Document: 460 U.S. 491 103 S.Ct. 1319 75 L.Ed.2d 229 FLORIDA, Petitioner,v.Mark ROYER. No. 80-2146. Argued Oct. 12, 1982. Decided March 23, 1983. Syllabus After purchasing a one-way airline ticket to New York City at Miami International Airport under an assumed name and checking his two suitcases bearing identification tags with the same name, respondent went concourse leading boarding area, where he was approached by detectives, who previously had observed him believed that characteristics fit so-called "drug courier profile." Upon request, but without oral consent, produced driver's license, which carried correct name. When detectives asked about discrepancy in names, explained friend made reservation The then informed they were narcotics investigators reason suspect of transporting narcotics, and, returning or accompany them small room adjacent concourse. Without respondent's one retrieved luggage from brought it room. While did not respond detectives' request consent search luggage, key unlocked marihuana found. said know combination lock on second suitcase object its being opened, officers pried open found more marihuana. Respondent told arrest. Following Florida trial court's denial pretrial motion suppress evidence obtained suitcases, convicted felony possession District Court Appeal reversed, holding been involuntarily confined within probable cause, time obtained, involuntary detention exceeded limited restraint permitted Terry v. Ohio, 392 1, 88 1868, 20 889, such therefore invalid because tainted unlawful confinement. Held: judgment is affirmed. 389 So.2d 1007, Calvin L. Fox, Tallahassee, Fla., for petitioner. Andrew Frey, Washington, D.C., as amicus curiae. Theodore Klein, Miami, respondent. [Amicus Curiae Information pages 492-493 intentionally omitted] Justice WHITE announced delivered opinion Justices MARSHALL, POWELL STEVENS joined. 1 We are required this case determine whether Florida, Third District, properly applied precepts Fourth Amendment Royer illegally detained purported luggage. 2 * On January 3, 1978, plain-clothes Dade County, Public Safety Department assigned County's Organized Crime Bureau, Narcotics Investigation Section.1 Detectives Johnson Magdalena Royer's appearance, mannerisms, actions profile."2 Royer, apparently unaware attention attracted, purchased checked placing each tag "Holt" destination, "LaGuardia". As way led him, identified themselves policemen working out sheriff's office, if "moment" speak them; "Yes." 3 license. ticket, like baggage tags, bore "Holt," while license "Royer." discrepancy, "Holt." became noticeably nervous during conversation, whereupon fact narcotics. 4 return room, approximately forty feet away, nothing response do. later described Detective "large storage closet," located stewardesses' lounge containing desk chairs. agreement, Johnson, using check stubs, waiting. would suitcases. orally responding detective opened seeking further assent Royer. Drugs suitcase. According stated objected opening suitcase, "no, go ahead," when might have be broken open. Approximately fifteen minutes elapsed initially until arrest upon discovery contraband. 5 Prior marihuana,3 court "freely voluntarily given," that, regardless warrantless reasonable "the officer doesn't run get warrant plane going take off."4 suppress, changed plea "not guilty" "nolo contendere," specifically reserving right appeal suppress.5 convicted. 6 Appeal, sitting en banc, reversed conviction.6 held cause; 889 (1968), obtained; confinement.7 7 Several factors conclude confinement tantamount "found himself enclosed area confronted police officers—a situation presents almost classic definition imprisonment." 1018 (Fla.App.1980). statement suspected also bolstered finding "in custody" given. Ibid. In addition, their retrieval clear, Appeal's view, free leave. 8 At suppression hearing testified impression leave officers' presence. apprehension "was much than well-justified subjective belief," State conceded argument before even [Royer] erroneously thought could." nomenclature used describe confinement, found, unimportant Dunaway York, 442 200, 99 2248, 60 824 (1979), "[a] . goes beyond investigatory stop may constitutionally justified only cause." So.2d, 1019. conducted search, cause contents revealed. absence concluded, given after unlawfully confined, ineffective justify search. Because there no proof all "break chain illegality" occurred, matter law. Id., 1020. granted State's petition certiorari, 454 1079, 102 631, 70 612 (1981), now affirm. II 9 Some preliminary observations order. First, unquestioned exigent circumstances, validity depended consent. Neither disputed rests has burden proving necessary freely given, satisfied showing mere submission claim lawful authority. Lo-Ji Sales, Inc. 319, 329, 2319, 2326, 920 (1979); Schneckloth Bustamonte, 412 218, 233-234, 93 2041, 2050-2051, 36 854 (1973); Bumper North Carolina, 391 543, 548-549, 1788, 1791-1792, 797 (1968); United States, 333 10, 13, 68 367, 368, 92 L.Ed. 436 (1948); Amos 255 313, 317, 41 266, 268, 65 654 (1921). 