Document: 483 U.S. 587 107 S.Ct. 3008 97 L.Ed.2d 485 Otis R. BOWEN, Secretary of Health and Human Services, Petitioner,v.Beaty Mae GILLIARD et al. David T. FLAHERTY, Secretary, North Carolina Department Resources, al., Appellants, v. Beaty Nos. 86-509, 86-564. Argued April 22, 1987. Decided June 25, Syllabus In 1975, federal statutes governing the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program required, as a condition eligibility, that applicants for assistance assign State any right receive child support payments family member included in unit, but recipient aid (the amount which is determined by number income persons unit) could exclude whom were being made from unit if it was financially advantageous do so, even though continued live family. The Deficit Reduction Act 1984 (DEFRA) amended AFDC require families include filing all children living same home, including those received. Under separate amendment, first $50 per month collected must be remitted not counted determining its benefit level. Thus, assigned exceeded plus difference level resulting adding would suffer compared total prior amendment. class action, Federal District Court held Carolina's implementing regulations conformance statute, statutory scheme violated Due Process Clause Fifth Amendment equal protection component, well Takings Amendment. Held: 1. does violate due process principles. DEFRA amendment rationally serves both Congress' goal decreasing expenditures, Government's interest distributing benefits among competing needy fair way. It also rational Congress adjust reflect fact money generally provides significant entire units. There no merit view some form "heightened scrutiny" applied because interferes family's fundamental type chooses intruding on choices concerning arrangements. appropriate standard review here whether had "rational basis" decision. Cf. Lyng Castillo, 477 635, 106 2727, 91 527. Pp. 598-603. 2. Amendment's Clause. members other than supported have claim, since they protected property rights at before Nor simple inclusion calculation legal effect child's used his or her benefit. argument requirement an applicant State, then, effect, remits custodial parent part payment family, modifies use so dramatically constitutes taking refuted three pertinent factors. First, there such substantial "economic impact" funds exclusive constitute "taking." Second, holds vested protectable expectation will continue identical behalf, enjoy respect them. Third, character governmental action militates against finding Governments unconstitutionally take through program. 603-609. 633 F.Supp. 1529 (1986), reversed. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, POWELL, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, JJ., joined. BRENNAN, filed dissenting opinion, MARSHALL, joined, post, p. ----. BLACKMUN, Albert G. Lauber, Jr., Washington, D.C., appellant No. 86-509. Catherine C. McLamb, Raleigh, N.C., appellants Jane Wettach, Winston-Salem, appellees. Justice STEVENS Court. 1 As major effort reduce deficit 1984, 98 Stat. 494, statute authorizing (AFDC)1 eligibility into account, certain specified exceptions, parents, brothers, sisters home.2 principal question presented this litigation violates United States Constitution when wishing within are noncustodial parent. 2 * This began 1970. At time did parents siblings unit. example, teenage own, perhaps wages absent parent, order avoid disqualifying reducing benefits. Gilliard, one named 1970 suit,3 receiving public under 1962. February 1970, after seventh born, automatically him thereby increasing monthly allotment $217 $227 between seven eight. Gilliard was, however, $43.33 each baby's father. When formal parental entered credited account reduced $184. sued, contending she thus retain paid youngest A three-judge agreed reading requiring reinstate reimburse improper credits $43 month. Craig, 331 (WDNC 1971). granted classwide relief. We affirmed judgment. 