Document: 450 U.S. 464 101 S.Ct. 1200 67 L.Ed.2d 437 MICHAEL M., Petitioner,v.SUPERIOR COURT OF SONOMA COUNTY (California, Real Party in Interest). No. 79-1344. Argued Nov. 4, 1980. Decided March 23, 1981. Syllabus Petitioner, then a 171/2-year-old male, was charged with violating California's "statutory rape" law, which defines unlawful sexual intercourse as "an act of accomplished female not the wife perpetrator, where is under age 18 years." Prior to trial, petitioner sought set aside information on both state and federal constitutional grounds, asserting that statute unlawfully discriminated basis gender since men alone criminally liable thereunder. The trial court California Court Appeal denied relief, review Supreme upheld statute. Held: judgment affirmed. Pp. 468-476; 481-487. 25 Cal.3d 608, 159 Cal.Rptr. 340, 601 P.2d 572, Justice REHNQUIST, joined by Chief BURGER, STEWART, POWELL, concluded does violate Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. 468-476. 1 (a) Gender-based classifications are "inherently suspect" so be subject so-called "strict scrutiny," but will if they bear "fair substantial relationship" legitimate ends. Reed v. Reed, 404 71, 92 251, 30 225. Because "demand necessarily apply equally all persons" or require "things different fact . treated law though were same," Rinaldi Yeager, 384 305, 309, 86 1497, 1499, 16 577, classification invidious, rather realistically reflects sexes similarly situated certain circumstances. 468-469. 2 (b) One purposes State has strong interest prevention illegitimate teenage pregnancies. protects women from pregnancy at an when physical, emotional, psychological consequences particularly severe. virtually significant harmful identifiable fall female, legislature acts well within it authority elects punish only participant who, nature, suffers few his conduct. 470-473. 3 (c) There no merit petitioner's contention impermissibly underinclusive must, order pass judicial scrutiny, broadened hold male. relevant inquiry whether drawn precisely might have been, line chosen Legislature limitations. In any event, gender-neutral would frustrate State's effective enforcement less likely report violations she herself prosecution. enact broad may incapable enforcement. 473-474. 4 (d) Nor overbroad because makes prepubescent females, becoming pregnant. Aside could justified grounds very young females susceptible physical injury intercourse, Constitution limit scope older teenagers exclude girls. P. 475. 5 (e) And unconstitutional applied like girl involved, time asserted ground presumes such circumstances male culpable aggressor. rest assumption, instead attempt prevent providing additional deterrent for men. man irrelevant capable inflicting harm prevented. 6 BLACKMUN, J., statutory rape sufficiently reasoned effort control its inception problem pregnancies, Court's should affirmed applicable test gender-based forth 76, 254, 225, Craig Boren, 429 190, 197, 97 451, 456, 50 397. 7 announced delivered opinion, C. STEWART JJ., joined. 8 filed concurring opinion post, p. 476. 9 481. 10 BRENNAN, dissenting WHITE MARSHALL, 488. 11 STEVENS, 496. 12 Gregory F. Jilka, Rohnert Park, Cal., petitioner. 13 Sandy R. Kriegler, Los Angeles, respondent. 14 REHNQUIST THE CHIEF JUSTICE, POWELL 15 question presented this case § 261.5 Cal.Penal Code Ann. (West Supp.1981), violates Section thus intercourse. July 1978, complaint Municipal Sonoma County, alleging petitioner, had 18, violation 261.5. evidence, adduced preliminary hearing showed approximately midnight June 3, two friends approached Sharon, 161/2-year-old her sister waited bus stop. Petitioner who already been drinking, moved away others began kiss. After being struck face rebuffing initial advances, Sharon submitted gender. request relief California. 17 held "section discriminates sex victims, males section." 