Document: 458 U.S. 782 102 S.Ct. 3368 73 L.Ed.2d 1140 Earl ENMUND, Petitionerv.FLORIDA. No. 81-5321. Argued March 23, 1982. Decided July 2, Syllabus Petitioner and a codefendant, at jury trial in Florida court, were convicted of first-degree murder robbery two elderly persons their farmhouse, sentenced to death. The Supreme Court affirmed. court held that, although the record supported no more than inference that petitioner was person car parked by side road near farmhouse time killings waiting help robbers killers (the codefendant another) escape, this enough under law make constructive aider abettor hence principal upon whom death penalty could be imposed. It thus irrelevant petitioner's challenge sentence he did not himself kill present killings, or whether intended victims killed anticipated lethal force might used effectuate escape. Held : imposition is inconsistent with Eighth Fourteenth Amendments. Pp. 788-801. (a) current judgments legislatures, juries, prosecutors weigh heavily on rejecting capital punishment for crime issue. Only small minority States—eight—allow imposed solely because defendant somehow participated course which committed, but take attempt intend life, employed. And evidence overwhelming American juries have repudiated crimes such as petitioner's, statistics demonstrating juries—and perhaps consider disproportionate those who fall within category. 788-796. (b) While serious deserving punishment, it "so grievous an affront humanity only adequate response may death." Gregg v. Georgia, 428 153, 184, 96 2909, 2930, 49 859. penalty, "unique its severity irrevocability," id., 187, S.Ct., 2931, excessive robber, who, such, does human life. Here, focus must culpability, committed killings. He his culpability different from killed, impermissible State treat them alike attribute victims. 797-798. (c) Neither deterrence nor retribution sufficient justification executing petitioner. unlikely threat will measurably deter one kill. As retribution, depends degree limited participation robbery. Putting him avenge commit cause would contribute end ensuring criminal gets just deserts. 798-801. 399 So.2d 1362, (Fla.) reversed remanded. James S. Liebman, New York City, petitioner, pro hac vice, special leave Court. Lawrence A. Kaden, Tallahassee, Fla., respondent, Justice WHITE delivered opinion 1 * facts case, taken principally Court, are follows. On April 1, 1975, approximately 7:45 a. m., Thomas Eunice Kersey, aged 86 74, robbed fatally shot central Florida. showed Sampson Jeanette Armstrong had gone back door Kersey house asked water overheated car. When Mr. came out house, grabbed him, pointed gun told money. cried help, wife Armstrong, wounding her. then both Kerseys, dragged into kitchen, took money fled. 2 Two witnesses testified they drove past between 7:30 7:40 m. saw large cream- yellow-colored beside about 200 yards man sitting Another witness 6:45 Ida Jean Shaw, common-law Armstrong's mother, driving yellow Buick vinyl top belonged her Enmund. Enmund passenger along unidentified woman. At 8 same return high rate speed. driving, Shaw front seat, other people lying down across seat. 3 Enmund, indicted Kerseys. tried together.1 prosecutor maintained closing argument "Sampson old people." Record 1577. judge instructed "[t]he killing being while engaged perpetration perpetrate offense first even though there premeditated design intent kill." App. 6. went instruct 4 "[i]n order sustain conviction engaging attempted robbery, establish beyond reasonable doubt actually actively aiding abetting unlawful occurred robbery." Id., 9. 5 found guilty counts count A separate sentencing hearing recommended defendants procedure whereby advises impose penalty. See Fla.Stat. § 921.141(2) (1981). murder. appealed, remanded written findings required 921.141(3) four statutory aggravating circumstances: felony accomplice commission armed 921.141(5)(d) (1981); pecuniary gain, 921.141(5)(f); especially heinous, atrocious, cruel, 921.141(5)(h); previously involving use violence, 921.141(5)(b). 