Document: 538 U.S. 510 DEMORE, DISTRICT DIRECTOR, SAN FRANCISCO OF IMMIGRATION AND NATURALIZATION SERVICE, ET AL.v.KIM. No. 01-1491. Supreme Court of United States. Argued January 15, 2003. Decided April 29, Under the Immigration and Nationality Act, 8 U. S. C. § 1226(c), "[t]he Attorney General shall take into custody any alien who" is removable from this country because he has been convicted one a specified set crimes, including an "aggravated felony." After respondent, lawful permanent resident alien, was in state court first-degree burglary and, later, "petty theft with priors," Naturalization Service (INS) charged him being deportable States light these convictions, detained pending his removal hearing. Without disputing validity convictions or INS' conclusion that therefore subject to mandatory detention under respondent filed habeas corpus action challenging 1226(c) on ground thereunder violated due process INS had made no determination posed either danger society flight risk. The District agreed granted respondent's petition prompt undertaking individualized bond hearing, after which released bond. In affirming, Ninth Circuit held violates substantive as applied resident, most favored category aliens. rejected Government's two principal justifications for discounting first — ensuring presence criminal aliens at their proceedings upon finding not all pursuant would ultimately be deported, second protecting public dangerous grounds aggravated felony classification triggering included crimes (such respondent's) did consider "egregious" otherwise sufficiently necessitate detention. Relying Zadvydas v. Davis, 533 678, concluded provided justification no-bail civil sufficient overcome alien's liberty interest. Held: 1. Section 1226(e) states General's discretionary judgment regarding application section review" "[n]o may aside decision by release alien" does deprive federal courts jurisdiction grant relief 1226(c). Respondent challenge "discretionary judgment" "decision" release. Rather, challenges statutory framework permits without bail. Where Congress intends preclude judicial review constitutional claims its intent do so must clear. E. g., Webster Doe, 486 592, 603. And, where provision precluding claimed bar review, requires particularly clear statement such Congress' intent. See St. Cyr, 289, 308-309, 298, 327. contains explicit barring review. Pp. 516-517. 2. Congress, justifiably concerned evidence who are continue engage crime fail appear hearings large numbers, require persons brief period necessary proceedings. exercise broad power over naturalization immigration, regularly makes rules unacceptable if citizens. Mathews Diaz, 426 67, 79-80. Although Fifth Amendment entitles deportation proceedings, Reno Flores, 507 292, 306, during constitutionally valid aspect process, e. Wong Wing States, 163 228, 235, even where, here, there they unlikely Carlson Landon, 342 524, 538. conceded deportable, limited governed cases. argues unpersuasively policy Zadvydas, S., 699, 1231(a)(6) authorizes continued final order beyond section's 90-day only time reasonably secure removal. materially different present case respects. First, following orders were ones whom "no longer practically attainable," serve purported immigration purpose. Id., 690. contrast, issue governs necessarily serves purpose preventing fleeing prior Second, while "indefinite" "potentially permanent," id., 690-691, record shows definite termination point, but lasts, majority cases, less than 90 days considered presumptively Zadvydas. 517-531. 276 F. 3d 523, reversed. REHNQUIST, J., delivered opinion Court, KENNEDY, joined full, STEVENS, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., Part I, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, THOMAS, I. concurring opinion, post, p. 531. part judgment, SCALIA joined, 533. dissenting part, STEVENS 540. 576. CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT. Solicitor Olson argued cause petitioners. With briefs Assistant McCallum, Deputy Kneedler, Austin Schlick, Donald Keener, Mark Walters. Judy Rabinovitz respondent. her Lucas Guttentag, Lee Gelernt, Steven R. Shapiro, A. Stephen Hut, Jr., Christopher J. Meade, Liliana M. Garces, Jayashri Srikantiah.* CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST Court. 1 236(c) 66 Stat. 200, amended, 110 3009-585, provides crimes. citizen Republic South Korea. He entered 1984, age six, became years later. July 1996, California 1997, crime, priors." hearing.1 We hold 2 dispute obtained full procedural protections our justice system offers. also Brief Opposition 1-2; App. 8-9.2 conceding forwent hearing have entitled raise nonfrivolous argument available demonstrate properly category. CFR 3.19(h)(2)(ii) (2002); Matter Joseph, 22 & N. Dec. 799 (BIA 1999).3 instead 28 2241 Northern constitutionality itself. Pet. Cert. 2a. 31a, 33a. 3 1226(c)'s requirement certain unconstitutional. Kim Schiltgen, C 99-2257 SI (Aug. 11, 1999), 31a-51a. determine whether risk community. 50a. Following decision, Director $5,000 4 Appeals affirmed. Ziglar, 523 (2002). That alien. 528. It noted constitute right reside permanently work apply citizenship. Ibid. recognized 1226(c): (1) proceedings; (2) discounted it found deported. 