Document: 518 U.S. 267116 S.Ct. 2135135 L.Ed.2d 549 UNITED STATESv.URSERYCertiorari to the United States Court of Appeals for Sixth Circuit. No. 95-345. Supreme Argued April 17, 1996 Decided June 24, 1996* Syllabus In 95-345, Government instituted civil forfeiture proceedings under 21 U. S. C. Section(s) 881(a)(7) against respondent Ursery's house, alleging that it had been used facilitate illegal drug transactions. Shortly before Ursery settled claim, he was indicted, and later convicted, manufacturing marijuana in violation 841(a)(1). 95-346, filed a rem complaint various property seized from, or titled to, respondents Arlt Wren Arlt's corporation, each item subject 18 981(a)(1)(A) because involved money laundering violative 1956, 881(a)(6) as proceeds felonious transaction. Litigation action deferred while were prosecuted on money-laundering charges 846 371 1956. After their convictions, District granted Government's motion summary judgment proceeding. The Courts reversed conviction Wren, holding Double Jeopardy Clause prohibits from both punishing defendant criminal offense forfeiting his same separate courts reasoned part Halper v. States, 490 435, Austin 509 602, meant that, categorical matter, forfeitures always constitute "punishment" double jeopardy purposes. This consolidated cases. Held: are neither nor purposes Clause. Pp. 3-23. (a) Congress long has authorized bring parallel actions based upon underlying events, see, e.g., Palmyra, 12 Wheat. 1, 14-15, this consistently concluded does not apply such they do impose punishment, Various Items Personal Property 282 577, 581; One Lot Emerald Cut Stones 409 232, 235-236 (per curiam). its most recent case, Assortment 89 Firearms, 465 354, held barred by prior proceeding after applying two-part test asking, first, whether intended particular be remedial sanction penalty, and, second, so punitive fact establish may legitimately viewed nature, despite any congressional intent mechanism. 5-9. (b) Though Firearms more refined, perhaps, than Court's analysis, conclusion case: is sanction, distinct potentially personam penalties fines, punishment See Gore 357 386, 392. misread Halper, Austin, Montana Dept. Revenue Kurth Ranch, 511 ___, having abandoned oft-affirmed rule. None those decisions purported overrule Items, Stones, replace traditional understanding. It would have remarkable unconstitutional well-established practice, overruled line precedent, without even suggested doing so. Moreover, cases question did deal with Ranch considered state tax imposed And dealt Eighth Amendment's Excessive Fines 10-19. (c) Theforfeitures at issue test. First, there little doubt 881 981 civil, since statutes' procedural enforcement mechanisms themselves distinctly nature. See, S., 363. Second, evidence, much less "clearest proof" requires, see id., 365, suggesting sections form effect render them Congress' contrary. These statutes are, significant respects, indistinguishable reviewed, punitive, Firearms. That these also supported other factors found persuasive, including considerations (1) historically regarded punishment; (2) no requirement demonstrate scienter order forfeiture; (3) though serve deterrent purpose, purpose well goals; (4) tied activity insufficient itself punitive. Ward, 448 242, 247-248, n. 7, 249. 19-23. 59 F. 3d 568, 33 1210 56 41, reversed. Rehnquist, J., delivered opinion Court, which O'Connor, Kennedy, Souter, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined. concurring opinion. Scalia, an judgment, Thomas, Stevens, dissenting part. NOTICE: formal revision publication preliminary print Reports. Readers requested notify Reporter Decisions, Washington, D.C. 20543, typographical errors, corrections made goes press. Chief Justice Rehnquist Court. 1 cases, Circuit Ninth We our review, now reverse. (and generally), we hold, I. 2 95-345: Michigan Police growing adjacent Guy discovered seeds, stems, stalks, growlight within house. 84 Stat. 1276, amended, several years unlawful processing distribution controlled substance. ultimately paid $13,250 settle claim full. settlement consummated, indicted marijuana, A jury him guilty, sentenced 63 months prison. 3 divided vote conviction, violated Fifth Amendment Constitution. 