Document: 491 U.S. 1 109 S.Ct. 2273 105 L.Ed.2d PENNSYLVANIA, Petitionerv.UNION GAS COMPANY. No. 87-1241. Argued Oct. 31, 1988. Decided June 15, 1989. Syllabus Respondent's predecessors operated a coal gasification plant, which produced tar as by-product, along creek in Pennsylvania. Shortly after acquiring easements the property creek, and while excavating to control flooding, State struck large deposit of began seep into creek. Finding be hazardous substance, Environmental Protection Agency declared site Nation's first Superfund site, Federal Government together cleaned up area. The reimbursed for cleanup costs sued respondent recoup those under §§ 104 106 Comprehensive Response, Compensation, Liability Act 1980 (CERCLA), 42 U.S.C. 9604 9606, claiming that was liable because it its had deposited ground. Respondent filed third-party complaint against State, asserting, inter alia, an "owner operator" § 107(a) CERCLA. District Court dismissed this on ground State's Eleventh Amendment immunity barred suit. Appeals affirmed, finding no clear expression intent hold States monetary damages However, vacated decision remanded reconsideration light subsequent amendments CERCLA made by Amendments Reauthorization 1986 (SARA), held statute's amended language clearly rendered Congress power do so Commerce Clause. Held: judgment is case remanded. 832 F.2d 1343 (CA3 1987), affirmed Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion ith respect Parts I II, concluding CERCLA, SARA, expresses federal court. Pp. 7-13. 2 (a) plain authorizes such suits. Section 101(21)'s express inclusion within definition "persons," 101(20)(D)'s statement state local governments are considered "owners or operators" all but very narrow circumstances, establish intended 107 with everyone else responsible creating waste sites. fact 101(20)(D) uses virtually identical 120(a)(1)'s waiver Government's sovereign highly significant, demonstrating must have override States' from This conclusion not contradicted exclusion category when they acquire ownership involuntarily virtue their function sovereign, 107(d)(2)'s general exemption liability actions taken during contamination generated other persons' facilities, 9659(a)(1)'s reservation rights citizen suits, since provisions would unnecessary unless suits were otherwise permitted statute. 7-10. 3 (b) Pennsylvania's arguments contrary persuasive. If accepted, contention creates only render meaningless making "to same extent . any nongovernmental entity, including [damages]," explicit authorization necessary before may sue damages. Moreover, obviously explains qualifies entire operator," does not, Pennsylvania suggests, if then contribute there. Nor can decisive mentions governments, enjoy immunity, breath States, natural discuss governmental entities together. 11-13. 4 BRENNAN, joined MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, concluded Part III has authority money court legislating pursuant 13-23. 5 Court's decisions indicate See, e.g., Parden v. Terminal Railway Alabama Docks Dept., 377 184, 84 1207, 12 233; Employees Missouri Dept. Public Health Welfare, 411 279, 93 1614, 36 251. confirmed consideration special nature plenary conferred Clause, expands taking away States. Cf. Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 454-456, 96 2666, 2670-2671, 49 614; Ex parte Virginia, 100 339, 346, 25 L.Ed. 676. 14-19. 6 By giving regulate commerce, relinquished where finds necessary, exercising authority, them liable. Since commerce displace regulation, create remedy sometimes mean one could so. Indeed, recognized problem environmental harm often susceptible solution. See Illinois Milwaukee, 406 91, 92 1385, 31 712; Philadelphia New Jersey, 437 617, 98 2531, 57 475. many situations, will effectuate Congress' legitimate Clause objectives. Here, example, failing solve hazardous-substances through preventive measures, chose extend potentially contamination, and, enormous cleanups finite resources, sought encourage private parties help out allowing recover own efforts. There merit allowance citizens unconsenting impermissibly jurisdiction courts beyond bounds Article III, since, ratifying Constitution containing consented based congressionally created causes action. supra. 19-23. 7 WHITE agreed plurality's abrogate disagreed reasoning supporting conclusion. P. 57. 