10 Second, law enforcement do violate merely approaching individual street another public place, asking willing answer some questions, putting questions person listen, offering criminal prosecution voluntary answers questions. See 210 n. 2255 31, 32-33, 1885-1886, (1968) (Harlan, J., concurring); id., 34, S.Ct., 1886 (WHITE, concurring). Nor identifies officer, more, convert encounter into seizure requiring level objective justification. States Mendenhall, 446 544, 555, 100 1870, 1877, 64 497 (1980) (opinion Stewart, J.). approached, however, need any question put him; indeed, decline listen way. supra, U.S., 1885-1886 He momentarily reasonable, grounds doing so; refusal does not, furnish those grounds. 556, 1878 If detention—no meaning Amendment—then constitutional rights infringed. 11 Third, clear seizures must crime. amounting purposes unless cause. 207-209, 2253-2254, (1979). created exception general rule: certain justifiable articulable suspicion committed commit case, frisk weapons unexceptionable. Adams Williams, 407 143, 1921, 32 (1972), approach context informant's report unnamed nearby vehicle carrying gun. Although expressly authorized Terry, Brignoni-Ponce, 422 873, 881-882, 95 2574, 2580-2581, 45 607 (1975), unequivocal saying activity warrants temporary purpose questioning stop. verify dispel immigration laws violated, governmental interest sufficient questioning. suggest, nor we, similar rationale less involved illegal transactions drugs other serious 12 Michigan Summers, 452 692, 101 2587, 69 340 circumstance ultimate test reasonableness Amendment. There occupant house executed. sufficiently seizure. "limited intrusion personal security" "by substantial interests" could 699, 2592. 13 Fourth, progeny nevertheless exceptions rule require Detentions "investigative" yet violative absent investigating activity, carry full automobile effects. seek suspicions means conditions clear. There, taken station home formally arrested, interrogated hour. resulting incriminating statements inadmissible: crime insufficient custodial interrogation though investigative. 211-212, 2255-2256. Brown Illinois, 590, 2254, 416 Davis Mississippi, 394 721, 89 1394, 22 676 (1969), effect. 14 Amendment's prohibition against unreasonable searches always interpreted prevent particularly "place searched, persons things seized," Const., Amend. IV, pursuant based protection diluted situations determined legitimate interests search: scope particular served exception. For example, permissible incident concerns safety destruction arrestee. E.g., Chimel California, 395 752, 763, 2034, 2040, 23 685 (1969). Nevertheless, arrestee immediately control. 762, 2039. embodies principle: "The 'strictly tied by' circumstances rendered initiation permissible." 19, 1878, quoting Warden Hayden, 387 294, 310, 87 1642, 1651, 18 782 (1967) (Fortas, requirement requires action interests. carefully tailored underlying 15 predicate permitting short security suspect. will vary extent facts case. This much, clear: investigative last longer effectuate Similarly, methods employed should least intrusive reasonably available officer's period time. See, e.g., 2580-2581; 146, 1923. It demonstrate seeks basis duration satisfy 16 Fifth, hold inadmissible product result independent act will. 218-219, 2259-2260; 601-602, 2260-2261. respect cases reiterated principal holdings Wong Sun 371 471, 83 407, 441 (1963). 17 Sixth, events amounted place Terry-type detention, voluntary, effective legalize Cf. Watson, 423 411, 424-425, 96 820, 828-829, 46 598 (1976). us, concluded seized gave bounds exceeded. view "confinement" stop, thus illegality, conclusion reversal us record conclusion. think does. III proffers three reasons consented detained. submitted entire consensual hence all. find untenable. Asking examining doubt themselves, agents, retaining indicating depart, effectively These surely amount show official authority "a leave." 