Document: 520 U.S. 180117 S.Ct. 1174137 L.Ed.2d 369 TURNER BROADCASTING SYSTEM, INC., et al., Appellantsv.FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION al. No. 95-992. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Oct. 7, 1996. Decided March 31, 1997. Syllabus * Sections 4 and 5 Cable Television Consumer Protection Competition Act 1992 (Cable Act) require cable television systems to dedicate some their channels local broadcast stations. In Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC, 512 622, 114 2445, 129 497 (Turner), this held these so-called "must-carry'' provisions be subject intermediate First Amendment scrutiny under O'Brien, 391 367, 377, 88 1673, 1679, 20 672, whereby a content-neutral regulation will sustained if it advances important governmental interests unrelated suppression free speech does not burden substantially more than necessary further those interests. However, because plurality considered record as then developed insufficient determine whether would in fact alleviate real harms direct material way necessary, remanded case. After 18 months additional factfinding, District granted summary judgment for Government other appellees, concluding that expanded contained substantial evidence supporting Congress' predictive must-carry preserving carriage stations, are narrowly tailored promote This appeal followed. Held: The is affirmed. 910 F.Supp. 734, Justice KENNEDY delivered opinion with respect all but portion Part II-A-1, consistent Amendment: 1.The now stands supports Pp. ____-____, ____-____. (a) decided Turner, U.S., at 662, S.Ct., 2469, reaffirms, was designed serve three interrelated, interests: (1) benefits free, over-the-air television, (2) promoting widespread dissemination information from multiplicity sources, (3) fair competition programming market. Protecting noncable households loss regular broadcasting service due 40 percent American still rely on signals programming. See, e.g., id., 663, 2469-2470. Moreover, there corresponding purpose highest order ensuring public access ibid., has an interest eliminating restraints even when regulated parties engaged protected expressive activity, ibid. parties' attempts recast forms readily proved-i.e., Government's claim few stations critically appellants' assertions implicated absent showing entire industry fail, its assuring sources extends only far minimum amount service-are inconsistent stated enacting must-carry. (b) Even realm questions where Congress must base conclusions upon evidence, courts accord deference findings harm avoided remedial measures adopted end, lest traditional legislative authority make judgments nationwide regulatory policy infringed. 665, 2470-2471 (plurality opinion). courts' sole obligation assure that, formulating judgments, drawn reasonable inferences based evidence. Id., 666, 2471. (c) "in effective way.'' Ward Rock Against Racism, 491 781, 800, 109 2746, 2758-2759, 105 661. could reasonably conclude body before attaining increasing importance broadcasters' economic viability, action, off-air system endangered. Such amply indicated that: station's viability depends extent ability secure thereby increase audience size revenues; had fallen into bankruptcy, curtailed operations, suffered serious reductions operating revenues result adverse decisions by systems; without encountered severe difficulties obtaining financing operations; potentially impact losing growth "clustering''-i.e., acquisition many given market possible-gave multiple operators centralized control over markets. reasonableness congressional confirmed assembled remand clearly establishes suggests expansion harming broadcasting. Although also contains support contrary conclusion, question correct objective matter, conclusion supported supra, 665-666, 2470-2471. Where, here, standard satisfied, appropriate regardless conflict. Cf., Textile Mfrs. Institute, Donovan, 452 490, 523, 101 2478, 2497-2498, 69 185. 2.The do they promote. See 2469. Appellants say must-carry's great, significant adduced indicates vast majority have been affected manner. includes such satisfied obligations 87 time using previously unused channel capacity; 94.5 drop any programming; remaining 5.5 average 1.22 services carry 99.8 carried must-carry; gained 5,880 imposed congruent affords because, appellants concede, most dropped absence. Must-carry therefore preserve cable. Ward, 799, n. 2758, 7. possibilities prohibit dropping broadcaster operator no anticompetitive motives or survive so prevalent render overbroad. Court's precedents establish invalidate preferred scheme merely alternative solution marginally less intrusive speaker's event, careful examination each suggestions-a limited set modeled earlier used Federal Communications Commission; use A/B switches, giving consumers choice both signals; leased-access regime requiring aside broadcasters programmers price; subsidies broadcasters; antitrust enforcement administrative complaint procedure-reveals none them adequate achieving aims. Because received glancing attention parties, prudence dictates reach challenge provision low-power certain circumstances. KENNEDY, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, STEVENS, SOUTER, BREYER part, concluded II-A-1 enactment justified threat broadcasting's health. feared denied risk financial difficulty, see 667, 2471-2472, deteriorate degree fail altogether, Congress, supplemented remand, indicated, inter alia, considerable growing power video markets 1992; industry's expanding horizontal vertical integration give incentive drop, reposition less-viewed channels, independent which competed audiences advertisers; numbers already dropped; and, must-carry, deleted, repositioned, attempt capture advertising offset