1371-1372 (Fla.1981). "none mitigating circumstances applied" outweighed circumstances. 1372. therefore each counts. 6 affirmed Enmund's sentences. "[t]here direct home when plan rob couple led murdered." 1370. However, rejected most second-degree Florida's felony-murder rule. explained interaction " 'felony rule principals combine felon generally responsible acts co-felon.' 1369, quoting Adams State, 341 765, 768-769 (Fla.1976), cert. denied, 434 878, 98 232, 54 158 (1977). Although if accessory before fact rather principal, reasoned: 7 "[T]he jury's likely scene crimes. concluded there, few hundred feet away, escape Kerseys' evidence, therefore, find appellant second degree, constructively This conclusion supports verdicts basis portion section 782.04(1)(a)." So.2d, 1370.2 court. murders gain referred aspect treated circumstance. 1373. In addition, recited circumstance, cannot approved." Ibid., citing 953 (Fla.1981).3 circumstances, so doing, expressly submission barred Amendment United States Constitution. 1371. 9 We granted petition certiorari, 454 939, 473, 70 246 (1981), presenting question valid Amendments neither life.4 II 10 recounted above, killings; also point Kerseys necessary safe these 11 Cruel Unusual Punishments Clause directed, part, 'against all punishments length greatly disproportioned offenses charged.' Weems States, 217 349, 371, 30 544, 551, L.Ed. 793 (1910), O'Neil Vermont, 144 323, 339-340, 12 693, 699-700, 36 450 (1892) (Field, J., dissenting). recently relation charged Coker 433 584, 97 2861, 53 982 There plurality rape adult woman "is grossly forbidden cruel unusual punishment." 592, 2866. reaching conclusion, stressed our judgment "should informed objective factors maximum possible extent." Ibid. Accordingly, looked historical development issue, legislative judgments, international opinion, decisions made bringing own bear matter. proceed analyze issue case similar manner. B observed "[a]t last 50 years majority authorized rape." 593, More importantly, reenacting laws satisfy criteria established Furman 408 238, 92 2726, 33 346 (1972), three provided revised statutes. U.S., 594, 2867. respect wholly unanimous among state obviously weighs very suitable raping woman." Id. 596, 2868 (footnote omitted). 13 Thirty-six federal jurisdictions presently authorize Of these, eight another robber takes life.5 remaining 28 jurisdictions, crime.6 Eleven require some culpable mental homicide prerequisite authorized. knowing, intentional, purposeful, element murder.7 Three proof short intent, recklessness extreme indifference imposed.8 actors subject without state, either court's instructions announced 14 Four additional do permit put flatly prohibits cases where murder.9 preclude "was offense, another, relatively minor, minor constitute defense prosecution."10 One limits narrow involved here.11 15 Nine deal vicarious executed participating victim's For typically outweigh factors. To sure, murderer absent present. six nine circumstance minor.12 By making minimal statutes reduce likelihood exclude lists support sentence.13 nontriggerman above itself. 16 Thus jurisdictions—eight—allow committed. Even included unintended circumstances—which often include defendant's murder—only third ever die. Moreover, enacted new since 1978, none circumstances.14 it, life "wholly legislatures," 2868, compelling considered Coker, nevertheless issue.15 C 17 Society's rejection liability indicated made. we observed, '[t]he . significant reliable index contemporary values directly involved.' supra, 181, 2929, 859 (1976). petitioner's. First, according search reported appellate 1954 shows 362 executions, 339 personally homicidal assault.16 detail determine homicide.17 survey revealed executed. All executions place 1955. contrast, 72 country 1955 Court's decision Georgia 1977.18 18 That homicide, place, participate plot scheme shown Nation's death-row population.19 October 1981, 796 inmates sentences homicide. 