev. 764; VIII Holdsworth, History English (2d ed., 1937) 427—430; II Id., 459—464; IV 379—387; Pollock, Torts (13th ed.) 234—239; Clerk Lindsell (8th 201—212. Extension per quod servitium amisit domestic fictional basis, took early 1653. Norton Jason, Style 398; Winfield, Textbook 257. Analogies status, underlying earlier forms character, latter far-fetched regarding drafted entered 'contract implied E.g., fiction father's seduction consortium. Compare Serjeant Manning's oft-quoted statement 'the quasi rich man daughter makes tea, leaves ledress poor sent unprotected earn bread amongst strangers.' Note Grinnell Wells, Man. Gr. p. 1044. stressing emphasis put advancing thesis acceptance rule, stress grounding argument. contend existed heretofore. frankly urges one. matter, come attention, cited above 2, High Australia Commonwealth Quince, Comm.L.Rep. 227, aff'g, (1943) Q.S.R. 199, denying 209, reaching result, apparently concession. See, 35 Stat. 1097, 94, (enticing desertion service); 95, workmen arsenals armories); 99, 99 (robbery States); 100, 100 (embezzlement States). Of course pass imposing civil understood days sovereign interference. Thus, trespass wrong remedied Cotton How. 229, 675. Necessarily often, always, exists whenever created, responsibility tort. This, invariably presenting tribunals business decide forestall growth factor, weighed social dictating responsibility, squarely complicated, distributions system.

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