Document: 440 U.S. 410 99 S.Ct. 1182 59 L.Ed.2d 416 State of NEVADA et al., Petitioners,v.John Michael HALL, etc., al. No. 77-1337. Argued Nov. 7, 1978. Decided March 5, 1979. Rehearing Denied April 16, See 441 917, 2018. Syllabus Respondents, California residents, brought this suit in a court for damages against petitioner Nevada and others injuries respondents sustained when Nevada-owned vehicle on official business collided highway with occupied by respondents. After the Supreme Court, reversing trial court, held amenable to courts, Nevada, basis Full Faith Credit Clause Federal Constitution, unsuccessfully invoked statute limiting $25,000 any tort award pursuant its statutory waiver sovereign immunity. Following trial, were awarded $1,150,000, judgment their favor was affirmed appeal. Held : A is not constitutionally immune from courts another State. Pp. 414-427. (a) The doctrine that no may be sued own without consent does support claim immunity sovereign's courts. 414-418. (b) need constitutional protection one State's being discussed Framers, nothing Art. III authorizing judicial power United States or Eleventh Amendment limitation provides basis, explicit implicit, Court limit powers has exercised case. 418-421. (c) require apply law violation legitimate public policy. Pacific Ins. Co. v. Industrial Accident Comm'n, 306 493, 629, 83 L.Ed. 940. Here California, which provided jurisdiction over residents nonresidents alike allow those negligently injured highways secure full compensation required surrender respondents' recovery maximum. 421-424. (d) specific limitations certain provisions such as I, § 8, IV, 2, place upon sovereignty do imply anything more than matter comity, Constitution authorizes obligates frustrate California's policy fully compensating highways. 424-427. 74 Cal.App.3d 280, 141 Cal.Rptr. 439, affirmed. W. Dyer, Deputy Atty. Gen., Carson City, Nev., petitioners. Everett P. Rowe, San Jose, Cal., Mr. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court. 1 In action arising out an automobile collision entered Nevada's could have entered. We granted certiorari decide whether federal prohibits entering or, indeed, asserting 2 are residents. They suffered severe May 13, 1968. driver other vehicle, employee University killed collision. It conceded he driving car owned State, engaged business, instrumentality itself. 3 Respondents filed Superior city Francisco, naming administrator driver's estate, University, defendants. Process served Vehicle Code service process nonresident motorists.1 motion quash but order reversed held, law, remanded case trial. Hall 8 Cal.3d 522, 105 355, 503 P.2d 1363. denied certiorari. 414 820, 94 114, 38 52. 4 On remand, pretrial amount might recovered. places immunity.2 argued Constitution3 enforce statute. went 5 jury concluded negligent $1,150,000.4 verdict Appeal review, successfully sought writ 436 925, 98 2817, 56 767. 6 Despite importance,the question never been addressed expressly answered provision Constitution; argues it implicitly reference common understanding consent—an prevalent framed repeatedly reflected Court's opinions. determine embodied claims,5 necessary consider (1) source scope traditional immunity; (2) impact framing (3) Clause; (4) aspects qualify several States. 7 * amalgam two quite different concepts, applicable suits sovereign. truly independent enjoyed absolute right centuries. Only character 9 doctrine, developed at had origins feudal system. Describing origins, Pollock Maitland noted lord vassal his each petty subject higher lord. Since King apex pyramid, there sued.6 King's rested primarily structure system secondarily fiction wrong.7 10 must, course, reject fiction. rejected colonists they declared independence Crown,8 record discloses actual wrong committed Nevada. But notion attribute our cases. 11 Chief Jay described "right govern";9 kind would necessarily encompass what Thus, Holmes explained based "on logical practical ground can legal authority makes depends."10 12 This explanation adequately supports conclusion consent, affords Such implicates second sovereign; must found either agreement, express implied, between sovereigns, voluntary decision respect dignity first comity. 13 point plainly stated Marshall Schooner Exchange McFaddon, Cranch 116, 287, American assert vessel Napoleon, reigning Emperor France, claimed right. case, observed: 14 "The branch possessed nation power. 15 within territory exclusive absolute. susceptible imposed Any restriction it, deriving validity external source, diminution extent restriction, investment same impose restriction. 16 "All exceptions, therefore, complete territories, traced up flow source." Id., 136. 