554, (Opinion 19 submits seized, existed limits never agree discovered travelling fact, already known officers—paying cash mode bags, appearance conduct general—were adequate suspecting temporarily detaining attempted manner exceed detention. justifiably suspicion, products admissible him. subjected liberty allowable activity. By wished examine explain between shown satisfied, agents believe drugs. They requested them. room—a large closet—equipped alone again officers, airlines. What begun inquiry escalated procedure police, unsatisfied previous explanations, sought confirm suspicions. identification, board so chose, moment, aspects evaporated, we cannot fault concluding Ohio following subjected. practical matter, Consistent conclusion, courts so.8 Furthermore, state's brief interprets testimony refused authorize Brief Petitioner 6.9 21 otherwise line cases. informing desired, obviated anything start finish. undoubtedly moving location airport private area. Pennsylvania Mimms, 434 106, 109-111, 98 330, 332-333, 54 331 (1977) (per curiam). indication prompted transfer site appears, rather, primary having extended conversation pursue relocated reflect support first instance furthered removing prior attempt gain noted, spot, present bags Officer recovered proved negative, earlier likelihood missing flight, itself can very variety circumstances. touched feasible investigate expeditious strangers use trained dogs detect presence controlled substances luggage.10 here available. used, out. Indeed, necessary. A negative freed order; positive resulted suggest litmus-paper distinguishing determining exceeds Even discrete category encounters, endless variations variation unlikely reduce sentence paragraph provide unarguable violation render judgment, faulted Terry-stop IV 24 third final proceeded foreclose justifying custody barrier relying Peters decided Sibron 40, 66-67, 1889, 1904-1905, 917 (1968). exist young man American Tourister paid "target city". inquiry, turn revealed bought proffered explanation officers. State, position, every paying heavy arrested charge. V 25 affirm illegality accordingly 26 Affirmed. 27 POWELL, concurring. 28 I join plurality opinion. "stop questioning" setting (1980).1 today discussed helpfully principles applicable stops Since author opinions 560, 1880, write briefly repeat compelling identifying traffic illicit profit. emphasizes, ante, 506-507, necessarily vary. air transportation drug traffic, issue special consideration.2 29 differs strikingly Mendenhall initial place. small, windowless closet"—alone who, retained ticket. common sense suggests walk away. arrest, surrender viewed consensual. 30 BRENNAN, concurring result. 31 decision rested point matured unsupported 1015, 1019 (Fla.App.1980) (en banc). therefore, 1019-1020. amply supported our concur But reaches issues clearly reach affirmance. To endorses legality see post, 523, (REHNQUIST, dissenting), wholly unnecessary question. assuming correctly holds, agree, subsequent Ante, 501, 507 "[A]ny 'exception' cover threaten swallow 'reasonable' 213, 2257. Thus, most plurality's discussion decision. 33 emphasize declined address "constitutional propriety 'seizure' 'detention' and/or interrogation." 16, 16. simply defined "is entitled others outer clothing discover assault him." 30, 1884. endorsed "brief" 145-146, 1922-1923, upheld Terry's rationale. Adams, "limited" crime, allow investigation fear violence. ." "when lead contain aliens country, car provoke suspicion." 881, 2580. importance stemming flow aliens, minimal alternatives policing border. noted authorizing "question driver passengers citizenship status, ask suspicious circumstances," "any 2580-2581. 208-212, 2254-2256 (discussing narrow progeny). 34 attendant extremely "swallow [and searches] my suggestion standard justifies briefest detentions finds cases.* 35 event, dissent legal. plainly "seized" produce "whenever accosts restrains freedom 'seized' person." 1877. intercourse citizens involves 'seizures' persons," 'seizing' Amendment, once traveller engaged "show authority" "restrained [Royer's] liberty." wrong feels away individuals for, received, Before "seizures" 208-209, 2254-2255. "establish appropriate allows 'search' constitute contraband crime." "specific [and] rational inferences facts. 21, 1879. Texas, 443 47, 51, 2637, 2640, 61 357 appeared heavy; young; casually dressed; pale looking around people; number bills; completely fill York. 493, 2. considered individually collectively, perfectly consistent innocent behavior possibly give rise inference supporting illegal. 