Document: 446 U.S. 156 100 S.Ct. 1548 64 L.Ed.2d 119 CITY OF ROME et al., Appellants,v.UNITED STATES al. No. 78-1840. Argued Oct. 10, 1979. Decided April 22, 1980. Rehearing Denied June 9, See 447 916, 3003. Syllabus In 1966, appellant city of Rome, Ga., made certain changes in its electoral system, including provisions for majority rather than plurality vote each the nine members City Commission; three numbered posts within (reduced from nine) wards; and staggered terms commissioners Board Education ward; a requirement that reside wards which they were elected. addition, 60 annexations between November 1, 1964, February 1975. Section 5 Voting Rights Act 1965 (Act) requires preclearance by Attorney General United States or District Court Columbia any change "standard, practice, procedure with respect to voting" after jurisdictions fall coverage formula set forth § 4(b) Act. further provides may clear voting practice only if it "does not have purpose will effect denying abridging right on account race color." Georgia was designated covered jurisdiction 1965, municipalities State accordingly must comply procedure. Eventually, at first having failed do so, Rome submitted 1966 preclearance, but declined preclear above-enumerated changes, concluding such as population is predominately white racial bloc has been common, would deprive Negro voters opportunity elect candidate their choice. The also refused 13 annexations, finding had carried burden proving disapproved dilute vote. Subsequently, however, response city's motion reconsideration, agreed elections still them Commission elections. two officials then filed declaratory judgment action Columbia, seeking relief based varietyof claims. A three-judge court rejected arguments granted summary defendants, while discriminatory purpose, did effect. allow "bail out" Act's pursuant 4(a), allows escape 5's bringing no "test device" used during 17 years preceding filing "for Held: 1. use 4(a)'s "bailout" terms, issue depends whether either "State determinations made" under "political subdivision separate unit," here fails meet definition term, since 4(b)'s never applied it. comes because part State, and, hence, exempt be by, seek all of, State. Moreover, legislative history precludes argument procedure, available "State," implicitly political units Pp. 162-169. 2. 60-day period General's regulation requiring requests reconsideration his refusal decided days receipt, commences anew when submitting deems initial submission inadequate decides supplement Thus, here, where city, less prior decision motion, submitted, own accord, affidavits timely. contrary ruling ran continuously date mean would, some cases, unable give adequate consideration materials piecemeal fashion, might able respond motion. 170-172. 3. By describing elements conjunctive, Congress plainly intended precleared unless both are absent. Furthermore, recognized this when, 1975, extended another seven years. 172-173. 4. does exceed Congress' power enforce Fifteenth Amendment. Under s. 2 Amendment, prohibit practices an themselves violate 1 so long prohibitions attacking discrimination 'appropriate.' Here, ban appropriate method promoting Amendment's purposes, even assumed prohibits intentional voting. South Carolina v. Katzenbach, 383 301, 86 803, 15 769. could rationally concluded that, demonstrable create risk purposeful discrimination, proper impact. 173-178. 5. principles federalism. Principles federalism otherwise obstacle congressional authority necessarily overridden Civil War Amendments "by legislation," Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 96 2666, 49 614, being specifically designed expansion federal intrusion state sovereignty. Accordingly, regulate local through 178-180. 6. There merit appellants' contention outlived usefulness view considered determination least statutory remedies necessary counter perpetuation 95 pervasive extension constitutional enforcing 180-182. 7. Nor there individual held 1974, First, Fifth, Ninth, Tenth Amendment rights private citizens abridged. circumstances where, upon conducted scheme, failure hold can attributed officials, operation 182-183. 8. Court's findings prove clearly erroneous. 183-187. 