17 noting French interpreted recognizing usage among nations every understood waived territorial visiting representatives, classes cases.11 18 clear if completely nations, California.12 fair infer defense asserts today raised 1812 decided, earlier framed, courts.13 By rejecting very however, told us whatever past, longer extends 19 rightly ask review courts' interpretation law. Rather, free, sovereign, bound instead rule implicit requires all adhere sovereign-immunity prevailed adopted. Unless exists, we course disturb II 20 Unquestionably importance early days independence.14 Many heavily indebted result Revolutionary War. vitally interested creation new own, automatically them, like lower English lords, "higher" 21 apparently concern drafted ratified. Regardless Framers correct assuming, presumably did, prevailing notions comity provide adequate unlikely prospect attempt another, contingency discussed. 22 debate about suability focused authorized III.15 Federalist, Hamilton took position authorization did extend individual nonconsenting State.16 contrary also advocated17 actually Chisholm Georgia, Dall. 419, 440. 23 led prompt adoption Amendment.18 That limits entertain State.19 24 language used cases construing these limits, during debates ratification emphasized widespread acceptance view consent.20 cases, relevant debate, concerned questions federal-court States, ratifying creating aagainst themselves These decisions answer exercise one's authorize Nor power, mandate enforcement interstate find elsewhere Constitution. 25 claims suit. only gives Moreover, even treated honor condition attached $25,000, maximum allowable 26 give effect acts respected parties matter. limited situations, Thus Bradford Electric Clapper, 286 145, 52 571, 76 1026, sitting New Hampshire Vermont employer contract made Vermont.21 Insurance 940, clearly establishes policy.22 27 precluded applying workmen's Act injury Massachusetts while employment. Even though agreed imposing greater responsibilities employer. doing so, reasoned: 28 "It often recognized some state faith credit clause contravention statutes . And statutes, extrastate Congress prescribed, under provision, think unavoidable substitute statute, persons events conflicting state, controlling force enactment events. Although interest safeguarding employees temporarily abroad employment, adopt itself, hardly thought application override legislate bodily safety economic it. Few matters deemed appropriately occurs power." 502-503, S.Ct., 633. 29 Clapper distinguished "there circumstances suggest reliance suit, obnoxious Hampshire." U.S., 504, 634.23 Insurance, hand, scheme governing frustrated enforcement. "Full credit," concluded, "does here enable project laws across lines so preclude prescribing itself consequences it." 504-505, 634. 30 similar appropriate afforded providing "the 503, closely related equally substantial "full who through negligence both nonresidents." App. Pet. Cert. vii. To effectuate interest, 31 further implementation policy, unequivocally liability torts agents As found, statutorily policies motorists recovery. result.24 IV 32 apart Clause, Union free treat unfriendly another. While levy discriminatory taxes goods bar entry altogether, not.25 deny extradition fugitive proper demand executive State.26 citizens entitled privileges immunities States.27 33 Each Collectively demonstrate ours union 50 wholly sovereigns. Indeed, Tenth Amendment's reminder delegated Government nor prohibited reserved people,28 existence caution should before concluding unstated intended Framers. 34 presumed broad toward presumption rather command. Bank Augusta Earle, 519, 590, 274: 35 intimate states, members great political family; deep vital interests bind them together; lead us, absence proof contrary, presume degree friendship, kindness towards foreign nations. (as doubt occasionally happen) restrict rule, declare will, once end." 36 "declared will"; adopted resulting others, nonresidents, private citizens. Nothing enforced Nevada.29 37 Nation governs governed. people consented tort. voice decision, respect. wise harmonious relations, accord established liability. so. hold, inference else, compensation, holding constitute real intrusion States—and Union. 39 40 Affirmed. 41 BLACKMUN, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST join, dissenting. 42 plausible opinion, holds unconsented glance seem too unreasonable. One well why given responsible servant perpetrated highway. inquire how that, national specifically prevents nonimmunity result, plaintiffs judgment. 43 paints brush, I am troubled implications holding. fragile footnote disclaimer, ante, 424 n. 24, basic undeniable ruling always "sovereign State" now sister obtained, just litigant. fear ultimate holding, suspect opened door avenues retaliation will prove unsettling upsetting Accordingly, dissent. 44 important note time Constitutional Convention, concedes, "widespread consent." Ante, 420. acknowledges cases." 415. concessions, mere "comity" whenever "policy" dictates. 426. 45 There breadth rationale, goes beyond approach taken theorized "sovereign" purposes because ended California-Nevada line: " 'When enters into activities exercising benefits unless conferred comity.' 