Document: 405 U.S. 156 92 S.Ct. 839 31 L.Ed.2d 110 Margaret PAPACHRISTOU et al., Petitioners,v.CITY OF JACKSONVILLE. No. 70—5030. Argued Dec. 8, 1971. Decided Feb. 24, 1972. Syllabus The Jacksonville vagrancy ordinance, under which petitioners were convicted, is void for vagueness, in that it 'fails to give a person of ordinary intelligence fair notice his contemplated conduct forbidden by the statute,' encourages arbitrary and erratic arrests convictions, makes criminal activities modern standards are normally innocent, places almost unfettered discretion hands police. Pp. 161—171. 236 So.2d 141, reversed. Samuel S. Jacobson, Jacksonville, Fla., petitioners. T. Edward Austin, Jr., respondent. Mr. Justice DOUGLAS delivered opinion Court. 1 This case involves eight defendants who convicted Florida municipal court violating Florida, ordinance.1 Their entailing fines jail sentences (some suspended), affirmed Circuit Court consolidated appeal, their petition certiorari was denied District Appeal, on authority Johnson v. State, 202 852.2 here certiorari, we granted. 403 917, 91 2233, 29 L.Ed. 694. For reasons will appear, reverse. 2 At issue five cases. Papachristou, Betty Calloway, Eugene Eddie Melton, Leonard all arrested early Sunday morning, charged with 'prowling auto.' 3 Jimmy Lee Smith Milton Henry 'vagabonds.' 4 Heath codefendant vagrancy—'loitering' 'common thief.' 5 Thomas Owen Campbell vagrancy—'common 6 Hugh Brown vagrancy—'disorderly loitering street' 'disorderly conduct—resisting arrest violence.' 7 facts stipulated. Papachristou Calloway white females. Melton black males. enrolled job-training program sponsored State Employment Service at Junior College Jacksonville. typing shorthand teacher state mental institution located near She owner automobile four arrested. Vietnam war veteran had been released from Navy after nine months veterans' hospital. On date he part-time computer helper while attending college as full-time student tow-motor operator grocery chain warehouse lifelong resident 8 time them riding Calloway's car main thoroughfare They left restaurant owned Johnson's uncle where they eaten way nightclub. arresting officers racial mixture played any part decision make arrest. arrest, said, made because stopped used-car lot broken into several times. There was, however, no evidence breaking entering night question. 9 Of these auto' none previously except once offense. 10 (who not petitioner) between a.m. weekday downtown waiting friend lend so could apply job produce company. worker organizer Negro political group. He common-law wife three children supported him wife. times but only once. Smith's companion, Henry, an 18-year-old high school previous record 11 morning cold, jacket, went briefly dry cleaning shop wait, when requested do so. thereafter walked back forth two or over two-block stretch looking friend. store owners, apparently wary summoned police searched men found neither weapon. But said identification did believe story. 12 'loitering' Both residents having lived there life being employed body shop. record. companion drove up residence shared Heath's girl some other girls. Some already process another man. When started backing out driveway, signaled stop asked get car, did. Thereupon searched. Although contraband incriminating found, both arrested, thief' reputed be thief. standing act admitted done command. 13 reached home very one traveling rate speed, yet speeding charge placed against him. 14 observed leaving hotel officer seated cruiser. testified thief, narcotics pusher, generally opprobrious character. called intending unless good explanation street. cruiser, commanded, began search him, preparatory placing car. In came small packets later contain heroin. touched pocket were, resist. While also violation, nolled. 15 Jacksonville's ordinance Florida's statute 'derived English law,' So.2d, 854, employ 'archaic language' definitions vagrants. Id., 855. history often-told tale. break-up feudal estates England led labor shortages turn resulted Statutes Laborers,3 designed stabilize force prohibiting increases wages movement workers areas improved conditions. Later laws became aspects poor laws. series passed subject increasingly severe.4 'the theory Elizabethan longer fits facts,' Edwards California, 314 160, 174, 62 164, 167, 86 119. conditions spawned may gone, archaic classifications remain. 