Document: 473 U.S. 568 105 S.Ct. 3325 87 L.Ed.2d 409 Lee M. THOMAS, Administrator, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Appellant,v.UNION CARBIDE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS CO. et al. No. 84-497. Argued March 26, 1985. Decided July 1, Syllabus The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) requires manufacturers of pesticides, as a precondition for registering pesticide, to submit research data the Agency (EPA) concerning product's health, safety, environmental effects, authorizes EPA use previously submitted in considering an application registration similar product by another registrant ("follow-on" registrant). Section 3(c)(1)(D)(ii) FIFRA consider certain only if "follow-on" has offered compensate original data, provides binding arbitration registrants fail agree on compensation. arbitrator's decision is subject judicial review "fraud, misrepresentation, or other misconduct." Appellees, firms engaged development marketing chemicals used manufacture instituted proceedings District Court challenge, inter alia, constitutionality provisions ground that they violate Article III Constitution allocating arbitrators functions officers limiting court. Appellees alleged had considered their support applications, one appellees (Stauffer Co.) invoked § against registrant, award fell short compensation which Stauffer Co. was entitled. held claims challenging were ripe decision, those violated III. Held: 1. Appellees' demonstrate sufficient ripeness establish concrete case controversy. Ruckelshaus v. Monsanto Co., 467 986, 104 2862, 81 815 distinguished. have independent right adjudication constitutionally proper forum; claim does not depend outcome given arbitration. It purposes under tribunal's jurisdiction claimant it been inevitably will be subjected exercise such unconstitutional jurisdiction. In addition, issue here purely legal, clarified further factual development. standing contest EPA's issuance registrations pursuant what contend statutory provision. Pp. 579-582. 2. prohibit Congress from selecting with limited mechanism resolving disputes among participants FIFRA's pesticide scheme. 582-593. (a) require every federal question arising law tried court before judge enjoying life tenure protection salary reduction. barred acting its I powers vest decisionmaking authority tribunals lack attributes courts. 582-584. (b) Any arises replace state law. Thus, holding Northern Pipeline Construction Marathon Pipe Line 458 50, 102 2858, 73 598 may non-Article power adjudicate traditional contract action law, without litigants' consent, ordinary appellate review—is controlling here. Nor do this Court's decisions appellees' contentions required because confers "private right" (as distinguished "public right"), forum absolute unless Government party record. 584-586. (c) Practical attention substance rather than doctrinaire reliance formal categories should inform Crowell Benson, 285 22, 52 285, 76 L.Ed. 598. If identity parties alone determined requirements III, theory many quasi-adjudicative activities carried administrative agencies involving between individuals would thrown into doubt. essence, rights" doctrine reflects simply pragmatic understanding when selects quasi-judicial method matters could conclusively Executive Legislative Branches, danger encroaching reduced. 586-589. (d) Several aspects scheme adopted contravene created registrant's "private" right, but bears characteristics "public" right. power, I, authorize agency administering complex regulatory allocate costs benefits voluntary program providing adjudication. necessary solution difficult problem spreading generating adequate information regarding impact potentially dangerous product. Additionally, contains own sanctions subjects no unwilling defendant enforcement power. Given nature at concerns motivating Congress, system threaten role judiciary constitutional circumstances, proceeding preserves appropriate function. 589-593. 3. alternative standard so vague delegation legislative neither adequately briefed nor argued fully litigated Court. Therefore, left open determination remand. P. 593. Reversed remanded. Lawrence Gerald Wallace, Washington, D.C., appellant. Kenneth Ward Weinstein, appellees. Justice O'CONNOR delivered opinion 1 This revisit data-consideration provision (FIFRA), 61 Stat. 163, amended, 7 U.S.C. 136 seq., last Term (1984). examined whether effects uncompensated taking violation Fifth Amendment. we address prohibits We conclude reverse judgment below. 