Document: 445 U.S. 55 100 S.Ct. 915 63 L.Ed.2d 198 George Calvin LEWIS, Jr., Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. No. 78-1595. Argued Jan. 7, 1980. Decided Feb. 27, Syllabus Held: Even though petitioner's extant prior state-court felony conviction may be subject to collateral attack under Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 335, 83 792, 9 799, it could properly used as a predicate for his subsequent possession of firearm in violation § 1202(a)(1) Title VII the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act 1968. Pp. 60-68. (a) The plain meaning 1202(a)(1)'s sweeping language proscribing firearms by any person who "has been convicted court United States or State . felony," is that fact imposes disability until vacated felon relieved some affirmative action. Other provisions statute demonstrate reinforce its broad sweep, there nothing legislative history suggest Congress was willing allow defendant question validity defense charge 1202(a)(1). Moreover, are remedies available felon—removal qualifying pardon Secretary Treasury's consent, specified Act, challenge an appropriate proceeding—suggests intended clear statusbefore obtaining firearm, thereby fulfilling Congress' purpose keep away from persons classified potentially irresponsible dangerous. 60-65. (b) regulatory scheme at issue here consonant with concept equal protection embodied Due Process Clause Fifth Amendment, since rationally conclude conviction, even allegedly invalid one, sufficient basis on which prohibit firearm. And use uncounseled imposing civil disability, enforceable criminal sanction, not inconsistent Burgett Texas, 389 109; Tucker, 404 443; Loper Beto, 405 473. 65-67. 591 F. 2d 978, affirmed. BLACKMUN, J., delivered opinion Court, BURGER, C.J., STEWART, WHITE, REHNQUIST, STEVENS, JJ., joined. BRENNAN, filed dissenting opinion, MARSHALL POWELL, joined, post, p. 68. Andrew W. Wood argued cause petitioner. With him briefs were Neal P. Rutledge. J. Levander pro hac vice States. brief Solicitor General McCree, Assistant Attorney Heymann, Deputy Frey, Jerome M. Feit, Joel Gershowitz. Mr. JUSTICE BLACKMUN Court. 1 This case presents whether defendant's flawed because he without counsel, required 335 (1963), constitute 1202(a)(1), amended, 1968, 18 U.S.C. App. 1020(a)(1).1 2 * In 1961, petitioner Lewis, upon plea guilty, Florida state breaking entering intent commit misdemeanor. See Fla. Stat. 810.05 (1961). He served term imprisonment. That has never overturned, nor ever received permission Treasury possess 1203(2) 925(c). 3 January 1977, probable cause, arrested Virginia, later charged indictment having knowingly possessed time 1202(a)(1).2 waived jury given bench trial. It stipulated weapon had shipped interstate commerce. Government introduced evidence exemplified copy judgment sentence 1961 proceeding. 10. 4 Shortly before trial, counsel informed advised Lewis represented proceeding.3 claimed supra, 1202 (a)(1) predicated obtained Sixth Fourteenth Amendment rights. rejected claim, ruling constitutionality outstanding immaterial respect status previously arrest. Petitioner, accordingly, offered no aid counsel. We therefore assume, present purposes, time. 5 On appeal, Court Appeals Fourth Circuit, divided vote, F.2d 978 (1979). held defendant, purely prosecution collaterally statutory prohibition applied irrespective attack. also Lewis' constitutional argument effect violated rights Amendments. 6 Because conflict among Courts Appeals,4 we granted certiorari. 422 939 II 7 Four cases decided this provide focus conviction. first, pivotal where valid waiver unconstitutional fully retroactive. Kitchens Smith, 401 847 (1971). 