Document: 412 U.S. 306 93 S.Ct. 2018 36 L.Ed.2d 912 John DOE et al., Petitioners,v.John L. McMILLAN al. No. 71—6356. Argued Dec. 13, 1972. Decided May 29, 1973. Syllabus Petitioners, parents of District Columbia (D.C.) school children, brought this action seeking damages and declaratory injunctive relief for invasion privacy that they claimed resulted from the dissemination a congressional report on D.C. system included identification students in derogatory contexts. The named defendants members House committee, Committee employees, investigator, consultant; Public Printer Superintendent Documents; officials employees connected with system. Court Appeals affirmed Court's dismissal complaint grounds first two categories were immune by reason Speech or Debate Clause, legislative protected official immunity doctrine recognized Barr v. Matteo, 360 564, 79 1335, 3 1434. Held: 1. committee members, their staff, consultant, investigator are absolutely under Clause insofar as engaged acts compiling referring it to House, voting its publication. Pp. 311—313. 2. does not afford absolute private suit persons who, authorization Congress, perform function, which is part process, publicly distributing materials allegedly infringe upon rights individuals. Appeals, therefore, erred holding respondents who (except personnel) charged such public distribution Clause. 313—318. 3. Documents enunciated supra, publishing only extent served legitimate functions doing so, extended beyond limit. 318—324. 148 U.S.App.D.C. 280, 459 F.2d 1304, reversed part, remanded. Michael Valder, Washington, D.C., petitioners. Fred M. Vinson, Jr., William C. Cramer, Legislative respondents. David P. Sutton, Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 This case concerns scope United States Constitution, Art. I, § 6, cl. 1, well reach context. See 1434 (1959); Tenney Brandhove, 341 367, 71 783, 95 L.Ed. 1019 (1951). 2 By resolution adopted February 5, 1969, H.Res.76, 91st Cong., 1st Sess., 115 Cong.Rec. 2784, Representatives authorized subcommittee 'to conduct full complete investigation study . organization, management, operation, administration' any department agency government independent instrumentality operating solely within Columbia. was given subpoena power directed 'report soon practicable results together recommendations deems advisable.' On December 8, 1970, Special Select Subcommittee submitted Speaker report, H.R.Rep.No.91—1681 (1970), represented be summary Subcommittee's hearings devoted same day, referred Whole State Union ordered printed. 116 40311 (1970). Thereafter, printed distributed Government Printing Office pursuant 44 U.S.C. §§ 501 701. 450-page among supporting data some 45 pages gravamen petitioners' suit. Included pertinent copies absence sheets, lists absentees, test papers, documents relating disciplinary problems certain specifically students.1 stated these 'give realistic view' troubled 'the lack administrative efforts rectify multitudinous there,' show level reading ability seventh graders fifth-grade history test, illustrate suspension problems.2 4 January 1971, petitioners, pseudonyms, an behalf themselves, all other children similarly situated. (1) Chairman Columbia; (2) Clerk, Staff Director, Counsel Committee; (3) consultant (4) Printer; (5) President Board Education (6) Schools (7) principal Jefferson Junior High School one teachers at school; (8) America. 5 Petitioners alleged that, disclosing, disseminating, information contained had violated children's statutory, constitutional, common-law publication caused would cause grave damage mental physical health reputations, good names, future careers. also various violations local law. further 'unless restrained, will continue distribute publish concerning plaintiffs, students.' prayed order enjoining publication, dissemination, containing objectionable material recalling reports deleting already circulation. asked compensatory punitive damages.3 6 Court, after hearing motions temporary restraining against dismissed individual ground complained privileged.4 A divided panel Circuit affirmed. Without determining whether Constitution applicable law, majority held Members staff liability asserted them because barred employees.5 We granted certiorari, 408 922, 92 2505, 33 332. 7 * To 'prevent intimidation legislators Executive accountability before possibly hostile judiciary,' Gravel States, 606, 617, 2614, 2623, 583 (1972), provides 'for either (Members Congress) shall questioned Place.' 8 'The designed assure co-equal branch wide freedom speech, debate deliberation without threats Branch. It thus protects prosecutions directly impinge threaten process.' Id., 616, U.S., 2622 S.Ct.6 9 has been read 'broadly effectuate purposes,' Johnson, 383 169, 180, 86 749, 755, 15 681 (1966); 624, S.Ct., 2626, includes protections anything 'generally done session relation business it.' Kilbourn Thompson, 103 168, 204, 26 377 (1881); 179 754 S.Ct.; 624 2626; Powell McCormack, 395 486, 502, 89 1944, 1954, 23 491 (1969); Brewster, 501, 509, 512—513, 2531, 2536, 2537—2538, 507 (1972). Thus 'voting protected' 'a Member's hearings, although subject judicial review circumstances, legislation itself, may made basis civil criminal judgment Member 'sphere activity." 