568 (1995). court belief 435 (1989), 602 (1993), constitutes Ursery, court's view, therefore "punished" property, could subsequently criminally tried 4 95-346: Following trial, Charles Wesley James convicted of: conspiracy aid abet manufacture methamphetamine, 846; launder monetary instruments, 371; numerous counts laundering, life prison 10-year term supervised release, fine $250,000. imprisonment 5-year release. 5 Before trial started, Payback Mines, corporation Arlt. alleged piece 981(a)(1)(A), provides "[a]ny . transaction attempted of" 1956 (the statute) "is States"; 881(a)(6), (i) "[a]ll things value furnished person exchange for" drugs, (ii) "all traceable exchange," (iii) moneys, negotiable securities facilitate" federal felony. parties agreed defer litigation during prosecution. More year 6 appealed decision action, reversed, (1994). view expressed case-that supra, "punishment." petition certiorari two 516 ___ (1996). II. 7 provides: "[N]or shall offence twice put limb." Const., Amdt. 5. serves function preventing "successive punishments successive prosecutions." Dixon, 688, 696 citing North Carolina Pearce, 395 711 (1969). protection multiple "`punishing twice, attempting second time punish offense.'" Witte 515 (1995) (slip op., 6) (emphasis omitted), quoting Helvering Mitchell, 303 391, 399 (1938). 8 constituted "punishment," making prohibitions challenges characterization forfeitures, arguing wrong conclude purposes.1 A. 9 Since earliest Nation, seek prosecutions events. Act July 31, 1789, ch. 5, 12, 39 (goods unloaded night permit persons unloading prosecution); 25, 43 (persons buying concealing illegally imported goods goods); 34, 46 (imposing penalty where relanding entitled drawback); 14-15 (1827) ("Many exist, personal penalty"); cf. Calero-Toledo Pearson Yacht Leasing Co., 416 663, 683 (1974) (discussing adoption early Congresses). And, application concluding punishment. 10 first consider relationship between 577 (1931). Waterloo Distilling Corporation ordered forfeit distillery, warehouse, denaturing plant, ground conducted distilling business law. conceded violations initiation proceeding, admitted "the transactions set forth basis forfeiture." Id., 579. Considering corporation's argument Clause, unanimously inapplicable actions: 11 "[This] rem. proceeded against, resort legal fiction, guilty condemned conscious instead inanimate insentient. prosecution wrongdoer who punished. offense. provision Constitution respect apply." 581 (citations omitted; emphasis added). reaching conclusion, drew sharp distinction fines: latter could, some circumstances, former not. Ibid. Referring case decided day point absolutely clear: 13 "In La Franca, [282 S.] hold Willis-Campbell Act, recover taxes, penalties, character involving This, however, but committing offense." 580. 14 Had Amendment, quite remarkable. As recognized, "[a]t common law, many right attach until offending record produced." words, only bar forfeiture, but, fact, unless already obtained. common-law rule "created statute, rem, cognizable revenue side exchequer," 14, never prohibited statutory what required forfeiture. For directly contrary rule, called into constitutionality thought constitutional over century. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 304, 327-328 (1936) (Evidence longstanding legislative practice "goes way direction proving presence unassailable grounds practice"). 15 another 40 years. Then, 232 (1972) curiam), brief reaffirmed Items. acquitted smuggling jewels owner intervened contraband. rejected owner's challenge "[i]f reason involves trials punishments." 235. Noting provisions codified separately provisions, determined clearly "a sanction." 236. defendant's wrongdoing. 16 considering again affirmed 354 (1984), weapons dealing firearms license. then brought 924(d), 17 unanimous decision, began analysis stating decision: "Unless essentially character, applicable. question, then, 924(d) be, nature necessarily is, remedial." 362 omitted). 19 Our inquiry stages. stage, looked intent, "Congress designed findings. noting "actions traditionally proceedings, jurisdiction dependent seizure physical object." 363, citing, 684. provision, reached law "intended used" manner, broader range conduct analogue. Third, "further[ed] broad aims," "discouraging unregulated commerce firearms," "removing circulation use outside regulated channels commerce." 