Document: 447 U.S. 557 100 S.Ct. 2343 65 L.Ed.2d 341 CENTRAL HUDSON GAS & ELECTRIC CORPORATION, Appellant,v.PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION OF NEW YORK. No. 79-565. Argued March 17, 1980. Decided June 20, Syllabus Held : A regulation of appellee New York Public Service Commission which completely bans an electric utility from advertising to promote the use electricity violates First and Fourteenth Amendments. Pp. 561-572. (a) Although Constitution accords a lesser protection commercial speech than other constitutionally guaranteed expression, nevertheless Amendment protects unwarranted governmental regulation. For come within Amendment, it at least must concern lawful activity not be misleading. Next, determined whether asserted interest served by restriction on is substantial. If both inquiries yield positive answers, then decided directly advances asserted, more extensive necessary serve that interest. 561-566. (b) In this case, claimed expression issue either inaccurate or relates unlawful activity. Nor appellant electrical utility's promotional unprotected merely because holds monopoly over sale in its service area. Since supply product provides no competition with substitutes for product, utilities just as valuable consumers unregulated firms, there indication appellant's decision advertise was based belief were interested advertising. 566-568. (c) The State's energy conservation clearly substantial advanced appellee's regulations. further preventing inequities rates—based assertion successful promotion consumption "off-peak" periods would create extra costs would, rate structure, borne all through higher overall rates—is also latter does not, however, provide adequate reason restricting protected link between prohibition structure is, most, tenuous. 568-569. (d) Appellee's regulation, reaches regardless impact touted use, which, important cannot justify suppressing information about devices services cause net increase total use. addition, showing has been made limited content adequately interests. 569-571. 47 N.Y.2d 94, 417 N.Y.S.2d 30, 390 N.E.2d 749, reversed. Telford Taylor, City, appellant. Peter H. Schiff, Albany, N. Y., appellee. Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 This case presents question State Amendments utility. 2 * December 1973, Commission, here, ordered cease "promot[es] electricity." App. Juris. Statement 31a. order Commission's finding "the interconnected system have sufficient fuel stocks sources continue furnishing customer demands 1973-1974 winter." Id., 26a. 3 Three years later, when shortage had eased, requested comments public proposal ban Central Hudson Gas Electric Corp., opposed grounds. A10. After reviewing comments, extended Policy issued February 25, 1977. 4 divided expenses "into two broad categories: promotional—advertising intended stimulate purchase services—and institutional informational, category inclusive sales."1 35a. declared contrary national policy conserving energy. It acknowledged perfect vehicle example, prohibits develop during demand low. By limiting growth consumption, limits "beneficial side effects" such terms efficient existing power-plants. 37a. And since oil dealers are under jurisdiction thus remain free advertise, recognized can achieve only "piecemeal conservationism." Still, adopted deemed likely "result some dampening unnecessary growth" consumption. Ibid. 5 explicitly permitted "informational" designed encourage "shifts consumption" peak times low demand. (emphasis original). Informational seek aggregate but invite leveling throughout any given 24-hour period. agency offered review "specific proposals companies specifically described [advertising] programs meet these criteria." 38a. 6 When rejected requests rehearing Statement, supplemented rationale ban. observed additional probably expensive produce output. Because rates marginal cost,2 feared power priced below actual cost generation. subsidized generally rates. 57a-58a. state thought give "misleading signals" appearing time needed. 