531-532. And 532-533. Respondent's (burglary inhabited dwelling) petty theft, instance, dismissed "rather ordinary crimes." recent 678 (2001), "for interest." 3d, 535. 5 Three other Courts reached same conclusion. Patel Zemski, 275 299 (CA3 2001); Welch Ashcroft, 293 213 (CA4 2002); Hoang Comfort, 282 1247 (CA10 2002). Seventh Circuit, however, Parra Perryman, 172 954 (1999). certiorari resolve conflict, see 536 956 (2002), now reverse. 6 * address deprives us hear case. Florida Thomas, 532 774, 777 (2001) ("Although parties merits, we decide case"). An amicus argues, agrees, Washington Legal Foundation et al. Amici Curiae. states: 7 "(e) Judicial "The No grant, revocation, denial parole." 9 contesting "decision General" detain that, accordingly, action. Curiae 7-8. 10 But supra, 957 ("Section likewise deals operational decisions, rather legislation establishing those decisions"). 11 This "where clear." 603 (1988); Johnson Robison, 415 361, 367 (1974) (holding "`decisions Administrator question law fact administered Veterans' Administration providing benefits veterans'" (emphasis deleted)). required 308-309 title provision, "Elimination Custody Review Habeas Corpus," along petitions); 298 (citing cases refusing find specific mention Court's authority 327 (SCALIA, dissenting) (arguing established "a superclear statement, `magic words' congressional expression of" review). 12 think text authorizing II 13 Having determined proceed claim. mandates class felony. adopted against backdrop wholesale failure deal increasing rates activity See, Criminal Aliens States: Hearings before Permanent Subcommittee Investigations Senate Committee Governmental Affairs, 103d Cong., 1st Sess. (1993); Rep. 104-48, (1995) (hereinafter 104-48) (confinement alone cost $724 million 1990). fastest growing segment prison population, already constituting roughly 25% prisoners, formed rapidly rising share populations well. 6-9. investigations showed, could identify aliens, much locate them remove country. One study showed then-current rate deportation, 23 every deportation. 5. Making matters worse, deported swiftly reentered illegally great numbers. 3. 14 near-total inability imposed more monetary Nation. explained, "[a]liens enter remain violation effectively taking opportunities might extended others." 104-249, (1996). remained often committed removed. 1986 identified 77% arrested least once 45% nearly half multiple times began. Hearing H. 3333 Immigration, Refugees, International Law House Judiciary, 101st Sess., 54, 52 (1989) 1989 Hearing); 713-714 (KENNEDY, (discussing high recidivism aliens). 15 major causes agency's Department Justice, Office Inspector General, Service, Deportation Final Orders Have Been Issued, I-96-03 (Mar. 1996), 46 Inspection Report) ("Detention key effective deportation"); 104-469, 123 (1995). discretion conduct when excessive threat society. 1252(a) (1982 ed.). Despite hearings, practice faced severe limitations funding space, considerations affected determinations. ("[R]elease determinations according number beds particular region"); Reply Petitioners 9. 16 Once released, 20% failed hearings. 2; 19.4 dissent disputes statistic, 562-564 (opinion J.), goes praise subsequent conducted Vera Institute Justice confirms it. Post, 565-566. As explains, "77% [deportable aliens] bond" up 565. out four absconded completion striking one-in-five reflected 1226(c).5 strongly supports concern screening, releasing lead flight. 17 amended laws several toward end 1980's. 1988, respect felonies. Pub. L. 100-690, Tit. VII, 7343(a), 102 4470. Then, 1990, broadened definition felony," subjecting 101-649, V, 501(a), 104 5048. At time, added new 1252(a)(2)(B) (1988 ed., Supp. II), 504(a)(5), 5049. 18 During making incremental changes laws, considering reform laws. Some studies presented suggested best way ensure successful 75; Report, 46; 32 ("Congress should requiring felons Such step no-shows bond"). Reports enacted 1226, subset removability. 19 "In citizens." 79-80 (1976). seeks avoid fundamental premise repeatedly referring "dictum." 547-549, n. J.). Mathews, reliance precedent "`any vitally intricately interwoven contemporaneous policies regard foreign relations, war power, maintenance republican form government.'" 81, (quoting Harisiades Shaughnessy, 580, 588-589 (1952)). since firmly endorsed proposition make 718 ("The rights here conditions applicable citizens"); 305-306 (1993) ("Thus, `in naturalization, "Congress citizens"'" Fiallo Bell, 430 787, 792 (1977), turn quoting 79-80)); Verdugo-Urquidez, 494 259, 273 (1990). 20 challenge, contest general Nor argue himself "deportable" within meaning 1226(c).6 Government not, consistent Due Process Clause Amendment, dissent, initial detour concession, 541-543 acknowledges real 555-556, 11; 1-2 (explaining "challenge solely absolute prohibition detention"). 21 "It well proceedings." 306. process. said century ago, "would vain accused inquiry true character." 235 (1896); 305-306; 697 (distinguishing questioned "detention removability"); 711 ("Congress' connection exclusion ... Legislature's considerable matters").7 524 (1952), participation Communist activities. deny members Party deportable. 530. Instead, like case, challenged ordered so. 531-532; Petitioner O. T. 1951, 35, legislative justify "depriving [an alien] facts personal individual"). ostensibly bond, bail what Frankfurter viewed mistaken "conception [alien Communists] effect unbailable." 