Document: 433 U.S. 584 97 S.Ct. 2861 53 L.Ed.2d 982 Ehrlich Anthony COKER, Petitioner,v.State of GEORGIA. No. 75-5444. Argued March 28, 1977. Decided June 29, Syllabus While serving various sentences for murder, rape, kidnaping, and aggravated assault, petitioner escaped from a Georgia prison and, in the course committing an armed robbery other offenses, raped adult woman. He was convicted robbery, offenses sentenced to death on rape charge, when jury found two aggravating circumstances present imposing such sentence, viz., that committed (1) by person with prior capital-felony convictions (2) another capital felony, robbery. The Supreme Court affirmed both conviction sentence. Held: judgment upholding sentence is reversed case remanded. Pp. 591-600; 600; 600-601; 601. 234 Ga. 555, 216 S.E.2d 782, 1 Mr. Justice WHITE, joined STEWART, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, concluded crime grossly disproportionate excessive punishment therefore forbidden Eighth Amendment as cruel unusual punishment. 591-600. 2 (a) bars not only those punishments are 'barbaric' but also 'excessive' relation committed, unconstitutional if it makes no measurable contribution acceptable goals hence nothing more than purposeless needless imposition pain suffering; or out proportion severity crime. 591-592. 3 (b) That penalty strongly indicated objective evidence public judgment, represented attitude state legislatures sentencing juries, concerning acceptability penalty, appearing currently State authorizing woman, authorized States victim child, vast majority (9 10) since 1973, juries have imposed 593-597. 4 (c) Although deserves serious punishment, which unique its irrevocability, rapist who, opposed murderer, does unjustifiably take human life. 597-598. 5 (d) conclusion affected fact occurrence while felony authorized, do change did involve taking life, deem itself deserving even though accompanied convictions. 598-599. 6 (e) under law deliberate killer cannot be death, absent circumstances, argues against notion that, without who life his should punished severely killer. P. 600. 7 BRENNAN all prohibited Fourteenth Amendments. 8 MARSHALL 600-601. 9 POWELL raping woman where, here, brutality sustain lasting injury. 10 David E. Kendall, New York City, petitioner. 11 B. Dean Grindle, Jr., Atlanta, Ga., respondent. 12 WHITE announced filed opinion joined. 13 Code Ann. § 26-2001 (1972) provides '(a) shall imprisonment less one nor 20 years.'1 Punishment determiend separate proceeding at least statutory must before may imposed.2 Petitioner Coker death. Both were Court. granted writ certiorari, 429 815, 56, 50 75, limited single claim, rejected court, violates Amendment, proscribes 'cruel punishments' observed well Federal Government. Robinson v. California, 370 660, 82 1417, 758 (1962). 14 * Ware Correctional Institution near Waycross, September 2, 1974. At approximately o'clock night, entered house Allen Elnita Carver through unlocked kitchen door. Threatening couple 'board,' he tied up bathroom, obtained knife kitchen, took Carver's money keys family car. Brandishing saying 'you know what's going happen you try anything, don't you,' then Mrs. Carver. Soon thereafter, drove away car, him. Carver, freeing himself, notified police; long thereafter apprehended. unharmed. 15 charged escape, motor vehicle theft, rape. Counsel appointed represent Having been competent stand trial, tried. returned verdict guilty, rejecting general plea insanity. A hearing conducted accordance procedures dealt length Gregg Georgia, 428 153, 96 2909, 49 859 (1976), where this sustained murder pursuant procedures.3 instructed could consider whether had record namely, court instructed, statute, present, need they out-weighed mitigating is, constituting justification excuse offense question, 'but which, fairness mercy, considered extenuating reducing degree' moral culpability App. 300. jury's count electrocution. jury. II 16 Furman 408 238, 92 2726, 33 346 (1972), Court's decisions last Term (1976); Proffitt Florida, 242, 2960, 913 Jurek Texas, 262, 2950, 929 Woodson North Carolina, 280, 2978, 944 Roberts Louisiana, 325, 3001, 974 make unnecessary recanvassing certain critical aspects controversy about constitutionality It now settled invariably within meaning Amendment; inherently barbaric unacceptable mode crime; neither always imposed. established provided statutes saves infirmities led invalidate statute supra. 