Document: 541 U.S. 193 UNITED STATESv.LARA. No. 03-107. Supreme Court of United States. Argued January 21, 2004. Decided April 19, After respondent Lara, an Indian who is not a member the Spirit Lake Tribe (Tribe), ignored Tribe's order excluding him from its reservation, he struck one federal officers arresting him. He pleaded guilty in Tribal to crime violence policeman. The Federal Government then charged with assaulting officer. Lara claimed that, because key elements that mirrored his tribal crime, was protected by Double Jeopardy Clause. countered Clause does bar successive prosecutions separate sovereigns, and this "dual sovereignty" doctrine determined outcome. noted has held tribe acts as sovereign prosecuting own members, States v. Wheeler, 435 U. S. 313, 318, 322-323; after ruled lacks authority prosecute nonmember Indians, see Duro Reina, 495 676, 679, Congress specifically authorized such prosecutions; statute enlarges tribes' self-government powers include "the inherent power tribes . exercise criminal jurisdiction over all Indians," 25 C. § 1301(2), here had exercised authority, delegated authority. Accepting argument, Magistrate Judge rejected Lara's double jeopardy claim. en banc Eighth Circuit reversed, holding did apply exercising prosecutorial power, and, thus, barred second prosecution. Held: Because acted capacity prohibit proceeding present prosecution for discrete offense. Pp. 199-210. (a) constitutional lift restrictions on Indians. 199-207. (1) Section 1301(2) "recognize[s] affirm[s]" each "inherent power" legislative history confirms Congress' intent. Thus, it seeks adjust status, relaxing restrictions, recognized Duro, political branches imposed power. 199-200. (2) Several considerations lead conclusion these restrictions. First, Constitution, through Commerce Treaty Clauses, grants "plenary exclusive" legislate respect tribes. E. g., Washington Confederated Bands Tribes Yakima Nation, 439 463, 470-471. Second, Congress, Court's approval, interpreted plenary authorizing enact legislation both restricts turn, relaxes those Third, statutory goal — modify degree autonomy enjoyed dependent State unusual objective. Fourth, points no explicit language Constitution suggesting limitation institutional relax sovereignty previously branches. Fifth, change at issue limited, concerning similar tribe's which called inherent. Sixth, concluding consistent earlier cases. holdings supra, 326; Oliphant Suquamish Tribe, 191, 209-210; 686, nonmembers divested treaties reflected view retained status time decisions; but they set forth limits prohibiting taking actions or status. there based descriptions sources existed time. Congressional important source, source subject change. When like other cases, referred "delegated" tribes, simply consider whether could constitutionally achieve same end removing none cases can be read hold forbids judicially made law amendment 1301(2). Oliphant, then, are determinative enacted new statute, bounds recognizes. 200-207. (b) additional arguments cannot help win This will merits due process claim invalid Civil Rights Act 1968 guarantee counsel indigent defendant. Proving show something must do Like claim, argument phrase "all Indians" violates Equal Protection beside point. And repeats equal protection different form when argues found absence certain safeguards, defendant's right counsel, reason lacked try 207-209. 324 F. 3d 635, reversed. BREYER, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, GINSBURG, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion, post, p. 210. KENNEDY, 211, THOMAS, 214, opinions judgment. SOUTER, dissenting SCALIA, joined, 226. CERTIORARI TO THE STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR EIGHTH CIRCUIT. Deputy Solicitor General Kneedler argued cause On briefs were Olson, Assistant Attorney Wray, Dreeben, Barbara McDowell, Richard A. Friedman. Alexander Reichert, appointment 540 980, respondent. With brief Ronald Reichert James Smith.* JUSTICE BREYER Court. 1 case concerns congressional "recogniz[ing] affirm[ing]" "inherent" bring misdemeanor against possess. Compare 676 (1990). We decide have, time, placed legal conclude possess 2 * Respondent Billy Jo enrolled Turtle Mountain Band Chippewa Indians north-central North Dakota. married tribe, lived wife children Reservation, also located See Brief Sioux Dakota et al. Amici Curiae 4-5. several incidents serious misconduct, issued reservation. order; stopped him; officers. 636 (CA8 2003) (en banc). 