Document: 127 S. Ct. 1586 (2007) Alphonso JAMES, Jr., Petitioner, v. UNITED STATES. No. 05-9264. Supreme Court of United States. Argued November 7, 2006. Decided April 18, 2007. *1590 Craig L. Crawford, Orlando, FL, for petitioner. Jonathan Marcus, Washington, D.C., respondent. Jeffrey T. Green, Matthew J. Warren, Sidley Austin LLP, R. Fletcher Peacock, Counsel Record, Office the Federal Public Defender, Florida, Petitioner. Paul D. Clement, Solicitor General, Alice Fisher, Assistant Attorney Michael Dreeben, Deputy to Daniel Goodman, Attorney, Department Justice, Justice ALITO delivered opinion Court. The Armed Career Criminal Act (ACCA), 18 U.S.C. § 924(e), provides that a defendant convicted possession firearm by felon, in violation 922(g), is subject mandatory sentence 15 years imprisonment if has three prior convictions "for violent felony or serious drug offense." question before us whether attempted burglary, as defined Florida law, "violent felony" under ACCA. We hold it is, and we therefore affirm judgment Appeals. I Petitioner James pleaded guilty federal court one count possessing after being felony, 922(g)(1). In his plea, admitted listed indictment. These included conviction state burglary dwelling, Statutes §§ 810.02 777.04.[1] At sentencing, Government argued was ACCA's 15-year minimum term because convictions. objected, arguing did not qualify 924(e). District held Appeals Eleventh Circuit affirmed holding, 430 F.3d 1150, 1157 (2005). granted certiorari, 547 U.S. ___, 126 2860, 165 Ed. 2d 894 (2006). II A applies "[i]n case person who violates section 922(g) this title [the felon provision] *1591 ... offense, both, committed on occasions different from another." 924(e)(1). ACCA defines "any crime punishable exceeding year  "(i) an element use, threatened use physical force against another; "(ii) arson, extortion, involves explosives, otherwise conduct presents potential risk injury 924(2)(B). at time James' follows: "`Burglary' means entering remaining structure conveyance with intent commit offense therein, unless premises are open public licensed invited enter remain." Fla. Stat. 810.02(1) (1993). Florida's criminal attempt statute provided: "A attempts prohibited law such does any act toward commission but fails perpetration intercepted prevented execution thereof, commits attempt." 777.04(1). issue here year. parties agree clause (i) definition have "as 924(e)(2)(B)(i). Nor specific crimes enumerated (ii). Attempted robbery extortion. It involve explosives. And "burglary" meet set forth Taylor States, 495 575, 598, 110 2143, 109 607 (1990): "an unlawful unprivileged entry into, in, building other structure, crime." See 777.04(1) (crime requires "fai[l] [be] execution" underlying offense). Court, then, falls within residual provision "otherwise involv[e] 924(e)(2)(B)(ii). B Before determining elements provision, first consider argument statute's text categorically exclude offenses scope provision. conclude nothing plain language (ii), when read together rest statute, prohibits qualifying predicates they another. argues (ii) must be conjunction (i), which expressly includes its 924(e)(2)(B)(i) (emphasis added). thus concludes Congress' *1592 express inclusion combined failure mention demonstrates latter persuaded. reading would unduly narrow (ii)'s suggest statutory criteria. Clause contrast, lacks broad making necessary specify exactly what types including covered language. short, "the expansive phrasing of" "points directly away sort exclusive specification" into it. Chevron U.S.A. Inc. Echazabal, 536 73, 80, 122 2045, 153 82 (2002); see also States Davis, 16 212, 217(CA7) (rejecting "had Congress wished include 924(e) predicate done so expressly" "untenable light very existence `otherwise' clause, plainly intended serve catch-all provision"), cert. denied, 513 945, 115 354, 130 309 (1994). next invokes canon ejusdem generis general phrase follows list specifics, should only things same type those specifically enumerated. He "common attribute" involving explosives all completed offenses. he contends, similarly extend This unavailing. As initial matter, premise depends limited