Document: 489 U.S. 602 109 S.Ct. 1402 103 L.Ed.2d 639 Samuel K. SKINNER, Secretary of Transportation, et al., Petitionersv.RAILWAY LABOR EXECUTIVES' ASSOCIATION al. No. 87-1555. Argued Nov. 2, 1988. Decided March 21, 1989. Syllabus Upon the basis evidence indicating that alcohol and drug abuse by railroad employees had caused or contributed to a number significant train accidents, Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) promulgated regulations under petitioner Transportation's statutory authority adopt safety standards for industry. Among other things, Subpart C requires railroads see blood urine tests covered are conducted following certain major accidents incidents, while D authorizes, but does not require, administer breath both who violate rules. Respondents, Railway Labor Executives' Association various its member labor organizations, brought suit in District Court enjoin regulations. The court granted summary judgment petitioners, concluding did Fourth Amendment. Appeals reversed, ruling, inter alia, requirement particularized suspicion is essential finding toxicological testing reasonable stated such would ensure tests, which reveal presence metabolites may remain body weeks ingestion, confined detection current impairment. Held: 1. Amendment applicable mandated authorized FRA Pp. 614-618. (a) question cannot be viewed as private action outside reach A complies with so compulsion sovereign therefore must an instrument agent Government. Similarly, even though compel test, it concluded, context this facial challenge, will primarily result initiative, since specific features combine establish Government has actively encouraged, endorsed, participated testing. Specifically, pre-empt state laws covering same subject matter intended supersede collective-bargaining arbitration-award provisions, removed all legal barriers D. Moreover, conferring upon right receive biological samples test results procured railroads, makes plain strong preference governmental desire share fruits intrusions. In addition, mandate bargain away their provide employee refuses submit withdrawn from service. 614-616. (b) collection subsequent analysis required constitute searches person This long recognized compelled intrusion into tested content ensuing chemical searches. subjecting deemed search, production "deep lung" thereby implicates concerns about bodily integrity. although do entail any body, they nevertheless searches, intrude expectations privacy medical information act urination society reasonable. Even if employer's antecedent interference employee's freedom movement characterized independent seizure, limitation on necessary obtain contemplated considered assessing intrusiveness affected program. 616-618. 2. there no warrant particular impaired, since, present record, compelling interests served outweigh employees' concerns. 618-633. Government's interest regulating conduct engaged safety-sensitive tasks order traveling public themselves plainly justifies prohibiting using drugs duty call exercise supervision assure restrictions fact observed. That presents "special needs" beyond normal law enforcement justify departures usual probable-cause requirements. 618-621. Imposing render intrusions at issue Such little further purposes warrant, circumstances justifying permissible limits narrowly specifically defined doubtless well known employees, virtually facts neutral magistrate evaluate, light standardized nature minimal discretion vested those charged administering imposing significantly hinder, many cases frustrate, objectives program, delay procure could destruction valuable evidence, eliminated bloodstream constant rate, supervisors set process motion have familiarity intricacies jurisprudence. 621-624. (c) individualized procedures pose only limited threats justifiable expectations, particularly participate industry pervasive regulation State Governments. because ordinarily consent employer-imposed movement, additional occurs time takes sample minimal. Furthermore, Schmerber v. California, 384 757, 86 1826, 16 908, established governmentally imposed unduly extensive imposition individual's integrity, less intrusive than tests. And, require perform excretory function traditionally shielded great privacy, reduce requiring furnished environment without direct observation. contrast, showing compelling. substance-impaired job can cause human loss before signs impairment become noticeable, supply effective means deterring dru § putting them notice likely discovered accident occurs. An also impede railroads' ability causes incidents how protect public, obtaining giving rise impaired impracticable chaotic aftermath when difficult determine occurrence objective indicia absent. Appeals' conclusion unreasonable measure flawed. disclosed nothing more recent use controlled substances, investigation might allow informed occurred. More importantly, overlooked FRA's policy placing principal reliance unquestionably identify use, failed recognize designed discern deter it. 624-632. 