Document: 468 U.S. 796 104 S.Ct. 3380 82 L.Ed.2d 599 Andres SEGURA and Luz Marina Colon, Petitioners,v.UNITED STATES. No. 82-5298. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Nov. 9, 1983. Decided July 5, 1984. Syllabus Acting on information that petitioners probably were trafficking in cocaine from their apartment, New York Drug Enforcement Task Force agents began a surveillance petitioners. Thereafter, upon observing petitioner Colon deliver bulky package to one Parra at restaurant parking lot, while Segura Rivudalla-Vidal visited inside restaurant, followed apartment stopped them. was found possess cocaine, she immediately arrested. After being advised his constitutional rights, admitted he had purchased confirmed made delivery restaurant. then authorized by an Assistant Attorney arrest petitioners, search warrant for petitioners' could not be obtained until following day but agent should secure premises prevent destruction evidence. Later same evening, arrested lobby building, took him knocked door, and, when it opened entered without requesting or receiving permission. The conducted limited security check process observed, plain view, various drug paraphernalia. Petitioner arrested, both taken into custody. Two remained awaiting because "administrative delay" issued some 19 hours after initial entry apartment. In pursuant warrant, discovered, inter alia, records narcotics transactions. These items seized, together with those observed during check. District granted pretrial motion suppress all seized Appeals held evidence discovered view entry, search, must suppressed. Petitioners subsequently convicted violating federal laws, affirmed. Held: 1. exclusionary rule reaches only primary as direct result illegal seizure, also later derivative illegality "fruit poisonous tree." Nardone v. States, 308 338, 341, 60 266, 268, 84 L.Ed. 307. does apply, however, if connection between police conduct discovery seizure is "so attenuated dissipate taint," ibid., as, example, where "independent source" Silverthorne Lumber Co. 251 385, 40 182, 64 319. Pp. 804-805. 2. Here, there independent source challenged evidence; valid warrant. which secured came sources wholly unconnected known well before entry. Hence, whether irrelevant admissibility evidence, exclusion warranted 813-816. 697 F.2d 300 (CA 2 1982), Peter J. Fabricant, City, Andrew L. Frey, Washington, D.C., respondent. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court.d1 1 We certiorari decide whether, earlier Fourth Amendment requires suppression private residence residence. * Resolution this issue us consider two separate questions: first, internal securing constituted impermissible contents seen unseen; second, first have been suppressed "fruit" Our disposition questions carefully limited. 3 affirmed Court's holding no exigent circumstances justify warrantless That us, we reason question courts' illegal. ensuing interference possessory interests another matter. On question, conclude that, assuming within, did violate Amendment. Specifically, hold officers, having probable cause, enter premises, occupants who legitimate its take them custody more than period here involved, within preserve status quo others, good faith, are obtaining they do Amendment's proscription against unreasonable seizures.1 4 will show, has bearing second question. resolution determine tainted now challenged. issue, subsequent officers need based unrelated therefore under 319 (1920). II 5 January 1981, received indicating information, maintained continuing over February 12, 1981. meeting Enrique Rivudalla-Vidal, which, developed, discussed possible sale Rivudalla-Vidal. Three days later, telephoned agreed provide cocaine. would p.m. designated fast-food Queens, N.Y. Esther Parra, arrived p.m., agreed. While Rivudalla-Vidal's car lot. A short time package, left proceeded followed. couple about cocaine; 6 cooperate agents. He day, observed. informed call approximately 10 o'clock evening learn sold case additional 7 Between 6:30 sought authorization Colon. lateness hour, proceed 8 At 7:30 established external surveillance. 11:15 Segura, alone, building claimed reside building. third floor woman identified appeared; There three persons living room addition Those present obtained. 9 Following brief exchange room, ensure else might pose threat safety destroy process, bedroom triple-beam scale, jars lactose, numerous small cellophane bags, accouterments trafficking. None these disturbed check, incident her arrest, purse loaded revolver $2,000 cash. other Administration headquarters. Because what characterized application presented Magistrate next day. performed agents' almost pounds 18 rounds .38-caliber ammunition fitting Colon's possession $50,000 cash, Agents items, previous night. 