3 subsequently prosecuted "violence policeman." Ibid. served 90 days jail. ibid.; Tr. Oral Arg. 28. 4 conviction, District 3d, 636; 18 111(a)(1). Key mirror 7. similarity between two crimes would ordinarily have brought within protective reach Const., Amdt. 5 (the may "subject" any person "for offence twice put life limb"); 636. But Government, responding jeopardy, pointed out outcome here. Heath Alabama, 474 82, 88 (1985) reflects "common-law conception offense government"; "a defendant single act `peace dignity' sovereigns breaking laws each, committed distinct `offences'"). prosecutes members. 322-323 (1978) (a "sovereign punish offenders," while "defeasance," remains among "`inherent limited never been extinguished'" (emphasis added deleted)). recognized, course, members; longer possessed "nonmember Indian." Id., 682. soon decided members tribe. Nov. 5, 1990, §§ 8077(b)-(d), 104 Stat. 1892-1893 (temporary until September 30, 1991); Oct. 28, 1991, 105 646 (permanent legislation). That permitting purport delegate Government's Rather, "`powers self-government'" hereby affirmed, including nonmembers. added). 6 In view, given authority; hence applies, Heath, 88; since second, federal, violate 7 accepted 636-637. An panel agreed Judge. 294 1004 (2002). Appeals, vote 4, reached conclusion. 635 (2003). It power; apply; bars 640. four judges, agreeing concluded Lara; applies allows 641 (opinion M. Arnold, J.). 8 Ninth conclusions about we granted certiorari. Cf. Enas, 255 662 (CA9 2001) banc), cert. denied, 534 1115 now reverse Circuit. II 9 assume, parties, turns answer question. What [the] punish" offenders, authority? 322 10 believe intended former answer. says (not power) misdemeanors. 198; Appendix, infra statute's See, e. H. R. Conf. Rep. 102-261, pp. 3-4 (1991) ("The Committee Conference notes delegation clarification domestic nations"); accord, 102-61, (1991); 102-168, ("recogniz[ing] reaffirm[ing] governments Indians"); 137 Cong. Rec. 9446 (remarks Sen. Inouye) "premise [of legislation] affirms added)); id., 10712-10714 Miller, House manager bill) "is affirmation retain rights expressly taken away" bill "recognizes always existed"); 10713 Richardson, sponsor amendment) "reaffirms" power). 11 Thus question before us authorizes so. do. 12 broad general consistently described exclusive." 470-471 (1979); Negonsott Samuels, 507 99, 103 (1993); S., 323; W. Canby, American Law (3d ed. 1998) (hereinafter Canby) ("[T]he independence exceptionally great regulate tribes"). 13 traditionally identified Clause, Art. I, 8, cl. 3, II, 2, Morton Mancari, 417 535, 552 (1974); McClanahan Arizona Tax Comm'n, 411 164, 172, n. (1973); Canby 11-12; Cohen, Handbook 209-210 (1982 ed.) Cohen) (also mentioning, inter alia, Property Clause). "central function Clause," said, provide field affairs." Cotton Petroleum Corp. New Mexico, 490 163, 192 (1989); also, Ramah Navajo School Bd., Inc. Bureau Revenue N. M., 458 832, 837 (1982) ("broad under Clause); White Apache Bracker, 448 136, 142 (1980) (same, citing 322-323). 14 treaty literally authorize legislatively, Article President, "to make Treaties." 2. But, Justice Holmes out, pursuant deal "matters" otherwise "Congress deal." Missouri Holland, 252 416, 433 (1920); L. Henkin, Foreign Affairs 72 (2d 1996). much Nation's history, treaties, governed relations e.g., Cohen 109-111; Prucha, Policy Formative Years 44-49 (1962). 15 recognize 1871 ended practice entering into 71 (stating entities "with whom contract treaty"). saved existing being "invalidated impaired," ibid., explicitly stated "in way affected problems Antoine Washington, 420 194, 203 (1975) deleted). 16 Moreover, "at least during first century America's national existence affairs more aspect military foreign policy than municipal law." 208 (footnotes omitted). Insofar so, rest part, upon "affirmative Constitution," Constitution's adoption preconstitutional necessarily namely, "necessary concomitants nationality." Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 304, 315-322 (1936); 14-22, 63-72; cf. J. Continental 174-175 (1775) (W. Ford 1905) (creating departments affairs, appointing commissioners, noting importance "securing preserving friendship Nations"); Worcester Georgia, Pet. 515, 557 (1832) contemplate intercourse [Indians] shall carried exclusively government union"). 