284, (1977), quoting 524, 356, 1363, 1364 (1972), cert. denied, (1973). words, suit; failed facts agent there. said flatly 'state ends boundary,' Cal.App.3d, Cal.Rptr., 441, again Hall, Cal.3d, 525, 357, P.2d, 1365. 46 reasoning finds opinion. assumes "sovereign," then concludes source. says, abolish will. reasoning, amenability conditioned agent's having tortious act California. far concerned, able theory means B cause action, plaintiff obtains consistently Due Clause. 47 424, purports confine traffic-accident outside defendant perhaps traffic "policies." facts, play absolutely part reaches conclusion. says merely "California 'declared will'; .. policy." suggestion area different. If, "[n]othing Constitution" allows frustration hard see use analysis reach 48 expansive logic holding—that terms litigant sued—will strains cooperative federalism. likelihood retaliate respectively abolishing immunity" doctrine. States' officers defend probably modify tax-collection revenue systems avoid collection judgments. example, evidently maintains cash balances banks facilitate sales corporations 5. Under strong incentive withdraw insulate If forced seek satisfaction endeavor refuse judgment, terms. thus, radical changes way imposes, well, financial administrative burdens themselves. 49 agree reversed, found. guarantee implied essential component difficulty implying freedom association First Amendment, NAACP Button, 371 415, 430-431, 328, 336-337, 405 (1963); Kusper Pontikes, 51, 56-57, 303, 307-308, 260 (1973), travel, Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 89 1322, 600 (1969); Guest, 383 745, 86 1170, 239 (1966). latter observed, id., 757, 1178: travel occupies fundamental concept Union." although "finds mention Constitution," reason, "it suggested, elementary conceived beginning concomitant stronger created." 758, 1178. acknowledged finding "to ascribe particular provision." 630, 1329. accepting argument acknowledgment, referred above, assumed lends support. reason receive obvious deserve mention. passage nullifying (1793), surely significant. indeed lest haled courts—as 'higher' sovereign," 418—how much reprehended Convention. is, me, sufficiently dimension. implies 24—that result—it suggesting federalism constraints sufficient call here. affirmative. 51 Finally, strikes me somewhat curious relegates passing appellate litigation precise presented considered and, rejected. Paulus South Dakota, N.D. 84, 201 N.W. 867 (1924); 58 643, 227 (1929). coal mine operated North Dakota Dakota. He court. plaintiff's contention "discards crosses boundary line." N.D., 92, N.W., 870. courts; "Therefore, allegations showing sued, regard consenting statute." 647, 54. citizen "Much less," reasoned, "would consistent sound conception behest latter." 649, 55. purported distinguish (citing litigation) Dakota." Dakota's thus passed fact amended complaint allege resident "in nowise alter[ed]" issue. 648, cited directly opposed reverse Appeal, remit plaintiffs-respondents remedies prescribed 53 REHNQUIST, joins, 54 Like my Brother cannot majority asserted works readjustment relationships impossible reconcile "assumption" entertained almost 200 years, holdings plan 55 document—particularly constitution—is built postulates assumptions; draws shared experience understanding. level, observation obvious. Concepts "State" "Bill Attainder" defined referents. subtle plane, ambiguous silent issue, relied plan—the ordering make workable charter document tacit yielded engrained fabric provisions, meaning.1 McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 579 (1819). Marshall, writing invalidated tax intergovernmental destroy, concede mercy Constitution's affirmative grants Government—a intended. More recently minimum wage threatened 'ability function effectively system.' National League Cities Usery, 426 833, 852, 96 2465, 2474, 245 (1976), Fry 421 542, 547, 95 1792, 1795, 363, (1975). literalism, dispositive here, examine consequent doctrinal evolution concepts sovereignty. Article III, virtually inspired Articles Confederation. speak "judicial Power" Confederation invite charges pretense, little latitude resolution disputes. create prize adjudication "high seas" crimes. set ad hoc essentially powerless tribunals controversies individuals lands States.2 disputes international significance, litigants left provincialism proved bane country's earliest organization. 57 light potential neutral forums settlement theme recurs throughout debates. For Carolina, William Davie, member ceded, strongest opposers government, cognizance claiming grant states. Its impartiality decisions, preserve tranquility party affected judge. security principal giving states." J. Elliot, Debates 159 (1876) (hereinafter Elliot's Debates). 60 observes, Republic. fact, received considerable attention years immediately preceding 1781 Pennsylvania effort attach property belonging Virginia located Philadelphia Harbor. concerns delegation suppression attachment order. Common Pleas ultimately virtue immunity, processes Pennsylvania. Nathan Virginia, 77, (1781). 