11 Before trial Eastern York, moved apartment—the search.2 full evidentiary hearing, motion. court ruled justifying Accordingly, effective paraphernalia ordered "fruits" searches. 12 supported sufficient establish cause; read Griffin, 502 959 (CA6), cert. denied, 419 1050, 95 626, 42 645 (1974), requiring warrant.3 reasoned necessarily because, absent "occupation" arranged drugs removed destroyed, event made. Under analysis, even 13 appeal incriminating part reversed part. 663 411 (1981). It justified suppressed.4 rejected argument advanced excluded actually "seized" secured. 14 Relying Agapito, 620 324 (CA2), 449 834, 101 107, 66 (1980),5 executed described "prudentially unsound" decision simply destroyed entered. 15 conspiring distribute violation 21 U.S.C. § 846, distributing possessing intent 841(a)(1). review convictions, Second Circuit affirmed, (1982), rejecting claims procured through material misrepresentations insufficient matter law support convictions. certiorari, 459 1200, 103 1182, 75 430 (1983), affirm. III 16 outset, important focus narrow precise us. As noted, No aspect Government concerning Court. admittedly 17 judicially prescribed remedial measure "with any device, restricted areas objectives thought most efficaciously served." Calandra, 414 348, 94 613, 620, 38 561 (1974). holdings, Weeks 232 383, 34 58 652 (1914), 307 (1939). "extends indirect products" unconstitutional conduct. Wong Sun 371 471, 484, 83 407, 416, 441 (1963). Evidence plainly subject exclusion. resolved "tainted" prior " 'come exploitation [the initial] instead means sufficiently distinguishable purged taint.' Id., 488, S.Ct., 417 (citation omitted; emphasis added). 20 years supra, U.S., 268. excluded, evidence: "The essence provision forbidding acquisition certain way merely so acquired shall used all. Of course, mean facts thus become sacred inaccessible. If knowledge gained may proved like others." 392, 183 (emphasis 22 short, clear our holdings "the [where] learned 'from source.' Sun, 487, (quoting Co., 183); see Crews, 445 463 (1980); Wade, 388 218, 242, 87 1926, 1940, 1149 (1967); Costello 365 265, 278-280, 81 534, 541-542, 551 (1961). IV 23 argue seen, including lawful away control permitted remove it, "seizure" place. Plainly, avoid exception. securing, presumably suppressible 24 effected ammunition, meaning By terms, forbids "unreasonable" searches seizures. Assuming, arguendo, entire contents, suggest, totality circumstances. 25 Different implicated search. Jacobsen, 466 109, 113, n. 122, 126, 1652, 1656, 1661, 1663, 80 85 (1984); Texas Brown, 460 730, 1535, (1983); id., 747-748, 1546-1547 (STEVENS, J., concurring judgment); Chadwick, 433 1, 13-14, 8, 97 2476, 2484-2485, 53 538 (1977); Chambers Maroney, 399 42, 51-52, 90 1975, 1981-1982, 26 (1970). affects person's interests; privacy interests. 5; 8; generally 747-751, 1546-1548 judgment). Recognizing less intrusive nature 2484-2485 51, frequently approved seizures property, basis necessary either likely impermissible. supra; Arkansas Sanders, 442 753, 99 2586, 61 235 (1979).6 focused notably Chambers, reasonable seize impound automobile, "whatever obtain search." 1981 (footnote omitted). acknowledged alternative impoundment, albeit impractical one. But allowed nonetheless otherwise "instruments fruits crime" 9. protect though immediate fear lost. declared: 27 "For purposes, difference hand seizing presenting cause magistrate carrying out Given course Amendment." 52, added) 28 footlocker area Federal Building violated searches, neither respondents nor questioned validity cause. Chadwick's clearly interfered use footlocker—his interest—but "diminish [his] expectation footlocker's remain private." And again, required luggage automobile already However, expressly noted acted "properly," "commendably" suitcase believe contained drugs. 761, 2591. taxi placed drive away. just loss Chambers—since issued—so too Sanders taxicab. Indeed, arguably vehicle's trunk, rendering access unlikely act. 29 Underlying decisions belief society's interest protection removal can supersede, least period, provided property associated criminal activity. See Place, 462 696, 2637, 77 110 (1983). 30 occasion activity temporary dwelling violates cases suggested Amendment, undertaken sought. Mincey Arizona, 437 98 2408, 57 290 (1978), approval guard stationed entrance homicide committed, "[t]here indication lost, warrant." 