Document: 533 U.S. 53121 S.Ct. 2053150 L.Ed.2d 115 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.TUAN ANH NGUYEN and JOSEPH BOULAIS, PETITIONERSv.IMMIGRATION AND NATURALIZATION SERVICESUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES No. 99-2071. Argued January 9, 2001Decided June 11, 2001 Syllabus Petitioner Tuan Anh Nguyen was born out wedlock Vietnam a Vietnamese citizen copetitioner Joseph Boulais, citizen. became lawful permanent resident at age six raised by Boulais. At 22, pleaded guilty Texas state court two counts sexual assault on child. Subsequently, respondent Immigration Naturalization Service initiated deportation proceedings against him based his serious criminal offenses. The Judge ordered deportable. Boulais obtained an parentage from while Nguyen's appeal pending Board Appeals, but dismissed appeal, rejecting citizenship claim because he had not complied with 8 U.S.C. 1409(a)'s requirements for one abroad father noncitizen mother. On Fifth Circuit rejected petitioners' 1409 violates equal protection providing different rules children depending whether parent mother father. Held: Section consistent guarantee embedded Amendment's Due Process Clause. Pp. 3-18. (a) A child acquires birth nationality status who meets specified residency requirement. 1409(c). However, when parent, inter alia, three affirmative steps must taken turns 18: legitimization, declaration paternity under oath father, paternity. 1409(a)(4). failure satisfy this section renders ineligible citizenship. 3-5. (b) gender-based classification withstands scrutiny if it serves important governmental objectives discriminatory means employed substantially related achievement those objectives. v. Virginia, 518 515, 533. Congress' decision impose unmarried fathers mothers significant difference between their respective relationships potential time justified interests. 5-16. (1) first such interest importance assuring biological parent-child relationship exists. mother's relation verifiable itself documented certificate hospital records witnesses birth. need present birth, presence incontrovertible proof fatherhood. See Lehr Robertson, 463 248, 260, n. 16. Because similarly situated regard parenthood, imposition each neither surprising nor troublesome constitutional perspective. 1409(a)(4)'s provision options designed ensure acceptable documentation Petitioners argue 1409(a)(1)'s requirement provide clear convincing evidence sufficient achieve end establishing paternity, given sophistication modern DNA tests. does mandate testing. Moreover, Constitution require Congress elect particular mechanism among many possible methods 1409(a)(4) represents reasonable legislative conclusion satisfaction several alternatives will suffice establish father-child blood link required as predicate child's acquisition Finally, even facially neutral rule would sometimes take additional which mothers, whose names result have benefit call upon. 7-9. (2) second furthered determination some demonstrated opportunity develop consists real, everyday ties connection and, turn, States. Such inheres event case her child, matter inevitability unwed He know conceived, unsure father's identity. One concern context has always been young men duty Armed Forces foreign countries. Today, ease travel willingness Americans visit countries resulted numbers trips real contemplating prospect mandating, contrary wishes, male no condition than residence country. Equal principles do ignore reality. takes unremarkable step ensuring inherent mother-child exists conferred upon latter. That interest's too profound satisfied test scientific not, itself, contact during minority. well within its authority refusing, absent develop, commit country embracing Contrary argument, embody stereotype. There nothing irrational improper recognizing moment birth-a critical statutory scheme tradition law-the knowledge fact parenthood established way guaranteed 9-13. (3) chose relate facilitating relationship. First, various provisions, addition 1409(a), act linking occur 18. Second, argument reflects stereotype women more likely actually misconceives both nature inquiry. As former, could chosen advance meaningful every case, enacted instead easily administered promote still substantial develop. Petitioners' confuses inquiry's ends; should invalidated elected less demanding alternative. Even conceives establishment relationship, almost axiomatic policy seeking foster bonds close bearing bond's formation. Here, furtherance objective, fit exceedingly persuasive. supra, 13-16. (c) imposes minimal obligation. Only least onerous satisfied; can day next day, 18 years. moreover, sole attaining seek own right, rather via reliance parental ties. P. (d) statute satisfies applied qualifications, consider confer terms assess implications statements earlier cases regarding wide deference afforded exercising immigration naturalization power. 