17 "plenary" From beginning need seemed obvious. all, policies, applicable numerous diverse cultures, affecting billions acres land, necessity fluctuate dramatically needs Nation changed 48. fact times very policies (some beneficial results many tragic consequences). policy, example, initially favored "Indian removal," "assimilation" breakup lands, land base (interrupted movement toward greater state involvement "termination" tribes); framework "government-to-government relationship" agencies. 59 Fed. Reg. 22951 (1994); 19 Weekly Comp. Pres. Doc. 98 (1983) (President Reagan reaffirming rejection termination announcing decreasing dependence Government); 450a(b) (congressional commitment development strong stable governments"). generally 78-202 (describing history); 13-32 (same). Such major changes inevitably involve metes sovereignty. "powe[r] capable making treaties" "power [not] treaty." Worcester, 559, 71. One readily find examples decisions recognize, terminate, individual Holliday, Wall. 407, 419 (1866) ("If [the branches] court same"); Menominee States, 391 404 (1968) (examining following their Tribe). Indeed, restored extinguished status—by re-recognizing whose terminated. 903-903f (restoring Tribe); Long, 475 (CA7) (upholding challenge Government), 822 advanced integration conferring citizenship 1401(b). enforcement (in members) increasing maximum penalties courts impose. 4217, 100 3207-146, codified 1302(7) (raising term six months fine $500" year $5,000"). 20 goal—to State—is branches, drawing analogous adjustments autonomous entities—sometimes far radical Hawaii— Hawaii Mankichi, 190 197, 209-211 (1903) annexation joint resolution maintenance "Republic Hawaii" formal incorporation Congress); Northern Mariana Islands—note 48 1801 ("in accordance [United Nations] trusteeship agreement [establishing] self-governing commonwealth union States"); Philippines—22 1394 authorization President "withdraw surrender "recognize Philippine Islands nation"); Presidential Proclamation 2695, 60 1352 (so proclaiming); Puerto Rico—Act July 1950, 64 319 ("[T]his adopted nature compact so people Rico organize constitution adoption"); P. ("Estado Libre Asociado de Rico"); Cordova & Simonpietri Ins. Agency Chase Manhattan Bank A., 649 2d 36, 39-41 (CA1 1981) various Rican 1898). 21 Part III, infra. 22 one. some respects members—a "inherent." 322-323. large part control events occur land. Mazurie, 544, ("Indian unique aggregations possessing attributes territory" Hugen). possession our traditional understanding "domestic nations." Cherokee 1, (1831); society, separated others, managing governing itself"). Consequently, faced dealing potential efforts particular, involves interference State. Nor Due Process Clauses citizen 23 True, external Congress. (1978); 686. reflect them. They changing relevant circumstances, i. e., 24 To contrary, clear dictate autonomy, nor suggest should second-guess branches' determinations. rested commonly shared presumption Executive Branch, lower courts," which, "[w]hile conclusive[,] carries considerable weight." 206. "`Indian law' draws principally drawn executed Branch passed Congress." "instruments backdrop intricate web Similarly, drew host nonmember. historic practices, views experts, experience forerunners modern courts, published Department Interior. 689-692. Nevada Hicks, 533 353, 361, (2001) ("Our considered light 1828 treaty" (alterations internal quotation marks omitted)); South Bourland, 508 695 (1993) ("Having clearly abrogated pre-existing regulatory non-Indian hunting fishing, evidence statutes allow assert lands National Farmers Union Cos. Crow 471 845, 855-856 extent court's require [inter alia] detailed study statutes, embodied elsewhere, administrative judicial decisions"); Kagama, 118 375, 382-383 (1886) (characterizing Ex parte Dog, 109 556, 570 (1883), resting extant recognizing overruling Dog). 26 decisions. constituted source. Indeed itself anticipated inviting interested parties "address problem [to] 698. 27 concede only obtain 686 added); 695, 15; Montana 450 564 (1981); 556-557. stating, (like cases) one, Consequently "judicially made" kind legislation. 206; County Oneida Y., 470 226, 233-237 (recognizing "federal common law" component rights, "common develop `necessary expedient' `spoken particular issue'" (quoting Milwaukee Illinois, 451 313-315 (1981))); 313 ("[F]ederal `subject paramount Congress'" Jersey York, 283 336, 348 (1931))). 28 makes difference. III 29 arguments. 1968, 82 77, protections defendants, counsel. 1302. permit forum protection. Argersinger Hamlin, 407 (1972) (Constitution guarantees indigents where imprisonment possible). 