450 F.Supp. 378 472 221, affirmed. Robert M. Brinson, appellants. Lawrence G. Wallace, Washington, D. C., appellees. Mr. Justice MARSHALL delivered opinion Court. At case constitutionality applicability Ga. * This brought municipality northwestern Georgia, 79 Stat. 437, amended, 42 U.S.C. 1973 seq. 1970 30,759, composition 76.6% 23.4% Negro. voting-age 79.4% 20.6% 3 governmental structure established charter enacted 1918 Assembly Georgia. Before amendments case, Rome's provided nine-member five-member elected concurrently at-large basis divided into wards, one commissioner ward chosen citywide election. residency candidates. 4 passed several laws application extensively amended charter. These enactments altered scheme following ways: (1) number reduced three; 6 (2) henceforth 7 (3) vote, particular position received majority, runoff election candidates who largest votes; 8 (4) staggered; 9 (5) expanded five six members; 10 (6) member large, created procedures identical those applicable elections; 11 (7) required elected; 12 (8) staggered. voting," 1973c, Act, 1973b(b). 30 Fed.Reg. 9897, therefore Commissioners Sheffield, Ala., 435 110, 98 965, 55 148 (1978). 14 It disputed system purview E. g., Allen Elections, 393 544, 89 817, 22 (1969). Nonetheless, them. though annexation constitutes practice" Perkins Matthews, 400 379, 91 431, 27 476 (1971). submit preclearance. discovered other occurred, inquiries, posts, elections, well He these Annexations question. found contained populations significant size near areas zoned residential development. Considering factors light voting, he determined 16 School reasoned disapproval resurrected pre-existing revivified muster same time, because, view, action, variety court, convened §§ 1973b(a) defendants. 221 (D.C.1979). We noted probable jurisdiction, 443 914, 99 3105, 61 878 (1979), now affirm. II 18 address assertion reasons, avoid reaching merits action. A. 19 appellants contend itself To evaluate argument, we examine detail. 20 wishes enact different force 1964," Columbia. 439, 1973c.1 4(a) 438, 1973b(a),2 "any State" qualifies 4(b), 1973b(b),3 unit." As noted, unit 21 provides, exemption so-called provision before panel device"4 "during seventeen coverage, holding cannot independently bring bailout agree. turns is, third sentence subsection (b) section" "determinations" instance falls 4(b). On face statute, Rather, plain language then, appears 23 conclusion relying our supra. That decision, discuss process. InSheffield, determines new regardless registers come subdivision."5 holding, scope "geographic" "territorial," U.S., 120, 126, S.Ct., 973, 976, thus entire covered, irrelevant subdivisions." 126-129, 976-978. 24 cities subdivisions" way inconsistent express language, subdivision" purposes "bailout." 25 Sheffield suggest "State" history, contemporaneous interpretation General, ambiguities should resolved reached 117-118, 972. contrast, House Committee Report stated: 26 "This obtain afforded subdivisions apply unit; exemption." H.R.Rep.No. 89th Cong., 1st Sess., (1965), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News pp. 2437, 2445. Senate Committee's effect: 28 "We test device prohibition section lift relieved requirements 4." S.Rep.No. 162, pt. 3, p. 2554. 29 id., 21. Bound unambiguous intent, 4(a).6 B next argue allegedly tardy General. May 21, 1976, asked reconsider annexations. July 13, additional affidavits. denied August 12, 1976. 31 interpose objections original submissions filing.7 If make timely objection, become fully enforceable. regulation, shall receipt. CFR 51.3(d) (1979).8 present computed running 24, expired response. measured 14, supplemented request, 32 timing regulations silent supplements reconsideration. agree implementing furthered interpreted commence information supplied accord. 33 logic States, 411 526, 93 1702, 36 (1973), indicates Government's approach comports regulations. examined 51.18(a), mandatory tolled whenever finds request jurisdiction. question furnishes requested upheld "wholly reasonable consistent Act." 541, 1711. 34 stands proposition if, once relevant placed accorded full law "difficult complex" 540, 1710. follows, it, commenced anew. fashion. circumstances, Such result run regulations, penalize legitimate reasons file supplementary materials.9 III 35 raise issues support properly read prohibiting dispute commands 1973c (emphasis added). Our decisions consistently Beer 425 130, 141, 1357, 1363, 47 629 (1976); Richmond 422 358, 372, 2296, 2304, 45 245 (1975); supra, 538, 1709; 387, 388, 436, prohibited S.Rep.No.94-295, 15-16 (1975) (hereinafter S.Rep.); H.R.Rep.No.94-196, 8-9 H.R.Rep.), 774. 