8 second 109 (1967). There enhancement punishment State's recidivist statute. third 443 (1972), such considered sentencing after fourth 473 disallowed impeach general credibility defendant. plurality said, "lacked reliability." Id., 484, quoting Linkletter Walker, 381 618, 639, n. 20 (1965). We, course, accept these rulings purposes case. Petitioner's position, however, four require reversal both grounds. III 10 stated repeatedly late concerning interpretation "starting point" must itself. Reiter Sonotone Corp., 330, 337 Touche Ross & Co. Redington, 442 560, 568 (1979); Southeastern Community College Davis, 397, An examination reveals proscription directed unambiguously ... felony." No modifier present, suggests restriction scope "convicted." "Nothing face congressional limit coverage [whose convictions attack]." Culbert, 435 371, 373 (1978); see Naftalin, 441 768, 772 sweeping, action, consent Treasury.5 obvious breadth well reflect expansive approach revealed express findings declarations, 1201,6 problem abuse felons certain specifically described persons. 11 sweep. Section 1203 enumerates exceptions (a prison inmate reason duties expressly entrusted authority; pardoned authorized receive, possess, transport firearm). addition, 1202(c)(2) defines "felony" exclude crimes punishable more than two years' exception, made whose ultimately might turn out reason. therefore, contains way restrictive language. thus stands contrast other federal statutes explicitly permit challenge, defense, felony. See, e.g., 3575(e) (dangerous special offender) 21 851(c)(2) (recidivism Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention 1970). 12 When find section enacted part Acts 82 236. added floor amendment discussion reports. Batchelder, 114, 120 Scarborough States, 431 563, 569-570 (1977); Bass, 336, 344, What little relevant reflects impose based Senator Long, passage VII, stressed "valid" criterion. For example, observed: 13 "So, title every citizen gun commission first Upon would deny assassin, murderer, thief burglar right future except President Governor expressedly firearm." 114 Cong. Rec. 14773 (1968). 14 id., 13868, 14774. Inasmuch Long sponsor manager bill, statements entitled weight. Simpson 436 6, (1978). 15 significance, furthermore, IV response precipitous rise political assassinations, riots, violent involving firearms, occurred country 1960's. S. Rep. 1097, 90th Cong., Sess., 76-78 (1968); H.R. 1577, 1501, 22-23 16 "The [of VII] entirety, while brief, further supports view sought rule broadly -- guns hands those have demonstrated 'they trusted becoming threat society.'" U.S., 572. 17 history, affords loophole, Congress. 1202(a) prophylaxis, simple terms, against misuse firearms. indication prove very structure Act's IV, simultaneously reinforces conclusion. Each prohibits categories presumptively dangerous transporting receiving §§ 922(g) (h). Actually, regard here, detect significant difference between VII. seeks "any convicted" felony, although definition differs somewhat respective statutes. But 922(g)(1) (h)(1) validly odds whole. Those sections only but indictment, if subsequently acquitted charge. Since mere disabling circumstance, fortiori much deprive 19 Finally, important note relief. As observed above, 925(c), states removed Secretary's consent. Also, petitioner, challenged proceeding courts. Const., Art. 5, (3); L'Hommedieu State, 362 So. 72 (Fla. 1978); Weir 319 80 1975). Morgan, 346 502 (1954).7 seems apparent us existence remedies, contained itself, clearly "broadly dangerous." Barrett 423 212, 218 (1976). so clear, nevertheless should construed avoid inapposite. course when provides fair alternative construction. plain. Swain Pressley, 430 372, 378, 122-123. Similarly, principle lenity, Rewis 808, 812 (1971), application. touchtsone ambiguity. Huddleston 415 814, 832 (1974); 121-122. ambiguity here. 22 hold possessing despite 23 "some 'rational basis' distinctions they 'have relevance classification made.'" Marshall 414 417, (1974), McGinnis Royster, 410 263, 270 (1973), Baxstrom Herold, 383 107, 111 (1966). Vance Bradley, 440 93, 97 (1979).8 24 meets test. Congress, expressed enacting reveals, 1201, concerned receipt constitutes threat, things, continued effective operation control laws discloses worry about easy availability especially pose community peace. focused nexus crime record. 