Document: 470 U.S. 675 105 S.Ct. 1568 84 L.Ed.2d 605 UNITED STATES, Petitionerv.William Harris SHARPE and Donald Davis Savage. No. 83-529. Argued Nov. 27, 1984. Decided March 20, 1985. Syllabus A Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agent, while patrolling a highway in an area under surveillance for suspected drug trafficking, noticed apparently overloaded pickup truck with attached camper traveling tandem Pontiac. Respondent Savage was driving the truck, respondent Sharpe After following two vehicles about 20 miles, agent decided to make "investigative stop" radioed South Carolina State Highway Patrol assistance. An officer responded, he DEA continued follow vehicles. When they attempted stop vehicles, Pontiac pulled over side of road, but on, pursued by state officer. identifying himself obtaining identification from Sharpe, radio The unable contact see if had stopped Pontiac, so local police help. In meantime, questioned Savage, told him that would be held until arrived. who left arrived at scene approximately 15 minutes after been stopped. confirming his suspicion upon smelling marihuana, opened rear without Savage's permission observed number burlap-wrapped bales resembling marihuana seen previous investigations. then placed arrest and, returning also arrested Sharpe. Chemical tests later showed contained marihuana. Respondents were charged federal offenses, District Court denied their motion suppress contraband, convicted. Appeals reversed, holding because investigative stops failed meet Fourth Amendment's requirement brevity governing detentions on less than probable cause, should have suppressed as fruit unlawful seizures. Held: detention clearly met standard reasonableness. Pp. 682-688. (a) evaluating reasonableness stop, this examines "whether officer's action justified its inception, whether it reasonably related scope circumstances which interference first place." Terry v. Ohio, 392 1, 88 1868, 1879, 889. As part inquiry, assumed officers articulable reasonable respondents engaged record abundantly supports assumption, given when truck. second is important factor determining unreasonable, courts must consider purposes served well time needed effectuate those purposes. Appeals' decision effectively establish per se rule 20-minute too long doctrine. Such result fundamentally odds Court's approach area. 682-686. (b) assessing duration appropriate examine diligently means investigation likely confirm or dispel suspicions quickly, during necessary detain defendant. Here, investigation, no delay unnecessary involved. 686-688. 712 F.2d 65 (CA4 1983), reversed remanded. Andrew L. Frey, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Mark J. Kadish, Atlanta, Ga., amicus curiae support judgment below, special order Court, respondents. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 We granted certiorari decide individual engaging criminal activity may detained period minutes, law enforcement conduct limited activity. 2 * A. 3 On morning June 9, 1978, Agent Cooke patrol unmarked vehicle coastal road near Sunset Beach, North Carolina, trafficking. At 6:30 a.m., blue shell Bonneville. pickup, carried passenger, Davis, charges against whom dropped. Observing riding low did not bounce sway appreciably drove bumps around curves, concluded heavily loaded. quilted material covered windows camper. 4 Cooke's sufficiently aroused miles proceeded south into Carolina. He Officer Thrasher, marked car, responded call. Almost immediately Thrasher caught up procession, turned off onto campground road.1 followed latter along 55 60 hour, exceeding speed limit 35 hour. eventually looped back highway, drive south. 5 point, all four middle lane three right-hand lanes highway. asked signal both stop. alongside lead, flashing light, motioned driver moved right lane, cut between Thrasher's nearly hitting down behind 6 approached identified himself. requested identification, produced Georgia driver's license bearing name Raymond Pavlovich. determine successful stopping several car. assistance, Myrtle Beach Police Department 10 later. Asking "maintain situation," join Thrasher. 