Document: 463 U.S. 1032 103 S.Ct. 3469 77 L.Ed.2d 1201 MICHIGAN, Petitionerv.David Kerk LONG. No. 82-256. Argued Feb. 23, 1983. Decided July 6, Syllabus Two police officers, patrolling in a rural area at night, observed car traveling erratically and excessive speed. When the swerved into ditch, officers stopped to investigate were met by respondent, only occupant of car, rear car. Respondent, who "appeared be under influence something," did not respond initial requests produce his license registration, when he began walking toward open door apparently obtain followed him saw hunting knife on floorboard driver's side The then respondent subjected patdown search, which revealed no weapons. One shined flashlight something protruding from armrest front seat, upon lifting an pouch that contained what appeared marihuana. Respondent was arrested for possession A further search car's interior more contraband, but decided impound vehicle marihuana found trunk. Michigan state trial court denied respondent's motion suppress taken both its trunk, convicted Court Appeals affirmed, holding passenger compartment valid as protective Terry v. Ohio, 392 1, 88 1868, 20 889, trunk inventory South Dakota Opperman, 428 364, 96 3092, 49 1000. However, Supreme reversed, justify "fruit" illegal interior. Held: 1. This does lack jurisdiction decide case asserted ground decision below rests adequate independent ground. Because respect independence courts need avoid rendering advisory opinions, this Court, i determining whether references law constitute grounds, will longer look beyond opinion review, or require reconsider cases clarify grounds their decisions. Accordingly, fairly appears rest primarily federal law, interwoven with adequacy any possible is clear face opinion, accept most reasonable explanation way it because believed required do so. If indicates clearly expressly alternatively based bona fide separate, adequate, undertake review decision. In case, apart two citations State Constitution, relied exclusively understanding other cases. Even if accepted Constitution has been interpreted provide protection certain rights also secured Fourth Amendment, rested law. Pp. 1037-1044. 2. principles articulated decisions Court. Although involved stop subsequent weapons person suspected criminal activity, restrict preventive detained suspect. Protection others can searches have belief suspect poses danger. Roadside encounters between suspects are especially hazardous, danger may arise presence surrounding Thus, automobile, limited those areas weapon placed hidden, permissible officer possesses specific articulable facts which, together rational inferences facts, reasonably warrant believe dangerous gain immediate control If, while conducting legitimate automobile's interior, discovers contraband than weapons, cannot ignore Amendment suppression such circumstances. circumstances justified posed permitted reenter vehicle. Nor they act unreasonably taking measures ensure there within grasp before permitting automobile. fact officers' during investigative render unreasonable could injury them. 1045-1052. 3. suppressed fruit erroneously held remanded enable determine supra, P. 1053. 413 Mich. 461, 320 N.W.2d 866 (1982), reversed remanded. Louis J. Caruso, Lansing, Mich., petitioner. David A. Strauss, Washington, D.C., amicus curiae, special leave James H. Geary, Kalamazoo, respondent. Justice O'CONNOR delivered 1 889 (1968), we upheld validity absence probable cause arrest deny right "to neutralize threat physical harm," id., 24, S.Ct., 1881, suspicion individual armed dangerous. We not, however, address extend arrest. present Long marijuana automobile driving. searched had reason potentially officers. hold examine Long's argument ground, favor our jurisdiction. 2 * Deputies Howell Lewis patrol one evening when, shortly after midnight, speed.1 turning down road, where off shallow ditch. investigate. Long, deputies ditch onto road. left open. 3 Deputy requested operator's license, respond. After request repeated, produced license. again failed registration. another repeated request, whom thought 469, 866, 868 turned large progress pat-down, 4 stood vehicle, actually enter it. purpose Howell's action weapons." Id., N.W.2d, 868. noticed seat. He knelt lifted armrest. flashing light pouch, determined marijuana. showed contents Lewis, including glovebox, neither nor opened lock, discovered inside approximately 75 pounds 5 Barry County Circuit subsequently affirmed conviction, Terry, 1000 (1976). See 94 Mich.App. 338, 288 629 (1979). reversed. "the sole justification nearby, case." 472, 869. considered suppressed.2 6 granted certiorari consider important question authority protect himself Terry-type motor lawful investigatory --- ----, 205, 74 164 (1982). II 7 Before reaching merits, must without referred twice constitution otherwise law.3 argues provided greater seizures afforded therefore establish below. 