739 data available, 41 fatal assault victim. 40 information physically These prisoners 3, including die finding hired solicited someone else victim designed figures similar.20 Forty-five murderers currently row. cases. courts triggerman case. case—Enmund's—there triggerman.21 analysis 19 dissent criticizes ground reveal percentage homicides sought Post, 818-819. gather information, any rate, relevant rarely murder, tend indicate prosecutors, represent society's interest punishing crime, remains aware single over quarter century kill, victim, has been executed, category Nor can discounted attributing "death unconstitutional kill," post, 819, observing incomplete intent. Petitioner's applied cites adequately tailored demonstrate well—consider category.22 III 20 balance, us ultimately permits aids abets others concluded, legislatures not. 21 punishment. not, however, 2930 "[I]t compare involve unjustified taking accompanied [robbery] definition injury person. kills; [robber], Life murderer; normally repair." 598, 2869 said abiding 22 Here murder; subjected well robbed. disproportionality validity conduct. victims, insist "individualized consideration constitutional requirement imposing sentence," Lockett Ohio, 438 586, 605, 2954, 2965, 57 973 (1978) omitted), means "relevant facets character individual offender." Woodson North Carolina, 280, 304, 2978, 2991, 944 kill; and, construed warrant intention facilitating Yet aided abetted fundamental "causing harm intentionally punished severely causing unintentionally." H. Hart, Punishment Responsibility 162 (1968). plainly killed; yet attributed Amendment. 23 announcing serve social purposes: prospective offenders." 183, 2929-30 Unless position contributes goals, nothing purposeless needless pain suffering," quite unconvinced, purpose taken. Instead, seems "capital deterrent result premeditation deliberation," Fisher 328 463, 484, 66 1318, 1328, 90 1382 (1946) (Frankfurter, dissenting), contemplate employed others, possibility "enter cold calculus precedes act." 186, 2931 24 substantial should share blame felony. But competent observers experience notion frequently occurs essential ingredient justifiable Model Penal Code 210.2, Comment, p. 38, n. 96. based comparisons statistics, one-half percent robberies resulted homicide.23 recent national strongly conclusion.24 addition occur during fact, already noted, however vicariously further attenuates utility effective deterrence. 25 think much culpability—what intentions, expectations, actions were. long intention—and moral guilt—to critical "the [his] culpability," Mullaney Wilbur, 421 684, 698, 95 1881, 1889, 44 508 (1975), penalties unconstitutionally absence intentional wrongdoing. Robinson California, 370 660, 667, 82 1417, 1420, 758 (1962), statute narcotics addiction apparently illness contracted innocently involuntarily," struck Similarly, invalidated public official false entry requiring offender "injur[e] act inten[d] injure one." 363, 547. approach Godfrey 446 420, 433, 100 1759, 1767, 64 398 (1980), reversing existence reflect "a consciousness materially 'depraved' murder." 26 purposes personal responsibility guilt. committing retributive addressed matter, reason disagree construing applying IV 27 Because regardless contemplated taken, reverse upholding remand proceedings opinion. So ordered. 29 BRENNAN, concurring. I join adhere my view prohibited 227, 2950, (1976) (dissenting opinion). 31 O'CONNOR, THE CHIEF JUSTICE, POWELL, REHNQUIST join, dissenting. 