Document: 456 U.S. 798 102 S.Ct. 2157 72 L.Ed.2d 572 UNITED STATES, Petitionerv.Albert ROSS, Jr. No. 80-2209. Argued March 1, 1982. Decided June Syllabus Acting on information from an informant that a described individual was selling narcotics kept in the trunk of certain car parked at specified location, District Columbia police officers immediately drove to found there, and short while later stopped arrested driver (respondent), who matched informant's description. One opened car's trunk, closed brown paper bag, after opening discovered glassine bags containing white powder (later determined be heroin). The officer then headquarters, where another warrantless search revealed zippered leather pouch cash. Respondent subsequently convicted possession heroin with intent distribute—the currency searches having been introduced evidence respondent's pretrial motion suppress had denied. Court Appeals reversed, holding probable cause stop car—including its without warrant, they should not have either bag or first obtaining warrant. Held: Police legitimately automobile believe contraband is concealed somewhere within it may conduct vehicle as thorough magistrate could authorize by Pp. 804-825. (a) "automobile exception" Fourth Amendment's warrant requirement established Carroll v. United States, 267 132, 45 280, 69 L.Ed. 543, applies vehicles are supported contains contraband. In this class cases, unreasonable if based objective facts would justify issuance even though has actually obtained. 804-809. (b) However, rationale justifying exception does apply so permit any movable container believed carrying illicit substance public place—even when placed (not otherwise contraband). States Chadwick, 433 97 2476, 53 538; Arkansas Sanders, 442 753, 99 2586, 61 235. 809-814. (c) Where entire vehicle, every part contents, including all containers packages, conceal object search. scope defined nature which secreted. Rather, places there found. For example, undocumented aliens being transported van will suitcase. 817-824. (d) doctrine stare decisis preclude rejection here Robbins California, 453 420, 101 2841, 744, some reasoning supra. 824-825. 210 U.S.App.D.C. 342, 655 F.2d 1159, reversed remanded. Andrew L. Frey, Washington, D. C., for petitioner. William J. Garber, respondent. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court. 1 held contained meaning Amendment. did explicitly address permissible. case, we consider extent officers—who probing compartments whose contents plain view. We hold "particularly describing place searched."1 2 * evening November 27, 1978, previously proved reliable telephoned Detective Marcum Department told him known "Bandit" 439 Ridge Street. stated he just observed complete sale additional were trunk. gave detailed description "purplish maroon" Chevrolet Malibu license plates. 3 Accompanied Cassidy Sergeant Gonzales, area maroon front A check disclosed registered Albert Ross; computer Ross fit used alias "Bandit." two passes through neighborhood observe anyone matching To avoid alerting persons street, left area. 4 returned five minutes turning off Street onto They pulled alongside Malibu, noticed description, car. driver—later identified Ross, respondent action—to get out vehicle. While searched Gonzales bullet seat. He interior pistol glove compartment. handcuffed. took Ross' keys bag. number powder. replaced headquarters. 5 At station thoroughly addition "lunch-type" red pouch. unzipped $3,200 laboratory heroin. No 6 charged distribute, violation 21 U.S.C. § 841(a). Prior trial, moved After evidentiary hearing, denied suppress. trial convicted. 7 three-judge panel conviction. It that, under supra, Chambers Maroney, 399 42, 90 1975, 26 419, lawfully trunk—without court considered separately, however, On basis 235, concluded constitutionality depends whether owner possesses reasonable expectation privacy contents. Applying test, valid but not. remanded new items taken those pouch, admitted.2 8 voted rehear case en banc. majority rejected panel's conclusion distinction constitutional significance existed between trunk; reasoned: 9 "No specific, well-delineated called our attention permits dispense open 'unworthy' containers. Moreover, rule validity turn judgments about durability impose unmanageable burden courts. these reasons, because Amendment protects persons, resources fastidiousness their effects decision-makers rank luggage line, forbids closed, opaque same small unlocked suitcase pouch." 344, 1161 (1981) (footnote omitted). 10 banc considered, rejected, argument both entitled warrantlesssearch foreclosed Sanders. 