364. 20 stage "`whether scheme either negate' intention mechanism," 248-249 (1980). previously determine require full panoply protections 248, one present By itself, behavior proscribed crime proved turn Hence, petitioner "failed `clearest proof' provided `transfor[m] remedy penalty.'" 366, Rex Trailer Co. 350 148, 154 (1956). restating "not additional commission act, rather nature." 366. B reviewing adhere remarkably consistent theme. analytical construct employed 50 earlier 392 (1958) ("In like jeopardy, rooted history evolving concept course adjudication carries impressive authority"). 22 currently recognized much, clear `punishment' purposes." 3d, 1218. Nevertheless, read three "abandoned" According Circuit, through Department Mont. (1994), "changed [our] collective mind," "adopted new determining nominally 1218-1219. shared rely Ranch. accomplished radical jurisprudential shift perceived Appeals. 23 "whether circumstances analysis." 436. Based submission 65 inflated Medicare claims, overcharged $9, violating falseclaims 287 (1982 ed.), mail fraud, fined $5,000. successfully 31 3729 ed. Supp. II). hearing liable $130,000 3729, liability amount $2,000 per violation, actual damages, costs. imposing Halper's already-punished offense, reduced damages suffered costs action. 24 analysis. precedent established absolute irrebuttable cannot rise level merely recovery excess damages," foreclose possibility extreme divorced expenses punishment." 442. Emphasizing case-specific inquiry, 448, compared size $130,000, actually result actions, estimated $585. 220 times greater "Halper's sufficiently disproportionate jeopardy." 452. remanded hear evidence regarding reduce nonpunitive level. 25 violate Constitution, "[e]xcessive bail required, excessive fines ." 8. Aware sold grams cocaine previous day, police searched mobile home body shop. Their search revealed small amounts cocaine, handgun, paraphernalia, almost $5,000 cash. charged count possessing distribute, pleaded guilty. initiated Austin's auto shop, contending "used" use" 881(a)(4) (a)(7). contested constitutional. 26 limited review applies (a)(7)." 604. rejecting solely proceedings: relevant determined, (a)(4) (a)(7) Amendment. 610. effort answer briefly reviewed country England, 611-618, taking approach contrasted sharply Ultimately, "forfeiture [Section(s) (a)(7)] `payment sovereign offense,' such, limitations Clause." 622. 27 invalid when taxpayer owning taxed. labeled "tax" end turned Several differences typical revenue-raising readily apparent. unique conditioned arrested: thus, tax. noted own possess taxed imposed. From differences, motivated "`penal prohibitory gathering revenue.'" 16). Concluding "was functional equivalent prosecution," Appeals' barring 17). 28 think teaching penalty. context historical drawn practical difficulty 29 emphasized penalties: 30 "What announce rare us, fixed-penalty subjects prolific small-gauge offender overwhelmingly caused. reason: Where sustained sought subsequent bears rational relation goal compensating loss, appears qualify plain meaning word, accounting if 449-450 narrow focus followed penalties. least distinguished While "civil character," "it punished," condemned." 580-581. Thus, balanced forfeited harm harm. (1956) (fines "so unreasonable excessive" transform penalty); ex rel. Marcus Hess, 317 537 (1943) (fine $315,000 $101,500 punishment). Indeed, developed Hess. 445-447. 32 difficult how applied Civil rough "liquidated damages" harms conduct. Trailer, 153-154. example, fixed false Whether "fixed-penalty provision" seeks compensate extreme" divorced" penalty's balancing contrast simply Government. Forfeitures variety purposes, primarily confiscate disgorgement fruits possible quantify forfeited, virtually impossible quantify, approximately, served practically Quite simply, case-by-case must compare imposed, forfeiture.2 expressly disclaimed reliance finding casespecific civil-penalty provision. Reviewing tax, "tax different method exaction work statute." 17) (internal quotation marks omitted); 2-3) (Rehnquist, dissenting) (Halper "`fixed-penalty provision[s]'" "to incurred bringing someone book law"). say occasion makes relevance evaluation alleged. forfeitures. 34 find supplanted "fairly said purpose." 