839 F.2d 575 (CA9 1988), reversed. KENNEDY, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, BLACKMUN, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, JJ., joined, portions Part III STEVENS, joined. filed concurring part judgment, post, p. 634. MARSHALL, dissenting opinion, BRENNAN, 635. Atty. Gen. Dick Thornburgh, Washington, D.C., petitioners. Lawrence M. Mann, respondents. Justice KENNEDY Court. 1 Safety Act 1970 authorizes Transportation "prescribe, necessary, appropriate rules, regulations, orders, areas safety." 84 Stat. 971, 45 U.S.C. 431(a). Finding poses serious threat safety, involved accidents. adopted authorize, presented case whether these 2 * A. 3 problem American old itself, efforts carrier rules began least century ago. For years, prohibited operating possessing being intoxicated consuming alcoholic beverages called duty. recently, proscriptions been expanded forbid possession drugs. These embodied "Rule G," industry-wide rule Railroads, enforced, formulations, every country. customary sanction Rule G violations dismissal. 4 July 1983, expressed concern were adequate curb employees. pointed on-the-job intoxication was industry.1 found, after review reports, 1972 1983 "the nation's experienced 21 involving probable contributing factor," "resulted 25 fatalities, 61 non-fatal injuries, property damage estimated $19 million (approxima ely $27 1982 dollars)." 48 Fed.Reg. 30726 (1983). identified "an 17 fatalities working around rail rolling stock factor." Ibid. problems, solicited comments interested parties regulatory approaches problems throughout Nation's system. 5 Comments submitted response request indicated able detect relatively small violations, owing, primarily, practice relying observation co-workers enforce rule. 49 24266-24267 (1984). At time, "industry participants . confirmed [did] occur unacceptable frequency," available sources "suggest[ed] includ[ed] 'pockets' drinking multiple crew members (before during work), sporadic individuals reporting work repeated individual chemically psychologically dependent substances." Id., 24253-24254. "Even benefit regular post-accident testing," "identified 34 66 injuries over $28 (in dollars) resulted errors drug-impaired period 1975 through 1983." 24254. Some release hazardous materials and, one case, pollution evacuation entire Louisiana community. 24254, 24259. view obvious hazards announced June 1984 intention promulgate federal subject. B 6 After reviewing representatives industry, groups, general FRA, 1985, addressing railroads. final apply assigned service Hours Service Act, ch. 2939, 1415, amended, seq. prohibit substance. CFR 219.101(a)(1) (1987). influence of, by, alcohol, having concentration .04 more, 219.101(a)(2). restrict, however, railroad's impose absolute prohibition fluids persons employ, 219.101(c), accordingly, "replace unenforceable." 50 31538 (1985). 7 To extent pertinent here, two subparts relate C, entitled "Post-Accident Toxicological Testing," mandator It provides "shall take practicable steps directly FRA," 219.203(a), specified events. "major accident," involves (i) fatality, (ii) material accompanied reportable injury, (iii) $500,000 more. 219.201(a)(1). collecting "impact collision $50,000 219.201(a)(2). Finally, obligated "[a]ny incident fatality on-duty employee." 219.201(a)(3). 8 event activates transport facility, where obtained each employee.2 collected, ship prepaid air freight laboratory analysis. 219.205(d). There, analyzed "state-of-the-art equipment techniques" drugs.3 proposes place primary samples, fluid clear indication effects." 24291 Urine traces longer blood, some possible facility bloodstream. instances, "positive taken pattern elimination behavior accident, crucial determination of" accident. 9 notify afford opportunity respond writing preparation investigative report. See 219.211(a)(2). Employees refuse nine months, hearing concerning refusal 219.213 10 "Authorization Test Cause," permissive. addressed C. Breath both, ordered (1) incident, supervisor "reasonable suspicion" acts omissions severity 219.301(b)(2); (2) including noncompliance signal excessive speeding, 219.301(b)(3). based specific, personal observations appearance, behavior, speech, odors employee. 219.301(b)(1). Where suspected, railroad, make determination, 219.301(c)(2)(i), suspect due substance received specialized training detecting intoxication. 