8 J., announced SCALIA, JJ., joined, joined. concurring opinion, post, p. 23. WHITE, part dissenting part, REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR KENNEDY, 29. IV O'CONNOR, 9 John G. Knorr, Harrisburg, Pa., petitioner. 10 Robert A. Swift, Philadelphia, respondent. 11 STEVENS join. presents questions whether 9601 et seq., Pub.L. 99-499, Stat. 1613, permits suit so, cause action answer both "yes." 13 * For about 50 years, Union Gas Co. plant near Brodhead Creek Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, byproduct. dismantled around 1950. A few years later, took major flood-control efforts In 1980, shortly Commonwealth determined substance emergency site. Working together, area, $720,000. 14 To these costs, United company Creek. asserting Common ealth at least portion hazardous-waste 9607(a), negligently caused contributed release complaint, accepting claim divided panel Third Circuit congressional Co., 792 372 (1986). 15 While Gas' petition certiorari pending, passing SARA. We granted certiorari, Appeals' amendments. 479 1025, 865, 821 (1987). On remand, amended, 485 958, 108 1219, 99 420 (1988), now affirm. II 16 Hans Louisiana, 134 1, 504, 33 842 (1890), principle reflected immune even premised presence question. acts Fourteenth Amendment, make "unmistakably clear." Atascadero Hospital Scanlon, 473 234, 242, 3142, 3147, 87 171 (1985). Before turning question possesses abrogation we decide conduct described need consider constitutional 17 provides mechanism cleaning sites, 9604, 9606 (1982 ed. Supp. IV), imposes 9607. Two terms, among others, describe who remedial action: "persons" operators." 9607(a). "States" explicitly included "persons." 9601(21). term defined reference certain activities "person" undertake. 9601(20)(A). 18 SARA excludes "acquired bankruptcy, tax delinquency, abandonment, circumstances government acquires title sovereign." 9601(20)(D).1 continues, "[t]he provided paragraph shall apply threatened facility, subject chapter manner extent, procedurally substantively, section 9607 title." Ibid. convey message unmistakable clarity: c sts recoverable acknowledgment background understanding—evidenced "persons"—that circumstance expressly excluded. "exclusion" furnished understanding work.2 19 another statute reinforces 107(d)(2) set forth 9607(d)(2) ed., headed "State governments," provides: "No subchapter result response facility owned person. preclude gross negligence intentional misconduct government." is, needless say, recognition potential statute; exempt Similarly, elsewhere permitted, reason specify suits—as opposed kind lawsuit involved here brought "against person (including instrumentality agency, eleventh amendment Constitution)." 9659(a)(1). overridden 20 It also significant that, 101(20)(D), used waiving 120(a)(1) 9620(a)(1), "Each department, executive, legislative, judicial branches government) to, comply with, doubtless " 'unequivoca[l] express[ion]' Testan, 424 392, 399, 948, 953, 47 114 (1976), quoting King, 395 4, 89 1501, 1502, 23 52 (1969), cannot imagine plausible explanation unqualified language. coincidence describing mirroring 120(a)(1). choosing therefore, suit, just waived 21 cascade however, impress face clarity, bravely insists merely makes Gas. relies principally 251 (1973). there abrogated Fair Labor Standards Act. Nevertheless, found, state-run hospitals whom law meaningless: allowed sue, covered served permit Id., U.S., 285-286, S.Ct., 1618-19. 22 Although true CERCLA's did citizens, equally holding deprive last meaning. stress entity," meant Mississippi, 380 128, 140-141, 85 808, 814-815, 717 (1965), barrier lawsuits State. purposes lawsuits, naturally like "any entity"; rules dictating Government, nor stringent interpretive guiding construction statutes appear authorize gone far statutory California, 332 19, 26-28, 67 1658, 1662-1663, 91 1889 (1947). Unless specific unnecessary. said clause specifying provisions, "including damages, remedy, requiring language, involved. precise exceedingly odd interpret provision signal States—rather than citizens—could CERCLA.3 24 harmful substances property. operator"—not applicable involuntary owners. well argues means shows immunity. natural, breath, exemptions 107(d)(2). demonstrates limits liability. rescues obtained sites involuntarily. Commonwe lth fails grasp, limitation nonsensical existed place. 