610; 448. But remembered, involve all. understood related discussion contained footnote acknowledges "[t]he properly characterized 608, 4. approved (1972), (1984). 35 acknowledged wholly explained difference 622, 14. unnecessary inquire totally inconsistent goal. Because asks large "excessive," 622-623 (declining criteria excessiveness), preliminary-stage focused disproportionality duplicative excessiveness follow. ("[I]t make all purely remedial," "prohibits imposition `excessive' event"). effected Austin; mean, jeopardy. decline import jurisprudence. 36 sum, nothing understanding Clause; 37 useful tool, framework ask 881, 981, civil. "persuade us proceeding[s] nature," intent. 38 There proceedings. "Congress' regard demonstrated enforcing statute[s]." Both "Civil forfeiture," provide laws "relating seizure, judicial condemnation customs seizures incurred" 981. 881(d); 981(d). 1602 et seq., specifically structured impersonal targeting itself. Calero-Toledo, Other governing indicate statute governed 1607, notice impending identify party interest article, 1609, administrative procedure files property. 1615, governs burden proof once shown probable cause lie [the] claimant." "[b]y creating procedures 981], `indicate[d] sanction.'" 402.3 Moving "`clearest proof'" require, 249, (a)(7), 41 Most perhaps certain aspects, important goals. Title 881(a)(7), real used, manner part, commit, Requiring commit narcotics encourages owners take care managing ensures will Bennis Michigan, (1996) 10) ("Forfeiture prevents uses economic thereby rendering unprofitable"); 364 (forfeiture "discourages firearms"); 687-688. abate nuisance. 141st Street 911 2d 870 (CA2 1990) (forfeiting apartment building sell crack cocaine); Bennis, (affirming abating car nuisance; "prevent[s] further illicit property); "remov[ed] illegally); 237 "prevented forbidden merchandise circulating States"). 42 claimed took place pursuant 881(a)(6). Section "any property" drugs; exchange"; 981(a)(1)(A). Only merits discussion. To extent "proceeds" activity, ensuring profit acts. tend support (a)(6) 249 (listing exhaustive dispositive). light tradition providing following prosecution, indeed, shows connection person. 1609. 881(a) 981(a) contain "innocent owner" exception, indication punish, fairly deterrence, 364; 677-678. recently (slip. 10), Finally, 365-366. act omission," Helvering, 399. far necessary show criminal. 44 judgments accordingly 45 ordered. concurring. 47 I join add observations. 48 619-622 described here Libretti (1995), 853, identical terms derived crimes. "fundamental forfeiture" op. 11). Today holds implicating Ante, 24-25. write explain why, my Libretti. 49 "be interpreted "protec[t] acquittal, Justices Boston Municipal Lydon, 466 294, 306-307 (1984); Jones 491 376, 380-381 (1989). Although language contrary, 1958 Plymouth Sedan Pennsylvania, 380 693, 700 (1965); Boyd 116 616, 634 (1886), (1931), deem seminal area, ante, 51 52 Embracing imply inflicts doubts about throughout blameworthy owners, 629 (opinion judgment); (dissenting opinion) 1-2), now. Under culpable stand lose property; can know consent crime. 53 key instrumentality-forfeiture directed carry out crimes, misuse 619 (statutory "exemptions culpability owner"). theory dangerous hazardous hands allows others accountable Cf. Sedan, 699 ("There remotely automobile. automobile [the owner] loss.") rationale enabling currency "used (property attempts 1956). befalls propertyholder innocence, committed acts, person's 54 Forfeiture, punishes crime, happen prohibits. ("The wrongdoing."); 235 curiam) ("the Jeop-ardy criminalpunishments"). 55 independent punishments. (1827), libel libel. Distinguishing felon's chattels, "offence attached thing," often absence Examining American English statutes, concluded, been, understand[s] stands of, unaffected personam." 15. depend upon, revive, fiction alive 581, 615, 9, punished sentient being capable moral choice. feels pain receives stigma Coin & Currency, 401 715, 718 (1971). recognizes Congress, quiet title forfeitable defendant. file knowledge is. 24. True, trafficking predicate showing just 853(a), ("any subchapter"); ("a offenses Arlt, proffered offenses. 366 (1984) (civil act"). 57 reason, Stevens' attempt, post, 22-23, same-elements Blockburger 284 299, 304 (1932), unavailing. misfit context; compares elements charging person; suffice, established. 