219.301(c)(2)(ii). 11 whenever either disciplinary proceeding, given facility. 219.303(c). If declines give sample, presume impairment, absent persuasive contrary, positive residues urine. must, detailed presumption advise contemporaneous sample. As forth "be method reliable within tolerances." 219.307(b). 12 instant United States Northern seeking constitutional grounds. ruling bench, petitioners' favor. concluded "have valid integrity own bodies" deserved protection App. Pet. Cert. 53a. held, outweighed competing "public promotion railway transportation." 52a. found respondents' arguments meritless. 13 divided panel Ninth Circuit Assn. Burnley, (1988). first, conferred involve sufficient implicate Amendment, breath, "agre[ed] exigencies prompt precludes warrant." 583. held "accommodation government adherence requirement," legality cont mplated depends reasonableness circumstances. 587. 14 suspicion, stated, "no insuperable burden government," id., 588, rather discovery drugs, days ingestion drug." 588-589. Except provisions authorizing §§ 219.301(b)(1) (c)(2) (1987), invalidated them. 15 Judge Alarcon dissented. He criticized majority "fail[ing] engage [a] balancing interests" focusing instead "solely degree workers' interests." F.2d, 597. dissent government's need controlling among personnel outweighs 596. We parties' petition writ certiorari, 486 1042, 108 2033, 100 618 (1988), consider now reverse. II "[t]he people secure persons, houses, papers, effects, against seizures, shall violated. ." guarantees dignity, security arbitrary invasive officers acting direction. Camara Municipal San Francisco, 387 523, 528, 87 1727, 1730, 18 930 (1967). Delaware Prouse, 440 648, 653-654, 99 1391, 1395-1396, 59 660 (1979); Martinez-Fuerte, 428 543, 554, 96 3074, 3081, 1116 (1976). Before we inquire attributable agents, amount seizures. turn matters. Although search one, effected party his protects acted Jacobsen, 466 109, 113-114, 104 1652, 1656-1657, 80 85 (1984); Coolidge New Hampshire, 403 443, 487, 91 2022, 2048, 29 564 (1971). Burdeau McDowell, 256 465, 475, 41 574, 575-576, 65 L.Ed. 1048 (1921). authority, lawfulness Petitioners contend, implicated compels 19 unwilling conclude, Whether should necessarily turns participation party's activities, cf. Lustig States, 338 74, 78-79, 69 1372, 1373-1374, 93 1819 (1949) (plurality opinion); Byars 273 28, 32-33, 47 248, 249-250, 71 520 (1927), resolved "in circumstances," supra, U.S., S.Ct., 2026. not, one. Here, convince us passive position toward underlying conduct. 20 D, laws, matter, 219.13(a) "any provision collective bargaining agreement, arbitration award construing agreement," 31552 They confer pursuant 219.11(c). divest itself otherwise compromise contract, explained, "authority purpose promoting shackle way inconsistent promote Nor free decline conditions 219.11(b). Field Manual 18. accept submission initiative. indeed made testing, indices encouragement, endorsement, participation, suffice 22 Our precedents teach where, seeks physical person, relevant several levels. See, e.g., Dionisio, 410 1, 8, 764, 768, 35 67 (1973). initial detention seizure Cupp Murphy, 412 291, 294-295, 2000, 2003, 36 900 (1973); Davis Mississippi, 394 721, 726-727, 89 1394, 1397, 676 (1969), amounts meaningful movement. INS Delgado, 210, 215, 1758, 1762, 247 113, n. 5, 1656, 5. Obtaining examining 295, 13-14, 771-772, doing infringes expectation prepared reasonable, see, California Greenwood, 35, 43, 1625, 1630, 30 (1988); 1656. 23 "compelled intrusio[n] content" search. 767-768, 1833-1834, 908 (1966). Winston Lee, 470 753, 760, 105 1611, 1616, 662 our society's one's Terry Ohio, 392 9, 88 1868, 1873, 889 (1968), intrusion, penetrating beneath skin, physiological data invasion interests. Cf. Arizona Hicks, 480 321, 324-325, 107 1149, 1152-1153, 94 347 Much true breath-testing Subjecting breathalyzer generally alveolar analysis, Trombetta, 467 479, 481, 2528, 2530, 81 413 (1984), similar like blood-alcohol Schmerber, W. LaFave, Search Seizure 2.6(a), 463 Burnett Anchorage, 806 1447, 1449 1986); Shoemaker Handel, 795 1136, 1141 (CA3), cert. denied, 479 986, 577, 580 (1986). 24 Unlike blood-testing procedure prescribed surgical body. disputed, urine, host employee, he she epileptic, pregnant, diabetic. disputed tested, visual aural monitoring urination, Fifth stated: "There few activities passing Most describe euphemisms talk all. performed observation; indeed, performance social custom." National Treasury Union Von Raab, 816 170, 175 (CA5 1987). 26 Because intrudes Courts unanimously, agree, Amendment.4 27 requisite characterize seizure. indicate, raises person. 