37 recognize pressing national concern, excuse exercising unflagging duty strike down confines Constitution. discussing Coolidge Hampshire, 403 443, 91 2022, 564 (1971), Stewart stated: "In times unrest, caused racial conflict internal subversion, basic values represents appear unrealistic 'extravagant' some. authors fundamental concepts." 455, 2032 (plurality opinion). zeal blind peril society lies Court's disregard protections afforded 38 BLACKMUN, dissenting. 39 (1980), observed: 40 detecting deadly Few problems affecting health welfare population, young, greater concern escalating substances. Much highly organized sophisticated syndicates. profits enormous. And many easily concealed. result, obstacles detection unmatched enforcement." 561-562, 1880-1881. minimally intrusive. Given strength society's overcoming extraordinary traffickers, holds otherwise, dissent. 42 adoption "seizure" proposed Mendenhall: apply "official exercised "such 'a leave.' " 502, quarrel encounter, threshold passed. information arrest; thus, required, invalid. 216-219, 2258-2260, 601-604, 2260-2262, (1975). dispositive issue, needed not. A. 43 '[T]he principle reasonableness—the balancing competing interests.' 700, 2593, 219, 2260 Previous two-step analysis distinguish suspicion. hand, formal "having essential attributes 2593. intrusion, flexibility, lesser "reasonable suspicion" standard. momentary, on-the-street accompanied weapons." demanding privacy 699-701, 2592-2593; 561, 1880 (POWELL, 219-220, 2260-2261 Martinez-Fuerte, 428 3074, 3081, 49 1116 (1976); 878-881, 2578-2580, B 44 agreed opened. App. 84, 85. fairly functional equivalent far 880-882, deemed supra. Dunaway, neighbor's transported squad car. precinct house, placed interrogation. 203, 206-207, 212, 2251, 2256. Here, residence, expectations perhaps greatest. Instead, major international where, due part extensive anti-hijacking surveillance equipment, significantly magnitude, certainly travelers automobiles. 3084. cases, indeed questioned directly related identity, travel, noted. appears concede, point, fully followed intrusions approved removed Dunaway. stops, "may quoted approval interrogation, required. 216, 2258. move whether, involuntary, 557-558, 1878-1879, change locale. Like REHNQUIST, 530-531, understand dispute up unlawful, voluntariness judged totality 227, 2047, (1973). 557, 63, 1903, 'voluntarily spirit apparent cooperation.' "1 Had continued hope mind, closer presented. room,2 request. involuntary. 47 formula "lesser intrusions" set forth Brignoni-Ponce Dunaway: questioning, Certainly, extreme make countervailing flexibility irrelevant Consequently, why fails balance character degree intruded justification measured "both nature 'articulable facts' detention." 702, 2594. conduct, 48 began cooperation facts, heightening came attention. continues escalates, sustain it, here, short-lived minimal. Only transpired polite, significant step process.3 knew contraband, way.4 seems me 'the [were] diligently pursuing [was] likely resolve soon .' 701, 14, W. LaFave, Search Seizure § 9.2, p. (1978).5 uncovering couriers hardly debatable. Surely problem serious, intractable, immigration, 878-879, 2578-2579, 552, 3080. light well-documented difficulty couriers, particularized eminently reasonable. 50 51 whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE O'CONNOR join, 52 meandering contains little something everyone, although affirms conviction, scarcely bespeak total indifference needs curb trafficking dangerous both tone, brings mind old nursery rhyme: 53 King France With thousand men Marched hill marched back again." 55 nonetheless, betrays mind-set useful officiate shuffleboard games, primarily concerned square disc landed on, administer system justice whose twin conviction guilty vindication innocent. loses sight language purports interpret: 56 people secure persons, houses, papers, effects, seizures, shall violated (Emphasis added). 57 Analyzed terms "reasonableness" term toward pass muster virtually thoughtful, civilized overly steeped mysteries jurisprudence. meticulous regard often conflicting equally well. 58 doubtless typical facing airports throughout usefully somewhat different plurality. Officers members "Smuggling Detail" County growing Airport, 1978. peak periods tourist season South Caribbean, presumably judicial notice probability crowded busy 59 saw walking through man, dressed, heavily-laden suggested trying avoid counter. City, roll denomination bills peeled off amount. affixed it. Rather filling address, phone spaces provided wrote words "La Guardia" tag. moment talk. answered affirmatively, identification.1 "Mark Royer." named Holt reservation. explanation, course, account just filled become obviously nervous. "to population Airport." 