32 Today holds murderer. holding believe previous cases, today's interferes assessing legal guilt recasting matter law. approached backdoor Kersey's pretext obtaining car.1 retrieved jug Armstrongs, wallet. Hearing husband's cries around Armstrong. returned fire, Kerseys.2 Armstrongs bodies money, fled nearby car, 1348-1351.3 34 Shaw4 staying house. she awoke day murders, Jeanette, Sampson, Shaw's 1969 Buick, gone. 1185-1186. little after o'clock, entered shot. 1187-1188. After learning "[W]hy it." answered decided seen weeks earlier. 1205.5 time, volunteered sure dead. 1207-1208. 35 pursuant instructions, disposed .22-caliber pistol kept .38-caliber belonging Armstrongs. 1198-1202. weapons never recovered.6 argument, argue initiated planned According prosecutor, 1577.7 37 deliberating hours, murder8 robbery.9 heard pertaining appropriate defendants, counts.10 38 findings,11 regarding involvement murder: (1) violence (an 1957), 921.141(5)(b) (2) 921.141(5)(d); (3) (4) prone effort eliminate witnesses, 921.141(5)(h). 30-31; (Fla.1981).12 39 (emphasis original). Most notably, clearly "relatively minor," major "planned avoid detection disposing weapons." Ibid.; 921.141(6)(d) (1981).13 Considering factors, "aggravating felonies circumstances," 32; imprisonment 28.14 appeal, convictions sentences.15 challenging claimed argued properly highway State's rule.16 42 argument. Quoting earlier held: 43 '[A]n kills enumerated felon's extends co-felons perpetrators underlying felony, Florida, co-felon. attach provision applicable instant case.' 1369 (quoting (Fla.1976) (1977)). Consequently, conduct merely Under "if accused violent listed statute, equally guilty, actual perpetrator 45 'the presence abetter need actual, present, aider, understanding, sufficiently situated abet encourage, render assistance to, felonious escaping commission.' Pope 84 Fla. 428, 446, 94 So. 865, 871 (1922)). 46 noted 1370.17 47 money." 48 law, "constructively robbery," Turning findings, judge's findings—that gain—referred crime. Second, (Fla.1981), 1373.18 applied. due role planning implicitly Regarding claim showing violate Amendment's ban punishments, simply stated "offers binding authority proposition, reject played Kerseys.19 particular, contends victims—in effect, behavior blameworthy robber—capital too penalty.20 51 (1976), invariably Amendment.21 (opinion Stewart, STEVENS, JJ.) ("[W]hen deliberately offender, say sanction, crimes") omitted); 226, 2949 WHITE, J.) (rejecting whatever punishment"); 2950 (BLACKMUN, concurring judgment). companion cases,22 retreated position.23 Recognizing constitutionality marks beginning inquiry, ordinarily envisioned—a deliberate premeditated, killing. Rather, through doctrine accessorial liability, specifically intend.24 Thus, examine concept proportionality enunciated 52 fully expressed (1910). hard labor falsifying document. remarking "it precept justice graduated proportioned offense," 367, 549, comparing Weems' crimes, unusual. 381, 554-555. Not until two-thirds later, (1977), declare Writing Members 597, 2868.25 careful inform "by extent [by giving attention] attitudes concerning particular sentence—history precedent, attitudes, reflected decisions." plurality's resort derive "from evolving standards decency mark progress maturing society" meaning contained Trop Dulles, 356 86, 101, 78 590, 630 (1958) Warren, C. J.). rape. significantly plurality, immediately reinstituted following (1972) (invalidating nearly statutes), defined offense.26 tried." 2868. 2928 STEWART, ("The involved"). From available data, least 90% 1973, declined 55 reached rested part observation firmly 293, 2986, (concluding mandatory violates "two crucial indicators respecting society—jury determinations enactments—both conclusively repudiation automatic sentences"). 56 ascertaining "contemporary standards," qualitative bearing disproportionate, Constitution contemplates brought acceptability Amendment." acknowledged rapist almost murderer, describing "highly reprehensible, sense total contempt integrity autonomy female victim." Despite enormity rape, "grossly proportion crime," 2866, caused "does life." 2869. teaches, proportionality—at regards punishment—not requires inquiry legislators jurors, involves magnitude related inflicted blameworthiness.27 turn considerations unique latter (1978), [is] sentence" BURGER, 613, 2969 BLACKMUN, ("the Ohio improperly permitting involvement, mens rea, homicide"). 