559, 568 (dissenting opinion). aliens' pose risk, explaining "[d]etention procedure." 538; chosen based "understanding [Communists'] attitude use force violence accomplish political aims." 541. detainees "by reference scheme" 543; 550 (Black, ("Denial [of bail] [the try evade obedience possible orders"); 551, 6. 24 though risks, "individualized findings dangerousness made" each 573 again, mistaken. individually dangerous. membership degree activities." There findin[g]" likely future nondangerousness.8 nonetheless permissible scheme eradicate evils activity." 543.9 25 292 (1993), another brought juveniles. holding juveniles care parents, legal guardians, adult relatives. 297 Detention Release Juveniles, 53 Fed. Reg. 17449 (1988) (codified 242.24 (1992))). improperly relied "upon `blanket' presumption unsuitability custodians close relatives, guardians" juvenile 313. rejecting argument, emphasized "reasonable presumptions generic rules," impermissible exercises traditional legislate Ibid.; 313-314 ("In juvenile, individual accurate regulation .... particularization individuation need go further this"). Thus, Flores upheld 26 longstanding view narrow Respondent, unconstitutional, relies heavily (2001). 27 1231 (1994 V), provides, among things, removed "removal period," "may period" General. read authorize 699. 29 attainable." thus holding, claim detaining involved, prevent observed there, "detention's goal attainable, bears reasonable relation committed." (internal quotation marks citation omitted).10 30 chance removed, will successfully disagrees, arguing never shown ineffective. 14. discussed above, 519-520, adopting suggesting permitting numbers skipping remaining unlawfully. 31 statistics irrelevant "are ineffective burdensome." 33-40. course tested optimal conditions, permutations. employ burdensome means goal. certainly approach selected other, hypothetical courses Cf., Los Angeles Alameda Books, Inc., 535 425, 436-437 315 ("It better, `we [not] legislature formulating policy'" Schall Martin, 467 253, 281 (1984))). While shorter duration. 33 distinguished 1226 very grounds, noting "post-removal-period detention, unlike removability ..., obvious point." added). lasts Zadvydas.11 Executive calculated 85% completed average 47 median days. 39-40. 15% appeals judge Board Appeals, appeal takes months, slightly shorter. 40.12 34 These include many still serving underlying conviction. 40, 17.13 involved subjected all. sum, stake month vast invoked, about five months minority chooses appeal.14 somewhat spending six granting relief, requested continuance hearing.15 35 For reasons forth fail. Wing, ("We temporary confinement, give provisions expulsion valid"); (1952); (1993). 36 Reversed. Notes: Daniel Popeo Richard Samp amici curiae urging reversal. Briefs affirmance American Bar Association Alfred P. Carlton, Jeffrey Bleich; Citizens Immigrants Equal Nancy Morawetz; Human Rights Organizations William Aceves Paul Hoffman; Professors Kanstroom; National Asian Pacific Consortium Cordray, Eugene Chay, Vincent Eng, Taylor; Alexander Aleinikoff Anthony Orler. 32a; §§ 1101(a)(43)(G), 1227(a)(2)(A)(iii). including,inter alia, 1226(c)(1)(B), 1227(a)(2)(A)(iii), "crimes involving moral turpitude," 1227(a)(2)(A)(ii). initially 1997 conviction charging document, subsequently charges 1996 basis 3, (alleging "`crimes turpitude'"). explained: statute [INS] `is deportable' having wide range crimes.... [Respondent] INS's finished sentence. His asserted significant risk." "Joseph hearing" immediately detainee covered Tr. Oral Arg. 22. demonstrating predicate substantially establish 1999). Because triggers sought Joseph occasion adequacy generally screening available, SOUTER suggest otherwise. 558 part) dissent). thatall given ("[M]ore kept throughout proceedings" added)), citing suggest, "released aliens" sample received (noting evaluated prehearing skip doubled 40%). demonstrated "92% supervisory attended hearings."Post, 565 manage appearance through supervision program known Appearance Assistance Program (AAP). AAP value. who, Testing Community Supervision INS: Evaluation Program, pp. 33-34, 1, 2000). addition, 127 admitted group screened "strength family community ties, eligibility remedy." 13; 37. selection "supervision staff frequent, ongoing communication participants," 14, through, reporting sessions, periodic home visits, assistance retaining representation, 41-42. event, "community supervision." dissent's attend 565, therefore, totally beside point. concession score relevant reasons: own choice receive second, reach contrary raised merits Specifically, suggests priors qualify precedent. next "his [for burglary] turpitude." 11-12. purposes previous stages proceeding, 3,supra, basis. Lest confusion, emphasize hence, concede notes, withholding 541 fact, 1907 forany pendency 20, 905. SeeCarlson 549 "`not subversive activities'" added)); 550, Judge's "`I don't know security States'"); 552 ("[T]he bureau agent prove person throws jail `dangerous'" 567 (Frankfurter, estimate `the safety [each person's] community'" added)). Apart error determination, attempts distinguishCarlson engaged "`personal activity'" support party "`a menace public.'" 