Document: 489 U.S. 749 109 S.Ct. 1468 103 L.Ed.2d 774 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE, et al., Petitionersv.REPORTERS COMMITTEE FOR FREEDOM THE PRESS al. No. 87-1379. Argued Dec. 7, 1988. Decided March 22, 1989. Syllabus On the basis of information provided by local, state, and federal law enforcement agencies, Federal Bureau Investigation (FBI) compiles maintains criminal identification records or "rap sheets" on millions persons, which contain descriptive as well a history arrests, charges, convictions, incarcerations. After FBI denied Freedom Information Act (FOIA) requests respondents, CBS news correspondent Reporters Committee for Press, they filed suit in District Court seeking rap sheet one Charles Medico insofar it contained "matters public record." Since Pennsylvania Crime Commission had identified Medico's family company legitimate business dominated organized crime figures, since allegedly obtained number defense contracts result an improper arrangement with corrupt Congressman, respondents asserted that record financial crimes would potentially be matter interest. Petitioner Department Justice responded no such crimes, but refused to confirm deny whether any concerning nonfinancial Medico. The court granted summary judgment Department, holding, inter alia, was protected Exemption 7(C) FOIA, excludes from statute's disclosure requirements compiled purposes "to extent production [materials] . could reasonably expected constitute unwarranted invasion personal privacy." Appeals reversed remanded, among other things, district courts should limit themselves this type case making factual determination subject's privacy interest his is outweighed because original appears record. Held: Disclosure contents third party "could privacy" within meaning therefore prohibited Exemption. Pp. 762-780. (a) nondisclosure might have him sort "personal Congress intended protect. 762-771. (b) Whether private document "warranted" turns upon nature requested its relationship FOIA's central purpose exposing scrutiny official sheds light agency's performance statutory duties, rather than particular identity requesting party. not fostered about citizens i accumulated various governmental files reveals little nothing own conduct. 771-775. (c) In balancing against protect, categorical decision appropriate individual circumstances may disregarded when fits into genus balance characteristically tips direction. Cf. FTC v. Grolier Inc., 462 19, 27-28, 2209, 2214-2215, 76 387; NLRB Robbins Tire & Rubber Co., 437 214, 224, 98 2311, 2318, 57 159. Id., at 223-224, S.Ct., disapproved read Exemption's "an invasion" phrase require ad hoc balancing. Where, here, subject citizen Government's control compilation, what Government up to, maintaining sheet's "practical obscurity" always apex while FOIA-based nadir. Thus, matter, sheets are excluded circumstances. 776-780. 259 U.S.App.D.C. 426, 816 F.2d 730, 265 365, 831 1124, reversed. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, MARSHALL, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. BLACKMUN, concurring judgment, BRENNAN, joined, post, p. 780. Roy T. Englert, Jr., Washington, D.C., petitioners. Kevin Baine, respondents. STEVENS Court. 1 has records, sometimes referred sheets," over 24 million persons. question presented file (FOIA), 5 U.S.C. § 552(b)(7)(C) (1982 ed., Supp. V). 2 * 1924 appropriated funds enable (Department) establish program collect preserve fingerprints records. 43 Stat. 217. That statute authorized exchange "officials States, cities institutions." Ibid. Six years later created FBI's division, gave responsibility "acquiring, collecting, classifying, preserving exchanging said duly officials cities, penal Ch. 455, 46 554 (codified 340 (1934 ed.)); see 28 534(a)(4) (providing rap-sheet "authorized Government, institutions"). Rap pursuant authority certain information, date birth physical characteristics, incarcerations subject. Normally preserved until attains age 80. Because volume sheets, incorrect incomplete persons similar names. 3 agencies throughout Nation data do so voluntary basis. principal use assist detection prosecution offenders; also used corrections connection sentencing parole decisions. As executive policy, generally treated confidential and, exceptions, restricted their purposes. Consistent Department's basic policy treating these confidential, 1957 amended provide agency cancellation "if dissemination made outside receiving departments related agencies." 71 61; 534(b). 4 two exceptions general practice prohibiting unofficial access sheets. First, allows obtain copy, CFR §§ 16.30-16.34 (1988); second, occasionally preparation press releases publicity designed apprehension wanted fugitives. See 20.33(a)(4). addition, three separate occasions expressly release limited 1972 federally chartered insured banking institutions State approved Attorney General, local governments employment licensing. ." 