Document: 470 U.S. 93 105 S.Ct. 1074 84 L.Ed.2d 73 UNITED STATESv.LOUISIANA et al. (Alabama and Mississippi Boundary Case). No. 9, Orig. Argued Nov. 26, 1984. Decided Feb. 1985. Syllabus This case involves the issue whether Sound, a body of water immediately south mainland Alabama Mississippi, consists inland waters, so as to establish in those States, rather than United ownership lands submerged under Sound. Following extended proceedings, Special Master filed Report which he concluded, inter alia, that whole Sound qualifies historic bay Convention on Territorial Sea Contiguous Zone (Convention) thus constitutes waters. Accordingly, recommended decree be entered favor Mississippi. The States exceptions. Held: On record, correctly determined is its waters therefore are Pp. 101-115. (a) While term "historic bay" not defined Convention, this Court has stated "over coastal nation traditionally asserted maintained dominion with acquiescence foreign nations." v. California, 381 139, 172, 85 1401, 1419, 14 296. facts effectively exercised sovereignty over from time Louisiana Purchase 1803 until 1971, done without protest by nations. 101-111. (b) Since title had ripened prior States' disclaimer inland-waters status was insufficient divest their entitlement And although record does contain evidence acts exclusion navigation innocent passage, such invariably essential valid claim inland-water status. 111-115. Exception Master's ruling overruled, extent confirmed. Louis F. Claiborne, Washington, D.C., for plaintiff. Jim R. Bruce, Sp. Asst. Atty. Gen., Jackson, Miss., defendant State Miss. Benjamin Cohen, Montgomery, Ala., Ala. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. 1 latest chapter long-lasting litigation between Federal Government Gulf Coast concerning seabed, minerals, other natural resources underlying Mexico. particular narrow presented here If contend, then these own substantial part constitute contends, owns several "enclaves" high seas within We conclude bay, therefore, 2 * Submerged Lands Act 1953, 67 Stat. 29, 43 U.S.C. § 1301 seq., confirms each beneath navigable State's boundaries. 1311(a). also seaward boundary three geographical miles distant coastline. 1312. A bordering Mexico, however, may entitled beyond up marine leagues (approximately nine miles) §§ 1301(b), defines "coast line" "the line ordinary low along portion coast direct contact open sea marking limit waters." 1301(c). first definition relatively easy apply. second part—requiring determination waters"—is more difficult apply because "inland waters" Act. 3 In Louisiana, 363 1, 80 961, 4 1025 (1960), determined, among things, coastlines. Rather, held, two entitled, against all lands, extending coastlines distance no miles. Id., at 79-82, 83, S.Ct., 1004-1006, 1007, (opinion); 364 502, 503, 81 258, 5 247 (1960) (decree). Court, did express any precise location coastline 3-mile belt measured. U.S., 82, nn. 135 1006, 139. merely noted, accordance above-mentioned 2(c) Act, 1301(c), 'coast line' means 259. See 1007. retained jurisdiction entertain further including proceedings resolve dispute locating relevant Ibid.; 504, As been requires Court's decision disagreement arose States. It extends Lake Borgne west Mobile Bay east, bounded barrier islands. These islands, Isle au Pitre, Cat Island, Ship Horn Petit Bois Dauphin Island. approximately long 10 wide. contend Under view, lines southern coasts islands together appropriate connecting latter mark hand, denies generally around islands.1 6 then, states well Mexico only or There areas point coasts. pockets seas, them belong 7 To motions cross-motions entry supplemental decree. referred pleadings Master, Honorable Walter P. Armstrong, Jr., who already appointed (Louisiana Case ), 394 11, 89 773, 22 44 (1969). 444 1064, 100 1004, 62 746 (1980); 445 923, 1306, 63 755 (1980). 457 1115, 102 2922, 1327 (1982). submitted his II 8 noted above, employs but define 161-167, 1414-1417, 296 (1965), observed Congress left task defining purposes adopted definitions provided Zone, [1964] 15 U.S.T. (pt. 2) 1607, T.I.A.S. 5639 (the Convention). 165, 1415. Case, 35, 787; Maine (Rhode Island New York Case), 469 513, 992, 998, 83 998 (1985). 9 uses terminology differing somewhat particular, "baseline" refer line," it "territorial sea" 3-geographical-mile territorial one zones into which, international law, divided. explained Case: "Under accepted principles divided zones, distinguished nature control contiguous can exercise them. Nearest nation's shores inland, internal subject complete nation, much if they were land territory, privilege even exclude vessels altogether. Beyond measured edge, known marginal, territorial, sea. Within extensive cannot deny right passage Outside single nation." 22-23, 780-781 (footnotes omitted). 11 Article provides general rule determining "baseline": 12 "Except where otherwise articles, normal baseline measuring breadth low-water marked large-scale charts officially recognized State." 13 exceptions pursuant might qualify First, permits employ method straight baselines delimiting 4(1) pertinent part: "In localities deeply indented cut into, there fringe immediate vicinity, joining points employed drawing measured." 16 applied would drawn enclosing applicable chosen adopt it. 72-73, 806-807; 167-169, 1416-1417. present case, concluded method. 