2 * details licensing labeling statute enacted 1947 comprehensive present. case, like Monsanto, most recent amendment FIFRA, Pesticide 1978, 92 819 (1978 Act), sought correct problems Control 1972, 86 973 (1972 itself major revision prior See supra, 991-992, S.Ct., 2866-2867. A. 3 As must effects. 1972 established data-sharing intended streamline procedures, increase competition, avoid unnecessary duplication data-generation costs. S.Rep. 92-838, pp. 72-73 (1972) S.Rep.), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News p. 3993. Some evidence suggests "as matter practice authority, Administrator same registrant." 1009, n. 14, 2876, 14. Such colloquially known "me too" registrations. 3(c)(1)(D) provided well sharing generation. 4 "In effect, mandatory data-licensing amount negotiated parties, or, event negotiations failed, EPA, upon instigation submitter. scope provision, however, limited, any designated 'trade secrets commercial financial information' . all submitter consented." 992-993, 2867. 5 data-compensation believed "recognizing proprietary interest" provide added incentive beyond patent new pesticides. H.R.Rep. 95-663, 17-18 (1977); 95-334, 7, 34-40 (1977) (1977 S.Rep.). submitters, contended basic essential competing qualified trade secret. With bogged down cataloging industry embroiled litigation over types legitimately "trade secrets," "ground virtual halt." Id., 6 1978 amendments response "logjam resulted controversies secret protection." Ibid. viewed scheme, id., concluded relieved task valuation "for practical purposes, tied up process" "[EPA] lacked expertise compensation." 123 Cong.Rec. 25709 (statement Sen. Leahy, floor manager S. 1678). Legislators agreed "[d]etermining terms are active government involvement [and] payable fullest extent practicable, within private sector." 25710. Against background, amended 10(b) clarify exemption did extend data. granted submitters 10-year period exclusive after September 30, during time cited submitter's permission. 3(c)(1)(D)(i). 8 Regarding protected substituted Administrator's negotiation resolve registrants. already files registration, permit, use, "only applicant made offer submitter." agree, either invoke Ibid.1 sanctions. Should comply cancel also orders sale existing stocks. 9 concept retaining substituting emerged compromise. approach developed representatives chemical manufacturers, who retain controversial discussions groups representing follow-on registrants, whose attempts register pesticides roadblocked since 1972. Hearings Extending Amending Subcommittee Department Investigations, Oversight, Research House Committee Agriculture, 95th Cong., 1st Sess., 522-523 (testimony Robert Alikonis, General Counsel Formulators Association). B 10 13 large Each past various When went these Southern New York Amendment authorizing disclosure public.2 (1982), complaint allege determining due them violates Constitution. "[t]he Power States, shall vested" courts judges enjoy "during good Behaviour" "shall diminished Continuance Office." transgressed limitation severely 11 motion summary claims. found issues "statutory compulsion seek relief through arbitration" raised Although troubled appeared "standardless powers," reach "absolute assignment [judicial] power" judges. Union Carbide Agricultural Products Ruckelshaus, 571 F.Supp. 117, 124 (1983). Court, striking review, enjoined entire App. Juris. Statement 25a. 12 Appellant took direct appeal 28 1252. vacated remanded reconsideration light our supervening 468 1201, 3566, 82 866 (1984), ruled deemed use" even though beneficiaries later applicants. 1014, 2879. Insofar entertained reasonable, investment-backed expectation confidential, taking. But originator complete and, shortfall, exhaust Tucker remedies can ascertained deprived just "ability vindicate [the] compensation" obtain subsequent applicant." 1019, 2881. declined Monsanto's claim, explaining: 14 "Monsanto injured actual statute. While acknowledged received several offers applicants find application. Further, negotiate agreement outstanding offer. agreement, then controversy go Only evaluating arbitrator respect become ripe." (citation omitted). 15 On remand reflect had, fact, applications. appellee Chemical Company (Stauffer), butylate EPTC, connection PPG Industries, Inc. (PPG), Drexel containing EPTC ingredients. 23. PPG, entered panel, handed June 28, 1983. 