7 one-half mile road. revolver drawn, ordered driver, get out assume "spread eagled" position patted down. holstered gun truck's registration. own Florida bill sale response questions concerning ownership said belonged friend taking shock absorbers repaired. arrival Cooke, became nervous, wanted leave, return license. replied free leave time. 8 handed truck; noted bore same Sharpe's thought loaded twice sought search camper, declined give it, explaining owner stepped observing sink any lower, confirmed probably overloaded. put nose window, inside, reported could smell Without seeking permission, removed keys ignition, large 9 returned Davis. Approximately 30 40 elapsed assembled various parties led them station. That evening, agents took Federal Building Charleston, Several days later, supervised unloading 43 weighing total 2,629 pounds. Acting warrant, eight randomly selected sampled. samples B possession controlled substance intent distribute violation 21 U.S.C. § 841(a)(1) 18 2. United States respondents' 11 divided panel Circuit convictions. States, 660 967 (1981). majority "had marijuana trafficking truck." Id., 970. But court "failed brevity" govern cause. Ibid. Basing solely detentions, "the length transformed de facto arrests bases unreasonable seizures Amendment." determined 971. alternative basis decision, warrantless taken violated Robbins California, 453 420, 101 2841, 69 744 Judge Russell dissented grounds majority's decision. 12 Government petitioned certiorari, asking review justify suppression. petition, vacated Appeals, remanded case further consideration light intervening Ross, 456 798, 102 2157, 72 572 (1982). 457 1127, 2951, 73 1345 13 remand, again (1983). that, required "disavow" disapproving bales. But, "[f]inding Ross does adversely affect our primary holding" defendants constituted illegal seizures, readopted prior modified. "to reexamine principal reargue issues addressed detail original dissenting opinions," reasoning complied mandate. "[h]ad [this] felt reversal order, so." 65, n. 1. dissented. 14 467 1250, 104 3531, 82 837 (1984), we reverse.2 II Amendment not, course, guarantee searches only authority limits apply such occurred here. Hensley, 469 221, 226, 675, 679, 83 604 (1985); Cortez, 449 411, 417, 690, 694, 66 621 (1981); Delaware Prouse, 440 648, 663, 99 139, 1401, 59 (1979); Brignoni-Ponce, 422 873, 878, 880, 95 2574, 2578, 2579, 45 607 (1975). 889 (1968), adopted dual inquiry Under approach, 16 S.Ct., 1879. 17 setting pickup. F.2d, assumption supported record.3 however, 30- 40-minute [Fourth Amendment's] brevity." It us bears causal relation discovery Pontiac; contraband introduced trial cannot logically considered "fruit" detention. issue case, then, facing whose challenged evidence, minutes. conclude meets 19 question Rather, alone arrest. Counsel respondents, curiae, assert conclusion argument before relying particularly decisions Dunaway New York, 442 200, 2248, 824 Royer, 460 491, 103 1319, 75 229 (1983); Place, 462 696, 2637, 77 110 reliance misplaced. Dunaway, picked murder suspect neighbor's home brought station, where, being interrogated confessed. conceded lacked cause suspect, interrogation rejected argument, concluding defendant's "in respects indistinguishable traditional arrest." U.S., 212, 2256. simply inapposite here: concerned detention, events occurring detention.4 government defendant airport, seized luggage, small room used questioning, where luggage revealed narcotics. See 503, 1327 (plurality opinion); id., 509, 1330 (POWELL, J., concurring); ibid. (BRENNAN, concurring result). though, focus primarily facts other detention—particularly fact confined airport questioning. 22 plurality Royer note "an temporary last longer purpose stop." 500, 1325. similar Place. 90 take narcotics detection dog "sniff test." seizure personal property doctrine, "[t]he respondent's precludes absence cause." 709, 2645. However, rationale underlying premised knew hours beforehand, arranged trained advance thus avoided necessity "[I]n effect account pursue investigation." Ibid.; supra, 23 acted diligently, unnecessarily prolonged Place provide analysis. 24 Admittedly, Terry, together, some instances create difficult line-drawing problems distinguishing Obviously, continues indefinitely, point can cases impose rigid limitation stops. While clear invasion individual's interests minimally intrusive justifiable suspicion," 2645, emphasized need 228-229, 234-235, 680-681, 683-684; 703-704, 2642-2643, 2645-2646; Michigan Summers, 452 692, 700, 12, 2587, 2593 340 (1981) (quoting W. LaFave, Search Seizure 9.2, pp. 36-37 (1978)). Much "bright line" desirable, common sense ordinary human experience criteria. 25 supra: 26 "If stop—investigating possible activity—is served, certain able brief involved Adams [v. Williams, 407 143, 92 1921, 32 612 (1972) ]." 2593. 27 Later, expressly suggestion adopt hard-and-fast permissible stop: 28 "We understand desirability providing authorities guide conduct. Nevertheless, wisdom limitation. undermine equally allow graduate responses demands particular situation." 10, 2646. 