Document: 512 U.S. 43114 S.Ct. 2038129 L.Ed.2d 36 CITY OF LADUE, et al., Petitionersv.Margaret P. GILLEO. No. 92-1856. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Feb. 23, 1994. Decided June 13, Syllabus * An ordinance petitioner City Ladue bans all residential signs but those falling within one ten exemptions, for principal purpose minimizing visual clutter associated with such signs. Respondent Gilleo filed this action, alleging that violated her right to free speech by prohibiting from displaying a sign stating, "For Peace in Gulf," home. The District found unconstitutional, and Appeals affirmed, holding was "content based" regulation, Ladue's substantial interests enacting it were not sufficiently compelling support restriction. Held: violates resident's speech. Pp. ____. (a) While pose distinctive problems thus are subject municipalities' police powers, measures regulating them inevitably affect communication itself. Such regulation may be challenged on ground restricts too little because its exemptions discriminate basis signs' messages, or prohibits much protected For purposes case, validity submission ordinance's various impermissible content viewpoint discrimination is assumed. (b) Although has concededly valid interest clutter, almost completely foreclosed an important distinct medium expression political, religious, personal messages. Prohibitions foreclosing entire media discrimination, can suppress eliminating common means speaking. (c) attempt justify as "time, place, manner" restriction fails alternatives handbills newspaper advertisements inadequate substitutes closed off. Displaying ones' own residence carries message quite placing same someplace else, conveying text picture other means, provides information about speaker's identity, component many attempts persuade. Residential also unusually cheap convenient form communication. Furthermore, audience intended reached sign—neighbors—could nearly well means. 2046. (d) A special respect individual liberty home long been part Nation's culture law resonance when government seeks constrain person's ability speak there. decision here does leave powerless address ills In addition, residents' self-interest maintaining their property values preventing "visual clutter" yards neighborhoods diminishes danger "unlimited" proliferation 986 F.2d 1180 (CA8 1993), affirmed. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion unanimous Court. O'CONNOR, concurring opinion. Jordan B. Cherrick, petitioners. Gerald Greiman, respondent. Paul Bender, amicus curiae, Justice STEVENS 1 homeowners any except "residence identification" signs, "for sale" warning safety hazards. permits commercial establishments, churches, nonprofit organizations erect certain allowed at residences. question presented whether speech.1 2 Margaret owns 57 single-family homes Willow Hill subdivision Ladue.2 On December 8, 1990, she placed front lawn 24- 36-inch printed words "Say No War Persian Gulf, Call Congress Now." After disappeared, put up another knocked ground. When reported these incidents police, they advised prohibited Ladue. Council denied petition variance.3 then action under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 against City, Mayor, members Council, First Amendment 3 issued preliminary injunction enforcement ordinance. 774 F.Supp. 1559 (E.D.Mo.1991). 8.5- 11-inch second story window Gulf." responded repealing replacement.4 Like predecessor, new contains general prohibition "signs" defines term broadly.5 fall exemptions. Thus, "residential identification signs" no larger than square foot allowed, advertising "that sale, lease exchange" identifying owner agent. 35-10, App. Pet. Cert. 45a. Also exempted religious institutions, schools," "[c]ommercial commercially industrial zoned districts," on-site "gasoline filling stations."6 Unlike lengthy "Declaration Findings, Policies, Interests, Purposes," which recites 4 "proliferation unlimited number private, residential, commercial, industrial, public areas would create ugliness, blight tarnish natural beauty landscape architecture, impair values, substantially impinge upon privacy ambience community, cause traffic hazards motorists, pedestrians, children[.]" Id., 36a. 5 amended complaint challenge ordinance, explicitly like hers. held 1993). Relying plurality Metromedia, Inc. v. San Diego, 453 490, 101 2882, 69 800 (1981), invalid treated more favorably noncommercial favored some kinds over others. 1182. Acknowledging "Ladue's substantial," nevertheless concluded "not 'compelling' content-based restriction." 