Document: 490 U.S. 642 109 S.Ct. 2115 104 L.Ed.2d 733 WARDS COVE PACKING COMPANY, INC., et al., Petitioners,v.Frank ATONIO al. No. 87-1387. Argued Jan. 18, 1989. Decided June 5, Syllabus Jobs at petitioners' Alaskan salmon canneries are of two general types: unskilled "cannery jobs" on the cannery lines, which filled predominantly by nonwhites; and "noncannery jobs," most classified as skilled positions with white workers, virtually all pay more than positions. Respondents, a class nonwhite workers facilities, filed suit in District Court under Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964, alleging, inter alia, that various hiring/promotion practices were responsible for work force's racial stratification had denied them employment noncannery basis race. The rejected respondents' claims, finding, among other things, overrepresented jobs because many those hiring hall agreement union. Appeals ultimately reversed pertinent part, holding, respondents made out prima facie case disparate impact both jobs, relying solely statistics showing high percentage low such court also concluded once plaintiff has shown caused specific, identifiable p actices or criteria, burden shifts to employer prove challenged practice's business necessity. Held: 1. erred ruling comparison who makes disparate-impact case. Rather, proper is generally between composition at-issue qualified population relevant labor market. Hazelwood School Dist. v. United States, 433 299, 308, 97 2736, 2741, 53 768. With respect issue, force no way reflected pool job applicants population. Petitioners' selection methods cannot be said have nonwhites if absence minorities holding reflects dearth reasons not fault. long there barriers deterring from applying, employer's mechanism probably does selected significantly less applicants. Where this case, found irrelevant statistical Moreover, isolating potential too broad—because majority did seek jobs—and narrow—because persons market workers. Under Appeals' method comparison, any having racially imbalanced segment its could haled into undertake expensive time-consuming task defending necessity methods. For employers, only practicable option would adoption quotas, been Congress drafting VII. theory flawed because, over-represented virtue contracted union fill positions, found, petitioners eliminate simply ceasing use union, without making change whatsoever their issue. Pp. 2120-2123. 2. On remand determination whether record will support some disparity mere underrepresented manner acceptable standards set forth herein alone suffice. courts below must require, part demonstration complained result one attacking here, specifically each practice opportunities whites nonwhites. This specific causation requirement unduly burdensome, since liberal discovery rules give plaintiffs broad access employers' records, employers falling within scope Uniform Guidelines Employee Selection Procedures maintain records disclosing tests procedures race, sex, ethnic group. 656-658. 3. If, remand, establish ith practices, producing evidence legitimate justification shift petitioners, but persuasion remain times. rule conforms usual allocating production burdens federal disparate-treatment cases bears disproving an assertion adverse was based legitimate, neutral consideration. See Texas Dept. Community Affairs Burdine, 450 248, 256-258, 101 1089, 1095-1096, 67 207. To extent Court's decisions speak "burden proof" defense, they should understood mean production, persuasion. Even persuade trier fact question, may still prevail coming forward alternatives reduce current provided equally effective achieving goals light alternatives' costs burdens. 658-661. 827 F.2d 439 (CA9 1987) remanded. WHITE, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. BLACKMUN, dissenting opinion, BRENNAN MARSHALL, joined, post, p. 661. STEVENS, BRENNAN, 662. Douglas M. Fryer, Seattle, Wash., petitioner. Abraham A. Arditi, respondents. Justice WHITE Court. 