Document: 422 U.S. 184 95 S.Ct. 2240 45 L.Ed.2d 109 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.State of ALASKA. No. 73—1888. Argued April 16, 1975. Decided June 23, Rehearing Denied Oct. 6, See 423 885, 96 159. syllabus Proof held insufficient to establish Cook Inlet as a historic bay, and hence the United States, against Alaska, has paramount rights land beneath waters lower, or seaward, portion inlet. Pp. 189-204. (a) The sparse evidence Russia's exercise authority over lower inlet during period Russian sovereignty is demonstrate essential establishment bay. 190-192. (b) Nor was enforcement fishing wildlife regulations under various federal statutes an Executive Order States Territory Alaska sufficient in scope title inland waters, especially where it appears that geographic such efforts determined primarily, if not exclusively, by needs effective management fish game population involved, rather than intended assertion territorial exclude all foreign vessels navigation. 192-199. (c) mere failure any nation protest asserted inadequate proof acquiescence title. It must also be shown governments knew should have known being asserted, here routine domestic inform those claim dominion. 199-200. (d) fact its statehood enforced same way did likewise give rise waters. 200-201. (e) Alaska's arrest two Japanese Shelikof Strait 1962 adequate That incident sovereignty, at all, only Strait, even considered Inlet, sufficiently unambiguous serve basis title: Government, claimed but neither supported nor disavowed State's position. And regardless how viewed, impossible conclude acquiesced which immediately protested never acceded 201-203. 497 F.2d 1155, reversed remanded. A. Raymond Randolph, Jr., Washington, D.C., for petitioner. Thomas M. Phillips, Houston, Tex., Charles K. Cranston, Anchorage, respondent. Mr. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. 1 issue whether body water bay.1 extends northeastward well 150 miles into Alaskan mass, with Kenai Peninsula southeast Chigmit Mountains northwest. city Anchorage near head upper, inner portion, dispute, part conceded subject sovereignty. 2 If State possesses State, subsurface lands question. 3 * In early 1967 offered 2,500 acres submerged competitive oil gas lease sale. tract question more three geographical from shore seaward line across Kalgin Island, headlands are about 24 apart, contrasted 47 natural entrance Cape Douglas. view Island marks limit qualifies contending constitutes high seas, brought suit District Court quiet injunctive relief State.2 defended on ground inlet, entirety, within accepted definition 'historic bay' thus constituted properly state prevailed 352 F.Supp. 815 (1972). Appeals Ninth Circuit affirmed per curiam opinion. 1155 (1974). We granted certiorari because importance litigation case presented substantial concerning necessary 419 1045, 616, 42 639 II 4 rests Submerged Lands Act 1953, 67 Stat. 29 (1953), 43 U.S.C. §§ 1301—1315.3 By this Act, Congress effectively confirmed ownership their coastlines.4 v. Maine, 420 515, 363 (1975). 'Coast line' defined terms but, well, 'the waters.'5 term 'inland waters' left undefined. 5 California, 381 139, 161—167, 85 1401, 1414—1416, 14 296 (1965), concluded definitions provided Convention Territorial Sea Contiguous Zone, (1964) U.S.T. 1606, T.I.A.S. 5639, adopted purposes Act. Louisiana (Louisiana Boundary Case), 394 11, 35, 89 773, 787, 22 44 (1969). Under Art. 7 Convention,6 particularly 6 thereof, bay points separated 'historic' Since distance between greatly excess miles, parties agree order successfully power waters.7 Convention. Court, however, stated coastal 'traditionally maintained dominion nations.' U.S., 172, S.Ct., 1419. Furthermore, general least factors significant determination status: (1) claiming exercised area; (2) been continuous; (3) states authority. Case, 75 23—24, n. 27, 808, 781.8 These were guidelines present case. III divided findings time periods, namely, statehood. discuss these turn. 8 Russia understandably sparse. nonetheless, 'Russia disputed area Inlet.'9 court based conclusion findings. First, 1800's there four settlements shores Inlet. Second, 1786, attempt English vessel enter drew volley cannon fire furtrader vicinity Port Graham. Third, 1821, Tsar Alexander I issued ukase purported 100 coast. S.Exec.Doc.No. 106, 50th Cong., 2d Sess., 204—205 (1889). 