Document: 380 U.S. 163 85 S.Ct. 850 13 L.Ed.2d 733 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.Daniel Andrew SEEGER. Petitioner, v. Arno Sascha JAKOBSON. Forest Britt PETER, STATES. Nos. 50, 51, 29. Argued Nov. 16 and 17, 1964. Decided March 8, 1965. Sol. Gen. Archibald Cox, for petitioner in No. respondent 29 51. Duane B. Beeson, San Francisco, Cal., Kenneth W. Greenawalt, New York City, 50. Herman Adlerstein, Mr. Justice CLARK delivered the opinion of Court. 1 These cases involve claims conscientious objectors under § 6(j) Universal Military Training Service Act, 50 U.S.C.App. 456(j) (1958 ed.), which exempts from combatant training service armed forces United States those persons who by reason their religious belief are conscientiously opposed to participation war any form. The were consolidated argument we consider them together although each involves different facts circumstances. parties raise basic question constitutionality section defines term 'religious belief,' as used 'an individual's a relation Supreme Being involving duties superior arising human relation, but (not including) essentially political, sociological, or philosophical views merely personal moral code.' constitutional attack is launched First Amendment's Establishment Free Exercise Clauses twofold: (1) does not exempt nonreligious objectors; (2) it discriminates between forms expression violation Due Process Clause Fifth Amendment. Jakobson (No. 51) Peter 29) also claim that beliefs come within meaning section. he meets standards because his opposition based on Reality therefore an obligation one resulting man's relationship fellow man. contends derives acceptance existence universal power beyond man this fact constitutes Being, qualifying him exemption. We granted certiorari importance administration Act. 377 922, 84 1219, 12 214. 2 have concluded Congress, using 'Supreme Being' rather than designation 'God,' was clarifying so embrace all religions exclude views. believe construction, test 'in whether given sincere meaningful occupies place life its possessor parallel filled orthodox God clearly qualifies Where such positions lives respective holders cannot say other not. these meet criteria, and, accordingly, affirm judgments 51 reverse judgment 3 THE FACTS IN CASES. 4 50: Seeger convicted District Court Southern having refused submit induction forces. He originally classified 1—A 1953 local board, classification changed 1955 2—S (student) remained status until 1958 when reclassified 1—A. first claimed exemption objector 1957 after successive annual renewals student classification. Although did adopt verbatim printed Selective System form, declared form 'religious' belief; preferred leave open, 'rather answer 'yes' 'no"; 'skepticism disbelief God' 'not necessarily mean lack faith anything whatsoever'; 'belief devotion goodness virtue own sakes, purely ethical creed.' R. 69—70, 73. cited personages Plato, Aristotle Spinoza support intellectual integrity 'without God, except remotest sense.' His found be sincere, honest, made good faith; objection upon individual belief, both included research cultural fields. Seeger's claim, however, denied solely required At trial counsel admitted commonly understood, contended entitled 'under present law position would include definitions religion been stated more recently,' 49, could 'accommodated' definition 53. Appeals reversed, holding requirement distinguished 'between internally derived externally compelled beliefs' was, therefore, 'impermissible classification' 326 F.2d 846. 5 51: charge refusing induction. On appeal reversed ground rejection may rested factual finding, erroneously made, 6(j). 325 409. 6 intermittently enjoyed 1956. It April noncombatant (1—A—O) objector. believed 'Creator Man' sense being 'ultimately responsible of' 'the Reality' result.' 44. (Emphasis original.) explained social thinking had developed much meditation thought. must 'partly spiritual' akin Reality'; 'most important law' 'no ought ever wilfully sacrifice another means end * *.' 45—46. In December requested 1—O since felt military 'too many situations relationships strain (his) conscience (he he) avoid.' 70. submitted long memorandum 'notes religion' defined 'sum essence one's attitudes fundamental problems existence,' 72 (emphasis original); said 'Godness' Ultimate Cause Universe'; deny universe 'anything Is, has Being.' There Godness, stated, two directions, i.e., 'vertically, towards Godness directly,' 'horizontally, through Mankind World.' 