2626 10 belaboring matter further, plain us sought Congressmen-Committee introducing identified particular individuals, Report report. Doubtless, also, published may, losing protection, used purposes committees, institutional functionaries. At least respects, actions petitioners predicate 'legislative acts,' 618 2623 and, such, suit.7 11 argue including record itself describing actionable unnecessary irrelevant purpose. Cases however, pretermit imposition theory. Congressmen aides sphere,' 624—625, 2626—2627 even though conduct, if performed than contexts, unconstitutional otherwise contrary statutes. Although we might disagree necessary, remotely useful, include names evidence Report, have no authority oversee respect impose judgment. authorizing gathered, where presented, preparing reproduced, 'integral part(s) deliberative communicative processes participate proceedings consideration passage rejection proposed matters places jurisdiction House.' 625, 2627. As 12 Our cases make perfectly apparent, everything Congress regularly do act protection '(T)he '(l)egislative all-encompassing.' frequently touch seek influence Branch Government, but 'though generally done, activity.' 2627; supra. Nor protect republication introduced hearing, unquestionably process. 13 proper our inquiry, affords insist distributions protected, immunizes use performance duties must 'publications through facilities Congress.' argued, serve important function informing pending ..' Brief Respondents 27. 14 doubt importance about Congress. However, question remains simply always considered 'an integral proceedings' House. 2627 impunity libel speaker's stand his home district, clearly report.8 republishing circumstances essential process 'by proceedings.' Ibid. token, others, personnel, reasonable bounds task, enjoy immunity. themselves ordering going requirements more insulates functionaries carrying out nonlegislative directives Sergeant Arms Thompson when, direction he arrest courts subsequently found 'without authority.' 200.9 504, 1955; cf. Dombrowski Eastland, 387 82, 87 1425, 18 577 (1967). 'criminal threatening security person property Senator preparation execution knowledge direction.' 622 2625 2623. Neither, think, immunize those function.10 16 Thus, cannot accept proposition times consider free disseminate large, how injurious reputation be. believe purpose Clause—'to prevent 617 502 1954 181, 755—will suffer slightest otherwise, large automatic respond suits others light laws.11 hold invite gratuitous injury citizens little unwilling sanction result, absent substantial inform fundamentals 17 Contrary suggestion dissenting Brethren, conclusion, general, law seriously undermine 'informing function' internally work way inhibited. Moreover, internal 'public' sense circulated, unless sheltered specific order, available inspection press public. deal, present case, halls establishments functionaries, apparent needs 'due functioning (legislative) 516, 2539. That finite limits purposes. alleges public,' 'distribution continues present,' publish' damaging children. expressly appear complaint, nor contended personnel did prepare authorize stated, therefore properly Other respondents, carried ready dissemination. 19 In response latter allegations, receiving sufficient assurances intention concluded there relief. But left previous went provided constitution. Until resolved, should threshold grounds, correct ruling foreclosed immunity, now turn.12 II 20 doctrine, 'has making,' 569, 1338, confers suitable rank 'officials exercise unembarrassed fear course duties—suits consume time energies governmental service threat appreciably inhibit fearless, vigorous, effective administration policies government.' 571, 1339.13 official-immunity seeks reconcile considerations— 21 '(O)n hand, citizen pecuniary oppressive malicious Federal Government; other, interest shielding responsible officers harassment inevitable hazards vindictive ill-founded account taken responsibilities.' 565, 1336. 22 reaffirmed existing clear conferred 573, 1340; see 378, 789; 85, 1427. Judges, like executive discretionary functions, regardless motive faith. 1338; Pierson Ray, 386 547, 553—555, 1213, 1217—1218, 288 policemen apparently limited privilege. 555—558, 1218. Also, determined defamation entrusted officer. 