13220 (1968) (remarks Sen. Tydings); 16298 Pollock). Ransom, 515 885, 891-892 (CA5 1975), cert. denied, 424 944, 96 1412, 47 349 recognized legislature constitutionally engaging activities far fundamental Richardson Ramirez, 418 24, 94 2655, 41 551 (1974) (disenfranchisement); De Veau Braisted, 363 144, 1146, 1109 (1960) (proscription holding office waterfront labor organization); Hawker New York, 170 189, 573, 42 L.Ed. 1002 (1898) (prohibition practice medicine). 25 recognize, cannot purposes. Burgett, Loper, all supra. suggested Scott Illinois, 367, 99 1158, 59 482, 11, 92 S.Ct., 1019, (plurality opinion). 26 Use Loper. each cases, found depended reliability past laws, reliability, order felon, one uncounseled, class disabled dealing potential dangerousness rational.9 Enforcement essentially through sanction does "support guilt enhance punishment," 115, 88 262, unreliable considers purpose. unlike situation imposed attaches immediately 27 Again, otherwise remove simply today open new form Note, Prior Convictions Gun 76 Colum.L.Rev. 326, 338-339 Cf. Walker City Birmingham, 388 307, 87 1824, 1210 28 29 ordered. 30 Justice whom POWELL join, dissenting. 31 disagreement addressed issue,1 held, hence Today affirms judgment, analysis squared either literal controlling decisions I respectfully dissent. 32 Two longstanding principles construction independently mandate precept "when choice readings what conduct crime, appropriate, choose harsher alternative, spoken definite." Universal C. I. T. Credit 344 218, 221-222, 73 227, 229, 260 (1952). reaffirmed "rule lenity." e. g., 14, 98 909, 914, 70 347-349, 515, 522, 488 (1971); 812, 91 1056, 1059, 493 Ladner 358 169, 177, 79 209, 213, 199 (1958); Bell 81, 75 620, 905 (1955). Indeed, "ambiguity ambit resolved favor lenity" invoked interpreting provision 33 declines apply established because, view, "[t]here here." Ante, 65. light gloss places statute, curious By own reaches "[a]ny PERSON WHO hAs admits exception proscription. Yet absence phrase, concedes—as must—that interpreted include reversed appeal. 60-61, 5. 34 appears words all, determine section's reach. constructions offered: Government's—that read serve prosecution. Tr. Oral Arg. 29-30. outstanding, valid. fairly comports language, surely lenity requires resolve doubts 35 adopts Government's construction, relying supposed enact measure however meant be, faithful "our duty protect individual," Dalia 238, 1682, 1696, 60 156 (1979) (STEVENS, dissenting), quick ascribe punish assistance "one safeguards deemed necessary insure human life liberty." Johnson Zerbst, 304 458, 462, 58 1022, 1461 (1938). Petitioner once already imprisoned Constitution. expression intent, indifference plight derogation 799 (1963).2 36 maxim compels narrow reading "cardinal principle" "if serious doubt raised, will ascertain possible avoided." Crowell Benson, 285 22, 62, 52 285, 296, 598 (1932). Accord, Schneider 390 17, 26, 682, 687, Rumely, 345 41, 45, 543-545, 770 (1953); CIO, 106, 120-121, 20, 68 1349, 1356, 1849 (1948). liability solely previous indeed serious, trilogy Court's seem precisely result. 37 109, 258, (1967), void inadmissible Texas stated: "To Wainwright support another offense erode Worse yet, defect denial accused suffers anew deprivation right." 262 (citation omitted). 443, 589, 592 473, 1014, 374 respectively prohibited factor sentencing, credibility. 38 progeny appear result teaching can "to offense." Here, tried violating plainer guilt" current offense. bald assertion contrary inexplicable. 