Document: 332 U.S. 261 67 S.Ct. 1613 91 L.Ed. 2043 FAYv.PEOPLE OF STATE NEW YORK. BOVE v. SAME. Nos. 377 and 452. Argued Submitted April 3, 1947. Decided June 23, Rehearing Denied Oct. 13, See 68 27. [Syllabus from pages 261-263 intentionally omitted] Mr. Harold R. Medina, of New York City, for petitioner Fay. Messrs. Moses Polakoff Samuel Mezansky, both Bove. Whitman Kanpp, respondent. Justice JACKSON delivered the opinion Court. 1 These cases present same issue, a challenge to constitutionality special or so-called 'blue ribbon' jury as used by state courts in State County York. 2 Such found Fay Bove guilty conspiracy extort extortion. was Vice-President International Hod Carriers, Building Common Laborers' Union America. Operating Engineers. The City awarded contracts construction an extensive project known Delaware Water Supply system several large concerns. It not denied that collected these contractors upwards $300,000. But it payment induced threats do unlawful injury person property. defense claimed payments were voluntary bribes, perhaps, but no extortion—that men paid merely undertaking assist avoid labor trouble, prevent jurisdiction unauthorized strikes, 'handle situation,' rendered service agreed. 3 indictment charged crimes seven counts. One dismissed court; remaining six submitted jury. acquitted defendants on three counts, disagreed another, convicted two convictions affirmed appeal Appellate Division Supreme Court,1 which reviews law fact,2 Court Appeals.3 No federal question is raised merits finding guilt we are assume warranted evidence and, except questions jury, regular. While there panel this drawn, ground denial due process equal protection, each individual juror accepted without cause. discussed either appellate sufficiently timely throughout overruled all courts. A dual juries easy possibilities violation Fourteenth Amendment took certiorari examine charges unconstitutionality. 329 697, 92. 4 whether conviction individually fair unbiased should be set aside make-up they drawn unfairly narrows choice jurors denies protection laws Federal Constitution. If answered affirmative, means constitutionally valid, would if had been properly at before trial. 5 raise general statutes prescribe qualifications, disqualifications exemptions ordinary service. Neither any administration population County, numbering some 1,800,000, sifted produce about 60,000, unless discrimination against women.4 insist, apart objection may have improper exclusion women even panel, constitutional right their trial drawn. advanced standard roughly summarized: 6 To qualify juror, must American citizen resident county; less than 21 nor more 70 years old; owner spouse property value $250; possession his her natural faculties infirm decrepit; felony misdemeanor involving moral turpitude; intelligent; sound mind good character; well-informed; able read write English language understandingly.5 From those qualified following classes exempt service; clergymen, physicians, dentists, pharmacists, embalmers, optometrists, attorneys, members Army, Navy Marine Corps, National Guard Naval Militia, firemen, policemen, ship's officers, pilots editors, editorial writers, sub-editors, reporters copy readers.6 7 Women equally with men,7 also granted exemption,8 woman serve not, she chooses. 8 attack focused upon sifting procedures shrink 3,000. 9 Special selected county clerk, only after has subpoenaed personal appearance testified under oath qualification fitness.9 statute prescribes standards selection declaring ineligible directing elimination classes: (1) All who disqualified claim allowed exemption (2) criminal offense, fraud misconduct judgment civil court. (3) possess such conscientious opinions regard death penalty preclude defendant crime punishable death. (4) doubt ability lay impression formed newspaper reading otherwise, render impartial verdict uninfluenced whose circumstantial evidence, avow prejudice law, particular charge giving defense, cannot give fails testify witness own behalf full benefit statutory provision defendants' neglect refusal shall create presumption him.10 10 one brought into existence case class offenses type accused. part regular machinery counties million inhabitants. In its discretion court order application party action prosecution cases. motion showing 'by reason importance intricacy case, required' 'the issue tried so widely commented * withou delay difficulty obtained' other due, efficient justice jury.'11 11 This recent practice novel. progenitor statute, like pertinent respects, enacted 1896 repealed simultaneously reenacted substantially form 1901.12 soon attacked face violating unconstitutional body because restrictive composition rejected Appeals well-considered opinion. People Dunn, 1899, 157 N.Y. 528, 52 N.E. 572, 43 L.R.A. 247. then made opposite direction. body. withdrawn twenty-five hundred 'men presumably superior intelligence,' 162 page 362, 56 759, too, Appeals. Meyer, 1900, 357, 758. 