573—574 1340—1341 73 companion Howard Lyons, 593, 597—598, 1331, 1333—1334, 1454 (1959). tied 'scope Wheeldin Wheeler, 373 647, 651, 83 1441, 1445, 605 (1963). context, instance, '(t)his hesitated sustain individuals when acting outside role.' 788 role,' 554, 1218, carefully confined sphere 376, 788; Because fashioned fixed, invariable rule advised discerning inquiry into contributions contexts outweigh perhaps recurring harm citizens, ready-made answer remaining federal respondents—the Documents—should accorded case. Of course, Congressmen, here, whether, sphere, nevertheless starting point minimum familiarity duties. 24 statutes created office manage supervise Office, which, exceptions, printer branches Government. 301. 'Printing binding law.' 501. printing 701—741, 901—910, Judicial Branches 1101—1123. appoint sale documents. 1701—1722. 25 Under statutes, orders document printed, print 'usual number' greater number ordered. 1,682, between bound unbound offices Senate, Library libraries designated depositories.' Ibid.14 There statutory provisions extra copies, 702, bills resolutions, 706—708, laws, postal conventions, treaties, 709—712, journals, 713, Congressional Directory, 721—722, memorial addresses, 723 724. Statutes Large, 728—729, Section 733 '(t)he prepayment cost, reprint committees papers submitted, With Branches, '(a) head print, necessary business.' 1102(a). departments requisition certifying 'necessary service.' 1103. charge except departments, 'which departments,' Senate Service Department Publications Distribution Service.' 1702. He instructed 'print additional confidential character, required Documents,' regulation Joint Printing. 1705. 27 framework, general 'within outer perimeter' Documents. 575, 1341. automatically attaches impliedly correctly officials. This, governing rule. 28 appointee, Documents, handle, distribute, sell organization What prints produced elsewhere agencies offices, discretion estimating demand adjusting supply accordingly. existence makes every own. independently manned invested own duties; but, think establishment carries Rather, example, or, words, himself ran mean could acquire nonimmune merely presenting certificate then duty material. holding, seemingly foolproof method manufacturing court sufficiently 'official duties' department. 597, 1333. 29 express author face constitutional interpreting 'judicial making.' 1338. do, write shadow Regents Colleges Roth, 2701, 548 Wisconsin Constantineau, 400 433, 91 507, 515 (1971), caution '(w) here person's name, reputation, honor, integrity stake what him 437, 510. conclude judicially aide issue superiors. becomes equivalent context same. legislate; legislating. activity,' 788, special laws protecting name ordinary citizen. 30 applied immunities too broadly, reverse remand appropriate proceedings.15 unaware, record, place date. judging hence exceeded. These lower instance. 31 indicate nothing pleaded defenses, otherwise. dealt immunity.16 32 remanded consistent opinion. So 34 Reversed 35 DOUGLAS, whom BRENNAN MARSHALL join, concurring. I agree tendered justiciable, states action. Though join amplify my views merits. 37 Respondents, relying primarily 583, urge concededly parcel purview Constitution.1 neither accountable events occurring Pentagon Papers record. attached aides, intimation whatsoever sacrosanct scrutiny. fact, disclaimed need 'address issues arise distinguished single Member, and/or reports, materials.'2 626 n. 16, 38 'Legislative not, bar acts.' 503, 491. afforded forestall insure distracted hindered tasks being called defend actions.' 505, 1955. since Chief Marshall's seminal decision Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 60. determine validity impinging rights.' 620 2624 39 377, refusing honor investigating punish contempt. claim false imprisonment reached merits Kilbourn's allowed House's Arms, executed warrant arrest. 40 577, involved injunction headed Judiciary counsel wrongful unlawful seizure violation Fourth Amendment. agreed 'does contain involvement activity result liability.' 84, respects held, reliance 1019, 'is less absolute, applicable, body, rather themselves.' Accordingly, trial factual dispute' require trial. Acts Amendment—like assaults fists clubs guns—are protective ambit Clause; certainly Amendment 41 striking illustration principle Watkins 354 178, 188, 77 1173, 1179, 1273: Bill Rights investigations forms Witnesses compelled give themselves. They subjected unreasonable search seizure. can First freedoms press, religion, political belief association abridged.' And Barenblatt 109, 153, 166, 1081, 1113, 1115 (dissenting opinions Black Brennan, JJ.). witness subpoenaed testify forced reveal beliefs. One's conscience thoughts whole array one's beliefs values. And, indicates, so punished Violations commands 42 agree, then, 'whether (public dissemination), legislator's maintaining representative democracy. Unless put blinders isolate constituents, entitled activities relate necessarily immediate 634 637, 2630—2631 (Douglas, J., dissenting), id., 649 662, 2637—2644 (Brennan, dissenting). view direct attention infringes scrutiny courts. 