16 sense United States Harriss, 347 612, 617, 74 808, 812, 98 989, convictions. Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 60 736, 84 1093; Herndon Lowry, 301 242, 57 732, 81 1066. 17 Living rule law entails various suppositions, '(all persons) entitled informed what commands forbids.' Lanzetta New Jersey, 306 451, 453, 59 618, 619, 83 888. 18 well-recognized group cases insisting offending conduct. See Connally General Construction Co., 269 385, 391, 46 126, 127, 70 322; Cline Frink Dairy 274 445, 47 681, 71 1146; L. Cohen Grocery 255 81, 41 298, 65 516. field regulatory statutes governing business activities, acts limited narrow category, greater leeway allowed. Boyce Motor Lines, Inc. States, 342 337, 72 329, 96 367; National Products Corp., 372 29, 594, 561; Petrillo, 332 1, 67 1538, 1877. 19 among us, minorities, average householder alerted schemes laws; assume would have understanding meaning impact if read them. Nor protected caught net necessity specific intent commit unlawful act. Screws 325 91, 1031, 89 1495; supra. 20 innocent. 'Nightwalking' one. construes night's wandering, 855, 'habitual' wanderer or, describes it, walkers.' We know, experience sleepless people often walk night, perhaps hopeful sleep-inducing relaxation result. 21 Luis Munoz-Marin, former Governor Puerto Rico, commented 'loafing' national virtue Commonwealth should encouraged. It is, crime 22 '(P)ersons able work habitually living upon earnings wives minor children'—like 'without visible means support'—might implicate unemployed pillars community married rich wives. 23 children' embrace market, reason recession5 disemployed technological so-called structural displacements. 24 Persons 'wandering strolling' place extolled Walt Whitman Vachel Lindsay.6 qualification lawful purpose object' trap innocent acts. 'neglecting spending frequenting . alcoholic beverages sold served' literally many members golf clubs city clubs. 25 Walkers strollers wanderers going coming burglary. Loafers loiterers 'casing' holdup. Letting one's support intra-family matter, concern Yet may, course, setting numerous crimes. 26 difficulty historically amenities known mentioned Constitution Bill Rights. These unwritten responsible giving our feeling independence self-confidence, creativity. dignified right dissent honored nonconformists defy submissiveness. encouraged lives spirits rather than hushed, suffocating silence. 27 embedded Whitman's writings, especially 'Song Open Road.' reflected too, spirit Lindsay's 'I Want Go Wandering,' D. Thoreau.7 28 aspect before us suggested this 1876 about broad enacted Congress: 'It certainly dangerous legislature set large enough catch possible offenders, leave courts step inside say rightfully detained, large.' Reese, 214, 221, 563. federal case, due implications equally applicable ordinance. Here cast large, power pick choose increase arsenal Winters York, 333 507, 68 665, 840, struck down York distribution magazine principally items deeds bloodshed lust massed become vehicles inciting violent depraved crimes person. infirmity vagueness—the absence 'ascertainable guilt' (id., 515, S.Ct., 670) sensitive First Amendment area.8 Frankfurter dissented. concerned he, others,9 laws, added: 30 'Only word needs regarding involved Jersey type seek control 'vagrancy.' class themselves, view familiar abuses put. Definiteness designedly avoided allow enable vaguely undesirable eyes prosecution, although chargeable particular short, 'vagrancy statutes' 'gangs' fenced text matter avoided.' 540, 682. Where list all-in-clusive generalized10 those punished more vindicating affronts authority: 32 'The common ground brings such motley assortment human troubles magistrates vagrancy-type proceedings procedural laxity permits 'conviction' kind existence House Correction easy convenient dumping-ground problems appear immediate solution.' Foote, Vagrancy-Type Law Its Administration, 104 U.Pa.L.Rev. 603, 631.11 33 Another ordinance's vagueness appears focus, lack given potential offender, effect Caleb subject, has offering 'punishment analogy.' 609. Such crimes, though long Russia,12 compatible constitutional system. 