9-11, 769-770 (grand jury subpoena, enforceable contempt, effect person); Mara, 19, 774, 775, (1973) (same). purposes, suffices note Place, 462 696, 707-709, 2637, 2644-2645, 77 110 28 hold begin inquiry governing O'Connor Ortega, 709, 719, 1492, 1499, 714 (1987) Jersey T.L.O., 469 325, 337, 733, 741, 83 720 proscribe unreasonable. Sharpe, 675, 682, 1568, 1573, 605 (1985); 1834. What course, "depends surrounding itself." Montoya de Hernandez, 473 531, 537, 3304, 3308, 381 Thus, permissibility "is judged legitimate 654, 1396; most criminal cases, strike balance favor described Warrant Clause 701, 2641 2; 407 297, 315, 92 2125, 2135-2136, 32 752 (1972). well-defined circumstances, unless accomplished judicial issued cause. Payton York, 445 573, 586, 1371, 1380, 63 (1980); Mincey Arizona, 437 385, 390, 98 2408, 2412, 57 290 (1978). exceptions rule, "when 'special needs, enforcement, impracticable.' " Griffin Wisconsin, 483 868, 873, 3164, 3168, 97 709 quoting 351, 748 (BLACKMUN, judgment). When faced special hesitated assess practicality requirements context. U.S , 3168 (search probationer's home); York Burger, 482 691, 699-703, 2636, 2642-2644, 601 premises highly regulated businesses); 721-725, 1499-1502 (work-related desks offices); -New 337-342, 740-743 student's school officials); Bell Wolfish, 441 520, 558-560, 1861, 1884-1885, 60 447 (1979) (body cavity prison inmates). probationers industries, operation office, school, prison, "likewise needs' requirements." 873-874, 3168. hours include handling orders movements, crews, maintenance repair systems. 31511 undisputed tasks. respondents conceded point oral argument. Tr. Oral Arg. 46-47. recognized, whole premise length relation efficiency agencies [of] life depends." Baltimore & Ohio R. Co. ICC, 221 612, 619, 31 621, 625, 55 878 (1911). Atchison, T. S.F.R. 244 336, 342, 37 635, 637, 1175 (1917) ("[I]t remembered prevent dangers arise continuing men dangerous business periods unfit entrusted care"). assist prosecution "to casualties operations drugs." 219.1(a) (1987).5 ensuring duty, "require[s] justif[ies] observed." 875, 3169. remains, then, monitor compliance suspicion. assuring citizens random agents. assures citizen law, scope. 703, 2644; Chadwick, 433 2476, 2482, 53 538 (1977); 532, 1732. detached scrutiny magistrate, thus ensures justified case. 2482. context, aims. Both authorize them, Biswell, 406 311, 316, 1593, 1596, Indeed, evaluate. Colorado Bertine, 367, 376, 738, 743, 739 concurring).6 33 moreover, dispensing strongest when, frustrate behind search." 533, 1733. 340, 742; Donovan Dewey, 452 594, 603, 101 2534, 2540, 262 (1981). substances triggering occurred soon possible. 770-771, 1835-1836. enable estimate violation, evidence. rely indicates insistence achievement objective. supervisors, officials, 339-340, 742, hospital administrators, 722, 1500; investigating enforcing administrative codes, occasion familiar Court's "Imposing unwieldy reason procedures, simply unreasonable." sum, add assurances certainty regularity already afforded hindering, frustrating, believe here indicate based, searched violated law. 742. cause, usually "some quantum 560, 3084. clear, floor, below presumed 561, minimal, important furthered placed jeopardy despite absence here. By large, limited. transportation alone employment place. Ordinarily, consents o employment, come go please hours. 218, 1763. Any cannot, said infringe 38 decision motorist suspected driving intoxicated, intrusion. noted manner, motorist's "blood physician according accepted practices." 771, 1836. occasioned significant, "tests commonplace periodic examinations experience teaches quantity extracted risk, trauma, pain." "society's integrity." 762, 1617. South Dakota Neville, 459 553, 563, 916, 922, 74 (1983) ("The simple safe, painless, commonplace"); Breithaupt Abram, 352 432, 436, 408, 410, 448 (1957) routine everyday life"). 39 piercing skin safely minimum inconvenience embarrassment. Further, level Like used ascertain bloodstream, substantial interest. 123, 1661-1662; 707, 2644-2645. conclude administration 40 inquiring unrelated use.7 recognize, raise While contexts, endeavor process. monitor, desirability 31555 B-15, D-1. collected environment, employer, unlike encountered often examination. diminished pervasively goal dependent, part, health fitness between Congress enacted 1907, "test facilities, equipment, stock, operations, deems carry out provisions" 1970. 437(a) (emphasis added). governments,8 reflected practice, evidenced industry's promulgation G. acknowledged, 585, "most engine employees." 24278 Executives Norfolk Western Co., 833 700, 705-706 (CA7 1987); Brotherhood Maintenance Way Employees, Lodge Burlington 802 1016, 1024 (CA8 1986). 