29 701, 14, 2594, p. (1978)); making assessment care are acting swiftly developing situation, indulge unrealistic second-guessing. generally post, 712-716 dissenting). creative judge post hoc evaluation almost always imagine objectives might accomplished. protection public might, abstract, accomplished 'less intrusive' itself, render unreasonable." Cady Dombrowski, 413 433, 447, 93 2523, 2531, 37 706 (1973); Martinez-Fuerte, 428 543, 557, 96 3074, 3082, 49 1116 (1976). available, unreasonably failing recognize it. 31 readily him, diligent manner. During most attempting enlisting help remained Once reached Savage,5 expeditiously: within space few examined sale, (and denied) bumper move, detected odor Clearly involve legitimate officers. presented evidence dilatory investigation. attributable entirely evasive actions elude road.6 Except maneuvers, short certainly pre-arrest place. somewhat "graduate[d] . respons[e] [the] 2646, 10. 33 reject contention suspect's contribute added complains. proceedings consistent opinion. 34 Reversed BLACKMUN, concurring. 36 view fugitive status, ante, 681-682, 2, I directions dismiss appeal Appeals. Molinaro Jersey, 396 365, 498, 586 (1970). This path, chooses merits. therefore reach merits 38 MARSHALL, judgment. 39 here what otherwise permissibly encounter now issue. write separately, my understates importance Terry's constitutionality 1883, recognized "narrowly drawn" exception probable-cause person do rise level full arrests. Two justifications "major development jurisprudence." Pennsylvania Mimms, 434 106, 115, 98 330, 336, 54 331 (1977) (STEVENS, First, stop—brief narrowly circumscribed—was "wholly different kind intrusion freedom" 26, 1882. Second, circumstances, government's interest preventing imminent substantial enough outweigh still-serious privacy implicated 1883. Thus, minimal, infringed encounter, based objectively suspicions, rather Amendment.1 41 terms these rationales made subsequent cases. For example, 210, 2255, (1979), explained rested principles: 42 "First, defined category 'seizures' substantially general requiring replaced balancing test. application test approve rigorous ." Similarly, 703, 2642, (1983), "[w]hen nature extent interests, opposing 704, 2643 ("The context practice, determination essential effective investigation"). Even lasts complete amount more "minimally intrusive." found unduly becomes appropriate. 697-699, 2591-2592, 44 To rank zealous above values, tempting divorce merge prongs single act investigate Cf. Posner, Rethinking Amendment, 1981 S.Ct.Rev. 49, 71. maintain goals better releasing continuing discover established. preservation society, "needs stand constant tension Constitution's protections exercises official power. precisely predictability pressures counsels resolute loyalty constitutional safeguards." Almeida-Sanchez 266, 273, 2535, 2540, 596 (1973). justified, makes easier, constitute sort Constitution requires reason, reviewing "critical threshold intrusiveness seizure." 722, 2653 (BLACKMUN, judgment). Regardless how efficient officials engage questioning crime, inquiries answered, duration, scope, goes beyond bounds reconciled supra. Legitimate turn overly constitutionally one. 46 view, itself unjustifiable arrest.2 "stops" part, stops, "[A] differs incompleteness it." LaFave & Israel, Criminal Procedure 3.8, 297 (1984). 47 Consistent legitimate, times imposes independent seize explicitly invalidated product lengthy detention; said: "The [T]he 90-minute sufficient unreasonable. ."3 709-710, 235, 684, (1985) ("[A] exceed stop"); 1325, (1983) ("[A]n ."); 510-511, 1331 result) ("[A]ny reasonable-suspicion justifies anything briefest finds line cases"); 705, 21, 2595, (questioning legality "prolonged" detention). valid inception become liberty lasting long. remains true even seizure. 48 matter needs buttressed sound pragmatic considerations. know structure encounters time, practices will adapt minimize intrusions worked encounters. supra (to assure narcotic dogs must, kept arriving). Firm adherence forces start serious protected alter accordingly.4 ban yields objective standards mandated precedents, avoid placing awkward second-guessing constitutes practice.5 methods employed "should least available verify time." 1325.6 Yet brief, defining "least intrusive" virtually unmanageable unbounded task. Whether due diligence function just quickly completed limitless set ways completed. posits diligence, summoned one patrolman assist requisite "training experience," truck—the carrying And takes fixed resources community willing devote enforcement, waiting sole possess, prolonging 50 Constitutional rights vary police, variance inescapable results. seriously require inject method ought employed.7 565, 3086, (1976) (One warrant "is prevent hindsight coloring seizure"). judicially manageable measuring according standardless yardstick. 