Document: 490 U.S. 545 109 S.Ct. 2003 104 L.Ed.2d 593 Barbara FINLEY, Petitionerv.UNITED STATES. No. 87-1973. Argued Feb. 28, 1989. Decided May 22, Syllabus Petitioner's decedents were killed when their plane struck electric power lines on its approach to a city-run airfield in San Diego. She filed the present action against United States under Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA), 28 U.S.C. § 1346(b), claiming that Aviation Administration had been negligent operation and maintenance of runway lights performance air traffic control functions. Petitioner subsequently moved amend her complaint add state tort-law claims both city utility company maintained lines. The District Court granted motion asserted "pendent" jurisdiction Mine Workers v. Gibbs, 383 715, 86 1130, 16 218, concluding "judicial economy efficiency" favored trying actions together, arose "from common nucleus operative facts." Appeals reversed interlocutory appeal, categorically rejecting pendent-party FTCA. Held: text FTCA—which provides pertinent part federal district courts shall have over "civil States"—defines manner does not reach defendants other than States. This Court's decision Aldinger Howard, 427 1, 96 2413, 49 276, made explicit nontransferability Gibbs context jurisdiction. Aldinger, Zahn International Paper Co., 414 291, 94 505, 38 511, Owen Equipment & Erection Co. Kroger, 437 365, 98 2396, 57 274, establish grant involving particular parties confer additional by or different parties, even if consideration would promote efficiency," all "derive from fact." Nor do circumstances here suffice "ancillary" unavailability is unaltered exclusivity FTCA, though may sometimes require separate suits court. Finally, 1948 revision Judicial Code, which changed relevant language FTCA "any claim States" form, suggest an affirmative jurisdiction, but more naturally understood as stylistic change reflecting terminology Rules Civil Procedure. See Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 2. Pp. 547-556. Affirmed. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. BLACKMUN, dissenting opinion, post, p. 556. STEVENS, BRENNAN MARSHALL, joined, 558. Joseph T. Cook, Irvine, Cal., for petitioner. David L. Shapiro, respondent. Justice SCALIA Court. 1 On night November 11, 1983, twin-engine carrying petitioner's husband two children transmission during Diego, California, airfield. No one survived resulting crash. brought tort court, Diego Gas Electric Company negligently positioned inadequately illuminated lines, Diego's airport's rendered them inoperative When she later discovered (FAA) was fact party responsible lights, petitioner Southern California. based upon alleging negligence FAA's Almost year later, include original state-court defendants, no independent basis existed. 218 (1966), finding it "clear" they App. Pet. Cert. A-8 A-9. certified appeal Ninth Circuit 1292(b). That court summarily earlier Ayala States, 550 F.2d 1196 (1977), cert. dism'd, 435 982, 1635, 56 76 (1978), rejected We certiorari, 488 815, 52, 102 31 (1988), resolve split among Circuits whether permits assertion pendent parties. Compare, e.g., supra, with Lykins Pointer, Inc., 725 645 (CA11 1984), Stewart 716 755 (CA10 1982), denied, 469 1018, 105 432, 83 359 (1984). 2 "the . exclusive civil certain torts employees acting within scope employment. 1346(b). seeks append this extend authority whom jurisdictional base such diversity citizenship, 1332(a)(1)—is lacking. 3 In 1807 Chief Marshall wrote "courts are created written law, whose defined cannot transcend It unnecessary reasoning founded, because has repeatedly given court; decisions heretofore point, member bench has, instant, dissatisfied." Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cranch 75, 93, L.Ed. 554 (1807). remains rudimentary law "[a]s regards inferior tribunal, things necessary create appellate. Constitution must capacity take it, act Congress supplied it. To extent taken, lies dormant." Mayor Cooper, 6 Wall. 247, 252, 18 851 (1868) (emphasis added); accord, Christianson Colt Industries Operating 486 800, 818, 108 2166, 2179, 100 811 (1988); Firestone Tire Rubber Risjord, 449 368, 379-380, 101 669, 676-677, 66 571 (1981); Kline Burke Construction 260 226, 233-234, 43 79, 82-83, 67 226 (1922); Case th Sewing Machine Companies, 553, 577-578, 586-587, 21 914 (1874); Sheldon Sill, 8 How. 441, 449, 12 1147 (1850); Cary Curtis, 236, 245, 11 576 (1845); McIntire Wood, 7 504, 506, 420 (1813). Despite principle, line cases now less well established we held, without specific examination statutes, jurisdiction—that is, nonfederal between litigating matters properly before court—to full permitted Constitution. supra; Hurn Oursler, 289 238, 53 586, 77 1148 (1933); Siler Louisville Nashville R. 213 175, 29 451, 753 (1909).1 come stand principle question, held "[p]endent sense judicial power, exists whenever there 'arising [the] Constitution, Laws Treaties made, be Authority .,' Const., Art. III, 2, relationship conclusion entire comprises constitutional 'case.' " U.S., at 725, S.Ct., 1138 original). requisite exists, said, fact" plaintiff "would ordinarily expected try proceeding." Ibid. contends same criterion applies here, leading result state-law heard conjunction 5 Analytically, case fundamentally brings into question what become known named any independently cognizable court.2 assume, deciding, analogous pendent-claim pass test. Our show, however, respect addition opposed only claims, will assume congressionally authorized, read statutes broadly. 301, 512, 511 (1973), refused allow pursuing worth minimum $10,000 his jurisdictionally adequate members class together amounted single "case" see 372, 2401, 274 (1978). holding defining Court," 292, 507, did so much mention Gibbs. Two years explicit. 276 (1976), 42 1983 individual sought related Spokane County, Washington. (A unavailable county Monroe Pape, 365 167, 81 473, 492 (1961).)3 specifically disapproved application mode analysis, "significant legal difference." 15, 2420. "[T]he completely new party," run counter well-established limited marked out Congress." "Resolution calls careful attention statutory language." Id., 17, 2421. statute suit brought, 1343, conferred types "authorized commenced," mean law" statutorily insulated similar suit. "excluded liability therefore reference 1343(3)." reaffirmed further refined our 372-375, 2401-2403—a case, like Zahn, statute, 1332(a)(1), focusing requirement "between citizens states," rather "excee[d] sum value $10,000." 1332(a)(1) confers "matter controversy" defendant diverse citizenship different, nondiverse defendant, meets "Gibbs," "does end inquiry hear along ones. Beyond minimum, posture claim," 373, 2402. most significant element "posture" "context," id., 376, 2404, (as Kroger ) precisely added involve exists. While narrow assert otherwise vested—for example, contested assets court's control, see, Krippendorf Hyde, 110 27, 145 (1884); Freeman Howe, 24 450, 460, 749 (1861), give effect judgment, Local Loan Hunt, 292 234, 239, 54 695, 697, 78 1230 (1934); Julian Central Trust 193 112-114, 399, 407-408, 48 629 (1904)—we never reached solely test met.4 And little can relied here. As "mere factual similarity," consequence since "neither convenience litigants nor considerations justify extension doctrine ancillary jurisdiction," 376-377, 2404. true unlike seeking bring choice Government sued there. But alone enough, Tucker Act, Stat. 505 (which course §§ 1346(a)(2), 1491(a)(1)), private defendants. Sherwood, 312 584, 61 767, 85 1058 (1941). 9 second factor invoked issue, likewise fails case. States." say requested relief States," States"—formulations might expect presence constituted merely requirement, definition permissible actions. Just provision else, also conclude "against means else.5 "Due regard rightful independence governments requires [federal courts] scrupulously confine own precise limits defined." Healy Ratta, 263, 270, 700, 703, 1248 Executive Jet Aviation, Inc. Cleveland, 409 249, 272-273, 93 493, 34 454 (1972); Shamrock Oil Corp. Sheets, 313 100, 108-109, 868, 872, 1214 defines States.6 10 contends, suggested changes comprehensive Code. Pub.L. 773, 62 869. "exclusive hear, determine, render judgment specified torts. 