42 suggest, enjoyed employed always focus concern. judge noted: "The obvious. idle locomotive, sitting roundhouse, harmless. becomes lethal operated negligently 593. Though reasonably logic history show attaches relating condition procuring information. therefore, testin Subparts 43 discharge duties fraught risks injury others momentary lapse attention disastrous consequences. access nuclear power Rushton Nebraska Public Power Dist., 844 562, 566 1988); Alverado Washington Supply System, 111 Wash.2d 424, 759 P.2d 427, 433-434 pending, 88-645, noticeable others. seldom display outward "signs detectable lay or, physician." 31526 finds ample support G, courts examined analogous schemes. 1020. posit detected testing,9 lawsuit calamity respect 44 ease perfect accuracy, first 31541 persuasively shows, common sense confirms, dismissal threatens serve deterrent violators know discovered. positions event, timing predict certainty, increase penalties associated conduct, 876, 3170, concomitantly increasing likelihood forgo help invaluable (1985), measures safeguard public. Michigan Tyler, 436 499, 510, 1942, 1950, 56 (1978) (noting fire uncover fire's recurrence); Clifford, 464 287, 308, 641, 78 477 (1984) (REHNQUIST, dissenting) Positive related, worse inability appropriately. Negative likewise furnish clues, eliminating potential factor significance failure, inadequate training, causes, suggest thorough examination alternatives. Tests respecting transgressions, grave both." 31553 46 seriously information, importance. Experience confirms scene chaotic. Investigators arrive shortly find occurrence. best events activate chaotic, instances well. attempt gather deterioration 293, 4, 647, 1950. unrealistic, inimical transportation, Without quarreling importance interests, postaccident "[b]lood impairment." 588. reading academic journals disclose metabolites, "may 589. flawed reasons. emphasized T.L O., "it universally inquiry, conclusively prove ultimate issue, 'any tendency existence consequence [of issue] evidence.' 345, 746, Fed.Rule Evid. 401. times. B-4. record example, result, coupled gathered 609-610. very secondary source guard possibility obtained. together, ascertaining erred related them.10 hindered that, undue infringement IV 51 unlawful offense punish, separate far wrong sensitive substances. Performing is, equally dangerous, consumption contexts. gravamen evil performing functions concealing us, examine accomplish purpose. necessity regulator tasks, system so, 52 Alcohol meet Amendment's requirement. exercised employers surpassing pertaining impaired. meaning accordingly ordered. 54 judgment. my determining adequately supports validity challenged I am persuaded, think dubious proposition people—and well—do causing catastrophic evacuation. conscious possibilities factor, risk seems unlikely behavior. reason, join deterrence rationale; do, 58 whom BRENNAN joins, dissenting. declaring war illegal good policy. ridding now, apparent Rather, deployment Draconian weapon—the compulsory urine—comports Precisely scourge manifest, vigilance unconstitutional excess great. History liberty times urgency, rights seem too extravagant endure. World War relocation-camp Hirabayashi 320 81, 1375, 1774 (1943); Korematsu 323 214, 193, 194 (1944), Red scare McCarthy-era internal subversion Schenck 249 47, 247, (1919); Dennis 341 494, 857, 95 1137 (1951), extreme reminders fundamental freedoms sacrificed name real perceived exigency, invariably regret permitting force crews lacks vidence wrongdoing, today joins shortsighted allowed basic fall prey emergencies. holds diagnose "minimal" dignity posed mass whatsoever Ante, 624. reaching ignores text doctrinal type evanescent cost-benefit calculations judges. But errs utilitarian standards, trivializing raw overlooking conceptual operational flaws in, cast doubts born intentions, ineffectually symbolize opposition use. purports limit workers "safety-sensitive" jobs, ante, 620, much holding companion transferees jobs interdiction firearms. 656, 664, 1384, 1390, 685 (1989). done easily cabined. majority's acceptance dragnet worst, casualty precious liberties citizens. dissent. 62 longest step yet fourth nee[d], enforcement,' 'requirement' 'impracticable.' 619 (citations omitted). With recognition safety" need, permitted displace four categories enumerated Amendment: "persons," 613-614; "houses," (1987); "papers," Or- tega, "effects," "requirement" dispensed "impracticable" elusive me. violated; Warrants supported Oath affirmation, describing searched, things seized." recitation remarkably, leaves off word "violated," 613, remainder Amendment—the Clause—is excised. Framers Clause—a cause—to "provide yardstick official seizures measured." 