17-18. 208 F.3d 528, affirmed. ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR FIFTH CIRCUIT Kennedy, J., delivered Court, Rehnquist, Stevens, Scalia, Thomas, JJ., joined. Opinion Justice Kennedy Court. 1 presents question resolved majority us Terms ago. Miller Albright, 523 420 (1998). Title governs persons parents outside possessions. distinction Clause Amendment. 2 * Ahn Saigon, Vietnam, September 1969, were married. employ corporation. After ended lived family Boulais' new girlfriend. In 1975, Nguyen, then years age, came 3 1992, sentenced eight prison count. Three later, (INS) alien convicted crimes involving moral turpitude, aggravated felony. 1227(a)(2)(A)(ii) (iii) (1994 ed., Supp. IV). Though later change position citizen, testified hearing Vietnam. found 4 appealed Appeals 1998, pending, court, By time, 28 old. failed compliance sets forth 5 Circuit, arguing attainment American challenge 1409(a). 535 (2000). 6 constitutionality argued Miller, major- ity did resolve issue. Four Justices, opinions, distinction, finding Amendment, see U.S., 423 (opinion joined J.), concluding remedy violated protection, id., 452 (Scalia, concurring judgment). Justices reached result, statue violative protection. Id., 460 (Ginsburg Souter Breyer, dissenting); id. 471 (Breyer, Ginsburg, dissenting). reach issue having determined only petitioner lacked standing raise rights 445 (O'Connor, 7 Since Courts Appeal divided over 1409. Compare 528 (CA5 2000) (case below), Lake Reno, 226 141 (CA2 2000), Ahumada-Aguilar, 189 1121 (CA9 1999). We granted certiorari conflict. 530 1305 case; all agree claim, we now it. hold 1409(a) II general outlying possessions married, whom alien, set 1401(g). provides also if, physically total five years, after turned 14 age. 9 individual same circumstances, save unwed, following where alien: 10 "(1) person evidence, 11 "(2) person's 12 "(3) (unless deceased) agreed writing financial support until reaches 13 "(4) years- "(A) legitimated law domicile, 15 "(B) acknowledges oath, 16 "(C) adjudication competent court." addition, incorporates reference, 17 When mother, transmittal described 1409(c): "(c) Notwithstanding subsection section, born, December 23, 1952, shall held acquired previously continuous period year." thus imposed like circumstances All concede 1409(a)(3) (a)(4), relating acknowledgment 18, case. discuss 1409(a)(3), however. It added 1986, birth; falls transitional allows application either current version statute, pre-1986 version, contained parallel 1409(a)(3). Nationality Act Amendments 100 Stat. 3655; note 1409; 426, 3, 432 J.). And event, our ruling respecting dispositive meet preconditions, citize ship. III 19 For withstand scrutiny, " 'at [challenged] "important employed" "substantially objectives." ' (1996) (quoting Mississippi Univ. Women Hogan, 458 718, 724 (1982) turn quoting Wengler Druggists Mut. Ins. Co., 446 142, 150 (1980)). reasons follow, conclude standard. Given determination, decide lesser degree pertains implicates 434, (explaining subjected standard deferential congressional exercise power, "[e]ven ... heightened normally gender discrimination claims context," sustained (citations omitted)). 20 Before considering interests advanced observations concerning operation order. expecting living right re-enter so here 14th Amendment From perspective, then, simply ensures equivalence expectant citizens chooses reenter return, so. factor single For, unlike cannot control born. 21 although requires certain conduct abroad, limitations qualifies treatment identical respect assert citizenship, assuming regardless conditions necessary transmit 1409(c) exist and/or 435 22 relevant mother: legitimation; father; differ Specifically, paternal maternal one, turn. 23 served itself. most instances attest 24 uncontestable If present, furthermore, circumstance (1983) (" carries bears sense clear. validity gauged measures' Caban Mohammed, 441 380, 397 (1979) (Stewart, dissenting))); Trimble Gordon, 430 762, 770 (1977) ("The problems proving might justify illegitimate claiming fathers' estates mothers' ..."). Fathers parenthood. making legal Cf. Cleburne Living Center, Inc., 473 432, 439 (1985) Protection "is essentially direction treated alike"); F. S. Royster Guano Co. 253 412, 415 (1920). paternity-legitimation, paternity-is 25 1409(a)(1), parentage, Brief 21-24. 