Document: 411 U.S. 677 93 S.Ct. 1764 36 L.Ed.2d 583 Sharron A. FRONTIERO and Joseph Frontiero, Appellants,v.Elliot L. RICHARDSON, Secretary of Defense, et al. No. 71—1694. Argued Jan. 17, 1973. Decided May 14, Syllabus A married woman Air Force officer (hereafter appellant) sought increased benefits for her husband as a 'dependent' under 37 U.S.C. §§ 401, 403, 10 1072, 1076. Those statutes provide, solely administrative convenience, that spouses male members the uniformed services are dependents purposes obtaining quarters allowances medical dental benefits, but female not unless they in fact dependent over one-half their support. When application was denied failure to satisfy statutory dependency standard, appellant brought this suit District Court, contending deprived servicewomen due process. From Court's adverse ruling, took direct appeal. Held: The judgment is reversed. Pp. 682—691, 691—692, 341 F.Supp. 201, J. Levin, Jr., Montgomery, Ala., appellants. Ruth B. Ginsburg, New York City, American Civil Liberties Union, amicus curiae, by special leave Court. Samuel Huntington, Washington, D.C., appellees. Mr. Justice BRENNAN announced Court an opinion which DOUGLAS, WHITE, MARSHALL join. 1 question before us concerns right member services1 claim spouse 1076, on equal footing with members. Under these statutes, serviceman may his wife without regard whether she upon him any part § 401(1); 1072(2)(A). servicewoman, other hand, programs he 401; 1072(2)(C).2 Thus, decision difference treatment constitutes unconstitutional discrimination against violation Due Process Clause Fifth Amendment. three-judge Middle Alabama, one judge issenting, rejected contention sustained constitutionality provisions making distinction. 201 (1972). We noted probable jurisdiction. 409 840, 64, 34 78 reverse. 2 * In effort attract career personnel through reenlistment, Congress established, 401 seq., 1071 scheme provision fringe competitive basis business industry.3 entitled 'basic allowence quarters' and, member's provided comprehensive care. 3 Appellant lieutenant United States Force, allowances, housing husband, ground 'dependent.' Although such would automatically have been granted respect services, appellant's because failed demonstrate more than support.4 Appellants then commenced suit, contendingthat, distinction, unreasonably discriminate sex Amendment.5 essence, appellants asserted discriminatory impact twofold: first, procedural matter, required spouse's dependency, while no burden imposed members; second, substantive who does provide wife's support receives similarly situated benefits. therefore permanent injunction continued enforcement order directing appellees Lieutenant Frontiero same receive. 4 legislative history sheds virtually light underlying differential accorded members,6 majority surmised might reasonably concluded that, since our society generally 'breadwinner' family—and typically partner—'it be economical require claiming husbands prove actual extend presumption members.' F.Supp., at 207. Indeed, given approximately 99% all male, speculated conceivably lead 'considerable saving expense manpower.' Ibid. II 5 At outset, contend classifications based sex, like race,7 alienage,8 national origin,9 inherently suspect must subjected close judicial scrutiny. agree indeed, find least implicit approach unanimous only last Term Reed v. Reed, 404 71, 92 251, 30 225 (1971). 6 considered Idaho statute providing when two individuals otherwise equally appointment administrator estate, applicant preferred female. Appellant, mother deceased, appellee, father, filed competing petitions son's estate. Since parties, parents were entitlement class preference invoked father's petition granted. claimed statute, giving mandatory males females individual qualifications, violated Equal Protection Fourteenth 7 'provides different applicants sex; it thus establishes classification subject scrutiny Clause.' U.S., 75, 253. 'traditional' protection analysis, 'patently arbitrary' bears rational relationship legitimate governmental interest. See Jefferson Hackney, 406 535, 546, 1724, 1731, 32 285 (1972); Richardson Belcher, 78, 81, 254, 257, 231 (1971); Flemming Nestor, 363 603, 611, 80 1367, 1372, 1435 (1960); McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 426, 81 1101, 1105, 393 (1961); Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 485, 90 115o, 1161, 25 491 (1970). 8 meet appellee contended reasonable measure designed reduce workload probate courts eliminating contests. Moreover, argued itself 'men (are) rule conversant affairs . women.'10 maintained 'it matter common knowledge, women still engaged politics, professions, or industry extent men are.'11 And Supreme upholding suggested Legislature 'concluded general better qualified act women.'12 9 Despite contentions, however, held unconstitutional. reaching result, implicitly appellee's apparently explanation scheme, ignoring qualifications particular applicants, challenged 'dissimilar situated.' 