409 807, 93 39, 34 66 (1972). No constitutional decided time. 3 1975 require, unit.4 response, laws provide acceptance behalf dependent assignment child. See N.C.Gen.Stat. § 110-137 (Supp.1985). These amendments, harm recipients like affect define covered application independent income, made. 4 1983, Services proposed amendments Social Security "assure limited resources spent effectively possible." Letter 25 May Honorable George Bush, President Senate, App. 168-169 (hereinafter Heckler Letter). One Secretary's proposals "to establish uniform rules who file together AFDC, situations counted. general, sisters, brothers included; option excluding sibling longer available." Ibid. stressed improvements result allocation "much more realistically reflects actual home situation." Id., 169. 5 proposal enacted provisions established Senate Finance Committee estimated change save $455 million during next fiscal years. S. Print 98-169, 980 (1984) Print). explained purpose language removes possible ambiguity relevant text statute:5 6 "Present Law 7 "There present law applying may might For choose social security payments, greater payable . 8 "Explanation Provision 9 "The provision approved minor (except SSI stepbrothers stepsisters) applies receives AFDC. 10 "This end practice whereby maximize benefits, ensure share expenses recognized available whole." 11 H.R.Conf.Rep. 98-861, 1407 (1984), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News pp. 697, 2095. 12 Because forced received, practical many families' reduced.6 burden mitigated somewhat providing level.7 42 U.S.C. §§ 602(a)(8)(A)(vi), 657(b)(1) (1982 ed., Supp. III). net comparable Gilliard's changes: (1) addition enlarge entitle larger benefit; (2) treated amount; (3) reduction offset sum, caused support, suffer; less not. II 13 After adopted comply earlier obtained relief motion reopen 1971 decree obtain further class. impleaded State's compliance resulted liability appellees, Government should additional found Services' statute,8 concluded Amendment.9 14 court interpreted imposing duty exclusively been obtained,10 reasoned exchange private property. Kirk, 1529, 1551-1555 1986). Additionally, expenditures tantamount punishing exercising 1557. serious impact autonomy family—including potential relationship parent—"special judicial considered appropriate, id., 1555-1557, deprivation liberty effected not, court's view, survive scrutiny. noted probable jurisdiction, 479 1004, 641, 698 (1986). 15 undoubtedly correct perception suffered, suffer, implementation Such suffering frequently tragic byproduct decision modify recipients. our structure government, function Congress—not courts—to determine savings realized, presumably critical functions, enough justify costs individuals affected reductions. "gives courts power impose upon [Congress] their views what wise economic policy," telling how reconcile demands citizens finite meet demands." Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 486, 472, 90 1153, 1162, 1155, 491 (1970). Unless Legislative Branch's decisions run afoul edict, inequities created remedied democratic processes. believed issue conflict Amendment.11 consider these arguments turn, reject them.12 III 16 precepts govern appellees' challenges similar we reviewing parts Act: 17 "[O]ur deferential. 'Governmental spend improve general welfare way another "not confided courts. discretion belongs unless choice clearly wrong, display arbitrary power, exercise judgment." ' Mathews De Castro, 429 181, 185 [97 431, 434, 50 389] (1976), quoting Helvering Davis, 301 619, 640 [57 904, 908, 81 L.Ed. 1307] (1937)." Bowen Owens, 476 340, 345, 1881, 1885, 316 18 premised "plenary scope duration entitlement increase, decrease, terminate based appraisal relative importance recipients' needs fund program." Atkins Parker, 472 115, 129, 105 2520, 2529, 86 (1985); see Schweiker Hogan, 457 569, 102 2597, 73 227 (1982); Califano Boles, 443 282, 296, 99 2767, 2775, 61 541 (1979); California Aznavorian, 439 170, 58 435 (1978); Weinberger Salfi, 422 749, 95 2457, 45 522 (1975). 