86 1115. 1975, amendment Securities Exchange 1934, permitted General self-regulatory organizations securities industry. 15 78q(f)(2) And finally, 1986 criminal-history licensees applicants before Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 42 2169(a). These targeted enactments—all adopted after FOIA passed 1966—are consistent view understood did disapprove nonpublic documents. 6 Although much record, availability actual limited. Arrests, indictments, sentences events usually documented if person's entire transpired single jurisdiction, all her available request jurisdiction. possibility, however, present only States.1 All 47 States place substantial restrictions summaries even though those matters Moreover, Florida, Wisconsin, Oklahoma, publicly include out-of-state arrests convictions.2 II 7 known actually part Administrative Procedure (APA). Section APA enacted 1946 broad discretion publication records.3 1966 section implement " 'a philosophy full disclosure.' "4 required publish rules procedure Register, 552(a)(1)(C), make inspection copying opinions, statements interpretations, staff manuals instructions published 552(a)(2).In 552(a)(3) requires every "upon describes records" "promptly person."5 If improperly withholds documents, jurisdiction order production. Unlike review action must upheld supported evidence arbitrary capricious, places burden "on sustain action" directs "determine de novo."6 8 exempted nine categories documents requirements. Three exemptions arguably relevant case. applies specifically another statute. 552(b)(3). protects "personnel medical clearly 552(b)(6).7 purposes, "but 552(b)(7)(C). 9 7(C)'s language broader comparable respects. whereas "clearly unwarranted," adverb "clearly" omitted 7(C). This omission product 1974 response concerns expressed President.8 Second, refers disclosures "would constitute" privacy, encompasses invasion. difference specific amendment.9 standard evaluating threatened interests resulting somewhat applicable personnel, medical, files. III 10 arises out Press (respondents) four members family. family's company, Industries, figures. Congressman. 11 sought acquittals, Medicos. originally requests, Medicos deaths. complaint fourth, (Medico), App. 33. 12 parties cross-motions judgment. Respondents urged regarding "a bribery, embezzlement crime" special 97. answer argument, advised Medico, continued refuse crimes. issue narrowed nonfinancial-crime 13 motion relying grounds. concluded 534, authorizes prohibits public, applicable.10 decided containing ap were included category privacy," applicable. term "similar files" applied "is named therein." Pet. Cert. 56a. disclosure, unwarranted."11 Finally, held 7(C), ordered statement camera give opportunity reconsider if, reviewing statement, seemed appropriate. filing, seal submission appeal. 14 730 (1987). It individual's minimal best. Noting absence standards judge bound state determinations public. Accordingly, Exemptions inapplicable. agreed apply 534 qualify "specifically" exempting disclosure. rehearing petitions advising that, contrary understanding, most policies refusing summaries, modified holding. 1124 With regard side balance, now recognized rely However, adhered judges position "idiosyncratic" evaluations disclosures, U.S.App.D.C., 437, F.2d, 741; instead, directed consider "the statute." 367, 1126. told "only kinds cases: Has faded appear record?" 368, 1127. accordance initial opinion, remanded determine withheld source, so, satisfy obligation referring information. 16 he concurred Appeals' disposition, Judge Starr dissented, expressing disagreement majority points. rejected argument there "cumulative, indexed, computerized" simply underlying courthouses police stations: 17 "As I it, computerized banks involved here issues considerably more difficult than, certainly very different from, involving source themselves. conclusion buttressed know host laws requiring cumulative, indexed kept Congressional indications concern implications banks. H.R.Rep. 1416, 93d Cong., 2d Sess. 3, 6-9 (1974), reprinted Legislative History Privacy 1974, Source Book Privacy, 296, 299-302 (1974)." 369, 1128. 18 evaluation depending kind subject: "Although one's otherwise inconspicuously anonymous next-door neighbor, significant interest—one overcomes stake—in figure holding high office. For guidance fleshing analysis, seems sensible me draw body defamation dealing 'public personages.' 370, 1129. 19 questioned feasibility material majority's approach departed convert clearinghouse been collected under variety situations: 20 "We informed many items individuals ostensibly example, Veterans Administration Social Security certificates, marriage licenses, divorce decrees (which recite findings fault); Housing Urban Development home mortgages presumably records' county clerks' offices. Under approach, confidentiality laws, virtual per se rule released. government thereby transformed fell swoop highly releasing person, requester, purpose. intend." 