58 sum, considering challenge, decide offends responses procedures satisfied individualized set forth Lockett. 59 Following examines rule, legislation show fails, society murderers. 60 acknowledges, doctrine, corresponding originated hundreds ago,28 fixture English common 1957 Parliament declared unintentional classified manslaughter.29 transplanted Colonies, continued largely unabated 20th century, reforms restricted felonies.30 61 discounts weight precedent arguing jurors judges widely resisted application acquitting convicting noncapital manslaughter.31 speculative best, unclear what fraction nullification dissatisfaction Much surely, reaction failure early classify degree. juror toward replaced allowing discretion recommend 291-292, 2984-85 JJ.).32 conclude historically 62 least, Surveying opinions individuals assault, behalf. "non-triggermen."33 trend row population.34 those, (including petitioner) collaborated killer specific Brief 35-36. Reply (showing finding, triggerman; triggerman, kill). 63 Impressive glance, accepted uncritically. stated, number know BLACKMUN 615, 2970, many "personally assault," relies pull trigger, is, be, otherwise hire 20, supra. presents entirely relevant. accepting meaningful, sentencers cautious reserve Finally, verdict viewed isolation legislation. review sentencer robbery.35 uniform delimiting types. category, containing statutes, includes act, kill.36 believes constitutionally mandated imposed.37 seven (or rough equivalent) victim.38 class restricts homicide.39 65 curious method counting hide acknowledges follow scheme, see ante, 789, 5, concedes 790, 8, (Arkansas, Delaware, Kentucky); 793-794, (New Mexico); 791, (Colorado); (Vermont); 792, (Arizona, Connecticut, Indiana, Montana, Nebraska, Carolina); (Idaho, Oklahoma, South Dakota). list Nevertheless, species unconstitutional, unconstitutional. short, peculiar withstand closer scrutiny. half robbery-murder. Far "weigh[ing] for" "evolving decency" still embrace reason, failed meet .—jury repudiation" 2986 added). "standards decency." 67 earlier, measurement decency. proportional blameworthiness. Critical example, "in terms depravity public, [rape] involve[s] 68 disingenuously seeks characterize "robber," 797, disputed responsible, dispute lives unjustifiably legally liable deaths.40 Quite unlike proportion" admittedly partly responsible. 69 today disturbing makes highly subjective definitional problems customarily left develop Lockett, substantially "interfere[s] States' categories guilt." 616, 2970.41 635-636, 2976-77 REHNQUIST, idea proved penalty). suggests ascertained concept, easily defined. nexus blameworthiness, fails explain why blameworthiness levels as, coupled knowledge risk persons. intent-to-kill crudely crafted; account complex picture accomplice's armed, contribution success determination best sentencer, sift type rea carefully proper factor determining standards, enactments, examination contrast justifies mixture actions, knowledge, motives, factfinder able assess victims.42 71 light factual hearing.43 Repeatedly, emphasized "on defendant." Proffitt 242, 258, 2960, 2969, 913 JJ.). striking wrote: "A process accords significance excludes fixing ultimate compassionate stemming diverse frailties humankind. treats designated uniquely beings, members faceless, undifferentiated mass blind infliction ". [W]e indispensable inflicting 74 concluded: 75 "Given profoundly penalties, treating uniqueness far important nonavailability corrective modifying mechanisms underscores 76 rarest kind [may] precluded considering, factor, proffers less death" (footnotes 604, 2964. "provided homicide"); Green 442 95, 97, 99 2150, 2151, 738 (1979) (per curiam) (holding exclusion proceeding, violated excluded testimony phase trial"); Eddings 455 104, 869, (1982) (adopting Lockett). deciding arguments inappropriate relative lack peripheral give proffered hearing.44 77 felony; robbery; gain; cruel. "armed ahead Enmund," 30, lay witnesses. 