1 78 Stat. 253, amended, 42 U.S.C. § 2000e seq., it unfair discriminate against individual terms condition individual's color, religion, national origin; limit, segregate, classify his employees ways adversely affect employee employee's origin.1 2000e-2(a). Griggs Duke Power Co., 401 424, 431, 91 849, 853, 28 158 (1971), construed proscribe "not overt discrimination fair form discriminatory practice." liability, known "disparate-impact" involved facially deemed violative subjective intent required "disparate-treatment" 2 * claims before us involving companies operate remote widely separated areas Alaska. during runs summer months. They inoperative vacant rest year. In May year, few weeks befo e begin, arrive prepare equipment facilities canning operation. Most these possess variety skills. When about lines arrive, fish can, then depart. closed down, winterized, left until next spring. During off-season, employ small number individuals headquarters Seattle Astoria, Oregon, plus winter shipyard Seattle. 3 length size vary year hence needed varies. Estimates early possible; necessary hired, when time comes, transported canneries. Salmon processed soon after caught, season therefore intense.2 reason, located regions, housed meals company-owned mess halls. 4 line, positions; fall classifications. positions.3 Cannery nonwhites: Filipinos Alaska Natives. hired through, dispatched by, Local 37 International Longshoremen's Warehousemen's Union pursuant local. Natives primarily reside villages near locations. Noncannery months companies' offices Washington Oregon. Virtually live separate dormitories eat 5 1974, respondents, (or been) employed canneries, brought action petitioners. Respondents alleged practices—e.g., nepotism, rehire preference, lack objective channels, promoting within—were segregated housing dining facilities. All advanced dispara e-treatment theories liability. 6 held bench trial, entered 172 findings fact. 34 EPD ¶ 34,437, pp. 32,822-33,836 (WD Wash.1983). It claims. challenges criteria used ground subject attack theory. Id., I-102. "objective" (e.g., English language requirement, nepotism hiring, failure post openings, etc.) challenge theory, proof. Judgment 7 appeal, panel Ninth Circuit affirmed, 768 1120 1985), decision vacated agreed hear en banc, 787 462 1985). banc hearing ordered settle intra-circuit conflict over question analyzed model; held—as subsequently ruled Watson Fort Worth Bank & Trust, 487 977, 108 2777, (1988)—that analysis applied practices. 810 1477, 1482 1987). "[o]nce employer," id., 1485, "prov[e the] necessity" practice, 1486. Because contrary ruling, remanded further proceedings. 8 facts proceedings, instructing justified Neither nor disturbed rejection claims.4 9 Petitioners sought review challenging several grounds. issues raised matters evenly divided supra, we granted certiorari, 1232, 2896, 930 (1988), purpose addressing disputed questions application VII's II 10 impact, relied positions.5 Although proof can make see Teamsters 431 324, 339, 1843, 1856, 52 396 (1977); 307-308, 2741-2742, (1977), here misapprehends our precedents purposes VII, reverse. 11 "There doubt," similar mistaken undertaken Hazelwood, S.Ct., "that . fundamentally misconceived role cases." "proper [is] [the jobs] market." Ibid. comparison—between jobs—that forms initial inquiry Alternatively, where difficult impossible ascertain, recognized certain statistics—such measures indicating "otherwise-qualified applicants" jobs—are probative purpose. See, e.g., New York City Transit Authority Beazer, 440 568, 585, 99 1355, 1366, 59 587 (1979).6 12 clear acceptance force, latter group f r reasons. obviously, issue "the "qualified force." Measuring accountants, managers, boat captains, electricians, doctors, engineers—and list "skilled" exist 33,832—by comparing occupying filling worker nonsensical. If due (for fault),7 "disparate impact" 13 One example illustrates why so. Respondents' own concerning indicate approximately 17% new hires medical 15% officer nonwhite. App. Brief B-1. 