51 Finally, dissolving "inevitably produce friction resentment [among police], there bound inconsistent confusing decisions." Schwartz, Stop Frisk, 58 J.Crim.L.C. P.S. (1967). themselves done nothing motorist hour registration computer come line, surely unlawful. Indeed, soon called learned down, released. information circumstance "balancing" suggests invalid crossed avoided; finding "balance" has struck improperly casts moral opprobrium limitations powers exercised. "[H]air-splitting distinctions currently plague jurisprudence" serve nobody's interest, York Quarles, 649, 664, 2626, 2635, 81 550 (1984) (O'CONNOR, part), legitimacy official's actions, proliferate distinctions. Maintaining clarity instead breed respect among citizens. 52 reasons, fidelity measured independently needs. intrusive, length, proper aims 53 little occasion specify extended (90-minute long). 146, 1923, (1972), described "brief." 2580, (1975), upheld "modest" "usually consumed minute." 558, 3083, (1985), drew characterize "brief" ones; "temporary." Those lasted established.8 "decline[d] outside authorities, agree judged stopwatch "briefly person, ask questions, check identification," 229, 681, warranted, pat-down weapons, typically presumptively presumption overcome showing lengthier reason; suspects, stop.9 cannot, regard American Law Institute's suggested maximum minutes10 long; "any cases." 510, Difficult doubt learns increase whatever resolution problem, very initial provides greater existed permitted encounter. desirable certainty adequately protect infringe. III 56 principles, offers hodgepodge reasons explain why permissible. points "necessary" "diligently" pursuing seems suggest "legitimate officers," perfectly lawful. ante 677, 685, 686. argued, puts horse cart critical length. With question, breath chastise transform arrest, 680, 682-683, another acknowledges "if Ante, 685. 57 Fortunately, try out, offered disposes case. recognizes: 687-688. agree.11 Had signalled to, subjected arrest.12 passed smelled request minimal designed causing Terry. would, entailed allows, believe ordinarily Nothing suggestions find unwarranted, confusing, potentially corrosive principles grounded. IV reaches wholly distinct capable treated fairly factual record. assumed, deciding, listening purported testimony 450 pages transcript, present "a real close question." App. 45. petition word devoted briefs. construed thinly disguised attempt atop judicial system, concludes arguendo legal "abundantly" record, 682—an abundance evident Anderson Bessemer City, 564, 1504, 518 (district credibility determinations entitled strongest deference). Of illustrated n.1, 2640, here, existence question; correctly "no address here." Consistency, hardly hallmark current campaigns. Moreover, aside presented, briefed, argued parties, handling reveals defects airy unaided lower review. ignores relevant relied although "real close," lawful; refer regarding like driven Defendant's Exhibit Perhaps type areas others, submitted trucks area; haste validate shells always, anywhere items engendering suspicion. ill-considered inferences concoct rely uphold asserts drivers "started speeding began car," 683, 3, sped evade him. joined caravan minute speeding. Record 140-141. addition, through 3-mile posted Any implication "evade" unsupported expected closed loop campground, speculation car correct, doubts intentionally attracted attention beginning speed. colored "several" essentially profile morning, including five four-wheel yet made. 127-128. If articulability officers' "close question," today questionable elicit rely, hope restraint speculate "assumption" evidently merely idle fancy anxious unpresented blithely hurdles jurisdictional jurisprudential way. V 61 demonstrates efforts officials. Accordingly, way fathom rests basis, acts unseemly 62 BRENNAN, dissenting. 63 William passenger concededly much seat cruiser, ultimately informed them. gunpoint, spread-eagled frisked, detaining patrolman, Kenneth shipment vehicle. Although repeatedly released, Luther arrive sniff vehicle's conceded, "was custodial arrest" entire 165. 64 meaning (1968). explains excessive violate nevertheless investigating officers." 