waning subscription growth. indicating percentage typical increasing, systems' proceeded apace, better enabling sell own potential advertisers, deny competitors homes area. BREYER, although agreeing statute satisfies forth rested his principal opinion's analysis statute's efforts competition, rather discussion two objectives. He except insofar relies rationale. J., announced Court, II-A-1. REHNQUIST, C.J., STEVENS JJ., full, relied filed concurring opinion. part. O'CONNOR, dissenting opinion, SCALIA, THOMAS, GINSBURG, joined. H. Bartow Farr, III, Washington, DC, appellants. Walter Dellinger, federal appellees. Bruce J. Ennis, Jr., private Earlier case, we restrictions speech, 672 (1968). A were interests, case Columbia factfinding. On grant presents left open during first appeal: First, interests; second, We answer affirmative, Amendment. An outline Act, purposes adopting it, facts out detail our (1994) abbreviated suffice here. Soon after enacted 1992, Pub.L. 102-385, 106 Stat. 1460 Act), brought suit against Commission (both referred here Government) Columbia, challenging constitutionality three-judge divided intervenor-defendants. court "industry-specific trade'' legislation beset monopoly systems, concentration industry, concomitant risks driven policies. 819 32, 40, 45-47 (D.D.C 1993). appeal, agreed "distinguish favored disfavored basis ideas views expressed,'' 643, 2459, "to prevent exploiting detriment broadcasters,'' ensure Americans, especially unable subscribe cable, programming-whatever content.'' 649, 2462. level applicable regulations, shown provided incidental did "burden further'' 2469 (quoting 661 (1989)). "ha[d] difficulty concluding'' abstract, 2469-2470, four-Justice genuine issues remained regarding "the health jeopardy need protections afforded must-carry,'' ""burden[s] government's legitimate interests.''' 2470 2758). found valid us; he returned proceedings. 673-674, 2474-2475 (STEVENS, part judgment); 667-668, 2471-2472. 1 oversaw another factual development "yielding tens thousands pages'' 755 (D.D.C.1995), comprised materials acquired years preenactment hearings, 632-634, 2453-2455, well expert submissions, sworn declarations testimony, documents obtained remand. Upon consideration record, panel again F.Supp., 751. determined "Congress drew inferences'' absence rules, "significant' refused carriage.'' 742. studies anecdotal "cable dropped, carry, adversely repositioned suggesting cases restored prior position. Ibid. Noting testimony experts 743, noncarriage problem grow worse refrained investigation pendency litigation, 742-743, possessed incentives affiliated programmers. "substantial Congress'' "would suffer possible ruin.'' 743-744. It cited actions decrease reducing levels, 744-745, invalidation FCC's regulations contributed declining industry. 744, 34. 2 effects minimal, noting required add since rules adopted; 1.2 devoted added likely diminish capacity future. 746-747. consider number alternatives proposed, including: regime, FCC; broadcasters. rejected turn, "even assuming [the alternatives] burdensome'' operators' "are [interests].'' 747. Judge Jackson trial judgment, concurred court. 751-754. 3 Williams dissented. His review particularly concerning broadcasters, revenues, per-station profits period led him whole ""seriously jeopardized''' 759-767. acknowledged preventing behavior, accepted discriminate favor vertically integrated — 772, 775, 779. nonetheless ground tailored. view, constitutes (though "diminish[ing],'' 782) programmers' rights, Act's suppress "less-restrictive'' exist accomplish 782-789. 47 U.S.C. §555(c)(1); 28 §1253. noted probable jurisdiction, 516 ____, 116 907, 133 839 (1996), affirm. II begin ended applying standards enunciated O'Brien. 1679. As "three interrelated programming.'' then, reaffirm, interest. explicit holding ""protecting interest.'' Capital Cities Cable, Crisp, 467 691, 714, 104 2694, 2708, 81 580 (1984)). Forty continue Despite technologies, ""broadcasting demonstrably source entertainment great Nation's population.''' Southwestern Co., 392 157, 177, 1994, 2005, 1001 (1968)). identified "governmental order'' "a sources,'' And undisputed "eliminating . , individuals entities particular activity Amendment.'' 6 sides advanced new interpretations "more proven.'' 759 (Williams, dissenting). downplays "is matter critical importance.'' Tr. Oral Arg. 23. Taking opposite approach, argue unless Brief Appellant National Association, 18-23 (NCTA Brief), Time Warner Entertainment L.P. 8-10 (Time suggest "assuring 2470, service.'' 28; NCTA 40; Reply 12. 7 These formulations reflect concern voices,'' 23, lost marketplace. findings, expressed clear "marked shift share services,'' §2(a)(13), note following §521, resulting penetration services, operators, combined delete, reposition, decline §§2a(2)-(5), (15). predicted "absent reimposition [must-carry], carried'' (§2(a)(15); §2(a)(8)(D)), end originate quality seriously jeopardized.'' §2(a)(16). 8 At same time, illusion complete disappearance recognized (and network particular) "remains popular systems,'' §2(a)(19). Indeed, reflecting popularity strength included permitting charge signals. §6, codified §325. concerned disappear entirety "significant "broadcast either altogether.'' H.R.Rep. 102-628, p. 51 (1992) (House Report) (the "will weakening reduction competition''); 64 ("The Committee wishes concerns situation wholesale large systems''); S.Rep. 102-92, 62 (1991) (Senate ("Without role communications steadily ''); Appellees 93-44 22 shows totally eliminated'' "whether available viewers [without cable] reduced extent, altogether curtailment others''). 9 Nor suggestion goals preservation rump providing Americans ""it long basic tenet national widest diverse antagonistic essential welfare public.''''' 