1017 (Fla. 3d Dist.Ct.App. En Banc 1981). go. counter; closet" stewardess' converted Smuggling Detail, 1017; contained also, flight 62 Once inside, smuggling describes what happened: 63 "Without said, 'no, ahead,' marijuana contraband." 494-495.2 inferentially concedes, course must, pounds disclosed, detain backward manages aside. attend requirements impossible efforts apprehend meet test. concedes "grounds 502. 697-700, 2591-2592, (1981); 1923, (1972); 20-21, 1879-1880, reached level.3 learned, among things, (1) suitcases; (2) visibly nervous, exhibiting identify evade officers; (3) counter import center drugs, city distribution drugs; (4) bills, avoiding identification; (5) listed failing spaces, (6) traveling name.4 66 felt these reasoning "at equally, usually frequently, complete innocence."5 1016. evaluation singularly akin observing stranger loitering near building shortly arsonist fire solely four buildings arsonists likewise fire. Any relied innocence guilt; several essence "articulable "probable cause."6 67 company assessment focuses interview main observes airlines." 502-503. Obviously, intended convey stern disapproval merits Would preferable concededly do, aboard plane? "reasonable" interrogate permission retrieved, rather confrontation embarrassing Royer? spacious, possessed chairs two, facts? attempts any, satisfying. commences observation cases." 504. Earlier opinion, stage familiar "least means" First suddenly over citation 500, neither lends say returned states good another, motives renders unavailing—a escapes me. Finally, examined way, dogs. All adds aunt she uncle. steps decide took day. stutters, fudges, hedges: 71 "What suspicions." 503. 72 since warranting "investigatory room" seem proper disposition say: 73 "At arrest." 74 Does intimate opposite follow holding?7 mean 15-minute "interrogation room," ever consume? possible conclusions adumbrated, stated; standards Impressionist paintings, receive high grade, existence remaining enunciated [88 889] protective pat weapons, expanded "seizure." pistol seated parked automobile. (1976), allowed government officials divert visual inspection automobiles harboring aliens. including waiting time, approximated length detained, Martinez-Fuerte individualized checkpoints." 562, 3085 (emphasis supplied). Unless commercial somehow quantitatively weighty scale focused detention.8 76 depend investigation. taken. instance. Certainly warranted addressed majority voluntary. asked, further. threats force. Magdelena uniform display weapons. touch demands. admits quite polite.9 77 concludes somewhere beginning foot journey resumption "evaporated" leaving "[a]s legally smoke "arrested" entering logical focus environment 78 [in room] coerced." 559, Other size closet,"10 indicate resistance overborne fourth year study Ithaca College graduated communications, cooperate encounter. Absent indicia coercion, transform coerced 79 reasons, reverse Appeal. banc 1015-18 (Fla.App.1980), transcript Joint Appendix. 11A-116A. profile" abstract attracted profile: a) heavy, b) 25-35, c) d) people, e) f) completing attached baggage, space telephone number, destination. 1016; 27A-40A. Fla.Stat. 893.13(1)(a)(2) 114A-116A, unreported. Under law, nolo contendere guilty. appeal, panel viewing convincing evidence. 1007 (Fla.App.1979). vacated rehearing granted. 1015 reviewed here. similarity profile justify" contrary rule, occurred imposed Supp.App. Pet. Cert. 51-52. disagree reasonable-suspicion lacking. Court, contests concession made. court. Our (1980). along federal Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) Mendenhall's names match. DEA, shaken 548, 1874. DEA her handbag; advised decline. assurance policewoman requesting disrobe. undress, concealed packages heroin handed policewoman. 549, Appeals "stop" alternative, permissible, office constituted reversed. Two Three it; valid five voting searched. dissenting important respects. remained encounter; involved, returned, careful advise effort Courts disagreement dog kind Sullivan, 625 F.2d 9, (CA4 1980) (no search), cert. denied, 450 923, 1374, 352 Burns, 624 95, (CA10 (same); Beale, 674 1327, 1335 (CA9 1982) (sniff suspicion), pending, 82-674. circuit comes "use [drug-detecting canines] constitute[s] Amendment." Goldstein, 635 356, 361 (CA5), 962, 3111, 972 (1981). Viera, 644 509, 510 867, 332, 169 Decisions Fifth Circuit September 1981, binding precedent Eleventh Circuit. Bonner Prichard, 661 1206, 1207 (CA11 assume entailed prolonged either involve concerns. suspects Ft. Lauderdale, airport, alerted bags. Meanwhile, boarded sniffed arrested. Ninth convicting ground sniff Court. F.2d, 1335. founded authorities able dog-sniffing procedure. notes, 504, 1974 Administration skilled nationwide program intercept couriers. guided experience relevant suspects. 