42. claimed arbitrators' far entitled.3 16 view developments, presented resolution criteria Supreme Court" supra. remaining plaintiffs, held, aggrieved clear threat resort 1a-4a. reinstated enjoining operation violative again noted probable 469 1032, 502, 83 394 stayed pending disposition appeal. II 17 threshold matter, determine Regional Rail Reorganization Cases, 419 102, 138-139, 95 335, 355-356, 42 320 (1974). contends erred addressing remained unsatisfied. argues firm, Stauffer, seeks enforce challenge award. counter procedure assigns civil particular doubly shortfall some $50 million, precluded seeking PPG. fail, consistently challenged validity both initiated 3, 18 forum. Glidden Zdanok, 370 530, 533, 1459, 1463, 671 (1962). award, U.S., 56-57, 2863-2864, aff'g B.R. 946 (Minn.1981) (reversing Bankruptcy denial pretrial dismiss claim). "[A party] object [a] lawsuit grounds resolved exercises '[t]he States' described Art. Constitution." 89, 2881 (opinion concurring judgment). contrast Taking Clause injury function tribunal awards reasonable dispute. supra; Thus apart monetary sustained result 19 "[R]ipeness peculiarly timing." 140, 357. "[I]ts rationale prevent courts, premature adjudication, entangling themselves abstract disagreements." Abbott Laboratories Gardner, 387 136, 148, 1507, 1515, 681 (1967). was, sense, premature. ever registrations, much less failed settlement forced arbitrations yet taken place brought claim. thus involved "contingent future events occur anticipated, indeed all." 13A C. Wright, Miller, E. Cooper, Practice Procedure 3532 By contrast, procedures now numerous issued. Brief (citing Docket Entry 132, 2). lasting months consuming 2,700 pages transcript. There doubt "effects [of scheme] [been felt Stauffer] way." 148-149, 1515. 20 "the fitness decision" hardship withholding consideration" analysis ripeness. 149, Cf. Pacific Gas Electric State Energy Resources Conservation Development Comm'n, 461 190, 201, 103 1713, 1721, 75 752 Doubts about schemes plagued seriously hampered effectiveness reforms process. "To proceed knowing [arbitration valid impose palpable considerable hardship." 201-202, 1720-1721. At minimum arguably each suffers continuing uncertainty expense depending process undermined question. ibid. " 'One await consummation threatened preventive relief. certainly impending, enough.' 143, 358, quoting Pennsylvania West Virginia, 262 553, 593, 43 658, 663, 67 1117 (1923). Nothing gained postponing public interest served prompt Duke Carolina Study Group, Inc., 438 59, 82, 98 2620 (1978). 21 Finally, clearly They unlawful conduct—the being choose relinquishing engaging Allen 737, 3315, 556 likely redressed request. integrated single subsection explicitly ties (EPA deny" "cancel" section complied with). evident linked ability A provision's constitutionality, therefore, restrictions issuing force 3(c)(1)(D)(ii). 22 bars requiring affording substantial tenured decision. establishes broad policy vested fixed These protect tripartite assure impartial Will, 449 200, 217-218, 101 471, 481-482, 66 392 (1980); Buckley Valeo, 424 122, 96 612, 683, 46 659 (1976) (per curiam ). 23 An construction possible area "frequently arcane distinctions confusing precedents." 90, "[N]either read reduction." Palmore 411 389, 407, 93 1670, 1681, 36 342 (1973). Instead, long recognized See, e.g., Walters National Assn. Radiation Survivors, 305, 3180, 220 (1985) (Board Veterans' Appeals); supra (District Columbia courts); (1932) (Deputy Commissioner Employees' Compensation Commission); Murray's Lessee Hoboken Land Improvement How. 272, 372 (1856) (Treasury accounting officers). Many involve legal standards facts affect interests routinely decided §§ 701(a)(1), 701(a)(2); Heckler Chaney, 470 821, 837-838, 1649, 1658-1659, 84 714 (1985); Erika, 456 206, 1650, 1653, 72 (1982) (no Medicare reimbursements); Monaghan, Marbury Administrative State, Colum.L.Rev. (1983) (administrative state, persons); Redish, Courts, Agencies, Decision, 1983 L.J. 197 (same). 24 pronouncement meaning Pipeline. divided unable precise III's limitations. adjudicate, render final judgment, consent litigants, review. 84, 2878 (plurality opinion); 90-92, 2881-2882 judgment); 92, 2882 (BURGER, C.J., dissenting). 25 encompassed disagree. results opinion) (contract law); 39-40, 287-288 (replacing admiralty negligence strict liability). property rights extinguished company discloses persons obligated confidentiality information. 1002, 2872, citing R. Milgrim, Trade Secrets 1.01[2] Therefore notice amendments, defined 10, 1005-1008, 2874-2876. 348(a)(2), 376(a)(1); CFR 71.15 171.1(h) (1984) (data Food, Drug, Cosmetic domain need data). depends To sure, users might 1013-1014, 2878-2879. available Act. For "mandatory provision" creates relationship supplies rule 26 Alternatively, compensation, power." 