15 up lower market, hard how more, cf. Connecticut Teal, 457 440, 102 2525, 73 130 (1982), impact. Yet, comprise 52% B-1, successful establishing 14 Such squared behind statute. very least, was—for reason—racially imbalanced, forced engage "business select members force. adopt insuring portion forces deviated portions thereof; expressly 2000e-2(j); 992-994, n. 2, 2787-2789, (opinion J.). "leave little choice quota system selection. This, course, far VII." Albemarle Paper Co. Moody, 422 405, 449, 95 2362, 2387, 45 280 (1975) (BLACKMUN, concurring judgment). Racial imbalance not, even different somewhat fungible skills (as arguably workers). As applying 6, nonwhite, minorities.8 noted above, point almost inexorably lead numerical quotas workplace, repeatedly past. 16 "labor force" narrow focus. vast done so none "deterring" existed. Thus, surrogate contains (and not) Conversely, propose represent population" generally, obviously 17 peculiar illustrate improper claim Here, "overrepresent[ed]" (local 37) 33,437, 33,829. result, permissible reason) ceased using local channel appears (according findings) might diminish insignificance. approach, therefore, possible workers—the lawsuit—petitioners "disappear." But absent hire surely reliance resulting "overrepresentation" positions) standing alone—make Yet precisely ironic reached below. 18 Consequently, reverse Of leaves unresolved conclusion established address first instance. III 19 Since suffice pretermitted, considerations.9 however, defensible fashion Appeals. 20 First law correctly stated O'CONNOR's last Term U.S., 994, 2788-2789: 21 "[W]e note plaintiff's goes beyond need show disparities begin identifying challenged. Especially combines rigid standardized tests, view allegedly observed disparities." 22 Cf. 1000, 2792 23 Indeed, Appeals—whose assault score—noted "it essential identified linked causally demonstrated impact." F.2d, 445. Notwithstanding apparent adherence inquiry, contend permitting offering "only [one] cumulative comparative [petitioners' hiring] practices." 31. 24 Our always focused particular minorities. Just escape liability demonstrating that, "at bottom line," balanced (where deprive opportunities), 450, 2532, matter, demonstrate appli ation created attack. integral 25 preferences), well "subjective making" base disproportionately However, Part II, complain hold otherwise being potentially liable myriad innocent causes imbalances forces." 992, 2787. 26 Some burdensome plaintiffs. civil effort document Also, Procedures, 29 CFR 1607.1 seq. "maintain information disclose upon group[s]." 1607.4(A). includes components process" significant rates 1607.4(C). Plaintiffs matter benefit tools meet causal link force; presumably took full advantage build trial held.10 27 instructed elements process B outlined offer phase components: first, consideration justifications offers practices; second, availability alternative achieve same ends, 425, 2375. We consider turn. (1) Though phrased query differently cases, stage dispositive erves, way, employer. 997-999, 2790-2791; 587, 31, 31; 432, 854. touchstone reasoned practice. A insubstantial regard suffice, standard permit practiced through spurious, seemingly At time, though, "essential" "indispensable" pass muster: degree scrutiny meet, host evils above. 652-653. 30 phase, carries persuasion, remains plaintiff. 1485-1486, panel's 445, 447—suggesting impact—its erroneous. "[T]he ultimate proving protected " Watson, 997, 2790 (O'CONNOR, J.) (emphasis added). courts, Fed. Rule Evid. 301, specifically, 207 (1981). acknowledge earlier read suggesting otherwise. 1006-1008, 2795-2796 see, Dothard Rawlinson, 321, 329, 2720, 2726, 786 production—but burden. Cf., NLRB Transportation Management Corp., 393, 404, 7, 103 2469, 2475, 76 667 (1983). plaintiff, he "because color," etc., desired opportunity. 31 (2) 32 Finally, reaches point, able prevail. do so, factfinder "other devices, similarly undesirable effect, serve [hiring] interest[s]"; demonstrating, "[petitioners were] [their] merely 'pretext' discrimination." 2375; 998, 2790-2791 J.); 1005-1006, 2794-2795 (B ACKMUN, come currently used, refuse alternatives, refusal belie incumbent nondiscriminatory 33 chosen goals. "[f]actors cost proposed devices determining serving goals." "Courts competent restructure practices," Furnco Construction Corp. Waters, 438 567, 578, 98 2943, 2950, 57 957 (1978); consequently, judiciary proceed care mandating response suit. IV given judgment reversed, proceedings consistent opinion. 