569 distinction, ignores "personal activity" undertaken committing instance far greater "active membership" Carlson. 530 allegation[s], supported affidavits, Service's dossier petitioner contained indicating arrest member 1930 participated Party's indoctrination others"). secured protections. moreover, reflect dangerousness. Cf. 714 accumulated good indicator danger, "[a]ny suggestion terms simply accord reality exist"). denies insisting inZadvydas actually bear 561 J.) served actual deportation"). concedes provide immediately.... [C]ustody usually occurred three transfer postorder unit." 555, Yet, discussing insists "the necessity applies periods than" respondent's. 568, 270, 276-277 (1984), threatened maximum days"). attempt reconcile immediate missed dissent. Seepost, ("Successful months"); ibid. (considering potential [worth] confinement"); ("potentially lengthy directed track system, complete promptly possible. Antiterrorism Effective Death Penalty Act 104-132, 432, 438(a), 1273-1276; Illegal Reform Immigrant Responsibility 104-208, 326, 329, 3009-630 3009-631 1228). Institutional (IHP) (subsequently subsumed "Institutional Removal Program"). By Accounting IHP prison. Office, Report Chairman, Claims Efforts Remove Imprisoned Continue Need Improvement 10, Fig. (Oct. 1998). report urged, needed improve operations releaseId., 13. Should come pass, course, rendered obsolete. Prior enactment frivolous delay ("Delays can earn wages long enough obtain citizenship"). CfZadvydas, 713 ("[C]ourt cannot help encourage dilatory obstructive tactics aliens"). contends length deter exercising 32. explained before, replete situations difficult judgments follow," context, choices. McGautha California, 402 183, (1971) omitted); accord, Chaffin Stynchcombe, 412 17, 30-31 (1973). filing petition. scheduled occur documents application. 9, 37 concurring. 38 concerns risks community, ante, 518-521, ultimate behind premised deportability. consequence, procedures some merit charge formal 690 ("[W]here detention's committed" brackets omitted)); ("Liberty includes protection unlawful arbitrary restraint If satisfy minimal, threshold burden, then permissibility turns ability namely, 721 dissenting). 39 apparently "raise[d] category." Ante, 514, 1999)). Had prevailed Judge "could provisions" 1226(a). 809. seek procedures, adequacy. 40 similar reasons, prohibits deprivations liberty, unreasonable unjustified. 684-686; ("[A]liens free capricious"). Were pursuing completing become inquire facilitate protect dangerousness, incarcerate reasons. proper inference, itself circumstances careful premises, I join full. 41 THOMAS join, judgment. 42 because, jurisdiction, agree resolution merits. believe unequivocally "any decision" ongoing. precisely nature us. 43 begin statute: 44 45 1999, "under section," i. e., 1226. complains "regarding a[n] 1226(e). my view, plausible reading intended prohibit "set[ting] aside" deem ineligible duration recognize both "strong favor administrative action" "longstanding rule repeal jurisdiction." acknowledge deemed repealed absence unambiguous directive effect. 312-313; Ex parte Yerger, Wall. 85, 105 (1869). Here, signal sent enacting clearer: "No alien." (Emphasis added.) language actions decisions (AEDPA) (IIRIRA) strip she eligible waiver 312. dissented wrongly decided. Nothing ignore plain 48 stressed significance term "judicial jurisdictional-limiting issue. concluding limit limiting review," reasoned follows: 49 `judicial review' `jurisdiction focus provisions. `habeas corpus' historically distinct meanings. Heikkila Barber, 345 229 (1953). Heikkila, finality `preclud[ed] extent Constitution, [Administrative Procedure Act] inapplicable. 235. Nevertheless, reaffirmed corpus. Noting role played narrower authorized APA, `it scope differentiates' review.'" 311-312. 50 review." To sure, sentence precludes "review" judgment[s]" limited, seriously maintained employs art court" really mean court," "set 51 "Judicial compel stated controlling," 308, away. clear, "`the text.'" Pennsylvania Dept. Corrections Yeskey, 206, 212 (1998) Trainmen Baltimore Ohio Co., 331 519, 528-529 (1947)). focused Cyr U.S.C. 2241. U.S., 313, 36. silence spoke volumes, reasoned, "historic reviewing orders," analogous history routine entertained twice, neither (1952). Neuman, Corpus, Detention, Aliens, 98 Colum. Rev. 961, 1067, 120 interlocutory here). context lacks accorded Cyr. nothing interpret anything says. (CA7 Parra, "challenges itself, opposed implementing subsection." 957. Though today importing statute. 54 American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Comm., 525 471 (1999) (AADC), AADC, construed sharply limits "arising commence adjudicate execute [Act]." 1252(g) III). imposes jurisdictional addressing "`decision[s] action[s]'" specifically enumerated 482. Nowhere AADC statute's depending areas. imposing artificial 55 plainly conceivably Suspension Clause, Privilege Writ Corpus suspended, unless Cases Rebellion Invasion Safety it." Const., Art. cl. clarity 1226(e)'s unavoidable, invoked doctrine doubt interpreted AEDPA IIRIRA jurisdiction. 314; Seminole Tribe Fla. Florida, 517 44, 57, (1996) (where "preference avoiding question" defeat expressed Congress). 56 unavailing. "at minimum, protects writ `as existed 1789.'" 