611, 342, 574. subjected stating must compelling interest. It found "supported mere social convention immutable physiological exclusively can become pregnant." Ibid. Canvassing "the tragic human costs pregnancies," including large number abortions, increased medical risk associated childbearing, preventing "physiologically cause result properly seeks avoid," further readily means identifying offender victim. For reasons stated below, we affirm Court.1 As evident our opinions, some difficulty agreeing upon proper approach analysis cases involving challenges classifications. issues posed range standing, see Orr Orr, 440 268, 99 1102, 59 306 (1979), appropriate standard substantive classification. Unlike Court, do scrutiny" those See Stanton Stanton, 421 7, 95 1373, 43 688 (1975). Our held, however, traditional minimum rationality takes somewhat "sharper focus" challenged. 210 n.*, 464, 397 (1976) (POWELL, concurring). 225 (1971), example, bears ends, while supra, 457, restated "substantial "important governmental objectives." 19 Underlying these decisions principle "make generalizations based entirely unrelated differences between demean ability status affected class." Parham Hughes, 441 347, 354, 1742, 60 269 (1979) (plurality J.). But " 'things same,' 577 (1966), quoting Tigner Texas, 310 141, 147, 879, 882, 84 L.Ed. 1124 (1940), consistently statutes supra; Califano Webster, 430 313, 1192, 51 360 (1977); Schlesinger Ballard, 419 498, 42 610 (1975); Kahn Shevin, 416 351, 94 1734, 40 189 (1974). stated, "provide special problems women." Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 420 636, 653, 1225, 1236, 514 20 Applying principles case, criminalized illicit minor sure indication intent purpose discourage conduct.2 Precisely why desired course clear. This long recognized "[i]nquiries into congressional motives hazardous matter," United States O'Brien, 391 367, 383-384, 88 1673, 1682-1683, 672 (1968); Palmer Thompson, 403 217, 224, 91 1940, 1944, 29 438 search "actual" "primary" elusive. Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 252, 265, 555, 563, McGinnis Royster, 410 263, 276-277, 93 1055, 1062-1063, 35 282 (1973). Here, individual legislators voted variety reasons. Some concerned about protecting loss "chastity," still promoting various religious moral attitudes towards premarital sex. 21 justification offered State, accepted California, That finding, course, entitled great deference. Reitman Mulkey, 387 369, 373-374, 87 1627, 1629-1630, 830 (1967). although establish reason enactment rejected, "could goal legislation," 648, n. 16, 1233, case. 22 We satisfied least one "purposes" statute, also pregnancy. At obvious, dramatically over last decades,3 social, medical, economic mother child, State.4 Of particular concern half pregnancies end abortion.5 children born, their illegitimacy them candidates wards State.6 23 need doctors discern respect risks Only pregnant, suffer disproportionately profound emotional activity. issue here severe.7 24 boils down attack directly prohibiting having female.8 related objectives muster. inescapably hardly unreasonable acting protect punishment. Moreover, itself constitutes deterrence females. No similar natural sanctions deter males. A criminal sanction imposed solely serves roughly "equalize" deterrents sexes. 26 unable accept argued necessary prosecution, serve well. inquiry, U.S., 356 10, S.Ct., 1737-1738. 27 cannot say enact. persuasively contends Its view surely prosecution.9 area fraught prosecutorial difficulties, decline requires enforcement.10 28 reject argument are, definition, Quite apart Rundlett Oliver, 607 F.2d 495 (CA1 1979), ludicrous suggest remains him he, argues flawed persons find contentions unpersuasive. Contrary assertions, assumption generally aggressors. upholding recognize challenged "invidiously discriminates" against To contrary, places burden shared nothing men, past discrimination peculiar disadvantages, solicitude courts. made "solely administrative convenience," inFrontiero Richardson, 411 677, 690, 1764, 1772, 36 583 (1973) (emphasis omitted), rests baggage stereotypes" 283, 1114. reasonably more heavily than 31 Accordingly, 32 Affirmed. 33 concurring. 