17 Second, set rules "juridical bay." 7(2), "a well-marked indentation whose penetration proportion width mouth landlocked mere curvature coast." addition, area must "as large as, larger than, semi-circle diameter across indentation." closing exceed 24 satisfies criteria juridical bay. reaching conclusion, treated mainland. easternmost Pitre westernmost intervening crosses gaps totaling less length. 18 Finally, 7(6) indicates tests Alaska, 422 184, 189, 95 2240, 2246, 45 109 (1975). 19 accordingly, 20 respectively Report. argued erred concluding both bay; claims neither. agreed conclusions alternative grounds Acts Admission established boundaries islands; practice; regardless characterization "mainland headland"; smaller exists eastern end 21 have independently reviewed we must. Arkansas, 415 289, 291-292, 294, 94 1046, 1047-1048, 1049, 39 333 (1974); Colorado 467 310, 317, 104 2433, 2438, (1984); Rhode 506, 994. Upon review, need not, do address relate question Convention. III bay"2 accord meaning. 1419. 2246; 23, 781. appears agreement least factors taken consideration bay: (1) authority claiming nation; (2) continuity authority; (3) 23-24, n. 27, 781-782, 27. An authoritative Nations study concludes require continuously during sufficient create usage toleration community States." Juridical Regime Historic Waters, Including Bays 56, U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/143 (1962) (hereinafter Regime).3 fourth factor vital interests elements configuration, economic interests, requirements self-defense. id., 38, 56-58; Shalowitz, 48-49. Fisheries (U.K. Nor.), 1951 I.C.J. 116, 142. 23 historically an intracoastal waterway commercial strategic importance Conversely, little significance shallow, ranging depth feet except artificially channels leading Gulfport, Pascagoula, channels, readily oceangoing vessels. Furthermore, cul de sac, reason vessel enter reach ports. corresponding insignificance nations, lend support view waters.4 Throughout most 19th century, openly commerce, communications, defense. Early period Nation took steps enhance protect February 8, 1817, House Representatives listed objects national "improvements requisite afford advantages intercourse throughout Territories," object, canal communication, practicable, Altamaha Mobile, thence Mississippi." H.R.Doc. 427, 14th Cong., 2d Sess., reprinted American Papers 420, (1834). project ultimately became Intracoastal Waterway through 28, 1822, Committee Military Affairs issued communication Orleans what 1820 letter described interior sea, comprised main chain west, east." H.R.Rep. 51, 17th 1st 7. 25 Defense important longstanding concern April 20, 1836, Senate passed resolution calling upon Secretary War survey eligible sites fortification suitable defense commerce S.Rep. 490, 26th (1840). subsequent instructed expediency erecting fort western extremity 618, response inquiry resolution, Department noted: "The defenses indicated cover gulf broad Mobile." 2.5 26 reserved military Executive Order August 30, 1847. 1858, Department, responsive appropriation made Congress, see Mar. 3, 1857, 191, 192, authorized building island. constructed island's end, command pass Islands. Forty-eight cannons ordered arm fort. During Between occupied alternatively Union Confederate troops. finally abandoned 1875. 1879, erected lighthouse central section island.6 27 argues official recognition relevance Sound's argument citation 1962 Regime, 56-58. cited pages discuss some authors governments circumstances geographic self-defense, state justify historic-bay necessity establishing usage. notes, 58, "[t]here undoubtedly justification view," suggests make sense title" claimed element wholly absent. Ibid. study, suggest configuration irrelevant and, indeed, affirmatively fortify based usage.7 28 event, discussed above demonstrate presently demonstrates expressly basis century. B 29 continued assert 20th century 1971. Prior ratification March 24, 1961,8 policy off-lying closely grouped entrance exceeded miles.9 10-mile represented publicly since Alaska Arbitration 1903. doubt nations aware policy. Indeed, length Kingdom Norway celebrated Nor.) 116.10 Nor doubt, stipulations parties view. 30 contends earlier adoption adherence formulation delimitation qualified sufficiently specific fact coupled assertions earliest assertion occurred 202 408, 50 L.Ed. 913 (1906). "an inclosed formed westward Alabama, openings neither six wide." 48, 421. ruled doctrine "thalweg" determine exact separating doctrine, middle deepest channel, center midway banks. Texas 410 702, 709-710, 1215, 1219-1220, 35 646 (1973); 466 96, 99-101, 1645, 1647-1648, 74 (1984). "principle thalweg applicable," rivers, "sounds, bays, straits, gulfs, estuaries arms sea." 50, rejected contention bodies "open 51-52, 422-423. showed very shallow having outside deep channel inconsiderable depth." 52, 422. clearly category "bays [the Nation's] territory exceeding mouth." 31 language holding us, conclusion applicable. bound party case. effect precedent domestic put notice considered 32 after recognize eliminated unequivocal declaration phase litigation.11 brief May 15, 1958, 33 "[W]e consider language, 'including islands' etc., itself include (though believe not), happens situated water. 