371, 1130 (emphasis original). 21 en banc, dissenting. 64a-66a. potential effect values we certiorari. 485 1005, 108 1467, 99 697 (1988). We reverse.12 IV 22 us maintaining, puts release. 23 preliminary protect.13 pointed before, "[t]he cases characterized protecting 'privacy' fact least interests. One avoiding matters, independence important decisions." Whalen Roe, 429 589, 598-600, 97 869, 875-877, 51 64 (1977) (footnotes omitted). Here, former interest, "in matters," implicated. summarized previously disclosed contend compilation approaches zero. reject respondents' cramped notion privacy. To begin with, both common literal understandings encompass person. society, few facts time divulged another.14 Thus protection accorded right rested degree passage rendered private.15 According Webster's definition, classified "private" "intended person group class persons: freely public."16 Recognition attribute supports distinction, terms between scattered bits revelation whole. spent prepare, index, maintain demonstrates "freely available" either who Indeed, available," reason invoke contain. Granted, contexts exempt dissemination. But hard-to-obtain alters implicated Plainly vast found diligent search courthouse files, archives, stations country located 25 web regulatory provisions limits is, banks, licensing officials, industry, nuclear-power agencies. supra, 752-753. Further, mo e generally, 752. careful pattern dictionary definition restriction persons." although perhaps enough exemption 552(b)(3),17 statutes regulations, taken whole, congressional intent protect subjects, concomitant recognition power compilations affect outstrips combined within. 26 Other portions itself bolster citizens, identifiable name, framers mind. Specifically, provides "[t]o prevent delete identifying details makes publishes interpretation, manual instruction." 552(a)(2). Additionally, assures "[a]ny segregable portion shall deletion [§ ]." 552(b) provisions, references deleted, reflect understanding can infringe interests.18 27 Also supporting our strong inheres codified 552a ed. largely impact computer 93-1416, (1974). "[n]o disclose system except written by, prior consent of, whom pertains." 552a(b) contains rule, including 552a(b)(2), Congress' consideration affected computer. Given level centralized bases, surprising. out, 753, n. 2, nonconviction all, conviction "generally unavailable public." supra. policies, course, statute, profession assumes—as Justice—that subjects histories. reasonable presume legislated professional point view. 29 addition common-law understandings, inherent where Most apposite Air Force Rose, 425 352, 96 1592, 48 (1976). New York University students Academy Honor Ethics Code project military discipline. already posted 40 squadron bulletin boards, names redacted (names cadets guilty left Academy), necessary. dealt 6's exception today deals discussion Rose here. explained permits proper parts released keeping secret. id., 373-377, 1604-1607; (a)(4)(B) emphasized segregability explain redacted, disclosable. then offered lower determining 6: 30 "Respondents [the tradition identities Academy]. Their 'with deleted,' respected embodied 6. recognized, constitutes adet weighed viewpoint vantage familiar, fellow staff, aspects career Academy. Despite summaries' distribution Academy, earlier never cadet, wholly forgotten encounter risk particularly remained military, posed unknowing colleagues instructors cannot trivial. nevertheless conclude Act, open 'clearly unwarranted' will result, affirmance 'no guarantee know" hold tongues, eroded fabric cadet loyalty,' sufficed stage proceedings enjoining 'is sufficient safeguard [respondents].' U.S., 380-381, 1608. 31 387-388, 1611-1612 (BLACKMUN, dissenting); 389-390, 1612 (REHNQUIST, dissenting). doubly stressed importance summaries. First: praised Academy's through redaction often other, So, second: Even once details, permitting "other information" past discipline "wholly forgotten," ordinary surely forgotten. 32 away eye. (1977), file, addresses obtained, doctor's prescription, drugs lawful unlawful market." 591, 872. Constitution does prohibit "threat privacy": 33 unaware threat implicit accumulation amounts massive collection taxes, welfare social security benefits, supervision health, direction Armed Forces, orderly preservation great quantities character embarrassing harmful disclosed. typically accompanied duty avoid disclosures. Recognizing some roots Constitution, York's sc eme, implementing administrative procedures, 605, 879 (footnote omitted); 607, 880 (BRENNAN, concurring) ("The storage easy accessibility vastly increase abuse ."). 