931 (1946 ed.) added). revision, 1346(b) (1952 argues broadened permitting action," long includes disagree. Under canons construction, "it inferred Congress, revising consolidating laws, intended unless intention clearly expressed." Anderson Pacific Coast S.S. 225 187, 199, 32 626, 630, 1047 (1912); Ryder, 729, 740, 196, 201, 308 (1884). Concerning recodification Code particular, stated "no policy presumed intent make Fourco Glass Transmirra Products Corp., 353 222, 227, 787, 791, 786 (1957); Tidewater 151, 162, 408, 415, 375 (1972). found suggestion, clear expression, minor rewording issue imported substantive c ange. "claim strange way express petitioner—but perfectly understandable achieve another objective. came relatively soon after adoption Procedure, provide "[t]here form 'civil action.' Consistent terminology, inserted expression action" throughout provisions governing district-court H.R.Rep. 308, 80th Cong., 1st Sess., A114-A125 (1947) (Reviser's Notes). 13 Reliance ignores concept considered remotely viable until liberalized jurisdiction—nearly 20 later. 13B C. Wright, A. Miller, E. Practice Procedure 3567.2, pp. 146-148 (2d ed. 1984); Ancillary Pendent Jurisdiction, 26 S.Tex.L.J. (1985). Indeed, expansion unfair competition provoked considerable discussion, Wechsler, Jurisdiction Revision Law Contemp.Prob. 216, 232 (1948); Note, Proposed 60 Harv.L.Rev. 424, 430-431 (1947), described chief reviser dozen "major effected handiwork, W. Barron, Revision, F.R.D. 439, 441-445 (1949). change, already accepted realm accomplished wording could mistaken, referring asserting joined substantial copyright, patent, trademark laws." 1338(b), 931. inconceivable radical adopting obscure here—especially stylistic. 14 Because necessarily efficiency consolidated forgone favor courts. acknowledged potential 18, 2422, result. 15 * noted outset, display entirely consistent necessity explicitly conferred. departure prior practice, limit impair. indicated extended field, decide today retain line. Whatever regarding Congress. What paramount importance able legislate background interpretive rules, know adopts. All cases—Zahn, Kroger—have itself reaffirms rule; opposite sow confusion. 17 For foregoing reasons, 19 dissenting. If required us ask embraced "an ante, I agree majority present. But, my view, appropriate Aldinger. rather, requiring consider demonstrated exempt principal claim" being haled 16, 2421 omitted). And, those dissent observed, meaningless failure type "because instances impliedly 'addressed itself' expressly conferring subject-matter courts." 23, 2424 (BRENNAN, dissenting). exclude municipalities (the then thought) affirmatively excluded 1983. barred use doctrine, permit around congressional limitation power. 16-17, 22 find limitation. Nor, litigation. (1941), contrary. There, intend adjudicate cause Claims, Article defendant. Sherwood turn canon "conservatism waiver sovereign immunity." 590, 771. turned history Claims' jurisdiction." 590-591, There equivalent adjudication tribunal litigate tortfeasors; thus, reaches today. 23 controlled "case," suggests appropriateness "alignmen[t] claims," exclusive," situation Where, Congress' preference forum category makes possible whole, sensible exercise imposes obstacle result, one. dissent. MARSHALL join, 25 faithful precedents casually dismisses accumulated wisdom best judges. observed ago, "numerous appeals [Mine (1966),] recognized existence where 'the cou t ' Gibbs." Moor County Alameda, 411 693, 713, 1785, 1797, 36 596 (1973). first explain why position taken overwhelming consensus judges correct comment major flaws announces III identifies categories "Cases" "Controversies" decide.1 categories, neither authorize it.2 Objections subject matter waived.3 Although strictly confines courts, courts' personal parties4 categories.5 A beyond process voluntarily submit person, he jurisdiction—by waiver, estoppel, filing lawsuit—over non-Article case.6 27 party. Given plain arguable questioning it.7 Moreover, enacting (FTCA) 1946, unquestionably authorized accept Thus, undisputed defeated joinder Rule 14(a) authorizes implead joint tortfeasors,8 applicable cases.9 defend contribution action.10 dispute derives fact. accordingly ample three-cornered controversy allowing 20(a) Rules.11 Prior 1938, routinely decided 246, 589, (1909), Moore New York Cotton Exchange, 270 593, 46 367, 70 750 (1926); (1904); 65 (24 How.) (1861).12 contours action—or "case"—were narrowly today, firmly established. effectuated 1938 was, essence, broadening dimensions entertain. 