9 feel none facts, found presence certainly demonstrates existence land, gives little indication may exerted vast expanse fur trader's firing Graham might some act private citizen government official.10 absence trader acting governmental authority, entitled legal significance. Moreover, then-common Cannon Shot Rule, wholly consistent position measured three-mile limit.11 Finally, imperial 1821 clearly demonstration shortly after had unequivocally withdrawn face vigorous protests England.12 B 10 reviewing Alaska,13 five separate instances Federal Government Pet. Cert. 26a—37a. 11 1. Revised Statutes § 1956 (1878). Soon ceded prohibited killing sea otter other fur-bearing animals 'within limits said territory, thereof.' July 1868, 15 241, codified Rev.Stat. itself, statutory language does indicate encompassed 'territory, 1892 1893 American boarded revenue officials investigating possible violations 1956.14 From boardings prohibition throughout 12 2. Alien Fishing 1906. This 34 263, noncitizens commercial methods 'in jurisdiction States.' Once again, bare statute fails reveal extent applied There no record instance Inlet.15 13 3. 3752. 1922 President Harding creating Southwestern Fisheries Reservation. Exec. 3752 (Nov. 3, 1922); App. 676. subjected reservation regulation. Regulations Administration South-western Reservation, Department Commerce Circular 251, pp. 8—9 (9th ed., Jan. 9, 1923); 678—679. described series straight baselines encompass promulgated pursuant Secretary Hoover referred embraced 'all Inlet.' 4. White 1924 passed 'An For protection fisheries purposes,' otherwise C. 272, 464. authorized 'set apart reserve areas jurisdiction.' Ibid. reserved issue. until statehood, set aside include several 5. Gharrett-Scudder line. 1957 representatives Canada met possibility prohibiting citizens countries nets salmon international North Pacific. delegates generally agreed used enforcing related would delimit 'offshore joint limitations. Canadian felt description closing lines connecting fishery definitive, they requested map showing greater precision. Two Bureau employees, John T. Gharrett Henry Clay Scudder, prepared chart coast reflecting boundaries then-current regulations. so-called enclosed Charts transmitted delegates. undisputed exact location primarily reference management.16 maps forwarded transmittal express disclaimers bear relationship sense. 16 Based facts summarized above, continuously Treaty Cession 1867 course, correct insofar purpose management. far clear, concluding legally type 17 determining recall threefold division recognized law. As Case: 18 'Under principles law, navigable zones, distinguished nature control contiguous can them. Nearest nation's inland, internal complete nation, much privilege altogether. Beyond edge, belt marginal, sea. Within extensive cannot deny right innocent passage nations. Outside single nation.' 22—23, 780 (footnotes omitted). 19 Case commensurate claimed. argued certain regulating navigation given rules allowed vessels, characteristic seas Id., 24—26, 781—783. 20 noted, agree, prevail case, showing, been, historically, regulations, relied upon patently 21 Only one court, treated differently vessels. purport apply beyond simply 263. meaning phrase, surmised, since suggest applicable remainder period, exclusive Each afforded enjoyed ships. To sure, each involved American. incidents prove very little, enforce own nationals, seas. See, e.g., 38 692, 781 (taking sponges Gulf Mexico Straits Florida); 80 1091, 1151 seals Pacific Ocean); 86 1032, amended, 1372 (1970 Supp. III) marine mammals seas). Skiriotes Florida, 313 69, 61 924, L.Ed. 1193 (1941). Our inadequate, matter technicality. national frequently differs Presidential Proclamation 2668, 59 885 (1945). limited circumscription traditional freedom based, part, recognition special interest preservation living resources adjacent Conservation Living Resources High Seas, 1, (1966) 138, 141, 5969. 23 Even casual examination reveals involved. Thus, example, line, 'a classic whole Inlet,' 37a, drawn almost solely net depict States. Indeed, method drawing use conflicted country's policy measuring sinuosity 167—169, 1416—1417. we could selected coincided still disagree Court's established period. third element title, nations, satisfied protest. Scholarly comment opposition suffices Jurisdical Regime Historic Waters, Including Bays, Yearbook International Law Commission, 1962, 16—19 (U.N.Doc. A/CN.4/143). previously noted taken debate. 