26 thus evinces court.4 27 Our requires us grants enact found precludes authority. agree. 28 Though never squarely resolved issue power, our mark trail unmistakably leading begins 233 (1964). There, responding state-owned railway's argument railway "the surrendered sovereignty commerce," id., 191, 1212, "[b]y empowering necessarily stand way regulation," 192, 1212. referred involving 451, 2669, 614 statements quoted above lay firm foundation includes directly 29 path continues 286, 1618, again acknowledged, Parden, 'the commerce.' declined cover every exercise power," itself purpose give force Supremacy lifting putting footing employers [was] 286-287, Employees' plain: conclude clearly. 30 Employees, twice assumed acting Welch Texas Highways Transportation, 483 468, 475-476, n. 5, 2941, 2946-2947, 97 389 (1987); County Oneida Indian Nation York, 470 226, 252, 1245, 1260, 169 Green Mansour, 474 64, 68, 423, 425, 88 371 (1985) ("States unles Congress, valid unequivocally immunity"); Quern Jordan, 440 332, 343, 1139, 1146, 59 358 (1979) (referring immunity"). accident, reached powers Constitution. 1987) (case below); re McVey Trucking, Inc., 812 311 (CA7), cert. denied, 484 895, 227, 186 Monroe Florida, 678 1124 (CA2 1982), 459 1104, 103 726, 74 951 (1983); Peel Florida 600 1070 (CA5 1979); Mills Music, Inc. Arizona, 591 1278 (CA9 1979). 32 Even discussed connection between careful regard precedent still mandate interstate commerce. supra, further done 1972 Title VII Civil Rights 1964. Subsequent cases firmly 5. Dellmuth Muth, 223, 2397, 181 (1989); 238, 3145; Pennhurst School Halderman, 465 89, 99, 900, 907, 79 (1984); Fitzpatrick's rationale straightforward: "When legislative terms grant, whose sections embody limitations authority." 456, 2671. reasoning, emphasized "shift federal-state balance" occasioned War Amendments, 455, 2670, particular extensively 676 (1880). following passage Virginia worth well: 34 "Such enforcement [of prohibitions Amendment] invasion sovereignty. No be, people have, empowered enact. [I]n her rights, disregard applied power. Her reach extent. she deny right powers, though interfere full enjoyment been granted. addition involves corresponding diminution carved them." Fitzpatrick, 454-455, 2670-2671. 35 Each points Amendment. Like hand gives while, other, takes relevant accomplishes exchange two steps (§§ 1-4, plus ), one. important point, rather, contracts power; meaning, fact, "plenary" grant lower rightly sense conceive somehow being "ultraplenary" 316. Quern, 1146 (distinguishing (Commerce Clause) (§ 5) clarity expressed statutes). attempts bring outside alters what proper balance governments." Brief Petitioner 39. believes, apparently, "constitutional existing prior claim, course, begs face. 37 SCALIA's casually announces: "Nothing [Fitzpatrick's] justifies embodied appeal antecedent Constitution." Post, 42. operative word appear, "antecedent"; emphasize according antecedent, Amendment." But, "principle" days ratified—since days, words, "consensus doctrine understood adopted, jurisdictional sweep away," 31-32, SCALIA refers affairs ratified things backwards: came first, Amendment" Antecedence closer from, Fitzpatrick. 38 appearance moment before, longer rely chronology distinguishing Only introduced preceded principle. then, order events matter changed things; if, But enjoyed enactment require showing more powerful muster obliterate hint authority; power" forbids "constru[ing] enumerated suits—language plainly rein Judiciary, Congress. fragile indeed could, without reference, interpreted wipe original 39 avoid pull answered over ago. Because via Judiciary 1875 he argues, disposed 36-37. depends notion Act, "Congress eliminate [the] immunity" eliminated. (emphasis original). As aware, gave effect federal-question self-executing. Thus, "automatically eliminate" see 33, neither 1875. That unsurprising begin address enactments, designed simply implement III's jurisdiction, When recalls, addition, "Art[icle] 'arising under' broader 1331," Verlinden B.V. Central Bank Nigeria, 461 480, 495, 1962, 1972, 76 81 (1983), conception ' looks particularly exaggerated. 