59a. 7 Appellant challenged court, arguing restrained violation Amendments.3 upheld trial court intermediate appellate level.4 Court Appeals affirmed. found little value noncompetitive market corporations operate." Consolidated Edison Co. v. Comm'n, 110, 39, 757 (1979). "have choice regarding source their power," denied "promotional might contribute society's 'informed reliable' economic decisionmaking." encouraging exacerbate current situation. N.Y.S.2d, N.E.2d, 758. concluded outweighed constitutional issue. We noted probable jurisdiction, 444 962, 446, 62 374 (1979), now reverse. II 8 restricts speech, related solely interests speaker audience. Virginia Pharmacy Board Citizens Consumer Council, 425 748, 762, 96 1817, 1825, 48 346 (1976); Bates Bar Arizona, 433 350, 363-364, 97 2691, 2698-2699, 53 810 (1977); Friedman Rogers, 440 1, 11, 99 887, 895, 59 applied States Board, U.S., 761-762, S.Ct., 1825. Commercial serves speaker, assists furthers societal fullest possible dissemination information. applying area, we "highly paternalistic" view government complete suppress regulate speech. "[P]eople will perceive own best if they well enough informed, . means end open channels communication rather close them. ." 770, 1829, see Linmark Associates, Inc. Willingboro, 431 85, 92, 1614, 1618, 50 155 (1977). Even communicates incomplete version relevant facts, presumes accurate better all. supra, 374, 2704. 9 Nevertheless, our decisions 'commonsense' distinction proposing transaction, occurs area traditionally subject varieties speech." Ohralik Ohio Assn., 436 447, 455-456, 98 1912, 1918, 56 (1978); 381, 2707; Jackson Jeffries, Speech: Economic Due Process Va.L.Rev. 38-39 (1979).5 therefore expression. 456, 457, 1919. available particular turns nature 10 Amendment's informational function See National Bank Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 783, 1407, 1419, 55 707 (1978). Consequently, objection suppression messages do accurately inform may forms deceive it, 13, 15-16, 896, 897; 464-465, 1923-1925, illegal activity, Pittsburgh Press Human Relations 413 376, 388, 93 2553, 2560, 37 669 (1973).6 11 neither misleading nor government's circumscribed. assert achieved restrictions Moreover, regulatory technique proportion limitation carefully goal. Compliance requirement measured criteria. First, advance involved; sustained ineffective remote support purpose. Second, could excessive survive. 12 Under first criterion, declined uphold regulations indirectly involved. imposed protect ethical performance standards profession. "[t]he affect professional one way other." 769, 1829. Bates, overturned "quality" lawyer's work. "Restraints deterring shoddy work." 378, 2706.7 13 second criterion recognizes mandates "narrowly drawn." re Primus, 412, 438, 1893, 1908, (1978).8 extend far serves. poses danger interest, 794-795, 1425-1426, narrower well. did "foreclose possibility supplementation, warning disclaimer like, required" materials. 384, 2709. 773, 1831. Carey Population Services International, 678, 701-702, 2010, 2025, 52 675 (1977), held "arguments concerning contraceptives." holding left implement drawn restrictions. id., 712, 2030 (POWELL, J., concurring part judgment); 716-717, 2032 (STEVENS, judgment).9 14 cases, then, four-part analysis developed. At outset, determine Amendment. provision, ask III 15 apply four-step arguments A. 16 claim Yet questioned Hudson's suggested worth. stated "noncompetitive market" improve decisionmaking consumers. N.Y.2d, 757. saw problem barring viewed conveying useful 17 reasoning falls short establishing Monopoly product. compete suppliers natural gas several markets, those home heating industrial power. existence interfuel 45 ago, West Utilities 294 63, 72, 316, 321, 79 L.Ed. 761 (1935). Each continues offer peculiar advantages disadvantages influence consumer choice. competitive firms.10 18 reduces thereby defeats purpose court's argument appears assume providers willing pay wholly Most businesses—even regulated monopolies—are unlikely underwrite Indeed, enterprise legitimately wish developed new doing business. need aid his all, how much he should purchase. absence factors distort willingness business products reflects advertising.11 extraordinary conditions identified position alter B 19 offers justifications concerns conservation. Any electricity—during off-peak periods—means greater argues, agreed, electricity. country's dependence resources beyond control, doubt importance Plainly, therefore, 20 argues aggravate caused failure base utilities' cost. argued demand, utilization generating capacity. responded periods. rise, mean charged reflect true expanding production. Instead, Without advertising, stated, inequitable turn events less occur. among structures involves difficult questions distributional fairness.12 fair represents clear C 21 focus relationship laudable equity efficiency highly speculative. Advertising usage usage, while fairness remained constant. Such conditional eventualities simply silencing 22 contrast, here. There immediate connection contest unless believed sales. Thus, find direct order. D 23 finally critical inquiry case: ordinarily But rationale, 24 insists ban, efficiently. These include "heat pump," parties acknowledge major improvement heating, heat "backup" solar sources. before Court, denying findings authoritative contrary, credit realm alternative circumstances. 