687. accordion-like concept expanded outward depending Applying analysis instant fault contends "sought police" away signaled stop; "evasive actions," together "only 688. dissent. previously expressed views recount today. See, e.g., 710, result); Kolender Lawson, 461 352, 362, 1855, 1861, 903 1330, illustrates disturbing trends disposition involving citizens accused crime. increasingly tends recounts them, propriety appear governed all, dicta. late shows increasing eagerness purely findings instance convenient desired result. novo resting ambiguous best. evaded plain requirements precedents government. upheld, show minimum available" 1325 (opinion WHITE, J.).1 bald assertion "[c]learly unnecessary" "legitimate" 687, completely undermined us. portrays leading studied flourish. Before stopped, told, "took started car." 3. "pickup highway." 678. words, road." actions" "maneuvers," chase thereby laying groundwork delay. 67 relates apparent insists using expanding outer established activity, deliberately flight mere suspicion, Peters Sibron 40, 66-67, 1889, 1904-1905, 917 (1968) (companion ) ("[D]eliberately furtive strangers strong indicia mens rea, coupled specific knowledge relating factors arrest"). 366, 4, 1863, concurring) ("[S]ome reactions individuals properly flight, often information, addition already cause"); Henry 361 98, 103, 80 168, 171, 134 (1959) (suspicious ripen defendants' "movements mark fleeing men furtively"); Husty 282 240, 243, L.Ed. 629 (1931) ("prompt escape hailed suspicious ripened cause).2 68 cause; pre-existing 3.6, 669 (1978).3 presence authorities.4 accepts premise vehicles,5 boldly speeding" actions." Thus describes inclined failure baffling, keeping recent practice reaching far resolve hand bother abiding necessarily gradual pace case-by-case decisionmaking. 711, 714-720, 2646-2647, 2648-2651 511, 1331, 70 flawed respect: discussion amounts is, best, hopelessly ambiguous. Neither nor ever evasion flight. factfinding, submit insufficient factors. 71 sees hail someone front lengths separation two," testified distance 30-50 100-150 feet. 65; 139. Approaching far-left lead vehicle, "turned on," "blew siren," "motioned pull over." 145 (emphasis added). slowing elude" happens strongly reinforced inability responsive answer question: "Would you say allude [sic] thinking car?" 84. nonanswer "[w]ell, across partially got me lane," —an observation stop-in-progress. "[f]ail[ure] [a] motor law-enforcement vehicle" traffic Carolina.6 guilty violations, violations enumerated (1) (2) improper tags. 94-95, 99. police," 688, curious include litany offenses. 74 None factors, singularly innocently past Government's burden prove justifying J.), below never authorities,7 contrary extremely disturbing. deemed forfeited safeguards cold Today's unfortunately representative growing decisions.8 inclination "conscientious detailed examination record" judgments sort, Hasting, 499, 517, 1974, 1984, 76 judgment), improper. institutional role focused resolving "important law" "ensuring uniformity doctrine," Young, 34, 1038, 1056, serving prosecution's factfinder resort.9 Because shown progeny. These inexorably Amendment. emphasized, accord requirement. 967, 970 (1981).10 compel affirmance Circuit's judgment, precedents: "custodial Far circumscribed intrusions" authorized authority, arrest," 'exception' cover threaten swallow 'reasonable' 212-213, 2256-2257, (1979). 696-698 (MARSHALL, time," demonstrating infeasible expeditious way." 505, 1328 J.).11 burden. First. Assuming break "elude" them—in all—the demonstrated separate equipped lights,12 manner ensure together. Reasonable bringing proximate mind; if, assumes, Second. believed am loss vice versa.13 78 Third. plausible explanation Here again, bold contrary: 79 "It hold pending arrival. aware suspicions; training dealing investigations." 5. undermines conclusion. unaware going conversed fully discussed stop.14 "professional opinion" vehicles.15 observations, "might loaded" marihuana.16 "held" situation. pointed inside. inspected exterior jumped be. 87; 150. reason conducted simple sniffing did: patrolmen, received basic exactly smells like. 86.17 reasons: first, assigned "job"; second, "[m]y sinuses morning." 164, 178; 101.18 cleared once station decided, "[j]ust curiosity," "get window" decisively "I windows." chose citizen "reasonable" ignorance officer, straight.19 Finally. measure poor coordination botched communications DEA. swarming throughout immediate detained, conducting numerous roadblocks "profile stops" campers recreational Savage's. accepting dubious somehow incapable knowing multiple-vehicle offing, obtained assistance agents. was, fact, do. tried headquarters complained can't raise anybody else now." Ex. (policeband transcription). dispatcher telephone office "ask frequency." 4. busy; units sent tell people telephone." 