12 Then, 1901, Hall murder sentenced He sued out writ habeas corpus below. challenged 'taken citizens provided wherein drawn.' affirmed, Johnson, 186 480, 22 943, 46 1259, citing among authorities Brown Jersey, 175 172, 20 77, 44 119, upheld 'struck jury.'13 13 Since decision, continuous use important District Attorney cites over convictions, considered judgments We asked, however, reconsider light trends decision facts operation support argument earlier disapprove system. 14 fail perceive offense prescribed panel. Act does exclude, authorize clerk race, creed, color occupation. imposes economic nature beyond imposed concededly valid statute. Each grounds reasonably closely related juror's suitability kind requires fitness judge most frequently utilized. Not elimintion appear relevant issues case. know specially constituted include persons might fitted hear unique wide variety eliminations judged light. overlook features tended discredit trials interminable examination rejection prospective jurors. metropolis notoriously congested calendars find forbidden up administrative advance eliminate who, proportion cases, time taken ascertain disqualifications. Many directed apply excuse 15 matters local authority considerable latitude cope, affect responsibility. For example, entire retinue attendants while eighty-nine examined. How many examined already eliminated admit rule them? saw fit take stand. themselves complained exceptional publicity given felt subject influence publicity? practical administering will care hamstring artificial doctrinaire requirements. 16 consistently held invalid failure forth selection. Murray Louisiana, 163 101, 108, 990, 992, 41 87; Franklin South Carolina, 218 161, 167, 168, 30 640, 642, 54 980; Akins Texas, 325 398, 403, 65 1276, 1279, 89 1692; see Ex parte Commonwealth Virginia, 100 339, 348, 25 676. nothing which, face, prohibited There remain, serious administered deny panels laws. 17 As actual results litigants controversy. courts, doubtless influenced fact long ago similar statutes, findings wrote subject. regretted deal aid experience proximity conditions customs interwoven entitle very great weight. would, obliged reach our conclusions, allowance weight evidence. Norris Alabama, 294 587, 590, 55 579, 580, 79 1074; Lisenba California, 314 219, 237, 238, 62 280, 290, 86 166; Ashcraft Tennessee, 322 143, 148, 64 921, 923, 88 1192. 18 allegations ask us hold come That laborers, operatives, craftsmen, foremen employees systematically, deliberately excluded way excluded. composed prone convict 19 proof laborers consists tabulation occupations listed questionnaires filed clerk. table received margin.14 said criticism list shows industry work rather craftsmen; is, 'mechanics' probably laborers; 'bankers' clerks. Certainly show relation classified, as, owners financially interested, employees. absence wage earners union members, although none 'laborers,' obviously employee entrepreneur character. petitioners' tables showed 38% 'clerical, sales, kindred workers.' Three unions. Two peremptorily defense. sought significance exhibit breakdown 2,700 jurors, reference 920,000 seeking employment Manhattan. comparison disparity between percentage occupation represented 1945 occupational distribution number employed experienced Manhattan 1940. put reproduced margin.15 Apart discrepancy five dates data differences classification occupations, afford statistical percentages result discrimination. coclusion wo uld justified knew proper alike, improbable. establish approximate ratio fairly former limited, latter be, age. common knowledge seekers United States. could meet qualifications? understandingly? effect admittedly requirements figures determined suggested additional An practices offered. Petitioners' statement comparative follows: 'While defect women, particularly 'civic conscious' organizations, permeates juries, whatever employees, foremen, panel.' What point petitioners adduced different special. same, petitioner's assertion Question referred below, somehow separates rich poor merit. unlikely citizenship, literacy disqualify greater craftsmen classes. Those illiterate or, literate own, unable speak language, naturally chiefly manual work. impossible legitimate disqualification. On hand, interested witnesses, duty administer clear positive neither contradicted testimony selection, offered themselves, applied whom untrue. 