40 B 41 'a surrender plan convention.' Monaco 292 313, 322-323, 54 745, 747-748, 78 1282 (1934), Federalist 81, 657 (H. Dawson 1876) (A. Hamilton). withholds time confers incomplete "unconsenting"; consent once, rather case-by-case basis. difficult overstate breadth depth NLRB Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 615, 893 (1937); Wickard Filburn, 317 111, 127-128, 63 82, 90-91, 122 (1942); Katzenbach McClung, 379 294, 377, 290 vastness here: long held, displaces chosen act, Gibbons Ogden, (9 Wheat.) (1824); Pacific R. Stroud, 267 404, 408, 45 243, 245, 69 683 (1925); Northwest Pipeline Corp. Comm'n Kansas, 489 493, 1262, 509 (1989), regulation pre-empt it, 621, 628-629, 2534, 25, 37-38, 475 (1978); legislate And situation , carry objectives 43 brilliantly illuminates points. 712 (1972) (recognizing "common law" nuisance water pollution, displacing laws). invalidated effort deal disposal level. Jersey prohibited treatment disposal, solid liquid wastes Indicating survived 626, 2536, locally doomed statute, 626-629, 2536-2538. practical matter, forbid wastes. Hence, ensures look solutions. solutions, satisfactory, include 44 consideration, tried posed means. Prior Resource Conservation Recovery 1976, 90 2796, 6901 failed focused measures ones. Note, California's Implementation: Potential Conflict, C.W.L.R. 373, 376, (1983). felt needed sweeping: forced cleanup. 9613(f)(1) (1986 IV). think enough, moreover, sites; resources finite, pay front undertake different projects time. Some needed, voluntarily proportionate amount parties. ibid.; Mardan C.G.C. Ltd., 804 1454, 1457, 1986); Walls Waste 761 311, 318 (CA6 1985). comprise class owners operators 8, cleanup, overall voluntary substantial. why space legislation financially accountable well. follow bare permit. suggests abrogation, confer direct state-law (not falling diversity jurisdiction) 46 According equivalent expand III. Pen sylvania 35-36, 256 490, 497, 588, 589, 65 1057 (1921) (" '[T]he embrace entertain given' "). them. approving Its (1976). purport change scope silent subject, expanded originally conceived. share view Fitzpatrick.5 renders court, Given ruling favor Gas, should overruled. affirm remand proceedings consistent opinion. 48 ordered. concurring. distinction Amendments. correct literal interpretation fully explained BRENNAN's 247, 3149, defense added text (1890). With former—the power—I believe Constitution, amend latter—the judicially alleging violation federally protected rights—I agree 51 works numerous scholars1 exhaustively conclusively refuted embodies explication point Suffice say carefully mirrors citizen-state alien-state clauses Judicial construed extend" cases. absolutely nothing affects "judicial Power" contained III.2 Plainer seldom, ever, law. departed purpose, history extending "arising under" Later adjustments rule, inability develop coherent expansion all, prudential interest comity concern "Our Federalism." speaks power." therefore animate inquiry actual provide "clear statement." Many decisions, purporting all. Instead, treated role amalgam relations. appropriate. 53 Several much limit established waive subjecting possible Atascadero, 186, 1209, (1964); 284, 1617, (1973); Clark Barnard, 436, 447-448, 878, 882-883, 780 (1883). Yet, legion party defect subject-matter invoke consent. Owen Equipment Erection Kroger, 365, 21, 2396, 2404, 274 Sosna Iowa, 419 393, 398, 95 553, 556, 532 (1975); California LaRue, 409 109, 112, 3, 390, 342 (1972); American Fire Casualty Finn, 341 U.S 6, 17-18, 17, 71 534, 541-42, 702 (1951); Mitchell Maurer, 293 237, 244, 55 162, 338 (1934); Jackson Ashton, (8 Pet.) 148, 149, 898 (1834). entirely willingness allow product Another striking example application jurisdictional—concerns Edelman 415 651, 94 1347, 662 (1974). inexplicably limited fiction Young, 209 123, 441, 714 (1908), officials official capacities ultra vires acts, Young applies prospective relief. once exist award relief (even some cost see, Milliken Bradley, 433 267, 2749, 745 (1977)), understand forms 459, 2673, (1976) (STEVENS, judgment). 104-106, 910-911, (1984), implicit Edelman: "rests promote vindication rights," represents attempt "accommodate" protection "competing interest" States." 426, (1985), explained: "Both retrospective implicate concerns, availability sort awarded life Remedies end continuing vindicate assuring supremacy compensatory deterrence interests insufficient overcome dictates (Citations omitted.) 