77, S.Ct., 254. even though State's interest achieving efficiency 'is some legitimacy,' '(t)o give either other, merely accomplish elimination hearings merits, make very kind arbitrary choice forbidden (Constitution) ..' Id., 76, This departure from rational-basis analysis sex-based clearly justified. There can doubt Nation has had long unfortunate discrimination.13 Traditionally, rationalized attitude 'romantic paternalism' which, practical effect, put women, pedestal, cage. paternalistic became so firmly rooted consciousness 100 years ago, distinguished Member able proclaim: 11 'Man is, should be, women's protector defender. natural proper timidity delicacy belongs evidently unfits many occupations civil life. constitution family organization, founded divine ordinance, well nature things, indicates domestic sphere properly domain functions womanhood. harmony, say identity, interests views belong, institution repugnant idea adopting distinct independent husband. 12 '. paramount destiny mission fulfil noble benign offices mother. law Creator.' Bradwell State Illinois, 16 Wall. 130, 141, 21 442 (1873) (Bradley, J., concurring). 13 As result notions these, books gradually laden gross, stereotyped distinctions between sexes throughout much 19th century position was, respects, comparable blacks pre-Civil War slave codes. Neither slaves nor could hold office, serve juries, bring own names, traditionally legal capacity convey property guardians children. Kanowitz, Women Law: Unfinished Revolution 5—6 (1969); G. Myrdal, An Dilemma 1073 (20th Anniversary ed. 1962). although guaranteed vote 1870, right—which 'preservative basic political rights'14—until adoption Nineteenth Amendment half later. 14 It true, course, America improved markedly recent decades.15 Nevertheless, hardly doubted high visibility characteristic,16 face pervasive, times subtle, educational institutions, job market perhaps most conspicuously, arena.17 K. Amundsen, Silenced Majority: Democracy President's Task Women's Rights Responsibilities, Matter Simple Act 1964, 84 Harv.L.Rev. 1109 15 race origin, immutable characteristic determined accident birth, imposition disabilities seem violate 'the concept system burdens bear responsibility Weber Aetna Casualty & Surety Co., 164, 175, 1400, 1407, 31 768 what differentiates non-suspect statuses intelligence physical disability, aligns recognized criteria, frequently relation ability perform contribute society.18 often effect invidiously relegating entire inferior status capabilities its also note past decade, manifested increasing sensitivity classifications. Tit. VII example, expressly declared employer, labor union, organization shall 'race, color, religion, origin.'19 Similarly, Pay 1963 provides employer covered 'shall employees sex.'20 Amendment, passed March 22, 1972, submitted legislatures ratification, declares '(e)quality rights abridged account sex.'21 invidious, conclusion coequal branch Government significance presently consideration. Cf. Oregon Mitchell, 400 112, 240, 248—249, 91 260, 322, 327, 27 272 (1970) (opinion Brennan, White, Marshall, JJ.); Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 648—649, 86 1717, 1722, 828 (1966). 17 With considerations mind, we conclude race, alienage, suspect, strict Applying mandated stricter standard review, clear now constitutionally invalid. III 18 sole established involved. 2072, 2076, seeking obtain fact, whereas addition, operate deny member, less support, time granting likewise least, fairly said command 19 concedes serves purpose mere 'administrative convenience.' maintains empirical wives husbands, rarely wives. argues both cheaper easier simply conclusively presume financially burdening task establishing fact.22 20 offers concrete evidence, tending view saves money. demands scrutiny, demonstrate, actually grant members, determine those whose requirement. Here, there substantial evidence if test, fail qualify benefits.23 determination made affidavits rather costly hearing process,24 Government's questionable. case, prior decisions efficacious administration importance, Constitution recognizes higher values speed efficiency.' Stanley 405 645, 656, 1208, 1215, 551 enter realm 'strict scrutiny,' convenience' shibboleth, recitation dictates constitutionality. Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 89 1322, 22 600 Carrington Rash, 380 89, 85 775, 675 (1965). On contrary, draws sharp line sexes, Solely necessarily commands situated,' involves 'very according insofar husband.25 Reversed. 23 STEWART concurs judgment, agreeing work invidious Constitution. 225. 24 REHNQUIST dissents reasons stated Judge Rives Laird, POWELL, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE BLACKMUN join, concurring judgment. 