301 Felker Turpin, 518 651, 663-664 (1996)). limitation position 1789 (or, possibly, thereafter) 57 Admittedly, discerning analysis complex task. Nonetheless, historical permitted until recently. colonial America few restrictions little availability 305. English experience, available: 58 England, ever expel exercised King consent Parliament. formerly King, later Parliament, passed acts between 1793 1848. Eminent judges, sitting Privy Council, gone supporting expulsion, executive colony, territory therein." Fong Yue Ting 149 698, 709 (1893) (citations omitted). 59 country, pass regulating 1875. (pt. 3) 477. late 19th century, controls tightened, increased. 305-306. 1891 1952 express took petitions writs e.g., Ekiu 142 651 (1892); supra; Japanese Case, 189 86 (1903); Chin Yow 208 (1908); Kwock Jan Fat White, 253 454 (1920); Ng Fung Ho 259 (1922). willing entertain officials temporarily 60 mid-20th parole rose considerably. 538, 31. challenged. 229, 236-237 regime, paroled wished place order. Bridges Wixon, 326 135, 140 (1945). Given this, surprising numerous seeking 61 So am aware, challenge. supra. wide-ranging statutes 296. All all, appears 1789, thereafter recently, 62 exists claims, conclusively thorny Clause. purposes, say unambiguously bars said, majority's opinion. 63 GINSBURG part. 64 lawfully residence Constitution forbids government interest, affords impartial official,1 giving show poses confining moment adjudication 65 upholds disposition lock concededly reason forgets acknowledging residents, basic physical confinement lying heart guarantee removal2 anyone meantime. shortly issued INS, sua sponte threat" met $5,000. 11-13. soon thereafter, indication complying approval national emergency particularly. unjustified past current facts, respectfully 67 outset, "conceded" removability, 6, cites none. opportunity, removal, 12, represents assert offenses independently 11-12; 522-523, "an open question," "still fighting [his] administratively," yet Petitioner-Appellee 99-17373 (CA9), 4, 13-14, 24, 28, 48-49. oral counsel 36-38, 44. 68 contested petition, misses point claim, Constitution. Challenges applications submitted judge. 1229a(a)(3). Kim's "that `deportable,'" have, 522, probably unexhausted. E.g., Espinal Filion, 00-CIV-2647-HB-JCF, 2001 WL 395196 (SDNY, Apr. 2001). "conced[e] deportable," 531, court.3 69 benefit status terminated 1.1(p) entitled. 70 settled "persons" "residing entitled, safeguards property, responsibility." 724 (1893). 86, 100-101 (1903), lingering Amendment's gives mistreatment property. 71 property strong (LPRs). LPRs opportunity life developing economic, familial, social ties indistinguishable citizen. just attachments creating preferences relation, 1153(a)(1), (3)-(4), valuable professional skills assets promising 1153(b)(1)-(5). 72 residence, economic freedom enjoyed citizens: compete jobs private sectors obtaining job-specific authorization, apart franchise, jury duty, forms assistance, lives obligations opportunities. Unlike temporary, nonimmigrant taxed income domestic sources connected business, 872, LPRs, citizens, worldwide income, 1.1-1(b), 1.871-1(a), 1.871-2(b) Male ages register Selective 1948, ch. 625, 605.4 "Resident pay taxes, economy, Armed Forces, contribute myriad ways society." re Griffiths, 413 717, 722 choose, polity naturalization. 73 fostered mechanisms intense children. They grow around them, touch citizenship, native-born, younger brother sister "[M]any lived stronger family, social, naturalized Woodby 385 276, 286 (1966). example. moved eight. mother citizen, father LPRs. situation feel firm besides States.5 74 Our realities. early 1892, addressed construction realization "foreigners domiciled own, acquire discharge duties respects possessed citizens restriction footing stand domicil presumed." Lau Ow Bew 144 47, 61-62.6 Fifty dealing evidentiary competence 135 (1945), notions fairness founded" "aliens whose roots become, deeply fixed land," 154. Kwong Hai Chew Colding, 344 590 (1953), word "excludable" questionable process." 598-599.7 Murphy, Bridges, "`once enters resides becomes invested guaranteed people borders. protected First Amendments clause Fourteenth Amendment. None distinction extend inalienable privileges guard encroachment authority.'" 596-597, 161). 271 (1990) developed substantial connections country"); Woodby, 285 unequivocal, convincing owing "drastic follow compelled forsake bonds land contemporary identification"); Eisentrager, 339 763, 770-771 (1950) traditionally hospitable, generous ascending scale increases identity society.... [A]t 1886, important guaranties Amendment"). 75 considers LPR Landon Plasencia, 459 (1982), long-term left placed return entry. LPR's interest is, "without question, weighty one." 34. Rosenberg Fleuti, 374 449 (1963); Chew, 76 requirements account difficulty distinguishing practical doctrinal citizen.8 evaluating starting concerning individuals.9 B 77 one: potentially decisionmaker's governmental invokes repeated strongest individual. wrote 1987 "[i]n norm, trial carefully exception." Salerno, 481 739, 755. 316 (O'CONNOR, concurring) institutionalization heightened, scrutiny"); Foucha Louisiana, 504 71, 80 (1992) ("Freedom bodily always core action"); ("As incarceration common feared instruments oppression indifference, ought outset essential Constitution"). 