61 undoubtedly impression—particularly Virginians—and fears expressed extending "between state" abrogate James Madison John assured opponents Patrick Henry, secure.3 Alexander Publius wrote: 62 inherent nature consent. general sense, practice mankind; exemption, attributes sovereignty, government union. Unless, convention, remain danger intimated ideal." Federalist 81, p. 508 (H. Lodge ed. 1908). (Emphasis original). 63 disagreed Madison-Marshall-Hamilton triumvirate, turn overruled Amendment.4 deprives where country. Yet ratified putting end possibility unconsenting defendants jurisdictions, for, Blackmun notes, otherwise perversely foreclosed postulate not, absent 64 explains number occasions indicated Beers Arkansas, How. 527, 529, 991 (1858), Taney observed "is principle jurisprudence civilized other, permission." Some later Miller, explicit: 65 accepted departure unquestioned, neither country except class supreme original 66 "This seen indispensable according rules govern procedure, relief sought, take jurisdiction." Cunningham Macon & Brunswick R. Co., 109 446, 451, 292, 296, 992 (1883). 67 most recent statement topic appears authored Black Western Telegraph Pennsylvania, 368 71, 82 199, 139 (1961), Union's due rights violated escheated unclaimed money orders. compelled Pennsylvania's inability forum claims, including resolved. "[i]t plain bring hearings." 80, 204. 68 When described, Great Northern Read, 322 47, 873, 875, 88 1121 (1944), stated: 69 "Efforts force, officials, performance promises collide necessity compulsion carrying state's Amendment." added.) 70 Frankfurter issue agreement 71 put Therefore, court—the States—except 59, 879 (dissenting opinion). 72 Presumably dismisses dicta. statements—far better literalism comport evinced prior Those expression literal dimension derogation undermine scheme. Hans Louisiana, 134 1, 842 (1890), citizens, despite lack "established things"—an eschewed "anomalous constitution state; allowing courts." 10, 14, 505. anomaly lay availability check parochialism—suits citizens—and unavailability situations biased tribunal acute—suits speaking Bradley, concluded: 73 enter examination expediency exempts prosecution justice individuals. enough existence. legislative department represents polity will; called highest demands natural hold inviolate obligations. reasons cogent, (of legislature, judge,) fails incur odium world, lasting deprive legislature judging require, expense temporary failure discharge debts, attended evils cause." 21, 509. Similarly, Monaco Mississippi, 292 313, 78 1282 (1934), precepts underlying conclude Principality Mississippi payment bonds issued face, entertained, actions Amendment. Hughes analysis, Mississippi's 75 "Manifestly, rest words article assume letter exhausts restrictions non-consenting Behind control. controversies, contemplated, shall justiciable character. Union, still possessing suits, save 'a convention.' 81. involves her State." 322-323, 748 (emphasis added).5 Likewise, sensitive avoided destroys Framers' careful allocation responsibility judiciaries, nonsense Blackmun's references travel" telling. Crandall Wall. 35, 744 (1868), head exit relying large admit ability Government—for transport armies maintain postal services. obstruct totally movements incompatible Nation. admitted "no problem, Wall., 48, 744; framework demanded proscribed sap vitality provisions.6 77 incompatibility majority's apparent Crandall. venture say one-year residency requirement Thompson precondition receipt AFDC benefits.7 historical justification forums, achieved "protect" legislators foresight ratify remove diversity jurisdiction. Moor County Alameda, 411 693, 717, 93 1785, 1799, 596 (1973); Postal Cable Alabama, 155 482, 487, 192, 194, 231 (1894). Ironically, wrongly, transforms Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 673, 1347, 1360, 662 (1974), albatross. join BLACKMUN's doubts Where principles "cooperative federalism"? close expounded Members operative sense "explicit implicit" 421. guidance enough, state-court federalism" seriously. ingenuity profession, pressure inevitably increase. Having shunned obvious, adrift uncharted waters; balance struck name series unsatisfactory bailing operations fact. 79 decision. exception representation House—is parity. No otherwise. help induce "Balkanization" try isolate assets judgments generally reduce contacts jurisdictions. work detriment smaller Nevada—who dependent facilities dominant neighbor—in 80 problem creates host additional difficulties. Assuming seizable obtain courts? Can credit" policy? challenge seizure Court? relegated choice gamesmanship tests strength characterize disputes, midnight associated debt other? 