Document: 376 U.S. 52 84 S.Ct. 603 11 L.Ed.2d 512 Yvette M. WRIGHT et al., Appellants,v.Nelson A. ROCKEFELLER, Governor of New York, al. No. 96. Argued Nov. 19, 1963. Decided Feb. 17, 1964. Rehearing Denied March 23, See 959, 964. Justin N. Feldman, York City, for appellants. Irving Galt and Jawn F. Sandifer, appellees. Mr. Justice BLACK delivered the opinion Court. 1 Appellants, citizens registered voters York's Seventeenth, Eighteenth, Nineteenth, Twentieth Congressional Districts, all in County (the Island Manhattan), brought this action United States District Court Southern challenging constitutionality that part Chapter 980 1961 congressional apportionment statute which defined these four districts.1 The several other state officials were named as defendants. Congressman Adam Clayton Powell, who represents Eighteenth District, political leaders permitted to intervene defendants supporting act. Appellants charged Act question deprived them rights guaranteed by Due Process Equal Protection Clauses Fourteenth Amendment Fifteenth Amendment, provides 'The right vote shall not be denied or abridged any State on account race, color, previous condition servitude.' Their complaint alleged that: 2 'Chapter establishes irrational, discriminatory unequal Districts segregates eligible race place origin. It is contrived create one district, 17th excludes non-white Puerto Rican origin over-represented comparison three districts York. 18th, 19th 20th have been drawn so include overwhelming number under-represented relation District.'2 3 case was heard a judges. During hearings, counsel appellants made it clear their did depend 'under-representation because variation size districts'; rather, he said, 'a ghettoizing Manhattan' 'to white district district.' 'I think,' 'the only province area determine whether created with racial considerations mind, and, if they have, results districting, effect racially segregated areas, we maintain violates Amendments.' offered maps, statistics, some oral evidence designed prove charge impossible such unless 'were regard race.' statitics showed contained 86.3% Negroes Ricans; 28:5%; Twentieth, 27.5%; 5.1%. also irregularities boundaries population among four.3 Appellees presented no testimony but offer historical table from Bureau Census, message President Congress subject apportionment. 4 A majority found had out crucial factual issues.4 Judge Moore broadly '(n)o proof party specific lines Legislature motivated creed country creating districts.'5 He concluded, 'Plaintiffs having failed upon facts law establish violation constitutional result enacting Laws 1961, must dismissed.'6 Feinberg concurred Moore's he, too, believed 5 'not met burden proving new 17th, 19th, along lines, alleged. * 6 introduce might justify an inference reapportionment Manhattan. However, inferences, set forth below, are equally more justifiable. Plaintiffs difficult meet attacking statute. Upon analysis, I do think has met. 7 'In short, based entire record, feel plaintiffs proved case.'7 8 Murphy dissented. viewed 'tantamount practical purposes, mathematical demonstration' legislation 'solely concerned segregating' colored 'by fencing into own 18th)' establishing 'per se prima facie legislative intent draw 18th basis national origin.'8 9 While matters discussed, find necessary decide first jurisdictional statement, namely '(w)hether sustained portion delineates Manhattan Amendment.' We accept findings either fact drew lines. Compare Gomillion v. Lightfoot, 364 339, 81 125, 110. may true, thought, there could supported inferences moved legislature, but, even so, agree support his finding contrary 'equally, more, persuasive.'9 Where conflicting group cannot, labeled 'prima proof,' treated conclusive finder deprive him responsibility choose disputed inferences. And true plaintiff defendant both. Hernandez Texas, 347 475, 74 667, 98 L.Ed. 866, does dissenting view appellants' here established compelling Court, despite evidence, followed rule laid down Norris Alabama, 294 587, 55 579, 79 1074, cases,10 long-continued practice calling jurors sufficient justify, necessarily compel, discrimination race. conclusion those cases reached after appraisal circumstances. plain us compelled product contrivance discriminate against voters. As below pointed out, concentration county difficult, assuming permissible, fix anything like equal division districts.11 Undoubtedly voters, shown lawsuit, would prefer distribution minority groups districts, others, intervenors case, argue strenuously kind contended undesirable origin, themselves unconstitutional. 10 Court's challenged segregate That it, reason challenge cannot sustained. pass here, is, constitutionally invalid fail its objective nearly practicable population.12 Wesberry Sanders, 1, 526. Since urged issues formulated bring focus, appraised our holding bearing wholly separate question. judgment dismissing affirmed. 12 Affirmed. 13 HARLAN, concurring. 