56 theme emerges Edelman, Pennhurst, balancing interests. balancing, waiver, antithetical traditional understandings jurisdiction—either extends not. National Mutual Ins. Tidewater Transfer 337 582, 646-655, 1173, 1195-1200, 1556 (1949) (Frankfurter, dissenting). result, better invoking federalism concerns abstention cases, Los Angeles Lyons, 95, 1660, 75 675 Trainor Hernandez, 431 434, 1911, 486 (1977); Juidice Vail, 430 327, 1211, 376 Rizzo Goode, 423 362, 598, 561 (1976); Huffman Pursue, 592, 1200, 482 Younger Harris, 401 37, 746, 669 (1971), although admittedly slightly voice.3 my view, "have primary obligation protect individual Constitution" laws, Harris Reed, 255, S.C 1038, 1045, 308 (1989) concurring), generally eschew responsibility diffuse, instrumental autonomy. convinced otherwise, readily apparent appropriate.4 Garcia San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 528, 1005, 83 1016 superseding setting aside assessment use constitutionally prescribed prudent. decided protecting environment outweighs countervailing join majority might spoken, 58 THE CHIEF JUSTICE, IV, part. 0 WHITE's given plausibility his methodology considering separately, import individuals—CERCLA because, (1973), alone enough evince ante, 48-49 (opinion, part); unquestionable coextensive persons dealing liability, enacted 51-52. 60 appropriate, perhaps correct, assumes task plumb provision. mine nor, think, traditionally followed. task, enter minds Members Congress—who mind votes lawful effective—but fair reasonable meaning Code, adopted various Congresses times. Fausto, 439, 668, 677, 830 (1988). holds apparently purposes, "person," reinforced individuals, leaves doubt Whether envisioned this, me irrelevant. does. 61 validity individuals bringing asserted basis citizenship existence 62 Eight addressed overrule Terms ago—but inconclusively, evenly divided. substantive plurality announcing (which refer "plurality opinion"), dissent, sketch outlines here. states: "The equity, commenced prosecuted Citizens Subjects Foreign State." 64 comprehensive description courts—that terms—then unquestionably most providing sole describes course tracks t e Const., Art. 2). wish (a Laws States") plaintiff country, itself. immediate latter situation—that comprehensive—even fell (for State) nondiversity grounds existed. About century ago, landmark unanimously rejected "comprehensive" approach present, fit Louisiana What was, essentially, reflected: consensus away. "[T]he cognizance [against States] contemplated establishing 507. noted prompted Chisholm Georgia, Dall. 419, (1793), permitting South Carolina assumpsit Georgia "created shock surprise throughout country," 11, 505; repudiated repudiation premise upon based, namely, unlimited letter appealed now," said, "as [the III] sustaining appeal. followed concisely expressed, unanimous Court, Chief Hughes despite "between foreign States," absence court: 66 "Manifestly, rest mere words assume exhausts restrictions non-consenting Behind postulates control. essential postulate controversies, contemplated, justiciable character. Union, possessing attributes sovereignty, consent, save Federalist, 81." -323, 747-48, (1934) (footnote omitted). evidence strong automatically underlying stronger assumption greater dispute, how implicitly eliminated Hamilton called "plan convention." already "inherent plan," 329, 750, itself, 814-15, (1965); Texas, 143 641-646, 488, 492-94, 285 (1892), Dakota North Carolina, 192 269, 448 (1904). foremost urged overruling presenting scheme. single add recently Welch. 68 inherent necessity tribunal peaceful resolution disputes themselves, incomparably greater, resolve Undoubtedly envisions assure compliance laws. deem able claims 399-402, 953-54, I, 9, cl. ("No Money drawn Treasury, Consequence Appropriations Law"), initiation offending preservation structure, levels. Indeed anything seem level, laws 814-15. strongly exists Of give, given, suitor short He obtain injunction officer, effectively stop unlawful action, 160, 454, officers, 1983; Monell York City Social Services, 436 658, 2018, 611 (1978). impossible find scheme remedies available, similar infraction, wrong, structural possibly denied close. situation, venerability consistently adhered almost century, difficulty chan ing, identifying, intervening answer, argue change. plurality, "Hans reaffirmed case, exceptionally Courts"; reversal "would itself" cast "a variety concerned immunity." 