81 predecessors transgresses respectfully Section 17451 provides: him code operation himself motor anywhere event owner person permission, equivalent appointment director successor office true lawful attorney proceeding operator growing accident agent, irrevocable binding executor administrator." Cal.Veh.Code Ann. (West 1971). An decedent's estate appointed personally. Nev.Rev.Stat. 41.035(1) existed 1968, edition, 1965 Nev.Stats., 1414 (later 1968 44, 1973 1532, 1977 pp. 985, 1539): "No sounding section exceed sum benefit claimant. include exemplary punitive judgment." 41.031 (1977): "1. hereby waives consents determined accordance applied civil corporations, NRS 41.032 41.038, inclusive, subsection claimant complies 41.036, 41.010. subdivisions manner, section, inclusive. "2. competent agency subdivision state. named defendant, summons copy secretary state." Acts, Records, Proceedings Laws prescribe Manner Records proved, Effect thereof." evidence respondent minor accident, permanent brain damage severely retarded unable care himself, Patricia mother, physical emotional injuries. restricts F. Maitland, History Law 518 (2d 1899) ("He manor; happens world above say, accident"); Engdahl, Immunity Accountability Positive Governmental Wrongs, U.Colo.L.Rev. 2-5 (1972). Blackstone, Commentaries *246 ("The king, moreover, incapable wrong, thinking wrong; mean improper thing"). effective mechanisms England redress wrongs King. Jaffe, Suits Against Governments Officers: Sovereign Immunity, Harv.L.Rev. 3-5 (1963). Declaration Independence proclaims: "[T]hat form becomes destructive ends, People alter institute constrains former government. history present Britain repeated usurpations, direct object establishment tyranny B. Bailyn, Ideological Origins Revolution 198-229 (1967). 472, Kawananakoa Polyblank, 205 349, 353, 526, 834. describes exemption arrest detention territory, allowed ministers, troops permission. Cranch, 137-140, 287. Were choose banks, readjust invoke stop odds 1929 647-649, 52, 54-55. waiving relatively development; last year, recognized, least circumstances, Mayle Dept. Highways, 479 Pa. 384, 388 A.2d 709 (1978); 1978 Laws, 1978-152 codified Pa.Cons.Stat. §§ 5101, 5110. begun waive expected privilege question. enhanced, moves reappraisal practices today, many restrictive Bull. 984 (1952); Note, Jurisdictional Foreign Sovereigns, Yale L.J. 1148 (1954); Martiniak, Nevada: Jurisdiction Over Sister Calif.L.Rev. 1144, 1155-1157 C. Jacobs, 1-40 provides, part: "Section 1. Power vested inferior Courts ordain establish. 2. Cases, Equity, Treaties made, Authority Controversies Party;—to States;—between Citizens State;—between Lands Grants thereof, Subjects." 1908) (A. Hamilton) ("It consent"); 555 (John Marshall) ("I hope gentleman intent states recover residing contend construction warranted words"). 533 (James Madison). 491 Wilson) ("When controversy ought stand equal footing"); supra ("[T]he warrants drawn understanding, ratification, retain immunity"). 11, 505, 842; 325, 749, 1282. Judicial construed equity, commenced prosecuted Subjects limited, accorded actions. See, e. g., Minnesota, 263 365, 372, 138, 139, 342; 380 128, 140-141, 85 808, 814-815, 717. Further, prospective injunctive declaratory available officials nominal Ex parte Young, 209 123, 714; 662. Baker, Federalism (1977). supra, 18, Then Circuit concurrent jurisdiction, acquire power?"); ("There convention' "). Stone concurred expressing supported conflict-of-laws situation, unnecessary rely relationship employee. 163-165, 577-578. Alaska Packers Assn. 294 532, 518, 1044; Bonaparte Tax 104 592, 845 (holding exempting enacting taxation extraterritorially Clause). separately wrote Insurance. distinguishing facts: decided employment poses threat involving accidents occurring interfere capacity fulfill responsibilities. occasion, policies, result. U.S.Const., 8. Ibid. respectively, people." Cf. Georgia Chattanooga, 264 480, 369, 370, 796 ("Land acquired incidents ownership. proprietary owning eminent domain wherein land situated"). captured idea 407, (1819): "A constitution, contain accurate detail admit, carried execution, partake prolixity code, scarcely embraced human mind. public. nature, requires, outlines marked, objects designated, ingredients compose deduced themselves." preface famous "In considering question, then, forget, expounding." original.) Goebel, States: Antecedents Beginnings 1801, 143-195 (O. Devise 1971); Madison): "[Federal-court] objected to, reason. have, wish citizen, court." 555-556 Marshall): rational suppose dragged words. But, they, partiality defendant—if proceed avoided." suggested abrogation immunity—Edmund Randolph Wilson eminent—this views Madison, capturing 660-662, 1354-1355, 662, (1974); 323-330, 748-751, (1934); 12-15, 506-507, (1890). adverse reaction immediate, widespread, vociferous. 734-741. exhaust contexts York, 256 490, 588, 1057 (1921) (admiralty cases); Smith Reeves, 178 436, 919, 1140 (1900) (suits corporations). appealed Fourteenth therefore avail flexible analytical "tools" Equal Protection (1969).

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