19 evidence severely impacting families. stopped making helping only children. F.Supp., 1542-1543. clear, administration large Nation's deficit, examined light broad purposes intended serve.13 challenged unquestionably expenditures. Print, 981 (estimating years 1987); 130 Cong.Rec. 8368 (remarks Sen. Dole). few willing court-ordered alter has saving huge sums money. 20 rationality denying Given perceived need make cuts budget, obviously sought identify group others considering plight two five-person families, while regular children, surely reasonable conclude former latter. conclusion amply assumption received beneficial 980, "the common sense proposition usually capita shared." Termini Califano, 611 F.2d 367, 370 (CA2 1979); 638-643, 2729-2732, 527 (1986).14 21 therefore undermined doubt some—or all—of rest best allocate extremely eligible entitled rely presumption used, legitimately use, repeatedly explained: 22 "If classification 'reasonable basis,' offend simply 'is mathematical nicety results inequality.' Lindsley Natural Carbonic Gas Co., 220 61, 78 [31 337, 55 369 (1911) ]. 'The problems government ones justify, rough accommodations—illogical, be, unscientific.' Metropolis Theatre Co. City Chicago, 228 69-70 [33 441, 443, 57 730 (1913) 'A discrimination set aside state facts reasonably conceived it.' McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 426 [81 1101, 1105, 393 (1961) ]." U.S., 485, S.Ct., 1161. 23 785, 2476. satisfies test.15 24 Appellees argue (and ruled), acted sustain legislation. Rather, claim chooses.16 erred subjecting heightened That decide arrangements transform act whose design direct "intrud[e] arrangements." Moore East Cleveland, 431 499, 1932, 1936, 52 531 (1977).17 case marriage-related upheld Jobst, 434 47, 95, 54 (1977), "Congress rule course constructing complex system necessarily deals intimacies life. seeks foist orthodoxy unwilling." 54, n. 11, 100, 11. Last Term rejected challenge Food Stamp Program, determines levels "household" rather individual basis. (1986).18 guarantee treatment lived single household, 26 disadvantaged comprised siblings. Close relatives 'suspect' 'quasi-suspect' historical matter, subjected discrimination; exhibit obvious, immutable, distinguishing characteristics them discrete group; minority politically powerless. See, e.g., Massachusetts Board Retirement Murgia, 427 307, 313-314 [96 2562, 2566-2567, 49 520] (1976) (per curiam ). fact, quite contrary true. 27 "Nor 'directly substantially' interfere right. Zablocki Redhail, 374, 386-387, [98 673, 681, 12, 618] (1978). 403-404 690] (STEVENS, concurring); 101, 228] (1977)." 638, 2729. 28 this, "District judging constitutionality distinction 'heightened scrutiny.' " committed error. Lyng, 639, 2730. And justification obvious." 642, 2731. Clause.19 IV 29 Aside holding invalidated without just compensation. premise "best interest." Yet, reasoned, requirements computing converts once interests check which, law, 405, 605. Therefore, "taking" addressing issue, helpful look "takes" considers eligibility. then requires prohibition. 30 Some perspective here. Had ever existed until instituted took receives, hard believe seriously entertain new constituted taking. somehow, place sees distribute fairly, "takings" label seems bit plausibility. though, identical. Public Agencies Opposed Entrapment, 41, 2390, 35 virtue having program, bound all, much notwithstanding technical advanced, imperative recognize merely incorporate definitional element strange indeed if, offer entirely voluntary deemed taken very members' 31 basic arguably anyone's certainly takings clear supra. To extent interest," he fully retains Of course, counting unit's often reduces resources, hence increases chances sharing appropriate. 