663-664, Midwest Video Corp., 406 668, 27, 92 1860, 1870-1871, 32 390 (1972)) opinion) Associated Press States, 326 1, 20, 65 1416, 1424-1425, 89 L.Ed. 2013 (1945)); FCC WNCN Listeners Guild, 450 582, 594, 1266, 1274, 67 521 (1981). ""[I]ncreasing outlets community self-expression''' represents ""long-established goa[l] field broadcasting.''' 1870 Consistent objective, action media voices consumers.'' §2(a)(4). specific "ensuring [the] continuation'' origination [broadcast] programming,'' §2(a)(10), larger types media, §2(a)(6), goals'' original 1934 "providing fair, efficient, equitable distribution services'' (§2(a)(9)). short, "preserve existing structure medium while television.'' 652, 2464. 10 definite sufficient purposes, requirement 12 one-third §4, §534(b)(1)(B), refutes notion contemplated bare evident "preserv[ing] structure,'' 2464, discloses households. To substantiality something community, position meritless. decide how much should preserved households, validity determination ""does turn judge's agreement responsible decisionmaker concerning' Government's] promoted.'' 2758 Albertini, 472 675, 689, 2897, 2906-2907, 86 536 (1985)); accord, Clark Community Creative Non-Violence, 468 288, 299, 3065, 3071-3072, 82 221 (1984) ("We believe [that] O'Brien endow[s] judiciary competence judge protection park lands wise''). 11 dissent proceeds assumption solely can as) measure protect behavior. post, __, __. policy, however, conduct threatens motivated animus rises violation. 2708; 1869-1870 (FCC "were avowedly guard being undermined unregulated [cable] growth''); Co. 319 190, 223-224, 63 997, 1012-1013, 1344 (1943) (""While practices raise laws, [i]t FCC's] function apply laws such''') Report Chain Regulations (1941)). Broadcast Americans. Though one means communication, tradition decades discourse subjects across broad spectrum thought, expression. 2469-2470; Citizens Broadcasting, 436 783, 98 2096, 2106, 56 697 (1978) (referring "showing dominant news information''). equal footing who review, constrained state assessing asserted "viewed abstract,'' permits us address harm, way. prompted act. assertion 664-665, rests component propositions: systems'' Second, 13 reviewing statute, "courts Congress.'' Our evidence.'' 666. measured context deferential agency. 666-667, 2471-2472; 670, 2473, judgment). owe institution equipped "amass evaluate amounts data' bearing upon'' questions. Walters Assn. Radiation Survivors, 473 305, 331, 12, 3180, 3194, 220 2758-2759; Rostker Goldberg, 453 57, 83, 2646, 2661-2662, 478 (1981) (courts perform "appropriately evaluation th[e] evidence''); Democratic Committee, 412 94, 103, 93 2080, 2086-2087, 36 772 (1973). principle special significance cases, like one, involving schemes inherent complexity assessments about interaction industries undergoing rapid technological change. different degree, akin owed agencies expertise. Comm. 814, 2121-2122, (" [C]omplete [FCC's] prediction required; forecast direction future lies necessarily involves deductions knowledge agency'''); 674, 1874 (it "beyond Appeals itself assess relative benefits'' evidence). sum however. exercise power. accorded infringe policy. PCS1 14 finding provisions. examine presented supplement determination. 15 served least 60 §2(a)(3), projected beyond 70 percent. TV 1991: Hearing S. Subcommittee Senate Commerce, Science, Transportation, 102d Cong., 1st Sess., 259 (statement Edward O. Fritts) (App.1253); Defendants' Joint Statement Evidence Before &Par;9, (JSCR) (App.1252-1253). (§2(a)(2)), possess Only communities system, JSCR &Par;31-40 (App.1262-1266). subscribers. Comments NAB MM Docket 85-349, ¶47 (April 25, 1986) (App.26). thus "control (if all) channeled subscriber's home [and] silence voice competing speakers mere flick switch.'' 656, 2466. 16 channel. Horizontal small (MSO's) nationwide. trend accelerating, MSO's 1985, largest controlled serving slightly 42 subscribers; 1989, figure nearly 54 ¶77 (App.1282); Competitive Problems Industry, Antitrust, Monopolies Business Rights Judiciary, 101st 74 (1990) (Hearing Industry) Gene Kimmelman Dr. Mark N. Cooper). 17 Vertical increasing. aware, owned affiliation agreements §2(a)(5); Report, 24-29. 1984 equity 38 networks. late 1980's, ownership. ¶197 (App.1332-1333). "vertical gives (§2(a)(5); 25) Williams' conceded reasonable. 775. Extensive Issues Industry: 100th 2d 546 (1988) Issues) Milton Maltz); Regulation: Hearings H.R. 1303 2546 Telecommunications Finance House Energy 869-870, 878-879 (Hearings Regulation) James B. Hedlund); 752 Fritts); 699 Kimmelman); Regulation (Part 2): 261 2)) Robert G. Picard) (App.1339-1341); &Par;168-170, 278-280 (App.1320-1321, 1370-1371). criticizes reliance appellees argument displays lack regard factfinding function. nature process submissions legislation. too sent representatives try persuade side debate. 228-241 P. Mooney, president CEO appellant NCTA); Regulation, 575-582 Decker Anstrom, executive vice 173-180 Ted System). hearing volumes documentary offered sides, posed television. Constitution weighing conflicting process. touches concerns, deference, examining conclusions, including predictions. __-__. Furthermore, though interested verifiable citation sources. 705, 707-708, 712 Kimmelman). 