1183-1184 (citing Simon & Schuster, New York Crime Victims Bd., 502 ----, 112 501, 513, 116 476 (1991)). 6 We granted certiorari, 510 114 55, 126 24 (1993), now affirm. II 7 Free Speech Clause, powers. oral speech, take space obstruct views, distract displace alternative uses land, legitimately call regulation. It governments regulate physical characteristics just can, reasonable bounds absent censorial purpose, audible capacity noise. See, e.g., Ward Rock Against Racism, 491 781, 109 2746, 105 661 (1989); Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 448, 93 L.Ed. 513 (1949). However, affects itself, surprising we have had occasion review constitutionality municipal ordinances display outdoor 8 Linmark Associates, Willingboro, 431 85, 97 1614, 52 155 (1977), addressed sought maintain stable, integrated Sale" "Sold" property. recognized importance Willingboro's objective, prevented township "achieving goal restricting flow truthful information." 95, S.Ct., 1619. respects mirror image case. instead without banning otherwise virtually complete ban. Moreover, whereas noted concerned promotion aesthetic unrelated id., 93-94, 1618-1619, relies squarely content-neutral justification 9 reviewed imposing prohibitions displays Diego aesthetics. generally banned "on-site" activities.7 City's could off-site billboards even though similar allowed. U.S., 511-512, 2894-2895.8 Nevertheless, Court's judgment supported two different lines reasoning, invalidated entirety. According White's opinion, impermissibly discriminated permitting while broadly 514-515, 2896-2897. hand, Brennan, joined BLACKMUN, practical effect [was] eliminate billboard effective communication" city failed make strong showing needed "content-neutral particular communication." 525-527, 2902. three dissenters viewed Diego's tantamount blanket billboards, upheld did perceive "even hint bias censorship city's actions" nor "any reason believe overall communications market inadequate." 552-553, 2915-2916 (STEVENS, dissenting part). See 563, 566, 2921, 2922-2923 (Burger, C.J., dissenting); 569-570, 2924-2925 (REHNQUIST, dissenting). 10 Los Angeles Taxpayers Vincent, 466 789, 104 2118, 80 772 (1984), posting Noting conclusion shared seven Justices Metromedia "interest avoiding sufficient 806-807, 2130 Vincent justified grounds. rejected argument compromised failing extend ban private property, reasoning "private citizen's controlling use his justifies disparate treatment." 811, 2132. "misplaced" respondents' reliance forum principles, "fail[ed] demonstrate existence traditional access respecting items utility poles . comparable streets parks." 814, 2133. 11 These decisions identify analytically grounds challenging One measure 512-517, 2895-2897 (opinion White, J.). Alternatively, provisions attack simply prohibit 525-534, 2901-2906 (Brennan, judgment). contends, first, Appeals' former rationale misplaced regulatory content-neutral, and, second, comprehensiveness prohibition. comment contention will help explain why ultimately base our rejection latter. III 12 first glance, notion underinclusive firmly grounded basic principles.9 exemption permissible represent governmental "attempt give side debatable advantage expressing views people." Nat. Bank Boston Belloti, 435 765, 785-786, 98 1407, 1420-1421, 55 707 (1978). through combined operation might seek select "permissible subjects debate" thereby "control search political truth." Consolidated Edison Co. N.Y. Public Service Comm'n N.Y., 447 530, 538, 100 2326, 2333, 65 319 (1980).10 13 argues implicates neither concerns, therefore erred demanding "compelling" mix maintains, reflects legitimate differences among effects only adventitiously connected content, supply justification, approval disapproval specific carving out specified categories Brief Petitioner 18-23. according Declaration Purposes supporting permitted unlike unlikely contribute dangers "unlimited proliferation" inherently limited number. 37a. Because few residents need rent" given time, per marketed house threaten clutter. Ibid. businesses, schools, explains organizational (e.g., signs) respond unique needs permit Even if assume arguments, shed light separate 14 Exemptions noteworthy apart risks discrimination: diminish credibility government's place. Cincinnati Discovery Network, Inc., 507 113 1505, 1511-1515, 123 99 (1993). very least, allowing messages conveyed outweighs imposed flat determined least vital banned. 