35 ordered. 36 whom MARSHALL join, dissenting. I fully concur STEVENS' Today bare takes three major strides backwards battle race discrimination. Term's plurality law, thereby upsetting longstanding distribution cases. bars internal comparisons discrimination, structure industry renders meaningless. And requires practice-by-practice causation, where, impossible. 38 harshness results described back kind institutionalized dealt years: total residential environment organized principles segregation, which, STEVENS points out, resembles plantation economy. Post, ----, 4. characterized taste old-fashioned sort: preference lowest level stay there. majority's legal rulings essentially immunize analysis. 39 Sadly, comes surprise. wonders believes discrimination—or, accurately, nonwhites—is problem society, remembers ever was. Richmond J.A. Croson 488 469, 706, 854 (1989). 40 BLACKMUN 41 Fully years ago, unanimously 19641 prohibits effects intended discriminate. (1971). Federal agencies consistently enforced interpretation, thus goal eliminating th t define economic opportunity aptitude ability origin, traits easily utterly one's qualification job.2 Regrettably, retreats efforts interlocutory respecting "peculiar facts" lawsuit.3 Turning blind eye meaning perfunctorily rejects underestimates value stratified force.4 join latest sojourn judicial activism. thought superfluous recount late date development jurisprudence, facile treatment settled necessitates primer. initially considered utility company conditioning entry higher paying school education passage written tests. Despite "these requirements operated render ineligible markedly disproportionate Negroes,"5 account violation. 429, 852. Chief Burger's landmark violate statute acting complete good faith invidious intent.6 Focusing 703(a)(2),7 explained: 43 "The enactment plain equality remove past favor employees. Act, procedures, face, intent, maintained 'freeze' status quo prior 429-430, 852-853. 44 operates exclude nevertheless lawful serves valid necessity," stressed. 853. "Congress directed thrust consequences motivation[,] placed manifest relationship question."8 original). declined act—as now sees fit—to limit reach 335, 15, 1854, indeed extended application.9 approval lends added holding. framework, focus ostensibly standards, proved inapposite analyzing claim, 703(a)(1),10 intentionally discriminated race.11 means direct McDonnell Green, 411 792, 93 1817, 668 (1973), (1981), opinions Powell unanimous Courts. Teamsters, burden, onerous," 1093, "a discrimination," 802, 1824, is, create presumption unlawful "eliminat[ing] common rejection."12 254, 1094. articulate reason rejection." 1824; "Title employer] employee's] conduct pretext sort prohibited 703(a)(1)," "must presumptively coverup decision." 804-805, 1825; 256, 1095. While shift, "ultimate persuading defendant tim plaintiff."13 1093. 46 Decisions while purpose, affirmative defense necessity.14 blurs distinction, thoughtful reflection common-law pleading clarifies fundamental differences types "burdens proof."15 ordinary harmed her. Restatement (Second) Torts §§ 328 A, (1965) (hereinafter Restatement). undercut confronting her chief submitting countervailing case.16 proves existence harmful act, act excusable. 454-461, 463-467. turn try refute defense. regarding harm excuse defendant, either proposition throughout party asserting it. 47 "discrimination" unless treated unfairly Therefore, retains difficulty occurred. likelier event inference, resort McDonnell/ Burdine inquiry. instance, undermine independent 48 contrast, plays rather, significant, effect w rkers—regardless cause motive attempt contradict factual effect; prevent faced sufficient recourse justify explaining operation business. classic defense.17 49 Failing explore interplay distinct orders proof, announces frequent statements shoulders "should persuasion—burden."18 Ante, 660. emphasized weighty. touchstone," Griggs, "is necessity." Later, prison administrators failed "rebu[t] height weight performance," 331, 2727, (1977). 