30 however, suffers critical structural defect. explain defect, contrast "lack discussed supra. "constitutional might proceed steps: 31 Step One: modifies 32 Two: word void. 33 Three: severable (as related words). remainder valid without words, delegates conduct 34 Four: federal. current, Hence wins proceeding. 35 Although F.3d, 640, reject rejection, more, invalidates argument. 36 significantly different. (if valid) invalid; invalid, too. Showing (showing violated federal). showing, Hence, not, Other defendants proceedings remain free raise wish 1303 (vesting district habeas writs courts). 37 use words insofar scope (while non-Indians) race-based justification. point, therefore address it. At best show, conviction defective. showing 38 indigent's "group citizens" (namely, Indians) "include[d]" "political bodies." U.S., 693-694. fact, following: "We hesitate adopt another group citizens, trial bodies them." 693. above somewhat form. Since precisely exist treat delegating helps others. IV 39 For reasons, hold, reservations writing statute. amount sovereign. 88. 40 contrary judgment 41 Reversed. APPENDIX OPINION 42 Title amended 646, provides: 43 "`[P]owers self-government' means includes governmental executive, legislative, judicial, offices, bodies, tribunals executed, offenses; Indians." Notes: Briefs ofamici curiae urging reversal Idaho Lawrence G. Wasden, Idaho, Clay Smith, General, Attorneys respective follows: William Pryor, Jr., Ieyoub Louisiana, Jon Bruning Nebraska, Larry Long Dakota, Mark Shurtleff Utah; Christine O. Gregoire, Robert K. Costello, Berggren Collins, Senior Terry Goddard Arizona, Bill Lockyer California, Ken Salazar Colorado, Michael Cox Michigan, Mike McGrath Montana, Patricia Madrid Hardy Myers Oregon; Tracy Labin, Guest, Charles Hobbs; Carter Phillips, Virginia Seitz, Riyaz Kanji. amici affirmance Lewis County, Tom D. Tobin Kimron Torgerson; Citizens Foundation Randy V. Thompson; Association Criminal Defense Lawyers Villa Joshua Dratel. Metropoulos Thomas Lee Morris 44 concurring. 45 While I join my colleagues prompts comment. historical basis special mention. territory continent long Columbus arrived. contrast, most actually independent few years. Given exercise—as own—inherent off limits, see, Prudential Co. Benjamin, 328 408, 437-438 (1946), nothing exceptional ancient 46 47 (ICRA) decision (1990), demonstrates intention restore careful rely theory sovereignty, delegation. SOUTER'S position nonetheless, 231 (dissenting opinion), support, take word. Under prosecution, fail. say resolve case. analysis goes beyond narrower rationale culminates surprising holding: "For Ante, point significance interpretation Constitution; respectful doubtful. 49 Were difficult Our (1978), cites today discusses little, replete references As case, tribe" whole justification recognized. 326. troubling proposition extends limits. Cf., Strate A-1 Contractors, 520 438, 445-446 (1997) ("In main `the tribe'—those enjoys apart express provision statute—`do extend activities tribe'" 565 (1981))). enlarge "unique character" Wheeler 323. 50 him, borders, outside basic structure step. original, continuing, consent governed. Their depends established structure, governments, Each proper sphere other, duties both. Term Limits, Thornton, 514 779, 838-839 (1995) (KENNEDY, concurring). Here, design, third entity tried occurring wholly territorial borders unprecedented. There exception consents subjected majority reaches exception. 51 resolves, perhaps avoids, yield inside citizens using euphemistic formulation amending ICRA merely relaxed ante, 196, 200, 202, 205, 207. justifies phrase, (referring obscures what stake terms understood grant cession doubted attempted extraconstitutional subject. relaxing-restrictions further belied aspects Indian. defines 1301, broader class "Indians," penalty impose crimes, procedural entitled trials, indicate sort detachment implicit description having 52 addition trying evade relying verbal formula relaxation, tries bolster claims still reserved. true, ignores elementary principle place Fifth Fourteenth Amendments adopted. demean rests implying vindication further, unreasoned import. freedom guaranteed liberty every bit freedoms Rights. Clinton City 524 417, 449-453 (1998) enforceable liberty, ignores. Perhaps justified enrolling consented mention And, events, cautious adopting fiction. 