Document: 478 U.S. 109 106 S.Ct. 2797 92 L.Ed.2d 85 Susan J. DAVIS, et al., Appellantsv.Irwin C. BANDEMER al. No. 84-1244. Argued Oct. 7, 1985. Decided June 30, 1986. Syllabus The Indiana Legislature consists of a 100-member House Representatives and 50-member Senate. serve 2-year terms, with elections for all seats every two years. Senators 4-year half the up election are elected from single-member districts, while representatives mixture multimember districts. In 1981, legislature reapportioned districts pursuant to 1980 census. At that time, there were Republican majorities in both reapportionment plan provided 50 Senate 7 triple-member, 9 double-member, 61 House. generally included State's metropolitan areas. 1982, appellee Democrats filed suit Federal District Court against appellant state officials, alleging 1981 constituted political gerrymander intended disadvantage Democrats, particular district lines drawn mix did violate their right, as equal protection under Fourteenth Amendment. November before case went trial, held new plan. Democratic candidates received 51.9% votes cast statewide but only 43 out 100 be filled. 53.1% statewide, 13 25 elected. Marion Allen Counties, divided into multi-member drew 46.6% vote, 3 21 Subsequently, relying primarily on 1982 results proof unconstitutionally discriminatory vote dilution, invalidated plan, enjoined appellants holding thereto, ordered prepare Held: judgment is reversed. 603 F.Supp. 1479, Justice WHITE delivered opinion respect Part II, concluding gerrymandering, such occurred this case, properly justiciable Equal Protection Clause. Here, none identifying characteristics nonjusticiable question present. Disposition does not involve matter more decided by coequal branch Government. There no risk foreign or domestic disturbance. Nor persuaded judicially discernible manageable standards which gerrymandering cases decided. mere fact likely arithmetic presumption, "one person, one vote" rule, present context compel conclusion claims presented here nonjusticiable. claim whether each group State should have same chance elect its choice any other group, declines hold never justiciable. That submitted rather than racial distinguish it terms justiciability. Pp. 118-127. WHITE, joined BRENNAN, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, concluded Parts III IV erred appellees had alleged proved violation 127-143. (a) A threshold showing dilution required prima facie an violation. Court's findings adverse effect do surmount requirement. apportionment scheme makes difficult render unconstitutional. group's electoral power diminished winning difficult, failure proportional representation alone constitute impermissible discrimination As individual where unconstitutional form here, lack will sufficient prove discrimination. Without specific supporting evidence, court cannot presume those who disregard disproportionally underrepresented group. Rather, occurs when system arranged manner consistently degrade voter's voters' influence process whole. apparent interference opportunity representative one's would allege violation, unless justified some acceptable interest, addition being contrary above-described conception gerrymander, invite attack almost statutes. 127-134. (b) Relying single discrimination, did, unsatisfactory. finding because could next few secure take control legislature, consign minority status throughout 1980's, they hope doing better based 1990 census, violated Simply constructed so safely way bolsters contention has been voters. 134-137. (c) view intentional drawing boundaries partisan ends reason violates Clause allow constitutional found proven party's was disproportionate (possibly elections), judicial legislative districting whenever party suffers at polls. Even if redistricts intention disadvantaging prospects, members redistricting noted, proportionate suffice regard. 138-143. O'CONNOR, THE CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST, major parties raise question, reverse grounds appellees' supply resolving purely claims, confer rights share power. Racial greater warrant gives federal courts intervene stronger nexus between interests discrete insular But vulnerable exclusion process, established need basis intervention resolve claims. costs severe, requires make policy choices kind suited discretion. clear stopping point prevent gradual evolution requirement roughly cohesive Accordingly, question. 144-155. J., announced POWELL, STEVENS, JJ., joined, I, III, IV, joined. BURGER, C.J., concurring judgment, post, p. 143. 144. part dissenting part, 161. William M. Evans, Indianapolis, Ind., appellants. Theodore R. Boehm, appellees. II BLACKMUN join. 1 we review three-judge Court, sustained challenge Indiana's law diluted Democrats. 1479 (S.D.Ind.1984). Although find justiciable, conclude applied insufficiently demanding standard dilution. Consequently, reverse. 