74. accepted latter one. Board 1—A—O appealed. hearing officer code claim. Appeal indicate what decision, insincerity conclusion only code. finding came requirements Because determine Jakobson's failed statutory definition, lacked sincerity, directed dismissal indictment. 7 29: Northern California member sect organization; execute VII questionnaire attached quotation expressing war, concurred. later hedged saying depended appended statement take considered state. As conviction religious, quoted with approval Reverend John Haynes Holmes' consciousness some manifest nature helps ordering harmony demands (; it) supreme nature; highest, feeling deepest, living best.' 27. source attributed reading our democratic American culture, values western tradition.' Ibid. supposed 'you call God. just do happen words I use.' 11. 1959 1—A, there no evidence record beliefs. After failure report Appeals, assuming arguendo affirmed, 324 173. 8 BACKGROUND OF 9 Chief Hughes, Macintosh, 283 605, 570, 75 L.Ed. 1302 (1931), enunciated rationale behind recognition accorded Congress various conscription laws forum conscience, duty higher state always maintained.' 633, at 578 (dissenting opinion). similar vein Harlan Fiske Stone, Justice, drew Nation's past 10 'both morals sound policy require should violate individual. All history gives confirmation view liberty value makes worthy preservation hands So deep significance vital, indeed, spiritual nothing short self-preservation warrant violation; well questioned preserves settled will ultimately lose process.' Conscientious Objector, 21 Col.Univ.Q. 253, 269 (1919). 11 Governmental dilemma posed certain faiths arms early country. Various methods ameliorating difficulty adopted Colonies, perpetuated statutes constitutions. Thus time Civil War existed pattern exempting grounds. Federal Militia Act 1862 control left primarily States. However, General Order 99, issued Adjutant pursuant provided striking list exempted States; established commutation substitution system fashioned earlier enactments. With Conscription 1863, enacted provisions Government occupied field entirely 1864 Draft Stat. 9, extended exemptions members denominations bearing prohibited doing articles denominations. Monograph 11, Objection 40—41 (1950). same year Confederacy pacifist sects duty. Id., 46. need again arise World I. 1917, 40 76, 78, afforded affiliated 'well-recognized organization (then) organized existing whose creed principles (forbade) participate inducted into services, allowed perform capacities designated President 1917 excused only, Secretary instructed 'personal scruples against war' constituting 'conscientious objection.' 54—55 This including provisions, upheld Law Cases, (Arver States) 245 366, 389—390, 38 159, 62 349 (1918). adopting 1940 broadened making unnecessary belong if claimant's belief.' 54 889. Those services assigned supervision System. recognized might without belonging church surely minority reach war. Looks Objector (National Religious Objectors, 1943) 71, 79, 83, 87, 88, 89. Indeed, consensus witnesses appearing before congressional committees belief—rather membership sect—determined imposed person everyday conduct; 'there loyalty country, God.' 29—31. See proposals House Affairs Committee rejected. 21—23, 82—83, 85. Thus, while shifting nevertheless continued historic practice excusing they owed obligation, due state, participating 14 Between 1948 courts appeals1 held phrase belief' philosophical, political policy. Then amended language statute significant mention change provision appears Senate Armed Services recommending adoption. simply this: 'This reenacts substantially subsection 5(g) act. Exemption extends anyone who, non-combatant service. (See Berman (sic), 156 377, denied, 329 795 (67 480, 91 680).)' S.Rep.No. 1268, 80th Cong., 2d Sess., 14; U.S.Code Cong. 1948, p. 2002. 15 INTERPRETATION 1. crux problem lies relation.' assigning narrow inquiry noting briefly expressly excepted definition. excludes disavowing decide basis sociological economic considerations wrong part it. historically reserved Government, matters can fall areas never permitted override supra further stems 'merely code,' shall occasion turn discussing application cases. pause note involved litigation. No party atheist attacks ground. not, theistic atheistic deal intimate decision situation Nor monotheistic God; (with possible exception bases here grounds) adhere theism, 'Belief god gods; Belief superhuman powers agencies gods,' atheism.2 Our question, one: Does broader concept being, faith, 'to else subordinate dependent'? Webster's International Dictionary (Second Edition). considering resolve otherwise. 