'probable cause,'13 Fourth Fourteenth standard States14 well Federal Government. Arresting suspicion, like investigation, foreign system, even past criminality. Future criminality, justification presence statutes. supra, 625. has, indeed, construed her 'as necessary regulations,' inter alia, 'to deter vagabondage prevent crimes.' 852; 239 250, 251. 34 A direction 'suspicious' persons15 pass muster. prosecution merely cloak conviction obtained real undisclosed grounds People Moss, 309 N.Y. 429, 131 N.E.2d 717. Chief Hewart Frederick Dean, Crim.App. 133, 134 (1924): 35 highest degree unfortunate country motion entertain, connive coquette idea prisoner attempt crime, nevertheless, insufficient evidence, succeed obtaining upholding Vagrancy Act, 1824.' 36 Those implicated imprecise terms ordinance—poor people, nonconformists, dissenters, idlers—may required comport themselves according style deemed appropriate courts. Where, here, exercise granted scheme discriminatory enforcement law. furnishes tool 'harsh local prosecuting officials, groups merit displeasure.' 97—98, 742, 1093. results regime unpopular permitted 'stand public sidewalk whim officer.' Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 382 87, 90, 211, 213, 176. Under 37 '(I)f carefree fellow satisfied just much, more, pay square meal, wine, flophouse daily, thinks subhuman, can forced raise sights go vagrant.' Amsterdam, Constitutional Restrictions Punishment Crimes Status, Obnoxiousness, Displeasing Police Officers, Like, Crim.L.Bull. 205, 226 (1967). 38 presumption might loaf loiter stroll frequent houses liquor sold, look suspicious future criminals too precarious implicit generalized nipped bud—is extravagant deserve extended treatment. useful nets making roundup undesirables. implies equality justice its application. teach scales tipped even-handed administration possible. law, evenly applied minorities majorities, rich, great mucilage holds society together. 39 cannot squared plainly unconstitutional. 40 Reversed. POWELL REHNQUIST took consideration case. Ordinance Code § 26—57 provided convictions follows: 'Rogues vagabonds, dissolute persons begging, gamblers, use juggling games plays, drunkards, walkers, thieves, pilferers pickpockets, traders stolen property, lewd, wanton lascivious persons, keepers gambling places, railers brawlers, wandering strolling around without object, habitual loafers, disorderly neglecting ill fame, gaming houses, served, shall statute, Fla.Stat. 856.02 (1965), F.S.A. reads quite closely 27—43 commission misdemeanor Class D offense City 1971 amendments statute. Laws 1971, c. 71—132. Section declared unconstitutionally overbroad Lazarus Faircloth, D.C., F.Supp. 266. said: 'All loitering, loafing, idling streets highways city, habitual, necessarily detrimental welfare nor circumstances interference travel entirely innocuous. draws distinction calculated harm essentially innocent.' 272, quoting Hawaii Anduha, 48 F.2d 171, 172. 172, 848, 122. covering 'loitering hotel, block, barroom, dramshop, house house, either day support, satisfactory account themselves' held 'excessive broadness vagueness' Supreme Court, Headley Selkowitz. 171 368, 370. vagrants and, Municipal offenses.' offenses punishable 90 days' imprisonment, $500 fine, both. 1—8 (1965). maximum punishment since reduced 75 days $450. 304.101 (1971). advised downward revision avoid righrt-to-counsel decisions. Fifth extending counsel misdemeanors fine imprisonment imposed Harvey Mississippi, 340 263 present 330.107 identical earlier 'juggling' eliminated. Edw. 3, (1349); (1350). J. Stephen, History Criminal 203—206, 266—275; W. Blackstone, Commentaries*169. Ledwith Roberts, (1937) K.B. 232, 271, gives following summary: Acts peculiar utterly different time. From Black Death middle 14th century till 17th century, diminishing degree, reform Poor first half 19th roads crowded masterless families, lost employment through variety causes, livelihood taken vagrant life. causes gradual decay system labouring classes anchored soil, economic slackening legal compulsion fixed wages, break monasteries reign VIII, consequent disappearance religious orders administered 'public assistance' form lodging, food alms; lastly, changes brought Enclosure Acts. honest labourers fallen evil days, others 'wild rogues,' literature, born idleness intention other. confederates formed notorious 'brotherhood beggars' flourished 16th centuries. definite serious menace chiefly harsher provisions period directed.' And see Sherry, Vagrants, Rogues Vagabonds—Old Concepts Need Revision, Calif.L.Rev. 557, 560—561 (1960); Note, Concept Reconsidered: Problems Abuses Status Criminality, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 102 (1962). 