34 261.5, face, classifies engages underage statute; husband not.1 punishes conduct question, Amendment right equal protection law. today correctly rejects contention. outset, noted discrimination, viewed part wider scheme clearcut first appear. Females freed liability engaging activity harmful. unlawful, person, either sex, molest, annoy, contribute delinquency anyone years age.2 All prohibited committing "any lewd lascivious act," consensual child 14.3 members convicted deviant 18.4 Finally, brought proscription itself, aiding abetting violation.5 minors attendant adolescent sure, creates measure punishment engage ages 17.6 prohibits imposing gender-specific basis. B 37 violated government, federal, invidiously people characteristics born. Thus, detrimental racial government always Constitution, simple that, far concerned, races situated. Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 522, 100 2758, 2798, 65 902 (dissenting opinion); McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 198, 85 222 (concurring Brown Board Ed., 347 483, 74 686, 98 873; Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 552, 1138, 1144, 41 256 opinion). By contrast, often so, there recognizes. deal most basic differences: pregnant intercourse; cannot. 38 "a free make convenience, archaic assumptions roles 397; Frontiero 583; narrow situated; clear legislative unconstitutional. 316-317, 1194-1195, 360; 610; cf. San Antonio Independent School Dist. Rodriguez, 1, 59, 1278, 1310, "[G]ender-based invariably invalid. When covered legislation violated." Caban Mohammed, 380, 398, 1760, 1771, 297 39 enacted Legislature, apparent Clause. Young pregnancy, reducing risks. C catalog shows, unmarried confronts numerous severe faced partner.7 She endures abortion.8 educational, pregnancy.9 Recognizing disproportion, attempted participating conception.10 applies same force unwed males, regardless age. Experienced observation confirms commonsense notion disregard possibility females.11 extent justifiable counterparts.12 D drafted differently, precisely. "But issue, wisely, lines [l]egislature limitations." 356, 1738, 189. other decided broadly, statutes, mean every constitutionally compelled so.13 E short, disregarded. While never permitted pretext invidious pretend demonstrable really exist. 44 judgment. 45 gratifying plurality recognizes "[a]t decades" "have State." Ante, 470 (footnotes omitted). times I wondered perception, struggled attend abortion issues. See, opinions (and opinions) Beal Doe, 432 438, 2366, 53 Maher Roe, 2376, 484 Poelker 519, 2391, 528 Harris McRae, 297, 2671, 784 (1980); Williams Zbaraz, 358, 2694, 831 today's H. L. Matheson, 1164, 388. 46 conclude uses sanction—here flatly forbid forestall Matheson prohibit physician's procedure except notice parents minor—are vastly proscriptions. privacy much same. Both Utah's legislatively created tools intended achieve ends addressed societal concerns: direction people's activities. impliedly concedes notes "approximately abortion," "those born" "likely 471, n.6. 47 I, vote strike think inception. me, important difference action adamant rigid refusal even recognize, "significant consequences"—to woman—of forced unwanted conception. difficult rule constitutional, efforts block, later point, woman's enormity confronting her, just rejected rationally taking steps arising. e. g., Carey Population Services International, 431 678, 2010, 52 675 (1977). Griswold Connecticut, 381 479, 1678, 510 (1965). am persuaded rights intimate affairs connected procreation, differently inhibit woman dealing once inevitability. 48 (1976), which, part, joined, id., 214, 466. present points out, ante, 468-469, respective phrasings 457. uphold exemplified 49 note, also, Penal several juvenile. appropriately observes "but activity." 477. think, too, fair, point out partner, appears unwilling stages intimacies took place night 1978.