30-31. Among instead "his major. part. 79 homicides. Reviewing consolidated them, "heinous, cruel," battle arising Mrs. resistance, SeeArmstrong 963. 80 prevent circumstances,45 facts, effectively prevented consideration. erroneous belief necessarily offered mitigation—that undeserving shots fired. misunderstanding "circumstances offense" sentence. 2991. error insignificant effect negligible.46 vacate below insofar affirms sentence, hearing. severed consecutive 1371 understanding differed sharply participation. participant advance Both understand supportable getaway dissent, conceding negated triggermen, argues 809. said, view. event, us, used. events, shootings indeed spontaneous precipitated resistance Kersey." question: given question. Cal.Penal Ann. §§ 189, 190.2(a)(17) (West Supp.1982); 782.04(1)(a), 775.082(1), Ga.Code 26-1101(b), (c), 27-2534.1(b)(2) (1978); Miss.Code 97-3-19(2)(e), 99-19-101(5)(d) (Supp.1981); Nev.Rev.Stat. 200.030(1)(b), 200.030(4), 200.033(4) S.C.Code 16-3-10, 16-3-20(C)(a)(1) (1976 Supp.1981); Tenn.Code 39-2402(a), 39-2404(i)(7) Wyo.Stat. 6-4-101, 6-4-102(h)(iv) Mo.Rev.Stat. 565.001, 565.003, 565.008(2) (death murder); N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 630:1, 630:1(III), 630:1-a(I)(b)(2) (1974 Supp.1981) (capital enforcement officer, kidnaping, hire); Pa.Cons.Stat. 2502(a), (b), 1102 (1980) murder). Wash.Rev.Code 9A.32.030, 10.95.020 (1981) killing). Ala.Code 13A-2-23, 13A-5-40(a)(2), 13A-6-2(a)(1) (1977 Supp.1982) (to "intent promote assist intentional); Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. &Par; 9-1(a)(3), 9-1(b)(6) "created strong probability great bodily harm"); La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 14:30(1) ("specific kill"); N.M.Stat.Ann. 30-2-1(A)(2), 31-18-14(A), 31-20A-5 (Supp.1981) (felony unless peace officer); Rev.Code 2903.01(B), (C), (D), 2929.02(A), 2929.04(A)(7) (accomplice kill); Tex.Penal 19.02(a), 19.03(a)(2) (1974) "intentionally commits [a felony]"); Utah 76-5-202(1) ("intentionally knowingly causes another"); Va.Code 18.2-31(d) ("willful, deadly weapon"). Ark.Stat.Ann. 41-1501(1)(a) (1977) ("extreme life"); 41-1501, Commentary ("an inadvertent entailing death"); Del.Code Ann., Tit. 11, 636(a)(2), (6) ("recklessly" "with negligence" felony); Ky.Rev.Stat. 507.020(1)(b) (Supp.1980) (defendant manifest "extreme life" "wantonly engag[e] creates grave thereby Criminal Law Kentucky Annotated, 507.020, 677 (each "participation [the] felony" "constitut[e] wantonness manifesting life"). Md.Code Art. 27, 410, 412(b), 413(d)(10), 413(e)(1) (except hire, accounted 7, victim); 18.2-31(d), 18.2-10(a), 18.2-18 Colo.Rev.Stat. 16-11-103(5)(d)(1978); U.S.C. 1473(c)(6)(D) (same). Vt.Stat.Ann., 13, 2303(b), reserved offenders unrelated correctional officer). Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13-703(G)(3) (Supp.1981-1982) ("relatively minor" participation); Conn.Gen.Stat. 53a-46a(f)(4) (Supp.1982) (same); Ind.Code 35-50-2-9(c)(4) Mont.Code 46-18-304(6) Neb.Rev.Stat. 29-2523(2)(e) N.C.Gen.Stat. 15A-2000(f)(4) Idaho 19-2515(f) (1979); Okla.Stat., 21, 701.12 S.D.Comp.Laws 23A-27A-1 (Supp.1981). Ala., Colo., Conn., Md., Pa., S.D., Wash. cited nn. 5-7, 9, 10, 12, characterizes somewhat differently. begins noting "authorize 819. however. divides categories. Its disagreement—Cal., Ga., Miss., Nev., S.C., Tenn., Wyo. dissent—Ariz., Idaho, Ind., Mont., Neb., N.M., N.C., Okla., S.D.—the looks provisions defining Colorado's absolute n.10, Contrary dissent's 820, 36, judged n.2, Colorado Ariz., N.C. n.12, States—Idaho, S.D.