30 unanimous opinion13 highlights modern conception "constitutional case." At Labor Management Relations 1947.14 wrote: "Hurn 1933, unification equity time, meaning 'cause action' serious dispute; phrase 'mean thing purpose something another.' Memphis 288 62, 67-68, 278, 280, 619. identified meant term citation Baltimore Phillips, 316, 47 600, used identify res judicata. whole tendency time." 320[, 602.] "With unified action, abated. remained keystone test, and, commentators noted, source Rules, impulse toward entertaining broadest fairness parties; remedies strongly encouraged. Yet involves issues convenience, some are, Hurn, 'little epithets characterize group circumstances.' 590. 33 "This unnecessarily grudging. Art substance sufficient Levering Garrigues Morrin, 103[, 549, 1062]. derive if, character, plaintiff's proceeding, then, assuming substantiality issues, whole." 722-725, 1136-1138 original; footnotes omitted).15 Immediately decided,16 Nation i applied pendent, order complete relief. Judge Henry Friendly three opinions.17 universally wisest judges,18 special learning expertise jurisdiction,19 each opinions appropriate. 35 Leather's Best, Mormaclynx, 451 800 (CA2 1971), summarized understanding prevailed 1971, follows: "To sure, confronted claim. recently Astor-Honor, Grosset Dunlap, 441 627, (2 Cir.1971), 'Mr. Brennan's underlying seem broad enough cover problem also. UMW 657, 664 (1968).' decision, copyright laws trade practice competition, including claim, provided met, noting buttressed concerning entertain compulsory counterclaims F.R.Civ.P. 13(a), Artists Masterpiece Productions, 221 Cir.1955), third-party 14(a), Dery Wyer, 265 804 Cir.1959)." 809-810. 37 noteworthy Best relied, part, just done itself. paragraph opini n, concluded 1966 amendments admiralty ordinary cases.20 unequivocally sufficiently support person primary, jurisdiction-granting claim." Almenares Wyman, 453 1075, 1083 405 944, 92 962, 815 (1972).21 Before addressed third (1976). declining announce general rule should exercised "expressly implication negated existence" granting 18-19, 2422. Specifically, Rights Acts, interpreted, precluded municipal corporation pursuant reasonable argument misconstrued 23-37, 2424-2430 dissenting), surely quarrel proposition withdraw deny 39 "pendent-party" correctly He 40 "Although onclusion so-called "pendent party" [28 U.S.C.] 1343(3) [42 §] 1983,' [427 U.S.,] [96 2422] '[o]ther grants alignments call result,' 'it unwise lay down sweeping pronouncement jurisdiction,' id. 41 "The about powerful imagined. violation Securities Exchange disposition rendered. Cf. '[w]hen exclusive, prosecution 1346, coupled tried together,' 2422]." Weinberger Kendrick, 698 61, 76-77 464 77, 89 (1983). "about imagined" vested arising Act. time. circumstance fact, dicta, available reason. thus hold many recognized,22 absence evidence disapproval cases,23 fully justification applying case.24 II 44 contrary rests insufficient premise, distinguish federal-question cases, implicit reliance view immunity FTCA.25 45 treats kind rejection Its laboriously demonstrates "defines construed "adopting 555. That, course, always predicate rely fill gap statute. demonstration controlling, Moore, good incorrectly decided.26 adopted construction assumed "Congress existence," 2422.27 "not silence tacit encouragement, quite context." 