34 sum, event 'private' mean limiting information." Rehnquist, Is Expanded Right Fair Effective Law Enforcement?, Nelson Timothy Stephens Lectures, Kansas School, pt. 1, (Sept. 26-27, 1974). substantial. today's society accumulate store long 80, discarded. V 35 terms, withhold next address factors warrant described Part IV, 36 Our previous decisions warranted turn made. Except objection based claim privilege privilege, bearing merits request. presentence report waive defeat party's report, United Julian, 486 13-14, 1606, 1613-1614, 100 (1988), granting denying 752, rights party, neighbor prospective employer. repeatedly stated, intended" member [in document]." Sears, Roebuck 421 132, 149, 95 1504, 1515, 44 (1975); 221, 2317, 159 (1978); Abramson, 456 615, 102 2054, 72 376 (1982). Professor Davis explained: "The Act's sole public."19 37 'to scrutiny.' 372, 1604, being requested. leading declared create "official EPA Mink, 410 73, 93 827, 832, 119 (1973).20 dissent case, Douglas quoting comment Henry Steele Commager: 38 'The generation nation thought secrecy instruments Old World tyranny committed principle democracy function unless people to.' 105, 845 (quoting Review Books, Oct. 5, 1972, 7) added). 39 'full delineated language,' 360-361, 1599 S.Rep. 813, 89th 1st Sess., (1965)), indeed focuses citizens' "what to." Official duties falls squarely purpose, case—and typical another—the requester intend discover anything conduct possession shed official. illustrated discussed earlier, honor disciplinary-hearing maintained Honors reading obviously how disciplinary procedures functioned parties, deleting identify related. deletions unquestionably irrelevant inquiry way administered Code; leaving unwarranted" If, instead conduct, asked related, fact, explicitly [FOIA is] gency scrutiny." 1604. 41 argue two-fold learning convictions: He dealings officer corporation contracts. has, arrested convicted neither aggravate nor mitigate Congressman; specifically, tell directly Congressman's behavior. Nor Defense (DOD) awarding Company. Arguably DOD relating contracts, describing any, officers contractor Conceivably story, but, itself, FOIA. words, undoubtedly anyone's history, especially agency, ensure activities opened sharp eye scrutiny, happens warehouse come surprise none construing citizen.21 What clear exist sheet. entitled them knows same disclosure—whether writing deciding employ rent house him, extend credit suspicion. There unquestionably, providing interested answers questions ambit serve. note fees waived reduced likely contribute significantly operations primarily commercial requester." 552(a)(4)(A)(iii) provision implies meet "public interest" standard, think again core "contribut[ing] government." VI Both requirement "shall novo" reference "unwarranted" indicate sides agree undertaken, done dispute. assigning task striking case-by-case, hoc, without performing task. support proposition dissenting opinions (1978). 45 Robbins, 7(A), interfere proceedings," witnesses National Labor Relations Board (NLRB Board) call unfair-labor-practice hearing. noted 7(B), (C), (D) contemplate case-by-case showing "that each distinct situation," 223, 2318; 234, 2323, 7(A) "appears generic made." 2318. ruling encompassed witness statements, embraced well. 243, 2327 (STEVENS, concurring). partial dissent, Powell endorsed Court's "generic" issue, 244, 2328; harm respect prehearing documents." 249, 2330. view, currently employed respondent. sure, phrases person,' 'an invasion,' source,' (D), respectively, seem imply need individualized (whereas plural 'enforcement proceedings' determination). today, closer undertaken well.22 A properly 7(A). Respondent argued "because justifying 552(a)(4)(B), (1976 ed.), necessarily contemplates demonstrate witness' pending proceeding." equally segregability, inspections, proof mandate balancing—is exemptions. Second: speaks added), singular mandates provides: "This are—records Just ask "law record" meets Exemption, too (or citizens) stated criteria. true damage citizen's outweighs value perfectly "production [rap sheets] Robbins' focus "an" Third: 387 (1983), c tegorical investigation subsidiary. At seven normally "inter-agency intra-agency memorandums letters litigation agency." 552(b)(5). work-product show 'litigation terminated exists exists.' 2212. reversed, concluding instances civil-discovery permit "[s]uch materials 'routinely' 'normally' hence 5." 27, 2214. added "[t]his establishing discrete implements 'workable' rules. Only expediting means workable furthered." 2214-2215 49 Finally: practical obscurity high. When to," Parts V, Such disparity scales justice holds circumstances; virtues bright-line thus present, difficulties attendant adjudication avoided. invade seeks merely storing, "unwarranted." 