false. An unsuccessful blow up government building, example, "involv[e][the] explosives." See, e.g., 844(f)(1) (making "maliciously damag[e] destro[y], attemp[t] damage destroy, fire explosive," certain property used affecting interstate commerce added)). event, most relevant common attribute "completion." Rather, these offenses, while technically person, nevertheless create significant risks bodily confrontation might result injury. noted Taylor, "Congress thought categories namely often presented persons, were career criminals, enhancement even though, considered solely terms their elements, do necessarily threat person." U.S., 597, 2143. id., 588, 2143 (noting singled out "often creates possibility confrontation"); Adams, 51 Fed.Appx. 507, 508 (C.A.6 2002) (arson "a another" "[n]ot targeted occupied," could harm firefighters onlookers spread occupied structures"); H.R.Rep. 99-849, p. 3 (1986) (purpose "add State *1593 similar where involved person"). indicates intend preceding exhaustive present others merit status offense. Nothing supports view limit category C relies legislative history buttress excludes deliberations leading adoption 1984, House rejected version provided enhanced penalties persons two conspiracy 52, 98th Cong., Sess., 2 (1984) bill ultimately became omitted reference attempts, simply "robbery both." 1802, 98 2185, repealed 1986 Pub.L. 99-308, 104(b), 100 459. rejection explicit "attempt" 1984 evidenced Whatever weight ordinarily have, find probative here, enactment last word subject. 1986, amended purpose "`expanding' range offenses." supra, 584, amendments added more defining felonies "burglary, Criminals Amendment 1402(b), 3207-40, codified substantially broader than amended. Because both relied specifically, textual basis law's scope, dispositive. consider, much less reject, enacted amendments. What adopted, broadly worded whose reach enough encompass least some III Having concluded neither nor discloses congressional 924(e)(2)(B)(ii)'s ask "involves answering question, employ "`categorical approach'" taken respect *1594 Under approach, "`look fact offense,'" generally "particular facts disclosed record conviction." Shepard 544 13, 17, 125 1254, 161 205 (2005) (quoting 602, 2143). That justify without inquiring particular offender. begin examining constitutes law. On face, take commission" burglary. contends sweeps merely preparatory activity poses no real danger acquiring burglars' tools casing planning But broad, considerably narrowed application context requiring "overt directed conveyance." Jones State, 608 So. 797, 799 (1992). Mere preparation enough. ibid.[2] lower courts appear consistently applied heightened standard. Richardson 922 331, 334 (App.2006); Davis 741 1213, 1214 (App.1999). pivotal overt unlawfully "conduct look guidance. provide baseline measure "otherwise... injury." case, can posed comparable closest analog among 600, n. 9, ("The remains free argue generic towards `otherwise another' 924(e)(2)(B)(ii)"). main arises simple wrongfully onto another's property, rather face-to-face between burglar third party occupant, police officer, bystander comes investigate. *1595 completion innocent progress. kind risk. Interrupting intruder doorstep would-be attempting break-in finding him inside itself. explained: "In cases arises, break-in, may scene occurring. just likely happen succeeds breaking after. Indeed, peak still outside trying break noise exposed . [T]here perpetrator building." Payne, 966 F.2d 4, 8 (C.A.1 1992). greater typical All burglaries burglaries. concerns subset offender been apprehended, prosecuted, convicted. will typically occur thwarted intervenor owner enforcement officer. Many confrontations. do; indeed, intervention prevents ripening completion. Concluding every construed qualifies provision.[3] holding *1596 contrary laws satisfied pose illegally.