* Petitioner's Sharon's nonacquaintance each before incident; drinking; withdrawal group; foreplay, willingly participated seems encouraged; closeness (a year days) factors unattractive prosecute all, especially pros ecute felony, misdemeanor chargeable manner, facts, reluctantly conclude, fit crime. whom Justices MARSHALL join, dissenting. * disturbing splintered presents straightforward issue: Whether admittedly Supp.1981) sufficient relationship survive "mid-level" scrutiny mandated (1976).1 analytical framework provided precedents, convinced resolution declared fear BLACKMUN reach opposite placing too emphasis desirability achieving goal—prevention pregnancy—and enough fundamental sex-based substantially achievement goal.2 II uncertainty analyzing containing classifications, 468, settled proposition withstand challenge unless objective. Kirchberg Feenstra, 455, 459, 1195, 1198, 428; Wengler Druggists Mutual Ins. Co., 446 142, 150, 1540, 1545, 64 107 Westcott, 443 85, 2655, 2661, 61 382 (1979); 388, 1766, 279, 1111, Goldfarb, 199, 210-211, 1021, 1028-1029, 270 394, 1769; 278-279, 1111; 204, 460. prove importance objective 461, 1199; 151-152, 1546; 393, 1768; meet without showing goal. 1546-1547; 281, 1112, 1113.3 54 vigorously asserts objective" served claims furthers deterring males—the class considers responsible causing pregnancies.4 assuming infra, 494-496, proving fewer neutral. burden, show effectively deters intercourse.5 55 assumes create problems. accepts assertion 56 enforcement." 473-474 57 However, bare proof Boren. Rather, produce evidence persuade true. 200-204, 458-460. 58 produced serious flaws First, experience jurisdictions, belies plurality's conclusion "may now laws. Although laws (of sex) exploitation individuals, Arizona, Illinois permit prosecution mutual conduct.6 introduced handi capped finds persuasive.7 Surely, provide expect it. addition, recent revised sections gender-neutral. §§ 286(b)(1) 288a(b)(1) sodomy oral copulation "person age," homosexuals mutually Again, explain enforce statutes. second flaw enforce, shown intercourse.8 Common sense, suggests potentially greater subjects arguably effect twice many potential violators. Even prosecuted suggests, true arrest. failure led invalidate III 62 Until recently, commentator suggested Indeed, historical development demonstrates initially premise women, contrast deemed legally consenting intercourse.9 chastity considered precious, felt uniquely protection.10 assumed making themselves; therefore did offer protection. 63 perhaps designed outmoded stereotypes, reduce incidence demonstrate newly Cf. 223, 1035. (STEVENS, judgment). whatever reason, determining met Amendment, reverse Court. 66 Local custom belief—rather venerable doubtful ancestry—will determine volume among teenagers.1 empirical cited futility prohibition significantly affect meaningful solution it.2 Nevertheless, matter power, unlike my Brother BRENNAN 491, 5, doubt validity interests venereal disease sufficient, judgment, justify increases harms.3 My nondiscriminatory help me answer joint participants risk-creating valid. total ban adequate selective prohibition; otherwise, objection discriminatory rules meaningless. justifies sex.4 68 immediately acknowledge capacity what primarily differentiates male5 impeach wisdom. quite correct believe confronted female—any voluntary participation Yet decision acted fanciful notion. 69 vulnerable avoid class. provides rational explanation exemption simply comprehend.6 70 applying her—not granting license use own assume risk. examine society's occurring irrational exempt 50% dissent 493-494. And, government's parens patriae seeking harming themselves, actually perverse. Would parent twin simultaneously son authorize daughter daughter? 71 If suffered act, constitute mitigating factor deciding what, any, given standpoint fashioning general preventive or, indeed, neither party harm—I regard endangered utterly irrational. 72 acceptable requiring disparate treatment guilty other. persons—one female.7 situations probably aggressor unwilling, willing, act. authorized required prosecutor aggressor, clear, assume, permissible participant, element offense he respects proof. raised Federal two. 73 seem impartial lawmaker give question. reflect typical party. Any turn, always—or typically—a decision. valid, support assumption? contained record history scholarly study called attention. supported toward male-female relationships. habitual attitude prejudice insufficient otherwise blatantly unfair. For, read one, wrongdoers stigmatized conviction. constitutionality saved prosecutors commonly invoke involve forcible rape, established beyond reasonable doubt.8 implies convicting defendant insufficient. lesser-included party, obtaining convictions inadequate partner.9 75 persuasive suggestion adequately desire encourage inform partners. concept wholesale informant's device, defining reference neutral criterion relative innocence? composed better informing males? discarded partner informs promiscuous timely threat precise minimize. 