11 Three dissenting judges interpreted Sanders differently.3 Other courts also read different ways.4 disagreement concerning proper interpretation least partially responsible fact decided last Term opinion. 12 There is, no dispute among importance striving clarification law. countless highways streets day, cases demonstrate uncommon such conflict presented individual's constitutionally protected interest effective law enforcement. single can resolve conflict, conviction feasible led us grant Government's petition certiorari invite parties question decision reconsidered. 454 891, 386, 70 205. II 13 begin review itself. fall 1921, federal prohibition agents obtained George John Kiro "bootleggers" frequently traveled Grand Rapids Detroit Oldsmobile Roadster.5 December 15, unexpectedly encountered driving west route pursuit, roadster highway, directed 14 visible seat rear portion closed. raised rumble liquor. cushion again nothing. struck "lazyback" "harder than upholstery ordinarily backs." U.S., 174, S.Ct., 292. tore 68 bottles gin whiskey inside. 15 transporting intoxicating liquor National Prohibition Act. convictions, ruled extensive written Chief Taft, held: 16 "On reason authority true seizure made upon cause, belief, reasonably arising circumstances seizing officer, other subject destruction, valid. construed light what deemed adopted, manner conserve interests well rights citizens." Id., 149, 283. 17 explained length rule. noted historically vessels, wagons, carriages—as opposed fixed premises home building—had Congress. reviewing legislation enacted Congress 1789 1799,6 stated: tween goods forfeiture, dwelling house similar place, like course transportation vessel readily put reach warrant." 151, 284. 18 reviewed passed Congress7 19 "the guaranty freedom seizures construed, practically since beginning Government, recognizing necessary difference store, structure respect official obtained, ship, motor boat, wagon automobile, goods, practicable secure quickly locality jurisdiction must sought." 153, 285. 20 Thus, earliest days recognized impracticability securing involving goods.8 impracticability, viewed historical perspective, provided decision. Given transit, immediate intrusion substance. unreasonable.9 defining "exception" general "[i]n practicable, used," id., 156, 285, emphasized 22 "Having thus illegally come now made. intolerable agent authorized chance finding using inconvenience indignity Travellers crossing international boundary national self protection requiring one entering country identify himself in, his belongings brought in. But country, use highways, right free passage interruption unless competent search, believing illegal merchandise." 153-154, 23 probable-cause determination merely subjective good faith officers. " '[A]s seen, enough constitute cause. That grounded knowledge [officer], judgment make reasonable.' 161-162, 288 (quoting Director General Railroads Kastenbaum, 263 25, 28, 44 52, 53, 146).10 24 short, —the case—applies only cause.11 obtained.12 III 25 arguably equal force argument, squarely 538. Chadwick involved 200-pound footlocker secured padlocks. Federal railroad officials San Diego became suspicious loaded train bound Boston unusually heavy leaking talcum powder, often mask odor marihuana. Narcotics met trained dog signaled presence controlled inside footlocker. seize footlocker, time; waited until arrived Chadwick's automobile. Before engine started, companions. removed large quantity 27 subsequent criminal proceeding, claimed violated Court, Government argued soon permissible Carroll. argument,13 pursue appeal.14 contended applied homes "core" areas privacy. unanimously contention.15 Writing THE CHIEF JUSTICE 28 "[I]f little Framers intended Warrant Clause operate outside home, exclude occurring home. absence contemporary outcry against because, aside incident arrest, issue colonial America. silence record tells Framers' attitude toward application respondents' What do know men focused wrongs day safeguard fundamental values far outlast specific abuses birth." 8-9, 2481-2482 29 specifically "reasonable" mobile characteristics support automobiles. "a person's expectations personal substantially greater automobile," 13, 2484, practical problems associated temporary detention piece during period time obtain significantly less n. 7, n.7. ruling unjustified, reaffirmed principle packages Cf. Ex parte Jackson, 96 727, 877; Van Leeuwen, 397 249, 1029, 282. sum, declined extend place.16 30 Chadwick. Little Rock received arrive local airport flight afternoon green went airport. schedule retrieved airline baggage service. waiting companion, taxi. companion cab; followed taxi several blocks seized suitcase, scene As predicted, 31 Supreme impermissible Amendment, affirmed. mere render applicable; before cab itself.17 Since danger secreted elsewhere vehicle.18 concurring judgment: 32 not, rest solely rejecting State's justified ground broadly suggested never sustained itself.19 suggest mattered clear, neither nor anything except former latter. 