17 2. Few quarrel, think, proposition endeavor tool proved inadequate communication ideas dealing questions predicament life, death final retribution. task discerning intent complex easier richness variety Over 250 inhabit land. Some supernatural deity; others think way envisioning ultimate goal day men live perfect understanding peace. depth being; others, Buddhists, strive lasting rest self-denial inner purification; Hindu philosophy, transcendental reality truth, knowledge bliss. Even groups traditionally every splintered denominations: 1947 four name 'Friends,' (1950); 'Church Brethren' official oldest largest body composed called Brethren, id., 11; 'Mennonite Church' denominations, Amish Hutterites, grouped bodies' 1936 Census Bodies, 9. vast panoply reveals magnitude faced set about providing emphasizes care realized necessary fashioning keeping long-established picking choosing among 18 spite elusive inquiry, guidelines. amending almost intact Hughes supra: 19 'The 633—634 U.S., 578. supplied.) 20 By comparing words, becomes readily apparent deliberately broaden substituting appellation 'God.' And elaborate authority chose designate refraining mind admonitions even word 'God' myriad meanings faith: '(P)utting aside dogmas particular conceptions deity, freedom itself implies respect innate paramount battle fought won practices, conflict order, very supremacy proper field.' 634, 22 Moreover, Report bill specifically states intended re-enact 'substantially found' That statute, course, refers more. Admittedly, purport base belief. appears, look clear out report. Under here. Within dependent. words: A admittedly comes construction avoids imputing classify beliefs, excluding accord well-established equal treatment grounded tenets. 23 3. takes States, supra, desired interpretation Such bear scrutiny. First, explicit deserves weight parenthetical citation case stand number things. desire restrict contrary Chairman reported stated: 24 'We heard representatives hear, summing up, whole bill, compulsory training, right most instances ministerial students continue studies, ample protection classes groups.' 86 Cong.Rec. 11368 (1940). 25 During debate Faddis Pennsylvania following statement: 26 objectors. am sure committee sympathy world appeared claiming rendering degrees. handling lethal weapons, performing actually bring combat. Others activities go along Army. took consideration written which, believe, reasonable objections class people.' 11418 27 belies notion restrictive available believing traditional 28 Berman, But Congress' action citing construed make consistent express meant provision. far find, concern over Kauten Berman. Surely, thought clashing interpretations amounted resolved, somewhere deliberations. For hold common nature, religious. Both, fact, seems likely, point led cite definition—belief Being—was indeed court recognizes, Macintosh. Far requiring here, Hughes' opinion, pointed out, supports interpretation. second half definition—the views—was taken directly But, noted, adhered Kauten, supra. Indeed cases' terms: ruled valid social, grounds 337 278. conclusions lightly evidenced Senator Gurney, sponsor containing version 6(j): 30 now pending follows act, few technical amendments, worked conscientious-objector during war.' 94 7305 (1948). 31 conclude enacting appeals correctly implicit perfectly selected citation, case, circumstance Kauten. 32 Section 6(j), then, clarification 'technical amendments,' use Gurney. continues fairly 'religious.'3 To otherwise fly face entire past; ignore country issue founding. 33 4. embraces ever-broadening modern community. eminent Protestant theologian, Dr. Paul Tillich, concedes identifies projection 'out there' skies being. 'parallel (those of) theologian strikingly.' F.2d, 415—416. book, Systematic Theology, Tillich says: 34 'I above theism. (of self-affirmation) theological disappears. something remains, namely, seriousness doubt meaninglessness affirmed. affirmation meaninglessness, certitude doubt, theism 'God works it, II Theology (1957). 