14 join premise issue involves districts. thus, my opinion, governed entirely different considerations, see 110, than believe should govern 526, decided today, filed 20, 536. 15 DOUGLAS, whom GOLDBERG concurs, dissenting. 16 This raises kin where gerrymandering used vote. Here franchise. Rather, zigzag, tortuous concentrate Ricans Manhattan's practically exclude Seventeenth District. Neighborhoods larger cities often contain members race; expected disregard neighborhoods effort make each multiracial one.1 But where, line can explained terms, problem presented. I. 17 divided serpentine path follow, reflect substantial, though complete, segregation races: Negro White percent Percent 17th.................. 94.9. 5.1 18th.................. 13.7. 86.3 19th.................. 71.5. 28.5 18 20th.................. 72.5. 27.5 In legislature expanded altering respects: (1) added upper East Side between 59th Street 89th whose up 2.7% total;2 (2) lower called Stuyvesant Town 0.5% total; (3) dropped two-block 98th 100th Fifth Avenue Madison 44.5% total. 19 To achieve gerrymandering, careful manipulation necessary. southeast corner near River goes west blocks, north two block, five eleven blocks across northern Central Park Morningside, Morningside about twelve Amsterdam 122d 150th, east fifteen 165th, River. 20 record strongly suggests twists turns producing 11-sided, step-shaped boundary keep many possible. There sure three-judge One judges do, uncontradicted per purpose design (211 F.Supp. 460, 472—473), saying '(In Gomillion) glaring exclusion municipal district. subtle 'silk stocking district' (as frequently referred to) jamming appeals intervenors.' Id., at 474 475. 21 second judge concluded petitioners 'have proving' 'drawn lines.' 468. third expressed precise issue.3 22 summarized rebutted challenged, introducing evidence. conceded frank concession possible say 'that irrelevant districting.' 23 Racial state-sponsored nullified whatever intended. Johnson Virginia, 373 61, 83 1053, 195, held courtroom audience unconstitutional, without stopping inquire what motive been. well-settled proposition applicable spectrum abridgement 'even unintended.' NAACP 357 449, 461, 78 1163, 1171, 1488, cited. What done irrespective motive. Eubanks Louisiana, 356 584, 587—588, 970, 973—974, 991. 24 assumed since Brown Board Education, 483, 686, 873, people public areas. voting important area—as schools, parks, courtrooms. uproot vestiges Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 1138, 41 256, area. 25 persons apparently vested interest control District.4 They seem 'separate equal' theory supra, another theory. better off'—a before. argument Buchanan Warley, 245 60, 81, 38 16, 62 149, residential areas; Columbia John R. Thompson Co., 346 100, 73 1007, 97 1480, restaurants; Watson Memphis, 1314, 529, delayed integration parks. Indeed, final W. Davis South Carolina ended words, good sometimes best.' 26 advantage solid problem. Rotten boroughs long curse democratic processes. war standards. II. 27 comparable Electoral Register System Britain introduced India. system gave constituency Sikhs, Muslims, Anglo-Indians, Europeans, Indian Christians.5 Religious minorities comfort safety arrangement. Muslim deputation following demand:6 28 '(1) whole India Muslims over millions one-fifth one-fourth total population; 29 '(2) numbers exceed first-class European Power, except Russia, justly claim adequate recognition factor State; 30 '(3) representation hitherto accorded them, almost nomination, inadequate requirements always carried approval nominees selected represent; 31 '(4) while distinct community additional interests own, shared communities, ever returned existing electoral bodies, worked sympathy Hindu importance.' Lord Morley reply:7 32 demand things. pleasure receiving know very well minds. election representatives councils stages just Cyprus, think, themselves; nine votes non-Muslims way about; Bohemia Germans alone register; therefore precedent parellel idea register. Secondly, want seats excess numerical strenght. These demands quite ready intend full.' 33 Hindus responded favorably.8 Joint Report 1918 stated:9 34 'Some hold people, deem be, religion caste unable consider section, communal electorates class merely inevitable actually best. evokes applies principle democracy widest range alive all, appealing instincts strongest; hope develop finer, present weaker using forces really count. According healthy stage development non-political people.' already noted, peculiar British Other nations it.10 Lebanon today modified version: eight religious member faith chosen legislature.11 35 registers, ones, society honors Lincoln tradition—'of individual important, creed, color. equality notion represented Negro, B Caucasian, C Jew, D Catholic, on. Cf. Gray 372 368, 379, 801, 807—808, 821. register weights heavily votes. system, name called, divisive force community, emphasizing differences candidates sense. Of course religion, plays role choices various candidates.12 government business designing Akins 325 398, 403, 65 1276, 1279, 89 1692, Allen, 344 443, 471, 397, 414—415, 469, courts selecting juries need not—indeed not—give jury list proportional complexion has. If proper criterion drawing list, how district? 