13, But given unquestioned generally, 32 basis therefore, remit transformation status funds, goes, places over substance, labels reality. Although true earmarked specific children's interest" becomes concepts is, discussed, theoretical practical.20 33 evaluating regulation "eschewed development formula relied instead ad hoc, factual inquiries circumstances particular case." Connolly Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation, 475 211, 224, 1018, 1026, 89 166 "To determination, identified factors 'particular significance': 'the claimant'; interfered distinct investment-backed expectations'; action.' Penn Central Transportation [438 104,] 124 2646, 2659, 631 (1978) 224-225, 1026. Here, refutes 36 assignment, important remember child, relevant. mean parent's payments. reality manner previously typical transferred Moreover, diminution value extra using own enforcement collect bearing risk nonpayment Whatever "exclusive" precedents. Keystone Bituminous Coal Assn. DeBenedictis, 480 470, 493-497, 1232, ----, 94 (1987); Agins Tiburon, 447 255, 260, 100 2138, 2141, 65 (1980); New York City, 438 104, 131, 2662, 37 Layton Layton, 263 N.C. 453, 456, 139 S.E.2d 732, 734 (1965) (support child"). prospective expectations subject modification decree, legislation, congressional enactment. 50-13.7 (modification support). chief criteria assessing obligation ability Coggins Coggins, 260 765, 133 700 (1963); Douglas, Factors Determining Child Support, Juvenile Fam. 3, (1985), adverse may, decree. J. Atkinson, Modern Custody Practice 10.25, 527-528 (1986) (discussing reductions Any force (including themselves), acts government." Reichelderfer Quinn, 287 315, 319, 53 177, 179, 77 (1932); 51-56, 2396-2398. explained, Congress, States, regulations, modified passage States' with) amendments. 1548-1551; Gorrie Bowen, 809 508, 521 (CA8 1987). future far anything 38 Finally, necessary balance various incentives deciding implicate concerns protects. means enactment forces "some people alone bear burdens fairness justice, borne Armstrong 364 40, 49, 80 1563, 1569, 1554 (1960). 39 apply Surely presume convinced whole—as custody—will better off without. decision, compensation; nor doing responds supplementing collections V 40 Writing unanimous Stewart described courts' role cases this: 41 "We today wise, fulfills objectives ideally espouse, humane devised. Conflicting claims morality intelligence raised opponents proponents almost every measure, us. intractable economic, social, philosophical programs business procedural safeguards systems administration, Goldberg Kelly, [397 254, 1011, (1970) empower second-guess officials charged difficult responsibility allocating myriad recipients." 487, 1163. judgment Reversed. 43 MARSHALL joins, dissenting. 44 modern age assumed citizens. expansion accompanied increase scale complexity activities conducts. Respect enormity administrative task confronts state, scarcity counsels most effective fulfilling responsibilities.1 pervasiveness creates unparalleled opportunity intrusion personal society benefit, considerable leverage shaping behavior. cases, acknowledge wield actions likely influence involving On occasions, life deem intolerable belief boundary citizen person. 46 case. told lives mother cannot either leave care custody mother, forgo father become client. put itself, control: household assistance. has, circumstances, sustaining parents. crucial bond outside father, father's commitment material care. decreed surrender vital connection mother. 47 show action. regularly "a noncontractual treasury enjoys constitutionally status." 772, 2470, Plaintiff case, wish assistance, Their unfairly denied intruded deeply More mere required withstand challenge, and, following analysis shows, can adequate damage parent-child relationship. 48 A. institution "deeply rooted history tradition." 503, 1938, (1977). Our society's special solicitude awareness "[i]t inculcate pass down cherished values, moral cultural." 