33 suspicion container. forced roadway early morning January 5, Robbins' erratically. got car, vehicle's registration papers. When door, smelled marihuana smoke. vial liquid; tailgate cover recessed compartment wrapped plastic. unwrapped amount each. 34 various drug offenses plastic packages. California Appeal "[s]earch learned appellant smoking marijuana him"20 inferred outward appearance, contents." People Robbins, 103 Cal.App.3d 34, 40, 162 Cal.Rptr. 780, 783 (1980). 35 This reversed. plurality, Stewart appearance precluded "less worthy" reasoned equally plurality pieces anywhere else." 425, 2845. 36 judgment, Powell, author Court's "[t]he plurality's approach strains rationales prior imposes substantial burdens enforcement vindicating significant privacy." 429, 2847.21 possibly controlling requirement," 435, 2850, view 37 "when rather particular fortuitously located it, exigencies allow therein. See post, 451, [101 2859, n.13] (STEVENS, J., dissenting). analysis entirely consistent holdings 'automobile case,' double-locked respectively came near automobile." Ibid. 38 pressed POWELL institutional constraints inappropriate reexamine basic full adversary presentation. concurred supported—although compelled—by future might present better opportunity consideration principles troubled 39 arrived. Unlike vehicle.22 addressed whether, legitimate question. Its answer set forth inCarroll. IV 40 itself, lazyback. find unreasonable. Having road subjected them search—which contraband—prohibition tear issuing rip whiskey, 41 Maroney weapons stolen property "concealed dashboard." 44, 1977. suggestion impermissible. illogical assume outcome —or itself—would enclosed secondary If Carroll, certainly look into burlap sack stashed inside; Chambers, crumpled it. contrary produce absurd results inconsistent 42 lawful Husty 282 694, 51 240, 75 629, upheld "whiskey bags" goods.23 Scher 305 251, 59 83 unstamped participated search: "I turned handle completely filled paper, tied twine; I think around thirty each six bottles."24 needed unwrap These decisions nevertheless "have much weight, show point occurred bar bench." Bank Deveaux, Cranch 61, 88, (Marshall, C. J.). illuminates profession's understanding permitted Indeed, routinely warrant.25 43 stated, appraisal considerations perspective history. therefore consequences largely nullified include Contraband rarely strewn across floor car; very withheld view, form container.26 "contraband 285 (emphasis added). Henry 361 98, 104, 80 168, 172, 134, "merely relaxed requirements grounds practicability." broadened limited generally extends possibility separate acts entry required search.27 authorizes provides closets, chests, drawers, weapon contain way, purpose limits precisely defined, nice distinctions containers, compartments, upholstered seats, trunks, give way prompt efficient completion task hand.28 indeed must. virtually unanimous agreement "worthy" "unworthy" improper.29 Even perhaps evolve series bags, locked lunch buckets, orange crates side line other,30 central forecloses distinction. most frail cottage kingdom absolutely guarantees majestic mansion,31 traveler carries toothbrush few articles clothing knotted scarf claim possessions inspection sophisticated executive attache case. 46 conceals 427, 2846 (plurality opinion). afforded varies settings. carried random customs officer; matter how great traveler's desire be. arrest immediately; magistrate's 47 manner, survive given Certainly An undoubtedly ripped hidden opened. yield which—in —does itself require approval magistrate. narrower—and broader—than Only waived; authorize.32 48 Just lawnmower garage upstairs bedroom, Probable cab. V 49 Our today disposition relied. Nevertheless, action. Although adhere case; although reject precise supporting adopt clear reliance frustrated today.33 Of greatest importance, convinced faithful consistency throughout 50 reaffirm jurisprudence Mincey Arizona, 437 385, 390, 98 2408, 2412, 57 290: "The proscribes seizures, cardinal 'searches conducted judicial process, judge magistrate, per se Amendment—subject exceptions.' Katz 389 347, 357 [88 507, 514, 576] (footnotes omitted)." unquestionably "specifically delineated." broader narrower justifies 52 further proceedings ordered. 54 BLACKMUN, concurring. 55 My dissents indicated my continuing dissatisfaction discomfort vacillation rightly "this area." Ante, 817. 