25 prevents promoting reduce diverting sources, consume roughly same amount situation endanger mislead public. To extent suppresses impairs conservation, invalidated. 26 demonstrated attempt restrict format might, require advertisements relative expense service, foreseeable future. Cf. Banzhaf FCC, 132 U.S.App.D.C. 14, 405 F.2d 1082 (1968), cert. sub nom. Tobacco Institute, 396 842, 90 50, (1969).13 ineffective, approve advertising.14 IV 27 Our today disparages accept without reservation development imperative Administrative bodies empowered authority—and indeed duty—to take appropriate action When, record us fails show meets requirement.15 28 Accordingly, judgment 29 Reversed. 30 BRENNAN, judgment. 31 One difficulties proper characterization Statement. I impossible present "promotional" contrast "institutional informational" ante, 559, encompass "commercial am inclined think STEVENS correct mere engage certain kinds transactions, agree conclusion surely even assumption BLACKMUN "[n]o differences conduct manipulation availability information." Post, 578. 32 qualifications implicit preceding paragraph, join opinions 33 BLACKMUN, whom BRENNAN joins, 34 inconsistent concur Court's judgment, believe test evolved consistent prior cases truthful, nonmisleading, noncoercive 35 asserts, 566, "a developed" restraint "communication [that] activity" level scrutiny, whenever "directly advances" "substantial" "not interest." Ante, 564 566. scrutiny coercive time, place, manner agree, seeks manipulate private outlawed directly. 36 citing empirical data authority, finds "direct link" leaves lessen I, course, that, today's world, goal paramount local importance. disagree says permissible appropriately notes: "The justification nothing expressed fear audience message persuasive. coercion, deception, misinformation, truthful persuade citizens otherwise would." 581. never suppressed discouraging purchases underlying advertised. n. 9. Permissible restraints measures fraudulent, misleading, sales techniques.1 Those deprive legally consistently invalidated.2 38 seriously price ever "dampen" though "commercial" involved, measure strikes heart covert choices citizens, persuasion depriving needed make As recognizes, insulated visibility entail molded chooses ("We special care entirely pursue nonspeech-related policy. circumstances, screen policy"). Rotunda, Speech Doctrine Supreme 1976 U.Ill.Law Forum 1080, 1080-1083. 39 guarantee anything, absent danger, effect Comment, Protection Advertising: Constitutional Doctrine, 44 U.Chi.L.Rev. 205, 243-251 (1976). indicate applies (1976), patronize "professional pharmacist" (one who provided individual attention stable pharmacist-customer relationship) "keeping ignorance competing pharmacists offering." 1829-30. maintaining high "requir[ing] whatever wishes pharmacists." 40 went discuss types due "commonsense differences" form forms, permissible. indicated impose reasonable "time, manner" restrictions, deal false, deceptive, transactions problems electronic broadcast media presented. 41 Concluding restatement type permitted, said: "What concededly fearful information's upon disseminators recipients. [W]e conclude answer [question] negative." 42 analyze "substantial." Obviously, dereliction quality health "substantial," legitimate, goals. advance[d]," 569, inquire "more expression," 570, Rather, "may [pursue goals] keeping ignorance." (Emphasis supplied.) 43 Until today, principle governed. considered town "For Sale" signs residential property stable, racially integrated housing. note establish ordinance enable Linmark, broader.3 stated: defect ordinance, basic. Township Council like Assembly Bd., acted prevent residents obtaining pertains Willingboro sought flow fears homeowners inimical what views homeowners' self-interest corporate township: choose leave town. Council's concern, aspect signs—with offerors communicating offerees substance communicated citizens." 96, 1620. resolved strict standard information, where behavior followed strong statement above explicit adoption advocated Brandeis Whitney California, 274 357, 377, 641, 649, 71 1095 (1927): "If expose discussion falsehood fallacies, avert evil processes education, remedy enforced silence. Only emergency repression." 97, 46 700-702, 2024-2025, content-based contraceptives justified avoiding " 'legitimation' illicit sexual behavior" characterized 'directed inciting producing imminent lawless incite action,' 701, 2024, quoting Brandenburg Ohio, 395 444, 89 1827, 430 (1969). references 'commonsense differences' 'suggest different degree insure legitimate unimpaired.' 