503-504, 1937-1938 (footnote omitted).2 result, long "freedom matters Fourteenth Amendment." Santosky Kramer, 455 745, 753, 1388, 1394, 71 599 (1982). Cleveland Education LaFleur, 414 632, 791, 796, (1974). "when intrudes arrangements, examine carefully advanced served regulation." Moore, supra, 1936.3 said Lehr Robertson, 463 248, 256, 103 2985, 2990, 614 (1983): intangible fibers connect infinite variety. They woven throughout fabric society, strength, beauty, flexibility. self-evident sufficiently cases." vigilant ensuring connection. Santosky, 1394; Stanley Illinois, 405 645, 92 1208, 551 (1972); Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 625, 67 1042 (1923).4 51 "[T]he counterpart responsibilities assumed." Lehr, 257, 2991. responsibilities, unique contribution emotional support. continuation free jeopardize it. section discusses, faces difficulty B increasingly contemporary America present. percentage households headed doubled 13% 26%. Dept. Commerce, Bureau Census, Current Population Reports, Household Family Characteristics: March (1985) (Current Reports).5 Researchers predict "close half reach continuously biological parents." Furstenberg, Nord, Peterson, Zill, Life Course Divorce: Marital Disruption Parental Contact, Am. Sociological Rev. 656, 667 (1983). Almost 90% single-parent women,6 face great financial difficulty. prominent reason divorce "produces precipitous decline women's incomes." Weiss, Impact Dissolution Income Consumption Single-Parent Households, Marriage 115 (1984).7 1977, one-half related female-headed below poverty Espenshade, Economic Consequences Divorce, 615, 616 (1979). Not surprisingly, assistance.8 Increasing numbers country reside precarious. primary source daily interest, absence diminish afforded underscored scholarly research, indicates "[t]he optimal situation involved father." H. Biller, Paternal Deprivation (1974).9 Research maintenance particularly divorced: "By presence absence, visiting remains central psychic functioning children." Wallerstein Father-Child Relationship: Changes Father Child: Developmental Clinical Perspectives 451, 454 (S. Cath, Gurwitt, Ross eds. 1982).10 short, "training, nurture, loving heart Constitution," Rivera Minnich, 574, 580, 3001, 3004, 473 (1987), C 56 insistence relinquish father-child relationship, home. represents raising emotional. Financially, makes help needs—resources especially difficulties confront women. integrally ongoing involvement wake morning, bring school, answer innumerable questions, guidance problems, bed, countless doses encouragement consolation requires. Nonetheless, needs, let know participating upbringing. Meals, clothes, toys, things represent affirm himself.11 founded pledge responsive own.12 Braces, shoes, lessons—a able try. significance offers natural male possesses develop offspring. If grasps accepts measure future, blessings uniquely valuable contributions development." 262, 2993. 59 "critical bond" Brief Judges Amicus Curiae 23, documented studies divorced "[C]hild strands fathers divorce." Huntington, supra 135. national study concluded: 60 performance role, males, linked marital dissolution. suggested lower-status males withdraw paternal contribute materially [This provides] pay basis." Rev., 665.13 intrinsic importance, strand tightly interwoven forms Removal unravel others. 62 Through one-parent forged contact maintained degree needs. ways, sustains upbringing fragmentation permit. 63 arrangement hard-won accomplishment, for, sadly, stresses separation disintegration home.14 Many report infrequent visits fathers, entitled.15 rare fragile achievement, "outside maintaining breed it." Furstenberg 14, 903. 64 describes infringement produced requirement. second demonstrates differs unsuccessful relies uphold provision. relationships justification. remove compelling reason, prove convincing so. connections remain unavailing, forbid powerful prohibit deny deep-rooted seeing met. likewise integral scenarios apparent us all. Yet achieve exactly result. mothers fathers. Rather declared that, indigent 68 hand, stays henceforth Government, he, wealthy whole conversion reimbursement rendered powerless respond 69 illustrate why Let suppose couple obtains divorce, previous marriage, recent $150 desires keep State. return, three-person say, $400 returned paid, $100 kept payment. 