14, supra. am astonished "touchstone [T]here 'essential,' ante, 659. casual—almost summary—rejection statutory construction developed wake disturbing. believed enacted persuaded, interpretation frequently revisits scheme readily correct mistakes misread meaning. Johnson Agency, Santa Clara Cty., 480 616, 644, 107 1442, 1458, 94 615 (1987) (STEVENS, concurring); Runyon McCrary, 427 160, 190-192, 96 2586, 2604-2605, 415 (1976) concurring). McNally 483 350, 376, 2875, 2890, 292 dissenting); Commissioner Fink, 89, 102-105, 07 2729, 2736-2738, 74 Rodriguez de Quijas Shearson/American Express, Inc., 477, 486, 1917, 1922, 526 (1989) dissenting). 50 Also troubling redefinition employees' No made, declares, 'isolat[e] identif[y] disparities.' 656 (quoting 2789, (1988) (plurality opinion)). additional unwarranted.19 elementary recover injury alone; connect order liable. E.g., 430. substance, constitute sole primary harm. 431-433; Price Waterhouse Hopkins, 228, 1775, 268 Thus numerous questionable ought fortify disparities.20 Ordinary fairness require actions tried like "any lawsuit." Postal Service Bd. Governors Aikens, 460 711, 714, 3, 1478, 1481, 75 403 changes today, tipping scales faithful principles. 51 reversal dismissal 48. "there 'significant disparities' "made precise findings" critical points. 650, 5. Given newly articulated individualized ould manifestly aggregate deem insufficient. properly request final remands strength 655. juncture, believe deserves greater credit allows. Statistical compare 'of market.' 650 (1977)). That statement open definition previous opinions, 584-586, 1365-1366, (1979); 329-330, 2726-2727; 2375, (1975); 426, 430, 851, reviewing evidence, strive exactitude expense needs depict unique industry. Canneries often remote, sparsely populated 33,825 seasonal, season's canneries' personnel varying just day day. requirements, recruit transport States Pacific Northwest. 33,828. outside Native Employees positions—the issue"—learn openings word mouth; seldom posted advertised, promotion workers' ranks. 33,827-33,828. 54 general, "skills," ranging literacy, typing, "ability seam micrometers, gauges, mechanic's hand tools" "good health" driver's license.21 33,833-33,834. handful unskilled, intensity precludes on-the-job training 33,825. already jobs: testified persuasively jobs,22 neither credited discredited testimony. wage differentials, parties seem agree wages unskilled. "nearly all" entire "has stabilized 47% 50%." findings, whites. 55 'external' issue." 17. rely regard, ambiguous. specifies "Alaska, Northwest, California" geographical region [petitioners] draw employees," finding refers "this area worker, laborer, nonskilled There express jobs. 56 assuming defined area, assumption constituted "available supply," ibid., adequately founded. An undisputed seasonal Many furthermore, available preseason work. 33,829, identify Alaska, California, Northwest accept type employment.23 deficiency crucial diminishes usefulness evidence. compositions identifies willing times familiar workings Surely untailored 13, 2742, 13; 339-340, 20, 20. Evidence categories white,24 whereas two-thirds nonwhite,25 itself discrimination.26 puts perspective. rather paying, overwhelmingly 33,828-33,829. Information conducted mouth;27 maintenance halls largely 33,836, 33,843-33,844, coupled tendency toward nepotistic hiring,28 obvious Putting side justifications, quite wrong conclude consequence.29 Appeals, 439, 444-445 1987), prescribed treat element 58 begins recognition 'disparate-treatment' case." 645-646. departs body engendered disparateimpact reformulating parties' Why undertakes unwise eminently mystery me. respectfully dissent. 2000e-2(a), provides: "(a) shall employer— "(1) fail discharge individual, compensation, terms, conditions, privileges employment, "(2) tend employee, origin." "Independent fishermen catch boats called 'tenders,' fishing grounds Once cannery, eviscerated, eggs pulled, cleaned. Then, operating rate four cans per cans. Next, canned cooked time-temperature FDA, inspected ensure seals top, sides." 