8 It is, course, "incumbent . ascertain itself non-federal independently adequately supports judgment." Abie Bank Bryan, 282 765, 773, 51 252, 255, L.Ed. 90 (1931). announced number order help us various forms grounds,4 openly admit thus far developed satisfying consistent approach resolving vexing issue. some instances, strict view all unclear, would dismiss case. See, e.g., Lynch New York, 293 52, 55 16, 79 191 (1934). vacated, see, Minnesota National Tea Co., 309 551, 60 676, 84 (1940), continued see Herb Pitcairn, 324 117, 65 459, 89 789 (1945), clarification about nature California Krivda, 409 33, 93 32, 34 45 (1972). recent cases, ourselves examined used guide application actual basis reached. Texas Brown, 1535, 1538, 502 (1983) (plurality opinion). Cf. Neville, 916, 925, 748 (STEVENS, J., dissenting). Oregon Kennedy, 456 667, 670-671, 102 2083, 2086-2087, 72 416 rejected invitation remand even part court, grounds. added "[e]ven admitted doubt intermixed, extent requires reach merits." 671, 2087. 9 ad hoc method dealing involve antithetical doctrinal consistency sensitive issues federal-state relations involved. Moreover, none methods disposition employed recommends preferred should apply exclusion others, herefore appropriate reexamine treatment jurisdictional issue achieve necessary. 10 process examining unsatisfactory interpret laws generally unfamiliar, often, discussed length parties. Vacation continuance delay decrease efficiency judicial administration, Dixon Duffy, 344 143, 73 193, 97 153 (1952),5 and, important, these place significant burdens demonstrate Philadelphia Newspapers, Inc. Jerome, 434 241, 244, 98 546, 548, 54 506 (1978) (REHNQUIST, dissenting); Department Motor Vehicles Rios, 410 425, 427, 1019, 1021, 35 398 (1973) (Douglas, Finally, outright dismissal panacea doubted uniformity goes unsatisfied fail alleged apparent four corners opinion. long recognized inappropriate "where strong indication judicially construed controlled below." U.S., 556, 679 (1940). 11 Respect courts, well avoidance cornerstones Court's refusal precisely desire wish continue go chooses merely rely precedents jurisdictions, make plain statement judgment being guidance, themselves compel result way, justice administration greatly improved. we, 12 obviates instances decision, same time opinions.6 intrusive practice requiring satisfaction judges clearer opportunity develop jurisprudence unimpeded interference, yet preserve integrity "It fundamental free unfettered interpreting constitutions. But equally ambiguous obscure adjudications stand barriers determination action." 557, 679. 13 principle judgments based, part, limitations own jurisdiction." 125, 463, (1945).7 concern "render rendered corrected views laws, amount nothing opinion." 126, 463. Our requirement "plain statement" authorize opinions. Rather, determining, must, assume law.8 14 framework leaves unconvinced Apart constitution, Not single cited support court's unconstitutional.9 Indeed, declared unconstitutional "[t]he applied Ohio 471, indicate interpretation 15 Rather dismissing requ ring behalf solely mere possibility judgment, find "felt compelled understood constitutional considerations construe manner did." Zacchini Scripps-Howard Broadcasting 433 562, 568, 2849, 2854, 53 965 (1977).10 III 16 held, contends, entry set forth "Terry authorized pat-down activity" rather area. (footnote omitted). Brief p. 10. frisk person, already established 17 "stop frisk" warrant. several identities brief period formed conclusion engage activity. feared armed, patted outside suspects' clothing revolvers. 18 Examining reasonableness officer's conduct Terry,11 " 'no ready test balancing [or seize] against invasion seizure] entails.' 21, 1879 (quoting Camara Municipal 387 523, 536-537, 87 1727, 1734-1735, 930 (1967)). "severe, though brief, intrusion cherished personal security," 24-25, 1881-1882, weighed interest "crime prevention detection," 22, 1880, "need enforcement prospective victims violence situations arrest." 