[4] Given interpreted State's highest court, need attenuated encompassed Sentencing Commission come conclusion regard Guidelines' enhancement, "crime violence" closely tracks felony." Commission, Guidelines Manual 4B1.2(a)(2) (Nov.2006) (USSG). determined "crime[s] "include aiding abetting, conspiring, 4B1.2, comment., 1. based Commission's review empirical sentencing data presumably reflects assessment then-Judge Breyer explained, "[t]he collects detailed virtually better able individual make informed about relation between" likelihood accompanying violence." Doe, 960 221, 225 1992); USSG 1A3 (Nov.1987), reprinted 1A1.1 comment. (Nov. 2006) (describing formulation Guidelines); Chambers, 473 724 (C.A.7 2007) usefulness analysis unenumerated violence). While bound conclusion, further evidence like violence responds "`generally'" *1597 "`most cases'" others. Brief 32. Citing categorical approach employed cannot treat supported Court's Taylor. One could, course, imagine situation realistic anyone unoccupied located far off beaten path intervenors. require metaphysical certainty. speaks "potential risk." inherently probabilistic concepts.[5] combination suggests possibilities contingent remote "risk," there another, true explicitly degree non-enumerated "otherwise" order qualify. misapprehends Taylor's approach. conceivable factual deemed felony. Cf. Gonzales Duenas-Alvarez, 549 815, 822, 166 683 ("[T]o legal imagination probability, theoretical possibility, apply crime"). proper inquiry ordinary always hypothesize unusual prototypically genuine murder gun, unbeknownst shooter, had bullets, Thomas, 361 653, 659 (C.A.D.C.2004). Or, example 924(e)(2)(B)(ii), extortion scheme anonymous blackmailer threatens release embarrassing personal information victim mailed regular payments. cases, another approaches zero. mean nonviolent. long that, nature, satisfies requirements *1598 test. D SCALIA's dissent criticizes our ground sufficient guidance required decide dissent's alternative disadvantages. Among things, unnecessarily decides important briefed (the meaning "extortion" 924(e)(2)(B)(ii)), way hardly doubt, interpretation furnishes clear future cases. interprets dangerous impose requirement. demands reasonable infer magnitude, follow lesser 924(e)(2)(B)(ii) rules presenting great Moreover, risky identify case. establish Thus, unnecessary inadvisable. issue, proposed beyond question. Instead interpreting accordance modern statutes, suggested adopt seems entirely novel greatly reduces stated reason tackling surely worthy objective. practical terms, easier Without hard statistics called attention how determine unrelated say, escape prison?[6] *1599 end, turns ours i.e., comparative occurs occupant officer security guard, someone else. encounter during consummated (i.e., entry), effected), true. grips encounters frequently precisely due many planned progress stage. SCALIA dismisses burglaries, stating "likely consist occupant's yelling, `Who's there?' window, burglar's running away." Post, 1607. possible scenarios. armed spotted private participant neighborhood watch program. Or homeowner angered recited presentence report throwing hammer through window give chase, ensue. For reasons discussed above, convinced clause. IV Although certiorari focused prong itself precludes treating purposes. Specifically, differs "generic" "`[d]welling'" itself, "curtilage thereof,"[7] 810.011(2) curtilage takes "generic burglary" structure." dispositive, *1600 recognized cover strict of, to, Id., Is (which, provision)? again turn answer narrowly, "some form enclosure area surrounding residence part `curtilage' referred statute." Hamilton, 660 1038, 1044 (1995) (holding yard surrounded trees "curtilage"); Matthews, 466 1271, 1274 (C.A.11 ("Florida construes enclosed structure"). definition, believe mitigates enclosing adjacent keep unwanted visitors especially motives. illegally dwelling owner, official, curtilage, proximity breaching enclosure. Such "presents ensue injured." 1275 provision). V Finally, construing raises Sixth issues Apprendi New Jersey, 530 466, 120 2348, 147 435 (2000), progeny "judicial finding" acts underlie `most' burglary." 34, 35. merit. engaging interpretation, judicial factfinding. applying avoided looked issue.