37 urge abandon settled 5, extent effect, unconstitutional. Because meaning intent plain, reject suggestion engage saving construction raise. See, e. NLRB Catholic Bishop Chicago, 440 490, 499-501, 1313, 1318-1319, 59 533 (1979); 508-511, 1323-1324 (BRENNAN, J., dissenting). Instead, turn contentions. 38 Amendment.10 unconstitutional exceeds They claim 2, lacking discrimination,11 foreclose not, outlaw 39 asking us nothing overrule 769 (1966), observed making extensive investigation, earlier attempts remedy "insidious evil" "unremitting ingenious defiance Constitution" parts country. Id., 309, 808. Case-by-case adjudication proved too ponderous produced favorable results, affected often "merely switched devices decrees." 314, 811. "sterner more elaborate measures" necessary, 808, adopted "complex stringent aimed most flagrant," 315, 812. 40 turned empowered impose rigors jurisdictions. interplay judicial conferred 2: 41 "By adding authorization [in 2], Framers indicated chiefly responsible 'It enlarged. authorized legislation. Some legislation contemplated [Civil War] effective.' Ex parte Virginia, 339, 345 [, L.Ed. 676]. addition courts, remedial powers effectuate against voting." 325-326, 817 original). held, broad Necessary Proper Clause, see McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 421, 579 (1819). authority, longstanding precedent enforcement Amendments, defined terms: 43 " 'Whatever appropriate, adapted carry out objects whatever tends contain, secure persons enjoyment perfect equality civil equal protection denial invasion, prohibited, domain power.' [339,] 345-346 676]." 327, 818. 44 Applying standard, literacy tests related devices, rules lack examiners methods 329-337, 819-823. treatment Katzenbach demonstrates Lassiter Northampton County 360 45, 985, 1072 (1959), fair employed fashion upholding per se reason Lassiter. many imposed continued nondiscriminatory, fairly administered "freeze effect" past allowing illiterates remain rolls excluding illiterate Negroes. 334, 821. makes may, violative perpetuates effects discrimination. 46 Other recognize Amendments. Morgan, 384 641, 1717, 828 Fourteenth Amendment12 find enactment 'is [the] end' Equal Protection Clause "is 'the letter spirit constitution,' outlawed violated Clause. 651, 1724 (quoting 421). stated "[c]orrectly viewed, positive grant authorizing exercise discretion determining what needed guarantees Amendment." Ct., 1724. Four later, Oregon Mitchell, 112, 260, 272 (1970), unanimously 1970, Pub.L.91-285, 84 imposing 5-year nationwide similar registering earlier, 132-133, 268-269 (opinion Black, J.); 144-147, 274-276 Douglas, 216-217, 311 Harlan, 231-236, 318-320 BRENNAN, WHITE, MARSHALL, JJ.); 282-284, 343-344 STEWART, joined BURGER, C. BLACKMUN, J.).13 clear, "appropriate," term Maryland andEx 676 (1880). discrimination,14 335, 822; 216, J.). reason, disturb banning impact effective preventing 'undo[ing] defeat[ing] recently won' Negroes." 140, 1363 H.R.Rep.No.91-397, (1969)). C 48 assert violates articulated National League Cities Usery, 426 833, 2465, (1976). supposes signifies retreat "exceed[s] encroach[es] area reserved Constitution," 323, 816, "[a]s rational means 324, 816. contrary, inconsistency decisions. Cities, regulating minimum wages hours constitutionally employees governments. Commerce provide "directly displac[ing] States' freedom integral operations traditional functions," 852, 2474, which, included employer-employee relationships programs traditionally 851-852, 2474. 50 solely assessment explicitly "whether results seeks affect governments exercising sections Constitution . n. 17, 17. answer came four later 614 presented whether, spite Eleventh employers Title VII 2000e seq., successful plaintiffs recover retroactive monetary relief. Amendment: 51 "[W]e think principle sovereignty embodies, limited expressly 'by legislation' substantive embody limitations authority. When acts plenary grant, whose authority." 456, 2671. 52 below legislation." Those principle, Act.15 depart "the supersedes exertions power," 325, "an carrying responsibilities," 308, 808.16 D 53 alternative decline invitation 1975 warranted. 54 considering extension, acknowledged largely voter registration improved dramatically 1965. H.R.Rep., 6; S.Rep., 13. determined, "a bleaker side picture yet exists." 