15-16, 2421.28 exclusion corporations persons concluded, evinced preclude federal-court them. defeat wholly unnecessary, obviously rights claims. approach, legislative bar guided analysis surveyed "firmly rooted" "multiple plaintiffs distinct satisfy jurisdictional-amount courts," 294, 508, adopt putative who meet amount undermine providing excess amount" depart historic left undisturbed these years." 512. invoking plead diversity. After historical demonstrating "a mandate citizen State defendant," 374, 2403, circumvented through jurisdiction.29 adopts sharply approach. Without acknowledging statement pendentparty "has instructs parties." Ante, rule, asserts, interpretative rules" avoid sowing method interpretation, obligation discern intent. clear, offers guidance address deciding reason differ parties,30 fear confuse clarifies. How assume—especially held—that situations govern otherwise. focus loses sight behind jurisdiction.31 recognition forcing impairs ability relief, Supreme Tribe Ben-Hur Cauble, 255 356, 338, 342, 673 (1921), "imparts fundamental bias utilization owing deterrent imposed needless duplicate litigation chosen." 36, 2430 dissenting).32 recognizing effectuating especially when, virtue "only together." circumstances, right litigated forum, believe diminished increased costs forums. Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital Mercury 460 25, 103 927, 942, 74 765 (1983); Will Calvert Fire Ins. 655, 673-675, 2552, 2562-2564, 504 (1978) dissenting).33 interest forum. 2404; Currie, Courts American Institute, U.Chi.L.Rev. (1968).34 sure "[w]hatever Congress,"S 556, relieve responsibility design. incorrect presume sanction context, 50 draw involved issue35 Act.36 partly 587, 770, sovereign's consent "must interpreted," Fortunately, enactment took enlightened upholding contribution—incidentally, covered Act—the 51 instant approved Aetna Surety 338 366, [70 207, 171]: 52 'In number Appeals, waiving construed. think attitude passing accurately reflected Cardozo's rson Hayes 243 N.Y. 140, 147, 153 N.E. 29-30: exemption hardship withheld. rigor refinement announced." "Once covers due tort-feasor, not, procedure action. York, Cardozo said apt here: 'No imagined State, having consented sued, paralyze remedy.' 29. 'A justice progressive relaxation enactments rule. representative attempt ameliorate inequalities necessities permit, prerogatives government yield needs citizen. given, liberally construed.' Shaw, 309 495, 501[, 659, 661, 84 888]." Yellow Cab 340 543, 554-555, 71 406-407, 95 523 (1951).37 Today "unnecessarily grudging" unanimously rebuffed 1138. 55 respectfully STEVENS apparently acknowledge divergence authority. Nothing else belief expressed force "[i]f [of lack authority] decided." Post, 572. canceled equally valid that, Christianson, Firestone, McIntire, decided. mistaken upon, 559-560, n. 6, (1926). counterclaim other, grounds. His generally distinction—a central distinction, discuss Pape overruled Monell City Dept. Social Services, 436 658, 2018, 611 Dewey West Fairmont Coal 123 329, 148, 179 (1887), cites dissent, 560, rested citing (1884), "[t]he acquired law." 333, 150. Dewey, equitable recipient fraudulent conveyance insolvent plaintiff, Virginia authorizing set aside conveyances assistance anticipated decree conveying debtor. Any presumably worthless recaptured. (and Z hn (1973)) ground forums." 577. seems us, Zahn: diminished, etc. simply inference, either context. says case," 560—which continues, "[i]t defendants," ibid., supporting references 20(a), impleader 560-561. Unfortunately, sentence disputed. about. More precisely, "statutory case" purposes exist, alter reality, "shall 82. part: Power Cases, Equity, Authority;—to Cases affecting Ambassadors, public Ministers Consuls;—to maritime Jurisdiction;—to Controversies Party;—to States;—between Citizens State;—between Lands Grants thereof, foreign Subjects." See, Verlinden B.V. Bank Nigeria, 461 480, 491, 1962, 1970, National Mutual Transfer 337 582, 646-655, 69 1173, 1196-1200, 1556 (1949) (Frankfurter, Insurance Ireland, Ltd. Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinee, 456 694, 702, 2099, 2104, 72 (1982); Sosna Iowa, 419 393, 398, 532 (1975); Mansfield, L.M.R. Swan, 111 379, 510, 462 Petrowski Hawkeye-Security 350 490, 639 (1956). B.V., 1970; Osborn (9 Wheat.) 