394, 2414. Similarly, Rawlings Kentucky, 448 98, 100 2556, 65 633 (1980), although secured, home person whom detained issued.7 31 reason, why principle applied apply involved. sanctity disputed. terms primarily occupants' activities place within. "[T]he protects people, places." Katz 389 347, 351, 88 507, 511, 576 Payton 573, 615, 1371, 1394, 63 639 (1980) (WHITE, dissenting). 32 interests, Therefore, heightened accord issue. hold, therefore, dwelling, itself contents. reaffirm time, circumstances, search—such invalidated Vale Louisiana, 30, 33-34, 1969, 1971-1972, 409 (1970)—is 33 abundant advance operation carried apartment; indeed dispute probable-cause determination. weeks, leave make sales Wholly apart observations extended surveillance, told 13, supplied offered duly upheld Appeals, now. case, Arguably, wiser depart outside "stakeout" once revealed method employed require different insofar concerned. held, Securing perimeter "stakeout." words, entry—legal not—does affect reasonableness seizure. method—entry stakeout—agents pending arrival warrant; stakeout interfere extent owners. 35 heighten possibility entries themselves render staked outside. disagree. place, absence unwilling routinely purposely course. Second, practical matter, issues, Santana, 427 38, 96 2406, 49 (1976); Johnson 333 10, 68 367, 92 436 (1948). Third, illegally recognize whatever discover suppressed, case. Finally, expose potential civil liability Bivens Six Unknown Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 91 1999, 619 (1971). 36 inception duration reasons. Cf. delay occupation continued throughout night Such large metropolitan center unfortunately uncommon; not, itself, bad faith. suggestion delayed asserted explanation task processing turning former priority, given, here, proprietors 37 exploited presence awaited issuance Moreover, half 19hour a.m. assume judicial readily available consideration requests. important, 705, 2643, "[t]he intrusion occasioned . vary extent. owner relinquished party owner." 39 whose occupation, occupied actual was, thus, virtually nonexistent. Van Leeuwen, 397 249, 1029, 282 prepared say Amendment.8 V virtue derived Whether seized. Exclusion tree" source. 41 related needed beyond possessed This product "means distinguishable" purge "taint" arising 417.9 Had never anyone entering destroying contraband precisely here. legality is, (1920).10 conclusion admissible fully going back century. "it come light actions police." 487-488, 417-418; Brown Illinois, 422 590, 599, 2254, 2259, 45 416 (1975). squarely conflict allowing admission notwithstanding illegality, link taint. token, unless "but for" Suppression sense governmental activity." 1250. contribute clear, threshold requirement met 43 dissent contends causes outside, friends alerted, issued. embraces "reasoning," press argument. rested "wholly speculative assumptions." Among things, waited issued, decided thereby alert Or, alerted Segura's failure appear, attempted rather intercepted 44 agree cohorts pure speculation. Even decline extend rule, exacts enormous price society system justice, further "protect" activity, do. considered juncture, reminded Frankfurter's warning "[s]ophisticated prove causal [illegal conduct] Government's proof," admonition courts "[a]s such taint." Nardone, "constitutional right" concept defies logic common sense. VI 46 cash records, properly judgment 47 ordered. 48 STEVENS, BRENNAN, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN join, dissenting. Correct analysis issues raised requires, identification violations occurred, remedy appropriate. I current record justifies affirmance substantial contention, findings unaddressed Court, authorities' introduced violations. contention addressed convictions finally remand proceedings. disposition, fear, government affirmative incentive engage home. inconsistent purpose rule—to citizens—not petitioners—have meaningful future rights. 50 events occurred culmination investigation weeks. point, concluded contacted Attorney's office. An late go "secure premises" warrant.1 hour positioned fire escape, observe leaving They put ears heard nothing.2 waiting, perch went waiting show up. followed: 51 "Around appeared, locked door lobby, apprehended, handcuffs arrest. agents, led Shea, wanted upstairs 3D, replied live Forcibly bringing floor, down hallway, point again resisted. Shea forced hallway located rear front standing, handcuffed, him. unknown such, door. Detective more, walked five minutes Palumbo. Neither Nor ask receive consent 3D." App. 10-11. 