1409(a)(1) test, Constitution, arguably scientifically method. With testing, expense, reliability, availability testing parts world Congress. 437 legislature Lehr, 267-268 (upholding New York gave notice adoption hearing, extended mailed postcard "putative registry"). motherhood mothers. 26 speak without reference objective tie insist hollow neutrality. Stevens pointed prove 30 days or, matter, 436. be, appear use specific ones. Just mask unlawful, mark permissible distinction. lawful. into account parents. differential sensible scheme, unique B 27 manner just recognized, law, par- ent 438-440 overseas, very often understandings knows being hers initial point him. inevitability, 9-month interval conception sure significance overseas wedlock. people, part, Department Defense, Selected Manpower Statistics 48, 74 (1999) (reporting year there 3,458,072 active military personnel, 39,506 female); 29 (1970) (noting 1,041,094 personnel stationed 1969); 49, 76 1999 1,385,703 200,287 33 252,763 prevail today, find passage produced grounds contemplate accepting mandate, previous length alone, million excluding Canada Mexico. Dep t. Commerce, Profile Travelers Overseas Destinations (Oct. 2000). Visits Mexico add figure 34 visits. Resident Travel Countries, Historical Visitation 1989-1999, p. average traveler spent 15.1 nights 1999. Destinations, 4. Principles To contrary, these facts demonstrate Government's substitute manifest Indeed, especially light number short sojourns realistic possibility. conception, follow Thus, assurance ever meet. Without own, begin opportunity, 31 merely conducting test. knowledge, say presence. Paternity taking samples few strands hair, Federal Judicial Reference Manual Scientific Evidence 497 (2d ed. Yet nothing, 32 development entitled full absolute enter borders, participation political process. unwitting petitioners urge, little realities allegiances, Congress, make determination. path chosen, 1409, unobjectionable fulfill. While INS' brief contains indicating describe, Respondent 38, 41, suggests well. Statements government's conclusive objects however, concerned INS. ascertain purpose drawing logical conclusions text, structure, operation. amici that, fulfilling interest, embodies Although above discussion illustrate assertions, addresses undeniable noted, stereotype, defined frame mind resulting uncritical analysis. recognition whole review precedent establishes sex proscribed classification... . Physical differences enduring"). 35 Having concluded facilitation remains further objective-the father-substantially end. Under adopted sustained. 36 unsurprising decided formative desire seeks provisions See, e.g., 1431 (child become naturalized begins reside she 18); 1432 (imposing naturalized). 37 effective. particular, "knowledge how acquired, one's child." They maintain reflect children. 17. 38 line examine statutes alleged violate course actual, conferred. Or excuse actual proved. here, perhaps subjectivity, intrusiveness, difficulties attend inquiry bond tie. Instead, ends inquiry; 39 pursues practical considerable substance opposed begin, misconception fatal argument. apply long question. (in Wengler, 150)). formation bond. None consideration capable achieving ultimate stance. 40 difficult conferring vast persons, "exceedingly persuasive." explained persuasive justification" "by showing 'important employed' 'substantially objectives.' omitted). C 41 analyzing 1409(a)(4), mindful obligation minimal. shows erected inordinate unnecessary hurdles conferral furthering provided satisfied. 42 jurisdiction, matter. 1409(a)(4)(A). alternative, written acknowledgement hardly burden. 1409(a)(4)(B). Or, choose obtain 1409(a)(4)(C). unfortunate, tragic, pursue, of, simple alternatives. Any omission, nullify scheme. 43 attain An fails comply parent. 1423 1427. option foreclosed bar due offenses denial supposed rigidity harshness laws. IV 44 scheme's classifications constitutes basis upholding review, face obstacles they prevail. 45 INS urges irrespective constitutional, grant relief request: "potential fashioning remedy" unconstitutional. 