2 * Legislature, also known "General Assembly," Representatives, staggered Houses districts; but, division accomplished enactment, signed Governor law. Reapportionment 10 years decennial prohibition frequent reapportionments. early General Assembly initiated reapportioning Senate, Republican.1 Bills introduced Houses, duly passed approved Governor.2 This Senate; House, population deviation 1.15%; 1.05%. areas State, although area district. County, includes combined portions neighboring counties five triple-member Fort Wayne parts, surrounding county On hand, South Bend put partly double-member (each counties). city followed, township were. plans, nested; is, exactly appears little relation plans. 4 several (here appellees) various officials appellants), plans Specifically, contended convened hear these 5 All election. Over races vote. Only however, Thirteen (of twenty-five) filled 6 December 13, 1984, issued decision declaring unconstitutional, enjoining redistricting, ordering retaining jurisdiction over case. See 1479. To majority, seemed "to support argument built-in bias favoring majority party, Republicans, instituted plan." Id., 1486. thought figures unreliable predictors future elections, warranted further examination circumstances passage statute. ibid.3 course examination, noted irregular shape lines, peculiar districts,4 adhere subdivision define communities interest. inadequate explanations given configuration adherence imperative Voting Rights Act's retrogression These factors, court, evidenced effort favor incumbents voters.5 achieved "stacking" large "splitting" them give Republicans safe excessive districts.6 Because indicated voting voters adversely affected "which purposely inhibit[s] prevent[s] tolerated," id., 1492, statute.7 8 defendants appealed, seeking rulings that, occurred.8 We probable jurisdiction. 470 1083, 105 1840, 140 (1985). address first presents controversy explicitly stated clearly rests finding. urge past acknowledged acted upon justiciability contend affirmed merits decisions lower A. Since Baker v. Carr, 369 186, 82 691, 663 (1962), adjudicated regarding inequalities cases, developed enforced principle. See, e.g., Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 84 1362, 12 506 (1964). 11 Our even among claim. context, reviewed, occasion rejected, effectiveness minorities. Rogers Lodge, 458 613, 102 3272, 73 1012 (1982); Mobile Bolden, 446 55, 1490, 64 47 (1980); White Regester, 412 755, 93 2332, 37 314 (1973); Whitcomb Chavis, 403 124, 91 1858, 29 363 (1971); Burns Richardson, 384 73, 86 1286, 16 376 (1966); Fortson Dorsey, 379 433, 498, 401 (1965). ethnic minorities, struck down United Jewish Organizations Williamsburgh, Inc. Carey, 430 144, 97 996, 51 229 (1977); Wright Rockefeller, 52, 603, 512 repeatedly "operate minimize cancel strength elements population" Fortson, supra, U.S., 439, S.Ct., 501 (emphasis added). Gaffney Cummings, 735, 751, 2321, 2330, 298 143, 1869; 88, 1294. Finally, upheld formulated bipartisan try provide level approximately State. type brought not, matter, expressly Regardless holding, our consideration face discussion appellant's brief, repeated reference opinions deficiencies dilute groups, least supports inference since after Gaffney, number rejected WMCA, Lomenzo, 382 4, 24, 15 (1965), summarily aff'g 238 916 (SDNY), most frequently cited upholding temporary New York. determined challenges 925-926. Harlan, his summary affirmance, expressed understanding affirmance approval court's nonjusticiability. 6, 26. Jimenez Hidalgo County Water Improvement 2, 424 950, 96 1423, 357 (1976), 68 F.R.D. 668 (SD Tex.1975); Ferrell Hall, 406 939, 2045, 32 328 (1972), 339 (WD Okla.); Wells 398 901, 90 1696, 26 60 (1970), 311 48 (SDNY). affirmances arguably dismissed want substantial Wiser Hughes, 459 962, 103 286, 74 272 (1982), dismissing appeal re Legislative Districting, 299 Md. 658, 475 A.2d 428; Kelly Bumpers, 413 3047, 1019 (1973), 340 568 (ED Ark.1972); Archer Smith, 409 808, 62, 34 Graves Barnes, 343 704, 734 Tex.). 14 sets may look different directions, extent indicate nonjusticiability bound decisions. observed before, "[i]t unusual appropriate full subject previous action." Washington Yakima Indian Nation, 439 463, 477, n. 20, 99 740, 749, 58 740 (1979). Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 670-671, 94 1347, 1359-1360, 39 662 (1974). issue us precluded dispositions important one, deserves consideration. B outlines doctrine described defined Carr. synthesis following opinion: "It formulations vary slightly according settings questions arise describe identify essentially function separation powers. Prominent surface textually demonstrable commitment coordinate department; discoverable it; impossibility deciding without initial determination nonjudicial discretion; undertaking independent resolution expressing due branches government; unquestioning already made; potentiality embarrassment multifarious pronouncements departments 17 "Unless inextricable bar, dismissal ground question's presence. treat 'political questions,' cases.' reject 'no suit' bona fide action denominated 'political' exceeds authority. reviewed show necessity discriminating inquiry precise facts posture semantic cataloguing." 217, 710. 18 Baker, analysis allowed disparities represented representative. 