7; 779. Significant disparity persisted percentages whites Negroes registered increased relatively minor positions, none statewide office, legislatures fell far short representative residing minority progress "undeniable," "modest spotty," 7-11; 11-19. gave careful propriety readopting requirement. "[i]n recent importance widely preserving gains jurisdictions." 8; 15, 781. After examining types nature interposed years, ringing endorsement: 56 "The entered bespeak continuing need mechanism. increases [sic ], measures resorted increasing strength. 57 58 convinced contributed achieved participation, likewise Secton ] serves insure destroyed techniques. Now time remove protections fragile success." 10-11. 15-19, 782-785. forgotten ratification color, evil perpetuated country unremitting Constitution." adopting sought century obstruction shifting advantage inertia perpetrators victims." 328, Ten 7-year preserve "limited fragile" achievements promote amelioration viewed light, unsurprising unassailable. E final challenge Act,17 blaming result, identify wrong culprit. restrict expression prevent rather, simply precleared. conduct 1964. Indeed, offered technical permit modification IV 62 reaffirmed holdings responsibilities" "consonant contentions fact, mindful fact 63 conclude err effectiveness Rome.18 existed Rome. plurality-win majority-win combined presence preexisting voteif split votes among "single-shot favor.19 vote/runoff significantly decreased since, "even gained general election, [he] runner-up head-to-head given severe disadvantage." F.Supp., 244 (footnotes omitted).20 forcing contests depriving single-shot 245, erroneous.21 regarding statement 1364, always voting-procedure lead retrogression minorities [process.]" 65 erroneous severely undermined evidence shedding meaningful how community. 66 caused delay review group, correct cumulative perspective current data. Unfortunately, data quite uninformative. much breakdown category race.22 record reflect voters. indicate unclear figures annexed dispute. 67 Certain facts however. 1978, compiled, 2,582 resided areas. Of persons, 1,797 age, 823 assume moved outside preannexation boundaries bore proof, contrary. 68 scrutinized 388-390, 437. substantially enlarging eligible without creating corresponding increase Negroes, city. "fairly reflects strength community exists annexation[s]." 371, 2304. proof vote-dilutive factors: officeholders, high degree Particularly introduced 69 70 ordered. 71 concurring. 72 I join write separately my understanding Part IV-B. affirms, erroneous, disproving issue, me, close, accept ruling. seem anomalous leaving Education, Commission.* appellees point out, Brief Appellees 40-42, affirmance preclude altering anomaly. 73 seems me conditioning approval abandonment "without prejudice renewal undertaking suitable views expressed herein." 249 device, elimination aspects developed Petersburg 354 1021 (D.C.1972), summarily aff'd, 410 962, 1441, 698 approved 369-371, 2303-2304, (1975). 74 entertain doubt about apparent standing alone, render postannexation recogniz[e] minority's potential," Richmond. 378, 2307. separation contest contests, thereby frustrating efforts utilize effectively ante, 185, And reasonably analyze, reduction three. potential frustrated "numbered post" ward. Given three, latter potential. 75 dissent conceded order keep Commission. state: 76 "If wished retain couple pre-1966 subsequent shift electing wards. (The objected larger wards.) unnumbered positions majority-vote requirement, contest, black chance supported." 41-42. 77 object insofar expand Commission, eliminates returns nine-ward retains three-ward IV-B opinion. 78 STEVENS, Although opinion, dissenting opinions prompt emphasize points crucial analysis case; concern critical questions are: matter, prescribed denies separately; Congress. If, believe, innocent wrongdoing last irrelevant; indeed, practiced racially elsewhere sufficiently justify prescribed, every 80 imposes restrictions subdivisions, noncovered permits bail demonstrating engaged 148, construed word include satisfy subdivision,"1 added statute limiting coverage.2 81 My qualify legal consequences holding. Dougherty White, 439 32, 47, 368, 377, 269 (STEVENS, concurring).3 joining today entitled 4(a).4 For unambiguously take provision. H.R.Rep.No.439, quoted ante 169. subject requirements, fashion; obligations meets conditions bailout. 