1120, 1123 (CA9), vacated, (1985). follows Appeals: "Machinists engineers smooth continuous equipment. Quality control FDA-required inspections recordkeeping. Tenders staffed crew vessel. community, including, example, cooks, carpenters, store-keepers, bookkeepers, beach gangs dock yard construction, etc." 1123. subsequent claims—i.e., allegations intentional discrimination—warrants attention dissents' comment "bear unsettling resemblance aspects economy." 664, 662 Whatever "resemblance," litigation BLACKMUN's hyperbolic allegation indicates longer "believes society," inapt. unfortunately true exists country. mean, canneries—or precisely, concedes press life finds resemble "plantation economy" unlawful. "approve" society but, dispute discrepancy Compare, 4-9 4-6. "significant [i.e., workforce canneries" explained 'cannery worker' department non-white." 33,841, 33,829 below, groups here. fact, "figures accurately reflect applicants," 340, 1856 permitted well. Obviously, which—expressly implicitly deterred minority 365, 1869. qualify conclusion—observing "probable" circumstances—because bottom-line balance (1982). minorities, notwithstanding workforce. 2532. understand insofar claimed overall purport specified produced actionable say exist, Nor eating workplace 2000e-2(a)(2) promotion. obligation collect retain data limited themselves. 1602.14(b) (exempting "seasonal" recordkeeping requirements). religion sex. Discrimination characteristics statutes. Board Nassau County Arline, 273, 1123, 307 (determining protection handicapped schoolteacher 504 Rehabilitation 1973, 87 394, 794); Newport News Shipbuilding Dry Dock EEOC, 669, 2622, 77 89 (1983) (Pregnancy 1978, Pub.L. 95-555, 1, 92 2076, 2000e(k)); Lorillard Pons, 434 575, 866, (1978) (Age Employment 1967, 81 602, 621 seq.); Corning Glass Works Brennan, 417 188, 2223, (1974) (Equal Pay 1963, 56, 6(d) Fair Labor Standards 1938, 206(d)). 654. purports directs Compare 445 657-658. Furthermore, nearly half devoted fairly point: case," 656, nature 658. perceive urgency decide questions," factually complicated certiorari allowed present former companies. members, "nonwhite," include Samoan, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, descent, citizens. 33,822, 33,836-33,838 Fifteen ago commenced suit, alleging assignment, housing, messing segregate violation included 1971 foreman college student's employment: 'We position take young fellows Bristol Bay background Eskimo Filipino mix others groups.' 33,836. litigation—in particular, segregation along lines—bear Plantation, Town, County, Essays History American Slave Society 163-334 (E. Miller E. Genovese eds. 1974). Indeed inferior, feeding employees, strikes me although necessarily fit neatly mold, nonetheless violates National Association Advancement Colored People Amicus Curiae. us. census showed State, North Carolina, "while 34% males completed school, 12% Negro Similarly, EEOC battery including Wonderlic Bennett Company instant resulted 58% passing compared 6% blacks." 6. adopted diploma test 'intention employees.' suggest examining intent; redeem testing mechanisms 'built-in headwinds' unrelated measuring capability." added) (citation omitted). subsection provides "[i]t 2000e-2(a)(2). concluded: "Nothing procedures; useful. What forbidden giving controlling demonstrably reasonable measure performance. commanded preferred better origins. Far disparaging qualifications such, factor, nationality, sex become irrelevant. person abstract." 436, 856 Voting Amendments 1982, 97-205, 131, 134, codified 1973b (1982 ed. Supp. V). Legislative Reports leading 1972 amendments evince H.R.Rep. 92-238, 8, 20-22 (1971); S.Rep. 92-415, accord, 447, 2531, enforce age Note, Business Necessity VIII: Importing Doctrine Housing Ford.L.Rev. 563 (1986); Disparate Impact Analysis Age 68 Minn.L.Rev. 1038 (1984). "to origin. ." 2000e-2(a)(1). "Griggs differs important respects. however blacks capable performing effectively rightly concerned childhood deficiencies citizens, control, citizens remainder lives. Respondent, clothing. He engaged seriously disruptive seeks employment. petitioner exclusion device overstates what performance, sweeping disqualification behavior, insubstantial, applicant's personal employee. Petitioner assertedly respondent and, 'artificial, arbitrary, unnecessary employment' intention remove." 