76 logic faulty speculative treating outweighed paramount evenhanded authorizes essence requirement sovereign govern impartially. 77 respectfully dissent. lower courts almost uniformly constitutional. 1979); Hall McKenzie, 537 1232 (CA4 1976); 365 So.2d 1249, 1252-1253 (Ala.App.1978), cert. denied, 1253 (Ala.1979); Gray, 122 Ariz. 445, 446-447, 595 990, 991-992 People Mackey, Cal.App.3d 755, 760-761, 120 157, 160, 423 951, 96 372, 287 Salinas, 191 Colo. 171, 551 703 (1976); Brothers, A.2d 402 (Del.Super.1978); re W.E.P., 318 286, 289-290 (D.C.1974); Barnes 244 Ga. 302, 303-304, 260 S.E.2d 40, 41-42 Drake, 219 N.W.2d 492, 495-496 (Iowa 1974); Bell, 377 303 (La.1979); Rundlett, 815 (Me.1978); Green 695 (Miss.1972); J.D.G., 498 S.W.2d 786, 792-793 (Mo.1973); Meloon, 116 N.H. 669, 366 1176 162 N.J.Super. 392 678 (1978); Whidden, N.Y.2d 434 N.Y.S.2d 937, 415 N.E.2d 927 Wilson, 296 N.C. 298, 311-313, 250 621, 629-630 Olson 588 1018 (Nev.1979); Elmore, Or.App. 651, 546 1117 Ware, 418 (R.I.1980); Roe 584 257, 259 (Tenn.Cr.App.1979); Ex parte Groves, 571 888, 892-893 (Tex.Cr.App.1978); Moore 236 342-343 (W.Va.1977); Flores Wis.2d 509, 510-511, 230 637, 638 Contra, Navedo Preisser, 630 636 (CA8 1980); Hicks, 625 216 (CA9 Meloon Helgemoe, 564 602 1977) (limited supra ), 436 950, 2858, 793 (1978). penal code 1850, 1850 Cal.Stats., ch. 99, 47, 234, recodified amended 1970. 1976 million 15-to-19-year-olds became one-tenth group. Two-thirds illegitimate. Illegitimacy rates (births per 1,000 19) 75% 14-to-17-year-olds 1961 1974 33% 18-to-19-year-olds. Alan Guttmacher Institute, Million Teenagers Chilman, Adolescent Sexuality Changing American Society 195 (NIH Pub. 80-1426, 1980). maternal death 60% higher teenager early twenties. 13% 15-to-19-year-olds. statistics mothers drop school bleak future. Teenagers, 25; Bennett & Bardon, Effects Program On Teenager Mothers Their Children, Am.J. Orthopsychiatry 671 Phipps-Yonas, Teenage Pregnancy Motherhood, 403, 414 (1980). seek abortions. Center Disease Control, Abortion Surveillance 1976, pp. 22-24 54,000 abortions 53,800 live births. Health Statistics, Reproductive Status Women (Mar. policy evinced buttresses preamble Freedom Choice Act, states: "The increasing California." Cal.Welf. Inst.Code 16145 Subsequent proposals render neutral, thereby ratifying 'accidental by-product way thinking females.' 320, 1196, (1977) (quoting 1035, judgment)). Certainly good source "current" "outmoded" perception women. "compelling" "true" virtue such, unjustifiable stereotypes. What said above dispose us—and Constitution—is supporters endorsed longer accepted. preservation motive impermissible, fail "[i]t familiar practice alleged motive." 383, 1682, (1968). Similarly, Washington Davis, 426 229, 243, 2040, 2049, 597 distinguished ordinance open impeachment motivated impermissible purpose. 270, 21, 566, Mobile Bolden, 55, 91, 1490, 1508, (1980) understand 694, 17, 2021, J.), four Members regulate behavior minors, emphatically regulation permissible. Id., 702, 703, 2025, 2026 (WHITE, result); 705-707, 709, 2026-2028, 2029 judgment); 713, 2030-2031 718, 2033 (REHNQUIST, dissenting). broader mental, well-being youth, adults. Planned Parenthood Central Mo. Danforth, 428 52, 72-74, 2831, 2842-2843, 788 Ginsberg New York, 390 629, 639-640, 1274, 1280-1281, Prince Massachusetts, 321 158, 170, 444, 645 (1944). statue hinder prosecutions take account burdens concede all. prosecutor, exercising discretion, woman, effect. goals best opaque one. plausibly here. concurring, 481, 13. BRENNAN's hand, "even [c]ommon sense violators." Post, 493-494 deleted). Where differing speculations plausible, defer "armed knowledge facts concerning passage impact [the statute], milieu provision operate." 