359-360, 753 (opinion J.). overarching command "reasonable," lies devoid meaning, whatever shifting majorities, concerned day, choose supple term. Dunaway 442 200, 213, 2248, 2257, 824 ("[T]he protections disappear consideration multifarious different cases"). Constitutional fair-weather friends, advantageous, conveniently not. 64 Until unbroken line indispensable prerequisite full-scale regardless 358 359, 3, J.); Chambers Maroney, 399 42, 51, 90 1975, 1981, 419 (1970). Only "substantially intrusive" impact Dunaway, 2255, clearly fell short relax standard. 2257 ("For intrusions, 'balancing' principle 'reasonable' cause"); 360, class almost search.1 upheld justification routinized, fleeting, nonintrusive encounters programs entailed contact person.2 years recognizing clarity doctrine badly distorted, eclipsed req irement patchwork quilt settings: principals' students' belongings, T.L.O.; employers' desks, O'Connor; probation officers' probationers' homes, Griffin.3 Tellingly, counseled ignoring literal formless unguided "reasonableness" satisfied test. joined opinions protesting "jettison[ing of] standard Amendment" predicting "Rohrschach-like 'balancing test' portended "a weakening citizens." 357-358, bears prophecy. applies regime, embarks extended regime balances 'all itself.' 3308-3309, analysis' deepest incursion core today, conceivable aimed person's possessions, No longer: nary explanation acknowledgment novelty approach, extends framework withdrawal urinary excretion, procedures. And until surviving contrast O'Connor, Griffin, suggesting culpability whose searched,4 employees—even group gives sobriety attentiveness. widening exception unsupported completes begun T.L.O. altogether c vil searches—those undertaken reasons "beyond enforcement." place, substitutes manipulable which, mere assertion need," dignitary vulnerable incursion. ibid. (distinguishing civil searches). terms, Amendment—unlike Sixth—does confine actions. Instead, secure."5 68 malleable approach allows reach. laudable; cavalier disregard Constitution There Constitution, communism imagined domestic unrest. 455, 2032, abandoning explicit imperils let alone—the comprehensive valued civilized men," Olmstead 277 438, 478, 564, 578, 72 944 (1928) (Brandeis, dissenting), reject rationale unprincipled dangerous. proper evaluate analytic appraise claims cases. Under framework, inquire, serially, Katz 389 347, 350-353, 507, 510-512, 576 (1967); requirement, Welsh 740, 748-750, 2091, 2096-2098, 732 validly lesser minimally intrusive, 208-210, 2254-2255 finally, 763-766, 1618-1619, 354-355, 749-750 J.) (summarizing framework). 70 threshold "covered" program certainly correct. Who extraction fluids? (1984).6 with, overlooks three distinct issue. waiving narrow "exigent circumstances" exception, 770, 1835, (1966) threaten[s] 'the evidence' "), exigency prevents officials securing obtain. Blood spoil properly preserved, doubt grasp authorizing, appropriate, fluids. wholly unjustified dispense Chimel 395 752, 761-764, 2034, 2039-2041, (1969) (exigency permits warrantless exists). egregiously violates, explains ready expansion countertextual exception. measure, qualify precedents, required. entailing order, say, police stop-and-frisk, still fail pass muster, have, demanded founded 638, concede satisfy Brief Parties construes akin routinized fleeting interactions survive scrutiny. Presumably likens (1976), brief automobile stops border motorists' residence States. Case bankruptcy absurd analogy imperative adhering textual Compelling hypodermic needle "personal unwarranted State" protects. 767, 2042. 24-25, 1881-1882, outer clothing constitutes severe, brief, cherished security, surely annoying, frightening, perhaps humiliating experience." 1881-1882. similarly taking suspect's fingernail scrapings 'severe, security.' (quoting Terry, 1882, d upholding cause). government-compelled added aspect invasion, surrender demand furthermore, hardly quotidian 557, 3082 (routine "quite limited" intrusion). 73 procedure, drunken-driving forcing him endure test: chance desired suffer disappear. 769-770, 1835. 75 strongly suggested "clear indication" needed amounted "plainly" existed interpreting differed sufficed, compare Winston, 1616 (Schmerber "noted cause"), 540, 3310 "indicate[d] suspicion"), reading, forbade Exactly why may, whatsoever, not—and explain.7 76 produce deeply Urination activities. generall forbidden eschewed conversation, places preserve tradition seclusion. 3084 (border-stop questioning annoyance" neither "frightening" nor "offensive"). scant regard instructs "under physician/technician." Administration, Dept. Manual: Control Drug Use Operations D-5 (1986) added).8 offended supervised profound overwhelming lower commentators. Professor—later Solicitor General—Charles Fried written: "[I]n culture situations extremely distressing, detracting self esteem." Privacy, Yale L.J. 487 (1968).9 characterization "minimal," 624, startling. belied prior 79 'There custom.' 