70 wanted say $200, none go still now get By continuing lost conscientious shouldered duty, enlisted defray cost responsible. high price speculative. affidavits Diane Thomas, instance, Crystal, aged 9, Sherrod, 7. Juris. Statement 22a. gainful employment, unable find work. Crystal's never complied Sherrod's voluntarily $200 toward Prior October Ms. Thomas $194 herself Crystal. October, notice Sherrod terminated. She assigning regarded grant $73 Whereas formerly one-third $273 attributed $91, $141. staying $59 72 well. Two months welfare, withhold stated: "He informed me I going up my daughter support." 25a. Furthermore, visited beginning stated, "[Sherrod's father] opposed son Sherrod." 26a. control nonetheless loss care: "Sherrod upset him. He asks daddy come anymore. Since visitation, begun wet bed frequent Also visitation stopped, disruptive, school. school declined." 26a-27a.16 74 testimony trial sheds reactions Sherrod's. Professor Stack Duke University testified: 75 "A tells efforts rolls, good enough, integrity men Feelings anger, frustration shame inappropriate unexpected. anger sometimes vented mothers, both." 82a-83a. 76 Judge Hunt testified about experience dealing support: "Many grew sensitive lack lives. understand pride feels 'my supports me.' firsthand grow knowing depend Resources food stamps buy groceries. isn't your 84a. reaction misguided. overcome obstacles placed way, maintain point, 79 losing too bear. least chosen course. Mary Medlin four whom, Karen, Jermaine, 27a-28a. originally $223 When, added Karen Jermaine became ineligible 29a. longer, household. hardly elaboration. "Continuity relationships, surroundings, environmental essential normal Goldstein, Freud, Solnit, Beyond Best Interests 31-32 (rev. ed. 1979).17 intimate association, severing unalterably transforms fashion relationship; do, something incalculable value. interfere[s] burden[s] right." 2729, 387, 618 direct, escape consequence inherent record testifies, feel strongly worth paying her. swept dispute trend easier Wexler, Rethinking Modification Decrees, Yale L.J. 757, 760-782 (1985). sliced life, pitting middle. 82 nature asserted disruption distinguishes operation programs. 83 unlike relies, plaintiff assert Weinberger, directly acknowledged types claims: "Unlike 771-772, 2469-2470 (emphasis added). LaFleur.i met demonstration plausible 84 leads point. accept validity conditions participation anyone absolute meeting whatever attached imposed theory willingly assumed. wishes participate freely consented. 602(a)(26) 85 Indeed, participants solely desire triggers maintain. factor control. What illegitimacy Weber Aetna Casualty Surety 406 164, 175, 1400, 1406, 768 (1972), equally applicable here: "is concept wrongdoing. Obviously, responsible birth penalizing illegitimate ineffectual—as unjust—way deterring parent." Trimble Gordon, 430 762, 770, 1459, 1465, (1977) (children "can neither parents' conduct status"). paradigm participant inapplicable infringed desire. insisting purchase members, ignores pronouncement Prince Massachusetts, 321 158, 438, 444, 88 645 (1944): "Parents martyrs themselves. follow reached full themselves." 87 program's "household," individually households. definition "does prevent dining together. overwhelming majority probably all." marriage beneficiary, "may secondary beneficiary's marry, suitors welcome others." 58, 101. recognition extensive inevitably creating disincentives speculation challenge. speculative, substantial. provided leaves gives call subtle inquiry nuances human motivation. inescapable, obtaining imposition puts kind [the rights] fine against' Hobbie Unemployment Appeals Comm'n Fla., 136, 140, 1046, 1049, 190 (1987) (citation omitted). contends scrutiny AFDC's resident ante, 602, 17. Assuming, arguendo, latter elicit scrutiny, distinguishable cases. lives, relationships. intrude applicable. provision, event. different certainty applies. contention justified assertion rational. Turning enacting urges meant carrying out Congress's access sources income." Appellant 41. concern efficiency valid objective, rights. could, limitless, efficient operate regard attend recognizes higher values speed efficiency." Stanley, 1215. chose, completely eliminate money, Having invoke infringing Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 633, 1322, 