19 borne reflected favoritism Record, Additional Evidence, Vol. VII.H, Exh. 170, 1749 (DAE) (cable memo stating "All [of MSO's] launch Starz [an programmer] 2/94. Word corporate: you don't free''); Third Declaration Tom Meek ¶44 (Third Declaration) (App.2071-2072); Roger Noll &Par;18-22 (Noll (App.1009-1013); Dertouzos ¶6a (Dertouzos (App.959). addition, compete advertisers. Independent tend closest substitutes programs, tends similar, &Par;269, 274, 276 (App.1367, 1368-1370), primarily target type advertiser: cheaper frequent) ad spots typically affiliates. Second ¶32 (Second (App.1866); ¶26 (App.2023); Carriage Signals Systems, Comment Staff Bureau Economics San Francisco Regional Office Trade Commission, (Nov. 26, 1991) (Reply FTC) (App.176). greatly increased carriage, increases viewership substantially. ¶34 (App.1866-1867). With viewership, competitive advertising. Empirical indicate cable-carried enhance modest correlated decreases revenue systems. &Par;20, 25-28 (App.966, 969-971); FTC, (App.175). demand premium (such pay-per-view) carries 323 Michael Wirth). Thus, stand benefit ¶6b 21 systemic reasons seeking disadvantage stations: Simply stated, little assisting, through communication. cable-industry put ""our job television.''' Issues, 658 Multichannel News, Channel Realignments: Eyes Plan Bump Network Affils Upper Channels, Nov. 3, 1986, 39); (""Shouldn't shelf space cable? Why people trained view UHF?''') (vice operations Comcast, MSO, quoted Operators Shuffle Lineups, Sept. 8, 38)). lower viewing options. ¶275 (App.1369); &Par;27, (App.970, 972). strengthened 60% controls. &Par;29, 35 (App.971, 973); ¶43 (App.1029). programmers-even unaffiliated ones-less cap affiliates §533(f)(1)(B); CFR §76.504) (1995), dissent, utility protecting contends engage predation whose primary subscriptions, widely viewed station revenues. Post, faced sacrificing handful gain dozens (plus affiliates), prefer replaced them. Substantial introduced bears out: exception very (typically system's between carrying programmer effect subscribership bear decisions. ¶29 (App.1018-1019); Rebuttal ¶20 (App.1798); &Par;3-4, (App.2003-2004); John R. Haring ¶37 (Haring (App.1106). 23 theoretical possibility take indeed, dropped. extensive scores &Par;291-467, 664 (App.1376-1489, 1579). FCC-sponsored study detailing wake Circuit striking down regulations. Quincy TV, 768 F.2d 1434 (1985), cert. denied, 476 1169, 2889, 90 977 (1986); Century Corp. 835 292 (1987), 486 1032, 108 2014, 100 602 (1988). 1988, 280 912 responding 1,533 instances. App. 47. every coverage responded survey, quarter (21 percent) approximately 1,356 existence, carriage. reported 869 4,303 reporting 704 1,820 instances, 48, 279 qualified rules. 49. contemporaneous service. CR I.Z., 140, pp. 15297-15298, 15306-15307. 24 demonstrated "serious,'' 43, "additional carried,'' §2(a)(15). acting restraint effort discourage reregulation. 900, 2), 242-243 Mooney) (App.1519); &Par;524-534 (App.1515-1519). There began flatten, steady, revenue. &Par;124-142, 154-166 (App.1301-1308, 1313-1319). report " [c]able appears broadcasters.'' ¶155 (App.1313). Then-FCC Commissioner Quello warned problems "occurring today just "tip iceberg.' activities come beginning recognize advertising.'' Television, 322 (App.1515). continued: "As mature levels off, increasingly logical, rational legal business strategy.'' Appendix Testimony Hedlund & Quello) (App.1315). advised "diversity jeopardized continues unredressed.'' re Competition, Rate Provision Service, Rcd 4962, 5040, ¶149 (1990). 25 judgment. Approximately 1989. 9-10 (App.168-169). grown proportions 1992. According experts, 31 affiliates, system. Stanley Besen, Exhs. C-2, C-3 (App.907-908). Based data, commercial noncommercial rate higher ¶4 (App.2054). empirical 1988 survey underestimated actual drops (Declaration &Par;5, (Meek (App.619, 625, 626)), grew By passed, 1,261 year, total 7,945 incidents. &Par;12, (App.621, 622). 26 cites watch, __-__, thwarts viewers' preferences. Undoubtedly, cable-the immediate, sole, beneficiaries television-would strong preference program program, simple reason helps access. methodological flaws concern. overlooks ratings greater programs replaced. ¶23 (App.1863) (ratings generally achieved equivalent counterparts''); ¶21, 11-12 (Record, DAE, II.A., 2); 880 Hedlund) ("in virtually instance, shifted replace them''); &Par;497-510 (App.1505-1509) (stations them). —(Indeed, able fulfill spare displace Counsel Association Must-Carry Stations, Table II-4 1995) (App.678).) average, lowest-rated pursuant nine ¶20, (App.2061). If subscribers' preferences place, expect exceeding carried. That simply 27 apace. towards continued, [e]nhanced prospects sales.'' Paul Kagan Assocs., Inc, Advertising (Sept. 30, 1994) (App.301). Notice Inquiry, Annual Assessment Status Market Delivery Programming, Rcd. 7805, 7819-7820, ¶79 risen 85 DAE VII.D, 80, (Turner memo); (App.1017). could, known "clustering.'' &Par;150-153 (App.1311-1313). looked advertising) growth, see, Associates, Inc., (July 28, 1993) (App.251); Bilotti, D. Hansen, MacDonald, Industry 94-97 (Mar. (DAE VII.K, 232, 94-97) ("Local exceptional incremental opportunity industry'') Memo Arts Network, dated 235) (discussing "huge horizon'' spot revenue), (whether not). &Par;29-31 (App.1018-1020). subscribers Implementation Section 7442, 7526, ¶167, nn. 455, 457 (1994); app. G, tables 9-10; Top October 1994 266); &Par;199, 204 (App.1334, 1336). FTC cites, takes skeptical concedes denials "most plausible'' franchise area station,'' (App.177), high relatively unresponsive decisions,'' describes "precisely what happening'' expand individual clustering. ¶35 (App.1867). so, limit denying Ibid.; ¶24 (App.1015). called best consequences arrangements structures, theories arising, say, laws. "Statutes frequently judgments. Sherman example, requires delve deeply theory organization.'' Holder Hall, 874, 966, 2581, 2629-2630, 687 (separate J.). issue whether, making did. imprimatur validate PCS2 29 "serious difficulty,'' 2472, "deteriorate conclusion. &Par;597-617, 667-670, 673 (App.1544-1553, 1580-1581, 1582-1583). One explained way: 30 "Simply put, directly translates revenue-large attract sale time. loses audience, lose revenue, well. money invest equipment attractiveness lessen, audience. Revenues decline, cycle repeat.'' 