46 451 judgment); cf. 445, J.) (declining address sought-after remedy). Two Members today's said dispositive. 452-459 ask invalidate sever remembered severance assumption intended result. 457 judgment) (citing 505 144 (1992)). regard, severability provision, expressly subchapter Code "Sole procedure," "[a] prescribed otherwise." 1421(d); 457-458 1421(d) refers naturalization, "conferring birth." 1101(a)(23). Citizenship retroactive date nevertheless. definition, place limitation 1421(d). 47 holding violation, rely reason, Fiallo Bell, 787, 792-793, Galvan Press, 347 522, 531 (1954)); 792 Oceanic Steam Nav. Stranahan, 214 320, 339 (1909)). These arguments considered, conventional scrutiny. V 48 fail acknowledge basic differences-such be-risks superficial, disserving Mechanistic stereotypes operate obscure misconceptions prejudices real. embodied marked prejudice, show disrespect class. process principle forbid problem hand gender. 49 judgment Affirmed. 50 filed opinion, 51 O'Connor, dissenting Souter, 52 Thomas joins, concurring. 53 I remain view lacks power sort suit-namely, 420, (1998) otherwise, J.); (Ginsburg, today proceeding assumption; think appropriate me merits claims. join 54 Breyer join, dissenting. 55 spanning nearly decades, sex. confronts another classifies individuals invokes explains applies stranger precedents. shown justification sex-based 1409(a)(4)-i.e., relates objectives-I reverse Appeals. 56 Sex-based statutes, accurately reflecting behave, deny opportunity. generalizations viewed isolation, Nation's 'long unfortunate history discrimination.' J. E. B. Alabama ex rel. T. B., 511 127, 136 (1994) Frontiero Richardson, 411 677, 684 (1973) (plurality opinion)). reinforce "fixed notions roles abilities males females." 725 (1982). 57 reasons, party defend "must carry burden 'exceedingly justification' classification." Kirchberg Feenstra, 450 455, 461 (1981)); (1996). defender "only Women, (1980)); 58 Our guidance meaning reviewing Court's instruction stands stark contrast elucidation rudiments rational review. with, "[t]he rests entirely [the defending classification]." contrast, "has produce sustain rationality Heller Doe, 509 312, 320 (1993). attacking arrangement negative conceivable it, foundation record." 320-321 (internal quotation marks citation 59 Further, sustains genuine, hypothesized invented post hoc response litigation." "[T]he mere recitation benign, compensatory automatic shield protects purposes underlying scheme." Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 636, 648 (1975). 'constitutionally irrelevant [what] reasoning underlay decision.' Railroad Retirement Bd. Fritz, 449 166, 179 (1980) Flemming Nestor, 363 603, 612 (1960)). 60 Heightened countenance justifications "rely overbroad about talents, capacities, preferences Rational much tolerant broad classes individuals, arbitrary irrational. Kimel Florida Regents, 62, 84 (2000); 177. 61 impermissible enjoy empirical support. 139, 11; Craig Boren, 429 190, 199 (1976); 645. classification. FCC Beach Communications, 508 307, 315 (1993) ("[A] choice courtroom factfinding speculation unsupported data"). 62 burdens standards correspond duties applying court's task clear: "Focusing sought, determine proffered persuasive.' 532-533. inquire discrimination, "a tenable describe purposes, rationalizations actions differently grounded." 535-536; 533; 648; Califano Goldfarb, 199, 212-217 opinion); 219-221 (Stevens, standard, hand, instructs 'must upheld reasonably classification.' Heller, 313). permits hypothesize distinctions, whereas limits realm demonstrable 63 bars magnitude justifies demands "important," see, 533, "legitimate," Nordlinger Hahn, 1, (1992). 64 course, served. related" interest. "rationally legitimate 440 (1985). 65 better suited therefore Vance Bradley, 93, 103, ("Even [rational review] approximately results ."); Massachusetts Murgia, 427 316 (1976) (per curiam) ("[T]he State best accomplish purpose. But 'does laws imperfect' Dandridge Williams, 471, 485 (1970))). tighter sex-neutral highly probative 151 (invalidating approach completely serve needs classes); Orr Orr, 268, 281 (finding "no therefore, proxy need" alimony already individualized hearings took account); 653 "gratuitous" "without benefits aids"). 66 recites governing substantive classifications, ante, 5, 15, departs precedents ways. sentence analysis, glosses crucial justification. Ante, ("For 15. impersonal construction represent elision what stated prior cases. presages larger failings opinion. 