23 remembered gives privilege impose duty. impractical compel numbers absolute exemption, clerk's office since generally assert exemption. Hence, volunteer willing including League Voters, examination. Some effort officials induce volunteer. talesmen pronounced 'satisfactory' sides served 24 men, resulted questionnaire, 'What months year October you prefer (Name months).' stated preference, many, continued eligible can adjusted preferences it, require periods. think phrasing candid view purpose. operates misleadingly others. commend itself, appears ineptitude defendants. allegation inclined convict. Extensive studies Judicial Council study o proce dures making recommendations improvement Legislature.16 criticisms official base here convicting sense. 26 1937 recommended abolition struck juries,17 foreign juries18 juries.19 that, 'A well-administered high calibre every attempts provide cases.'20 recommendation followed Legislature juries. 1938 renewed these. summarized 'indicate convict.'21 certain types homicide 1933 1934, eighty-three percent eighty-two forty-three thirty-seven respectively. reported 'The believes petit uniformily capable attain goal, now provided, need improvement. unjust unnecessary select supconvictions indicated too readiness acquit reflected difference trial, reflection attitude attention better counsel 27 March 15, 1945, when statistics relative propensity ten old, produced corrected. 28 objections well, thought, warrant political social 'unnecessary undesirable' abolish it. quite another matter say mandate Constitution disable setting convictions. legislative policy hand legal other, finds striking illustration position highest judicial personages joined 29 members26 proposing legislation sat abstained putting decision—they sustained policy. Our function concerns turn bearing provisions issues. easy, proceedings naught satisfactory exercised discriminating dispassionate them counts submitted, review justified. dealt continue controversies self-imposed restraints intended protect itself irresponsible exercise unappealable power. 31 involve Negroes rely largely series decisions purposefully completely However, history unhappy relations races, Congress selves. Amendment, addition clauses, declares power enforce, appropriate legislation, article.' So empowered, 1, 1875, 'no possessing qualifications grand States, account color, previous condition servitude;' officer exclude grounds. Stat. 336—37, U.S.C. § 44, U.S.C.A. 44. majestic generalities theFourteenth thus reduced concrete command race wanting alleged factor decisive establishing Negro precedents hinted intervene authorized Acts Congress. Referring empowering enforce 'All amendments derive much force provision. government extend enforcing prohibitions protecting rights immunities guaranteed. branch declare void prohibitions. enlarged. legislation.' (Italics original.) 345, 32 significant never interfered where guidance applicable. Holmes unanimously short rejecting prohibits excluding groups lawyers, preachers, ministers, doctors, engineers firemen railroad trains. Rawlins Georgia, 201 638, 560, 50 899, Ann.Cas. 783. Cf. 119. 33 mean drawing carry consequences amount law. specific systems discriminations deserve condemnation, judiciary covered comply exacting proving clearly procedure gone far afield process.27 34 rules confine responsible limits formulated applied. equal, greater, rigor outside 35 fundamental questioning mere enough; bsence caused discrimiantion, nearly shown persisted years.28 Virginia Rives, 313, 322, 323, 667; Martin 200 316, 320, 321, 338, 497; Thomas 212 278, 282, 393, 394, 53 512; Smith 311 128, 61 164, 85 84; Hill 316 400, 1159, 1559; supra. Also, alleged, burden purposeful intentional defendant. Tarrance Florida, 188 519, 402, 47 572; Snowden Hughes, 321 8, 9, 397, 401, 1276 1277, 1692. 