617, invoke powerful passage deciding occurred, then ignore underscores shameless manipulability approach. performs apart intruded Technological advances uncover, compounds fluids, disorders epilepsy, diabetes, clinical depression. 558, 3083, Brignoni-Ponce, 422 880, S.Ct 2574, 2580, 607 (1975) (check-point 'a two' residence). Columbia observed: "[S]uch periscope peer her life, home." Jones McKenzie, 266 U.S.App.D.C. 85, 89, 335, 339 Capua Plainfield, 643 F.Supp. 1507, 1511 (NJ 1986) (urine "form surveillance" "reports off-duty just someone watching"). medications impinges confidentiality customarily attending secrets. 82 demands they—like searches—be answer majority, relinquished "participat[ing] undergoing agreements. 627. decisions area refute suggestion heavy eclipses insist extracted. exclusively employer property, "[c]ertain industries oversight exist proprietor enterprise." Marshall Barlow's, Inc., 307, 313, 1816, 1821, 305 added; citation omitted), quoted 2642, Never intimated persons. 1735, (1967) inspections [not] nature"); 598-599, 2538, (1981); Marshall, 1821. lose workplace gate, 716-718, 1497-1498; Oliver 178, 1741, 214 relinquish schoolhouse door, 333, 739, hotel room threshold, Hoffa 385 301, 413, 374 mean if, passed portals, suspicionless solely grounds inanimate contents area. category sets ill-conceived precedent. invaded undergo 624-625, baseless. "interest security," 628, justificatory 637. fundamentally, routinely gain maintain usage. sometimes eyesight, hearing, skill, intelligence, agility, 627, prepares excrete supervision, psychological secrets contain. Surely financial "ethical fitness" doing, letters diaries, revealing papers character. invalidating failure comport hinder attempts transit safe humanly consequences, maximize welfare, intentioned, pursued boundaries. Were freed constraints day seek resulting convictions incarcerations probably thousands fatalities. tolerate specter reflects shared belief beneficent power—whether save money, lives, trains run time—must yield resolute loyalty safeguards." Almeida-Sanchez 266, 273, 2535, 2539-2540, 596 accepting appropriately multifactor terms invalid. benefits outstripped costs sweeping erroneously deriding stake, uncritically inflating efficacy balance. above, forcibly draws analyzes Several aspects exacerbate strikingly, agency's forbid, but, fact, appear invite prosecutors drawn investigations trials. 219.211(d) ("Each litigation custodian ."). unprecedented invitation, leaving open prosecutions 666, 1390 (Customs drug-testing prohibits prosecutions); Camara, 1735. sure, acknowledges, passing, prosecutions, process, stating [49 ] be, actually been, used." demurrer disingenuous. prosecutors." 10, 15. date—which invalid history—hardly proves avail invitation future. really views generate say so. prospect lead reassess balance, too, approval nonrelease prosecutors. ducking gravely disserves values restrict casts considerable decision—that need" omitted).10 needlessly itself. agency concedes mandatory tests—unlike tests—do differentiate ceased affect user's 219.309(2) sampling). Given spare sufficiently advance 219.101(a), excessive. least, urinalysis confirming findings automatically "will necessary." 343, 744. trivialization worker matched blind "dete[r] alcohol," "help accidents." 629-630. respect, deterrence, implausible occur, 219.201(a)(1) appreciably discourage alcohol. STEVENS observes oncurring opinion: "Most behavior." rationale, skip spend sunny zoo taunt lions truancy absenteeism mauled. fear revelation, deters. credulous introduce, studies explaining supporting theory deterrence. poverty diagnosing sole remaining denigrate interest, slender thread hang knowledge falls proving exacerbated 575, 587 1988). corroborative needed: witness co-worker accounts worker's misfeasance, indications responsibility. are, essence respondent urge, "pos[e] government." critical plan especially hard square frequent admonition episode departure "[T]his never sustained ground expected crime. Katz, 356, 514. Member Wendell Holmes "Great bad great, shaping future, immediate appeals feelings distorts kind hydraulic pressure what previously doubtful, settled principles bend." Securities 193 197, 400-401, 468, 679 (1904). swept obsession stopping succumbs popular pressures Holmes. bends time-honored textually Amendment—principles Bill Rights invade privacy. appalled vision l reality. victims timorousness collect analyze. ultimately, today's enjoy, for, understood, once bent, snap back easily. 