15 Under rationale, theoretically remove defects If, however, vulnerable solution save it. impermissible, resting afford scant relief respondent Gilleo. She primarily scope available locations, church asserts constitutional antiwar Therefore, ask properly sign, then, necessary, consider improper simultaneously examining propriety near-total assume, arguendo, discrimination.11 IV 16 racially neighborhood narrow deleterious convey "far satisfactory." 93, 1618. principally certainly stake Linmark. applied covers absolutely pivotal protesting imminent go war. 17 impact broad prohibition, moreover, manifestly greater forbidden "sign" sweepingly. always merely applies sizeable category speech; example, broad. But specifically question—signs property—was "uniquely valuable mode communication," there evidence "appellees' communicate effectively threatened ever-increasing restrictions expression." 812, 18 Here, contrast, venerable both important. totally Signs react local happening express view controversial issue reflect animate change life community. Often lawns windows, play campaigns, during displayed signal candidates, parties, causes.12 They opportunities complex ideas do media, expression. 19 Our prior voiced concern laws foreclose distribution pamphlets municipality, Lovell Griffin, 303 444, 451-452, 58 666, 669, 82 949 (1938); streets, Jamison Texas, 318 413, 416, 63 672, 87 869 (1943); door-to-door literature, Martin Struthers, 141, 145-149, 862, 864-866, 1313 Schneider State, 308 147, 164-165, 60 146, 152, 84 (1939), live entertainment, Schad Mount Ephraim, 452 61, 75-76, 2176, 2186, 68 671 (1981). Frisby Schultz, 487 474, 486, 108 2495, 2503, 420 (1988) (picketing focused "fundamentally directed areas"). freedom readily apparent—by speaking, speech.13 20 mere remain desired hand-held "letters, handbills, flyers, telephone calls, advertisements, bumper stickers, speeches, community meetings." Petitioners 41. regulations expression, shift manner use, must "leave open ample channels Clark Community Creative Non-Violence, 468 288, 293, 3065, 3069, 221 (1984). persuaded adequate exist 21 one's often Precisely location, provide identity "speaker." As early eminent student rhetoric observed, speaker persuade.14 advocating "Peace Gulf" retired decorated war veteran provoke reaction 10-year-old child's bedroom sticker passing automobile. espousal socialism carry implications stately mansion pasted factory wall ambulatory sandwich board. 22 Especially persons modest mobility, yard substitute. Cf. 812-813, n. 30, 2132-2133, 30; Anderson Celebrezze, 460 780, 793-794, 103 1564, 1572-1573, 75 547 (1983); 865; Milk Wagon Drivers Meadowmoor Dairies, 312 287, 61 552, 555, 85 836 (1941). affluent, added costs money time taking advertisement, handing leaflets street, standing handheld difference between participating debate.15 person who puts intends reach neighbors, means.16 23 law, see, Payton York, 445 573, 596-597, nn. 44-45, 1371, 1385-1386, 639 (1980); principle Spence Washington, 418 405, 406, 409, 411, 94 2727, 2728, 2729-2730, 41 842 (1974) (per curiam ). Most Americans understandably dismayed, tradition, learn illegal 8- views. Whereas mediate competing uses, including expressive ones, facilities constant unavoidable, see Cox Hampshire, 569, 574, 576, 762, 1049 (1941); Widmar 454 263, 278, 102 269, 278-279, 70 440 (1981) judgment), temperate surely less pressing, Spence, 2729-2730. leaves signs.17 bears mentioning themselves incentives keep prevent neighborhoods—incentives markedly others' neighborhoods, Residents' concerns confident large satisfy stated harm rights citizens. currently framed, abridges rights. 25 Accordingly, 26 Affirmed. 27 concurring. 28 unusual us, faced face draws distinctions, "assume, discrimination." Ante, With rare exceptions, citizens presumptively presumption one. Board, --- 508-509, (1991). normal inquiry doctrine dictates is, determine based answer question, apply proper level scrutiny. Burson Freeman, 1846, 1850-1851, 119 (1992) (plurality opinion); Forsyth County, Ga. Nationalist Movement, 2395, 2403-2404, 120 (1992); supra, ---- - 508-509; Boos Barry, 485 312, 318-321, 1157, 1162-1164, 333 Arkansas Writers' Project, Ragland, 481 221, 229-231, 107 1722, 1727-1729, 95 209 (1987); Carey Brown, 455, 461-463, 2286, 2290-2291, 263 Police Department Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 98-99, 92 2289-2290, 2291-2292, 33 212 (1972). 