98, 1621, 771-772, 24, 1830, 24. relaxed nondeceptive, articulated 564, 6, permissive approach protecting deception explain why doctrines "chilling" inapplicable No International "Appellants suggest noncommercial render discredited meritorious prohibitions On directed prohibited ideas conveyed expression—the core values." 28, added). 49 permit air conditioning, assuming effectively deter cooling homes. my view, suppression. unit believes overuse conditioning serious problem, attack directly, prohibiting regulating thermostat levels. Just Commonwealth professionalism so too "by STEVENS, 51 speech" afforded speech,1 concept defined broadly lest deserving inadvertently suppressed. York's definitions uses addressing somewhat narrow. describes "expression audience." 561. definition matter motivation factor, seems me encompasses entitled maximum Neither labor leader's exhortation strike, economist's dissertation money supply, receive qualify protection; Shakespeare motivated prospect pecuniary reward. unquestionably broad.2 refers 'speech transaction.' 562. salesman's solicitation, broker's offer, manufacturer's publication list warranty fit concept.3 Presumably, advises buyers specific prices purchasing items. Perhaps extends communications name familiar general Whatever precise contours concept, perhaps early enunciate exact formulation, persuaded entire range embraced term advertising." 54 great transactions. advocacy future curtails informed group persons point relating production energy—questions frequently discussed debated political leaders. company's environmental reasons, wood-burning stoves, seem fall squarely bounds protection. breadth exceeds boundaries however defined.4 would. consequence undesirable prohibit punish perceived harm associated sufficiently constitute kind written context, words used 376-377, 648-649, 1095, reaction against involved 57 "But violation, reprehensible morally, incitement immediately on. wide difference incitement, preparation attempt, assembling conspiracy, mind. shown violence expected advocated, past furnished contemplated. 58 "Those won independence revolution cowards. They change. exalt liberty. courageous, self-reliant men, confidence fearless popular government, flowing present, incidence apprehended befall opportunity full discussion. repression. rule authority reconciled freedom. Such, opinion, command Constitution." (Footnote omitted.)5 sum, result consider case. decide analysis, speech—as properly defined—in face blanket sort 60 REHNQUIST, dissenting. 61 invalidates concern. 1973 response Mideastern embargo crisis. "from subsidy payments ., employee incentives." Case 26532 (Dec. 5, 1973), 31a crisis created subsided, remains effect. re-examined Its constitutionality subsequently Appeals, retention.1 invalidating law discerned underlie Prior recent whatsoever. E. g., Breard Alexandria, 622, 920, 95 1233 (1951); Valentine Chrestensen, 316 52, 86 1262 (1942). Given recognition protection, nonetheless incorrect light pressing needs. 63 wrong respects. Initially, state-created monopoly, comprehensive scheme, errs here failing recognize most (if scope all) occupies significantly subordinate hierarchy values gives today. Finally, reaching improperly deciding drafted. With regard point, adopts final "no necessary" unduly impair legislature's ability adopt legislation reasonably always rightly State. 64 concluding constitutes reasons source, 567. "assume[s] 568. ignores fact scheme derives benefits burdens. While "capacity [of speech] informing depend identity source," 777, 1416, (1978), determining Amendment.2 this, traditional concerns, into play certainly interventionist role 530, 549-550, 2326, 2339-2340, 319, observed: 66 "A monopoly. See, e. Y. Pub. Serv. Law § 68 (McKinney 1955); Jones, Origins Certificate Convenience Necessity; Developments 1870-1920, Colum. L.Rev. 426, 458-461 (1979); Utility Rates, Consumers, Albany 707, 709-714 (1975). monopolies policies United York, see, Gen. Bus. 340 1968 Supp.1979-1980), operate determination them competition. Kahn, Economics Regulation 113-171 (1971). 67 "This exceptional grant enterprises justifies oversight ratepayers exploitation overreaching. plenary supervisory powers property, real personal, 'used facilitate light, power.' N.Y.Pub.Serv.Law §§ 2(12) 66(1) 1955)." although corporation follows conferred 69 status arises unique characteristics provides. Cantor Detroit Co., 428 579, 595-596, 3110, 3120, 1141 "public typically assumes firm controls exploitation." consequences wide-ranging supervision control Bellotti ordinary corporations. Corporate "enhance entity." 