1881. "that whose suspicious behavior investigating close range presently appear power take necessary carrying harm." Ibid. 19 careful note "[w]e places seizure These concrete factual cases." 29, 1884. Contrary view, read restricting preventative suspect.12 situations, detentions involving vehicles fraught Pennsylvania Mimms, 106, 330, 331 (1977), persons out traffic violation, "inordinate risk confronting approaches seated automobile." 110, 333. Adams Williams, 407 92 1921, 32 612 (1972), police, acting informant's tip, remove gun waistband knew existence tip. Again, presented "traffic stop" situations.13 21 injure virtue access armed. Term following Chimel California, 395 752, 2034, 23 685 (1969), imposed incident Relying explicitly made, arresting arrestee's 'within control'—construing phrase mean might destructible evidence." 763, 2040. reasoned "[a] table drawer concealed arrested." York Belton, 453 454, 101 2860, 69 768 (1981), lower "have workable definition 'the arrestee' arguably includes arrestee occupant." 460, 2864. "workable rule," ibid., "articles relatively narrow compass generally, inevitably, grab weapon'. ." Chimel, 2040). closed container compartment, "for arrestee, so containers reach." Summers, 452 692, 702, 2587, 2594, 340 (1981). 22 past danger, roadside "specific warrant" believing weapons.14 1880. "[T]he prudent man warranted safety danger." 27, 1883. "dangerous," less simply arrested. should, here, discover Coolidge Hampshire, 403 443, 465, 91 2022, 2037, 29 564 (1971); Tyler, 436 499, 509, 1942, 1949, 56 486 (1978); 1541, 1544, REHNQUIST, concurring POWELL, J.). hour late rural. driving speed, repeat questions "under influence" intoxicant. frisked until reenter. restricted control, contain weapon. etermined leather containing App. 64a.15 "strictly circumscribed exigencies justifi[ed] initiation." 26, 1882. 24 evaluating "[t]ouchstone analysis always particular governmental citizen's security.' 108-109, 332-333 19, 1879). Therefore, weighs allowing uncover possess objectively 25 fear them, effectively get located reasoning mistaken respects. During detention, "in control" sense "may briefly 34, 1886 (WHITE, concurring). Just street may, despite officer, retrieve weapon, position break away United States Rainone, 586 F.2d 1132, 1134 (CA7 1978), cert. denied, 440 980, 99 1787, 239 addition, arrest, inside. Powless, 546 792, 795-796 (CA8), 430 910, 1185, 588 (1977). Or, investigation over, again, event, stress investigation, occurred involves "at range," remains particularly vulnerable full custodial effected, "quick how 28, circumstances, adopt alternate means encounter.16 IV 26 appeals holding, instead makes Amendment. decline passed Cardinale Louisiana, 394 437, 438, 1161, 1162, (1969). below, Ross, 798, 2157, 572 (1982).17 V 27 proceedings inconsistent 28 ordered. BLACKMUN, judgment. 30 I join Parts I, III, IV, d While am satisfied Part fashioning new presumption over coming here courts. agree desirable, little increased opinions approach. 31 BRENNAN, MARSHALL joins, dissenting. today holds compartment" "was Court." Ante, 1035. disagree. reliance "other decisions" patently misplaced. Plainly, continuing distorting recognition forcing service unlikely Amendment's cause. Place, 2637, 2646, ---- (BRENNAN, result). therefore, dissent.1 33 On three occasions scope exception created progeny. Florida Royer, 1319, 1330, 229 result); Kolender Lawson, 1855, 1861, 903 concurring); 2646 discussions "Terry, it, permit stops extremely suspicion." 2648. compels detailed itself. confronted "quite question" "whether policeman seize subject unless 15, 1877 (emphasis supplied). "with entire rubric historically [had] been, practical matter be, procedure," 20, 1879, tested "by general proscription seizures." considering "reasonableness" conduct, balanced quoting 534-535, 1733-1734, 1735, (1967). deserves emphasis discussing "invasion" issue, stated outer constitutes severe, security 1881-1882 Ultimately, concluded "there narrowly drawn individual, regardless crime." 1883 sup lied). expressed follows: "We observes unusual leads conclude experience activity afoot dangerous, course identifies inquiries, stages encounter serves dispel others' safety, entitled carefully attempt assault him." 30, 1884-1885 36 said, relevant portions neglects quote, suggestion suspect," ante, 1047 omitted), described disingenuous. Nothing suspect's suspicion. confirmed very "limited 'frisk' 2642. cry "frisk" certainly "limited."2 37 "area search" rule context addressed 753, 2035, invalid "went petitioner's obtained evidence 768, 2043. stressed limit overruled prior validating overly broad searches. 