738, 204 (1824). "Gibbs concerned appears identical principles apply concerns personam judiciary 'would [be tried] proceeding,' discretion addresses 'considerations economy, litigants.' recognize balance 'judicial fairness,' threaten embroil resolution uncertain questions thereby discretionary inappropriate, spea proper vitiate 20-21, 2423, (1976) dissenting) (footnote Parties, 753, (1978); Fortune, Jurisdiction—The Problem "Pendenting Parties," U.Pitt.L.Rev. Schenkier, Ensuring Access Courts: Revised Rationale 75 Nw.U.L.Rev. 281 (1980); 64 B.U.L.Rev. 895, 942 upheld (1926), notwithstanding basis. 375, ("[T]he often impleader, cross-claims counterclaims"). supported Glidden Zdanok, 370 530, 565, 82 1459, 1480, 671 (1962) (opinion Harlan, J.); Minnesota Hitchcock, 185 384-386, 650, 654-655, 954 (1902); Ortiz Government, 595 65, 69-70 (CA1 1979). "At time commencement defending party, summons served liable plaintiff." "Of collect tort-feasors. enforce impleading tort-feasor Moore's 1948) et seq. fair work ways." U.S 551-552, 405, (1951). carries Government's carry impleaded "We nothing nature obligations tort-feasors procedural requirement. contrary, applicable, practice." 406 (footnotes "All jointly, severally, alternative, transaction, occurrence, series transactions occurrences arise action." (1887). Warren Justices Harlan Clark separately BRENNAN'S unanimous. 303 1947, provided: "(a) unlawful, section only, industry activity commerce, labor organization engage conduct 158(b)(4) title. "(b) Whoever injured business property [of] subsection (a) sue therefor limitations title controversy, recover damages him sustained cost suit." 158, 187 (1964 ed.). 717, 1134, 1. treat law. 548-549, last Term stated: establishes designed enable handle accommodate values fairness, comity, branch shape light." Carnegie-Mellon Univ. Cohill, 484 343, 351, 614, 619, 720 (1988). Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Thompson, 478 804, 817, 106 3229, 3237, 650 (1986); Pennhurst School Halderman, 465 89, 117, 900, 917, 79 (1984); Schmidt Oakland Unified Dist., 457 594, 2612, 73 245 Hagans Lavine, 415 528, 545-548, 1372, 1383-1385, 577 (1974); Rosado 397 397, 404-405, 90 1207, 1213-1214, 442 (1970). 555, decision. Borror Sharon Steel 327 165 (CA3 1964); Morris Gimbel Bros., 246 F.Supp. 984 (ED Pa.1965). Friendly's Heyward-Robinson 430 1077, 1087 1970) (concurring opinion), 400 1021, 91 632 (1971), permissive counterclaims, 627 1338(b). 1963, Frankfurter regarded "as judge writing scene," Freund, Memoriam: J. Friendly, 99 1709, 1720 Erwin Griswold ablest lawyer generation," Posner called greatest appellate time," 1724. Jurisdiction: General View (1973); also, Paul Freund's comments Harv.L.Rev., 1716-1718, Currie's Blazing Trails: 133 U.Pa.L.Rev. authors Hart Wechsler's System, dedicated editions book Professor M. Hart, Jr., respectively, dedicate edition describe "man seasons law; master subject." P. Bator, D. Meltzer, Mishkin, System xix (3d 1988). "It [441 1971),] arisen whereas date, difference affected rules jurisdictions merged 1966, least merger, rationale underlies 13(a) regardless arises this, facts identical, shipper's carrier breach contract carriage 'power' pier operator." 810-811 1971) Relying authored then-Judge Blackmun, Hatridge Casualty 809 (CA8 1969), Eighth 1973 advanced excluding doctrine: '[I]t unjustifiable waste professional time—indeed, travesty sound administration—to codefendants] prosecute [a codefendant claim] court.' Schulman Huck Finn, 472 864, 866 1973) (quoting 853, 858 (Minn.1972)). Moor, 713-714, 1798, 1973, denying "stands virtually post-Gibbs trend appeals." An adhered Dick Meyers Towing Service, 1023 (CA5 1978), 440 908, 1215, 59 455 (1979); 1979); Edwards 672 910 Va. 1987); Kennedy 643 1072 (EDNY 1986); Verdi 636 114 Fried 579 1212 (ND Ill.1983); Kattner 585 240 Tex.1984); Rogers 568 894 1983); DeBellas 542 999 (SDNY 1982); Johnston 546 879 (Kan.1982); Obenshain Halliday, 946 Va.1980); Dumansky 1078 (NJ 1980); Pearce 450 613 (Kan.1978); Wood Standard 1098 Va.1978); Maltais 439 540 (NDNY 1977). "[W]e immunity, granti g 'sweeping language.' Moreover exclusively Thus indication declined hold, therefore, existed Nuss 755, 757-759 1982) omitted), conclusion: "Turning implied negation distinguishable indici restrictive exist Neither jurisdiction- contains proscription spawned interpretations tacitly Ortiz, 73.4' 647-648. footnote 4, "In addition, primary 'avoid injustice meritorious hitherto immunity.' Muniz, 374 150, 154, 1850, 1853, 805. goal reflects sensitive recovery, furthered pursue lawsuit injuries suffered accident. together. 