526-527 Gary Chapman) (App.1600). &Par;589-591 (App.1542-1543); ¶625-633, 636, 638-640 (App.1555-1563) (repositioning). research ""direct correlation [between] [advertising] revenues,''' ¶591 (App.1543), heavily dependent &Par;589-596 (App.1542-1544). Considerable consisting statements compiled testified &Par;659, 661, 669, 671-672, 676, 681 (App.1576, 1578, 1581-1582, 1584, 1587), &Par;589, 692, 695, 697, 703-704 (App.1542, 1591-1600), &Par;618-620, 622-623 (App.1553-1555). markets' poor &Par;302, 304, 581, 643-658 (App.1382-1383, 1538-1539, 1564-1576); David Schutz &Par;6, 15-16, 18, 43 (App.640-641, 644-646, 654); &Par;36-42 (App.1024-1029); &Par;21-26 (App.1099-1102); ¶11 (App.1858); Jeffrey Rohlfs ¶6 (App.1157-1158). suggested clustering gave ample viability. hold endangered.'' 42. 33 confirms Documents produced internal 34 "clearly establis[h] equates equate unlikely afford off line-up extended time.'' Memorandum F. Lopez T. Baxter re: Adlink's Presentations Retransmission Consent, June 14, 1993 (App.2118). Another prepared MSO [w]ith 70% markets, easily crucial.'' Exhibit B Declaration, II.A (App.2147). significantly below-average penetration, [t]he cause revenues.'' For greater.'' (App.2149). major market, sizeable viewers, $1.48 million gross station. —(App.2156). sure, Court) continued albeit diminished rate. actually went dark (one failed tornado destroyed transmitter), 263 signed air. &Par;76-77 (App.627-628). New voluntarily accounting 97 III-D (App.808). Appellants, contend light law whole.'' 18. 37 misapprehends relevant inquiry. suffering hardship. Rather, Congress. determination, "re-weigh de novo, predictions own.'' satisfied. is, defendants-appellees context, ""the drawing [a] evidence.''' 2497, 185 (citation omitted) Consolo Maritime Comm'n, 383 607, 620, 1018, 1026, 131 (1966)). continuing interpretation causing Growth fell (from 4.5 1986 1.7 1992), appeared tapering further. &Par;577-584 (App.1537-1540); &Par;74-82 (App.626-631); 790, 2. almost unprecedented development,'' Rcd., 5041, &Par;153-154, numbers. ¶78 (App.628) ("the going escalate'' 1988) (emphasis omitted); 1587). declined terms 1991, cable's doubled. 1. While phenomena thought stem factors quite separate (for recession 1990-1992), explanation. liberty substitute body. true bankruptcies among small; continuance "unprecedented'' five-year downward failures 1985-1992 were, warned, tip iceberg. fundamental wait until occurs may act it. "An death throes threatened monopoly.'' 2474 "we occurred taking forestall consequences. allowed predication inaction furthering interests.'' 60. 39 risk, believes yet demands qualify mandatory __; features bankrupt located demise. improper impose Legislative Branch. unreasonable constitutionally unwarranted. obligated, statutes, agency accommodate judicial review.'' 2471 think apparent serves 2759. ensures retain needed broader goals. question. 41 second inquiry fit chosen advance Content-neutral pose "inherent dangers expression,'' content-based do, rigorous analysis, latitude designing solution. 798-799, 6, 6. Under scrutiny, employ choosing ""so promotes effectively regulation,''' ""burden further''' interfere ways. restrain editorial discretion creating packages "reduc[ing] [they] unfettered control.'' 637, 2456. "render difficult remaining.'' modest. Significant manner satisfy Harry Shooshan ¶14 (App.692)); 11,628 obligations; programming, ¶15 (App.692); ¶21 (App.694-695). 1.18 500,000 ¶11(b) (App.688-689); weighted subscribership, 2.4 780 burdens soon increases, occurring 45; 44 understand dispute accuracy figures, significance. 46; 44-49; 38-45; 33-42. They averages account crowding (especially urban) 41, 43; half two-thirds subscribers, capacity, 34; 42, 58. outstrips creation space, claimed, 39, infringes rights irrespective 12-13. Finally, occupied, "thousands infringements speech.'' 44. 45 susceptible varying interpretations, occupy 30,006 nationwide, represent represent, so. 673, 2475, occupied scheme. concede approximates 46 affords, Cf. essence narrow tailoring'' "focus[sing] evils [Government] seeks eliminate [without] restricting quantity create evils''); 297, 3071 ("None regulation's] ends serve.''). took steps confine breadth (which anyway) opt paid "retransmission consent'' Act; counted obligations. exempted fewer §534(b)(1); §§535(b)(2)-(3); carried, §534(b)(2); permitted public, educational, circumstances, §535(d). overbroad instances implicated: motives, access.'' 683, 2480 (O'CONNOR, 25-26. persuaded discussed programmers, anti Some 35-36, Broadcasters stronger finances tend, ones ordinarily seek payment transmission, minimal. appears, hundred opting (see 49), "substantially achieve 2758. doubtful narrower practicable rule drafted exclude implicated, "invalid imaginable might burdensome 2906; 797, 2757; 3071-3072. 48 posit demonstrate less-restrictive ask us, effect, "sif[t] imagined regulating [cable television] [Government's] means' desired end,'' approach 2757. ""less-restrictive-alternative never validity''' speech. Regan Time, 641, 657, 3262, 3271, 487 (ellipses original)). evaluating incidentally "So interest, invalid concludes adequately less-speech-restrictive alternative.'' (holding restrictive "alternative methods'' controlling volume concerts); 2906-2907 (upholding barring person military base, excluding barred "essential'' security speech-restrictive end); 3071-3072 (overnight camping ban upheld "there [were] alternatives'' satisfying lands); Members City Council Los Angeles Taxpayers Vincent, 466 789, 815-817, 2118, 2134-2135, 80 (stating exceptions posting signs property activity,'' "constitutionally mandated''). established regulation's "does method government 2907. 