17, 2486, 538 (1977); 768, 2595, 235 (1979); 436, 2851, 744 (1981). 56 views expressed dissents. important, institution, defendants, applicable legal rules clearly established. STEVENS' accomplishes respect, clarify bit confusion existed. order authoritative ruling, join judgment. POWELL, 58 2847, (1981), justified, compelled, Sander, (1979). agree, "bright line" articulated repeated long one's "reasonable privacy" particularly relevant factor determining automobiles general, one. 761, 2591; Almeida-Sanchez 413 266, 279, 93 2535, 2542, 596 (1973) (POWELL, concurring). continue many situations decisive evident Term, opinions Robbins—in none joined—that essential "specific guidance recurring situation." 2850 judgment). today, joined four Justices, afford guidance. fair say 543 (1925), 419 (1970), depart cases. enunciating understood rule, today's step New York Belton, 454, 2860, 768 60 WHITE, dissenting. 62 overrule reasons affirm Appeals. agree MARSHALL's dissent 63 MARSHALL, whom BRENNAN joins, 64 repeals realistic searches, By equating officer's estimation magistrate's, utterly disregards value neutral detached recently, unanimously, reaffirmed: 65 traditionally represented independent assurance proceed crime committed person named crime. meet tests. detached, capable exists requested insisted inferences drawn 'a instead judged engaged competitive enterprise ferreting crime.' Shadwick City Tampa, 407 345, 350, 92 2119, 2122, (1972), quoting Johnson 333 10, 14, 367, 369, 436 (1948). 66 beat hardly satisfies standards. adopting shows contempt values, ignores precedents, internally inconsistent, produces anomalous unjust consequences. dissent. 67 According majority, whenever highway,1 told, broad makes attempt terms values. simply critical function serves. And purports rely mobility explains why concerns container, easily immobilized adopted incompatible principles, takes unprecedented "probable cause" requirement. accepted standards, violates "[I]t 290 (1978), 357, 88 576 (1967). crucial protecting instance Time again, protections post hoc evaluation policeman's concentration power over individual, prevents overbroad unjustified all. 297, 317, 2125, 2136, 752 (1972); Abel 362 217, 252, 683, 703, 668 (1960) (BRENNAN, Warren, C.J., Black Douglas, JJ., "prevent hindsight coloring reasonableness seizure." Martinez-Fuerte, 428 565, 3074, 3086, 1116 (1976); see Beck Ohio, 379 89, 96, 85 223, 228, 142 (1964). Furthermore, conducted, interposition reassures orderly process respected: 71 grasped zealous officers, denies usual draw evidence. consists crime." 13-14, 368-369. Marshall Barlow's, Inc., 307, 323, 1816, 1825, (1978); 321, 2138. safeguards embodied forcefully others. 73 recognize narrow searches. Throughout decisions, major advanced considerations. 74 First, exigency See, e.g., (1970); (1925). "mobility" something misnomer, cf. Cady Dombrowski, 433, 442-443, 2523, 2528-2529, 706 (1973), remove occupants spot. inherent creates police's alternative release possession.2 unacceptably high risk losing principal 51, 9, 1981, 9. will, searching bring booking. situation, station. Because exclusive control authorities, cannot second justification exception: diminished 76 presents travel, government regulation, more private areas. 2591, (1979) (collecting cases). invoked present. South Dakota Opperman, 364, 367-368, 3092, 3096, 1000 441-442, 2528. focusing defendant's privacy, refused intrusive actual defendant 51-52, 1981. Therefore, safely seek decide effect, provide interests. B 77 majority's flatly Historically, compelled justifications above. Today, base justifications. failure surprising, traditional plainly extending 78 problem—deciding 762-766, nn. 2592-2594, 14. lesser-expectation-of-privacy force. reflect 762, 764-765, 2592, 2593. corollary recognized—that depriving search—is doubtful relevance here, suffer deprived 79 Ultimately, unable underlying exception, soundly attempts create past, Coolidge Hampshire, 403 443, 91 2022, 564 (1971), today. purported defines reference authorize. Under legality course, properly confined limit encompassing despite "mobile" blithely suggesting "neither cause," ante, 820, assumes law: automobile-mobility "lawful" i.e., 81 sleight-of-hand obvious differences served making exception. irrelevant mobile, impractical concern them. item office, location well. obviating justifies. all, alone, coupled depend dispensing premise fails conclusion. 82 masks startling assumption functional equivalent requirement—the determine exists. 828-829. explanation "limited" firmly establish on-spot C recent (1977), purposes. drew 12, 2484. transferred custody control. degree locations." 766, 2594. 