52 time.3 cursory saw view.4 evidence—the "prewarrant evidence"—in arrestees spent colleagues booked persevered efforts remaining thorough concluded: "There lapse 18-20 execution complete it." 11. Upon searching kilo $50,000, several 54 frames appropriate inquiry Ante, 804. predicate inquiry, must, identified. 55 11-13. finding, seek Thus, uncontested unconstitutional.5 equally 18-20-hour independently 56 First, "search" purposes occurs infringed.6 Nowhere expectations greater repeatedly "physical chief evil wording directed." 407 297, 313, 2125, 2135, 752 (1972).7 invasion physical cease lawfully Mincey's him, Constitution forbade it. despite retained constitutionally protected infringed 390-391, 2412-2413. Chimel California, 395 752, 89 2034, 685 (1969), "see why, individual's freedom movement intrusions automatically require." 766-767, 2041-2042, 12.8 exacerbated innocent motives, quarters inevitably involved scrutiny variety personal effects apartment.9 Petitioners' unreasonably prolonged THE CHIEF JUSTICE ignores distinction inside. JUSTICE's assumption untenable; fundamental "breach settings. none zone defined bounded unambiguous dimensions home—a finds roots specific terms: 'The right people houses violated.' 589, 1381, (1980). interests.10 doubt respect interference. own prevented exercising exercised dominion contents.11 compel person, concomitantly acquire effects, Illinois Lafayette, 640, 648, 2605, 2610, Edwards, 415 800, 1234, 771 (1974); Robinson, 467, (1973); car, South Dakota Opperman, 428 364, 3092, 1000 (1976). Surely follows authorities contents.12 59 unreasonable. duration. 709-710, 2645-2646, impoundment warrant—and argues existed—the nevertheless "strictly circumscribed exigencies initiation," Terry Ohio, 392 25-26, 1868, 1882-1883, 889 (1968).13 cites, ante, 807-810, proposition amount procure whatsoever.14 remotely contrast 90-minute piece Place graphically illustrates character unlike inception, moment began. circumstances.15 since warrant.16 concluding complied seeking Nevertheless, characterize astonishing holding, JUSTICE, joined O'CONNOR, concludes advances reasons conclusion, merit. seeks 812. difficulties; indeed, unconstitutional, truly ironic uses wrong another. significance, length attempt it; finding concedes unreasonable.17 62 suggests relevant act "bad faith." 798, done fact faith; litigants More officer's faith undertaking reasonableness,18 today.19 "most important" significant anyway. 813. legion citizen retains instances general rule—the defendants custody, yet homes still, owns house exclude others agents—remains inviolate. What strange permits benefit unlawfully unconstitutional.20 obey "relinquished control" analysis. unlawful becomes "reasonable." approach Only achieve purpose. Not fruit remedied prewarrant proper second. violation, occur neutralized ultimate reaching correctly recognizes ' "come illegality" "by 804-805 417, (1963)). fails, discuss how Every holds unconstitutionally acutely aware social costs entails.21 compelling repeated imposition society. occurring.22 stated, principal deter See, e.g., Stone Powell, 465, 486, 3037, 3048, 1067 Janis, 433, 446-447, 3021, 3028-3029, 1046 Peltier, 531, 536-539, 2313, 2317-2318, 374 (1975); 347-348, 619-620, 67 calculated prevent, repair. Its deter—to guaranty effectively way—by removing disregard Elkins 364 206, 217, 1437, 1444, 1669 (1960). deterrence rationale sometimes, always, consequences violation. utilize conduct, retain "To forbid methods [as illegal] curb invite very deemed 'inconsistent ethical standards destructive liberty.' 340, 267, 69 mechanically every item misconduct. notion 'dissipation taint' attempts mark detrimental action deterrent effect longer cost." 609, 2264, (1975) (POWELL, part).23 70 illustrated confessions arrests. (1963), 491, 417-418, 419. Yet (1975), reject "but-for" 603, 2261, taint arrestee silent consult counsel Miranda 384 436, 86 1602, 694 (1966). explained: 71 "If warnings, themselves, attenuate regardless wanton purposeful substantially diluted. Arrests questioning 'investigation,' encouraged therefrom simple expedient giving warnings. Any eviscerated making effect, 'cure-all,' guarantee said reduced 'a form words.' 602-603, 2261-2262 footnote 72 depend causation; causation condition addition, shown When mandated "a words." 73 "independent" illegality—the explains legal executing produced illegality. 