82 treated follows provisions. illogical deny counties—which 14(c)(2)—and smaller school boards. 83 second prescribe statute's coverage. III-B explains why Congress, instances ample tradition equally widespread themselves.5 short, Since restrictions, fail. 85 POWELL, dissenting. Two ago includes control processes, authorities procedures. (1978) (Sheffield ). Today concludes conflicts raises grave dissent. 87 grounds, closely sharply illustrated case. 30,000, approximately 15% black. involves affecting arrangement, posts.1 Second, 1964 completed territorial diluted disproportionately But tracts land completely unpopulated taken over 1978 net 1% share electorate.2 88 substantial conflict ultimate fact. "literacy prerequisite years," "in direct barriers Rome." 224, 225 encouraged blacks obstacles candidacy blacks, contender narrowly lost 45% (in up voters). municipal government, "white responsive needs interests community," actively support.3 225. community, chooses probably determine outcome contests." Ibid. Despite findings, approve reduce influence blacks. 247. reservations conclusion. note challenged commanded times holds. vacant occurred. Nevertheless, consider cite factual inconsistencies highlight Court, departed meaning.4 Against background, posed 90 attempt end (or "bailout") 1973b(a). Bailout standard participate life. 1571-1572. demonstrate satisfied alter authorities.5 affirms holds remains disregarding before. "such subdivision," refers back provision's (i) (ii) "as unit."6 concerns definition.7 Thus emphasized content key phrase. referring "in" 973. defines continued, Consequently, 126-127, 976-977. 92 availability exactly phrase Sheffield. context, reach subdivisions. construes words situation wholly sense context. protean reduces irrationality. irrationality evident contrast localities like located Twenty-eight group bailed obligation actions.8 Yet difference justification North privilege compliance criteria. 94 acknowledged, deny, "abstract force" argument. nevertheless fails, according reasons: "did 'political subdivisions' "States," merely subjected entities 5; Reports accompanying Ante, 168-169. Neither supports decision. "States" Both fairness, free out. elementary unambiguous, occasion look history. resort mandate face. Collett, 337 55, 61, 944, 947, 1207 (1949); Oregon, 366 643, 648, 1278, 1281, 575 (1961). "committee reports helpful guide ambiguous disregarded statute." Gooding 416 430, 468, 1780, 1799, 250 (1974) (MARSHALL, little 4(a): elections.9 reliance statements statute. relieve strict involved incorrect renders intrudes prerogatives abridges deprivations acting violations rights. 327-328, 818, (1966); 667, 1736, (1966) (Harlan, abridged until satisfies standards 4(a).10 97 sustained uncommon power." 822. implicates serious concerns. 324-327, 816-818. STEVENS "encroachment undeniable." 984 (dissenting opinion).11 encroachment especially troubling destroys self-government, central values polity.12 Unless community's ordering democratic procedures, course marked risk. Preclearance operates level diminish residents Federal policies directly them, strips locally autonomy chart policy. lightly intrusions imposition prophylactic measure harm. observed, "reliable actual great 329, 819. purported accurately justified "at absence [the government has] years." 330, 820.13 emphasized, oversight continue materialize period. "Acknowledging possibility overbreadth, termination special behest danger materialized [statutorily period]." 331, 820. 101 passage uses "overbreadth" unusual sense, clear. option available, cause overreach nondiscriminating government. Without bailout, problem becomes acute. 102 decrees restrictions. establish county hostage errors, deliberate intransigence, single subdivision.14 enacted, succeeded bailing out—Alaska again 1971.15 hope populous Demonstrating Alaska's 272,000 people 1971 State's 302,000 cry behalf Georgia's million 877 governments.16 Today's seal off safety valve 103 enforces presumption restricted meeting criteria, rebutted showing suit, seen, saw limit oversteps limits. reverse Court.17 104 believe today's protect way, perhaps ends dubious analytical means. found, denies, record, continues rule small vitiate incentive diligently requirements. nor result. 