58 Part II-C opinion, conducts 362-366, whether, 20. (citing 398-399 (1938), 248 (1980)). precedents bearing it, am sure adds prong test, prong, hinges property's identifies allowing 22. acknowledge whom Thomas joins, judgment. 60 (1994) 1-4, 8) (Scalia, dissenting). sort prosecutions, standard Kennedy Mendoza-Martinez, 372 144, 164 (1963), 248-251 61 62 poses authorizing cover wide situations, assume question. categories seizure: proceeds, contraband, played facts illustrate point. 95-346 $405,089.23 currency. Those funds activity. They retain. confiscation stolen bank, exacts price liberty lawfully them. agree concur disposition 95-346. 64 95-345 reveal dramatically situation. Respondent cultivated heavily wooded area Shiawassee County, Michigan. substance consumed members family, contention Government, third parties. Acting incorrect assumption plants respondent's officers executed warrant premises. house growlight. presume items seized, Accordingly, insofar explains why contraband critical presented arose, police, Attorney home. purchased surely Nonetheless, residence marijuana.4 himself marijuana. none reasons supporting sufficient 66 advanced four arguments position 841(a)(1) Clause: punitive; "jeopardy"; jeopardies, (1932); should deemed single addresses arguments, begin explaining unmistakably character. comment arguments. 67 years, legislatures armed authorities powers vastly exceed tools.5 response, reaf-firmed fundamental proposition constraints (1993); Daniel Good Real Property, 510 (1993). Term begun dismantling erected. (1996), officials innocent today, upholds On surprising loss residence, repeatedly professes adherence time-honored practice. discuss below, stunning disregard modern older ones well. 68 distillery "legal fiction" "as insentient." 581. Starting fanciful premise, able confiscating offend 69 "inapplicable actions." 6. asserts received "remarkably consistent" "reaffirmed" pair 1972 1984. 10, 7. reality, shortly announcement, disappeared cited next seven nearly six decades. Neither supposedly "affirmed" Items-One (1984)-even mentioned it. 70 important, endorsed asserted give rights. Instead, carefully issue, classifying "punitive" "remedial," deciding implicated concerned merchandise, jewelry, smuggled States. remove circulation, amounted reasonable liquidated award reimburse investigation. therefore, "remedial sanctio[n]." 237. explored detail unregistered firearms. aims" weapons, covered behavior. reasons, sanction. 71 majority, surprisingly, claims "expressly approved" decisions. 18. creates appearance interpretation selectively Austin. stated following: 72 "The remedial. (1972); generally 446-449 (1989) (Double remedial)." 73 monolithic treated same, types "properly remedial" might "an act." 74 speculative. element. 616 compulsory production individual's private papers fraud Fourth Self-Incrimination stated, "proceedings declaring man's offences him, form, criminal" thus safeguards. 634. 75 span 693 (1965), repeated Boyd's quasi-criminal character" "[i]ts object, penalize law." transport manufactured liquor. 700. 76 Even 715 (1971), Currency gambling similar "[i]t internal exist property." 716 7302). attempt introduce failure forms Boyd, rights "From standpoint, man `forfeits' $8,674 activities pays `criminal fine' conduct." 718. reasoned, derives owner; hence, equal force." 77 continuing validity Sedan. conviction. 236, 254 (1980) Boyd). recognition critical. whatever ought pari materia.6 confining remedial, distinguishing mysteries although devotes examining "proving" If truly adhered logic position, entire section unnecessary. 78 Read properly, with, trio decisions: appeals combined decisions-Halper Austin-established rejects asserting changed "oft-affirmed rule" 10. 79 "misread" artificially cabining sphere, 20, treating unrelated subjects. devoted enterprise giving idea plays central role jurisprudence laid down general 80 "[A] serving retributive come understand term. subjected retribution." 448-449. 81 past sanctions: taxes. 82 submitting reimbursement (seeking $12 each, services rendered $3) provider, fine. false-claims consisted plus claim. 