1881. interpret time," availability unreasonable. suggestion, am constitutes conducting 505. Such concerning us. relevance discussed, strictly difficult conceive accomplish judge, 115-116, appellate panel, 1008-1010 (Fla.App.1979), favorable 1016, contradict finding. inconsistent made, framed choices, continue His discussion, 532, dissenting). rely differences 503-504 , 9. instead points "extremely close." notwithstanding unlike well-educated, adult, Caucasian male, cf. 558, 1879 ("that respondent, female Negro, unusually threatened white males," irrelevant" coercion), identical arguably full-blown acted taking stubs bringing surrendered party, airline. immediately, substantially invaded. moreover, validly securing loaded onto airplane. irrelevant; potential intrusiveness viewpoint position. Wylie, 186 U.S.App.D.C. 231, 237, 569 62, (1977), 435 944, 1527, 542 (1978). 528, accept intrusive" alternative impose 500. establish "an stop." met proposition cites recites noting "produced" "without consent." 494. note 2, infra. Why slightest difference "orally" bag, opaque nuances intimation safeguards invoked. 497. "[N]ot persons. physical force authority, restrained citizen occurred." 551-557, 1875-1878, (Stewart, announcing Court); part); Herbst, 641 1161, 1166 851, 292, 141 Berd, 634 979, 984-985 (CA5 1981); Turner, 628 461, 462-465 1980), 451 988, 2325, 847 Hill, 626 429, 432-433, 1980); Fry, 622 1218, 1220-1221 Elmore, 595 1036, 1038-1042 1979), 447 910, 2998, 861 bear strong resemblance Detroit Metropolitan passenger deplane originating Los Angeles. inside terminal, slowly scanned populace walked directions Eastern Airlines counter, Pittsburgh, trip. stopped 560-565, 1880-1883 part). question, "seized." 546-557, 1873-1878 delivering Court). stronger now. specific nervously attempting contact. lower psychiatrists, "must disregarded." 4. repeatedly emphasized draw deductions elude untrained conduct. Cortez, 449 418, 690, 695, 621 example evading 564, 1882 884-885, 2581-2582, profiles" investigations, fashion bright-line profiles. state conformity profile," more," afoot. 6. instituted training programs wherein instruction "profile" is, effect, collective distilled seen smugglers. agent explained: "Basically it's attribute pick basically normal Essentially, started detail didn't really for. started, agencies personnel. defendants. pattern narcotic information." McClain, F.Supp. 195, 199 (ED Mich.1977). statistics kept effectiveness usage, data success. few months searched encounters; searches. Van Lewis, 409 535, 538 Mich.1976), aff'd, 556 385 (CA6 1977), 1011, 722, 754 La Guardia estimated 60% percent Price, 599 494, (CA2 1979). success, local instructed according profiles." partly effective. Use played decisions. Forero-Rincon, 218 Vasquez, 1338 907, 2991, 857 (1980); 494 1979); Diaz, 503 1025 (CA3 1974); 429 Ballard, 573 913 1978); Smith, 574 882 Scott, 545 (CA8 1976), 1066, 97 796, 784 (1977); Beck, function overplayed. own prevention Likewise, learned enforcers. instruction. mathematical automatically establishes belief reasoning, accumulated "profile," weight assessing well founded. sheer logic dictates smugglers, appropriate. unfamiliar create Reid Georgia, 448 438, 2752, 890 Yet assess knowledge. process amenable rules tried establish. dealing "with hard certainties, probabilities. Long probabilities articulated such, formulated common-sense human behavior; jurors factfinders same—and collected weighed library scholars, understood versed field 695. 52, 2641, 501 ("The conclusion."); ("[W]e exceeded.). owe deference Haynes 373 503, 515-516, 1336, 1344-1345, 513 (1963) (quoting Stein 346 156, 181, 1077, 1091, 1522 (1953)); Fiske Kansas, 274 380, 385-386, 655, 656-657, 1108 (1927). jurisprudence guilt" adjournment Brinegar 338 160, 175, 1302, 1310, (1949). Contrary phase contrasts sharply deliberately force, headquarters car, extensively giving Miranda warning. Unlike accompanying proceed public. characterization "closet" misleading. enough enter court, appealed arguing refuse rejected contention 234, 2051, (1973), "proof knowledge [is not] sine qua non search." effect

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