77, 85-86, 2874, 2878-2879 opinion). argument rests distinction drawn plurality construed opinions permit three exceptions adjudication: military tribunals, territorial opposed rights. Drawing language 292, "matters performance executive departments." 67-68, 2869-2870. identified 'the liability individual defined.' 69-70, 2870-2871, 51, 292. 27 rights/private dichotomy (1856), bright-line test command majority interpret establishing record, cannot agree. 71, 2871 (noting discharge bankruptcy, adjusts liabilities individuals, right). see 69, 23, 2870, endorse implication right/public dispute individual. Compare 68, 20, 70, Chief Hughes, writing Crowell, expressly rejected formalistic inquiry, stating: 29 deciding enacting exceeded limits prescribe ., regard cases where invoked, mere form required." 53, 293 (emphasis added). 30 seaman's liability. concerns, instead deputy commissioner appointed Commission. 43, 289. "[T]he findings commissioner, supported his authority" injuries employees purview 46, 290. concern obligations fact make invalid finding satisfied process, 45-48, 290-291, afforded statute, including "provides class cases." 54, 293. 31 enduring lesson 547-548, 1471-1472. legislation reviewed constitute minimal requirement origin guiding selection disputes. assessing degree note different significant respects. Most importantly, displaced cause affected pre-existing based common-law hire. range reserved 70-71, 25, "suit common equity admiralty" "protected core" powers); judgment) actions stuff Westminster 1789"). 32 K. Davis, Law 29:23, 443 (2d ed. 1984) (concept "revolutionary"); Note, Literal Interpretation Ignores 150 Years History: Oil England L.Rev. 207, 231-232 ("public exalts substance"); 1981 Term, Harv.L.Rev. 62, 262, 39 (1982). example, Switchmen Mediation Board, 297, 64 95, 88 (1943), approval South Katzenbach, 383 301, 333, 803, 769 (1966), upheld Railway Labor "right" craft bargaining representative representation solely concluded: 33 "The writes 'right' 'majority employees' 'determine Act.' That [a provision] gives Board it. district Board's preserve 'right.' reasons created." 300-301, 96-97. 34 Price, 360 601, 608, 79 1351, 1355, 1460 (1959); NLRB Hearst Publications, 322 111, 131, 135, 851, 860, 862, 1170 (1944) (Board's conclusions reviewable rational basis warrant record). Leedom Kyne, 358 184, 199, 180, 189, 210 (1958), (BRENNAN, J., dissenting) (discussing 35 treated essentially adversary tariff protections competitor, landlords tenants. Atlas Roofing Occupational Safety Health Review 430 442, 454-455, 97 1261, 1268-1269, 51 464 (1977), example landlord/tenant discussed Block Hirsh, 256 41 458, 65 865 (1921); Ex parte Bakelite Corp., 279 438, 447, 49 411, 412, 789 (1929) (tariff dispute). surely individuals. interpretation Crowell. "could Branches," 2870 opinion), C Looking accomplishes, persuade us First, Use serves purpose integral part safeguarding health. condition licenses compliance procedures. inflexible shifting interested parties. 203, 1651 (private insurance carrier assigned claims); 50-51, 292-293. 37 represent implicating authorized charge fees cover cost directly subsidized contributions needed St. Joseph Stockyards 298 38, 49-53, 56 720, 724-727, 80 1033 (1936) (ratemaking function). selected framework collapses two steps one, permits fix intractable Removing personnel civilian arbitrators, case-by-case agency, diminish likelihood decisionmaking, free political influence. 1404.4, pt. 1440, Pipeline, 58, 2864 115-116, 2894-2895 (WHITE, 38 near disaster health delay led select resolution. Legislature, think threatens Judiciary hold otherwise defeat obvious furnish prompt, continuous, expert inexpensive dealing questions suited examination specially task." 46. 407-408, 1681-1682 (the circumstances give way accommodate plenary grants legislate specialized areas); How., 282 "[i]mperative necessity" justify tax collection procedures). incorporates internal relies tangentially, all, Judicial Branch enforcement. 574-575. "adjudication." Hart, Limit Jurisdiction Courts: Exercise Dialectic, 1362 (1953), reprinted Bator, Mishkin, D. Shapiro, H. Wechsler, Hart Wechsler's Courts System 330 1973); (1983); L. Jaffe, Action 385 (1965) (historically obligation defendant). 