1330, 600 (1969) (in context, otherwise invidious classification"). contend, instance limiting outlays mandatory sterilization beneficiaries, forfeiture possessions. "Indeed," said: "one fairly Bill Rights particular, designed protect vulnerable citizenry overbearing efficacy characterize praiseworthy less, more, mediocre ones." target efficiently itself serve Even objective infringe accomplish unrealistic assume resource, shelter, utilities, food. assuming portion expenses. pro rata done easily size, case-by-case determinations. attribution pre-emption consistent state-law child.18 96 time, intact bond. realizes seek different, continue. concerned violating fiduciary everyone, supporting relinquishment distinctive used. accounting inform wishes, demand resolve disagreement resolution revealed some, attribute representative saved permit pursue training learning disability, education. put, knows raise give economies scale, addressed disruptively. size. lower falls short. salutary cost-effective management magnitude warrant infringement. were, abandon domain Measures realistic consideration permitting bonds threat exercise. adherence principle occasions 101 Republic Laws, Plato offered vision unified where intermediate association stand state. Dialogues 163 (B. Jowett transl. 1953); 189. brilliant one, own: "Although measures deliberately genius, ideas touching relation wholly institutions rest; legislature restrictions violence letter spirit Constitution." Meyer, 402, 628. removed Platonic Republic, diversity decentralized attentive danger Those sustained fortunate, attention calls mind Aristotle's criticism Plato's Republic: "[E]ach thousand sons: sons individually: father; neglected Politics Aristotle (E. Barker 1958). Regardless benevolence issued, substitute 104 "Happy families," wrote Tolstoy, "are alike; unhappy way." L. Anna Karenina (C. Garnett 1978). Contemporary ways fractured unhappy. chance regardless be. Parents solace needs; performing duties, fiat force. indigency assure tell them, allowed pain. dissent. am agreement BRENNAN Parts I, II, opinion. dissent cooperative federalism.' King Smith, 392 309, [88 2128, 2133, 1118] (1968). Established Title 1935, 627, 'to them,' Shea Vialpando, 416 251, 253 [94 1746, 1750, 120] (1974), reimburses expends. 403, 603. administer pursuant plan conforms regulations. 602." Turner, 470 184, 189, 1138, 1141, 138 fills pages Statutes Large, includes divisions, Tax Reform Spending 1984. division, 1145. 402(a)(38) Act, 602(a)(38) III) provides, part: services must— "(38) determination paragraph (7) (8), agency shall part) include— "(A) "(B) brother sister meets clauses 606(a) title, brother, (notwithstanding 405(j) subchapter chapter). ." Section 406(a), provides: term 'dependent child' deprived death, physical mental incapacity grandfather, grandmother, sister, stepfather, stepmother, stepbrother, stepsister, uncle, aunt, cousin, nephew, niece, residence (A) eighteen, (B) nineteen full-time student (or equivalent vocational training), attains nineteen, expected complete training)." 606(a). "persons unconstitutional illegal credit administering agencies group." 587, 588 402(a)(26)(A) "[A]s aid, required— person (i) (ii) accrued executed. 602(a)(26)(A) 402 "cooperate establishing paternity born wedlock claimed, 602(a)(26)(B) Court's judgment, appellees asked adopt construction inconsistent intent request Conference Report unambiguous implement statute. CFR 206.10(a)(1)(vii) 1548 agree meaning 513-516 July 1985 Carolina, $269. $169 permitted smaller $246 three, excepted $346. 85. 