253-258, 729-732 (Clark, concurring). present: 19 "The consistency Constitution. decided, government Court. abroad, grave disturbance home Tennessee constitutionality her challenged. appellants, order succeed action, ask enter determinations lacking. Judicial well familiar, open enactment Amendment determine, must, reflects policy, simply arbitrary capricious 226, 715. 20 applies equally now us. disturbance, light It true Carr subsequently resolved formulation rule. 557-561, 1379-1381. fact, similarly perceive presumption instant principle yet rely potential rule Instead, language quoted above indicates, contemplated line susceptible adjudication applicable criteria. 22 Furthermore, formulating formula, characterized posed disparate size fair representation. anyone deprived person's counted. elects another more—the elector's former having less weight sense he legislator, neighbor adjoining more. accordingly observed: 23 "Since achieving effective citizens concededly basic aim apportionment, guarantees participation legislators. Diluting place residence impairs just much invidious discriminations factors race. . ." 565-566, 1383-1384. 24 surely indicates going adequacy legislatures. Reynolds. concern unequal size. Not everyone right counted, elector lawmakers. Nevertheless, representation, decline Regester Chavis much. variation voting. instead identifiable insufficient redrawn remedy defect. rejecting sustaining Regester. Just clearly, muster manipulated afford groups enhanced legislators choice. advising caution, said "we must respond [the] populationwise, invidiously fairness principle' followed. 751-752, 2330-2331 statute 27 demonstrates, complaining immutable historical stigma relevant adjudicated, differences justify refusal entertain 28 O'CONNOR's attempt demonstrates futility effort. Her seems rest dual exist judiciary make. Yet she how set forth adjudicating demonstrate what decision—regarding, example, desirability representation—we made race cases.9 She merely asserts historically suspect classification immediately related strength. This, combination "the justiciable." Post, 151 (O'CONNOR, judgment). Reliance assertions determine transform narrow categories "political questions" carefully ad hoc litmus test reactions application statutory own reflect approach: concludes "self-limiting enterprise" intervention. 152. expresses today lead instability malaise," 147, nothing bringing similar begin with, factual assumptions means obviously correct: self-limiting enterprise great incentive bring intent. fundamental level, flawed focuses perceived practical problems allowing review. Validation amorphous wide-ranging assessing alter substantially enunciated implicit invitation rethink approach. 30 Having turn 31 Preliminarily, agree discriminates basis. Both instances within believe exemplify claim, understand it, whole, subjected Complaint Bandemer Plaintiffs 3-7. asserted allegedly through manipulation focus necessarily somewhat involved plaintiffs actual 67-68, 1499-1500. Further, confident challenged effects record intentional. Thus, overturn intent erroneous. 33 Indeed, quite aside anecdotal Districts, boundaries, think redistricts, responsible legislation know composition prediction candidate competitive either might win. 752-753, 2331-2332: idle, think, taken account fashioning invalidate it. contrary. [412 (1973) ]; [384 (1966) [403 (1971) Abate Mundt, 182, 1904, 399 ]. very essence produce different—a 'politically fair'—result reached large, 100% seats. Politics considerations inseparable apportionment. profile registration, records available precinct precinct, ward ward. subdivisions identical census tracts, overlaid map, special genius recognize consequences along street another. obvious, absolutely unavoidable, location complexion area. rarely neutral phenomena. They can predominantly Republican, close likely. Redistricting pit experienced legislator. reality inevitably consequences. 35 suggested redistrict reapportion work political, data achieve equality regard impact. politically mindless approach produce, grossly gerrymandered results; and, event, unlikely impact remain undiscovered time proposed adopted, event changed, intended."10 36 long done intended.11 accept, legal bases Act visited sufficiently constitutionally protected prevents affected. F.Supp., 1492. foreclose Constitution legislatures draw come near possible allocating contending proportion anticipated be. 153, 156, 160, 1874, 1876, 1878; 765-766, 2339-2340. 38 typical States conducted geographical receiving seat allocated If competitive—defined split range 45% 55%—even preference overwhelming legislature. consequence, inherent winner-take-all, district-based losing candidates. said: "[W]e unprepared plurality single- supporters assigned them." 1878. maximize require creating many demographic predicted permit. leave fairness" despite tendency deny minorities realistic representatives. Connecticut adopted 40 involving evidence excluded "less participate processes choice" refused approve use 624, 3279. 167, 1010; 2339-2340; 150, 1872. responsiveness concerns groups. 