6. arrived, "[t]here's there. They're Mar Vista Motel." Additional motel sack." Agents located Don's Pancake House, ibid., 171-172. backup. "expeditious way" "reasonably methods, accurately characterized resulting bungled unwillingness tread turf. mean blame delays; backups sleeping eating breakfast monitoring radios calls, place carry conducting. easily balanced subjectively good faith, especially exercise power.20 remember values stake Framers understood "[u]ncontrolled weapons arsenal every arbitrary government," "[a]mong deprivations rights, none cowing population, crushing spirit putting terror heart." Brinegar 338 160, 180, 1302, 1313, 1879 (1949) (Jackson, accordingly provided shall cause—a "roots deep history," 100, 170, grounded practical, nontechnical conception affording best compromise accommodating" "often opposing" 176, 1311. By preclude "common rumor report, 'strong suspect.' " 101, 170. progeny depart safeguard, sorts wrought fall "far associated 2256, Detaining briefly consent 882, (1975) functions safeguard prevents important. Absent rigorously enforced requirement, "would 2256-2257. MARSHALL cogently discusses today, serves agencies "structure encounters" employing "minimize encounters." 693 (concurring Royer's prosecution demonstrate operates commit manpower, training, possible. Some protest impede tradeoffs relax guilty, prescribe define innocent well. 181, 1313 dissenting) Brinegar's regarded Everyman"). 85 connection, disturbed experience." course correct emphasizing expert great many roadside situations indefinitely interrogator city experienced sergeant opinion, owned adjacent county windows. cars community, prefer handcuff lamppost emergency All preferable standpoint. enact curtail them: citizen's turns coping inadequate marginal resources, negligent supervision, communications. Our more—the demonstration smooth communications, minimized intrusions. 505-506, 1328-1329 J.). 86 requirements, acknowledge bungling, miscommunication, alternatives, pronounced "acted diligently." step appears emerging tendency convert statement reasonable," 721, 2652 judgment)—a process thumb planted firmly scales.21 87 Douglas, lone dissenter warned "[t]here powerful hydraulic history bear water guarantees upper hand." 39, 1889. outcome eschewed narrow expand Terry; factfinding mission; either ignored misconstrued call detentions; squarely precedents. decisionmaking breaches faith high duty wholesale security citizenry." Mississippi, 394 726, 89 1394, 1397, 676 (1969). STEVENS, Both fugitives.1 Their status raises procedural significance fact-bound presented.2 escapes persons lucrative business smuggling uncommon,3 litigants impact escapes, pending, normally dismissed.4 Over century ago, Smith 94 97, (1876), disposition: 91 discretion refuse hear error, unless convicted party, suing writ, respond render. admitted plaintiff error escaped, control actually, custody, constructively, bail. affirm sentence. reverse new trial, interest. moot case."5 Estelle Dorrough, 420 534, 1173, 377 (per curiam ), "[d]isposition dismissal appeals escaped prisoners longstanding principle law," "[t]his declining convictions defendants."6 fugitives prevailed Court.7 timing escape, plainly power base fled. Nor, dispute fugitives' guilt, difference ultimate appeal. establishes apprehended flagrant law. claim guilt search; claim, meritorious, neither lack culpability fundamental unfairness process.8 fugitives, accorded standing appeal.9 render."10 meritorious outcome. Every assumes meritorious. ruling favor possibility disagree. short, deciding applies, disregarded.11 states, "reversal reinstatement convictions, moot." technically moot.12 adversary character litigation. lawyer escapee presumably lost client; desire vindicate faithless client zealous; noted, normal risk kind.13 believe, treat though mooted vacate direct dismissed, consequences vacating court's eliminating precedent vindicated.14 presented.15 That, me, paramount importance.16 97 There adverse consequence propose. deprive opportunity summary additional guidance community. adoption rendering advisory opinions Executive—a abjured history.17 have, instead, opted policy restraint—of studiously avoiding adjudication questions. implementation policy, submit, predicate status. respectfully "[a]bout minute" procession. 141. 