67 example, hypothesizes adequately explain provision. carefully used impermissibly "as 'proxy other, germane bases classification,' 726 Craig, 198), casually dismisses relevance available And, majority's conclusion, far attenuated survive all, rigorous require. 68 According exists." 7. elaborate presumably lies preventing fraudulent conveyances Nor Assuming enacting 435-436 effort (claiming "at interests: first, have, minority, attained sufficiently recognized parent-and States-to them; second, stateless"). "determine persuasive,' disparity defense striking, least. 69 gravest defect insufficiency asserted wishing convey [be] evidence." Atop legitimation, accomplishes "assuring exists," 7, own. virtual certainty affords reinforces sufficiency 1409(a)(1). 484-485 70 allowed obtaining furthers Modern accuracy unmatched link, negates evidentiary time. "clear evidence" effect quality evidence. 71 criticizes tests, 8, appears misconceive No argues mandates Legitimation 1409(a)(4)(A), (C), convincing" (Satisfaction 1409(a)(4)(B), seem little, anything, stretching means-end context). Likewise, depend idea method constitutionally required. goal existence proof, coupled efficacy technology, tailoring adds work furthers" Kirchberg, 461. 72 concedes fashion, irrelevant. suggests, "Congress 436 J.)). arrangements-including offers-would seems implicitly point, subsequently lost. Conversely, name certificate. doubtless true uniquely "verifiable itself" INS, greater verifiability warrants sex-based, sex-neutral, statute. 73 cases, comparable superior powerful reason reject 5. majority, head denigrating "hollow" neutrality requires. 9. trumpets confirmation validity, strike law. Far "hollow," avoidance gratuitous distinctions hallmark 152-153 (Kennedy, 'At heart Constitution's command Government treat components racial [or] class' Metro Broadcasting, Inc. FCC, 547, 602 (1990) dissenting))). scarcely confirms demonstrates most, impact "[f]athers parenthood." 8. words, easier disparate animal analysis specifically treatment. trigger Washington Davis, 426 229 (1976), classify 515 (1996); 152 ("[O]ur reveal strong presumption invalid"); Parham Hughes, 347, 351 opinion) ("Not legislation, validity. [T]he undermined legislation creating immutable human attributes" (citing, Reed Reed, 404 (1971))). 75 paternity," force. So ." fidelity pledge sit wisdom instance 313, "injury personal dignity" 153 judgment), accompanies classifications. states States." 9-10. again focus "some ties," type rationale insufficient 2-4. 77 asserts "ensuring them." 11. end, best, simultaneously watered-down beefed-up rendition weaker emphasizes "opportunity develop" concerned. stronger past apparently desired "real, ties." 78 Assuming, does, "demonstrated opportunity" questionable "important" apart focusing "opportunity" reality, improves chances fit. doing so, dilutes significantly weight how, citizenship-conferral context, anyone profits absence fruition Children never grows up postbirth never-realized singularly appropriateness granting rendering arose. 79 Accepting "opportunity," attempt deficient. "to minority," 13, demonstrate, 2, parents' ended, sixth birthday, reared 1997, showed 99.98% probability court. 80 Further underscoring gap possibility 'absent express objection.' 486 dissenting) 434 break down readily theory, practice, characteristic "substantial" 81 replicate, exceed, whatever 12. 487 allow demonstrating accords though act. solely individuals. patently inconsistent promise ("By dissimilar situated, challenged Clause"). 82 supplies adequate rest generalization. removed abuse neglect, separated tragedy, disaster war, lack similar terms. "[p]hysical women," discrimination. 83 ratchets sake "the begin." reality immaterial Ibid. largely proposition: "It bond." bare assertion allegedly "almost axiomatic," "demanding" borne conforms good intention "seek[ing] foster" something beneficial happen occurrence. Whether indeed bearing" occurrence preferred depends proved classification's defender. axiom, intent contingent proposition. sweeping surrogate careful 85 "establish[ing] substance." wishes employing "more bas[i]s classification" sex, U. S, 198. regular 470 86 raises dismiss admits proved," speculates "perhaps tie." 14. repeatedly efforts ground administrative convenience. 152; Frontiero, 690-691. convenience concerns 152, ill purported here. extent inconvenience accompany 87 relationship" finds stereotype-i.e., generalization caring children." 