177, 168, 119, referring Miln, Pet. 102, 142, 648, decided 1837, 'Whatever notion then prevailing, think now seriously contended funds constitutes 'moral pestilence.' Poverty immorality synonymous.' Reich, Questioning Abiding Citizens, Yale L.J. 1161, 1172 (1966): 'If I take evening Andromeda come schedule, am distant light Almach Mirach finding myself staring blinding beam flashlight.' met course my understood art Walking, taking walks,—who genius, speak, sauntering: beautifully derived 'from idle roved country, Middle Ages, charity, pretence la Sainte Terre,' Holy Land, exclaimed, 'There goes Terrer,' Saunterer, Holy-Lander. never Land walks, pretend, indeed mere idlers vagabonds; saunterers sense, mean. Some, derive sans terre, land home, which, therefore, mean, everywhere. secret successful sauntering. sits still greatest all; saunterer, meandering river, sedulously seeking shortest sea. prefer first, most probable derivation. every sort crusade, preached Peter Hermit reconquer Infidels.' Excursions 251—252 (1893). discussion void-for-vagueness doctrine area fundamental rights Void-For-Vagueness Doctrine 109 67, seq.; 224 seq. Edelman 344 357, 362, 73 293, 296, 97 387 (Black, J., dissenting); Hicks Columbia, 383 252, 254, 798, 799, 744 (Douglas, Columbia Hunt, 82 U.S.App.D.C. 159, 163 833 (Judge Stephens writing majority Appeals); Judge Rudkin 171. opposing views numerous: Ex parte Branch, 234 Mo. 466, 137 S.W. 886; H.R.Rep. 1248, 77th Cong., 1st Sess., 2; Perkins, Concept, Hastings, 237 (1958); Craig, 152 Cal. 42, P. 997. President Roosevelt, vetoing bill contains constitute improvement existing Unfortunately, objectionable. 'Section number clauses defining 'vagrant.' Clause section include within category 'any able-bodied earnings, property obligation him.' definition broadly loosely drawn adult daughter son well-to-do family who, amply guilty improper conduct, occupation dependent parental support. 'Under clause leading himself' incur guilt liability prove, 2, realized source. What 'leading life' 'not oneself' indicated determination eventually judge court, further review proper phraseology suitable general purposes vagrant, does conform accepted legislative practice willing agree temporarily otherwise, risk indefinite uncertain application clause. hardly answer sound judgment decisions must trusted invoke itself obviously comprised terms.' H.R.Doc. 392, Sess. Thus, auto,' basis herein, listed crime. Hanks 195 49, 51, Appeal place' including automobile. Hazard, Soviet Legal System 133 (1962): 1922 code precision complete departure concept accordance dictates social consciousness judge. Laying hold old tsarist provision 1864 1903 term 'analogy,' draftsmen inserted article permitting consider danger individual committed defined specialized code. guided analogizing outset analogies always apparent, husband executed sadistic murder wife, followed dissection torso shipment trunk remote railway station, arguing analogous banditry. death penalty banditry motives consequences.' 'On traditionally important Algeria rejecting flexibility introduced 'analogy' principle, East-Central European African states.' Residue Marxist Influence Algeria, Colum.J. Transnat'l 194, (1970). 10, 15—17, 367, 369—371, 436. Whiteley Warden, 401 560, 306. Secret Detention Chicago Police, Report American Civil Liberties Union (1959). table below nationwide data 'vagrancy' 'suspicion' three-year 1968—1970. Combined Suspicion Offenses .........Total Rate Total .........rptd. per rptd. ........arrests 100,000 Year* 1968...........99,147 68.2 89,986 61.9 189,133 130.1 1969..........106,269 73.9 88,265 61.4 194,534 135.3 1970..........101,093 66.7 70,173 46.3 171,266 113.0 3-year averages..102,170 69.6 82,808 56.5 184,978 126.1* Reporting agencies represent population of: 1968 145,306,000; 1969—143,815,000; 1970—151,604,000. Source: FBI Uniform Crime Reports,

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