18, August counsel notified fugitives. October directed file moot. Villamonte-Marquez, 579, 581-582, 2573, 2575-2576, (1970) ). STEVENS whenever appellee remand theory indeed dissent relies concerns situation party cases, equitable justice "disentitled" conviction. Campos-Serrano, 404 293, 294-295, 471, 472-473, (1971); Molinaro, 499; 541-542, irrelevant conviction nullified seeks confronted Rodriguez, 308, 165 hesitate case; decline moot, certiorari. Eisler 189, 194, 1453, 1456, 1897 (Murphy, ("That distinguish decide. nugatory"). coast known frequented traffickers. transport quantities appeared loaded, bed-sheet curtains. facts, alone, suspicion; appraised justification pertinent private dwelling; transported unwillingly station; (3) confession. realistically release Cooke. inferred Pontiac—in 17, 37—such purposeful, split up, each other, enlist suspicion: protective searches, (1972); border aliens, (1981), (1975); Mendenhall, 446 544, 100 1870, 497 (1980); felonies, (1985). referred "illegal transactions drugs crime." 1324. objectives, possessory upon. 183, 1314, ("[J]udicial exceptions depend gravity offense"). offloading vessels recently coast, triggers move distance, extensive fear danger, tactics amounting used. 1862, concurring). enough. statements quoted text "alone" "sufficient" invalidate Dunaway: "A single, familiar officers, expertise reflect balance social confront." 213-214, 2257. 219-220, 2260 (WHITE, (rules fashioned categorical resolved ad hoc, fashion officers"). language (1973), full-scale Royer. Cady, quite obviously, here; way, intruded quotation reasoned discussion, meant overrule Legal consists isolated sentences contexts sub silentio holdings. distaste task "second-guessing" 686, BRENNAN's critique cursory analyzes intention choosing option "due diligence." strict 2593, "than Adams." concurrence indicates, actual firm go. Summers took, 2598, (Stewart, dissenting), read peculiarly unintrusive residence. 11, infra. ALI, Model Code Pre-Arraignment 110.2(1) stated taken. They created problem." 221. Immediately statement, ruled 221-222. From made—a "each facts" detention—I "they" defendants. issued express faithful uttered. No creates search. Johnson 333 13, 367, 369, 436 (1948) ("[O]dors authorize warrant"). Johns, 478, 486, 881, 886-887, 890 automobile disagree 827, 2174 concur validity burlap-covered Concurring plurality's stringent standard: lawful strictly conceive accomplish n., (1978) ("[I]f exists significant degree elevate cause"). Representative applying Martinez-Gonzalez, 686 93, (CA2 1982) event agents' Martinez's manifestation evidenced apartment talk him"); Green, 216 U.S.App.D.C. 329, 333-334, 670 1148, 1152-1153 Gomez, 633 999, 1007-1008 1980), cert. denied, 994, 1695, 194 Vasquez, 534 1142, 1145-1146 (CA5), 429 979, 489, 587 (1976); People Amick, Cal.App.3d 140, 144-145, 111 Cal.Rptr. 280, 282-283 Holdman, Ill.2d 213, 221-222, Ill.Dec. 383 N.E.2d 155, 158-159 (1978), 938, 1285, 496 Commonwealth Ortiz, 376 Mass. 349, 353-354, 380 669, 673 (1978); Kreichman, N.Y.2d 693, 698-699, N.Y.S.2d 497, 503-504, 339 182, 187-188 (attempt 14-block chase, cause); Dennis, 236 Pa.Super. 348, 351, 344 A.2d 713, 715 "Were otherwise, 'anyone walks runs subject arrest,' 'be countenanced Fourteenth Amendments.' quoting Margeson, 259 F.Supp. 256, 265 (ED Pa.1966). Compare Wong Sun 371 482, 407, 414, 441 (1963) ("[W]hen insufficiently unclearly identifies mission, occupant's door conduct"), 145, Cal.Rptr., 283 ("[The police] [the passengers] them; black white unit Kapphahn red spotlight siren occupants] quarter forced stop"). 56-5-750 provides: street State, fail light. prima facie section. discuss other. closest came passing colloquy reference arguably construction tenuous comment taken"—which distill remark "finding" police." Oregon Elstad, 298, 360-362, 1320-1321, 222 dissenting); 30-35, 1054-1057, part); 516-519, 1984-1986, Like 700-702 feels compelled record," 682. sake analysis, 1981), consideration. "great reluctance" merits, barely "by weight evidence" doubt. 152-155, 190. day wrongdoing. 126-127, 70-71 (DEA "set roadblocks"). 3; 701 concession sign encountered—lawful comports notions high-speed authorities. 142-143. hardened, run gas. 4-5 (Cooke's radio) ("We're pretty quick I'll go 10-7 You want there? I'd don't I.D. that"). perceptively observed, "[i]t's possibly Mr. gas." 52. reasonable." portable dash. 54. stand, disagreed responsible supposedly charge, insisted "Thrasher Pontiac." hand, maintained "Cooke stay 145. Conway Dispatch Communications transcript "[t]ake 3-4 (transcription police-band exchanges) (discussing night, vehicles' movements, appearance vehicles); (Cooke "conversed encountered, been"); 52-53, 159-161. asked: "What's your professional riding?" responded: "He's He's load something." replied: "Is him?" answered: "Affirmative Just I'll. 52-53. (Thrasher "suspected truck] it" covered" quilts overloaded); 160-161 marihuana). raw legitimately stopped." notes, "[n]o [in case] search." 