438. caused Applying definition given above, "roughly" 445. Despite went individual case," answered affirmative, created "tremendous disparity" otherwise ends still proportion damage done.7 83 category sanctions-civil forfeitures-was petitioner's shop instrumentalities trade there. 610, 621, partly importantly underlay created. Merely costs, justify conveyances vary coincidental." expends great distinguish away case. states, "difficult see" "rule Halper" conflates rules announced. discussed quoted end. 621. relegated narrower rule-the "rare requires costs-because perfectly appropriate. need design entirely applications nonetheless.8 85 majority implies "categorical approach" somehow suspect jurisprudence, 18, definitively refutes suggestion. ownership drugs Again 9-10), focusing unusual features ordinary "penal intent." 14).9 basis, taken "remedial" interests "unmistakable applications. 86 "case-by-case" "impossible apply" misses true (compensation), easy application. speaking, number rationales. decide examine promotes Many approach, regardless "quantif[ied]," 16. embarks Furthermore, 4.10 87 yielded surveyed length. replete expressions punishment.11 strictly Scalia characterize specific "in case." 626 (concurring judgment). accepted every Member offered holding. applicable defense, indicating Further, 620. indicated sanctions "`inadequate deter punish.'" (quoting Rep. 98-225, p. 191 (1983)). "[s]tatutory certainly payment (in kind), 626-627 judgment) original).12 88 Remarkably, today head-a ago, unanimity pertinent points-and concludes Every gave punitive-the ignores. remedial-Austin rebuffed. "indistinguishable" respects" ignores opposite here. supposes instrumentality conceivable kinds instruments crimes whose principal illegal-for Items-might forfeitable. helped substantially "facilitate" meaningfully thwart trade. "instruments" here.13 90 helps statement squared precedents. held, reaffirmed, punishment" "`Retribution deterrence legitimate governmental objectives.'" added) Bell Wolfish, 441 520, 539, (1979)). renounce "distinct from" 23, plainly powerful function. premise penal announced explanation comment. 12) (Stevens, 91 good measure, persuaded statute. contains summarily 1609). claimed, abandoned; proves owns. Any prove claimant culpable, express exception. finds structure irrelevant, exemption "makes statute] look 619. discretionary authority Secretary Treasury remit 92 announces "tied activity" relied "tie offenses" 620.14 93 recurrent theme mystical concerns. "[s]ince Items," provisions. 14-15. statement, incorrect. 701, 11; 638.15 recently, "[w]e technical personam, note misplaced." 9.16 94 notion label dispositive runs trend labels `criminal' `civil' paramount importance" individual. 447. 1931 purposes.17 too late contend placed determines 95 pedantic owner, "guilty." prefers notorious blatantly, citations believes "guilty" charged. rationale, course, easy. confiscates sleight-of-hand worked too: excessively fined, heavy allow owner.18 96 decisions, sense dictate characterizing anything seize controlling essential unquestionably correlation society cost 254. formalistic distinctions obscure obvious consequences disserve "`humane interests'" protected 447, 537, 554 (Frankfurter, concurring). Fidelity dictates Clause.19 97 argues word "jeopardy" refers precluding situations antedated filing charge. "jeopardy," runs, foreclosed 98 holdings rested Otherwise defendants "twice jeopardy" text forbids. prohibition filed. 7) ("if punishments, possibly difference"). III. 99 relies principally define "each not." 304. avoid objection prosecution-or forfeiture-whenever illegally. 100 neighbor's grown, scenario, harvested owned else. 101 does, allege sustain included convicted. Illinois Vitale, 447 410 (1980), Harris Oklahoma, 433 682 (1977) "greater" (here, forfeiture) means "lesser" negate instance accords oft-repeated 701 offense"); (describing him"). Rutledge 517 charge lesser-included 102 joins "[f]orfeiture crime." 3. His 103 theorizes best misuse, opposed (but addition to) substantive But, again, way. incorporates (subjecting subchapter punishable year's imprisonment"). subsection "no paragraph omission omitted owner." "congressional trafficking" "`the inadequate enormously profitable drugs.' " 619, 620 628 (suggesting proportionality measured offense). Again, statements accord sense: IV. 104 final occurred commenced entered either. particularly protects expectation finality original sentence, maintains arise completed. argues, "cannot been) joined together system justice." Brief 55. 