17 In sustaining Gregg, however, firmly embraced holdings dicta cases, supra; (1962); Trop Dulles, 356 86, 78 590, 630 (1958); Weems United States, 217 349, 30 544, 54 L.Ed. 793 (1910), effect committed. Under sevrity might fail test either ground. Furthermore, these judgments be, appear merely subjective views individual Justices; informed factors maximum possible extent. To end, attention given attitudes particular history precedent, legislative attitudes, response reflected their sentenceing consulted. after giving due regard sources, severe But reserved question crimes. U.S., 187 n. 35, S.Ct., 2932. III 18 respect us. We punishment.4 19 As advised recent we seek guidance country's time years 1925, District Columbia, Government female.5 By 1971 just decision number declined, substantially, plus Government.6 invalidated most country, including statutes, because, among reasons, manner utilized laws. With part invalidated, faced choice enacting modified laws attempt satisfy requirements being satisfied ultimate any offense. Thirtyfive immediately reinstituted kinds 179 23, 2928. This evidenced immediate, post-Furman reaction large heavily influenced supra, 179-182, 2928-2929. 21 'most marked indication society's endorsement Furman,' 179-180, 2928, telling datum providing crime, has dramatically different. reviving Furman's mandate, none previously chose include felonies. Of offense, three revised Louisiana. latter mandatory Roberts. When Louisiana responding decisions, again laws, reenacted rape; seven our knowledge amended replaced July 1976, four (in addition Carolina) 1972 reacted included crimes punishment.7 22 attempted comply arguably legislation very likely aside simply eliminate rather require each every instance rape.8 argument force; continue Further, indicated, new And say enacted nonmandatory, rapists 23 noted Mississippi, Tennessee some child adult.9 because mandatory. Collins State, 550 S.W.2d 643 (Tenn.1977). upshot sole jurisdiction authorizes jurisdictions provide child. 24 current wholly unanimous legislatures, obviously weighs side suitable woman.10 B 25 '(t)he . significant reliable index contemporary values so directly involved.' 181, 2929, thus important look made assessing appropriate course, meaningful measure far execution concerned, true Florida; children. 26 According factual submissions Court, 1973 total tendered 63 cases reviewed oral argument; these, involved set aside, leaving Georgia. six times 1973. negligible number; practical matter reserve extreme sanction experience surely prove jurors conceivable how aggravated. Nevertheless, 10, IV 27 These events evidencing determine controversy, Constitution contemplates end own will brought bear Amendment. rejection confirms indeed 28 discount seriousness highly reprehensible, sense almost contempt personal integrity autonomy female latter's privilege choosing whom intimate relationships established. Short homicide, 'ultimate violation self.'11 violent normally involves force, threat force intimidation, overcome capacity resist. Rape often physical injury can inflict mental psychological damage.12 Because undermines community's security, there well. 29 doubt punishment; terms depravity public, compare unjustified definition person.13 murderer kills; rapist, not. Life over murderer; victim, nearly happy was, beyond repair. abiding 'is irrevocability,' 187, 2931, such, matter; law, unless judge finds elects impose Ga.Code 26-3102 (1976 Supp); 165-166, 2921-2922. For executed following present: felony; offender engaged commission battery; (3) 'was outrageously wantonly vile, horrible inhuman torture, mind, battery victim.'14 Here, first alleged 31 Neither them together, felonies kidnaping instant involving 32 occurred authorize penalty.15 tried received circumstance, stipulated, crime.16 note finally commits unlawfully malice aforethought, express implied, causes being. being, irrespective malice. killing deliberate, punishable proof circumstances. difficult accept notion, not, himself victim. reversed, remanded further proceedings inconsistent opinion. 34 So ordered. 35 BRENNAN, concurring judgment. 36 Adhering my view Amendments, 227, 2971, (1976) (dissenting opinion), I concur setting statute. 37 MARSHALL, 38 231, 2973, stated: 'In 314, 2764, (concurring forth basic issue presented cases. concluded, continues view.' explained detail reasons reaffirming position. adhere case. 39 POWELL, dissenting part. 40 facts case, plurality's reasoning supporting ordinarily reprehensible petitioner's plurality, limit holding us similar Rather, ranges what necessary, holds regardless 41 specifies appropriate. specified: (i) (ii) (iii) 'outrageously victim.' Ante, 588-589, 3. Only third circumstance describes identified heinous See, e. g., ALI, Model Penal 207.4, Comment, p. 246 (Tent.Draft 4, 1955); 213.1 (Prop. Off. Draft, 1962); Nev.Rev.Stat. 200.363 (1975). submitted would supported finding. quite plurality write sweeping foreclose creating narrowly defined substantive death.1 42 accord Term, states: 43 '(T)he Amendments imposed.' 