43 Columbia.'3 effect brands juvenile delinquents. Judge Wright dissent below: contends, 'somewhat derogatory.' One letter, child 'involved loss fifty cents' 'invited male substitute sexual relations her, gapping her legs open enticement.' Similar letters accused disrespect, profanity, vandalism, assault theft. bore failing grades. Yet appellants prohibit consent. contest propriety generally, enjoin conclusions text Indeed, challenge right examine summarize involved. wish retain anonymity.' 300, 1324. 46 painfully aware potentially devastating effects accusations. great stakes condemn name. age technology banks social numbers go; following go lives communities. Arrests in, many arrests unconstitutional. delinquency permanently recorded misdeeds indiscretions later years outgrown youthful trying launch professional career move position steadfastness required. 47 naming justification exceeded 788. expressed Nevertheless, investigatory nor, indeed, authorizes 'congressional expose sake exposure.' 200, 1185. contrary, 'no affairs terms 187, 1179. totally study. equally remained anonymous. 48 true, this, both responsibilities, defendants. actions. supra; 49 very operate facts. say feasible equitable powers excise students' previously distributed. damages—that is, valid them, set forth Court—I 50 BURGER, concurring part. 51 judiciary carry continuing surveillance subjects plainly Constitution. inquiries conducted broad 17. 52 seems extraordinary me grant today denies senior functionary, Printer. Historically functionally arm executing commands. 53 Very recently, 2539, explicitly took note 'conscious choice' authors privileges function. Justices BLACKMUN REHNQUIST demonstrated well, traditional fully REHNQUIST, post, pp. 338. 54 BLACKMUN, THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, 55 REHNQUIST's opinion, p. 338, add comments 56 Each step gathering officially formal fulfill objective. More often prepares object advising fellow matter, objects action, presence issues, public, return, constructive suggestions, enabling evaluate elected representatives emphasized importance, significant posture, repeatedly clearly, speech coverage writing, signing, favor just speaking floor. 588 (1972); Kibourn (1881).1 preserved ante, 311 313, appreciates possess uninhibited communication. 57 observed possesses inquire publicize corruption, maladministration inefficiency Government' 'entitled informed workings 200 33, 1185, 1273 (1957). kind activity, Woodrow Wilson long ago observed, preferred function.'2 outgrowth English utilized instruments impede efficient Parliament. 201—205. attribute Branch, feel curtailment violates historical tradition signified textually underlying separation powers. 58 committee's assume undertaking culminates 1185; suggest, compiled connection much legislation,' 2627, writing us, undertaken Plenary over vested Constitution.3 Matters quality education District's schools, face, obviously Committee. legitimately undertook system.4 conclusion decided, Union,5 judgment, attachments portion thereof 'and there.'6 701.7 decision, men differ wisdom, conscious constitutionally judiciary. observes, 339—340, 'not consonant scheme motives legislators.' 59 holds information, renders meaningful enjoined liable contains 'otherwise Ante, 317. imposes onerous burden justifying, 'substantial evidence,' ibid., inclusion documents.8 unfortunately, ignores realities 'deliberative processes,' decision-making takes place. 60 regrettable damaged necessities mistakes process,9 evidence' justify 'actionable' censorship concept embodied Clause10 committed suspect Marshall astonished learn time-honored (1803), foster today.11 61 Stationing doors Houses sanitizing accord wise decisionmaking policy appears confidence police members. occasionally, unwise harmful choices fulfilling responsibility. That, price pay government. am firmly convinced abuses countenance vastly outweighed overzealousness representatives. 62 STEWART joins Part 63 concur respondent fact likewise distribution. quite apart congressionally prohibits form presented. 64 decided While intimations today's privilege cover distribution, ultimate take 'legitimate Congress,' 324. 65 rigid, mechanical application seem completely ad hoc, determination each supposed virtually claimant sustained elaborate performed. disposition particularly anomalous viewed earlier scarcely avoid motivation. 66 Previous decisions upheld whenever 'acting (1881), extends 204. relatively expansive interpretation consistently reaffirmed. 179, 754, 67 was, notes, Columbia, U.S.Const., 17, investigate H.Res. 76, 2784 (1969). preliminary inquiries, findings represent, potential legislation, Congress' penetrating far-reaching enact Constitution.' 111, 1085, 68 (1969), privileged. distinction intimated reports. while reserved Gravel, comparison background surrounding Gravel's Papers, indicates difference actual indeed minimal. widely publicized reading, numerous spectators journalists, former halls. doubted attended practical receive bit circulation circulated. 