814-815. analytical difficulties lurking approach. accepts 814; 812 (opinion BURGER, C.J.). draw postwarrant embraced categories concealed. justification apartment—that much "plain view" executed;24 concealed items. takes poison hidden fruit, think view.25 74 inadequate resolve states untainted "[n]o 814. dispose claim make—that tainted. surely relevant. returned night, concerned transactions, obviously accessible executed.26 evidence's availability hinged solely impoundment. found: discovered. fact, [from apartment]." 15. indicates occupation. 76 majority insists idea "unsound" "extend" "further 'protect' activity," 816. far novel; long-settled rule. implicit seminal Weeks' 393-394, 344-345. recently, house; enabled regularly invoked eluded illegality.27 too, impounded cannot provides entry: precluded reach exactly last Term, There, trained detection dog arrived. sniffed luggage, signaled narcotics, strength dog's reaction, executed, lawful, became give away.28 disappearing authorities. 78 confront relationship 815-816, rejects speculative. distinct, nonspeculative illegally. obligated erroneous, not. enough missing hours.29 thinks noting irony extending criminals given chance. confuses however: (1) circumstances; (2) "inevitable" 18-hour delay. risk destroyed.30 79 For me, controlling answered speculation, asking served undermined "prudential" cases. distinct preserved applicable committed importance applying underscored facts. blatantly unconstitutional. enforcement engaging exceedingly weak. inordinate impair enforcement. applicable. wished risking "attenuated" deprivation effect. To contrary, Court—avoiding evidence—that motivated Constitution. policies underlying demand created kind majority's creates none. approach, indefinitely impounding week month—without deprived advantage expect similar future. my deprive impounded. uncertainty happened posed borne uncertainty, Government. teaching Taylor Alabama, 457 687, 690, 102 2664, 2667, 314 (1982); Dunaway 200, 2248, 824 (1979); 604, 2262. Further proceedings evaluated. demonstrable prima facie avoiding losing existence mere equated occur. demonstrated hearing supplement point. instructions remanded contest blatant unconstitutionality today's unavailable executed. invocation "enormous price" stated unwillingness "protect 816, persuasive holding. quite ever mindful cost excessive attention procedural safeguards. evenhanded difficult countervailing considerations well. stress. impact leaders community achieved great success creating trained, professional deservedly command communities serve. image "keystone cop" skills seldom transcended ham-handed employment "third degree" largely memory lived 1920's, 1930's 1940's. congery reasons, among unquestionably added rights individual engendered (1966), Mapp 367 643, 1684, 1081 (1961), professionalism always Bureau Investigation typical forces land. predicated absurd officer skill hours, fails delaying home, demeaning encourage sloppy, undisciplined procedures. rhetoric disguise tolerates unnecessary resulting erosion "price" paid guilty alike.31 century ago, Holmes explained now, repudiating condemning maintain avail had. nakedly. outrage regrets, covers advantages gain object pursuit doing forbidden law. reduces words. all." 391-392, 183, (1920) lipservice core twice effort isolate respectfully dissent. d1 WHITE, POWELL, REHNQUIST join Part opinion. Griswold, Criminal Procedure, 1969—Is Means End?, Md.L.Rev. 307, 317 (1969); W. LaFave, Search Seizure 6.5 (1978). indicted charged count one-half kilogram occasion. Both pleaded charges. Parra's arrests ground (1968). denied absconded sentencing forcibly Sixth grant defendant's concede correctness existed, address decision. determined DEA 2-day hotel suspected hotel. arrests, exception periodic departures, During stay open room. suitcase. Although illegal, instances, detentions (1970), refused invalidate detention—on suspicion—of packages Post Office mailing. One suspicion 11/2 hours; end stolen coins. served. reasonable. "limited times" "prudent" detention traveler's contraband; investigate suspicion. airport unreasonable, (1968), applies permit officer, traveler containing contraband, detain briefly "investigate aroused suspicion." 706, 2644. distinguished scholar valuable "Here real problem. Does power he, colleague his, taking up affidavit magistrate, submitting seems inevitable minimum best. Unless fruitless." Md.L.Rev., Black essentially 36, 1973, pointing Vale's "plainly visible house, someone postponed," noted: "This raises policeman State get destroyed. answer makes unnecessarily conviction prey society." 