482-483 relies condemns," 138 omitted), "lends credibility" generalization, 730, helps convert "assumption" self-fulfilling prophecy," ibid. 140 ("When actors peremptory challenges stereotypes, ratify prejudicial views relative women"). 88 tries avoid characterizing attempting dubious axiomatic." route wisely forgone mean plausibly taken. inescapable 89 denying petitioner's articulates misshapen notion "stereotype" jurisprudence. "defined analysis." 13. "rational." ("We abundantly Clause, statistical conjured generalization"); 201 supporting "not trivial sense"); 202 "prior consistently decisionmaking certainly rested predictive this"); 645 support"). underlie "may many, individuals." numerous measure truth inhered official unnecessarily overbroadly accurate impartial functional lines drawn." 90 consist considers "show disrespect" class, Compare, 198-201. stereotypical insulting, "relie[s] simplistic, outdated 198). 91 explanations decisions invalidating "stereotypes" "overbroad generalizations," challenger generalizations. sexes identifiable pure caprice. nonetheless classic violation. unmistakably 92 "volumes history" "[t]oday's skeptical action opportunities responds." 531. transmission responsibilities counsels circumspection discerning context. generally 460-468 93 205 1940, 1139-1140. 1940 proposed President, forwarding report specially convened Committee Advisors, including Attorney General. 205, today: 94 has, since 1912, uniformly legitimation [U]nder custody putative bound natural guardian. accord old Roman Spain France." Revise Codify Laws Hearings H. R. 6127 House Naturalization, 76th Cong., 1st Sess., 431 (1945) (reprinting Message (1938)) (emphasis internal citations 95 paradigmatic historic regime left responsibility, freed nonmarital advocate 1932 plea "when comes great burden, put safely background." Status Certain Mothers Who Are Citizens Hearing 5489 72nd (testimony Burnita Shelton Matthews); (citizenship "permit[s] father] escape incident parenthood"). Unlike States' longer assume alone "bound" "natural guardians" Ariz. Rev. Ann. 25-501 (equal support); Cal. Civ. 4600 (West 1972) (abolishing "tender years" doctrine). confronting care them, quietly condones "very 96 Punctuating accounts stake rationale: prevents stateless. 17-18 (describing statelessness problem). rationale. attempts particular. undertakes demonstration 1409(c)'s relaxed 17-19, 42-43, 44, 23. 1401(g), resided 14, 1409(c), year. buttress 97 makes tend, whole, detract distract referring general, so." 6. (and affirmatively was), quite beside challenge, directed accorded 98 "minimal" "inordinate hurdles" hurdle "unnecessary" kind burdensome), settled 'absence insurmountable barrier' redeem otherwise unconstitutionally law." 774 (1977)). 99 statistics travel, 10-11, highlights interact countries, circumstances. irresponsibility "traditional" behavior patterns women. is, recognize undermine try bear. informs proper scrupulous adherence 101 identifies "additional obstacles" accept 'potential remedy.' judgment))). power." believe able surmount hurdles. 102 remedy, prevailed. Several factors conclusion. (INA) clause, provides: "If Act, thereof circumstance, invalid, remainder affected thereby." 406, 281; 1101 "Separability." clause unambiguous gives rise intend [INA] part [INA], whether" Chadha, 462 919, 932 (1983). 103 1421(d), otherwise," INA's defines birth," 1101(a)(23), 1401(g) deal 1401 nationals ."). scenario invalid. brief. 104 Pangilinan, 875 (1988), preclude courts equitable naturalization. 883-885. instant offending free defect, transmitted 488-489 105 infirm "extension, nullification" faithful design. Westcott, 443 76, 89-90 (1979); 636; 691, 25. extension nullification virtue avoiding injury parties represented litigation. redesign comports Constitution. 106 deference, pivotal 787 (1977). Fiallo, distinguished. involved resident, special preference aliens resident. 788-792; emphasizing limited scope judicial legislation," 792, challenges. noted repeated emphasis 'over complete over' admission aliens." 107 logically place. commanded aliens. obtains 433, territory cognizable whether, [petitioner] claims, accurate" govern aliens, ordinary apply. 480-481 108 109 mistake jurisprudence Today's deviation vigilantly violation occurred. trust depth vitality error aberration. respectfully dissent.

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