494, 27, 2957, 27. unlike vast pervasive law, Forty-nine legislated assurance. extant preclusion thought barred. Hans, form did. Seventeenth eliminating election Senators legislatures, 1913, Hans. known reaching treasuries; legislatures experience urging proposed creation liability; inconceivable, especially rare, three-quarters legislatures) proviso incursions 70 decline respondent's invitation Louisiana. purports yet reaches imposition actually believes agrees disposition. Better perpetuate complexities creates, 252-258, 3152-55, (BRENNAN, dissenting), benefits system. says statement" rule—just prohibition rule elimination Mitchell, 445 535, 538, 1349, 1351, 607 (1980); 953-54. discern, today pursues preserving it—achieves worst worlds. justified consequences. 72 force, end. here, pointed immunity—namely, 1875, ch. 137, 470, questions. (The aware refinement, st tutory 1789, 20, 13, 80, ground, Iredell relied dissent Chisholm, length.) assertedly assertion available; gossamer organize courts, powers. 73 position contradicts holding. expressing objection haled enunciating fundamental federalism, evidenced retained prerogative passage: "Suppose proposing appended therein prevent arising States: States? supposition absurdity truth unknown forbidden evident Hans' reliance Chisholm—whose views, "were right,—as capacity [by subsequently decided." 14, 506. Iredell's precisely follows: 77 "So much, improper intimate present admit, compulsive recovery money. consequence, insurmountable implication (neither consider, case) deduction high Dall., 449-450. later similarly component default disposition altered (1921): "That jurisprudence having bearing become repeated given: subjects Amendment; exemplification." 80 Great Northern Read, 322 47, 51, 873, 875, 1121 (1944), said: "A state's freedom litigation prevents consent." identified element checks balances: 82 'constitutionally mandated power' Framers ensure 'our liberties.' [Garcia 572, 1028, (Powell, dissenting) ]. guaranteeing serves maintain balance." refusing Welch—an WHITE—the observed "established broad immunity"; extends, consents sued.' 486, 2953, (Harlan, J. concurring). either reconcile today's "broad precedents facile "in action," 22. suggestion reciting familiar phrase, consent," warrant response. regarding unvarying exclusive catalog permissible federal-court jurisdiction. turned [state] [is inherent] convention," rubric seeking determine reasonably Monaco, 328-330, 749-50. thumbing authority—as Amendment—might justify (by represented Amendment), nonetheless exceeded. transformed disposition, until prescribes expansive regime establishes. error embarrassing frailty support appeals. "statements [that] foundation," "path continues," ibid., "message plain," ibid. notably cite Supreme past 200 upholding (in waiver) power—or cas occurred. How strange useful power—one achievement objectives, 20-22--never approved rarely (if ever) asserted. "message-sending" dicta value. states, "we Clause," true, sake argument. Welch, 475, 2947 (specifically refraining "intimating question"); Nation, 1261, cited referring immunity," discussing (1979), ambiguous surely interpretation, 425-426, suggesting adopts 191-192, 1212-13, (1964), (because ) 1616-17. plain, One aspect overruled, doubt, infra, 2303; dicta, hardly substantial new adopts. 86 Finally, errs relying upheld 1964, 253, 2000e seq. distinction, embodies, limited" 2671, "by directed 453, 'were really are, enlargements Congress,' 345, Nothing asserts concurrently subsequently. dispute possible, happened. suggested above, enables An wants nullity unreasonable. hand, avowedly purpose. remains theory acted operator facility," 9607(a)(1), "site area deposited, stored, of, placed, come located," 9601(9)(B); acting, (assertedly) contains. demand, condition permission regulable immunity.1 overruled insofar spoke constitute demand. 