78 Accordingly, "heightened, scrutiny" finds "`sufficiently compelling'" need. 748). deciding Salerno principle categorically pretrial defendants Bail crucial full-blown adversary convince neutral decisionmaker assure person." 750 3142(f)). "scattershot incapacitate merely suspected serious offenses, 750, allowed confined sphere need: "[w]hen proves arrestee presents articulable community." 751; Foucha, 81 (calling "sharply scheme"). 79 reviewed involuntary commitment way. Addington Texas, 441 418 (1979), State civilly commit mentally ill showing "clear evidence" others, 433. elevated burden proof demanded "[l]oss calls suffers something idiosyncratic behavior." 427. deficiency Louisiana's denied "adversary demonstrably 81. 88 (civil depends "necessary confinement"). addition compelling pretrial-type lockup, resolved. weight crimes," 747; Kansas Hendricks, 521 346 (1997), subclass persons" sexually violent offense'" suffered mental abnormality personality disorder'" portending "`predatory sexual violence,'" 357 Kan. Ann. 59-29a02(a) (1994)). stringent Speedy Trial Act," 747, whereas fault impose comparable limitation, 82 Salerno). Jackson Indiana, 406 715, 738 (1972) ("At least, committed"). demands hand procedural, insist him. (stating standards"); 81-82 (invalidating detention"); 751 officer evaluates likelihood designed accuracy determination"); Addington, 427 (requiring heightened "to impress factfinder importance thereby perhaps reduce chances inappropriate commitments ordered"). yield simple distillate govern result here. someone locked none cited doing does, selecting categorical denying putting residents shorn sort sleight hand. "full-blown proof, government's individual, Jackson, amount testing membership. ("Nor treat acquittees alike, crimes"). procedure dispensed expediently, presumably strictly limited. 83 Terms ago stands rationality statute; himself. Ma, status. Their arose appeared refusal native countries accept standard period, executed, "`risk "`unlikely comply removal.'" 682 V)). Ma indefinite 84 opened applicability standards: "special justification" "outweighs `individual's restraint'" "adequate protections." 356). "constitutionally interest" conceptually Hendricks. On contrary, expressly reasoning, declared forfeited. 85 began positing commonly accepted standards proceeded enquire outweigh powerful [individually ordered] violated." 696. position. narrowed various tourist visa violations." 691. "stringent limitations," permanent, Finally, although dangerous, undermined defects resulting 692. upshot continuing "reasonably foreseeable." citizenship weighed keeping instant 684-686, 690, remanded sufficiency interests Zadvydas's Ma's 702. supposed additional Zadvydas: entry impede develop 20-23. recognition penalty justified (1966), detain, transfer, isolate away lawyers, witnesses, evidence. Stack Boyle, (1951). defend raise. 87 dissenters majority, theory success "final removal" country," 720 "from here," ibid., "removable inadmissible" ones, "free capricious," 721, "arbitrary capricious" test "when community," ibid.10 Hence "whether adequate procedures" allowing "persons rehabilitation, appreciation responsibilities, standards, special put large." 722-723. Indeed, afforded "[went] th[e] objective" satisfying 722;11 stark contrast total response nor risk.12 consideration bearing flight, history, references "necessity" individual's discussion envisioned correctly enquiry understood KENNEDY 535-537 (CA9 Every conclusion.13 D 89 restraint" 690-691 "There `sufficiently compelling' [an] action, punitive imprisoning regulatory forestalling commensurately accordingly. 691; 368; 81-82; 750. KENNEDY's disapproved "necessary" counter danger; component 721. requires, able necessity. 691-692; dissenting); 81; Kenyeres 1305 chambers) ("An one's meritorious grievances legitimacy acceptance regime"). easy one. "[H]eightened, scrutiny," concurring), uncovers infirmities flee, minor. Michel 206 256 (CA2 2000) (possession stolen bus transfers); Bart, 436 1992) (issuance bad check). kind deadline last year. 23-26; 10-20 examples). official danger. 91 respects, it, components accordingly affirm community.14 surely enough, 1536 terrorist III 92 proceeds 526. Sometimes, maybe often, may, contention. particular, participate 93 rather, implementing' [its immigration] power." 695 Chadha, 462 919, 941-942 (1983)); 537 (1952) "is, intervention `paramount Constitution'"). "important limitations" power's exercise. 695.15 94 spends effort trying distinguish succeeded, avail much. principles confine individuals. differences (this case) (Zadvydas), 554-556. analytical both, ambit earlier itself.16 95 says "serves Yes outside fails particular. 10-20. weak them. 96 respond class-wide logic way, entire "serv[e] purpose" Yet scrutiny satisfied level. strength 702.17 individuals proven dangers society, (and weaker) (or claimed) community.18 97 closest justifying exception stating nondetained 519 104-48 Report)). with, Report's statistic treats alike Kim, 544-547, visitors illegal entrants. Even importantly, tells recognize, "in region." 23, 519; 124 ("[I]n resources"); 26-27. meant risks. 3,500 district comprising Pennsylvania, Delaware, West Virginia 15). desperate lack space led too low, "if pay, bed lost." 124. identifies "often refuses insufficient agents transport space." Four former high-ranking "Flight 1990s chronic failures [the] assessing alarmingly driven overwhelmingly facilities." 