625-627, 3279-3281; 766-767, 2339-2340.12 41 holdings conviction infirm. conviction, turn, stems perception limited elections. An individuals usually deemed adequately situation, contrary, entirely ignore loses simple 111, 1523, (MARSHALL, dissenting). 42 Again, disproportionately previously used describing district, inquiries same.13 contexts, denied effectively process. deliberations slating nomination candidates, register hence directly returns attention candidate. Statewide, centers direct indirect And, disadvantages certain effectively. unconstitutionality supported continued frustration denial 44 Based views, interest demonstrate. low District-based hardly ever perfect fit one-person, one-vote often mandates departure result no-retrogression § Act. Inviting minor departures supposed norm too embroil second-guessing referred task monitored closely express tacit goal removal halls. step toward end, odds history experience. 45 illegal de minimis unprecedented. Cummings present, considerably complex allegations serious decisions.14 C 46 satisfy condition stating proving cause action. reaching conclusion, relied elections: 48.1%; yet, filled, won 57 43. 46.9% Republicans; 13. inclined amounted 86%—18 21—seats counties. enough justification eyes forthcoming.15 observed, disagree, swing Voters sometimes prefer Republican. assembly. declined predictable reliable ones. percentage increase argue persuasive response appellees, additional points obtained houses. 1980's occur nature, created undermine conclusion. For purposes appear indistinguishable be, necessary shown, demonstrated particularly useful attaining impermissibly ends; stage inquiry, materially aid 49 determining gerrymanders, "any distinctive halls numerous command represents living compact district." Whitcomb, 1875. tht "had choice." 149, observe blacks choose desired support, affairs occasions chosen, slated Party. Against background, emerges poor Negroes. ghetto residents 'cancelled out' held, euphemism defeat polls." 1874. Indiana. employing criterion, namely, "that leading question—that 766, 2339. participatory legality helpful discriminate participating nominated purposes, insofar vel non counties, like Negroes failed boils complaint attract districts.16 D approach, POWELL suggests alternative method evaluating gerrymandering. view, considering claims: nature procedures behind redistricting; shapes conformity boundaries; "evidence concerning statistics tending dilution." 173 (concurring part). ultimate occurred, factors—and discrimination—should upheld. According distorted deliberately arbitrarily illegitimate ends." 165. deliberate distortion apparently distinguishes "loose" sense, common practice advantage polls," 164, "unconstitutional" sense. 52 completely distinction crux POWELL's that—at cases—the itself. 53 Moreover, discussed above, here. violations appeared conjunction strong indicia 131. asserting successful shut process.17 prior analogous (actual projected) indicia. rise requisite level. 54 possibly transitory depart POWELL. Stripped "factors" verbiage, turns circumstances. concrete total cast.18 disproportionality, denied. 55 results, contribute disadvantaged fact. accordance intention, beyond shown results: placed supermajority departs pre-existing boundaries. placement affects occurred. 56 (or two) contains explanation why silent relevance substantive cases. mean intimate considers irrelevant. view. And configurations projections predict showing. issue, proceed lines: intent, then examined valid underpinnings. exclusive accepted principles invalid met legitimate interests. consistent follow here: assumed violation,19 therefore reach (legitimate otherwise) served consider.20 59 inappropriate, separate components considered together functions meaning. undifferentiated confuses import factor disguises essential sum, adopt invites application. Determining "arranged whole," 132, inquiry.21 recognizes delicacy intruding parallel standard.22 conclude, 62 Reversed. 63 Chief judgment. I join opinion. 65 surprising troubled redress. De Tocqueville, perceptive commentator country, "[s]carcely arises become, sooner later, debate." Democracy America 330 (H. Reeve trans. 1961). What craft "injustice." my Framers envisioned scheme. responsibility correction flaws people, Frankfurter wrote entered arena: 66 forethought enthrone judiciary. others relief belong Appeal informed, civically militant electorate. democratic society ours, aroused popular conscience sears people's unseemly nor self-defeating terrorem pronouncements, indulge empty rhetoric, sounding word promise ear, sure disappointing hope." 270, 739, (1962) (dissenting opinion). 67 whom REHNQUIST join, Today holds lodged two-party Nothing precedents compels step, so. unquestionably intended. 69 doubt emergence stable country contributed enormously sound government. preservation health institutions, federal, depends small vitality system, permits stability measured change. critical traditional politics States, plays role fostering active business fundamentally affair, carried out—by process—present truest term. 70 matters inject heated issues. moving away nebulous fashions rough shift immense unfortunate. believe, offers shred suggest, encompass making about Nation governed. towards expansion history, traditions, institutions. 