591. 44 Thus five Term's 45 Today, expansive pronouncement, draws bright line between rapes degree upon dissent am persuaded Snider Peyton, F.2d 626, 627 (CA4 1966), '(t)here variation rapists.' viciousness greater murderer. never act accidentally. Rarely said unpremeditated. There wide says '(l)ife repair.' 598. 'extreme variation' Some victims grievously injured physically psychologically 46 Thus, Final resolution await careful inquiry into indicators 'evolving standards decency,' particularly enactments responses cases.2 See 173-182, 2925-2929 (joint Stewart, Powell, Stevens, JJ.); 294-295, 2987 (plurality opinion); 436-443, 2827-2830, (Powell, J., dissenting). properly examines indicia, support society absence shown rapes. proper discriminating undertakes discover outrageous resulting serious, harm prejudge issue. extent, respectfully dissent. 47 Chief BURGER, REHNQUIST joins, dissenting. 48 this, confusion arises role reaching decision. Our task give rather, permits powers. striking down overstepped bounds constitutional adjudication substituting policy legislature. Amendment's concept disproportionality minor Cruel Unusual Punishments Clause Members license engraft conceptions onto States. Since agree lacked power On December 5, 1971, petitioner, Coker, stabbed young Less eight months later kidnaped second After twice 16-year-old stripped her, beat her club, dragged wooded area left dead. apprehended pleaded guilty stemming incidents. courts terms, 20-year 8-year term imprisonment.1 Each specified run consecutively concurrently. Approximately 1/2 later, 1974, sentences. promptly presence husband, abducted home, threatened bodily harm. review 51 today Coker. doing, prevents effective latest holding, moreover, guaranteeing citizens suffer attacks habitual rapist. fact, lengthy serve already assures others position henceforth feel compunction whatsoever frequently able escape confinement walls itself. extent 'elbowroom' protect innocent persons depraved beings like remains doubt. 52 My disagreement breadth. narrow here constitutionally execute light record. goes great lengths societal mores toward generic it; gives little special Coker's criminal acts: account additional periods incremental punitive effect; pattern presents danger safety, welfare, chastity women, likelihood repeat opportunity; prison, year half commenced sentences; lose attempts; succeed escaping reasonably predictable women impunity added deterrent. Unlike actually presented: Does ban prohibit executing has, space years, attempting kill another, exceeding probable lifetime hesitated available opportunity? Whatever one's State's stands time, reveals chronic whose continuing community abundantly clear. 55 hold inappropriate 'there injury.' 601.2 Apart reality egregiously brutal acts limits legislature determining excessive. Surely recidivism, especially repeated crimes, factor weighed permitting isolated example, national policy, Congress expressed enhanced one, U.S.C. 3575(e)(1); declared assault mail carrier seriously conviction, 2114. Many increased criminality. Wis.Stat.Ann. 939.62 see Annot., 58 A.L.R. (1929); 345 (1933); 79 A.L.R.2d 826 (1961).3 matter, correct stating 'prior life,' ante, 599; disputed existence substantially menace first-time offender:4 56 'There widely held strongest measures incapacitation murderers group (their situational) repeatedly violent, combative behavior. well-demonstrated propensity life-endangering behavior thought solid basis infliction fortuity homicidal incident.' Packer, Making Fit Crime, 77 Harv.L.Rev. 1071, 1080 (1964). (Emphasis added.) 57 view, prevent individual's 'well-demonstrated behavior' devising inflicting victims. 183 2930, (1976). ago White succinctly noted: '(D)eath forecloses possibility prisoner commit whereas not.' 354, 3016, 311, 2763 (White, concurring). sum, once 'the violate Constitution,' 169, 2923, impinges disregard integrity, worth others, seemingly deterred conduct.5 leave day dangers inhere whenever casts presented, magnified context 431, 2824, 59 '(W)here, language applicable (constitutional) provision leeway underlying social policies felt vital importance, temptation read preference understandably great. too easy propound wise rubric universally decency.' 