35 Another cleric, Bishop Woolwich, A. T. Robinson, Honest (1963), states: 36 Bible speaks 'up there.' picture three-decker universe, heaven above, earth beneath waters earth,' once quite literally. *' 37 '(Later) literally physically accepted, mental furniture, spiritually metaphysically room him, inn, universe: vacant places left. reality, new slightest difference. 14. 'But idea dies harder. people seriously disturbed die all. put place. Every us there,' 'exists' 'to' whom pray 'go' die.' signs reaching conception served collapse becoming hindrance help.' 15—16 39 Schema recent Ecumenical Council declaration religion:4 community peoples One origin, race earth. One, too, end, Men expect answers riddles condition: What man? purpose lives? sin? death, judgment, retribution death? 41 'Ever primordial days, numerous perception hidden hovers course things events up men; know Father. Religions advanced culture able refined concepts struggle questions. 42 'Nothing true holy scorned Catholic Church. Ceaselessly Church proclaims Christ, Way, Truth, Life,' reconciled Himself. regards reverence ways precepts teachings differ ones she sets forth, reflect nonetheless ray Truth enlightens men.' 43 David Saville Muzzey, leader Ethical Culture Movement, Ethics Religion (1951), '(e)verybody avowed atheists (and comparatively few) believes kind God,' ask, futile one, Do you God? rather, in?' 86—87. Muzzey attempts question: 44 'Instead positing neither prove nor disprove, founded experience. anthropocentric, theocentric. Religion, highest ideal conceive. spirits latent potentialities elicited reciprocal endeavors cultivate best men. know; expresses inspires purpose.' 95. 45 'Thus love figure great white throne, pattern, envisioned humanity be, purged evil elements retard progress toward knowledge, right." 98. 46 comprise broad spectrum us. demonstrate diverse manners equally possessors, articulated. They reveal difficulties inherent placing too thereby lend conclusive today find intended. 47 5. recognize trier hope lay down proves less onerous. examiner furnished standard permits criteria considerable While applicant's differ, simple application. objective occupy holds qualified exemption? 48 remembered resolving deals individuals articulate multitude ways. intensely area, registrant essential weight. Recognition language, State Amana Society, 132 Iowa 304, 109 N.W. 894, L.R.A.,N.S., 909 (1906): 49 "Surely scheme designed obviate (man's inhumanity man), removing temptations, allurements ambition avarice, nurture virtues unselfishness, patience, love, service, denounced pertaining devotees regard tenet faith." Iowa, 315, N.W., 898, 381. Appeals.) validity questioned. theologians, examiners, tempted registrant's truth concepts. inquiries foreclosed Government. Douglas Ballard, 322 86, 64 882, 886, 88 1148 (1944): 'Men prove. proof doctrines experiences real incomprehensible others.' Local boards free reject 'incomprehensible.' Their professed sincerely are, things, hasten emphasize 'truth' open remains 'truly held.' threshold sincerity resolved case. is, fact—a prime provides comprehensive assisting Boards determination, facilities Department Bureau Investigation officers. Finally, Estep 327 114, 66 423, 90 567 (1946), that: 52 decisions 'final' give administrative customary scope judicial review obtains statutes. weigh justified. conformity regulations though erroneous. jurisdiction board reached gave registrant.' 122—123, 427. 53 APPLICATION TO INSTANT noted earlier, excepts registrants records cases, show applicants suggest outset broadly interpreted narrowly. personal' sole related Being. follows, then 55 Seeger, sufficient 'externally beliefs.' 'it seem impossible assurance (Seeger) bowing 'external commands' virtually defers power.' 853. little distinction mystical force compulsion 'goodness.' Of said, distinguish determination would, observed, practical matter, distinction. 56 sincerity. product devout Roman home; close Quaker 'much derived'; approved form; devoted spare hours Friends hospital 57 summary, faith.' disavow Being'; cosmic order does, perhaps, creative intelligence.' decried tremendous 'spiritual' price pay willingness destroy life. light unquestioned them, Board, applied propose today, prompted deity friends, Quakers. reminded Tillich's thoughts: 58 'And (God) you, translate speak depths your concern, reservation. Perhaps, so, forget everything learned *'. Shaking Foundations. 59 usual intend test. 60 Jakobson, demonstrated agree judgment. 61 like acknowledged 'some expression' replied, establish grant ordered. Judgment affirmed; reversed. 