2845.3 84 considerations, conclude deserves deserve 763-765, 2593, 13; notes, "reaffirmed 812. need describe exact contours opinion, containers—regardless always store items—are fully protected. 764, 13.4 Here, seized, searched, street station: occurred, succeeded inadvertently spilling contents.5 86 announcing earlier especially States. approach, "faithful history," 824, letter spirit unacceptable 87 misplaced. goods. impracticable.6 "In used. . impossible unlawfully peril cause." 286 added).7 50, 1980, "[n]either conceivable circumstance auto extra affords." Notwithstanding argues integral functionally advantages "would vehicle." 820. Neither arguments persuasive. allowing "illogical" "absurd," 818, allowed compartments. Surely safekeeping, said irrelevant, be, 89 focuses doctrine, fares better. concerned difficulty immobilizing occasion difficulties 832. suggested, implies, assists precedents offers justification. footnote, suggests "practical considerations" militate taking 821, 28. confidently remarks: "Prohibiting likely forcing comb exacerbate yet undiscovered withCarroll Chambers. unpersuasive. implicitly concedes, departments package compare safeguarding 765, 14; 811, 16. aspects implausible. "combing" looking discover promptly. If, instead, crime, protect privacy; contraband, Finally, defendant, police, choice prefers delay seeking 12. presumption, presumption replace consent, surely invasion container.8 theoretically unsound unwarranted results. apparent reconcile Sanders.9 placed, absent This, asserts, indication carefully justification, private, difficult requirement, automobile?10 peculiar unworkable consequences: "must investigating knew too much, sufficient insufficient exactly located." 384, 1201 (en banc) (Wilkey, Alternatively, connection incidental pre-existing wait take advantage (1971); W. LaFave, Search Seizure 519-525 (1978). wholeheartedly employ pretext escape prohibitions avoided. interpretation, swallows up appears, event, asking uncertain distinguishing illegitimate indicates 804; judgment).11 94 rejects Sanders12 substitute appears result. effectively overruled. unambiguously overrules disposition" gingerly avoids stating overruling 95 convincing discern expediency: conducting ensuring suspects longer shield. "When way," instructs us, "nice hand." 821. distinctions" necessary, comprehend well-recognized (which, decision, automobile), together parts. Nor pass glib assertion "prompt hand" paramount citizens. thought disregard Amendment." 393, 2413.13 profound implications citizens traveling automobiles, understands. "For 803-804. toolbox, knapsack, alike disturbed vehicle.14 derives satisfaction exalt wealthy poor. 822. lose vital celebration. people houses, papers, effects, shall violated, Warrants issue, Oath affirmation, things seized." U.S.Const., Amdt. 4. arrest. App. Pet. Cert. 137a. challenged holding. Judge Tamm, original reiterated prohibited Robb agreed result prisoner examine wallet envelope pocket, room includes drawers room." U.S.App.D.C., 363, F.2d, 1180. MacKinnon Tamm prohibit Concerning Wilkey, dissented retroactively. Many requires "luggage-type" Brown, 635 1207 (CA6 1980); Jimenez, 626 (CA7 1980). isolated State Bible, So.2d (La.1980), vacated remanded, 918, 3153, 1001; Hernandez, 408 911 (La.1981); 1180 (Robb, September 29, sell three whiskey. consummated, agents' identity. October, Roadster Detroit, active center introduction country. East Lansing, abandoned chase. ship duty. places. 150-151, "Thus contemporaneously adoption Congress, following Second Congresses, necessity be- particular, 1815 statute board vessels "but stop, beast suspect merchandise duty law." history, individuals notice giving rise facts. Subsequent available Harlan recognized, moving deprive once necessarily 62-64, 1986-1987, (opinion Harlan, however—with dissenting—refused roadway, purposes, hand presenting thereafter impounded. supra; Texas White, 423 67, 304, 209. practicalities relatively minor initial caused automobile—which leave stranded highway—the inflexible guard tow Similarly, impounded, street—at occupants, cost police. appear unsatisfactory. reflect, gives loses interference. authorities length, satisfied [the officers'] trustworthy themselves man caution belief searched." 162, 288. Brinegar 338 160, 176-177, 1302, 1311, 1879; 102, 171, 134. 629; 151; Dyke Taylor Implement Mfg. Co., 391 216, 1472, Colorado Bannister, 449 1. Warrantless variety factual contexts quite Cooper 386 58, 788, 730; 706; 1000. showing to—and not—consider concluded: "We transport vehicles. Section 26, restored Weeks [Weeks 232 383, 341, 652] Amos [Amos 255 313, 654] him, subjects damages. hand, have, investigation trace suspected them." 286. noted: nexus coincidence. building]. seizure, automobile's trunk." 