825-826, 1441 (REHNQUIST, dissenting). utility, fulfills provided. governing purposes closer state-controlled corporation.3 discretion statements emanate entity services. body duty conform agency's conception Thus exist form, say enjoy status, laws York.4 70 previously accorded ideas. (1978): "Expression purely ambit recently. rejecting notion 'is outside Amendment,' Pharmacy, [425 U.S.], 761, [96 1825], careful hold 'that undifferentiable forms' 771, 1831, 24]. discarded 'common-sense' parity alike dilution, process, force respect Rather devitalization, instead commensurate scale values, allowing modes impermissible expression." omitted.) 72 deference returns bygone era Lochner 198 45, 539, 937 (1905), common practice strike down notions policies. 73 become established imposing Nebbia 291 502, 537, 505, 516, 78 940 (1934): 74 "[T]here occasion aspects. 75 "So process concerned, restriction, welfare, enforce adapted courts declare policy, or, legislature, override it. passed seen relation legislative purpose, arbitrary discriminatory, requirements satisfied, judicial renders functus officio. [I]t lie unwise." 76 Black, writing recently Ferguson Skrupa, 372 726, 730, 83 1028, 1031, (1963): 77 doctrine authorizes unconstitutional legislature unwisely—has long discarded. returned original proposition substitute social beliefs bodies, elected pass laws." realities distribute efficiently provide, granting scheme. initial amounts elevates virtually indistinguishable accomplished "devitalization" counseled Ohralik. also, labeling "free speech," gone resurrect Tyson Brother Banton, 273 418, 718 (1927). akin 80 effort chosen raise electricity, Sunshine Anthracite Coal Adkins, 310 907, 84 1263 (1940); Old Dearborn Distributing Seagram-Distillers 299 183, 139, 81 109 (1936), condition specified terms, 527-528, 511-512, production, Wickard Filburn, 317 111, 82, 87 122 An ostensible striking "rejected 'highly paternalistic' '[P]eople communication, .' merits carried logic 82 apparently frequent reference "marketplace ideas," analogous laissez-faire lead optimum guidance "invisible hand." Adam Smith, Wealth Nations (1776). Holmes dissenting Abrams States, 250 616, 630, 22, 1173 (1919), wherein truth get itself accepted 534, 2331; J. Mill, Liberty (1858); Milton, Areopagitica, Unlicensed Printing (1644). objective foster identification aided metaphorical ideas." believing marketplace imperfections invisible hand market. Baker, Scope Freedom Speech, UCLA 964, 967-981 many despite Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 766, 1031 (1942) (fighting words); Beauharnais Illinois, 343 250, 725, 919 (1952) (group libel); Roth 354 476, 1304, 1498 (1957) (obscenity). others. FCC Pacifica Foundation, 438 3026, 1073 (1978) (indecent speech); supra (commercial speech). Gertz Robert Welch, Inc., 418 323, 344, 9, 94 2997, 3009, 789 (1974): "Of rebuttal seldom suffices undo [the] defamatory falsehood. Indeed defamation rooted experience rarely catches up lie." similarly false examples illustrate number instances imposition protected, "assist" invalidation drafted consequently utilities; indeed, distinguish "society" Commission. basis act deems appropriate, open.5 stake, exercise citizens. 85 plethora filed highlights doctrinal emerge My (1927), includes Brandeis' "[t]hose liberty." 582. separate joins "does 573. Both 582, 577, following formulation clear-and-present-danger 649 (concurring opinion). go position, quite draft statute satisfy context. Part III, infra. 88 Two war another, resolution, battlefield, very one. "advocacy" spoke independence, declining "exalt liberty," merchant's unfettered freedom hawking wares "liberty" attaining "order" sphere. attempts expressing issues, danger" substantive right prohibit, Schenck 249 47, 247, 249, 470 context central self-government. Buckley Valeo, 424 612, 632, 659 (1976): "Discussion issues debate candidates integral operation Constitution. affords broadest 'to assure interchange bringing changes desired people.' 91 Garrison Louisiana, 379 64, 74-75, 209, 216, 125 (1964), "speech affairs self-expression; essence self-government." 