71 pays heed considerations, inform sensible jurisprudence Article reflexive precedent ignores maxim "[p]articularly dealing broad provisions Constitution, derive content interpretative inclusion exclusion, generalizations, qualified situations gave them, variant controlling facts." Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 343-344, 81 125, 128-129, 110 (1960). profoundly affect governance cite precedent: examine limits, lacking, flaws. 72 Appellees diluting votes, thereby depriving "their influence." 299, 754-755, (Frankfurter, principally (1964), including "purely claim," ante, 119, "is justiciability." Ante, 125. recognizes, "[i]nviting halls." 133. plurality's modeled effects: "unconstitutional whole." 132. momentous followed malaise. strength, possesses tends able recreate adversary litigation reconcile competing religious, ethnic, racial, occupational, socioeconomic limiting organized parties, remains invited fight battle anew court. Apportionment burden places deter routine lodging complaints. Notwithstanding effects, opened door pervasive unwarranted superintendence 75 inception. precedent, relies far-reaching thicket." Colegrove Green, 549, 556, 1198, 1201, L.Ed. 1432 (1946) (opinion Frankfurter, J.). 76 reaffirmed lawsuit "a it," discretion" apparent. workable applying supra. until extended Sims year unanimous affirming nonjusticiable; Harlan pointed out, rejection "contentions 'gerrymandering' Amendment." 26, (1965) 77 raised again today, apply familiar "[j]udicial Clause," 715, forced resort manageable. answer interpret dissent "[t]he suggestion decide this, 'justiciability,' also, perhaps fundamentally, cognizable case." 337, 774. itself interpretation Clause: ruled 715; 338-339, 775-776 (Harlan, meaning "arbitrary capricious" threatened unmanageable, difficulty pretermitted relatively Term Sims. Bickel, Supreme Reapportionment, 1970's, pp. 57, (N. Polsby ed. 1971). 78 intendment determinable enforce whose "debasement," 194, 697-698. recognizing rights. standard. 79 justifies extension mainstream pronouncement "Reynolds legislatures." 124. plain safeguards individual's groups: "To citizen's debased, citizen. lives overweighting efficacy vote." 567, 1384. reason, "an impaired fashion compared parts State." 568, 1385. guaranteed interpreted voter 'have weighted citizens.' " 78, 1505, (1980) (plurality 80 "asserted entitlement representation," 77, traced principle: course, person draws significance associations exercise reflects, altogether themselves squarely not." 78-79, 1506 (citing (1971)). Where apportioned basis, "obvious nobody's 'diluted' 1505. imply free impairment Treating collapse "fundamental inhibits compete leadership democratically governed community." 83, 1508 (STEVENS, 83 recognition outside Negro disfranchisement exception avoiding absence explicit imperative. Law unequivocal. end compelling motive Civil War Amendments. Fifteenth Fourteenth. Slaughter-House Cases, [83 36] Wall. 36, 67-72 [21 394]; Strauder West Virginia, 303, 306-307 [10 Otto 664]; Nixon Herndon, 273 536, 541 [47 446, 447, 759]." 285-286, 747 suspectness" San Antonio Independent School Rodriguez, 411 1, 28, 1278, 1294, see Johnson Robison, 361, 375, 14, 1160, 1169, 389 (1974), enjoy measure reality, immediate relationship minority's community circumstances, interests, so, infringed "essentially process." 139. Clearly, Parties dominant group: offered incapable fending good enterprise. B. Cain, Puzzle 151-159 (1984). weaken seats, thus exposing risks defeat—risks refuse accept point. 154-155. Similarly, overambitious disaster majority: hopes win victories, overall tend cost becomes ambitious. More generally, presumably ample weapons disposal conduct struggle leads one. evil checked cured people themselves. Absent proof, need, let 87 agrees unwise "embroil legislature." willing candidate, correctly observes elections." propositions position—that severe intolerable harm ability advance 88 today's unjustifiable founded diminution None statewide. loss voter, limits reasoning, congressional unfairly delegation, injuring national party. 89 reliance overcome objections general treated opinion's observation "districting consequences," 753, 2331, reluctance undertake impossible extirpating sovereign States," 754, whatever harms tolerated inextricably associated redistricting. addition, confront difficulties framing bar fails explain gerrymander—which Gaffney—affects differently today. Connecticut, effort, "provide sort parties. undertook "not eliminate ibid., "judicial lowest ebb purports fairly allocate tolerable succeeds so." Ibid. (citations omitted). employs technique, voters, gerrymander. instance, eye promoting incumbent Some lose belongs opposing advantage. outcome majority. acknowledges, tended "deny representatives." arrangement self-interested permissible, then—in individuals—it permissible employ pursue opposition precisely "initial recognized