53 questions dimension. intent affirm occasion test legitimacy is, sought do, first, There, objection proceeding, Lara—whether legitimate not—was violation. Grafton 206 333, 345 (1907) ("[B]efore said limb acquitted convicted charged"). reason, concur 54 55 clear, come reexamine premises logic seems me confusion precedent arises largely incompatible doubtful assumptions. (rather Government) virtually rendering nullity. (1978). enforce These assumptions, accept comes us, 56 write separately fails confront tensions, result flows inadequate analysis. agree instance, calibrate "metes sovereignty." 202; 210 (holding Congress" sovereignty). Unlike 200-201, locate 3. Additionally, ascribe Mar. 1871, Rev. 2079, 566, 71, purports terminate treaty. mechanism provides interact Yet, if questionable. either untenably positions simultaneously. 57 response (1990) lack Indians), (ICRA). Specifically, "Duro fix," ICRA's definition "powers self-government" "recogniz[e] affir[m]" quite interpret recognition explains. 199. Delegated antithesis 58 even less prosecutions, putative manifestly quintessentially executive Morrison 487 654, 691 (1988); 705 (SCALIA, dissenting). transfer individuals "meaningful control." Printz 521 898, 922-923 (1997). minimum, measure appoint remove" 922; Morrison, 706-715 appear officials, let alone substantial removal Amicus 27-29. prepared absolutely agencies entirely bind (for subsequent prosecution), analogized agencies, dissent suggests, 227 reading fix" (without divining adequate method control) create grave difficulties. INS St. Cyr, 289, 299-300 (2001); Solid Waste Cook Cty. Army Corps Engineers, 531 159, 173 (2001). Accordingly, options: Either all.1 322-323, explained prior colonization, communities." acknowledged, "[t]heir States," Orders. 327-328. Examining conflict, ability 323-330. 61 sensible example lawmaking, am convinced correctly decided. sure, sense conceptualize situation, full powers. times, analyze just way. 323-326; 323 (relying 191 infra). 62 how apparently "undisputed matters, government." 319. definition, supreme vested." Black's Dictionary 1395 (6th 1990). arguably essence whim government. 63 Further, thought inconsistent residual-sovereignty theory. purported nation[s] tribe[s]." suspect vests 3; Pink, 315 203, 228-230 (1942)), nevertheless become purely matter. suffice demonstrate lost despite qua circumstances. Katzenbach Morgan, 384 (1966); York 505 144, 160-161 (1992); Garcia San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 528 (1985). (unlike tribes) allocates Governments them, 14, 5. Framers chose confers individuals, States." 166; 162-166; Printz, 910-915. 65 order, Chief Marshall explained: 66 "[T]he relation marked peculiar cardinal distinctions else. 67 "[Y]et well reside acknowledged boundaries can, strict accuracy, denominated nations. may, correctly, perhaps, 16-17 (1831). 68 "independent communities, retaining original natural rights," "mak[e] treaties." 559 (1832). fit comfortably category nations, tends anything arguable sovereigns.2 least, schizophrenic. continues infuse 69 Nevertheless, (at logical consequences fact. (1985), elaborated dual "`peace each" constitutes offenses. This, sovereigns. "peace dignity" perpetrator Nation) 70 instructs, separate-sovereign inquiry "turns draw offender power." Otherwise, Clause.3 follows anyone laws. Despite obvious tension, inconsistent. together, imply laws, conflict operate used too imprecisely); rather, specific conflicts policy. relied primarily non-Indians. reaching conclusion, carefully examined Branch. 197-206 (discussing Branch); 199 opinions, Op. Atty. Gen. 693 (1834) (concluding non-Indians treaties)). rehearsed 688-692. although sprinkled concerns, 693-694, classic federal-common-law 233-236 73 acknowledge distinguished "tribal [that] necessary protect relations" relates world. 358-359 685-686; 322-325. distinction perfect matter law: Purely "internal" matters unlikely implicate critically, line why analyzed (embodied Orders) assertions 853-854 (1985); 204 ("While forbade non-Indians, nearly ago [referring re Mayfield, 141 107 (1891)] believed repeated actions").4 74 noted, ICRA. "recognized affirmed" Bush signed law. 1573-1574 (1991). litigation demonstrates, 75 authoritative pronouncements correct premised, according exist. 205. 76 examine critically Both dissent, compound failing undertake rigorous begin assumptions identifying 77 admits "[t]reaties delineating tribal-federal relationship properly viewed elaboration details position, strips memberships." Post, 228. process, agree. understand jurisdictional implications [arising are] nature." By mean alter result, though 78 obviously implications. dispositive respondent's follow limiting somehow enshrined alter. underpinnings disabling disappear. residual appropriate branch 79 Similarly unavailing dissent's observation perform "we undertaking categories dimension." 