26 I constitute cannot join BRENNAN, 'like origin,' 'inherently scrutiny.' Ante, 682. unnecessary case characterize classification, far-reaching implications holding. (1971), abundantly supports today, did add narrowly limited group suspect. my view, decide authority reserve future expansion rationale. another, compelling, reason deferring categorizing invoking strictest test adopted will resolve substance precise question, approved ratification States. If duly adopted, represent people accomplished manner prescribed By acting prematurely unnecessarily, it, assumed decisional state legislatures, functioning within traditional democractic process, debating proposed seems me out pre-empt action major currently process resolution reflect appropriate processes. 28 system, avoid constitutional issues normally resolved elected representatives people. But democratic institutions weakened, confidence restraint impaired, appear unnecessarily sensitive broad social importance consideration 'uniformed services' include Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, Environmental Science Services Administration, Public Health Service. 101(3); 1072(1). Title pertinent part: 'In chapter, 'dependent,' service, means— '(1) spouse; 'However, person 1072(2) "Dependent,' '(A) wife; '(C) .' 102 Cong.Rec. 3849—3850 (Cong. Kilday), 8043 (Sen. Saltonstall); 95 7662 7664 Short), 7666 Havenner), 7667 Bates), 7671 Price). 1071. full-time student Huntingdon College Alabama. According agreed stipulation facts, living expenses, including share house-hold total $354 per month. $205 month veterans' '(W)hile contains clause, forbid 'so unjustifiable violative process." Schneider Rusk, 377 163, 168, 1187, 1190, 218 (1964); see 641—642, 1335, Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 74 693, 98 L.Ed. 884 (1954). provisions, set forth enacted Career Compensation 1949, uniform pattern military pay consolidating revising piecemeal legislation developed previous 40 years. H.R.Rep. 779, 81st Cong., 1st Sess.; S.Rep. 733, Sess. retained definitions Readjustment 1942 (56 Stat. 361), amended September 7, 1944 (58 730), service dependency. appears derived unspecified earlier enactments. 917, 78th 2d Sess., 4. legislation, Dependents' Medical Care 1956. such, revise existing relating personnel. It, too, carried forward, explanation, found allowance legislation. 1805, 84th 1878, Loving Virginia, 388 1, 11, 87 1817, 1823, 1010 (1967); McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 191—192, 283, 287—288, 222 supra, 499, 694. Graham Richardson, 403 365, 372, 1848, 1852, 29 534 Oyama California, 332 633, 644—646, 68 269, 274—275, 249 (1948); Korematsu States, 323 214, 216, 65 193, 194, 194 (1944); Hirabayashi 320 100, 63 1375, 1385, 1774 (1943). Brief Appellee 70—4, O.T. 1971, p. 12. 12—13. 511, 514, 465 P.2d 635, 638 country inception reflected expressed Thomas neither seen heard society's decisionmaking councils. M. Gruberg, Politics (1968). de Tocqueville, (Reeves trans. 1948). Reynolds Sims, 533, 562, 1362, 1381, 506 Dunn Blumstein, 330, 336, 995, 999, 274 Kramer Union Free School District, 395 621, 626, 1886, 1889, Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 370, 1064, 1071, 220 (1886). (1970); Montagu, Man's Most Dangerous Myth (4th 1964); Commission Status Women, (1963). See, e.g., Note, Sex Discrimination Protection: Do Need Constitutional Amendment?, 1499, 1507 viewed abstract, do small powerless minority. discrimination, vastly underrepresented Nation's never President, Not single sits Senate, seats House Representatives. And, point out, underrepresentation present levels Federal Government. Joint Reply (Amicus Curiae) 9. Developments Law—Equal Protection, 82 1065, 1173—1174 (1969). 42 2000e—2(a), (b), (c) (emphasis added). generally, Sape Hart, Reconsidered: Employment Opportunity Geo.Wash.L.Rev. 824 Law—Employment 8j 206(d) Murphy, Female Wage Discrimination: Study 1963—1970, 39 U.Cin.L.Rev. 615 H.R.J.Res. 208, 92d conformity principles, various schemes similar eliminate women. 2108, amended, 644; 7152, 8341, 1961; 38 102(b), 1092. sense rectify effects Gruenwald Gardner, 390 F.2d 591 (CA2), cert. denied, 982, 456, 445 (1968); cf. Jones Alfred H. Mayer 392 409, 88 2186, 1189 South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 803, 769 seize group—women—who historically suffered employment, rely justification heaping additional economic disadvantages. Gaston County 285, 296—297, 1720, 1725—1726, 309 43% age force, 18% worked full months year. Bureau, Dept. Labor, Highlights Education (W.B.Pub. 72—191, Mar. 1972). 41.5% employed. Bureau Labor Statistics, Work Experience Population (Summary Special Report, Aug. noteworthy median income armed forces $3,686, Report All-Volunteer Armed 51, 181 (1970), employed, $2,237. Statistical Abstract Table 535 (1972), Source: Census, Current Reports, Series P—60, 80. definition 'dependency' statistics, 'median' family, personal expenses $4,474, about 75% income, Tr. Oral Arg. 27—28. earlier, establish compensation re- enlistment. n. 3, accompanying text. Our wise invalidates except spouse. Levy Louisiana, 391 68, 1509, 436 Moritz Commissioner Internal Revenue, 469 466 (CA10 1.

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