[8] * reasons, affirmed. ordered. *1601 SCALIA, whom STEVENS GINSBURG join, dissenting. disagree basic lay my own. acknowledges, ante, 1591, (ACCA) falling "residual provision" Circuit's decision. ("We satisfy `violent felony,'" (2005)), center parties' dispute problem fit almost ad hoc. crime, says, "involv[e] gets docket, sure utterly supposed do: concrete ensure acceptable consistency hundreds district judges sentences day. guideline sentencer compare "closest analog" four (burglary, explosives), "comparable." Ante, 1594. principal attraction test, suspect, makes relatively easy (though, shall subsequently discuss, think reaches wrong risk). Assuming "comparable" "about same," test analogous (as here) comparable. if, obvious (to tell truth) none them all? Is, driving influence alcohol explosives? identified, risk? declines inconceivable excluded reason. comport disqualify arson nowhere near included. probably vast majority today's whatever, leaving own devices deciding, crime-by-crime, decades, dozens grants allocate Nation's side indeterminate line. Compare 1595 (concluding risk), Leocal Ashcroft, *1602 543 1, 377, 160 271 (2004) "substantial used," 16(b)). Imprecision indeterminacy particularly inappropriate statute. Years prison hinge yet boundaries ill defined. If going deny effect impermissibly vague, Part III, infra, responsibility derive notice prevent arbitrary discriminatory sentencing. Kolender Lawson, 461 352, 357, 103 1855, 75 903 (1983). Offenders course years. prefers guessing. ambit put mildly, model clarity. pretend all-encompassing solution crystal-clear contexts. given us. properly sought resolve employing "categorical approach" looking F.3d, 1154, 1156-1157. "generally later delving conviction, normally `look offense.'" (1990)). does, 1594, certainty treated crime. points various laws, punish sanction 18-20. persuasive punishment meted presents. me, however, imply risk; represents display depravity deserving needful deterrence. placed risk, willing successful burglar. me impossible say equivalence imposed elsewhere clarification text. First invite forefront provision: "otherwise." When adverb modifying verb "involves"), manner" "in way." Webster's International Dictionary 1729 (2d ed.1954). natural *1603 committing explosives) "involv[ing] another"; ways character constitute felon[ies]." words, examples mind mind. commonsense principle construction sometimes generis: "[W]hen listed." Black's Law 535 (7th ed. 1999) (Black's) see, Washington Dept. Social Health Servs. Guardianship Estate Keffeler, 537 371, 384-385, 123 1017, 154 972 (2003). resembles, insofar concerned, previously crimes.[1] context, similar, slightly less, Obviously, leave good deal ambiguity downside: How low scale go becomes too dissimilar crimes? Since sets criterion, vary dramatically answer. Leocal, (reversing determination 16). Where reasonably avoidable, indeterminateness unacceptable sanctions. rule lenity, grounded "`fair warning'" Bass, 404 336, 348, 92 515, 30 488 (1971) McBoyle 283 25, 27, 340, 816 (1931)), susceptible. requirement crimes. turn, logical question: Which "serious another"? possibly address To so, define here. "`burglary' *1604 uniform independent labels States' codes." 592, common-law contemporary understanding `burglary' diverged roots." 593, Ultimately, meant sense now codes States." sense, W. LaFave & A. Scott, Substantive American Institute's Model Penal Code (1980). regardless exact label, having 599, purposes ACCA, "At official took `any money thing value' pretense entitled virtue office." Scheidler National Organization Women, Inc., 393, 402, 1057, 991 (2003) 4 Blackstone, Commentaries Laws England 141 (1769), citing Anderson, Wharton's Procedure 1393, pp. 790-791 (1957)); LaFave, 20.4 ed.2003). conceptions gone well understanding. Hobbs Act, "explicitly `expanded individuals.'" Scheidler, 1057 Evans 504 255, 261, 112 1881, 119 57 (1992)). whereas retained something value actually acquired extortionist, 404-405, statutes "that thereby acquire victim's property," 20.4(a)(1), 199 Further, threats expanded dramatically, to: "kill future," "cause economic harm," "`bring continue strike, boycott collective unofficial action,' " "unlawfully detain," "accuse crime," "expose disgraceful defect secret which, known, ridicule disgrace," "impair one's credit business repute." 