49 appellants, cannot proposal revive "Century rules'' 1987 decision down, 292. Those eligibility capacity. agree eligible 49; Gregory Klein &Par;21-25 (App.1141-1143). statutory compulsion. acknowledge criticism rationale better, place limitless operators. final nothing ""[dis]agreement 2907); legislated shadow Communications. Its deliberations awareness 39-41, 62); drafting made comparisons struck (1985). 65-66; 61. reflects deliberate adopt present protection, defer. 50 urge input selector "A/B'' which, combination antennas, permit switch input, allowing watch examined switches "not enduring feasible §2(a)(18). data showed lacked antennas receive signals, &Par;724, 725, (App.1609-1610, 1634); technical flaws, &Par;718, 721, 738-739, 751-755, 761 (App.1606, 1608, 1617-1618, 1624-1626, 1630); reset settings repeatedly UHF 54; installation common videocassette recorders) "cumbersome impossible.'' 45, 115-116; 54, 60-61; &Par;746, 750, 758-767 (App.1622, 1623, 1629-1634). trade association here) workable problem.'' 54. group's engineering committee likewise "appear[ed] imminent.'' Petition Reconsideration 6-8 (Dec. 17, (App.1606-1607); 115; 60; Must Carry, (1989) Preston Padden) (App.1608); 901, 84 (App.1608). "considerable evidence,'' studies, "it rare subscribers] ever signal,'' 62. 1991 "after several mandated A-B [to] simultaneous education use,'' NAB, Switch Availability Use (App.132) FCC-mandated improvements switch, 129, 11.7 cable-connected sets attached antenna switch. 131. Of possessing smaller (only 62-63. shortcomings consumer acceptance. signal interference discouraging use. Eldon Haakinson &Par;45-54 (App.602-609); Supplemental &Par;8-10 (App.2025-2026); W. Cicora L. Yaeger 1993, (channels used) (App.246). 52 rates. 46-47. specify kind propose, operate, compare Whatever virtues otherwise have, reduce aimed addressing bottleneck goal remains (sacrificing broadcasters), control. inimical pursuing, 51; 45. specifically prohibited payments Act. §§534(b)(10), 535(i). 53 next financially weak proposed subsidy scheme, option let alone preferable with, intended guarantee provide simpler administer involve determinations distinguish categories technology communicate. expertise according reserved (within strictures) allow choose offering choices appealing Appellants' develop criteria elaborate determinations. procedure conduct. 47-48. conclude, expense delay disparities wealth sophistication operator, remedies inadequate guaranteed complex discovery, motions practice, appeals, fees throughout. &Par;556-576 (App.1528-1537); ¶58 Submission Expert Affidavits Reports Support Motion Summary Judgment, II.A, 2). procedure, burdensome, incur enforcing rights. forced resources forgo pursuing complaints obtain Carolyn Lewis ¶13 (App.548-549); Beabout (App.526-527). compounded instead proving entitlement prove establishing 55 reach. raises brief subsection §534(c), unfilled low determines informational needs full geographic distance license.'' §534(h)(2)(B). invited 643-644, 2460, "only glancing'' attention, operation of, justifications for, provisions,'' informed appeal. disposed perfunctory discussion, 750-751; explicitly 789. parties. addressed jurisdictional statement, affirm, oppositions 400 pages merits briefs, four paragraphs (two relegated footnotes) conclusory argumentation subject, largely properly us. discrete issue. "fairly included'' broadly worded presented, tangential main issue, scant argumentation. Socialist Labor Party Gilligan, 583, 588-589, 2, 1716, 1719-1720, 317 (1972); Teamsters Denver Milk Producers, 334 809, 68 1015, 1741 (1948) (per curiam); Carducci Regan, 714 171, 177 (C.A.D.C.1983) (SCALIA, III Judgments reconciled fast-changing make. "cannot ignored undervalued [appellants] cas[t] [their] claims umbrella 2087. challenges disagreement attained. respecting own, grounded requirements met circumstances more. 57 ordered. 58 concurring. 59 explains, abuse entitled deference. Ante, imposes Radio America, 358 334, 79 457, 354 (1959); Superior Trial Lawyers Assn., 493 411, 428, 110 768, 778, 107 851 (""This regulation, association''') NAACP Claiborne Hardware 458 886, 912, 102 3409, 3425, 73 1215 (1982)). content task different. Sable Cal., 492 115, 2829, 2838, (1989); Landmark Communications, Virginia, 435 829, 843, 1535, 1543-1544, (1978). I write emphasize point, fully concur thorough 61 join "sustained __ (citing standard. My rests, "promot[e] competition,'' objectives, namely ""(1) television,''' ""(2) sources.''' 2446, (Turner)). Whether sensibly compensate defect, undoubtedly rich mix guaranteeing extra dollars generate. purpose-to "access 2469-provides rejecting claim. compulsory creates "guarantee'' extracts price. interferes prevents displaced providers audience; sometimes watching what, absence, programs. __-__; "price'' "suppression But noneconomic precipitous ever-shrinking non-cable-subscribing segment public. "has policy,'' public.'' (1945) (internal quotation marks omitted)); facilitate deliberation, Brandeis pointed ago, democratic presupposes achieve. Whitney California, 274 357, 375-376, 648, 71 1095 (1927) (Brandeis, concurring). York Times Sullivan, 376 254, 270, 710, 720-721, 686 (1964); Red Lion 395 390, 1794, 1806, 371 (1969); 1424-1425. proposition order, values central 2470. equation, key becomes proper fit. question, my ways strikes balance speech-restricting speech-enhancing 799-800, ante, majority's analyzes evaluates consequences, matters. particular, agree) physically availability along city streets, (perhaps future) faces controls range viewer uses consequent economically predatory purposes), degree-at degree-of intervention (at "content based''). &Par;12-21, 31-59 (App.1254-1258, 