63 DOUGLAS, concurring. If read differently Court, difficulties. embraced subject penalties; discrimination, Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 83 1790, 965, result denial preferring others—an invidious discrimination run afoul Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 74 693, 98 884. 65 legislative leaves dark. my tour de construe cosmos, anthropomorphic entity. hold, where gone extremes save demise extreme strained candid avoiding serious doubt.' Rumely, 345 41, 47, 73 543, 546, 97 770.1 'a religion. Long birth Judeo-Christian civilization forms. Mention two—Hinduism Buddhism—illustrates fluidity evanescent concept. conceived several cult Deities. chief these, Triad, Brahma, Vishnu Siva. Deity, widely worshipped, Sakti, Mother Goddess, power, destructive creative. Though encompasses worship Deities, single eternally existent manifold attributes manifestations. expressed Digveda, earliest sacred text Hindus, verse hymn mythical seer Dirghatamas (Rigveda, I, 164): 67 'They Indra, Mitra, Varuna Agni heavenly beautiful Garutman: 68 Real sages variously— 69 Agni, Yama, Matarisvan.' 70 Smart, Reasons Faiths 35, n. (1958); Harvard Oriental Series pp. 434—435. (Lanman, ed. 1925). generally id.; Editors Life Magazine, World's Great Vol. 1, 17—48 (1963). 71 Indian comprises schools thought, theories According Upanisads, texts, described creates sustains everything, created return dissolution. Upanisads Brahman. Philosophically, Knowledge, Bliss. universe. aspect Brahman Isvara, Lord Creator object worship. school Sankara, imperfect limited transcended: material infected illusion, maya—which really truth. Ultimately, mystically, understood attributes, neti this, that). op. cit., 133. Buddhism—whose advent marked reform Hinduism—continued somewhat Nancy Wilson Ross, 'God—if borrow moment—the indissoluble existence, total whole. Only THIS—capital THIS is. Anything entity phenomenon, planet atom, mouse man, temporary manifestation activity place, loving eating breakfast, activity. When way, naturally endowed special soul self. Each cell, were, Self, cell performs functions, passes away, transformed manifestation. individuality, temporary, individuality either self Self; Body Reality, Dharmakaya, Buddhist name.' Zen, (1960). Being'? That, depends how Buddhism explained: 'It often suggested assumption rise discussions. knew religion; obviously discussions assume unambiguous term, case.' Conze, Buddhism, 38—39 (1959). Conze says interest 39. oneness Christian mystics, indistinguishable Nirvana, Reality; eternal, Peace.' 39—40. finally, Deities least superficially polytheistic Hinduism, tolerates Gods: Buddhists Faith kept alive adapted habits average person. consequence, that, Scriptures, deities Brahmanism on, Gods district came.' 42. 76 nation Confucianists, Taoists, Christians. Hawaii, Territory, 'probably major Protestantism Catholicism deemed faiths.' Stokes Pfeffer, 560 (1964). Organized Hawaii 1887 Japanese laborers brought work plantations. temple Shin Honolulu congregation city. Mulholland, 44—50 (1961). 77 continental strength' Utah, Arizona, Washington, Oregon, California. 'Most Japanese-Americans; 'English' departments Los Angeles, Tacoma.' Mead, Handbook Denominations, Churches North America, 1914 Mission America incorporated 1942, represent Jodo Shinshu Sect group reporting information Yearbook Churches. 1961, latest figures available, alone churches inclusive 60,000; maintained 89 enrollment 11,150. Churches, (1965). source, 171,000. Almanac, 636 78 spoke vague general terms cannot, parochial urged attribute tolerance sophistication commensurate complexion communities. sum, fills religionist, statute. None avowedly irreligious atheist;2 believer 'goodness sakes.' doubts issues, wonder, alien awe-inspired Buddhist. 133 703 (C.A.2d Cir. 1943); (C.A.9th 1946). Edition); Collegiate (1949). identical Immigration Nationality 258, U.S.C. 1448(a) ed.). noteworthy connection Special Subcommittee Investigate Naturalization subcommittee realizes respects defense invades province conscience.' recommended vow asserted 'his articipation S.Rep. 1515, 81st 742, 746. Church's relations non-Christians, Daybook, Vatican II, 3d 282, N.C.W.C., D.C., see Crowell Benson, 285 22, 62, 285, 598; Ullmann 350 422, 433, 100 511; Ashwander TVA, 397 288, 341, 348, 466, 80 688 (concurring atheist, presented. Cf. Torcaso Watkins, 367 488, 81 1680, 982.

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