19. conditions" understatement. explain how resource-driven predictable systemwide threats public. 99 Government. Post-Order Report), 521. removable. indicates, analyzed removability.19 ("This taken [immigration judges Appeals] orders").20 100 More largely ignored request 92% (most LPRs) ii, 33, Study). supervision, 82% recognizance up, leading reporters conclude especially "mandatory virtually necessary." 36, 42.21 101 nowhere addresses Institute's fixes 23% comparison 519-520. Since remains evident low attendance. 563-564. assumption screening" 520, Study. Thus comes Study, inapposite level, attendance Study reinforces effectiveness 696 imprisonment suspect possibility violated").22 fails. 103 "much duration" "indefinite 696, formally days" or, appeal, months," 529; Case (finding receipt days). averages face, legitimate answer treatment place, obscures period. example, weeks revealing explanation raw averaged out. conceded, reflects involve 57. hardly fit pattern. entrants nonimmigrants, press proceedings.23 studied "lawful spent States" 40% "were stay States"). Successful 10-20; open-ended falls short 747. Zadvydas.24 106 matters. better portray controlled 107 followed behalf preferable conditional parole. 528, Internal Security 1950, 1011). sustained delegated authority, abuse "evidence [in Party] plus extending philosophy violence" looking complemented contention bail," 541-542, majority" petitioners' 542; "quite clear" exception"). 108 relying communists," stated, "[w]e provides." 19; act terms, leaves discretionary, mandatory"). excerpt chairman Judiciary Committee: 109 "`No hardship going worked mind, power. mentioned paramount him, obliged anybody, trust hardened will.'" Cong. Rec. 10449-10450 (statement Walter) supra)). short, 111 "like case," petitioners "there 524. Each interest," 541, Kim's, (danger society) 533-534 urged fear unavailability carrying discretion"); 551 ("A derived deport").25 contention, leaving issue, detained. 112 note unsuccessful violate pointed brief, presented, Director's 570.26 invoke saying "had bail" Communists, "ostensibl[e]." "[t]here bail." 541-542. 113 representations Carlson; adopts statements emphatic assertion `individualized findin[g]' aliens," 525, rests entirely opinions voiced mentions footnote, 549, 5, dissenting), dissenting)). Statements override Party, work" degree, minor [one] [participants] 541.27 114 Moreover, occurred; contended unsupported reliable 549-550 "`dangerous'" all); rankest hearsay "required prove" dangerous); 555-556 movement "dangerous"); 566-567 "insufficient danger"; activities stale; forced basis).28 factually correct, misled (by Government, less) made. clearly believed occurred, not. 115 gets isolated passages quotes. part'" procedure, Carlson, 538), proceeding. acknowledged larger part" "subversive charges" "modest recognizances" Contrary today, admit necessary, "[o]f [a] injure States] imputed deportation." "justify [its] activity"; 543. addressed, approved, notion justify, compel, survive subsequent, unanimous "some level determination" precondition Center Immigrants' Rights, 502 194-195 (1991); odds outcome 116 paragraph Like "`to juvenile's] timely juvenile's others.'" 242.24(b)(1) (1992)). Again, agrees turned regulation's parent, guardian, relative. "`unusual director chief patrol agent.'" 242.24(b)(4) 117 purpose: "`freedom "not issue" juveniles, "`always custody.'" 302 265 (1984)). "`[l]egal custody' `detention' accurately describes arrangement" one, adult.29 118 equally distinguishable sufficed keep [INS], recognizance, court, courts. 308. complaint Kim's. 119 holds rules" discretion, gave carte blanche depriving disturb instance.30 IV undisputed allows blanket devoid ostensible liberty. official. generality below, whatsoever access arbiter, unaffiliated INS. "impartial" describing combined "deportation" "exclusion" single "removal" 304(a), 3009-587, adding 1229a. decided refers but, distinguishes nonexistent concession,ante, gain advantage uses ways, describe classes proven, 1227(a), adjudged unlawfully, 1229b. "concluding ordering deportation," affirmed expires 1101(a)(47)(A)-(B). seems do, render defendant liability failing move dismiss Federal Rule Civil 12(b)(6) guilt indictment. reasoning sound, cover situation, acknowledges) discussion, "detour," insistence "deportable." 513, exemption registration alienage, 1426(a) alsoWelch 213, 215 2002) (detainee 10); 1247, 1252-1253 (ages 15), cert. pending, 01-1616 [REPORTER'S NOTE: 1010]. InThe Venus, Cranch (1814), belonging England War 1812 treated proprietors prize law. "bound, members, state, qualified allegiance thereto; (with subject, country) bestow subjects," 282. "Although [inKwong Chew] interpretation, rationale Any doubts returning trip abroad dispelled [374 (1963),] described `that matter exclude him.' 460." 21, (1982). citizens,"Mathews (1976), leave unreviewable. 521-522. Diaz medical insurance continuously years. 69-70. Reversing lower equal protection, this: reservation deport counterpart regulate citizenry. differently imply disparate `invidious.'" (footnotes Taken plain: exposes (expulsion) footnotes Congress's enact 80, nn. 14-15 Kleindienst Mandel, 408 753 (1972); Galvan Press, 347 522 (1954); 580 (1952)); cf. Harisiades). purports sanction dictum. [Diaz] discrimination permissible; others permissible." 