characteristic questions. "waste" exceed confers powerful individuals; proposes exemplifies intractable deriving rejects "district be," 130, states unmanageable else evolve loose proportionality. Cf. Shapiro, Gerrymandering, Unfairness, UCLA L.Rev. 227, 252-256 Either calamitous courts, system. Vote far confined First, vastly complex. Designing impair designing criteria meet increases, solutions decrease. intrusion 95 Second, membership characteristic, can—and do—move measuring heightened community. When greater, intervening tenuous. move direction analogy problem cases: "in harder prefer, idea mind hard 'should' preferred system." Thornburg Gingles, 2752, 2786, Any reference, electorate implement standard, norm, assess "degraded" standardless impossible. Implicit proportionality normal representational entitlements say results," representation" "lack power," sure, variety ways avoid qualifications enduring tremendous pressures called easily relate solely attempts qualify gradually pale importance. proportionality, deviations significant, persistent suspect. Courts "undue" disproportionality success otherwise turning imponderables other. 98 Of absolute, declare fixed tolerances, edict. flaw pronouncement, vehicle traditions Republic. articulated rightly refrain evade standards. Unfortunately, drift times process" found, 139, access success. expected regain backed 135-136. "by Houses. Under fail gain wins "threshold showing" met, underpinnings." 141. doubted last anything formality, except gerrymanders unexpectedly favorable criticizes "disproportionate violation," 142, arrives foreseeable, long-term 101 ultimately proportionality—not outright required, becomes. tension features Districting middle winner-take-all legitimacy question: evenly distributed invariably at-large systems electing implication slate forward efforts presuppose exist—statewide lines. theory internally inconsistent. dispersion 130. prepared tolerate effect, spell ensure extend cannot: explanation, once again, judgment—in given. "winning" attracts deal reserve however answered, anomalies result. occasionally arbitrary; play permanent 104 generated confine generalized instance. strike prognostications apportionments "findings" neither judges confidence. Once conceded difficult," virtual reliably predicting should, weigh engenders run counter central thrust behalf poses institutions unacceptable. "Political affiliation keystone trade. Race, ideally, 171, 1001, (BRENNAN, STEVENS joins, part. adopting designed preserve follows redistricting.1 107 answering agree, "both group." 127. acknowledges purpose Ibid argues, establish uncontradicted key grotesquely enhance prospects vote," erected barriers franchise. "fair 565, 1383, tested considered. enunciate enacted dissent. 108 exhaustively briefly restated Party controlled houses Assembly, Governor's seat. Pursuant requirements data. Conference Committee, maps assistance private computer firm. information fed concerned precincts. secret. afforded adopted. hearings public views. Committee revealed days session, hurriedly day Assembly. Prior election, commenced claimed constitutes disenfranchise Amendment.2 trial completed disparity captured heard panel Southern Judge Pell, extensive Ind.1984). reverses Gerrymandering populations personal purposes." Kirkpatrick Preisler, 394 526, 538, 1225, 1232, 519 (1969) (Fortas, concurring).3 serves "no segment—whether economic, occupy position weak segment Karcher Daggett, 462 725, 748, 2653, 2668, 133 (1983) 111 term "gerrymandering," loosely occurs. Cousins City Council Chicago, 466 F.2d 830, 847 (CA7) dissenting), cert. denied, 893, 85, (1972). bodies accurately principal unfair. 752-754, 2671-2672. sensitive searching amounts develop seek mistaken, issue.4 112 am convinced developed. Fortas' definition ends. 1232. definition, observance 755-759, 2672-2675 facts, deprive processes. respects fell short establishing effect. brief malapportionment, pressing guide 113 govern impartially. 2668 guarantee importance franchise provides voice 561-562, 1381-1382, contours powerfully citizens' fall, standing position, regardless beliefs affiliation. Chapman Meier, 420 17, 761, 766 (1975); 2330. 114 entertained redesign States' gross E.g., (1962); illustrates concepts vitally encompasses requiring citizens." 1383; 2329. concept "representation" representatives, not. Gross mandate denying residing heavily populated entitle them. While felt combined. ballot bearing malapportionment. 115 populations, plainly criteria, identified engaged cover contiguous territory, alternative, "[i]ndiscriminate districting," gerrymandering." 578-579, 1390. "independent subdivisions. Adherence reasoned, "deter possibilities gerrymandering," controls local 580-581, 1391-1392. Mahan Howell, 410 315, 325-326, 979, 985-986, 320 (1973). 