806, 1826 (citations "This (i) belongs minority; (ii) seeking applicants; (iii) despite qualifications, rejected; (iv) rejection, remained continued complainant's qualifications." 1824. prevalent modes exclusive. B. Schlei P. Grossman, Law 13-289 (2d 1983) (four chapters discussing treatment," "present "adverse impact," "reasonable accommodation" "categories" discrimination). 4, facts. 336, Douglas, 14. also, 446, 2530 ("employer 'any [has] question' "); (1979) (employer "rebutted" "demonstration narcotics 'is related' (1977) "prov[e] related"); 'job employment"). treating Bunch Bullard, 795 384, 393-394 (CA5 1986); Lewis Bloomsburg Mills, 773 561, 572 (CA4 1985); Nash Jacksonville, 763 1393, 1397 (CA11 Segar Smith, 238 U.S.App.D.C. 103, 121, 738 1249, 1267 (1984), cert. sub nom. Meese Segar, 471 1115, 105 2357, 86 258 (1985); Moore Hughes Helicopters, Div. Summa 708 475, 481 1983); Hawkins Anheuser-Busch, 697 810, 815 (CA8 Uncle Ben's, 657 750 1981), denied, 459 967, 293, 277 (1982); contra, Croker Boeing 975, 991 (CA3 1981) (en banc). Equal Opportunity Comm'n, (1988). J. Wigmore, 2485-2498 (J. Chadbourn rev.1981); D. Louisell C. Mueller, 65-70 Louisell); Wright K. Graham, Practice Procedure 5122 Wright); Thayer, Preliminary Treatise 353-389 (1898) Thayer); Langdell, Equity Pleading 108-115 1883). Thayer 357 Caldwell Jersey S. N.Y. 282, 290 (1872)) (" 'The maintaining speaking, trial; cast relieve negligence evidence' "). Accord, Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 8(c) ("In preceding pleading, affirmatively constituting avoidance defense"). 368-369: "An admission may, end controversy; be, yet it; sets something avoids happens, becomes, far, actor move favor, original whose who, admitting adversary's contention setting defence, (reus excipiendo actor),—must satisfy truth adequacy law." suits price Clayton amended Robinson Patman justification, proviso (a), Borden 370 460, 467, 82 1309, 1313, 627 (1962), good-faith competitor's price, (b), Standard Oil FTC, 340 231, 250, 71 240, L.Ed. 239 (1951). 2790, cites authority. 1001-1002, 2792-2793 (concurring judgment), profoundly difference reference 301. pertains shifting evidentiary establishment bearing substantive 65-70; 5122. Solicitor General's brief amicus curiae behalf agrees: "[A] complex: involve multiple factors. certainly factors combine produce single one, defended) whole." Curiae (footnote discounts causality presents reasoning "liberal rules" obtain records. 657. true, litigation, preserve 42-43; Reply 18-19. 100 titles, except 15: kitchen help, waiter/waitress, janitor, oil crew, night watchman, tallyman, laundry, gasman, roustabout, store stockroom assistant caretaker (winter watchman watchman's assistant), machinist helper/trainee, deckhand, apprentice carpenter/carpenter's helper. 33,835. later became architects, Air Force officer, graduate student public administration. 33,837-33,838; 38, 52-53; Tr. 76, 951-952, 1036, 1050, 2214. occurs fact: "119. entail migrant, labor. proposition, people prefer full-year, fixed location homes, comparable migrant work, fruit vegetable harvesting guaranteed wage. "120. [sic] dominated fixed-location appropriate defining supplies work." court's confusing distinction "migrant, work" composes 1980, 443 departments labeled "machinists," "company boat," "tender" Castle Cooke, Inc.'s Bumble Bee cannery; Joint Excerpt Record (Exh. 588). Red Wards Cove Packing hired. 589). "overrepresented" significance becomes examination pattern concentrated Absent "underrepresentation" stratum barrier access, offend suggests demands possessed "accountants, engineers." 651. least theoretically specialized selective examples. year-round setting, "some skilled, truckdriving beach, [would] category acquirable public." 33,841. opinion: "Specifically, dispatches ILWU 37, securing Filipino. informal word-of-mouth recruitment superintendents foremen, recruited obvious." 446. downplayed relatives preferential 33,840. "of 349 upper-level 1970-75, 332 whites, nonwhites," noted. "If exists, relatives, doing white, nonwhites." amount "petitioners' fault." 651; 653-654. distorts Whether ch

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