40 decide initiate cf. 37(c) (under rules American Arbitration Association, entry compel 3(c)(1)(D)(ii), 136a(c)(1)(D)(ii), 10(c), 136h(c) (authorizing institute settle secrets); 1401(b)(2) (Employee Retirement Income Security bring court); 614, 12, 1358 (statute Railroad Adjustment money damages award); 44, 289 (providing court). Utility Workers Edison 309 261, 60 561, 738 (1940) worker vindicates right," proceeding). event, potential consents 162.9-5(b) (registration contain written pay "to 3(c)(1)(D)"). preclude that, "appropriate function." allows secure "findings determination" fraud, misconduct, misrepresentation. protects abuse exceed willfully misconstrue mandate governing Steelworkers Enterprise Wheel Car 363 597, 1358, 1361, 1424 (1960) (arbitrator faithful sit administer "own brand industrial justice"). Moreover, error preserved, 311, ----, 3; Johnson Robison, 415 361, 367-368, 94 1160, 1165-1166, 389 (1974), obstruct whatever 290; 87, 306 (Brandeis, identify determinations stipulated below abandon claims.4 2, analysis, independently considerations. IV raise sustaining Dandridge Williams, 397 475, 6, 90 1153, 1156, 491 (1970). powers. A.L.A. Schecter Poultry Corp. 295 495, 55 837, 1570 (1935). term appears face "may derive meaningful content Act, context." Light SEC, 329 104, 133, 142, 91 (1946). explicit standard, history silent. S.Conf.Rep. 95-1188, (1978); 1977 S.Rep., 4, 8, 31; 72-73; passim (1977). Without expressing merits, leave V Our proposition create seemingly closely judiciary. erect rigid restraint adopt innovative measures stated opinion, reversed, consistent opinion. 44 So ordered. 45 BRENNAN, whom MARSHALL BLACKMUN join, judgment. ancient vintage struggled pierce full deceptively simple supreme inferior ordain establish." know framed feared tyranny "accumulation powers, legislative, executive, judiciary, hands," Federalist 47, 300 (H. Lodge 1888) (J. Madison), guard dispersing interdependent branches Government. branch distinct check aggrandizing tendencies branches. guarantees reflecting Hamilton's observation "a man's subsistence amounts will," 79, 1888)—were thought Judiciary's effectively Executive. presiding receive guarantees. checking assign Government's constituted. 47 attempt defining places adjudicative decisionmakers faced whether, 2549, bankruptcy decisionmaker benefit empowered initial action. words, permitted "judicial Power" non-Art. prescribed invalidated congressional rationale. allocation decisional justified adjuncts 63-87, 2867-2880. REHNQUIST, joined O'CONNOR, "traditional review" 90-91, 2881-2882. 48 Because state-law Congress' explicated precedents. notwithstanding commands cases: courts-martial, serious disputed third category. cases, come understood, administration laws programs.1 68-69, disclaimed intention generally applicable definition arise 'between others.' 416, (1929). fall category litigating dispute, irrespective existence 72, ("Even absence plaintiff able contractual claims"). sense said propriety accuracy organ execution Whatever doctrine, outside therefore properly constituted adjunct required.2 court, 77-86, 2874-2879 (REHNQUIST, judgment), embodying jurisdictional grant declared unconstitutional. 50 Analysis present begins recognition differs substantially entirely confines seq. prescribes arriving case. 136a(c)(1)(D)(ii) followed set fixing characterized adjudicated outset court.3 confronted oversight nonetheless required, 455, 13, 1269, so, statute's misconduct" suffices. 136a(c)(1)(D)(ii). determinative factor characterization presence party. ante, 586. Despite contrary suggestions, record" "Article individual." Ante, Properly elaborated straitjacket whenever technically 2860. opinion's reaffirmation (1932), similarly affords flexibility rely tribunals. 78-80, 2875-2876. imply ratemaking forms adjustments necessarily suspect. 191, 185, (1958) sap means distinguishing 'private rights' 'public rights.' minimum, bar assigning ultimate challenges action, executive. Raddatz, 447 667, 708-712, 100 2406, 2429-2431, (1980) (MARSHALL, Also, careful eventual responsibility impermissible accumulation 23; 115, 2894 ("[A] court"); 13. sufficiently flexible demands contemporary while preserving checks balances, adhere 53 Though doubt, my understood line culminating is, defined," (defining context virtually occupies field. effectuation policies return access process—mandatory arbitration—to ensure unresolved distribution products. involves prescription govern participation ultimately duty owed another, heart course partakes 185 dissenting).4 54 latitude decisionmakers, remains nevertheless imposes supervision always cut off respecting authority. encompasses invalidate exceeds exhibits manifest disregard (1960); Wilko Swan, 346 427, 436-437, 74 182, 187-188, 168 (1953). context. delegates caseby-case lawmaking permissible—an remand—and depart delegation, restraining meet context.5 reasons, mandates proceedings. 