—allow itself n.13, Mexico's imposed, 31-20A-4(C)(1) 31-20A-5(B)-(G). here, officer acting lawful discharge duty 31-20A-5(A). here. n.11, disagreement death, 821, 37, possess. differs group specific-intent Mexico group. Compare 821-822, 38. restrict 822, 39. D Petitioner. contains higher nontriggermen rest studied. NAACP Legal Defense Educational Fund, Inc., Death Row U.S.A. (Oct. 1981). E Petitioner; A-1—A-7. consistent study 111 received Kalven & Zeisel, Jury Penalty, U.Chi.L.Rev. 769 (1966). authors rebel "at defendant," 776, factor. 777. "because rigidity equity produce broad area disagreement." 10. "disagreement emerges level penalty." climate punishment" "not irrelevant." worth abolished England India, Canada Commonwealth countries, unknown continental Europe. ALI, pp. 39-40 (Off. Draft Revised Comments 1980) (hereafter Code). infrequently commuted grounds act. Wolfgang, Kelly, Nolde, Comparison Executed Commuted Admissions Row, J.Crim.L.C. P. 301, 310 (1962). relied Institute summarized follows: Robberies Date Accompanied Location Homicide % Cook County, Ill. 14,392 (est.) .49 1926-1927 Philadelphia, Pa. 6,432 .59 1948-1952 Jersey 16,273 .41 1975 An estimated 548,809 1980. Dept. Justice, Federal Bureau Investigation, Uniform Crime Reports Approximately 2,361 murdered 1980 connection robberies, 0.43% Cook, Effect Gun Availability Robbery Murder, R. Haveman B. Zellner, Policy Studies Review Annual 743, 747 (0.48% J. Neal, numerous admissions murders. 1344-1365. Neal guns involved; other. 1354. autopsy twice, once bullet, bullet. times; bullets identified, fired gun, gun. firearms expert, 1364 mother. She later immunity prosecution testimony. 1178-1179. sums wallet indiscriminately cash dealt with. contents bragged "dig up $15,000, $16,000." 1365. 1205-1206. contradicted statements police. police initially questioned her, insisted assailant traveling town. 1191-1192. Later gave investigators statement implicating 1209-1210. Subsequently, repudiating 1208-1209. conflict morning shortly deemed inconsistency irrelevant. 1571-1572. hearing, theorized "trigger man," "person up." 1679. admitted "know [the petitioner] foot inside there. up, 1679-1680. well, [sic ] case." Opposition 14. 782.04(1)(a) (1973) being, perpetrated of, perpetrate, ." instructing read verbatim. 1605-1606. added 1606. Distinguishing first- stated: "In actually, did, nonetheless, procure, counsel, command aid crime." 1609-1610. motion prosecution, co-defendants. 50, 57. "court shall proceeding imprisonment." 921.141(1) renders "advisory 921.141(2). presented 1677, attorney suggested 1683-1684. gunfight spontaneous, control. 1684. Initially, findings. 29. reasoned seriously wounded gunfire, guns. injured bullet type, 31; free convictions, 921.141(6)(a) acted influence emotional disturbance, 921.141(6)(b); participants consented 921.141(6)(c); duress domination person, 921.141(6)(e); incapable appreciating criminality conforming requirements 921.141(6)(f); age 921.141(6)(g). 1372-1373. identical 953, 960-961 (23), mitigating. 962 consideration"). Finding conviction, 955, 962. 960. Second-degree 782.04(3) (1973): "[W]hen except subsection (1), punishable prison term determined court." mention complicity." "It assure against them." contrary, transpired him. account, conclusions derived pathologist's Rather indicating shot, "as direction fire positions [was] equivocal best." challenges overstepped bounds sole ostensibly core Pulling trigger albeit one, Tr. Oral Arg. 21-23 (counsel asserting pulled provides "Excessive bail required, fines inflicted." Roberts (Stanislaus) Louisiana, 325, 3001, 974 Louisiana's Amendments); Jurek Texas, 262, 929 (upholding Texas statute); statute). upheld challenged Dobbert 432 282, 2290, 344 changes amount ex post facto violation). five vacated defendant. (Harry) 431 633, 1993, 637 curiam); (plurality opinion); Bell 637, 2977, 1010 reasoning Court). affirming selected violation Witherspoon Illinois, 391 