748-749, 2329-2330. redistricting.5 116 detrimental results.6 litigation, undue emphasis mathematical exactitude, subordinating ignoring bear 2671 concurring); 774, 2682 (WHITE, dissenting); illustrates, anticipated, primary betray enabling engage intentionally 542, 551, 1239, 1240, 117 foregoing principles, seriously respects. forceful indisputably describes "Democratic discrimination." characterization inconsistent finding, resulting "individual districting" "exemplif[ies] 118 erroneously characterizes suffer deprived, choosing.7 suggests, "entirely interests" defies suppose victorious conscientious opportunities reward persons campaigns. doubts appointment officers. surprisingly, therefore, "[c]ontrol crucial" 1483.8 findings, "crucial" insignificant losers ignored" winners. 119 exclusively convincing "representation," complying deters identifies affords individuals, "it protects indirectly best," 752, concurring), identity reside "One protect affiliated permitted franchise, population, irrelevant debasing group.9 120 final guidance courts.10 Legislators left wonder compliance insulates scrutiny, fairer undefined applies. articulate curious inviting signal "constitutional green light"11 would-be gerrymanderers. 121 echoing challenges. 753-761, 2671-2676. boundaries.12 Other include reflecting contemporaneous goals. plaintiff offer No dispositive.13 122 ease mapmakers, design purposefully opponents Computer technology enables gerrymanderers adhering perfectly population. "being maintained purposes," "subsidiary fact," reviewing 622-623, 3278-3279, see, 769-770, 2341, precedents.14 disregards adequate 123 exclude February bills chamber conflicting amendments made. send "vehicle bills" apportion Four conferees four advisers Committee. conferees, entitled efforts. advisers, mapmaking 1483. 124 consisted mapmaking. services firm task. 1483-1484. Chairman, program citizens, complexion, trends. Access strictly limited. member program. questioned Chairman "have privilege map. advise you accepted." 1484. 125 promised hearing during views Two Assembly's regular reapportionment, timing hours 4,000 April report Assembly.15 126 Next, "conspicuously ignore[d] subdivisions, interest." 1493. mapmakers carved cities, townships beneficial Many meander picking each.16 explained honor Indiana, affairs. 1494. dissects strange lacking placing composed 1487; Districts 45, 46, infra. conditions, disillusion nonparticipation great," activities artificial units. Intelligent affiliation, resent purpose. 127 Deposition testimony communities. Chairman's honoring meant divide small, suburban communities, illustrate ignored conceive shared Township white suburbanites Hamilton Boone Noble farmers downtown Wayne." 1487. 128 motivated considerations. mapmakers' goals statements leaders openly concisely name game keep power."17 NAACP Plaintiffs' Exhibit 232 (Indianapolis Star, Mar. 22, section 3). completed, map yield "safe" remainder "tossups." 242 (Post-Tribune, Gary, Apr. 29, 1). regularly maintain grip remaining 241 short, unequivocally Republican-dominated sought 1991, date 129 contained irrational justification. 25, 48, 66, 70, 73. panel's familiarity geography confusion exacerbated independently 1484-1485. readily intersect crazy quilt.18 130 employed "[a] create standards, 'to population.' 2330 (quoting 501, (1965)).19 inferred selection others, urban combining rural county.20 pattern appearance aspects best debase "where overwhelming" fragmenting reduced. 1488-1489, Wayne, halves outlying 1488, 1494; 19, 20. example Democrats' Though members, tack artificially base Then, unit three-member fence scatter pockets 1487, 1489; 49, 50, 51, 52.21 131 statistical debased votes. 51.9 percent 48.1 percent. Forty-three elected; elected.22 startling used. earned 46.3 "such speaks itself." 1489.23 132 years, Those showed 12. 53.1 46.9 polls fully borne 1984 42.3 57.7 Yet, positions Democrats.24 rational Appellants' comports Their objective, 1.05 1.15 inflicted distribution. excuse devastating goal, black existed harshly 1489-1490. V 134 imposes Traditionally, Apart powers prescribed ill equipped respecting clear, colorable exercising duty adjudicate impose heavy progeny, comparatively recent paradigm happened well-grounded been, 135 affirm Court.25 136 [Maps page] Politically speaking, "swing" State: times, trends decades voted 56% Democratic, took bills"—bills real content. eventually members. "advisers" appointed, Committee: funded computerized study produced used, study. nevertheless attempted proposals using Governor. multitude trial. specifically credit noting "wish statistician credible credible." 1485. dissimilar unwieldy shapes. Using seats; nevertheless, county's 15-member delegation though suffered Believing compactness, deposition Speaker follows: "MR. SUSSMAN: me reasons operative your maintaining (Districts) [the districts]. DAILEY: Political. factors? wanted save possible." Senator Bosma (newspaper) article says further, 'Under questioning Townsend input drawing, "You ' Is accurate? BOSMA: That's accurate. add don't opposite team." techniques be) "stacked" "wasted" 50% carry Concurrently, spread safe, 55%, majorities, "cracked" "split" dispersing ineffectual. writing dissent, disagreed. Assuming relative strengths ascertained, advantaged equally: 1501-1502. Pell majority's nondiscriminatory Consolidated proceedings below lawsuit, NAACP. dilutions Amendments 1965, U.S.C. 1973 (as amended). found: "[T]he impinged dispute overwhelmingly Democratic." concurred dispositions. O'CONNOR believes made, two. nonpartisan opposed second "of discretion." 