69 participation legislate desirable, bearing limitation imposed squarely intent sitting Union. 40311. thereafter accordance provisions. state number, indication, established statute 1,682. 'among them.' 701(a). distributees itself. 701(c). Extra simple, concurrent, joint resolution. 703. far 70 immunity' performing reason, body directing distributing, immune. understand having statute. influenced allegations serious unduly restricts sustaining invariably forecloses situation privilege, warranted why nonetheless never better Learned Hand Gregoire Biddle, 177 579, 581 (CA2 1949): 'It saying official, guilty using vent spleen personal good, escape injuries cause; possible practice confine complaints guilty, monstrous deny recovery. impossible know founded until tried, submit officials, innocent danger outcome, dampen ardor most resolute, irresponsible, unflinching discharge Again again calls turn mistake, find hard satisfy jury means punishing truant another exposing honestly mistaken anyone suffered errors. balance evils alternative. instance thought end leave unredressed wrongs dishonest try constant dread retaliation.' 72 Entirely forbids granting this. completed Branches. See, e.g., (1803); Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. Sawyer, 343 863, 96 1153 (1952); prospect things, manner prescribed distributed, boggled minds Framers Mississippi Wall. 475, 437 (1867), duly enacted control availability here: 74 government; Neither restrained department; both, performed, are, cases, cognizance.' 500. 75 reviewed confinement Representatives. (1957), prosecuted recalcitrant forum imposing sanctions him. comes close mischievous possibilities one. 76 New York Times 403 2140, 822 prior restraint heavy burden. 714, 2141. Whatever posture situations, relief, restraint, Congressman worse publisher. Cf. Hurd Hodge, 334 24, 34—35, 847, 852—853, 1187 (1948). Purely regulating powers, foreclose Appeals' absentee frequent 'class cutters.' grades; student tested. letters, memoranda, detailed students. Some deviant described perversion violations. obtained voluntarily investigators. prayer request prohibiting disclosure 'confidential information' requiring establish rules regulations regarding confidentiality schools Columbia.' failure exhaust remedies. 2675(a). challenged here. contemplated. petitioner's adoption new 'there appellants.' 'Our preserve independence, supremacy. apply independence legislature altering historic three Government.' 508, 2535, applies himself.' 618, libel, initial privileged, unprotected. F. Harper James, Law Torts 5.18 (1956); W. Prosser, 766—769 (4th ed. 1971). 622—627, 2625—2628. 'In Kilbourn, arrest; nature. impinged citizen's there. arrest.' 2624. Although, pointed 626, insulate 'although participated 1424, occasion decide distributors grand questioning, charges, restrain involves coordinate implications, prevented reviewing see, surpa; involved, Both Barr, (1951); For 738. furnish 715. disturb respect. 3, requires 'Each keep Journal Proceedings, same, excepting Parts Judgment Secrecy .'; deal publications legal thereto. relevant provides: '(A)nd (Senators Representatives) transmitted Committee, Calendar Union, 2784. purposes.' 'central role' breadth extensive protect, insures 'wide debate, Branch,' 2622, suppose, look diligently affair talk sees. meant eyes voice, embody wisdom constituents. acquainting agents government, country helpless served; scrutinize things sift discussion, remain embarrassing, crippling ignorance direct. argument discussed interrogated pure administration, really self-governing people discusses interrogates administration.' Wilson, 303 (1885). Article reads follows: Power 'To exclusive Legislation whatsoever, (not exceeding ten Miles square) Cession Particular Acceptance become Seat .' Res. 'as investigation' 'organization, agency,' 'any instrumentality' H.R.Rep.No.91—1681, 212 323, alleviation liability, relieving unprotected conferred. how, exists, shield servants involving placed untenable accepting risk violating command An interesting dilemma presented possibility actionable' Record. recognizes problem reserves day. 325, 16. Record, receives regular uncommon occurrence Record conceivable lieu separate document, hereafter almost precluded Constitution's providing '(e)ach Secrecy.' Only last Term, 516—517, 2539—2540, that: narrowest scope, (Speech Debate) albeit essential, enabled reckless slander destory impunity, choice Framers. '. flow sweeping safeguards. values, wrote tolerates behavior tolerated extend withholding diminishes premise refuse enforce support censor language libelous. officer If unfortunately happens statements erroneous defamatory, allowing affected opportunity heard, adds authority. problem.' Methodist Federation Social Action 141 F.Supp. 729, 731—732 (DC 1956 (three-judge court)).

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