378-379, 1633, three relied distinguishable instant 490, 3. 1980), 1977), (1978), governments injury. They contrary decision, "plausible" legislation. Thus reached here, Significantly, severely limited physically injures dispute deleterious accompanying text, infra. 272, 647a Supp.1981). 288 Dontanville, 783, 796, 89 172, 180 (2d Dist.). 286(b)(1), 1970); Haywood, 131 Cal.App.2d 259, 280 Dist.); Lewis, 113 248 461 (1st According maintained Department Bureau Criminal 14% juveniles arrested 1975 1979 culpable, juvenile delinquent. Supp.1981); Gladys R., 855, 867-869, 127, 136-138, 83 671, 680-682. Males 14. Compare 264 1971 through 83.6% 4,860 born girls illegitimate, 51% 17. observed accounting 21% accounted 34.7% legal 470, abuse five studies 88% sexually abused female. Jaffe, Dynneson, ten Bensel, Sexual Abuse 129 Diseases Children 689, 690 Another study, admissions hospital emergency room 3-year period, reported examined Prietto, Emergency Management Sexually Abused 133 Diseased (1979). Craig, 169 Mont. 156-157, 545 649, 653; Sarafino, An Estimate Nationwide Incidence Offenses Against Child Welfare, Most finish high disadvantaged economically thereafter. Moore, Childbirth Welfare Dependency, Family Planning Perspectives 233-235 suicide rate seven children. Nye, School-Age (Wash.State U.Ext.Bull. 667) (1976). aged welfare birth Pregnancy, Everybody's Problem 3-4 (DHEW Publication (HSA) 77-5619). Despite availability contraceptives education, increasing. Pub.No.80-1426, overinclusive allow defense used, procreation impossible. allege, used contraceptive, resulted charged. standing raise claim overbreadth, recognizing defenses encounter impossible 412 815, 819, 13, 822 (Me.); 495, 502 (CA1). 40; Jaffee, supra. lead closer aim parties complain; self-incriminating. possible us. address believes aspect problem. "[T]he choose attacking all." Dandridge Williams, 486-487, 90 1153, 1162-1163, 491; Williamson Lee Optical 348 563. testified follows: "Q. [by Deputy District Attorney]. 4th, midnight—midnight 3rd, you Park? "A. Sharon]. Yes. Is County? Did anything unusual happen briefly describe happened night? him? Was you? sister. defendant? How Two. Now, after defendant, happened? walked railroad tracks. tracks? drinking tracks bush started kissing stuff, back, first. Then, telling stop— —and i teLling slow said, 'okay, okay.' kept doing He guys came said—told get up come home. didn't— and— right. —David, boys there, walking home stayed later— —Bruce left Michael, know. Court: Michael Witness: Yeah. lying other, asked wanted walk park; park sat bench again laying bench. told pants off. "I 'No,' trying hit back myself, 'Forget it,' let off put legs around stuff— penis your vagina? You slugged face. With slug His fist. abouts face? chin. bruises kind injury? bruises. once? times. during evening, ask age? tell Sixteen. sixteen? correct? condition drinking? little drunk." App. 20-23. CROSS-EXAMINATION go Mr. M. others? Why that? don't guess to. bathroom there. do? Me bushes went bathroom. it, bushes, Okay. bushes? hugging. Were sitting up? down. next bushes; far. So were, right? you, remember? didn't anything. 'Come on, let's home.' her? (Affirmative nod.) stay M.? Before. minutes Bruce Michael? remember. remember all? (Negative head shake.) occasion kiss Bruce? did? time? No, hugging Bruce, up. then? Yeah, doing? David. David? so. Whose idea kiss? initiate left? park. say? 'Yes.' park? About fifteen minutes. there? ever mention name? Yes." 27-32. acknowledged, indeed dispute, 467. faces felony charges prison term immune participants, responsibility, determines Hernandez, Cal.2d 529, 531, 361, 362, 393 673, 674 (1964) (footnote omitted): "[E]ven girl's actual comprehension contradicts law's presumption [that innocent naive implications nature act], himself responding advances him." None fairly carefully developed focusing obvious uncontested ensures equality treatment. Since concludes "[a] 'equalize' sexes." 473. adopts approach. "females cannot," "[y]oung pregnancy," "is risks" added). 