36 source interfering cryptic words unaided word governing precedent consider first clause forbids 'deny within laws.' prejudicial disparities Under unobjectionable, all, prohibition favorable treatment. inquiry involves standing others 37 proved inequality jury's record prevailed 1933—34, foundation laid unequal escape existing mechanism devised him chance acquittal. alternative actually required try forum. discretion, vested court, shunt chosen greatly lessen chances accused them, hardly 'equal Perhaps intensive preparation singled disparate, until might, explanation, indicate was, contrast alternate, organized complain did conviction. 38 failed existed tried. They ever conclusions Council. corrected pointed out, fairness formerly early declared insure cross-secion community jury,'29 achieve why ignore assurance improvements became substantial equivalent place. 39 hold, therefore, carried method 40 grounded provides, 'nor deprive life, liberty, property, law.' comprises urged state. depend facilities afforded Court, entertained defendant's exclusions he member class. Strauder West 303, 664. Relief unavailable negro objected white purposely indicted him. Haraway State, 203 Ark. 912, 159 S.W.2d 733. Nevertheless, decide lack identity group alone defeat otherwise well-established Amendment. 42 heavily arguments Glasser 315 60, 457, 680; Thiel Southern Pacific Co., 328 217, 66 984, 90 1181, 166 A.L.R. 1412, Ballard 187, 261. distinguishable vital obvious particulars constrained deference justice. Over exert supervisory freedom reflect notions expressions necessarily embodied concept process. comprehensive generality, reducing schools thought. content Amendments Bill Rights originally Government deflected states. theory independent from, to, Amendments. meaning derived history, evolution institutions spelled judiciary. treat doctrine, steadily ruled commandments Sixth Seventh Amendments, picked become limitations 'This modified abolished altogether.' Palko Connecticut, 302 319, 324, 58 149, 151, 82 288, cited. Unless change interpretation withdraw states lately conceded theirs, end exhausted principles othe 45 construed inherent condemnation hearing real one, sham pretense. 327, 153, 288; Mooney Holohan, 103, 340, 791, 98 406; Moore Dempsey, 86, 265, 543. Trial tribunal biased interest event. Tumey Ohio, 273 510, 437, 71 749, 1243. Undoubtedly manipulated call little constitute claim; entitled set-up proven guilty. Society neutral friends unfairness being defects composition: first, unconstitutionally second, occupation, amounting sum Assuming defendants, panels, sustain objection. Approximately 7,000 60,000 petitioners. population. logical this, historical one. Until recently, half-century adopted, universal States allow sit permit Washington, 1911.30 1942 permitted still 20. Moreover, serve, sex.31 something spell verdicts unleavened feminine influence. contention based Constitution, changing responsibilities public progressed phases duty, achieved compulsion grant franchise Nineteenth insist inclusion eligible32 textual customary land free lagged behind what personally desirable recognizing obligations womanhood. 48 urge invalidated comprising specified classifications argue 'with purpose obtain conservative views, upper stratum having tendency crime, understand laboring man.' these.33 At most, proportional representation utter deficiency discriminate such. uncontradicted status. subjected tests intelligence, citizenship understanding English. state's open though disqualify, especially prevail York, disproportionate workers. literacy, intelligence act equality levels life. raise, answer, lower income 49 Even undertaken want proportionate groups, deliberate intentional, sufficient violate hesitated identification clear, how imprudent comprise allegedly separated uncertain lines exhibits numerous overlapping. viewpoint permits it.34 assumptions one's status, society fluid ours, determines outlook particular. course conflict overlie significant. wage-earner, consumer producer, taxpayer servant, foreman laborer, white-collar worker laborer. ready degenerate hostility expect hands own. Were true, extremely man rarely often sitting juries.35 51 Nor persuasive dealing exist presumptive violations, color. exclusions, cf. 306—309, 664, defiance unfair not. labeled unconstitutional. prejudiced leader growing dispute. situation confronts sit. well discriminates 'persons views' predominate Does follow 'liberals' favorably disposed toward nominal leaders hiring employers 'handle' problems? 