1262-1274) (JSCR); §2(a)(2), P.L. 1460. Lion, 377-378, 387-401, 1799-1800, 1805-1812; C.F.R. §§73.123, 73.300, 73.598, 73.679 (1969) Lion); F.C.C. 515 (1945); P F Reg. 258 (1950). inevitably suffer, &Par;596, 704-706 (App.1544, 1600-1601); 11, 34, (App.1790, 1793, 1804-1805, 1806). grows 66 help (by maintaining choice) hurt subscriber slots programming). latter's varied, rapidly former's restricted; popular, become restricted shrinks thereby, itself, profitable. favors similar majority, lead me survives "intermediate scrutiny,'' purely whom GINSBURG join, dissenting. sustaining §§4-5, errs crucial respects. disregards defenses urged remand: "diverse,'' "quality'' "responsive'' community. course litigation proffered defense strongly reinforce wrong analytic framework phase 643-651, 2460-2464, (Turner); 675-680, 2475-2478 part). misapplies scrutiny'' adopts. questions, duty identify care inquire necessity, Edenfield Fane, 507 761, 770-771, 113 1792, 1799-1801, 123 543 (1993); Preferred 488, 496, 2034, 2038, 480 1543, fails discharge portions neutral scrutiny. 2460-2464. "unusually detailed findings'' accompanying news, affairs, educational 646, 2461; 2454-2455, Nevertheless, minimized "intrinsic value'' generally, local, content. reports "interests'' serve: (1991); (1992)). reiterates neither nor partial concurrence explains relationship clarity. 72 Much treats species response perceived various E.g., recognizes show demonstrating few'' air No party questioned threaten premised graver runs passage discusses serve. 647, 2461 (recognizing systems''' added))); 2464 ("Congress sought medium, cable'' added)); "maintaining structure''); (characterizing jeopardy'' (noting "seriously §2(a)(16) television'' added)). Ostensibly framework, asks households.'' added). goal. nowhere examines comports harms. Instead, "narrowly tailored,'' assumes anticompetitively motivated, unstated untested assumptions constitutional law. Schaumburg Better Environment, 444 826, 835, (1980). Perhaps defending asserts "independent'' "multiplicity'' __-__ (BREYER, doing posits existence "conduct threatens'' outlets, apart wonder precisely be. separated conduct, "multiplicity sources'' poorly defined. Neither offers guidance constitute reduction'' turns up "system.'' poses "significant'' will, remain provides raw decisions, connects viewership. affect proportion size; watched viewers. logical record. 75 664, below, infra, result, collapses ill-defined generalized wherever whatever justification based. "marginal'' within reveals entirely mythical. Pressed explain "vulnerable'' maintain 13, 30; 36-37 (NAB Brief); 29, 42; part) (justifying "quality choice''). Spanish Chinese language home-shopping format. 33; 31; 32-33. important, worthwhile targets subsidies. appellees' characterization ""community ""local programming,''' (brackets omitted), wholly odds premise content,'' 2462 76 read BREYER'S opinion-which "speech-enhancing'' "rich mix'' __-to treat irrelevant one. net five Justices behavior; defend strict surely fail. 77 goes lengths avoid acknowledging "quality,'' underlie concurrence's explicit. word behavior supplies statute. not. 78 standard, "furthe[r] interest''; "than furtherance 1679; (1989). parts analysis. furthers test unproven compelled altogether. '' restricts purpose, lacking resolved cross-motions recognizes, conflict preclude upholding rather, conclusions. not, speculation ignore disputes call demonstrates devotes uncontroversial Turner. 627-628, 632-633, 639-640, 2451-2452, 2454, 2457-2458; 684, observation predict Local franchising constructing franchisees 633, 2454. disputed 39-40 (D.D.C. (opinion Jackson, J.); dissenting); Plaintiffs' Response NAB's Material Facts (Feb. (App. O.T.1993, 93-44, 186); Plaintiff Warner's Which Is Genuine Issue 198, 199). What "reasonable opinion), convinced power, point irrelevant. relevant, incorrect. curtailing abstract.'' accept related arguments point: first, networks supply 83 proposition, states [e]xtensive testimony'' noteworthy be, persons appearing behalf Compare Maltz, representative (INTV), appellee Inc.) Congressional Record (CR) I.C, 01882); 858 Hedlund, INTV) (CR I.J, 07862); Fritts, NAB) 07756); 701 Kimmelman, director Federation America) 07706). skepticism ""independent law.''' 2838). accepting §76.504 (1995). Once reaches cap, longer bump programmer. adjust cap. allegedly "substantial'' integration. argument, quest forms. offer blank insert advertisements; value above 24. arises alteration. §534(b)(3). interest' remedying distortion purportedly legislation.'' 777 profit drive "advertising flatten,'' follow find incentives. revenues-which, figures expert, ¶22 (App.967). spite willing channels. margin, stations-invariably described "smaller'' independents, 22; 14-the strategy's success depend freed flow articulated plurality, "essential propositio[n]'' systems.'' analyzing undefined focuses exclusively "repositioned''-that positions. begins sponsored Commission. System Signal Survey, Policy Rules Division, Mass Media (App.37). criticized study, frame later gaps persist; canvassing non-must-carry era. Appellees' frames statistic "subscriber instances''-that multiplied affected. ¶17 (App.623). Two-thirds instances'' mid-1992 uncured mid-1994, effect. Attachment C discounts places "improper burden'' seems obvious, reverse illustrate "interest'' Without can, law, deem "reasonable.'' canvassed says anything place. accepts apparently thinks considering gap length inflict disregarding upholds protect. (describing "protecting service'' added; "any households'' analyses staff reportable involved "relatively remote duplicated) watch.'' (App.163); M. Besen (Besen (App.808, 818); (App.1812) (presenting households; ratings). expert's Nielsen shares. protective entered contesting data. 321. appellees-who proof case-offer small'' audiences. 