57 STEVENS, 58 presents addressed answer prevents me reaching merits 59 plaintiffs "arbitration [allegedly] complies with" insofar empowers entitled Amended Complaint Declaratory Judgment Injunction &Par; 20-21, 23-24. (collectively referred Administrator) declaration unconstitutionality injunction agency's processing applications filed 24. Act,1 contingent data: may, permission submitter, item person (hereinafter subparagraph 'applicant') ." party's "fixed applicant, failing arbitration." there data.2 obtaining EPA. And declare unconstitutional, am aware interfering 584-585; 1016-1019, 2879-2881, constitutional, 62 "relief 'likely' follow favorable decision." 751, 3324, (1984); accord, Valley Forge Christian College Americans Separation Church 454 464, 472, 752, 758, 70 700 (1982); Simon Eastern Kentucky Welfare Rights Organization, 426 43-46, 1917, 1924, 1926-1928, 450 (1976); Warth Seldin, 422 490, 507, 2197, 2209, 343 (1975); Linda R.S. Richard D., 410 618-619, 1146, 1149-1150, 536 claiming harmed anything do, Accordingly, action.3 reason, reversed. text reads: "(ii) except (D)(i) paragraph, December 31, 1969, experimental adding maintain effect reregistration, chapter fifteen year following date originally accompanied delivery subparagraph. If, end ninety days compensate, requesting Conciliation Service appoint roster maintained Service. proceedings, conclusive, official determination, misconduct verified supporting affidavits attesting specific instances misconduct. share equally payment fee expenses arbitrator. determines participate subparagraph, forfeit Notwithstanding subchapter, deny hearing. Before takes preceding sentences, person, certified mail, intent take allow respond. denied canceled order deems continued stocks pesticide. Registration delayed Following complaints effected preliminary Amchem Products, Costle, 481 195 (1979), Second Circuit reversed want showing success petition writ certiorari. 632 F.2d 1014 (1980), cert. denied, 996, 1698, 68 196 (1981). rendered I. dismissal, prejudice Claims Record, Doc. Nos. 15, 19. Shortly down, aside cross-claimed counterclaimed struck alternative, Civil 83-1941 (DC, 1983); 35. upheld, option absent fraud 585, Appeals value 1978. (1929), "which committed exclusively officers." 416. worth noting early recognizing typically affecting entitlement recognized, Babcock, 250 328, 331, 465, 63 1011 (1919); Decatur Paulding, Pet. 497 (1840), seem dispose saw fit Judiciary, underpinnings theory, course, survived intact. recognize assistance. Goldberg Kelly, 254, 1011, 287 recently manner fit. Cleveland Education Loudermill, 532, 1487, 494 (1985). reasoning conditions. Speiser Randall, 357 513, 78 1332, (1958). erosion not, conclusion programs departments," 457 2869, "What adjudications States—matters 'suit admiralty.' Framers 'judicial Power' Branch, lay perceived core 2871-2872, 5. correctly concludes, tenable undergo 584-585. "say is," Madison, Cranch 137, 177, (1803), constrains Branch. reject passing restrains seen power—or head authority—given rulemaking departed intent. important Due Process imposes, notes, constraints forums 592. quoted 574-575, Under reading precedent evaluate ¶ statutorily awarded fulfilled. Ergo, agency. misread conditions "offer compensate," added); 3(c)(1)(D)(iii), 822, 136a(c)(1)(D)(iii). Indeed, "[r]egistration straightforward demonstrates disabled using nothing contradicts interpretation, "vie[w] [of] scheme," 573, Legislature's consequent desire break 'logjam protection,' (quoting (1977)). ("The largest reregistration halt. Since critical, work."). desired compensated use. indicate complementary mutually dependent. 836, 136x ("If [Act] invalid, invalidity severable"); INS Chadha, 462 919, 931-935, 2764, 2773-2776, 77 317 sentence believes "ties arbitration," 582, beside point. "deny pesticide" third-party "has obviously defaults hardly scrapped data-use component restate obvious, undoubtedly applicants' recompensed—the both. unequivocal facilitate express severability (accompanied save destroy," Tilton Richardson, 403 672, 684, 2091, 2098, 790 (1971)), makes unlikely gambled arbitrable clauses "plaintiffs' plan." 123, (SDNY 1983). incomplete: 'fairly' traceable 3324 758. components causation distinct: "fairly traceable" "examines causal assertedly conduct injury"; "redressability" requested." 753, 19, 3325, "[I]t keep inquiries separate."

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