393 F.Supp. 763, 772 (Mass.1975). contend footlocker's brief contact demonstrates permitting luggage; analogous purposes." 11-12, 2483-2484. 2486 (BLACKMUN, sealed contents; impoundment footlocker." 8, 2485, 8. accomplished individual—and police—as supplied confidential adequate appellant's confiscated it." State, 262 Ark. 595, 599, 559 S.W.2d 704, (1977). supports relationship taxicab coincidental." 600, 2, S.W.2d, 706, 2. highway detaining driver. "Because taxicab, [97 538] ". carried, locus purely coincidental, resting 'automobile' more." 766-767, parcels 13. observation "[n]ot (for example kit burglar tools gun case) appearance. 'plain view,' thereby 39, 782 "While blanket purport interest, Confronted cigar box Dixie cup narcotics, conscientious policeman fill appropriate forms, await finally Suspects normally detained sought. hours, removing normal duties. Expenditure effort, public's detecting preventing crimes, justified. aggregate procuring warrants trivial compensated advancement important values." 433-434, 2849-2850 would, affected character comparable arise luggage, 19, "[b]ased tip received, Ross's 361, 1168 explained: "[W]e ample informer accurate occasions, eyewitness sales Ross. seen heard possessed narcotics." 22, 1168, 22. identified." 359, 1166. suppression defense counsel asked "Isn't possible resemblance bag?" responded: suppose is. time. sure was." App., O.T.1930, 477, p. 27. O.T.1938, 49, 33. Solicitor Robert Jackson "were wrapping wrappings cord cross-wise lifted." Brief 6. Soriano, 497 147, 149-150 (CA5 1974) banc); Vento, 533 838, 867, (CA3 1976); Tramunti, 513 1087, 1104 (CA2 1975); Issod, 508 990, 993 1974); Evans, 481 994 (CA9 1973); Bowman, 487 1229 (CA10 1973). continued Milhollan, 599 518, 526-527 1979); Gaultney, 581 1137, 1144-1145 1978); Finnegan, 568 637, 640-641 1977). assumed qualified noteworthy relied laws imposing duties imported merchandise. Presumably shipped kinds, beasts merchandise, inconceivable search; shipping exterior cartons boxes smuggled concealed. During history horse-drawn carriage, 1921 roadster, modern automobile—it pursuant Professor LaFave notes: "Places excluded act required. 'In land buildings, desks, cabinets, closets permitted.' 152 (1978) Massey Commonwealth, 755, 756 (Ky.1957)). completed. Arguably, (including upholstery) prohibiting vehicle; found, Such directly 426-427, 2845-2846 opinion); 2851 dissenting); 2854 (REHNQUIST, 447, 2856 proposition objectively manifest propriety fabric stapled shut marked "private" cardboard stacked top luggage. seemingly surrounding circumstances. 'The poorest bid defiance forces Crown. frail; roof shake; wind blow it; storm enter; rain King England enter—all dares cross threshold ruined tenement!' Miller 301, 1190, 1194, 1332 remarks attributed Pitt); Payton York, 445 573, 601, 54, 100 1371, 1388, 639. choosing own assessment action damages claiming unconstitutional. Monroe Pape, 365 167, 473, 492. acted evidence, issued suffices Any maintaining status quo asserted structured business distributing substances legitimate. confines understand applicability announced cars. (1971). able initially deciding contrast, unoccupied, problem presented. "[Chadwick ] before, line-drawing problems, arms citizen walking down street. relying marginal definition situation other. spill thus, Whatever contexts, reclosing incident. seems offense misdemeanor officers' presence. 511 Accordingly, faced automobiles: pending stranded. searched. 818-819, litigate protection. "illuminates Carroll," 819, unusual interpretation. hesitate "profession's understanding" Fourteenth Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 1138, 256 (1896), century granting Negroes Brown Board Education, 347 483, 686, 873 (1954). Chimel 395 752, 2034, 685 (1969), "search" (1967), profession formerly advances Seizures distinguished defendants means transportation; (1970). Both depart, uphold (It argue theory novel responsibly it.) (1979), too, Again, invalidated pragmatic Sanders—that engendered 816, 21. illogical. disclose worth searching; conversely, attach numerical count Unless explanations distinguish unpersuasive contradict theory. notes assuredly states 823. Once according "some Sanders." 824. adopts JUSTICE, STEVENS, breadth rationale. efficiency promptness substituted due adherence Constitution. Is dictatorship "efficient" government? restrict "defined found." component strictly construed. fear, restriction emphasizes value. 351, 21, banc). acquire portions practice, wholesale authorization bottom suspicion, localized

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