478, 479. conceding limits placed power activities," 482. distinguishes context, occurred, "problem [is] inception." concludes, explanation, approaches common failing. overlook Brethren leading analyze terms, unsupportable result. failed remarkable display stereotyping, stated: alone, physiologically avoid." 612, 343, 575 original). questioned criminalizing note foreclose challenge. attempting stressed, "[i]f anything, individual, married single, unwarranted intrusion matters fundamentally affecting person beget child." Eisenstadt Baird, 405 453, 1029, 1038, 349 (1972) Minors, enjoy connection procreation. 693, 2020, despite 472-473, 8, rely pregnancy-prevention Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13-1405 Fla.Stat. 794.05 Ill.Rev.Stat., 38, ¶ 11-5 eight 16. Kan.Stat.Ann. 21-3503 (1974); Mass.Gen.Laws Ann., Mich.Comp.Laws 750.13 (1970); Mont.Code 45-5-501 45-5-503 N.H.Rev.Stat. 632-A:3 (Supp.1979); Tenn.Code 39-3705(4) Utah 76-5-401 Vt.Stat.Ann., Tit. 3252(3) (Supp.1980). logical this. governing Force consents unlikely police—whether sanctions—enforcement undermined is, ineffective 695, 2021 (substantial limiting access behavior). average 352 adult 1978. Brief Respondent 19. During Californian 13-17. Cal. Dept. Finance, Projections Counties, 1975-2020, Age/Sex Detail 2000, Series E-150 indicate estimates 50,000 13-to-17-year-old 1976. Health, Birth Records, Physician Survey Office Abortions fair speculate comparison arrests contemplating chances reassuringly low. seriously therefore, enforced 465 origins Statutes Westminster reign Edward close 13th century (3 Edw. (1275); (1285)). consent years, reduced 1576 (18 Eliz. 4). States. enacted, (1850 234) proscribed 10. 1889, (1889 191, 223). 1897, advanced (1897 139, 201). 1913 fixed (1913 122, 212). puberty inconceivable directed available, draftsmen's 1872, supports consent. draftsmen explained "[statutory rape] embodies existing law; giving below grade rape." Commissioners' subd. following Code, 111 ed. 1872). prevention. Note, Forcible Statutory Rape: Exploration Operation Objectives Consent Standard, Yale L.J. 74-76 (1952). Past confirm uninformed decisionmaking. Verdegreen, 106 211, 214-215, 607, 608-609 (1895), law] society unsophisticated insidious vile tampering undermines girls, eventually destroys it; this, principal undoubtedly legislature." recently 1964, Cal.2d, Cal.Rptr., P.2d, 674, under-age presumed lack thereof popular conception personal values preserved abstinence indulgence woman. unwise disposition favor mores community's patterns established. Hence intervenes disposition." 130-year "Common indicates York does; further, unavailability contraceptives. theoretically harms practicing abstention, inevitably not." 714, 2031, countless indicate, observes, "seems 493-494, 8. 2030 "levels scrutiny." accurate sustaining heavier others. Racial presumptively invalid seldom, ever, citizens race. valid component regulatory programs. sometimes wholly irrelevant. obviously irrelevant, unlawful. if, presume lawful. presumption, overcome demonstration illusory inadequate. form cases, previously suggested, ultimate these, essentially 211-212, 464-465, Professor Cox however level described, final analysis, done disproportionate public achieve." Cox, Book Review, Harv.L.Rev. 700, 706 (1981). General Electric Co. Gilbert, 125, 162, 401, 421, 343 hypothetical illustrate point. Assume skin pigmentation cancer caused exposure chemicals atmosphere and, white employees confront black industrial settings. wear protective clothing whites requirement? workers requirement—not exemption. light indisputable biological fact, puzzling conclusion, quoted plurality, 467, "are Presumably, referring results willing participants—and conduct—I "caused" participant. California: employed force, prostitution, pornography coercion due relationships, state's apparent." 23-25. certainly pornography, nonforcible, nonetheless coerced, how specifically offenses. apparently attach significance testimony indicating partner. 467; 483-488, crime true, bearing crime," 487, answered trial—but rather, fits justice administered fashion.

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