60 invalidates adults circumstances,6 reluctantly turn broader issues raised holding. 61 62 597-598, acknowledges gross nature victim's privacy inevitably process. longrange health irreparable; impossible results. Volumes written victims, physicians, psychiatric specialists suffered mere attack destructive personality. remainder gravely affected, detrimental husband children she have. WHITE's '(s)hort (rape) self." 597. Victims recover damage bullet wounds, beating fists recovery personality healed medicine surgery. speak blandly, does, 'unharmed,' classify outrage 'excessively brutal,' 601, versus 'moderately takes profound suffering imposes loved ones. Despite strong condemnation reaches inexplicable penalty' perpetrator offense.7 This, holds, coupled process reached startling disquieting. represents clear departure precedent making 'under aegis Clause, arbiter responsibility diverse areas throughout country.' Powell 392 514, 533, 88 2145, 2154, 1254 (1968) (opinion Marshall, J.).8 strains distorts federal system, removing much flexibility drawn strength centuries. 64 analysis divided parts: 'objective' determination American presently itself, cause points. 65 66 bases analysis, part, 'Georgia woman.' 595-596. Surely, statistic deemed determinative, relevant. concedes, 594, Carolina 346. If rely 'public opinion' process, suggest beginning 'trend'? More point, myopic base principles past years. Considerable uncertainty introduced invalidated; expressions vacillating discretionary penalties, sanction.9 Failure enact reflect hasty compromise occasioned pressures Furman, desire wait accurate forecast today's 67 century, one-third consistently focus immediate viewed truly disingenuous. mind swift changes positions short span rationally relevant indicator deems unusual' solely refrained doing conditions arising lucid Amendment? Far representative 20th century accepted practice substantial preceding '(The) problem suddenness perception progress ago.' 410, 2814 (Blackmun, Cf. Rudolph Alabama, 375 889, 84 155, 119 (1963). 68 However, charitable acceptance statistical still conclusion. claimed otherwise unrelated Term. Even figures indicating necessarily follow Georgia's 69 pointed system allows broad limits, experiment civil, effort achieve socially desirable Whalen Roe, 589, 22, 869, 875-876, (1977); Johnson 406 356, 376, 1620, 1641, 152 J.); California Green, 399 149, 184-185, 90 1930, 1948-1949, 489 (1970) (Harlan, concurring); Fay York, 332 261, 296, 1613, 1631, 91 2043 (1947). Various provisions Constitution, Due Process place limitations type experimentation undertake. admits, perhaps gravity. follows approach constraints question. infra 619-622. 70 Statutory justice applied country carefully watched becomes all. lives balance, remembered failure allow jeopardize undeterred conduct. infra, 620. concern accused ought showing modicum consideration potential 71 Three have, determined devastating consequences minimized may, class offenses.10 minority worthy deference. confined guilty; insensitive related innocent. choices best painful deserve high observed: 72 'It denigrate form vestigial savagery purely retributive motivation; solemn judgments, based, save persons. sincere efforts pursue matters greatest moment judiciary reluctant interfere.' 355, 3017 opinion). 73 open one. arguable many prospective offense; minimal deterrent effect.11 become willing report aid apprehension criminals knew disapproval sufficiently penalty; cooperate prosecution result penalty. Quite possibly, occasional, well-publicized egregious security daily lives;12 or, contrary, members civilized pangs heavy conscience perceived excessive.13 range possibilities correct, exploration federalism intended foster. believe remain alone punishing next decade demonstrated drastic reduction incidence cooperation rapists, confidence rule populace. 74 order program develop data evaluated comparison statutes. repudiates deal anyone done few Powell's excellent statement: 75 period frequency increasing alarmingly, grave event whatever weight retains.' 459, 2839 opinion) (footnote omitted). 76 deprive authority woman,' 596, impermissibly rash. undergone Furman.14 Social generally small increments, 'current judgment' altered experience, stand.15 disturbing discussed point based bare results 598-599, Member explains why distinction relevance, significance. all, irrational impermissible punishes16 hope deter wrongdoing: 'We select selected cruelly inhumane 175, 2926. 