38 455, 2861. "particular problematic context," n. 3, 2864, "when made contemporaneous 2864 omitted).3 39 critical distinction hand, Belton other, latter arose arrests supported cause.4 difference weapons," 25, 1882, stated: "[A arrest], although acknowledged necessity extensive exploration person. like strictly initiation. Thus discovery harm realistically characterized 'full' serious intrusion. 40 ". An wholly different kind freedom interests each designed serve likewise quite different. stage prosecution. intended vindicate society's having obeyed, inevitably accompanied future interference individual's movement, conviction ultimately follows. inconsiderable, sanctity person." 25-26, 1882-1883 41 Robinson, 414 218, 467, 427 (1973), differences "stop-and-frisk" reject 228, 473. noted types searches, governed other," 233, 476, "stricter standards," 234, governing went state: "A Amendment; lawful, additional justification. establishes 'reasonable' Amendment." 235, 477. 42 237-238, 477-478 (POWELL, concurring) ("The privacy protected guarantee legitimately abated omitted)); Gustafson Florida, 260, 264, 488, 491, (1973). 43 As recognize, vital deliberately ignores differen e relying intrusions construct stop. 44 denies fundamentally 1052, stating: insofar conducted justified, Sibron 40, [88 1889, 1904, 917] Ybarra Illinois, 444 85, 93-94 [100 343-344, 62 238] concerns violated To seeking dangerous." Ante,. 46 answer: relates standard justifies flouts § scope. 1056. page states: 47 "Even assuming arguendo Patrolman Martin unrelated heroin inadmissible. approved consisted patting objects instruments assault. Only hands pockets men searched. arms, thrust hand Sibron's pocket took envelopes heroin. His testimony shows looking narcotics, accomplishment goal conceivably inception—the disarming man." 65, 1904 supplied).5 48 passage clear, reference purpose, intrusiveness. Yet (and it) occupied as, perhaps than, thrusting suggested suggests now authorizes. states "search 'specific warrant' 1049 Presumably hidden" anywhere hidden upholds "could ontained weapon." 1050-1051 check initiation search. 1036, 1050, base 1052-1053, 16. lawfully many things hammer, baseball bat, effective relies dangerous: late; rural; speed; accident; immediately responsive questions; 1050. Based drunk. drunk driver indeed driving, police. intoxicated object imagination 1035-1036, hardly represents just degree, kind, sanctioned Terry. short, implications frightening. 50 rejects [respondent] 1051. regard, "[W]e 'at range,' 'quick danger.' encounter." 1052 omitted) original). 52 Putting aside "involved encounter," 3482, suggest resort "alternate means," perverse. essence traditionally associated scarcely extended exposure follows custody transporting station fleeting contact resulting typical -type stop." 234-235, 476-477. Robinson 's observation, today's grave assessment relative dangers given confrontations principled standard. "balancing" 1051, inappropriate. Dunaway 442 200, 2248, 824 (1979), [Terry progeny] judged 'long-prevailing standards' cause, fell short 212, 2256. There justification, interests. sum, reflects once values "balancing." 2647 Frankfurter Rabinowitz, 339 56, 70 430, 653 (1950): "To say criterion reason. either jury district 'unreasonable search' forbidden—that reasonable. What reasonable? underlying Amendment: history embodies safeguards evils response." 83, 443 (dissenting Hornbook first convince neutral magistrate so." 457, 2862. warrant, Carroll States, 267 132, 280, 543 (1925), applies cause." 809, 2165, (1982) emphasized importance contains contraband." 807-808, 2163-2164. Almeida-Sanchez 266, 269, 2535, 2537, 596 ("Automobile search." omitted)). Today discards basic employs swallow [searches cars] cause."6 213, 2257. 57 Today's disregards warning Almeida-Sanchez: "The needs constant tension Constitution's protections exercises official power. predictability pressures counsels resolute loyalty safeguards." 273, S. t., 2540. Of exposed unnecessary performance duties. suspicion, sustained doing requirements why pursued intrusive, effective, insuring safety.7 2647; 1325 takes step oblivion affords. dissent, Jackson said Brinegar 338 160, 1302, (1949): 58 "[Fourth rights] second-class belong catalog indispensable freedoms. Among deprivations rights, cowing population, crushing spirit putting terror every heart. Uncontrolled arsenal arbitrary government." 