510, 88 1770, 776 448 2521, 581 (1980); Davis 429 122, 399, curiam). variety reasons Gardner 430 1197, 393 opinion) (due chance deny judge); (reversing arbitrary capricious penalty); Beck Alabama, 447 625, 2382, 392 lesser existed verdict); Bullington Missouri, 451 430, 101 1852, 270 Double Jeopardy retrial trial); Estelle Smith, 454, 1866, 359 admission psychiatrist's Fifth privilege self-incrimination psychiatric proceeding). clear per se See, e.g., 591, 2865 ("It now settled Amendment; always imposed"); 2872 (accepting "that bars crimes," Strictly speaking, unequivocally issues. "major" 32. assumption accomplices, POWELL concurred concluding "ordinarily" stopped 601, 2870. BRENNAN MARSHALL judgment, adhering views 600-601, 2870-71. Louisiana define reenacted invalidation conducted searching Rummel Estelle, 445 263, 1133, 382 (upholding, recidivist Hutto Davis, 370, 703, 556 curiam ) Rummel, 40-year marijuana convictions). analysis, "decisions prohibition constitutionality" 272, 1138. source, attempts misdemeanors accidental all. create 31, 1980). Act 1957, Eliz. 11. attitude legislation, legislation; 1965, Murder (Abolition Penalty) Halsbury's Statutes 541 (3d ed. 1969). Constitutionality Imposing Penalty Felony Hous.L.Rev. 356, 364-365 Alderstein, Felony-Murder Codes, Am.J.Crim.L. 249, 251-252 Royal Commission Capital 1949-1953, Report 31-33 (1953) (reporting Revision York, 3d 665, 668, 444 (1937). Legislature Commission's recommendation adopted 1937 N.Y.Laws, 67. complete sentences." Carolina's rapists 1977 Coker. 34-35. Education U. Hampshire, Pennsylvania distinct 630:1-a(I)(b)(2), 630:1-a(III) (d), 1102(b) (1980). exception Hampshire 630:1(I)(b), "knowingly" kidnaping. fourth Washington, aggravated by, inter alia, 9A.32.030(1)(a), 10.95.020(9) 13-1105(A)(2), (C) (Supp.1981-1982); 190 18-3-102(1)(b), 18-1-105(1)(a) (1978 Conn.Gen.Stat.Ann. 53a-54b, 53a-54c, 53a-35a(1) 775.082(1) 18-4003(d), 4004 35-42-1-1(2), 35-50-2-3(b) 97-3-21 45-5-102(1)(b), 28-303(2), 28-105(1) 200.030(4)(a) 14-17 701.7(B), 701.9(A) S.D.Codified Laws 22-16-4, 22-16-12, 22-6-1(1), 22-3-3 (1979 2301, 6-4-101(a), provide affirmative way solicit, request, command, importune, commission" act; weapon cofelons armed; engage engage, "likely injury." 18-3-102(2) 53a-54c (Supp.1982). prevents role, guilt, minor." 16-11-103(5)(d) (1978). minor. course, identical. Several Others, like thread subdivision 791-793, 10-13, serves obscure 41-1501(1)(a), (2), (a "under value 636(a)(6), 636(b), 4209(a) negligence"); 507.020(1)(b), "caus[e] person" [and while] wantonly engag[ing] person"). Arkansas "defendant induce, commission." 41-1501(2) oral counsel conscious 18. proposed standard, 14.30(1) "specific inflict "purposely cause[d]" "specifically another"; "principal offender," "committed prior calculation design"); 12.31, 19.03(a)(2), 19.02(a)(1) knowingly" robbery); 76-5-202(1)(d), 76-3-206(1) 18.2-10(a) "willful, premeditated"). Md.Ann.Code, (e)(1) immediate Note Illinois Virginia downplay 786-787, square predicate—Enmund conceded misreads suggesting deduced driver. trial. mentioned true, suggests, interfere substantive Prohibiting permitted, next (typically imprisonment) contend "makes measurable acceptable goals brief, low, Code, supra 28, several studies robberies), nontriggermen, deterred anyone goal served "moral guilt" insignificant. core, efficacy tool achieving deterring Surely, ineffective crime; speculate rely "competent observers" judgments. 799-800. legitimate suited resolution. obviousness risk, Apparently, intends consistent, today. procedures. scheme). Songer 365 696, 700 (Fla.1978) 921.141(6) sentencer's Shriner 386 525, 533 (Fla.1980), 449 1103, 899, 829 mitigation 1677. His argued, deserve 1683-1685. correct remanding evaluating impact misperception repeats times, discussion "no circumstances." dramatically inadequate principle.

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