14; Deposition (App.381) [s]tations margin decisionmaking future''); (App.446) operate "at margin'' "weaker stations''); [t]hose lowest audience''); (App.477) (must-carry benefitted "stations strong, marginal''); ¶19 (App.2009) ("While ratings, this: rated members''). disregard statistics significance, sharply disputed, household When pressed interest'' audiences, everything content-preserving needs. 30. expressly declines embraced 91 repositioned. ""serious difficulty''' ""deteriorate altogether.''' 2471). "local turned licenses, revenues'' 2472. stage, purported link premise. home, cabled Widespread completely "monopoly'' input. 786 Growing direct-broadcast satellite undercut inevitable entering Farhi, Dishing Out Washington 1996, H1, col. 3. wisdom societal investment'' developing technology. choice, purports shortcomings'' widespread, efficient devices. "data'' predating roughly six years. ¶725 ELRA Group, Outdoor Antennas, Reception i-ii (Jan. 1986), H Legislation Sess. (May 16, 1990)) I.L, 22, 08828); &Par;759-760 (App.1629-1630) INTV 1986)) I.BB, 162, 15901-15902); ¶758 (App.1628) 23-24 165, 16183-16184); 724, 751-752, 754-755, 761-762 (App.1605-1607, 1609-1610, 1624-1627, 1630-1631) 85-349 I.DD, 183, 16726-16839); &Par;738-739, 764, 767 (App.1617-1618, 1632-1634) Adelphia 27-32 1987)) 184, 16892-16897). notes deferring "interaction change.'' changing technologies unquestionably outdated information. 94 meets threshold [c]onsiderable evidence'' bankruptcy. focus commanded. consists repeated references stations-apparently, 1587); 548 Maltz) 01887). enhancing relevance financing. &Par;643-658 (App.1564-1576)). 95 Most accounts disputed. &Par;618, 619, 623, 692 (App.1553-1555, 1591) Company, P.'s Station ¶8 (TWE Rebuttal) (App.2299) (ABC affiliate claiming denial experienced $3.8 1992); TWE ¶111 (App.2403) (Home Shopping harmed ¶83 (App.2372-2373) (station alleged influence); ¶94 (App.2385) $1.13 1993); ¶30 (App.2318) (some claimed precluded problems). favor. sharp conflicts findings. 96 unlike aspects station-specific trends "areas influence,'' caused harm. sort Were influence reduction, (App.861-869); cf. ¶618 (App.1553) Cedar Rapids ¶620 (App.1554) Tulsa seven ¶623 ¶692 (App.1591) Salt Lake eight ¶695 (App.1593-1594) Honolulu ¶703 (App.1599) Grand 1992). 499 504 areas equaled exceeded 1987. (App.861-869). (App.871-880). sum, ""absent endangered.''' 42). acknowledges stations' voluntary measurable dismisses emphasizing correctly hardship articulation applied disavows closely scrutinize logic "need [its] judgment.'' trivializes stake highly dubious theory. articulate perfectly inquiry, observes measuring desirable available, past. operator's freedom aligned Government. 99 "represent scheme,'' leap stations,'' short astounding. circular. Surmising "benefit'' Finding scheme's "congruent'' declares achieves equating statute-requiring stations-with served. (1989), stake. "evi[l] eliminate,'' failure "evil'' know impulses. Positing "can sidestep makes statutes look tailored.'' Simon Schuster, N.Y. State Crime Victims Bd., 502 105, 120, 112 501, 510, (1991). sense Board Trustees Univ. Fox, 469, 480, 3028, 3035, 388 (scope served'') omitted). disagree (examining "speech-restricting consequences'' must-carry). commandeered third impulses ownership stake, overbroad, allocating blocks single rejects logic, reversal benign "so overbroad.'' unclear speculative. placed limits §533(f)(1)(B). why why, once limit, motivated. insufficient, problem. O'Brien's tailoring "judicial efficacy acceptable interests'' 2472 puzzling. interpreted "require elimination alternatives.'' 478, 3033. Put way, imposing -restrictive-means 798, 2757 (time, restriction); 293, 3068-3069, (same); 3033 (commercial speech). thing -speech-restrictive objective. suggest, confirm "agreement interests,'' 2907, approaches benchmark pursue Rubin Coors Brewing 514 476, 490-491, 115 1585, ___, 532 103 above, plain reference necessary,'' explains-preventing unfair competition. truly passed 682, 2479 ("That category causes justify category''). alternatives-a subsidies-reinforces Consider specified alike Leased placing playing identifies BREYER's concurrence. Accordingly, leased available'' would, "reduce must-carry.'' currently intimate access, unacceptable note, may, dispose noted, respond Supra, operators; does. respects, if, suggests, "small broadcasters'' pay Subsidies course, operators-a provisions, chooses explicitly, neutral-which not-subsidies directly. adopts "very sees "extra dollars,'' subsidies, save straightforward indeed worried imprecision allocation prop tie (or, member contributions), television-viewing secured (i.e., market), contributions sustain virtue barrier precise insurmountable. "content-based steadfast adherence "diverse'' local-content preference, ironic indeed. 6; 750 (Sporkin, fairly here; argued appellants: qualifies "this aspect §4 644, stricter somewhat perplexing. strikingly there, I, despite challenged statement Juris. 11-28. briefing ignores groups below-cable programmers-and former latter. defeat ignoring adversary's merits. lets flawed reasoning point. close triggering "cross line.'' 750. viewpoint -neutral. viewpoint-neutral R.A.V. St. Paul, 505 430, 2538, 2568, 120 305 685, 2481 (GINSBURG, IV inappropriately lenient chooses, exhibiting extraordinary unwarranted profound fear delving matters, willingness plainly embraces-preventing behavior-appellants arise impossible discern "real, conjectural,'' addresses "direct 111 respectfully below. syllabus Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Timber Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499.

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