180, 1313 59 STEVENS, jurisprudential raises profoundly concerning relationship sovereigns—the America. 61 deputies' proscribed art. Constitution." Pet. Cert. added). difficult. Four ways themselves: (1) asking directly, (2) attempting infer sources meant, (3) presuming otherwise, (4) otherwise. has, occasions, approaches; never hinted fourth. "achieve necessary," undertakes reexamination possibilities. 1039. inefficient unduly burdensome second expenditure resources. defensible themselves, choose fourth third—to presume dependent record plainly dissent. intermediate approaches, choice presumptions: jurisdiction, Historically, prevailed. Durley Mayo, 351 277, 285, 76 806, 811, 100 1178 (1956); Stembridge Georgia, 541, 547, 834, 837, 1130 (1952); rule, succinctly Lynch, 63 "Where sufficient sustain Allen Arguimbau, 198 149, 154, 155 [25 622, 624, 990]; Johnson Risk, [137 300, 306, 307, 111, 113, 114, 683]; Wood Mowing & Reaping Machine Co. Skinner, [139 293, 295, 297, 528, 529, 530, 193]; Consolidated Turnpike Norfolk Ocean View Ry. 228 596, 599 [33 605, 606, 982]; Cuyahoga River Power Northern Realty 244 302, 304 [37 643, 644, 645, 1153]." 54-55, 16-17. 64 points weakened traditional using identified above. Since rejected, think stare decisis call return historical principle. Instead, seems overrule them all.1 agreed fresh proposition presumptive sovereign states, expansive attitude good sense. common show "respect [a] opinions." 1040. And confident members sound management scarce All policies counsel exercise They fortified my policy restraint—one allows decisional bodies last word legal truly intervene—enables contribution system government. 66 departure tradition. American citizen deprived statute. assertion right, finding complaining party itself, asks too broadly "overprotected" citizen. 67 Such inherent illuminated events arisen country, Republic Finland. Finnish marijuana, loose, standing object. acquitted him, concerned surely complained acquittal, Constitution. That true treaty Finland citizens o ly motivated intervene unfairly arrested, tried, foreign tribunal. 68 turn loose. citizen, since claim mistreated Michigan, final outcome processes offended whatever. or, indeed, throughout country. reviewing primary role sure seek heard. resonates statements 690 (1931), Nebraska claim, doctrine laches. Writing response governor's laches Chief Hughes nonfederal guarantees appropriately enforced." 255. earlier Union Pacific Railroad Public Service Commission Missouri, 248 67, 131 (1918), Holmes engaged inquiry "be impose burden" private party. 70, 25. Creswill Knights Pythias, 225 246, 261, 822, 827, 1074 (1912), explained duty findings Federal denied." Until recently virtually type. Thirty years ago, reviewed one. Nevada Stacher, 358 907, 232, (1953). 1952 sought judiciary. Fifteen total mounted three.2 Some decade, 5-to-4 priorities shifted. docket swollen reverse citizens.3 recognize error allocation day comes, likely propriety expansion 71 offers asserting today: "an [that] 1040 supposed "review opinion" clashes directly oft-repeated reminder "our correct wrong judgments, revise (1945). clash form: law" ungovernable engine. perfectly adequate. fact, prosecutor announces believes nonenforcement commanded claimed errors, egregious much thwart desires electorate. sit expound interested listeners community; resolve disputes. affect interfere.4 thoroughly baffled stretch "[r]espect courts." Would convening sitting declaring release misunderstanding law? respectfully concedes, speeding intoxicated, contraband. Tr.Oral Arg., 41. oral argument, informed violation "[a]s practice," violations "more" 6. appearance ticket. petitioner "would through point." treated speeding, offense. Further, argue exists, effect nevertheless Ross. Coleman dissented, arguing (1968) 473-480, 870-873. Moody concurred improper. proper 480-486, 873-875. occasion, footnote 4, 869, 4. hold, 472-473, 870. For example, character, fails Fox Film Corp. Muller, 296 207, 210, 183, 184, 80 158 (1935). available properly relied. Beecher Alabama, 389 35, 37, 189, 190, Also, if, 'felt did,' treat normally independent, Delaware Prouse, 648, 653, 1391, 1395, 660 (1979) (1977)). 1540, (1983). [federal ground] matter, breadth plain." Enterprise Irrigation District Farmers Mutual Canal Company, 243 157, 164, 318, 321, 644 (1917). Duffy illustrative difficulty purposes clarification. Dixon, clarification, forthcoming: advised informally determination." 145, 194. vacated foreclosed action. 