105 REHNQUIST, whom STEWART joins, 106 Mobile maintaining product Bolden, 1490, (1980). demonstrated "bloc" prevented correctly manner maximizes ability representative. instant instituting precisely type structural says maintain legitimate, "enforcement" 107 providing forum aggrieved disagree permitting straitjacket manner. "enforce" "appropriate" embodied While due act coordinate branch Government ultimately deciding challenges entities. Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, (1803); Nixon, 418 683, 3090, 1039 (1974). total abdication deference 108 readily fallacy underlying characterized Amendment.1 conspicuously absent lower candidacy. elective "responsive community." discriminated services upgrade neighborhoods. 109 although office appointed fill vacancy post. White vigorously pursue Several testified spent proportionately campaigning "needed win." "blacks balance elections." 110 climate, various require Education; 1973, effected concede discriminating purposes. All opposed grounds adoption lessen likelihood official, assuming Each impermissible "vote-dilution" device. 111 met perceived disparate effect.2 112 compelled purposefully discriminatory. POWELL's autonomy, greater sought. 113 signal necessity carefully scrutinize alleged source intrude deeply corporations States. Congressional proposed dependent power. theorires Constitution, certainly implementation. seriously maintained, judiciary Amendments' commands. judicially interpreted, appropriately theories theory, remedially remedial, accepts premise theory determine, more, amend Constitution. 114 neither sustaining conduct.3 genuinely powers. previously well-established distinctions Judicial Branch Legislative Executive Branches Government. (1974); Madison (1803). 115 "remedial" duty ensure Madison. motivated, decreasing candidate. 116 matter interpretation, implicated enacting otherwise, almost decades. (1971); Fairley Patterson, together cases squarely locality disproved existence discrimination.4 117 actually relating purport resolve issue.5 distilled precedents (1970); Gaston 395 285, 1720, 309 118 "to enforce" unit, unit. legislating incidence formulated around historic tenet invoke remedy, wrong—and amount violation. Only identified appropriateness measured. identifies structuring processes effort goes represent violations. rest locality. purpose: 120 "Congress impact." 177. 121 What ignores purpose. proves 122 annexing territory participation outright franchise.6 Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 347, 125, (1960). difficulties undertaken place localities. (1966). presumption. Absent topsy-turvy affirmatively permissible nonetheless 123 relies characterization. legitimizes irrebuttable "vote-diluting" motivated animus. principal tests. Yet, inquiry encompassed "preventive" rationale invoked Oregon. practices, logical issue. 124 tests, extending suspension Carolina. measure, overinclusive overinclusiveness countenanced proxy imply. rendered remedial. remedying administration education minorities. 125 discriminate, attributable stateadministered very wide mark. Various ban, few utilizing 147, 276 J.), statistics suggested prevalent. Even demonstration reinstate eliminate application. occurrence 126 illiteracy retaining nondiscriminatory 283-284, 344. Finally, uniform definite advantages relations: tensions regions, administrative selective enforcement. 127 Presumptive vote-diluting similarly exacting unlike traceable bodies desire legitimate. Any associated voting—private implicate devise aspect 128 doing generalization structures study 60% example. form throughout reform overcome wide-scale corruption Jewell, Local Systems Representation: Political Consequences Choices, Geo.Wash.L.Rev. 790, 799 (1967). Obviously, presumed devoid uses. regularly cities. 129 enhance prevention face, authorities. Yick Wo Hopkins, 356, 1064, 220 (1886). outset not. 130 supporting No burdens mechanism suits event, implicated—purposeful dilution remedied occurs. controlled impact, attempted impacts—not 131 unquestionably intentionally deprives uncanalized, sees fit unrebutted been, citizens. committed violations, 132 More stake sophistry worst enhances wrongs premised assumption interests, encouraging alone tenuous assumptions. ably represented admitted dissatisfaction, preference race. notion empower generation "get even" inflicted forebears. elevated notion, confined status right. SeeWhitcomb Chavis, 403 124, 1858, 363 Whitcomb 133 "[t]he mere interest concerned outvoted seats invoking indication segment access system." 