80. allocating existence imprison why believes dictum repeat instances quotation. resists calling "`dictum,'" 521, "discrimination unnecessary holding. dealt allocation 543-547. standard, Nations High Commissioner countenanced ofnecessity" heading "Guideline 3: Exceptional Grounds Detention": monitoring employed viable alternatives guarantor ...), alternative alternatives, achieved purpose." Revised Guidelines Applicable Criteria Standards Relating Asylum Seekers (Feb. 1999) Guidelines) original), referred "minimum guarante[e]" "either personally representative, deprivation rebut made." Guidelines, Guideline 5: Procedural Safeguards. determination; unit, reviews annually frequently lag fitted circumstances. usual promptly; interim timing inMatter deficiency. "`Joseph hearing'" meet criteria assuming fits statute, recognizes LPR's] [becomes] unjustified." (concurring unjustified, community's protection. Certainly [INS's] charge" removable, releases noncriminal 1226(a)(2) 550-553. 2002), 1010]; Circuit's (1999), preceded criminal, State's punishing February incarcerating citations toWong 228 (1896), inapposite. hypothesized effect" valid"; subjunctive mood aid exempt correct 1907, 7, grants ex rel. Turner Williams, 194 279, 283 (1904) appellant Court); 704 (same); Moy Yee Tai, 1901) (per curiam); Lum Poy, 128 974, 975 (CC Mont. 1904) Idaho, Oregon Chinese investigation lawfulness made"); Ah 125 795, 796-797 (Mass. 1903) (identifying districts admitting bail, deportability therefrom); Chow Goo Pooi, 77, Cal. 1884). breadth court's "[t]o altogether inadmissible invalidate hundreds existing recognizances." 797. Augustus Hand noted, change officials, judges: "Prior passage empowering fix hearings.... hands authorities enforcement ordinarily perform function...." Potash Naturalization, 169 2d 1948) passing used "part necessary" written background O'CONNOR's objection matter, indeed "history judgment). tellingly mentionSalerno, Jackson. 527, 10. confuses "statute detention," 561, Zadvydas," concentrated latter, "significant foreseeable future." 701. provision" "detention" prevents 527-528, claiming methodology result. concedes, recidivism,ante, 518-519, measure. vindicated processes conviction, enhanced sentences recidivists, patterns conduct." (1992). satisfies 739 (1987). unrestricted supervised release, recidivism. inZadvydas, 1231(a), A body nonappearance issuance (aliens, Kim) approximately 1993 21% 1992. Review, I-93-03, (May 1994) Report). figures, ("Over percent proceedings"), argument. 19-20, 7; 23. cite criticisms relevance institute's histories. 33. turpitude felony, seeante, Study's subjects moment. intensive ibid.; "regular supervision," sessions orientation session apprised mailing address, judge, 17-18. institute undermine value study, lieu same. detract Regardless methods decides 42, "`court release,'"ante, 530, dissenting)); uncontroversial erroneous confinement. "they danger" warranting confinement). [they are] conviction,"ante, 529, "very time,"ante, 12. days, 276-277. 1231(a)(1) end-point, 1231(a)(1)(B). indicate Similarly, inButterfield Zydok, together "[w]hether, withhold active participant affairs, bound circumstances, ordered." Butterfield 136, sometimes conclusive threat." "relevant to" dangerousness,ante, 9; recognized, footnote opinions, theCarlson confirming rested "allegation, prejudice (quoted 9). Black's activities,'" "specific nondangerousness,"ante, 525. Party; sabotage incitement action." action," "danger," albeit Black unconvincing. Likewise, Frankfurter's "advised" "it terminate awaiting "present Communists," States's 569-572. Whatever basis, "policy" denials places today. quoteFlores "`"blanket" guardians.'" 526 313). implicate `freedom restraint' quotes fromFlores implementation 313 ("Respondents contend presumption"). separated 300; 318-319 (pointing 301-306, 306-309). 121 122 (as believes, 513-514, 39-40; 528-531. Time me rough equivalent 699-701 (reading compulsion, 6-month "reasonable" post-removal-order detention). points out, contrary. 541-542 part). "`aggravated felony'" "`moral turpitude.'" 11-12, 31-32, 29. shifting views matters, arguments insubstantial interposed delay. Corona-Sanchez, 291 1201, 1213 (petty felony"). Compare Omagah 288 254, (CA5 ("`Moral shocks conscience inherently base, vile, depraved'"), Guarneri Kessler, 580-581 1938) ("Moral turpitude" involves "`[a]nything done justice, honesty, morals'"), Quilodran-Brau Holland, 232 184 1956) borderline `moral turpitude' locate"). statutes, permit (if risk) thing, strong. 548-552, 557-558 (SOUTER, "ascertain fairly [constitutional] avoided." Crowell Benson, 22, (1932); 689. another, literally armed deportability, might, fall terms. Title "take deportable" added), significantly substantial, "substantially unlikely" win. 126 drawn fill gap. delay," "raises fact," (3) "is flee safety" 3143(b). (e. process-related class-related 528). protective currently proved workable system. doubt. (silent) standards. 698; Witkovich, 353 194, 201-202 (1957); Kent Dulles, 116, 129 (1958). interpreted, assessment raises "law fact" insubstantial. demands. remand respect, disposition.

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