710, (1962). aimed guaranteeing infringing second, per se parity significant voices consigned status, extrapolation majoritarian ethic objective Robert G. Dixon, Jr., foremost scholars "[W]hether nonpopulation shaping everpresent operative. outcomes grasp aligns partisans blocs alignment putting place." Fair Criteria Procedures Establishing 7-8, Representation Issues (B. Grofman, Lijphart, McKay, & H. Scarrow eds. 1982). note, patterns processes, relating herein suggest alteration derived contemplate context. suffering 1982. argued disfavored counted excluding ticket time. He believers averaging offices party-line personality issue-oriented unimportant. accepting Pell's strongly all, position. claiming chose wrong resolved. shortcomings districting, automatically call invalidating appearing fill counselled striking entire lesser means. 160-161, 1877-1878. mischaracterize note initially component Act, borrowed White, turned abandoned earlier. incorrectly pass brought. 171-172, Projected certainly districting. proffers benefit development run. percentages, exhibited discrepancy (5% 8%). casts results. true, apparent, difference others. subsidiary conclusions. merely, law, disregarded inadequately effects. progress point, consider addressed faith courts' abilities 157 puzzled relevance. uses "redistricting" refer "redistricting," "apportionment," "reapportionment" interchangeably. Backstrom, Robins, Eller, Gerrymandering: Exploratory Measure Partisan Applied Minnesota, Minn.L.Rev. 1121, (1978); Districting: Social Science Perspective, Technically, words "apportionment" "allocation finite pre-established areas," "districting" 1; 6. consolidated fragmented concentrations Amendments, 1973. discriminated race, bloc "disadvantaging plan's falls harsh state." 1488 Rather taking cross-appeal challenging urging Webster's Third International Dictionary (unabridged 1961) defines "gerrymander" (a territorial unit) unnatural unfair giving concentrating coined Elbridge Gerry "salamander" "fancied resemblance salamander irregularly shaped outline northeastern Massachusetts formed 1812 Gerry's governorship" bizarre shapes, resembles salamander. appended reproduced exhibits explains, (1964); WHITE's originally regarded "opportunities greatest freedom construct unequally districts." 534, 1230, (1969). Advances drastically reduced deterrent value permitting cartographers 10, 2671, implementing factors. focused satisfies supra; Weiser, 783, 2348, 335 limit equality. 745, 2327; 322-325, 984-985, "Equal voters," opinion), polls, 77-80, 1505-1507; 2339-2340, leaps assumption "[a]n import, claimants injured challenge. "Control crucial reasons. wields considerable assigning committees, sessions, empowered, rules, floor debate flow legislation, assignment committee chairmen. achievement drafting legislation." scheme, official obstacles voting, running office heretofore insulate system" attack. 102, 1518 "threshold" "electoral 132; 134, 14. "somewhat different" challenge, takes pains "alteration developed" challenges, 13; Curiously, goes 139-140, "equal generally," incorrect. construed trace 'invidious quality racially purpose.' 616, 3275, quoting Davis, 426 229, 240, 2040, 2048, 597 (1976). assume proper course. flowed "perception 131-132. wholly underlying decisions, came enough, purposeful 618, 3276. explained, (1971), rested proposition "invidious purpose" "objective factors" 95, 1514; 94-97, 102-103, 1517-1518 opinion); 765, 2339 (multimember "used out" groups' strength). "heightened effect," directly, "only appears." erroneous wait Edwards, Gerrymander Man, One Vote," N.Y.U.L.Rev. 879, 880 (1971). grotesque may, more, opinion, 348, (1960), 744, 2665. Groups does, existed. democracy become activities, rationality. Confusion follows, citizen finds himself herself associate depending ballot. influence, illustrating "clearly erroneous" Rule 52(a), saying "merely conclusions." how, where, heart Beyond threshold, flat careful "irrelevant" "insufficient." Presumably haste pushed "wholly omitted assign 42, 74; 37, 39, 47. Evidence sparring pursued objectives probative goals, adding sole "nested" "two By corresponding nested foster participation. L.Rev., 92. barring submerge capture district's ready opponents. 3275. 9, 11, 12, 15, 31, 75. "particularly compactness." "presents grievous cartographer's handiwork "forms letter 'C' around Indianapolis" "includes southwestside city, airport Ben Davis High west side, Meridian Hills northern county." "simply conceivable exhibit shows proceeded County's boundary square, oddly 48: cede turf permit returned Statehouse." 1. Thirty-nine Elections Research Center, Washington, D.C. supplemental statement reflected disparity, seven Senators, figure eight remarked unveiled: "People live [district separating 34] compass they're in." 252 May evident "Court" Justices, three Justices "prove arbitrary." 155 Page 185-Continued

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