229. concludes context "must status." ipse dixit transform common-law holdings. Dickerson 530 428, 459-461 (2000) 80 raises utterly gives enumerated 200. "`provide[s] affairs.'" (1989)). implausibility assertion troubled 378-379 (considering construction "very strained"), willing revisit 529 598 (2000); Lopez, 549 (1995); 584-593 (THOMAS, 81 Next, acknowledges "[t]he `to Treaties.'" 201 2). suffices 416 (1920). believe, free-floating sees topics potentially unspecified especially ironic prohibition treaties. end, resorts past 202-203. suffice. Dames Moore Regan, 453 Youngstown Sheet Tube Sawyer, 343 579, 610-611 (1952) (Frankfurter, reasons. odds itself. reconcile prospective simultaneously ordinary maintain resembling "sovereignty." short, directions. 83 "Insular Cases," examples, 203-204, involved Territories govern regulate. Reid Covert, 354 (1957); IV, textual distinguishes incidentally, think purposes, 321-322; Shell (P. R.), Ltd., 302 253, 264-266 (1937), preclude Wheeler. 321; 84 admit failed quest acknowledgment ask logically antecedent opposed President) A cogent serve foundation issues posed meaningful sense. honestly rigorously, continue haunt sympathetic KENNEDY'S presentedAnte, 211 judgment). If such, doctrine, hand, effect possibility), attach Serfass 377, (1975); (noting "that charged"); Phelps, 168 1048, 1053-1054 1999) prosecution). attached purposes suggests prompted enactment normal notion 1302, requires accord doubt could, legislation, (let nations) grand juries thatWheeler focused discuss below, required. SOUTER believes overlookedOliphant's reliance "treaties, Branch." 230, quotes passage Oliphant: "[E]ven ignoring provisions absent affirmative prohibited states terminated added; citation quoted sentence lawmaking sentence, removes consideration law, puzzling. hope begins resolve. 85 SCALIA joins, dissenting. 86 true 1886 "an anomalous complex character." 381. Questions jurisdiction, get nations," (1831), "wards [American] nation," 383. deciding questions, relations, (1981), 323-324 "inherent," neither exclusive, 384-385 (federal jurisdiction), immune abrogation ("the sufferance Congress"). Furthermore, except provided 212 685, 688 87 Of relevance today, "could Tribe" all) "by Three years later, 679 (1993), reiterated "delegation" restoration sovereignty; survive delegation, inherent." original; omitted).1 precedent, akin State's congressionally permitted dormant 171 (1992). agency, authorization. moment ostensibly alternating explanations sometimes indicated consequence Government. 326 ("[The inability to] rest[s] independently determine relations"); ("By submitting overriding give up ."). suggested limit stems limitations ("Congress' inactions regulating demonstrated reserve courts"); offenses Country implicitly pre-empted jurisdiction"). stated, surprise, accounts Treaties memberships. 89 previous nature, certainly concerned. discussions naturally jurisdiction. 353 (jurisdiction civil suit official); supra (tribal regulations fishing). application sovereign's defendant, entity's extends. 354-355 (1907). enquire "whether [prosecuting] power," dimension (i. sovereign?). doctrines "rest[s] relations"). ways rule: Philippines, 204, repudiate alternative attempted, venture down path second. with, followed virtue fitting facts: possibly deny subordinate concept itself, canon calling doctrine. Finally, importantly, principles stare decisis particularly compelling area peculiarly susceptible confusion. confusion, fear, legacy today's decision, failure stand reveals conceptualizations rhetorical.2 91 reinvest fail appreciate Congress's conveyed treated inherent, continuing controlling effect, principal object 1990 amendments 1301 seq., close void" created (and empowering) handle non-member honor drafters' substantive eliminates gap.3 respectfully dissent. Bourland regulation fishing Its applicability presumably fortiori. THOMAS's disagreement ultimately readiness discard indeed, notes, example,ante, 220 judgment), peace dignity jeopardy. THOMAS depend (when tribe) assumes "retain laws." 220. exactly contrary: rejecting rejects rested. Reciting Oliphant's examination attempts momentary expressions malleable emphasis policy; "even omitted); THOMAS'S recharacterization holding. separation powersAnte, 215-217. resolving "prosecuted 640 2003), Cert. (I),

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