80 Accord, 451, 2834 81 begs state, opinion: 'Life 83 Until now, evil perpetrator. 173, 2925; 458, 2838 principle, primitive simplicity 'life eye eye, tooth tooth.' Rather permitted engage sophisticated weighing dealing activity poses limb preserved barrier activity, risk comes fruition instance. Harv.L.Rev., 1077-1079. permissible procedural safeguards followed. Compare readily admits Moreover, stated Powell: 85 'The implicit forced submission violence violence.' 460, 86 'light years' removed heinousness; certainly safety apart psychic consequences. seem affording standard Amendment,17 also, legislators. 87 contrary indeed. implication appears validity variety conduct dangerous, treason, airplane hijacking, kidnaping. respect, initially apparent. avoid judicial notice mass terrorist constitute public. unfortunate inhibit experimenting remedies possibly sound observations, ago, repetition: 89 'Our emphasized re-emphasized, pass challenged. judges. preferences wisdom congressional action, distaste guide these. temptations cross reveals, irresistible.' 411, 2815 'solemn Accordingly, legislating law. section defines having 'carnal female, forcibly will. Carnal occurs penetration sex organ male organ.' 3, infra. (Supp. 1976): 'Capital offenses; 'Where, trial jury, includes finding recommendation Where made, defendant recommended Unless trying recommends verdict, necessary treason aircraft hijacking. affect accepts guilty.' 27-2302 (Supp.1976): Recommendation mercy. legal Such binding judge.' 27-2534.1 'Mitigating circumstances; hijacking '(b) consider, instructions evidence: '(1) kidnapping assaultive '(2) battery, burglary arson degree. '(3) knowingly created means weapon device hazardous person. '(4) purpose receiving thing monetary value. '(5) officer, former district attorney solicitor during exercise official duty. '(6) caused directed agent employee '(7) '(8) peace corrections fireman performance duties. '(9) in, from, lawful custody officer confinement. '(10) avoiding, interfering with, preventing arrest confinement, another. '(c) warranted charge writing deliberation. designate writing, signed foreman reasonable non-jury designation. Except enumerated 27-2534.1(b) found, 27-2537 'Review Whenever imposed, becoming final clerk ten days transcript, transmit entire transcript together prepared judge. title docket name address attorney, narrative statement prescribed. questionnaire supplied errors way appeal. determine: Whether influence passion, prejudice, arbitrary factor, Whether, supports judge's 27-2534.1(b), considering defendant. '(d) right submit briefs court. '(e) reference consideration. regarding correction errors, sentences, to: Affirm death; Set remand resentencing counsel. records referred decision, extracts hereinafter for, '(f) Assistant pleasure accumulate January 1, 1970, earlier date extracted information desires thereto, synopsis brief '(g) employ staff methods compile questions '(h) office attached Clerk administrative purposes. '(i) direct appeal, taken, appeal consolidated render enumerated, substantiation sentence.' measurably legitimate ends invalid so. observe countries around world, claim indispensable States' system. Bye, Recent History Present Status Capital J.Crim.L. & C., 234, 241-242 (1926). Ala.Code, Tit. 14, 395 Ark.Stat.Ann. 41-3403 (1964); Fla.Stat.Ann. 794.01 (1965); (1970); Ky.Rev.Stat.Ann. §§ 435.080-435.090 La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 14:42 (1950); Md.Ann.Code, Art. 27, 461 (1957); Miss.Code 2358 Mo. Rev.Stat. 559260 (1969); 200.360 (1963) (rape harm); N.C.Gen.Stat. 14-21 Okl.Stat.Ann., 21, 1115 S.C.Code 16-72, 16-80 Tenn. 39-3702 (1955); Tex.Penal 1189 (1961); Va.Code 18.1-44 (1960); 2031. 1976 Okla.Sess.Laws, c. 627; La. Acts, Nos. 657, 694; Ky.Acts. (Ex. Sess.); 1977 Wyo.Sess.Laws, 122. action taken Virginia, Maryland, Jersey. N.C.Sess. Laws (May 19, 1977); Va.Acts, 492 (Mar. 1977), vetoed Maryland Washington Post, May 1977, Al, col. 1; N.Y. Times, 8, 6. Governor Jersey apparently yet acted State. respondent places category follows: Ky.Rev.Stat. 507.020 (1975); 14:30 (1974); Md.Code Ann., 413(b) 1976); 97-3-19, 97-3-21, 97-25-55, 99-17-20 1975); Mo.Rev.Stat. 559.005, 559.009 200.030 14-17, 701.1-701.3 16-52 Tenn.Code 39-2402, 39-2406, 18.2-10, 18.2-31 Brief Respondent 38. 794.011(2) 97-3-65 (Supp.1976); (1974). 102, 598, (1958), pains climate international irrelevant major nations world surveyed 1965, retained ensue. Nations, Department Economic Affairs, 40, (1968). U.S.Dept. Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Report, Its Victims: Report Citizens, Health Facilities, Criminal Agencies (1975), quoting Bard Ellison, Crisis Intervention Investigation Forcible Rape, Police 1974), reproduced Appendix Report. Note, Victim Case: Feminist View, Am.Crim.L.Rev. 335, 338 (1973); Laws: Sexism Society Law, Calif.L.Rev. 919, 922-923 (1973). refused reason, seldom recognize applying aggravating-circumstances Code. accompanying academic circumstance. likewise rapefelony nonmaliciously mentioned text vile torture convicted, tried, appropriately function formulate criteria distinguish usual workable embrace Georgia: cruelty offender, Ralph Warden, 438 786 1970), cert. denied, 942, 2846, 766 (1972); F.2d, 794 Haynsworth, C. J.). defining, specificity, elements easy, 2839, dissenting), assume impossible. THE CHIEF JUSTICE, relying excerpts seeks buttress purposes distinctions 607-608, 2. emphasizes difficulties proof. designed operates successfully resolve precisely negligence, replete requiring degrees permanency complimented dissent, cites quotes Furman. opinion, prevail, controlling principles. implications JUSTICE's emphasize proportionality case-by-case basis, noting 'grossly excessive.' 461, 2839. simplistic all-or-nothing JUSTICE. relevant, appropriateness notes, 597, decided precedents 12, Superior Richmond County, her. Taliaferro same April 6, Clayton murder. 307-312. adopted constitutes disquieting shift several Terms 460-461, 'While reject (petitioners') attempts establish specific categories excessive, groping me application used strike altogether install tribunal review, find peculiar utilization rare rendered technically falling legislatively factually outside intent category.' purports broadest sweep differs materially plurality. suggests situations rapists: 'offense (is) brutality'; good reason: emotional impact (upon victim) gauge time. duration trauma known ascertainable trial.' Id., Can weeks birth baby 'sustained (no) injury'? bifurcation harmful nonharmful eludes comprehension. difficulty POWELL's words, (physical psychological) present.' 2838. Therefore 'excessive brutality' requirement refer something more, assume, associated coercing over-powering meant engaged, 601-602, 1. separately. negative inference i. e., unaccompanied conduct, upheld punishment-enhancing Spencer 385 554, 559-560, 648, 651, 606 (1967): 'No recidivist unconstitutional, enhanced-sentence implement policies, occasions contentions strictures double jeopardy, ex post facto equal protection, privileges immunities.' (Footnote citations omitted; emphasis Oyler Boles, 368 448, 501, 503, 446 tying gagging sought getaway automobile. Leaving gagged started leave, brandished carrying warned 'if get pulled police him wife. didn't rest anyway ..' Testimony 121 (emphasis added). Professor Packer addressed this: 'What reform, particular, menaces life? Current penal theories admit, insist upon, permanent Once recognized, psychopath hardly objected grounds survive rational scrutiny, use situation permitted. class, inept, limb.' 1081 can, kind 'mild' 'gross' Yet opens discussion, demonstrating 'aggravated' 'Mrs. unharmed.' 587. ever 'unharmed'? Justices portion BRENNAN's MARSHALL's statements joining Stevens awareness played courts,' 'we judges legislators,' 174-175, 295. 355-356, 3017, STEVENS deference owe (Furman U.S.), 465-470, 2842-2844 (Rehnquist, specification 'these peculiarly policy.' Gore 357 386, 393, 1280, 1285, 1405 (1958).' 176, 2926 satisfaction predictive caveat Furman: 'Since future uncertain limbo. unambiguous answer collective unpact majority's ruling demand undetermined Congress.' 403, 2811 statutorily present. 26-3102, 27-2534.1(b)(1), (2), (7) (Supp.1976). value complex rests evaluate studies local courts. (408 U.S.,) 403-405, 2810-2812 (Burger, dissenting).' 186, 2931 JJ.). sordid, (rape), demeaning, humiliating, traumatic, call condemnation.' Obviously competence token until wiser, attuned communities, we. Indeed recently appeared McGautha 402 183, 1454, 711 (1971). paraphrase '(w)hat (the is) saying, effect, evolutionary come suddenly end; (for rape) generations, somehow revealed.' 430-431, 2824 thief stealing caught return stolen. '(I)n democratically elected (of Amendment), presume validity. (A) burden representatives people.' reason described: 'This interwined assessment ascertaining standards. democratic courts, constituted respond consequently 383, 2800 175-176,

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