20.4(a)(4), 200, 201. Code's "Theft Extortion" notion crime: theft [by extortion] purposely obtains threatening "(1) inflict offense; "(2) accuse "(3) expose tending hatred, contempt ridicule, impair repute; "(4) withhold action cause action; "(5) bring action, demanded received benefit group *1605 interest actor purports act; "(6) testify testimony claim defense; "(7) actor." 223.4. Other 1951, Travel 1952 (2000 Supp. IV), Racketeer Influenced Corrupt Organizations (RICO), 1961 et seq., conception Nardello, 393 286, 89 534, 21 487 (1969) (Travel Act); supra (Hobbs RICO).[2] cannot, incorporate full panoply Code, arrive reasons: First, construction, noscitur sociis, counsels unclear words immediately it." 1084; 1017. Of sociis erudite (or antiquated) saying tells true: "[A] known company keeps," Jarecki G.D. Searle Co., 367 303, 307, 81 1579, 6 859 (1961) meanings manner "fit" associated. "burglary," "arson," sweeping sit uncomfortably indeed amidst plain, characterized usage appears organized collect revenue," 291, 8, bribery. RICO, laundry nearly sun. 1961(1) ed., IV).[3] *1606 reinforced original expanse unlikely bar level embrace limitation incomprehensible.[4] infra. assume is: obtaining consent, induced wrongful 377 (discussing relationship "use 16"). final consideration mention. restricted render superfluous "It duty effect, possible, Duncan Walker, 533 167, 174, 121 2120, 150 251 (2001) (internal quotation marks omitted). already "has My passes surplusage problem, since person. else's wreck place (i). return launched investigation place: Recall definitions: "unlawful crime"; Every object threat, property; ignores *1607 resists seeking protect harmed. Burglary, hand, underway; become reality happens present, seeks avoid. moreover, expressed willingness prepared flee sign human presence. II-A crimes; II-B burglary; am finally ultimate case: Does provision? recast burglary? Contrary 1594-1597, no. found "invasion victims' homes workplaces," 581, brackets omitted), dwelled invasion's "inherent persons," comparing focuses exclusively party." numerous factors failed one: closer confined space home; initiating home family home, police. so-called "confrontation" envisions yelling "Who's there?" away. apparently believes, entries reduced house. (One envision householder front door, shotgun pick lock.) stated, enters [that] caretaker, investigate." added); 10, ("[B]urglary, substantial completing crime" By *1608 workplace. (Indeed, certainly injured one; otherwise, serious, assault murder.) extent safety absent however crimes, close offense.[5] observes, undoubted accuracy, perfect. leaves decide, "[w]ithout statistics" guide them, 1598, imponderable dealing upon inheres puny (how know burglary?). perfect, proposes. little doubt that. addition air each presents, uninformative open, guessed subjected law: (1) degrees crimes;[6] (2) broadest meaning, injury; importantly (3) world sail virtual sea doubt. (and view, erroneously) hence bothersome questions wonderfully convenient!). decision-averse enables "unnecessarily decid[ing]" 1598. accurately, quite irrelevantly, asserts following: *1609 "[E]ven 1598 enough, criticized reaching not, unavoidable criticism amounts procedural quibble: clearly risky, then followed step (3), proceeded Perhaps distinction real-world difference. either unquestionably necessary. passed enhance gun-wielding offenders inter alia, eminently abstract condition. Unfortunately, common, pose. shoddy draftsmanship puts difficult choice: They supra; case-by-case pristine abstraction, applicable whenever judge reviewing panel) believes (whatever means); try figure coherent predictable administrable fashion smaller (4) recognize drafting void vagueness, Kolender, 1855; Lanzetta 306 451, 453, 59 618, 83 888 (1939). choose option (which tried implement) fourth, impermissible. wanted subjecting repeat easily crafted said tedious felony," obviously effect. second chosen today) essentially vague ex ante (if end day) highly unpredictable violates, constitutional prohibition laws.