29 Over years, cogent criticisms leveled approach. R.A.V. St. Paul, 2538, 2563, 305 judgment); 544-548, 2337-2339, (1980) Farber, Content Regulation Amendment: Revisionist View, Geo.L.J. 727 Stephan, Discrimination, Va.L.Rev. 203 (1982). And true occasionally struck down nature, sense suggest entirely reasonable. distinctions present may, some, good example this. 30 rule flaws, merit well. rule, area where fairly precise rules better discretionary subjective balancing tests. Hustler Magazine Falwell, 46, 52-53, 876, 880-881, (1988). theoretical level, insights into meaning principle—for instance, especially likely value forms others, particularly susceptible being used distort debate. ante, ____; 2289-2290; Stone, Amendment, Wm. Mary L.Rev. 189 (1983). application led seemingly sensible results. And, perhaps most importantly, yet come light. 31 I preferred analytical structure required us examine scrutiny appropriate regulations. Perhaps forced confront difficulties existing doctrine; shown weaknesses modify account factors case presents. reexamination process evolve improve. 32 Nonetheless, join agree Part still invalid, think casts doubt inquiry. syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber Co., 200 321, 337, 282, 50 499. provides: "Congress shall abridging press ." Fourteenth makes limitation applicable States, Gitlow 268 652, 45 625, 1138 (1925), subdivisions, (1938). suburb Louis, Missouri. population 9,000, 8.5 miles, 3% use. gave authority "permit variation strict requirements chapter best served variation." 72. eliminates provision variances grandfather clause exempting already lawfully Section 35-2 declares "No erected [or] maintained" conformity ordinance; 35-3 authorizes nonconforming 40a. 35-1 as: "A name, word, letter, writing, identification, description, illustration erected, upon, affixed to, painted represented building structure, thereof, parcel land lot, publicizes object, product, activity, person, institution, organization place business, advertise promote person. word 'sign' include 'banners', 'pennants', 'insignia', 'bulletins boards', 'ground signs', 'billboard', 'poster billboards', 'illuminated 'projecting 'temporary 'marquees', 'roof 'yard 'electric 'wall 'window wherever doors indoors sign." 39a. full catalog each size limitations, follows: "municipal signs"; "[s]ubdivision signs; "[r]oad driveway danger, direction, identification"; "[h]ealth inspection "[s]igns schools" (subject set forth 35-5); "identification not-for-profit organizations; "identifying location transportation stops"; "[g]round sale rental real property," conditions, attached tree, fence pole" contain fact proposed seller agent's name number; elsewhere "identif[y] hazards." 35-4, 41a, defined "on-site " 'those designating occupant premises placed, premises; goods manufactured produced services rendered placed.' 494, 2885 read inapplicable non-commercial 2895. 535-536, 2906-2907 displays, vehicles; '[t]emporary campaign signs.' 495, 3, 2886, Five approved billboards. None disagreed IV. 541, 2909-2910 part) (joining it); 564-565, 2921-2922 570, classifications, afoul Equal Protection Clause. 459-471, 2289-2296, (ordinance forbade picketing labor Clause); Dept. 98-102, 2291-2294, (1972) (same). Of course, every turns invalid. Restrictions Content: Peculiar Case Subject-Matter Restrictions, 46 U.Chi.L.Rev. 79 545, 2, 2237 although speaking subject-matter terms, targets "undesirable secondary effects" Renton Playtime Theatres, 475 41, 49, 106 925, 930, 89 (1986). undertake below adequacy 50, 930. "[S]mall [political campaign] posters maximum windows homes, demonstrates district your candidate—an can't buy." D. Simpson, Winning Elections: Handbook Participatory Politics (rev. ed. 1981). Content-Neutral 54 57-58 (1987): "[T]he limiting availability communication, significantly individuals To ensure 'the widest possible dissemination information' [Associated Press 326 1, 20, 1416, 1424, 2013 (1945),] 'unfettered interchange ideas,' [Roth 354 476, 484, 77 1304, 1308, 1498 (1957),] amendment censor points view, unduly constrict Aristotle Rhetoric, Book ch. Great Books Western World, Encyclopedia Brittanica 595 (M. Adler ed., 2d 1990) ("We men fully others: whatever exact certainty impossible opinions divided"). (aside lesser communicative importance. assuming similar, advertiser publicist relatively indifferent site another. elimination handy apt deter communicating public, businesses (and organizations) realize tangible benefits Virginia Pharmacy Bd. Citizens Consumer 425 748, 772, 24, 96 1817, 1831, 48 346 (1976) ("Since sine qua non profits, likelihood chilled foregone entirely"). Counsel cited flags viable observed restrict stripe, bearing written Tr. Oral Arg. 16, (noting rectangular flags, "pennants" "banners," ordinance). affordable legible possibility unconventional alters traditionally 163, 151-152, (1939). Nor hold kind areas. Different considerations apply, (whether otherwise) fee, confronted short

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