2422.. ." 648, 4. panoply "underscores respecting single-party 1346(b)." Brief 30. notes jury trial Seventh Amendment; punitive strict-liability theory party; numerous defenses immunities claimant comply Act's administrative procedures. 29-30, 2427. submission discretion, right." 726, 1139; 716-717, 1799. factors weigh certainly deprive answer response parties: "Such difficulties insurmountable. If, demanded nonjury handled comparable alone. inadvisability, instance, leave denied. stage, separation ordered trial. Fed. Civ.Proc., 42(b). availability facilitate, preclude, multiple triable proceedings. possibility limiting 555-556, 407. amended States,' '[t]here 2). rejects words action"—which pendent-claim, pendent-party, Freer, Principled Statutory Approach Supplemental 1987 Duke L.J. 34, 56-58—on dubious revisers here." authorities proposition. (characterizing 1338(b) confirmation courts"). Ironically, judgment. indicates originally House Report version eventually became bill lift except bill. (See 584[, 1058] (1941); Lynn F.(2d) 588 (C.C.A. 5th 1940); Waite C.Cls. Jackson 74, (1891))." 1287, 79th (1945). argument, statements "were omitted sectional measure 1946 incorporated Reorganization Bill report Senate Committee Organization 8, 8. offered reject history. somehow inconsistent Congress,' 2420), difference" discussion "purely factual" differences situations—concerns go construction. 1343 ha[d] [was] sought" exceeds States.' predecessors consistently citizenship. plaintiff. Over reenacted leaving intact diversity-of-citizenship subsequent defendant." 373-374, 2402-2403. Consider, Gibbs: compulsory, ensuing commentators, Shulman Jaegerman, Some Jurisdicti nal Limitations Yale 418, few ruled question. Carter D.C. E.D. Ill., 875; King Edward B. Marks Music D.C.S.D.N.Y., 446; Black London Assur. London, England, D.C.W.D.S.C., 122 330, arrived desired realignment ourselves past venue requirements Lesnik Public Industrials Cir., 144 968, F.R. 14. Friend Middle Atlantic Transp. 778, 779-780, certiorari denied 328 865, 1370, 1635. liberal inclusion concomitant litigation, retried forum." 213, 217 1955). unwisdom "lumped iscriminately contexts litigated" criticised Professors Cooper. treatise 152-153 1984). They explain: distinctions real mentioned. 'amount controversy' 1332 raises 'between states' under' 1331 still 'pendent parties' compelling doing broaden scope—and attractiveness—of 1046 1988); "Question" Courts, Colum.L.Rev. 157, 167 (1953); 254-256 (1980). Musher Foundation Alba Trading 127 9, 1942) (Clark, ("If roast reserved bench, anomalous send gravy across street house"). continued need showing prejudice challenged respected authorities. 304, 5, 513, (1973) postjudgment garnishee hands debtor convincingly unsound outdated maxim 3A Lucas, G. Grotheer, ¶ 20.07(3), 20-55 20-58 1987). Larson Domestic Foreign Commerce 682, 709, 1457, 1470, 1628 ("In century steadily expanding morality 'governmental responsibility' led 'generous government' compensate agents secure obedience contracts"); Great Northern Life Read, 322 47, 59, 873, 879, 88 1121 (1944) ("[C]onsent depend ritualistic formula. needed indicate land. readiness reluctance influenced prevailing views moral attributed State's freedom suability. Whether absolute survival monarchial privilege, manifestation abstract grounds, undoubtedly runs democratic notions State. Accordingly, reflect strong momentum confirm Maitland's belief, nearly fifty wholesome Crown" answering torts' ").

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