699, 888, claimed marijuana, 177 ("Q. Don't Don saying [to Cooke] let's talking you, getting opinion? Yes, sir, have"). recall request. 177-178. insisting "could aware" indefinitely. finding, contradicted 713-714. flies directly face ground subsequently up. ("An discloses"); 370, (1948). unprecedented threatens "obliterate form government, law, police-state law." possessed undertook. dissent, consult determinations. judges second-guessing" "unrealistic" satisfied standards. understandably perplexed refuses simultaneously engages verdict Government. attempts slip footnote astonishing textual untrue, conclusion." purposeful," "made necessary" detentions. "innocent" conduct, ibid, intolerable waived fault. Leon, 468 897, 929, 3405, 3430, 677 (noting resort cost/benefit analyses "where 'costs' excluding illegally loom exaggerated heights 'benefits' exclusion disappear wave hand"). grant writ filed September 1983; May wrote letter "as date, Northern Carolina." Letter Kadish Alexander Stevas, Clerk Supreme (May 1984). Subsequently, July Sol Blatt, Jr., entered orders forfeiting bonds Motion Proceed Forma Pauperis B. Solicitor General states Attorney's Office advised knowledge, remain fugitives." Reply Brief posed questions: "1. temporarily period—brief, minutes—reasonably "2. Whether, assuming phase extended, illegality mandates suppression which, odor, discovered thereafter vehicle." Pet. Cert. I. Meyers, 466 380, 385, 1852, 381 (the [its] scarce wisely bricks building bureaucracy"). 2-3, ---, ); Holmes, 680 1372, 1373 (CA11 1982), 1015, 1259, 486 Wood, 435, 437-438 (CA9 1976); Sperling, 506 1323, 1345, 1974), 962, 1351, 439 365-366, 498-499, 97. 537, 1175. years earlier, Regarding wrote: "Thus, 365 [90 586] (1970), dismissed defendant, stating persuasive adjudicate 'disentitles claims.' 366 499]." 883, 542 (1949); Bonahan Nebraska, 125 1390, 854 (1887); (1876); cf. Allen Rose, 419 1080, (1974). Stone Powell, 465, 3037, 1067 Walder 347 62, 354, 356, 503 (1954). disagrees. proposes merits; prejudice." 6-7. endorsed "heads win, tails lose" position. 499. Munsingwear, Inc., 36, 39-40, 104, 106-107, (1950). Rescue Army Municipal Los Angeles, 549, 568-574, 1409, 1419-1422, 1666 (1947); Spector Motor Service, Inc. McLaughlin, 323 105, 152, 154, (1944) ("If doctrine deeply rooted adjudication, pass unavoidable"); Ashwander TVA, 288, 347, 466, 483, 688 (1936) (Brandeis, disposed of"); Burton 196 283, 295, 245, 482 (1905) ("It habit absolutely case"). Characteristically, ignores. relies, inappropriate supervisory courts. overlooked differences tribunals arise system." 7, 311 Secretary Maryland Joseph H. Munson Co., 947, 972, 2839, 2855, 786 472-473 (1971), misplaced Stewart fugitive. implicitly Hayburn's Case, Dall. 409, (1792). Following clear, series letters, opinions. correspondences 1793, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay Associate Justices: "Gentlemen: war Europe produces frequent ports limits, considerable difficulty, peace States. solution treaties, laws nations, land, cognisance country. analogous executive, embarrassment difficulty President relieved description secure errors dangerous insure parties. attendance collected occasion, know, place, may, propriety, availed advice questions? present, advice, abstract occurred, occur, strike forbid pronounce on. honour sentiments perfect respect, gentlemen, "Your obedient humble servant, "Thos. Jefferson" Correspondence Public Papers 486-487 (H. Johnston ed. 1891) original) Attached letter, behalf Writings George Washington 15-19 (J. Fitzpatrick 1940). Justices penned Washington: "Sir: written us, direction, 18th inst., State. 'whether alluded to,' importance. affects department, feel reluctance participation absent brethen. induced convened doubtless urgent; urgency judge, consequently propose postponed sitting disposed, desirous, promote welfare country consist duties. pleased, manifesting solicitous administration easy agreeable yourself delay, resume be, servants." 487-488 (Johnston 1891). promptly reply: interesting public, exist then; press whereon wish Whenever, therefore, enable satisfaction yourselves, accept pleasure. am, &c." response: direction month, [regarding] lines drawn departments checks resort, considerations afford arguments extra-judicially President, calling heads opinions, purposely united executive departments. exceedingly regret administration, derive consolation reflection discern right, usual prudence, firmness surmount obstacle peace, dignity 488-489 original).

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