478, 2948 (plurality opinion); 496, 2958 (SCALIA, address, 2948, 8. drop shoe. obvious fatal difficulties acknowledging exists. All creations attach defendant's commission possession status, field conduct. prescriptions concerned, conditional, and—to objects consciously engage activity status produces liability—can redescribed invitations "waiver." securities Securities Exchange 1934, 10(b), 891, 78j(b), participates purchasing selling affecting commerce; categorically imposed, "waiver" one's activity. At bottom, acknowledge substantially powers2—that adopt rejected. little verbal saying clean-up owns operates, thing adding "if chooses operate reality, this. applauded insignificant abandoned. steadfast refusal accept importance doctrine, open question, fight Hans-Atascadero battle again—but win unhappy victory, instead allegedly muddled place, adds clutter astounding unstable victory well, too war endure. return genuine reverse KENNEDY language," (1987), m jority concludes presented concur conclusion, reasoning. suffice "explicitly enactment] States"; focuses 1147, (1979). put recently: intention itself." 3148, offered "unmistakable language" required immunity: 1613. turn. examining 1980. initial case—under 1986—the contain "unmistakable" 372, 378-382 disagrees, 9601(21), operators," 9601(20) 9607, "unmistakably" Ante, 7-8. reject several reasons. First, note four judges examined one—Judge Higginbotham Circuit's F.2d, 383-386—found requisite 7, infra. headcount" dispositive, suggest whatever declaration going faithful standard experienced jurists disagree relevant, disagreement certainly Second, significance draws suspect impact portions definitional "United Government" "person." Yet separate rendering suable provision, 9607(g). views 9607(g) wholly redu dant, because—by persons—Congress stripped Rather assuming wrote redundant subsection seems likely 9601(21)'s awards.2 went executing additional provision: obvious. 101 importantly, reading employs analytical "employers" (FLSA)), defendant employer "employees hospital"); litigant remedy. 282-283, 1616-1617. Nonetheless, thereby immunity; instead, concluded, Government. 102 respects, elies FLSA indistinguishable, arguments; conclude, let Act's policies achieved 1619: policy delicate relationship managed through" Executive Branch—and supported nature. 381 (summarizing below). Employers' (Welch), Rehabilitation (Atascadero), (Employees) respective fields, "comprehensiveness" lessened deeming intact. remain hands government; viable achieving ends. Reply 10.3 Above obliterated imply best serve ends trying achieve Such goals, weight normal construction, analysis abrogation. 230-231, 2400-2401, (1989). critical bar implying choice—even "latent" scheme, advisable becomes whether, (3rd Cir.1987), (known SARA) (now codified 9601(20)(D) IV)) full: Local Limitation—Paragraph (20) [42 9601] (defining 'owner operator') "(1) Add subparagraph thereof: '(D) unit acquired sovereign. 9607].' 1615. 110 entitled Limitation," disparages idea solely ignores unless" 9607: reduction perfectly good contortion Amendment.4 111 second candidate facilities "involuntarily [their] function[s] 9601(20)(D). properties involuntarily; choice. associated state-created, owned, dump, discharges owner abandoned Surely distinguished, logical exactly opposite 112 Recognizing avoids "explains operator'—not owners." 12-13. wrong: sentence ("a .") apply. ." liability-creating "limit" liability-limiting 9601(20)(D).5 Under left paradox tougher themselves accord. 113 9601(20)(D)—making involuntary-owner toxic chemicals "subject [CERCLA] entity"—provides above), method something abrogating meaningless. 11-12. less observes 26-27, (1947), forbade (i.e., sites). rests 1966 3(d) Employees: operates back previously exempted actions. read authorizing absent actions.6 115 673, 1360-1361, (1974), related interpreting "where stated 'by overwhelming implications [will] leave room construction' "reasonable construction" entail abrogation; i.e., modification "reasonable," alternative, nonabrogating "reasonable" nterpretation rejection view. 116 Consequently, SARA's contains clear" wanted solemn Amendment.7 117 My prevailed, however; ruled courts. judgment. brings immunity.8 respect, 118 Accordingly, Appeals. 119 dissenting. 120 concept command necessitating 9601(20)(D), "(D) operator' attack standing alone, abrogates 46-50, make. overrides wording inform failure appreciate leads mistakes. headcount," 46-47, counts wrong unamended version CERCLA; three-judge (This headcounting flawed another, reason: content rigor clarity," do, results amenability reasons itself.) inconsistent literally 48-49. Third, 107(g)—which suit—redundant. 