154-155, 1875. 134 erect institutional safeguards 135 add relationship caution approving dilution. theorists differ inherent structures. Harlan (1969): "[I]t go preferred district system. officers; other, groups selection fewer officers." 586, 842 deleted). 136 group's Cases, 18, 835 (1883). only. "authorize code rights; modes redress laws, officers ., subversive fundamental specified [A]mendment." 11, consonant surrounding Amendment.7 137 refuted Members Support emerged (1970).8 200-201. attack evils comprehended 326, 817. unwilling establishing age limitation ages 20. 138 Chief BURGER "provide eradicating situations violation Clause" "determine ambit clause." 296, 350. reiterated belief exceeded 204-207, 305-306. Cf. Hass, 420 714, 1215, 570 Cooper Aaron, 358 1401, 1410, (1958). Black Justices WHITE MARSHALL.9 139 heed precedent. cede ever envisioned; interpret envisioned. offensive fostered debatable assumptions left entirety, provides: "Whenever title 1973b(b) administer qualification 1968, 1972, institute qualification, prerequisite, contravention 1973b(f)(2) title, enters person procedure: Provided, enforced proceeding chief officer official objection sixty submission, good shown, facilitate expedited made. affirmative objec- tion made, object, bar enjoin event sixty-day receipt reserve re-examine attention remainder accordance section. heard judges 2284 appeal lie Supreme Court." 1973b(a), "To assure citizen Federal, sentences color: plaintiff entry section, 6, denials abridgments occurred anywhere plaintiff. ten (f)(2) section: paragraph, "An reopen alleging consent judgment. judgment." 1973b(b), (a) maintained Director Census centum therein voted presidential previous sentence, 1968. sentences, Presidential 1972. "A certification 1973d 1973k reviewable publication Register." 4(c) 1973b(c), 'test device' read, write, understand, educational achievement knowledge subject, possess moral character, qualifications voucher class." 14(c)(2) 1973l (c)(2), subdivision' parish, except supervision conducts already 1968 precleared, comprehensive Municipal Election Code 34A 51.10 recordable Act," 571, 834-835, (1969), adversely 137-138, 982-983, for, informed "its defer charters ordinances posts," 'unambiguous manner' provisions, written thereafter, issues." 233 "When brings decide (provided conference authority's request) withdraw objection." resolution permissive mandatory. "Section race, condition servitude. article unnecessary approaches day. enforce, legislation, article." Douglas 274-276. eight believed permissibly acted 232-234, 318-319 283, 344 822, (citing 10-11 (1965); S.Rep.No.162, 8, (1965)). (1976), strongly citing sanctioning "intrusions judicial, executive, spheres grounded powers—with diminution sovereignty—found phenomenon aptly described 'carv[ing] out' [100 346 (, 676) (1880)]." 455-456, 646-647, 1721, Guarantee Art. IV, 4, justiciable. Baker Carr, 369 186, 691, 663 (1962). bears 140-141, 1709, (1973); Single-shot follows: "Consider [a] town 600 choose council members. cast votes. Suppose candidates, equally, candidate, him else. receives 300 won seat. technique called enables win concentrates behind candidates." U. S. Rights, Act: Years After, 206-207 226. campaign Reverend Clyde Hill, strongest four, dilutive 1966. operated Rev. Hill 1970. With strong opponents 921 909, 407, 143 votes, respectively. scheme. majority-win/runoff defeated 1409-1142. relied Rights: 'There [I]nstead races, position. post no. white, winning. post, seat—a win. eliminated '[Second,] live large. This—just posts—separates contests. '[Third,] 4-year year, arise.' 244, supra 19, 207-208). (1975), assess information, coupled population, probative data, perpetuate voters, Ely Klahr, 108, 115, 7, 1803, 1807, 352 Burns Richardson, 73, 92-93, 1286, 1297, 376 choice, cf. 20, Current submissions, rules. 160, 162. 142-143, 984-985 reasoning above, (i. e., counties register voters) 1969, responsibility transferred Floyd County, Stipulation App. 58. transfer county, ibid., arguably tension "suggest 'State' procedure." 