105 unpersuasive inaccurate describe one.20 obstacle sentencing commence encompass warranted draft proposed amendment Federal Rules Criminal Procedure envisions precisely procedure. Fed. Rule Crim. Proc. 32(d)(2) (eff. Dec. 1996).21 If, "civil" encompassing requires. create novel permitted eviscerate overreaching embodied deeper roots relatively enactments expanded sovereign's power 106 example depth concern treatment cut deeply guarantee Founders. few vessels mission Prohibition-era sustaining distillery-a spirits. Notably misconduct therein. Consider drastic alcoholic beverages consumed. reasoning, fear "civil," rem," conclusion. remain correctly today. 107 respectfully dissent * Together al., raises review. contends prohibit "jeopardy." contemporaneous infra, __, address decision. grounded gives Halper. He "two rules": sanctions, "of character"; "narrower rule," costs." Post 12. Stevens faults failing "general problem argument, rules. Nowhere purport two-step dictum Halper: "`[a] punishment.'" Post, immediately states rephrasing Stevens'"narrower" i.e., requiring "accounting 449. "We retribution. exact pursuit. precise difficult, impossible, ascertain. [I]t dollar figure whole, beyond takes quality 448-449 added); 449-451. supplant, mimic, post Stones. purpose" radically Yet nowhere sweeping change emphasizing scope 449 (announcing case"). literally, declared punishment: hard imagine aspect whatsoever. unworkable precedent. mischaracterizes se exempt Similarly, rest long-recognized malfeasant 18-21. designated establishes presumption 363 indicates effect" 365. premises imprisonment. assumed follows: "Section(s) 881. "(a) Subject them: "(7) All right, title, (including leasehold interest) whole lot tract land appurtenances improvements, imprisonment, except paragraph, 881(a)(7). novelty very "I disturbed breadth commission, facilitation, O'Connor points War upheld strong made, differs degree, kind, antecedents. unclear behind `that thing offender,' J. W. Goldsmith, Jr.-Grant 505, (1921), fully immense `large tracts [and improvements thereon] location occurred,' Respondents `guilty' reasonably argued Dobbins's Distillery (1878), pirate vessel Harmony How. 210 (1844). Given current removed doctrine based, necessary-in appropriate case-to reevaluate deferential 43, 81-82 (1993) part) (footnotes anything, "criminal concerns type presumably larger class situations. "Where defining "for Framers amendments excessive, allowed Specifically, 13), levied imposition, 15-16). true, asserts, "excessive" "fine" place, matter "excessive." Browning-Ferris Industries Vt., Inc. Kelco Disposal, Inc., 492 257 Peisch Ware, Cranch 347, (1808) (Marshall, J.) ("[T]he goods"); 510-511 (1921) confiscated transporting liquor Prohibition "`properly forfeiture'") Blackstone, Commentaries *301). Just Term, reiterated 9-10) nature"). speculates nuisance abatement interest. 23. questionable enough State's acts nuisance, depending neighborhood happened parked. 9) Here, kind Apparently recognizing reconciling Austin's, admits "perhaps ha[s] aspects," outweighed "important goals." repudiates defined "[A]lthough goods, nominal party, nevertheless, substantial suit; so, defence; present, privileges appertain offence." 638. suggests personam," 8, mention "civil." "That observed words `tax' `penalty' `are interchangeable, other' `if converted simple expedient calling such.' 572. Lipke Lederer, 259 557, 561 (1922) (`The mere suppress intendment laid')." 15) Long ago cast fiction: "But claimant, force distinction; assent not, effect, goods; breach judge, `Goods, offend, forfeit, unlade, pay duties, like, men are.'* "*Vaughan, Sheppard Gosnold, Vaugh. 159, 172, Ch. Baron Parker Mitchell qui tam Torup, Parker, 227, 236." 637, (1886). emphasized, determination expect licensing Comment, Administrative Driver's License Suspension: Remedial Tool Not Jeopardy, Am. L. Rev. 1151 (arguing suspension driver's license drunk driving Ranch). explicitly assessment "separate proceedings." 4). Rule, enter order. authorizes General discovery, protect becomes sentence

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