47. entities' 107(g) superfluous. recognize 101(21) combination lead favorable 53, unconvincing. After redundant—an accusation merit, 2, supra,—Justice resorts admits, phrase entity" 55, 6. "statutory 'exclamation point,' 54-55, redundancy. explain governments. "there tradition municipal corporations," Independence, 622, 638, 1398, 1409, 673 (1980), immunities define statutes, 695, 59, 2022, (1978), emphatic superfluous, 1986, 99-506, 1807, name. 56, 7. surprising lays difference wording, disclaims "Eleventh magic each evaluated defeated eschews feels 42-44. Marshall, Fighting Words Harv.L.Rev. 1342 Jackson, Sovereign Immunity, Yale L.J. (1988); Amar, Sovereignty Federalism, 1425 Lee, Immunity Amendment: Uses History, Urb.Law. 519 (1986); Shapiro, Wrong Turns: Case, Gibbons, Immunity: Reinterpretation, Colum.L.Rev. Fletcher, Historical Interpretation Narrow Construction Affirmative Grant Jurisdiction Prohibition Against Jurisdiction, Stan.L.Rev. 1033 Tribe, Intergovernmental Immunities Litigation, Taxation, Regulation: Separation Powers Issues Controversies 682 asserts: parallels pertinent part: Power Subjects." anomaly. Over repeatedly exercised review state-court judgments post-Hans district Davis Michigan 803, 1500, 891 Williams Vermont, 472 2465, (1985); Bacchus Imports, Ltd. Dias, 468 263, 3049, Heublein, Tax Comm'n, 275, 483, Halliburton Oil Well Cementing Reily, 373 1201, 202 (1963); Laurens Savings Loan Assn. 365 517, 719, 749 (1961). Smith Reeves, 178 919, 1140 (1900); Cohens Wheat. 264, 257 (1821). broadly removed adjudicate regardless 256, 3154, L.J., 13-39. interests, easily defining tips review. Long, 463 1032, 1040, 3469, 3476, 1201 Martin Hunter's Lessee, 304, 347-348, (1816). comity, free "declare will" presumption accord Nevada Hall, 410, 1182, 1190-91, 416 Petty Tennessee-Missouri Bridge 359 785, (1959), suability Commission, attached approval compact accepted implemented compact. alternative holding, Commission suable. Obviously, exact compacts 10, contexts. retroactive liability—but rare event. occur unaware facts trigger it. ignorance ever (as unlikely) attribute knowledge agents displayed "actual" observation, unleashes oft-repeated "combination 2. "failure recognize" quality "confusion" case. "fail approach—I outright. search proof purposefully historical legislated. "combination" loses sight behind unfortunately, undermines precedents. this: CERCLA—in superfluous adopted—or SARA—which peculiar I-B below—or instance. Blurring choice resting artificially easier. places wished phrases "[n]o State)." 9607(i), (j). believed contends did) adequate operation parenthetical quote redundant. approaches limitless so: respects. involuntary-ownership amendments, detail I-B, (to Government) emergencies. 107(d)(2), 1629; House Committee observed, "remov[e] disincentive respond emergencies CERCLA." H.R.Rep. 99-253, pt. U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News pp. 2835, 2855. expanding counsel mandates Congress—to decision—and implied Court. observation 9-10, 9601(20)(D): 9607(d)(2), exempting activities. IV); H.R.Conf.Rep. 99-962, 203-204 amendment, liable." 10. States; vital 285-287, 1618-19, rejects exception enlighten "background understanding" place: instance, throughout, strict-liability Shore Realty 759 1042 1985); Bliss, 667 F.Supp. 1298, 1304 (ED Mo.1987). SARA—rendered section's "caused contributed" materials. source contends, rule—whether goes observe, explaining account "stress[ing] 'to entity,' 11. "such subject") accomplish more. three responses. puts stock ("as entity") "exclamation point": reasoned excuse whatsoever seeks recovery. discharge. Put way, incongruous sweeping significance—an extraordinary circumstances—to SARA/CERCLA. insure forceful using pre-emptive doctrines entities, execute 338-341, 1143-45, somewhat redundancy nearly severe text, concerning made. enacted, Appeals—the Circuit, (1986)—and Court—also litigation, 575 949 (E.D.Pa.1983)—had written abridged Both not; contrary. enacting holdings lack text. eight instructive: [portions Act]." 1845. go Amendment) deemed legions tangled mess then-existing "magic words" 4. (based (1987)) clearly, enactment—and derived parsing fragments scattered acrostic. preliminary reiterate Highways, 478-488, 2944-2954,

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