168. Compare with, 128, 978, 'State which' it." 129, 17: "Our Brother STEVENS' misconceives susceptible [Ala.] covered. bear actors textual interrelationship reading natural one." disavowed foregoing comments, I, course, applies court's antitrust "curtail[s] liberties [defendant] enjoy." Society Professional Engineers 679, 697, 1355, 1368, 637. Similarly, defendant wrongdoing. Houchins KQED, Inc., 438 40, 2588, 2610, 553 desegregation systemwide remedy—as concentrating specific discrimination—may pervasive, Columbus Penick, 449, 2941, 666; Dayton Brinkman, 2971, 720. package revisions, members, eased shifted county. 224 altogether satisfactory, compared totals. 16.6% percentage drops 15.6% lived 1978. 38, 26. "made neighborhoods," subsidized transit predominantly ridership, hired skilled supervisory facts. doing, averts eyes paradox case: criterion protecting minorities, ask acceptable, days. 1973c. exclusively, takes time. part: color ." (Emphasis supplied). 50% determinations, unreviewable, trigger Counties Choctaw McCurtain, Okla. 76-1250 (DC 1978) (two counties); New Mexico, Curry, McKinley Otero 76-0067 30, 1976) (three Maine 75-2125 Sept. (13 "plantations"); Wake N. 1198-66 Jan. 23, 1967) (one county); Elmore Idaho 320-66 1966) Apache, Navaho Coconino Counties, Ariz. 256 903 (D.C.1966) counties). Three York 2419-71 Apr. 1972), rescinded English only, violating 1974) (referring Torres Sachs, 73-3921 (CES) (SDNY 27, 1973)), 419 888, 166, involving subdivision, dismissed stipulation parties, Commissioners, El Paso Colo. 77-0185 Nov. 1977); Yuba Cal. 75-2170 25, 1976); Nash 1702-66 26, 1969). definition. Sheffield's III, infra, reaches narrower focus raised REHNQUIST's concern. (Black, concurring dissenting); 842, (1969) part); 545, 1713, (1973) (POWELL, 856, 2476, "derive respective States," integrity, protected allocates primary officials. 265, (1970) 201 50, 989, (1959). society matters. Milliken Bradley, 717, 744, 3112, 3127, 1069 (federal schools "would representatives"); James Valtierra, 402 143, 1331, 1334, 678 (1971) (local referendum public housing project "ensures voice large expenditures tax revenues"). Preservation control, naturally enough, integrity 855, 2476; Coyle Oklahoma, 559, 565, 688, 689, 853 (1911). important confirmation rationality "recent devices" exempted took affirmed temporary Black's "long disfranchise race." Id. 132, 263. 146, 94, 311, 234-235, 320 284, supported use, bailout-like option. restraint be, discriminate. Tr. Oral Arg. 38. dictates eccentric insisting bails failings subdivision. treat own, policies. Then, noncompliance criteria contributed, overtly covertly, subdivision's comply. Alaska 101-66 Aug. 1966); 2122-71 Mar. 1972). suit prompted recoverage extension. re-established Alaska, abandoned suit. 78-0484 1979) (stipulated dismissal action). One State—Virginia—has 4(a). Virginia 386 1319 (D.C.1974), 901, 820, 833 1963 context inferior rural Solicitor states 159 counties, 530 municipalities, 188 change, 1a. practical level, argued 7,000 currently swamp court. 231-232. confront self-evident "floodgates" open. suits, expense uncertainty, likely initiated success. directs consented actions succeeded, gone trial. nn. Department Justice, shoulder arise recognizing hardly onerous preclearing months 1979 3,200 rate working Letter Joseph W. Dorn Drew Days Assistant Division, (Aug. 1979), reprinted Appellants 1c. astonishing compare unfavorably cited dissent, questioned efficacy arriving 147-148, 987-988, Berry Doles, 190, 200-201, 2692, 2698, 693 judgment). senior Department—much General—could thoughtful, personal average petitions finally judged unidentifiable bureaucracy, usually anything resembling evidentiary hearing. generally "dilution" 290, 1722, coextensive. Guest, 745, 784, 1170, 1192, 239 Bowman, 190 127, 678, 979 (1903). differentiate observation conclusions respecting highly questionable. 195-196. somewhat broader grounds. Mobile, 66-68 adopt 1514 appear STEVENS. 90, 1512. dispositive possible conclusion, parties. An unexplicated judgment, Hicks Miranda, U.S 332, 2281, 223 Jewish Organizations Carey, 430 144, 996, 229 (1977). UJO, drawing lines redistricting strictly districting apportionment. proper, differing reasons. this. question, vis-a-vis citizens, Acts will. [not] powerless minimize polls." 167, 1010. voluntarily racial-bloc reference 158, 1006. Burt, Miranda II: Morganatic Marriage, 1969 S.Ct.Rev. 81. Explicit derived Harlan's 659, 1731, clarified unnecessary, rejection Cases. BRENNAN'S contain suggesting powers, advanced rationales forwarded 654 statements, 656, 1725, 1726. particularly inappropriate construe Mitchell. circumscribed precise exercised field relations. His

Category: 1