41, 1975. conclusion. luggage. established, unopened eventually consistent vast Courts Perez, 700 1232 (CA8 1983); Kinney, 638 941 452 918, 3056, 423 (1981); Fitzharris, (CA5 1980), 451 988, 2325, 847 (CA2 1980); Bosby, 675 1174 (CA11 1982) (dictum). Ninth Circuit. Lomas, 706 886 Allard, 634 1182 note stresses involves Implicit "right" arrange problem caused unavailability 812-813. candidly admits, fault lies judiciary, office failing exercise due diligence attempting testified "perhaps particular evening." Tr. 154 supplied). locate 441-442. brief: "It one, condone so. circulated memorandum reemphasizing warrants possible, order premises." Brief 40, 23. Based believed, turned out, 394. 366, 392. 405. imminent Jeffers, 342 48, 93, 95-96, (1951); McDonald 335 451, 454-455, 191, 192-193, 93 153 (1948); 13-15, 368-370, force Oliver 170, 177, 1735, 1740, 214 Andreas, 765, 771, 3319, 3320, 3323, 1003 Knotts, 276, 280-281, 1081, 1084-1085, Smith Maryland, 735, 739-741, 2577, 2579-2581, 220 1873, also, Welsh Wisconsin, 740, 748, 2091, 2097, 732 Michigan Clifford, 464 287, 296-297, 641, 648-649, 477 (1984) (plurality opinion); Steagald 204, 212, 1642, 1647, 583-590, 1378-1382, Coolidge Hampshire, 443, 481, 2022, 2045, 564 (1971); 455-456, 193-194; 368-369. 764-765, 2040-2041: argued 'reasonable' man's founded little subjective regarding acceptability sorts unconfined evaporation easy explain instance, subjectively lawn—or street—than happens arrest." oral argument, conceded "continuing search" reason. Oral Arg. 27, 31. Karo, 712-713, 3296, 3302-3303, 530; 120-121, 124-125, 1660-1661, 1662-1663, 707-708, 2644-2645, 716, 2649 (BRENNAN, result); 1546, (1983) companions able free occurred. parsimonious vividly preparing adversary's brief, acknowledge explicitly "assum[es]" 806. 393, 2413, (1978); G.M. Leasing Corp. 429 358-359, 619, 631-632, 530 34-35, 1971-1972; 762-763, 2039-2040, (1969). misuse 813, remarkable. 3-day Place's obtained, "sniff test" using narcotics-detecting 710, 2646. Other reference diligent nothing dissenting opinions article. 809-810, 7. Dean Griswold's article, purport Since "from inside," permissible outside"—when seal off enter. except aberrational "search arrest" recognized Rabinowitz, 339 56, 430, 653 (1950), repudiated Chimel, settled Agnello 269 20, 32-33, 4, 6-7, 145 (1925). Trupiano 334 699, 1229, 1663 "processing" 4. 27. 13. "Well, it's hard secretarial services today." 162-163. responsible procuring similarly. 445. attorney write two-page hand, telephonic Rule Procedure 41(c)(2). 15-16, disturb. challenge 22, 1880; Beck 379 89, 97, 223, 228, 142 (1964); Henry 361 102, 168, 171, 134 (1959). Leon, 897 915, 3405 3417, 677 (1984). commented dilemma: "[W]e objects desire, have, minds choose. desirable detected, used. foster pay crimes, pays got crime getting way, attach protestations disapproval knowingly announces fruits. choose, escape play ignoble part." Olmstead 277 438, 470, 564, 575, 944 (1928) (dissenting opinion). Stewart written: Framers intend Bill Rights unenforceable guiding principles—no code ethics honor system. proscriptions guarantees amendments intended create duties. component limits government's reach. responsibility enforcing Constitution's government, Marbury Madison, vested branch. general, officials prohibition seizures, judiciary exclusion, enforce government—to law—requires rule." Stewart, Road Ohio Beyond: Origins, Development Future Exclusionary Rule, Colum.L.Rev. 1365, 1383-1384 11.4(a) Amsterdam, Search, Seizure, Section 2255: Comment, 112 U.Pa.L.Rev. 378, 388-390 Pitler, Fruit Poisonous Tree" Revisted Shepardized, Calif.L.Rev. 579, 586-589 259. find dispute. well; relies responding Appeals' impossible few apartments each 253. position element access, central whole jurisprudence Warrant Clause suppressing lack authorize magistrate. consequence hence (1984), concept. Welsh, drunken driving, "simply petitioner's blood-alcohol level dissipated 754, 2100 agrees, ruling depended "speculative assumptions," kept unobtrusively. "assumptions" keep surveilled, Segura. her. 26, supra. scene around notice scale owned, period. assumptions contrary "speculative" lower cites 814, distinguishable. 1232, 1237-1238 1983), 941, 945 (1981), taint, searched type true 1174, 1180-1181 1982); 324, 338 concedes, (CA9 words calls mind Jackson's dissents. With "protect[s] wrote: "Only occasional flagrant abuses courts, yields defendant compromised indicted. invasions indirectly medium excluding guilty. So Brinegar's regarded Everyman." Brinegar 160, 181, 1302, 1313, 1879 (1949). exacted forefathers decent papers indispensable dignity self-respect. overvalued privacy, am disposed set naught." Harris 331 145, 198, 1098, 1120, 1399 (1947).

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