128, 464, wrote desirable asked told intended." departed guided departs disfavor express protects reasons preference completely satisfactory protecting employ presumptions deciding issues. instance, bears burden establishing (1956), alleges controversy become moot "heavy Los Angeles Davis, 625, 631, 1379, 1383, 642 mootness. announce foreshadowed supra. reading led co clude Zacchini, 2853; Delaware, 1395. focus entirely syllabus court. STEVENS proposes novel wishes endangered. rationale dissent handle vast bulk litigation 1982, twelve million actions (excluding juvenile charges) filed systems Columbia. Journal By comparison, 32,700 suits year. Annual Report Director Administrative Office Courts standards, necessarily create considerable body "federal process. surprising development federally standards States. At argued People Reed, 393 342, 224 867, 422 1044, 95 2660, 696 (1975). Tr. Oral 29. exceptions requirement." 869-870 Reed 'A warrantless per se violates shown rule.' 8, 870, 8. unfair evaluation sometimes done past, Under "higher standard" 1963 Secrest, 521, 525, 321 368, 369 item seized inter alia, "narcotic drug peace curtilage dwelling house state," identical Moore, 391 426, 435, 216 770, 775 (1974). current Health Code 333.7107, "narcotic" include cite term statutory definitions term. opposite true. provisions presumed accordance existing usages time" provision. Bacon Kent-Ottawa Authority, 354 159, 169, 492, 497 (1958). legislature able change provision statute, repeal duly-voted provision." Ibid, 497. Applying principles, statute applicable legislative pertains act. Jones City Ypsilanti, 574, 182 795 (1970). Walber Wayne Judge, 138 772 (1966), aff'd, 381 138, 160 876 (1968). enacted, narcotic drug. 1961 Mich.Pub.Acts, 206 1(f). 1978, removed classification. items. weaken requirement, situation conduct—necessarily swift predicated on-the-spot observations beat—which procedure. according acted "reasonably man" justified. identity maintain status quo momentarily obtaining information, known time." 146, 1923, her dissenting case: frisking overcoat worn fendant facts. constitutionally carried, folded forearm, worn. still control." 475-476, 871 (Coleman, C.J., "According study, 30% shootings approached Bristow, Police Officer Shootings—A Tactical Evaluation, J.Crim.L.C. P.S. (1963)." 148, 1924, whenever stop, "bright line" drew authorizes exists context, i.e., preservation evidence, "automatic" exist context. "unlike prevent disappearance destruction crime. nearby borrow (1969) allow hinder collecting preserving level knife. arguments invalidity compartment. 917 93-94, 238 possessed legally. 17. Assuming lawfully, depends 1923. BRENNAN's point direction today. steps safety. BRENNAN expanding approve quotes Sibron, concedes "police duties." post, 1064, faced quick determinations self-protection defense innocent area, instantaneously "less intrusive" alternative neutralized. Post, 1065. 1883, now, 41, 43-44. 1044-1045, Neither provides Mimms 111-112, 333-334; 1924. (1981) 1035, 93, 343, ("Under ] accosted." supplied)). swallows Without Ross apply. 825, 2172-2173. 2864; 1057-1058. detain tell registration was. retrieved themselves. resulted substantially severe here. sampling footnotes infra, Commonwealth Dell Publications, Inc., Pa. 233 A.2d 840 (1967), First Fourteenth Amendments defendant's publish distribute book "Candy." petitioned certiorari. 390 948, 1038, 1140 Noroff, Cal.2d 791, Cal.Rptr. 575, P.2d 479 magazine called "International Nudist Sun." 1012, 1261, 161 Franc, 165 Colo. 69, 437 Colorado title piece property quieted 928, 2284, 1385 year, devoted (1983); Illinois Gates, 2317, (argued twice); Connecticut Johnson, 969, 823 (1982); Missouri Hunter, 673, 535 502; Ramos, 3446, 2d Casal, 3100, Revere Massachusetts General Hospital, 2979, Bradshaw, 2830, Andreas, 161, Lafayette, 2605, cursory survey Law Week index reveals least petitions comment. one—the Article 9, prohibited graduated income tax chain store income. "the[ Constitutions restrictions classification taxation," "then adverted former interpreted" 552-553, 677-678. proceeded constitution. justly 1042. majority "Enough uncertainty precise present, Honeyman Hanan, 300 14, 350, 81 476 consistently passing 555, 678. intruding expect Hughes's Tea. observation unanswerable: constitutions similar disturbing influenced difference. persuaded prefer judges, review. Whether repugnant stand. fully conscious State, whatever adduce doing." 558-559, 680-681.

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