92 "exposition ideas" Winters 333 507, 510, 665, 667, 840 (1948)—both line entertaining elusive art, literature, speech—it obscenity danger. Compare, Paris Adult Theatre Slaton, 49, 57-58, 2628, 2635, 446 (1973), Indecent airwaves, required Brandenburg. slightly conspiracy members press Sherman Act "degrade" doctrine. Associated 326 7, 1418, 2013 (1945). above, contexts complaint feel "only ideas"—the Thomas Jefferson inaugural address, (1919) (dissenting opinion) whatsoever limit "truthful, noncoercive" 573 (BLACKMUN, judgment). reveal fact. soon avoid numerous people, risks took democratic society. Unfortunately, historically sensibly world none staunch defender dissent 650, n., 936, course 'merchant' goes door 'selling pots.' yet, change solicitation techniques, peddler selling pots Alexandria generation ago difficult, fix. Doubtless Black joined unanimous 54, 921, unequivocally streets places disseminating states municipalities privilege burden proscribe employment thoroughfares. equally imposes respects Whether, extent, gainful occupation streets, shall adjudged derogation user, matters judgment." added.) unlocked Pandora's Box "elevated" according mind, technically intellectually easy draw, produced fewer Board. ideas, thing "fraudulent" idea: useless proposals, totally unworkable schemes, sound imprimatur majoritarian election representative government. discovery "truth," essential fallacies out place bazaar, logically defrauded statement, request, reciting Latin maxim "caveat emptor." "fraudulent remediable lawsuit proceeding common-law fraud separated politics What legal decisions, sense widely severed, regret reaping seeds sowed. democracy, political, lesson ancestors learned descendants undoubtedly relearn hence. concedes plainly substantial, efficient. 569. failed demonstrate, test, conclusion, conjures potential conceivably savings. construed preclude savings, confronted proposal.6 room hypothetical "better" ways ingenious lawyer seize secure actually did. inIllinois Elections Bd. Socialist Workers Party, 173, 188-189, 983, 993, 230 (1979) opinion): 101 judge unimaginative something 'drastic' 'restrictive' almost situation, himself vote down." 102 Here concludes observes energy." states: 103 "[T]he 'off-peak' 'beneficial effects' powerplants. [App. Statement] 37a." 559. 104 fundamentally misguided beneficial effects use" efforts.7 105 "Increased generation, conferring effects, consumes and, increased sales, necessarily creates incremental pollution thermal discharges waterways. More important, coal nuclear resources, oil-fired facilities. load nations' already unacceptably foreign frustrate efforts." 37a.8 106 observes, acknowledged, conservationism" advertise. mastered engineering marketing, prepared contradict virtue office making contribution efforts. steps toward made. especially when, lacks dealers. 107 struck necessary: promotes regard, claims conclusion. pump" heating," "energy efficien[t]" product.9 pump 108 "[I]nstallation installation air-conditioning. space on-peak summer air-conditioning water heating. fully peaking markets. subsidization on-peak, consequently, consumers." 58a. Subsidization scarce periods, larger reserve capacity 110 next asserts backup source. 570. establish, presented concession suggests rely speculates "[i]n circumstances." Ibid.10 111 Ordinarily factual determinations device savings so, permits service. Otherwise, assertions. construe Federal Barrows Jackson, 256-257, 1035, 1586 (1953): 112 every conceivable possibly arise application complex legislation. ready Congress legislatures. Southern Pacific Gallagher, 306 167, 172 [, 389, 391, 586]." 113 heed admonition electricity," language construction. characterize "discourage" electricity.11 objectives permissible.12 authorized shifts reducing 37a.13 proposals" submitted utilities. 37a-38a. 43a-46a. ultimately reject results 114 inappropriate invalidate speculation correct, facial course. Parker Levy, 733, 760, 2547, 2563, 439 (1974), "even applications infringe 'remainder covers whole easily identifiable proscribable conduct. CSC Letter Carriers, 548, 580-581, 2880, 2898, 796 (1973)." 115 foregoing affirm Appeals. authorize "in savings" encouraged 604-605. attempted construction fails, phrased services" "sales" intend enhance increasing "Marginal cost" "extra output." P. Samuelson, 463 (10th ed. 1976) alleged statutory powers. 102-104, 33-35, 752-754 A.D.2d 364, 407 735, 22a (N.Y.Sup.Ct., Feb. 1978). post, 580-581. excluded restricted "clearly sales." "prohibition Petitioner Petitioner's 70a. state-court litigation involving outlaw, promoted touting uses. Apparently accord "relating leaders." responds surrounding raised blur draw cases. links debate. many, tied environment, energy, safety. Comm'n panoply protections issues. providing similar retains "insur[e] stream flow[s] cleanly freely." 772, rested premise meriting moment Ohralik, "could [First] 1918. contexts, message. 