48 [26 421, 913]. bed Union. Pollard's Lessee Hagan, How. 212 [11 565]." Brief Support Motion Judgment Amended Complaint O.T.1958, Orig., p. 254.12 34 Similarly, discussing Alabama's conceded water; consequently, belongs 261. now invoke estoppel Government's construction describing out 73-74, 97, 807-808, similar concession respect binding 1906 1958 represents public acknowledgment Nation. C 36 addition showing continuous show acquiesced in, tolerated, exercise. uncontested government ever protested surprising light geography coast, shallowness absence shipping lanes vicinity. Scholarly comment opposition suffices title. 199-200, 2251-2252; held that, failure object shown knew reasonably should being asserted. when know effective continual maritime area, inaction permit arise. I.C.J., 138-139. Moreover, necessary prove sovereignty, actual knowledge governments. 54-55. unequivocally proof IV 37 notwithstanding failed satisfy burden relies recent passage. find persuasive. A. 38 disclaimed publishing maps delineating certain maps, entire Coast, distributed requests documents repeatedly clear will given decisive weight. 175, 1421, gave involved "questionable exclusive disputed suggested, "clear doubt." suggested contraction imposed name highly questionable." 168, 1417. Geofroy Riggs, 133 267, 295, 297, 642 (1890). reiterated theme stated: 40 "It thing say required take novel, affirmative step adding baselines. quite another allow prevent past events called lawsuit. latter, believe, approach impermissible cautioned California." 77, 104, 809, (emphasis original). 41 constituting published years (1960). "under accept entirely extrajudicial motivation." 47. according "would appear attempt pre-existing lawsuit." 42 1961 That disclaimer, while disputes exerted principle innocent-passage 22, 780. According conduct conclusively exercises rigid unrealistic supported precedents13 nor writers law.14 contrary, advocating flexible appraisal status, commentators "A relaxed interpretation seems consonant frequently amorphous character available rigidly requirement certainty proof, inevitably demand realities life could yield." M. McDougal & W. Burke, Public Oceans 372 (1962). Similarly notes action "does imply necessarily undertaken concrete enforce laws regulations claimed. impossible respected resort enforcement. is, organs maintain undertaken." 43. 46 Thus, never concede, indicate occasion Tr. Oral Arg. 16. since, interest willingly supports disproves V 47 sum, Part entirety, exception overruled. repeat recommendations Report, consistent opinion, directed promptly submit proposed consideration; unable agree form decree, shall proposal recommendation. Each bear costs; expenses borne half retains orders, writs advisable effectuate supplement forthcoming rights respective parties. 49 ordered. MARSHALL position actually complicated. concedes mainland, bay-closing tip promontory St. forms legal takes properly mainland—which disputes—then northwesterly Point Aux Chenes just Alabama-Mississippi boundary. secondary fall-back east undisputed rivers bays consequence, mouths used interchangeably conform forth 75, 100, 808, one, decide how unlike still minimum, resembles explains "no build based. remain matter judgment elapsed emerge." 45. Shore Boundaries Shalowitz). Attorney General Edmund Randolph ago reasoning Delaware waters: "These remarks enforced asking, What injured appropriated States? degree injured, contrary ground? communicates dominion; before it, sea; former governments, asserted." Op.Atty.Gen. 32, (1793). Ten later, sheet lies parallel peace indispensable war. Through passes connects Mobile. route mails travel southwestern sections supplies naval station Pensacola great storehouse, valley increased two-fold contingency war: first, war increase amount station; secondly, greatly augment difficulties exposed exterior navigation." 31st (1850). 38; Caraway, Story 1699-1941, J.Miss.Hist. 76 (1942); Weinert, Neglected Key 269 suppression civil insurrection. But planned begun outbreak Civil War, War. abandonment retreat likely, perhaps eventually completely rendering unnecessary. cites Bourquin proponent "[t]he depends combination geographical, political, economic, historical circumstances." (translating quoting Bourquin, Les Baies Historiques, Melanges Georges Sauser-Hall (1952)). explains: "Where invoked State, ground additional claim, able bay's order always sovereign confirmed tradition." 25-26. go effect, September 10, 1964, number ratified communications 1961. 48-54. Also, followed Chapman following 339 699, 70 914, 1216 (1950). 161. Governor Wright written October 17, 1951, Oscar L. Chapman, Interior, eastward border, enclose noteworthy International prolonged application Norwegian system combined states, rise system. acknowledged Interior confirming oil gas leasing inside belonged 42-44. located 1004-1006. 197, (1975), been, historically, power clear, ways use instances. One prominent writer "actes d'appropriation" follows: hard specify categorically kind evidence: subjection scope regulation obviously affording convincing intent. would, too strict insist evidence. Grisbadarna Sweden Norway, 1909 mentions 'Sweden performed various . owing her conviction regions Swedish, instance, placing beacons, measurement installation light-boat, considerable expense doing she thought exercising performing duty.' " Gidel, Droit la Mer 633 (1934), translated quoted 41.

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