1979 study scope seven "[a]n eight drank year." 30724 "5% reported 'very drunk' got year," "13% period." 23% "problem drinkers," 4% "were receiving assistance fewer handled procedures." "if representative immediately determine, role cause(s) accident/incident." 219.203(a)(3)(i) made, accident." promulgating exonerate calling fault degrees 31544 B-12 (Field Manual). Ethyl measured gas chromatography. screens immunoassays techniques, "[p]ositive chromatography/mass spectrometry." conducted, accuracy. Lovvorn Chattanooga, 846 1539, 1542 (CA6 Copeland Philadelphia Police Dept., 840 1139, 1143 (CA3 pending 88-66; 1988) (case below); Everett Napper, (CA11 88, (CADC 176 1987), aff'd 685; McDonell Hunter, 809 1302, 1307 Division 241 Amalgamated Transit Suscy, 1264, 1266-1267 (CA 7), 429 1029, 653, 632 434, 432-433 88-645. Taking possessory bl od protected account "[e]ach provided [Subpart C] retained six months date custodian. provision, intends retain "for (e.g., permit reanalysis another original procedure)." 31545 read broadly authorities, used. aver Respondents 24, contend scheme, 'pretext' authorities penal violations." 716-717, 27, 2651, Absent pretextual, scheme leave inference pretext, impugn choosing except warranted criteria. supra. imposes discretion. Covered errors, incidents. assessment devolve unbridled field. 323, 1825-1826, contain safeguards abused. faith, 219.201(c) willfully comply 219.9(a)(3), fails follow 219.9(a)(5), penalties, pt. 219, A, 105, addition damages awarded bpart asked complete form preceding days. completed forms shipped laboratory. B-15. explained lawful medications. learn prefer disclose, treat confidential, uses Whalen Roe, 589, 602, 869, 878, (1977). Ala.Code 37-2-85 (1977) (requiring dispatchers, engineers, conductors, brakemen, switchmen subjected "thorough examination" respecting, sobriety, hearing); Mass.Gen.Laws 160:178-160:181 (prescribing eyesight engineers conductors); N.Y.R.R. Law (McKinney 1952) applicants motormen gripmen habits, ability, intelligence"). Nashville, S.L.R. Alabama, 128 96, 98-99, 28- 29, (1888) (noting, predecessor Alabama's fitness-for-duty statute Commerce lawfully eye safety). offer list "less drastic means" concerns, force, supervisory effectively resort tests." 40-43. repeatedly activity alternative 'less intrusive' means." Illinois Lafayette, 640, 2605, 2610, 373-374, elaborate less-restrictive-alternative search-and-seizure powers," 556-557, 12, 3082, judges post hoc evaluations 'can imagine [government] accomplished.' 542, 3311, 686-687, 1575-1576, expressly alternatives drug-screening wanting. bottom, second-guess conclusions study. do. quite unreliable, compiled conclusion. impossible guarantee mistakes ever isolated face. deal conducted. 1885, (1979). doubting accurate leading, 30, 1884, officer unusual suspects armed presently "conduct carefully persons." Hensley, 221, 604 (1985) (upholding stop wanted flyer arrest issued); (invalidating discretionary motorists check licenses registrations unlicensed, unregistered, vehicle occupant detained); Pennsylvania Mimms, 434 106, 330, 331 stopped car saw large bulge driver's jacket); roving patrols aliens); Adams Williams, 143, 1921, 612 (1972) interrogate suspicious believed carrying narcotics gun). (1976) (brief interrogative permanent checkpoint status); annual inspection city housing department). invoked abrogating were, 341, 743-744, teachers administrators schools"; 725, 1502, efficient workplace"; 3171, arrangement" probation. 346, 746 (teacher's report student smoking purse contained cigarettes); 726, 1503 (charges improprieties gave misconduct employee); 879-880, 3171-3172 (tip probationer storing guns apartment suspicion). emphasized, ironically enough, portion 739. malleability clearer: endorses applicability safeguards. 616-617 (reaching conclusion). discussion better demonstrate excesses scheme. lessen devastating ramifications up Government-imposed "infringe interests," emphasizes 'virtually pain,' wrenches statement manner. 768-772, 1834-1836; 760-761, 1612-1613, ("Schmerber ordinary conducting Beyond Schmerber's factors 'reasonableness' test") cites (1983), (1957), commonplace. 625. attempted exceptionally inebriation. 554-556, 917-918; 433, 409. dismisses nonexistent "direct observation," "require[d]." cited 626. hasty, regulations—in sentence—go state: "[B]ut diluted." commands dubious, least. Taylor O'Grady, 669 1422, 1433-1434 (ND Ill.1987); Feliciano Cleveland, 661 586 Federation AFL-CIO Weinberger, 651 732-733 (SD Ga.1986); 1514 extension face prosecution, unearthed excludible shown "pretext" trial, citing (1987)—a defense belittles mercifully, preserves day.

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