781. something object shown. meaningless unless reasonably asserted. Many assertions clear expressions mistaken governments. Other so clear. One scholar notes: 'Thus, placing lights beacons sometimes appear while circumstances significance.' Juridical supra, 14. believe failed awareness C 25 stressed recent basically fashion arrested fleet Strait. following basic pattern now incident, deserves scrutiny seizure manifests 26 most undisputed. enterprise Japan, Eastern Company, publicly announced intention send learned plan through newspaper accounts action prevent entry strait. although forewarned intrusion, significantly took action. March mothership Banshu Maru 31 arrived Kodiak grounds. On 5, six sailed north Barren Islands next day without southwest fished strait approximately days undisturbed. Then, 15, law At ships shore. fleet's captains charged them violating 19, Company entered agreement whereby released company's employees return promise company pending judicial resolution therein. 1186—1188. participate in, approve of, Alaska. Instead, executed, Japan formally Government. declined take official completion proceedings. Ultimately, proceedings dismissed reaching formal dismissal 27 Nevertheless, reasons, find strait, nearest Although earlier force leave charges filed intrusion events constitute adequacy dispute international, purely domestic, claim. 168, 1417; 77, 809. Viewed standpoint import disclaimed Given ambiguity Government's position, possessed clarity views Admittedly, tentatively respect already acts representative government's license 28 sum, hold erroneous assessment significance found.17 judgment Appeals, accordingly, remanded further ordered. 30 Reversed DOUGLAS consideration decision 32 STEWART REHNQUIST affirm judgment, believing made erroneous, both courts criteria ruling larger Great Salt Lake Ontario. size Erie. dwarfs Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Long Sound, bays. qualifies, III, 2, cl. Constitution, our original jurisdiction. West Virginia, 295 463, 470, 55 789, 791, 79 1546 (1935). enlightened why chose bring Section 6(m) Statehood 7, 1958, provides 'shall shall do existing thereunder.' 72 343, note 48 c. provides: 'The consist together appurtenant thereto, included Alaska.' 339, 3(a) 1311(a), 'It sand declared public respective manage, administer, lease, develop, accordance be, are, provisions hereof, recognized, confirmed, established, vested assigned . ..' 2(b), 1301(b), defines boundaries: 'boundaries' includes existed became member Union event 'lands interpreted extending Atlantic Ocean 2(c) 1301(c), reads: 'coast means ordinary low along direct contact open marking waters.' full text follows: '1. article relates bays coasts belong State. '2. articles, well-marked indentation whose penetration proportion width mouth contain landlocked curvature An not, regarded large as, than, semi-circle diameter indentation. '3. measurement, lying low-water mark around joining points. Where, islands, mouth, long sum total lengths different mouths. '4. exceed twenty-four marks, thereby '5. Where exceeds baseline manner enclose maximum length. '6. foregoing bays, system applied.' Brief Respondent 1; 32. Some disagreement exists states, sufficient. Case) 781, 25a. addition reported opinion, (Alaska 1972), detailed written conclusions published. reproduced Petition Certiorari 21a—55a. prior 1906, unreported dating times many colonial enterprises day, governance semiprivate corporations. H. Chevigny, America: Venture, 1741—1867 (1965). important corporations, Russian-American chartered 1799, years 75. silent interests occasion consider semi-private corporation weight establishing Rule effect range shot modern scholars 3-mile derived 18th century cannon. Kent, Historical Origins Three-Mile Limit, Am.J.Int'l L. 537 (1954); Walker, Waters: Brit.Y.B.Int'l 210 actual fired is, irrelevant. viewed common discussion surrounding issuance withdrawal ukase, see 10, 174 188. territory (by Russia) continent America islands.' 539. cession quitclaim. acquired whatever cession. cutter, Mohican, 1956. Mohican statute. prosecutions ultimately merely purchasing pelts natives who hunt Kodiak, 53 F. 126 1892). stopped cutter. like carrying native hunting parties, proceed incident. 1893. acknowledged ever sought explain infrequently. statements former 'they affirmative action' seen F.Supp., 819 820. announcement intentions witnesses largely testimony Gharrett, called witness indicative predominance concerns preparation line: examination: 'Q What your role line? 'A My decide goes. Did you assistance anyone? Scutter (sic). Has kind name? Oh, don't know since. it, say proposed,' et cetera, Gharrett-Scutter (sic) short. what chart? criteria: 1) wanted Coast 2) allow modest, perhaps, expansion fisheries, fisheries.' 292—293. cross-examination counsel States: foreigners fished? Yes. intend stop fisheries? Was represent outer sea? base measured? Were Alaska? No.' 294. defeated discussed weighing claims actions kind. 76—78, 808—809; 175, 1421, rejected grounds ill-advised and, self-serving. 818—819. Inasmuch suffice facts.

Category: 9