[7] abdicated insusceptible principled, application; *1610 allows Today's permits unintelligible survive uncorrected, unguided, unexplained. respectfully dissent. THOMAS, concurring (2005), infirmity 924(e)(1) [James] decision exercise." prohibit "mak[ing] [a defendant's] lawfully jury defendant." Booker, 220, 317-318, 738, 621 (THOMAS, J., dissenting part). Yet firearm, 922(g)(1) ed.), maximum 10 924(a)(2). Section mandated felonies, 777.04 (2006) IV). resolved disputed favor increased accordingly. Relying initially created (1990), 924(e)(1), Shepard, decision, "explain[s] factfinding according logic intervening precedents, unconstitutional case." 1254. reason, NOTES [1] convictionsfor cocaine trafficking cocainewere offense[s]" [2] distinguished earlier Thomas 531 708 (1988). There, upheld criminalizing tools, 810.06, arrested jumping fence run carrying screwdriver. convict tool prove burglary," charged building. So.2d, 799. [3] Lane, 909 895, 1990) (construing Ohio "`The investigate.'... defendant] complete diminish arising burglary"); Fish, 928 185, 188 1991) (Michigan law); 1992) (Massachusetts attempted-breaking-and-entering O'Brien, 47, 52 (C.A.3 "[T]he illegally, completed"); Solomon, 998 587, 590 (C.A.8 1993) (Minnesota Custis, 988 1355, 1364 (C.A.4 (Maryland interrupted home. house"); 79, 80 (New Jersey Andrello, 9 247, 249-250 (C.A.2 York 218 1994) (Illinois Bureau, 593 1995) (Tennessee propensity inherent diminished near-entry despite fully crime"); Demint, 74 876, 878 1996) (Florida Collins, 668, 671 1998) (Wisconsin "We residence.... Wisconsin's mandate Wisconsin felony"). [4] Strahl, 958 980, 986 (1992), Tenth Utah "based duplicate key, `casing' floor plans tools." Permenter, 969 911, 913 (C.A.10 1992), Oklahoma defendant's "merely Martinez, 954 1050, 1054 Fifth came Texas vicinity Weekley, 24 1125, 1127 (C.A.9 1994), "relatively unrisky" neighborhood, selecting house burgle, neckties [5] 1188 ed.1999) (potential: "[c]apable coming being; possible"); 1328 (risk: chance injury, loss; hazard"); Third 1775 "existing possibility: capacity strong development actuality"); loss, disadvantage, destruction"). [6] evaluations persuaded suggestion pressed amici unconstitutionally vague. post, 1609. indefinite prohibits. Similar formulations statutes. 2332b(a)(1)(B) (defining "terrorist act" "creates person"); Ariz.Rev.Stat. Ann. 13-2508(A)(2) (West 2001) (offense resisting arrest preventing effectuating creating causing peace another"); Cal. Safety 42400.3(b) (criminalizing pollution "results unreasonable death N.Y. 490.47 ("[c]riminal chemical weapon biological weapon" grave [7] Burglary respect: extends structures, "conveyance[s]." 810.02(1). (in practice Florida) "attempted dwelling," examine point further. [8] jury, position baseless. Almendarez-Torres 523 224, 118 1219, 140 350 (1998). imprecisely identifies characteristic "create 1592 adding convenient shoehorning invention divorced contains extortion: actual force, violence, fear, color right." 1951(b)(2). Nardello undefined "obtaining consent threats." 409, omitted); 290, 296, 534 (agreeing threats"). Two Courts demonstrated conundrum Congress's felonies. DeLuca, 17 6, linchpin [appellant's] theory extortions equal. [W]e appellant high ingenuity"); 989 310, 312 (Kozinski, J.) ("Determin[ing] [is felony]... `extortion,' matter. consensus `burglary,'... there's It's legislators voted [ACCA] Quite weren't thinking all"). decided definitions (deciding approach); 313 definition). explains, threaten[ing] payments," "risk approach[ing] zero." 1597. posing qualify, power minimum. taking courts. Johnson, 417 990 2005) (operating dump truck ACCA); Springfield, 196 1180 ("walkaway" honor camp ACCA). There modified achieve James's remand; reversed. plays it, "possibility `a regarding accuses of: decid[ing] question," 1598; pronouncement pure dictum. left unexplained skillfully accomplishes) "[s]imilar statutes." 1598-1599, 6. None provisions cites, crucial prefaces judicially-to-be-determined "otherwise," preceded confusing supposedly characteristic. "shades red," standing alone, generate confusion unpredictability; "fire-engine red, pink, maroon, navy blue, colors shades red" assuredly so.

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