537-540, 2333-2334. features content. speakers knowledge products. situated evaluate accuracy lawfulness 2708, offspring self-interest, hardy breed "particularly susceptible being crushed overbroad regulation." 95-96, 1619-1620, definite township's housing front houses. "overbreadth" theory grounds litigant challenging engaged Kunz 290, 312, 280 (1951). overbreadth escape review. Broadrick Oklahoma, 601, 612-613, 2908, 2915-2916, 830 (1973); Note, Overbreadth Harv.L.Rev. 844, 853-858 (1970). linked well-being" deterred "overbroad 2707. acts activities Hudson, limitations invalid. 780, 8, 1835, (STEWART, concurring). approved flawed way, deceptive Several 4-5, 891, (optometrists); (1977) (lawyers); 750-752, 1819-1820 (pharmacists). incentive return, shareholders. That practice, hardly distorts Unregulated businesses consumers, expressly W. Regulated Industries 191-287 (2d 1976). previewing campaigns defeat instituted program approving 560. sturdy brand areas obscenity, prescreening arrangement muster procedural safeguards. Freedman Maryland, 380 51, 734, (1965). Amendments, reach violated Equal Clause vague. promulgated initially prompted makes exists. Oklahoma 536 P.2d 895-896 (Okl.1975). 10, 894, (Court optometry trade 'appear [is] deceptive,' COnsumer (1976)); Bigelow Virginia, 421 809, 2222, 600 misconstrues holdings Associates implying closely asserted. 564-565, 7. lack each broader principle. quoted 563, 5. Smith 291, 318, 1756, 1772, 324 Farber, Theory, Nw.U.L.Rev. 372, 382-383 (1979): "Economic disqualifying factor [from protection] enormous damage amendment. Little amendment newspapers, paid speakers, partially motives authors." (Footnotes 386-387. bind consideration evolving law. intention blurry categories practical requiring refrain line, advice possess expertise dealing sensitive questions; event, subjected clearance procedure agency. Lord Scrutton's comment King Secretary Home Affairs ex parte O'Brien, [1923] K.B. 361, 382: 'You really you allow men whose dangerous. 4, 648, 4. Young American Mini Theatres, 427 2440, 2448, (opinion J.). "In exigencies, vital irreplaceable resources. Legislature commission formulate carry long-range [for] preservation resources' (Public Law, subd. 2). Implicit confronts Nation. avowed embodied commission's enabling (see Matter Retail Merchants Comm. 661, 673-674 [412 358, 384 1282])." 102-103, 34, 753 Brown Glines, 348, 594, 540 (1980), Air Force petition rights personnel. (1974) (commissioned officer publicly urging enlisted personnel disobey orders send combat); Snepp 763, 704 (1980) (employees intelligence submit publications prepublication agency). "Public utilities, earliest days State, franchised commonweal. withdraw unrestricted occupying supplying nigh necessities' (People rel. Willcox, 207 N.Y. 86, 99, [100 N.E. 705], Elec. Lines 201 [94 1056]). dictate granted People Squire, 593, 603-605, [14 820]). abuse superior coordinate [207 N.Y.] pp. 93-94 705]." 109-110, 38-39, grounded fulfill obligation "adequate" "just reasonable" 65(1) 1955). law, set 66(2) 66(12) Supp.1979). prescribe "such improvements [in practices] .." 66(2). duties "encourage programs, individually cooperatively, responsibilities economy, efficiency, safety, resources." 5(2) using state-conferred well-being conservation—an profits attaches individuals thoughts uninhibited, follow "people interests," tangible success depends contributions society, longrun rational shortrun advantage accordance issue, account. Townsend Yeomans, 301 441, 451, 847, 1210 (1937), Legislature, acting sphere, presumed know needs people state." observation applicable brief "[N]either party demonstrate argue strategy inherent continued 1973." Brief Appellee 15. address why, addressed resolve finding, distinguished "between shift hours hours." 58a, 2. proscribed latter. rehearing, again "While particularly desirable summer-peaking convinced promotion, imperfectly structured rates, divorced mind generally. pointed increases requires burning aggravates nation's supply." 58a (footnotes omitted). discussed, efficient" pump, counsel appellees oral "Central [heat pumps] advised that." Tr. Oral Arg. 32-33. continued, "normally carr[ies] summer, happen." 33. example veritable Sargasso Sea nonlegal wade adopting judges often controversial arising disciplines ours. little. truly necessary," saving inducement decreased conjunction supported "[P]romotional hours. informative content, affirmatively detrimental Conserving diminishing Promotional crisis." 757-758. conceded nonuse 6. used, anything usage." 30. "And going conserve energy," "which us, relax we're banning sake basically bad idea, gas, relaxing available." 40. alone. Supra, 600-601, 8.

Category: 2