'upper stratum' undertake masters 'those man'? offer convince us. attention, moreover, called records net taxable $65,000 1940 1942, $39,000 period, exclusive sums involved charges. earnings identify depressed identified labor. themselves. class, them. results. essentially integrity sees employ. device, conventional newly devised, t d hear, determine requiring conformity won recognition, always careful interpret uniform stem diverse sources influences.36 adhere self-restraint centralizing standardize stagnate variations practice. undergone modifications 247, undergoing revision adaptation adjust tensions locality. place strain half inhabitants gathered four corners earth daily transient flow million, implies enforcement. there, jurisdictions, perform functions—the sheriff's coroner's constantly eligibility Evolution continues now, experiments strange measures restrict use; others, hardship, diminish longer theunanimous verdict; add alternate substitute mistrial sickness answers questions.37 Well limit 'To stay experimentation things grave Denial experiment fraught nation. happy incidents single courageous may, choose, laboratory; novel risk rest country.' Brandeis, dissenting Ice Co. Liebmann, 285 262, 311, 371, 386, 76 747. stand fall taking liberty made. Affirmed. 57 MURPHY, dissenting. impartially cross-section community. systematic individuals. 84. Only democratic traditions preserved. 220, 985, 1412; 85, 471, 680. I believe ignored creation am forced dissent. 59 Preliminarily, noted prohibiting enable strike down done basis legislate idly by. inconsistent commerce despite Congressional silence involved. See, e.g., Board Education Barnette, 319 624, 63 1178, 87 1628, 147 674; Nippert Richmond, 327 416, 586, 760, 844; 60 vice rests people Whatever erected distinguishing distinction forces manner tends obliterate representative 'degree revealed questionnaire'sent pr ospective augmented interviews. purport test native another. undeniable formulate desire, terms 'intelligence' factor, strikingly borne compiled personnel Certain individuals totally unrepresented Percentage total "blue ribbon" Professional semi-professional. 12.1 18.8 Proprietors, managers officials. 9.3 Clerical, sales 21.3 Craftsmen, workers...................... 7.7. 0.2 Operatives 17. 0 Service workers.............. 27.6. Laborers...................... 4.9. 69 Farmers....................... 0.1. evolved And apparently nature, unjustified points difficulties comparing census figures. subtle sophisticated lend precise proof. adequate enough demonstrate discriminatorily suffers infirmity. infirmity narrower forming vast majority persons. extent difference, receive protection. addition, illustrated character destroy uneducated unintelligent solely scale. represents includes varying degrees training varyig positions. intelligent, wealthy successful, least successful. institution, people. principle, defective. 72 demonstrates convincingly difficult prove practiced Yet measure accurately sosubtle, intangible, escapes methods absent another; gradually silently erode becomes evident. meaningful purposes. violated, vindicate yet tangible appearance. Otherwise irretrievably lost welter evidentiary rules. 73 falls below reversed. 74 BLACK, DOUGLAS RUTLEDGE join 270 App.Div. 261, N.Y.S.2d 127. Code Criminal Procedure, §§ 520, 543-a, McKinney's Consolidated Laws 2, 328, 329, 429. 296 N.E.2d 453. 11%, women. almost frivolous assertthat bias Judiciary Law, Consol.Laws, c. 30, 596, (pocket part) 131, 132. 599, 133, 134. 749-aa3, 512, 513. 749-aa2, 512. 749-aa4, 513, 514. N.Y.Laws 1896, 378; 602. cited per curiam affirmance Storti Massachusetts, 183 138, 141, 72, 73, 120, Andrews Swartz, 156 272, 389, 422, error. depended procedural disposition merits. segment groups. prepared request attorney 'found various listed' 'tried classify numerous.' Total file Clerk's Office. 2,911 classifiable occupations.................... 2,743 Auditors accountants.......... Bankers........................... 170 Manufacturers..................... 106 Real Estate Brokers............... 117 Retired............................ Architects engineers.......... 229 Educators, teachers, librarians.... Executives, industrial enterprises...................... 470 Stock brokers..................... 185 Salesmen, promoters business enterprises advertising men.. 438 Newspaper writers engaged dissemination information................... 148 Mechanics........................... Insurance men..................... Travel agency men.................. Civil employees............ Office clerks...................... 94 Retail merchants.................. 144 Entertainers....................... superintendents................... Chemists physicists............ Attorneys........................... Laborers None Labor representatives......... Housewives......................... —There list— attorneys requested Bureau Statistics Department conform above Census classifications. prepared, twenty-one classed note cautions 'Some undoubtedly belong elsewhere, trades, laborers.' sixty-five unclassifiable Bureau's table. Occupations Employed Persons (Except Public Emergency Work) Experienced Workers Seeking Work, Residing week 1940, compared Jurors File January 31, 1945. Force(a) Occupation work, Total(c) B C Total(b)......................... 921,183 778,202 142,981 semiprofessional.................. 111,600 98,343 13,257 officials...................... 85,969 81,234 4,735 workers............... 196,037 169,066 26,971 70,497 54,217 16,280 workers..... 156,581 128,253 28,328 workers.................... 254,595 216,992 37,603 Laborers, farm farm......... 45,375 29,869 15,506 Farmers, managers, laborers........... 529 228 301 Percent Total............................. 100.0 12.6 officials............ 10.4 3.3 21.7 18.9 7.7 7.0 11.4 workers................... 17.0 16.5 19.8 27.6 27.9 26.3 farm.............. 4.9 3.8 10.8 laborers...................... 0.1(d) Page 275 TABLE CONTINUED Males D E F G Total[b] ..589,431 .489,618 99,813 2,664 semiprofessional 61,191 53,416 7,775 501 73,732 69,509 4,223 1,146 workers.....112,316 .95,853 16,463 1,012 workers......67,504 .51,618 15,886 workers 98,493 79,562 18,931 ------- workers.131,112 .110,157 20,955 farm.44,578 29,293 15,285 laborers...505 .210 .295 Total.........100.0 .100.0 10.9 7.8 12.5 14.2 4.2 43.0 19.1 19.6 38.0 workers.11.4 .10.5 15.9 16.7 16.2 19.0 workers.22.2 .22.5 21.0 farm.7.6 6.0 15.3 laborers...0.1 .(d) 0.3 (a) Includes (except emergency work) Source: U. S. Census. Sixteenth Population, III, 4, Table 10a, pp. 363-365. (b) Omitting unclassified, housewives, retired persons, force. (c) Except (d) Less one-tenth percent. 40—48, 58—62, part), commissioner presence parties, names forty-eight deemed indifferent parties best alternately off twelve list. twenty-four names. adjoining held, thought had. usefulness ease venue obtained. 344.2, 622. Third Annual Report (1937) 123—28. Id. Fourth (1938) 46. *[280] posedly cases.'22 next adequate, followed, complete reexamination undertaken.23 recommendation. proposed 'be undesirable.' said, 'It undisputed revised succeeded improving quality applying Thus, necessity exists.'24 investigated ratios, warranted. extends right.25 improperly, Council, Chief Judge Presiding Division, Despite Council's desire reasons wre signed. reversed ones. Of course, detail 47. Fifth (1939) 42—43. Eleventh (1945) 49—50. Loughran, Ch. J., Appeals, Martin, P.J., (1st Dep't). prohibit outlaws 406, 1162, 1559: 'But passed pursuant alike forbid bringing enjoy guarantees. Where, bare Equal abstract right. respect, benefits demand.' Official five-year 1940—44, 2407 new maintained 3,000, 2,692 removed 123. 1911 57. Carson, (1928). Conference Committee Selection (1942) 23. later bulletin Women's withheld approval pamphlet Bureau, unpublished, acceptable udicial Co de, 275, 276, 411, 412, 412; worth comment annual reports rely, strongly persistently abolished, odd, urging strong disapproval reiterated 783: likely conduct jurymen, make act.' renders unconstitutional, distinctive viewpoint. 20,000 policemen unknown policeman. Can panel? left needed attitudes leave unexceptionable remains call. Knox, Jurors, Journal Judicature 11. assumed overlooked deeply Roman exposed territory west Alleghenies briefly casually Revolution. French Ohio Mississippi Valleys settlement Wolfe's victory Quebec 1763. Its ascendancy north broken, 1803, Louisiana Purchase ended sovereignty area. continues, Napoleon. Southwest Florida once Spanish. Colvin, Participation America Republics Latin Heritage Proceedings Eighth Scientific 467. seaboard rivals. Swedes banks earliest continent. Governor Swedish custom calling judging 'assistants' principal wisest inhabitants' judges sometimes witnesses. Settlements (1911) 450 et seq. deep persistent Dutch Upon capitulation Amsterdam, stipulated respected. organization contrary 'Duke's Laws' conqueror. preserved diligence foresight Daly. E. D. Smith's Reports (New Pleas) xvii, xxxiv, xxxvii. Roman-Dutch element recognized Dunham Williams, 251, 253; Van Giessen Bridgford, 83 356; Rentz, 131 169, 175, 54, 138. Encyclopedia Social 373, 1050, 1317, 165 574. legislation.

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