6, $319. promulgated amendments: "For only, eligible, include, assistance: adoptive stepparent applicability); blood-related sister." forth 1533-1534. "No liberty, property, law; compensation." Const., Amdt. 5. Supreme Goodyear Goodyear, 257 379, 126 113, 117 (1962): "While defendant [father] obligated called contract [mother] beneficiary moneys pay. belong trustee maintenance, hold cannot, person, profit expense purport announce Carolina; quoted Indiana Iowa opinions cited authorities jurisdictions. Appeals, 508 1987), virtually Courts, "exclusive use" see, Showers Cohen, 217 (MD Pa.1986); Hegstrom, 629 150 (Ore.1985); Huber Blinzinger, 626 (ND Ind.1985); Oliver Ledbetter, 624 325 Ga.1985); Ardister Mansour, 627 641 (WD Mich.1986) (denying preliminary injunction); Shonkwiler Heckler, 628 1013 (SD Ind.1985) cf. Park Coler, 143 Ill.App.3d 727, Ill.Dec. 648, 493 N.E.2d (1986); Lesko 639 1152 (ED Wis.1986), appeal docketed, 86-744; Baldwin 647 623 Ga.1986), 86-1140, stay pending granted, 1309, 689 (POWELL, chambers). ruling unconstitutional, to. granting relief, ordered defendants "pay retroactive denied, terminated enforcement" 1563. response Eleventh barred award, injunction, changed injunction. 1563-1564. interpret award read discussion injunction responding Amendment, Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 667-668, 1347, 1357-1358, 662 reversal "General administered modicum efficiency, produce seemingly consequences 776 [95 2472, (1975).]" 53, 99, An typically reasonable. (amendment "ensure recognized"). routinely "benefit" preclude spending recognized, nothing focus psychological proper reliance assurance Letter, 168-169. 402(a)(31), 602(a)(31), portions stepparent's purposes. Brown 589 985 Pa.1984), aff'd, 760 255 (CA3 1985), assist spouse's rational, stepparents does. Kollett Harris, 619 134 (CA1 1980) (holding Supplemental irrational). affidavit stated sent 1537-1538. amendment's indirect effects suspect incentive separately. answer, unintended programs, legitimacy question. appellants' reconsideration Lyng. 107a. 591, 4, Once permissible contrary, takes sure actually perform obligations. bears (although supplement) adoption 1.5 3.5 orders established, $6.8 billion obligations Office Support Enforcement, Decade Enforcement 1975-1985: Tenth Annual Period Ending September 30, 1985, iii, 9-10 analyzing again instructive ask happen appear whatsoever. overall (even amendments), enhance probability preserving enhancement "[g]eneral Smith Organization Foster Equality Reform, 816, 844, 2094, 2109, (importance "stems attachments derive intimacy plays 'promot[ing] life' instruction blood relationship") Griswold Connecticut, 381 479, 502, 1678, 1691, 510 ("[T]here 'realm enter' justification") (WHITE, concurring judgment) hesitated traditional arrangement. Caban Mohammed, 441 380, 1760, 297 (1979) (recognizing unwed participated children); 846-847, 2110-2111 (acknowledging temporary foster care). appreciation regardless, because, misfortune caprice beset affairs. 60% black 36% While white figure women accounted 25% 1980 18% 1980. I. Sawhill, Time Transition: Growth Headed Women scholar average percent rise year children) decline." Weitzman, Divorce Revolution 323 1982, 9.4% Findings 1981-May 1982 With Study "[P]aternal deprivation, patterns inadequate fathering highly problems." Hetherington Deur, Effects Absence Development, Young 233, 244 (1971) ("Father appears associated wide range disruptions cognitive children"). Hetherington, Child's Perspective, Psychologist 851, 856 ("Most preschool mourning fantasies reconciliation several years"). Studies indicate "[c]hildren well-supported significantly Bread Roses: Nonfinancial Issues Related Fathers' Following Child-Support Obligation 135, 149 (J. Cassetty 1983). Guidelines judicially imposed, Uniform 9A U.L.A. 309 (1979 Supp.1987) (court consider, inter alia, educational needs"). formed wedlock. instances draw "[m]arital destroys families." Parenting Apart: Patterns Childrearing Disruption, 893, 902 study, asked, "When you think specifically include?" Virtually residing, 72% mentioned stepfather. Dishearteningly, 899. "Despite orders, fail $4 year. (53 percent) millions 7, D. Chambers, Making Fathers Pay Cox, Aftermath Mother/Child Father/Child Relationships 149, Stevens M. criticized, contains "evidence payments." Ante, Bowlby, Attachment Loss: Retrospect Prospect, Am.J. Orthopsychiatry 664, 666 50-13.4(d) (child custodian "for (1962) (parent [these] redound limit adhere tradition reducible group.

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