50 ordered. BRENNAN joins, 52 concur reaches follow route takes reach result. "categorical balancing" think, basically sound. appeal, wonder run aground occasion, situation discloses candidate's tax fraud five before. Surely, "reasonably expected" less invasion, inasmuch candidate relinquished preventing chose Congress. short, believe legislative law, interpreting 1497, (1966); (1965); (1976); Lesar Dept. Justice, 204 App.D.C. 200, 636 472, 486, 80 (1980). 53 possible mount favor U S.C. presence post-FOIA enactments mentions, ante, 753. abandoned lost, inappropriate pursue along line 54 reasons, adopt leave door Nonetheless, flexible still reversing I, therefore, join opinion. Fla.Stat. 943.053(3) (1987); Wis.Stat. 19.35 (1987-1988); Okla.Stat., Tit. 51, 24A.8 (Supp.1988). brief behalf Search Group, amici curiae following description States: "Conviction data, non-criminal employers. general, far data. By contrast, states narrowly defined circumstances, specified purposes." Brief 13. blotters event-based arrest Houston Chronicle Publishing Co. City Houston, 531 S.W.2d 177 (Tex.Civ.App.1975), aff'd, 536 559 (Tex.1976); Van Arsdale, 227 Kan. 676, 608 P.2d 972 plagued vague phrases, 'any interest.' 'matters record' 'persons concerned' remedy wrongful withholding 79, (1973). 360, 1599, (1976) (1965)). Title "Except paragraphs (1) (2) subsection, (A) (B) stating time, place, (if any), followed, promptly person." 552(a)(4)(B) "(B) complaint, enjoin complainant. novo, examine thereof set forth subsection section, action." authorize offend privacy: "To m kes 120 Cong.Rec. 33158-33159 34162-34163 132 27189, 31414-31415. move represents considered effort ease invoking [Exemption 7]," 31425, indication shift eliminate novo deference cases. Rather, operate stricter "would" gives to" compile 534. 'acquire, collect, classify, identification, 'exchange institutions.' Significantly, goes '[t]he section] agencies.' satisfied above acquired '[s]pecifically [28 534]' 'requires manner issue.' concludes defendants 3." 55a. "It unlikely offenses occurred ago, William relevance minor completely unrelated plaintiffs. (Charles Medico), [sic ] exists, privacy.' 552(b)(6) (7)(C)." 57a. covers occasion application tort lie Constitution. See, e.g., Cox Broadcasting Corp. Cohn, 420 469, 1029, 328 (1975) (Constitution penalizing name deceased rape victim records); Paul Davis, 424 693, 712-714, 1155, 1165-1167, 405 (no constitutional untried shoplifter). Karst, Files": Legal Controls Over Accuracy Accessibility Stored Personal Data, Contemp.Prob. 342, 343-344 (1966) ("Hardly anyone keep altogether secret himself. Almost however sensitive, someone else. Meaningful ordinarily deal total selective disclosure"). Warren Brandeis, Harv.L.Rev. 193, 198 (1890-1891) secures determining, ordinarily, thoughts, sentiments, emotions communicated others. [E]ven chosen expression, retains fix given them"). forfeit albeit diminished privileged it. 494-495, 1046 ("[T]he fade record") supplied). Restatement (Second) Torts 652D, pp. 385-386 ("[T]here liability giving plaintiff's life birth. hand, inspection, income returns, so"); W. Keeton, D. Dobbs, R. Owens, Prosser Keeton 117, 859 (5th 1984) ("[M]erely [a fact] recor[d] receive widespread involve concern"). Third International Dictionary 1804 A. Breckenridge, (1970) ("Privacy, my rightful wishes share himself himself"); Westin, (1967) ("Privacy when, how, others"); Project, Rights Citizens, 73 Mich.L.Rev. 971, 1225 (1974-1975) flow individuality"). petitioners renew 6, 1. (1965) justification necessary able public's secure affairs pertinent unseasonably harsh weather caused relief costs; public"); U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1966, 2418, 2425 know, public"). assessments like enforcement—are concern. just operation, enforcement. reveal dry, chronological, brushes substantive Act: Preliminary Analysis, U.Chi.L.Rev. 761, 765 (1966-1967), quoted SCALIA's 17, 1615, Easterbrook, Optimal Extent J. Studies 775, 777 (1980) act's indexing reading-room primary objective elimination 'secret law.' governing relationships demands conduct"); Kronman, 727, 733 first obvious goal (reflected requirements) promote honesty reduce waste scrutiny"); Comment, Harv.Civ.Rights-Civ.Lib.L.Rev. 596, ("No government's socially useful suggested boon academic researchers, eliminating assemble collected"). citizens. CIA Sims, 471 159, 105 1881, 85 173 (1985); (1982); Washington Post 595, 1957, 358 willingness departure dicta. 162-165, 1522-1524, (1975), decide issue. doing, Counsel's "once determined fall 'investigatory files' inquire contravene 7." 163, 1522-1523 (emphases Counsel 7. argument: indicates disapproves cases, relied Counsel, relieve investigatory 164, 1523. cited, S.Conf.Rep. 93-1200, 6267, elsewhere. 1986, moreover, greater flexibility responding Whereas cause proposed Senate replace "with reasonableness test." 98-221, (1983). focusing tend amply

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