39 attempt distinguish ground sentences convictions, law focuses unconvincing. rationale behind concern according seriously protections Amendment. decision within supported historical reliable indicator dangerousness. often impeaches "the integrity fact-finding process." 85 1731, 1743, 601 Lakeside Oregon, 333, 341, 1091, 1095, Argersinger Hamlin, 407 25, 31, 2006, 2009, 530 (1972). impairs just direct proof guilt. 483, 1019 (opinion J.). 40 irrelevant proceedings Nor remedy raising unconstitutionality place, neither requirement faces 1202(a)(1); impermissible defendants taken steps them overturned. More point, initial did defending charges him, defies sensibility regarded failed retain seek extraordinary writ coram nobis. reads full: "Any who-- "(1) subdivision thereof "(2)" discharged Armed Forces dishonorable conditions, "(3) adjudged being mentally incompetent, "(4) renounced citizenship, "(5) alien illegally unlawfully "and receives, transports commerce affecting commerce, date enactment shall fined $10,000 years, both." 822(h)(1). pertinent part: "It unlawful for, bene of, imprisonment exceeding year; receive transported commerce." 822(h)(1) attorney records showed affirmatively lawyer. noted same six months tried. 2-3. Compare Lufman, 457 165 (CA7 1972) (use underlying unconstitutionally reversible error), Circuit's case, Maggard, 573 926 (CA6 Graves, 554 65 (CA3 1977) (en banc) (claim error raised). Ninth Circuit distinguished claim invalidity been, O'Neal, 545 (1976), Pricepaul, 540 417 Liles, 432 (1970). Herrell, 588 711 (CA9 1978), 964 (underlying 922(h)(1) nonconstitutional grounds). identical presented arisen context challenges (proscribing shipping foreign felony) person). Scales, 599 78 1979); Dameron 724 1974); Pasterchik 466 1367 1972); DuShane, 187 (CA2 1970) attacked unconstitutional), Barker 579 1219, 1226 (CA10 1978) 922(h)(1)). treated differently prosecutions 922(a)(6) (prohibiting falsification one's purchasing Nonuniformity prevailed nonetheless supra (permitting challenge), Allen, 556 720 (CA4 1977); supra; Cassity 521 1320 1975) (holding made). Eighth 922(a)(6), reserving 1292(a)(1) (h)(1). Edwards, F.2d, 83-88 (Garth, Seitz, concurring part)(the need brought do 1202(a)(1)). One argue, includes interim finally appeal longer outstanding. Government, go far, 29-30, 37-40, pursue extreme reject it. persuaded possibility making renders suggests, vague. dissent, 69, chose consistent common-sense notion cease depends vacated. note, nonetheless, effected pending Colum. L. Rev. 334, hereby finds declares receipt, possession, transportation felons, veterans mental incompetents, aliens country, former citizens their burden free flow "(2) safety Vice impediment exercise speech religion guaranteed Constitution government article Constitution." so, attach "what amount life-long sanctions finding cause," commentator. Comment, Harv. Rev., 1790, 1795 These restrictions suspect criteria, trench protected liberties. Miller, 307 174, 178 (1939) (the Second guarantees bear reasonable relationship dissent's supported, 72, share. plainly deference reviewing give determination that, essence, predicts behavior. 1970); Thoresen, 428 654 generally Harv.L.Rev. 1790 observed, "was hastily passed, discussion, hearings, report." 520, "In short, 'the [the] hardly speaks clarity supposedly furnishes courts enable enforce true will.' " 346, 522 (quoting Camera Corp. NLRB, 340 474, 71 456, 95 456 (1951)). wonder explicit statute's few signposts exist point included whereby mean exclusive remedies. designed mechanism relief prohibitions 1202. comparison unenlightening us. Simply means follows, otherwise, latter convictions. ante, 64. Significantly, attaching individual necessarily temporary, indefinite duration. failure "under indictment" proscriptions plausibly signals desire demand greater then provided indictment—or, matter, fact, slightly different context, proposition "dangerousness." offender).

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