36 Anderson Martin, 375 399, 454, barred Louisiana putting ballot opposite candidate's word, 'Negro,' device encouraging discrimination. When said encourage candidate solely race,' id., 404, 456, fortiori bloc unit actual neighborhood. Yet violate here. 37 State, multiracial, multireligious communities Constitution seeks weld together become separatist; antagonisms relate rather generated; seek best representati e partisan. ideal, footing 'Separate off' railroad terminals, facility serving public. 39 GOLDBERG, DOUGLAS joins, 40 fully Brother written dissent wish add words comment opinion. decision purposefully resolves accepting origin.' Ante, 58. 42 My difficulty treatment finding. court court, express fact. Instead differing opinions. implied absent showing serious under-representation harm complainants. 211 467—468. suggested justified enable same obtain bodies otherwise them.' 467. Finally, intimated factually unconstitutional 'motivated influenced' Ibid. motivation influence complainants proof, tendered who, therefore, 'upon law.' 43 apply standard. Constitution, believe, proscribes state-sanctioned districting schools facilities. E.g., 873; 110; 195; City 529; Goss 683, 1405, 632; 454. Certainly areas 'nullifies sophisticated simple-minded modes discrimination.' Lane Wilson, 307 268, 275, 59 872, 876, 1281. declared ground that, under distinctions ancestry, color 'are nature odious free institutions founded doctrine equality.' Hirabayashi States, 320 63 1375, 1385, 87 1774. Given settled se, irrelevant. understand decisions Nation whites alike inheres segregation. commands equality, inequality. moore, 44 Furthermore, point erred event insufficient districting. 45 disagreed both implication advantages particular stated 'constitutional vice use impermissible standard, standard used.' F.Supp., then frankly acknowledged 46 closer me indicate him. statute.' 469. 47 Feinberg, reasoning, cast sustain 'difficult burden' statute: Even complainants' 'might motivated' still disprove every permissible reasonable mind. 48 Murphy, dissent, agreed But, Murphy's segregating white, 18th)'; effected 'obvious segregation'; constituted 'subtle exclusion' 'jamming 473—475. Accordingly, thought absence intervenors, entitled declaring Clause Amendment. 49 light opinions analyses, fairly viz., '(w)e finding.' Which standard—Judge Moore's, Feinberg's Murphy's? Judges comprised differed read opinions, proof. forgotten conclusions Court—both reviewed intermediate appellate tribunal. come directly presents containing variant inconsistent legal conclusions. unanimous fact, given less deference depends largely documentary particularly involve mixed questions fact.' Gypsum 333 364, 396, 68 525, 542, 92 746. view, rest 'finding' abdicating princ pled adjudication. 50 virtually undisputed facts. repeat correct unhesitatingly reaffirm apply. On evidence,1 available figure picture 472—473. At least, however, appear probable shaped reliance factors used. then, justifiable raise rebuttable presumption unconstitutionality shifting ultimate going forward rebuttal Note, 72 Yale L.J. 1041, 1056 1061. appellees counteract chose so. might, example, attempted attempt equalize follow neighborhood simple answer rebut in—or of—the districting.2 statements bill's managers published debates available. Under circumstances, pattern outlined MURPHY, Once done, negating am conclude Districts. respectfully dissent. N.Y.State Law, McKinney's Consol.Laws, c. 57, § 111. existed years repeated efforts correction avail, partly legislature. allegations, however. 382,320; 431,330; 445,175; 439,456. 460. 462. 468, 471. Pierre 306 354, 361—362, 536, 540, 757; Smith 311 128, 130 131, 61 164, 165—166, 85 84; Hill 316 400, 1159, 1161, 86 1559. 467—468 (Moore, J.), 471 (Feinberg, J.). Committee proposed bill report, 'It your most substantial population.' N.Y.Laws, (Second Extraordinary Session), pp. 63, 64. Nor require scheme exact let 'mathematically-based procedure produces contiguous Weaver Hess, Procedure Nonpartisan Districting: Development Computer Techniques, 288, (1963). An extending 95th Street, Third River, left 10,507 5% Rican. low-cost housing project (of type average Negro-Puerto occupancy will 75%) scheduled construction Because general southward push population, south appears temporary buffer zone. closest intimation, issue, statement opinion: 'No w influenced during subsequent years. allegation 'repeated energetic efforts' unavailing apportionment.' Powell 1945. Acharya, Elections Franchise (1937), p. 17: Sikh, Muhammadan, Anglo Indian, Christian, included Christian respectively. No person roll General Constituency province.' Ahsan, Community Electorates (1934), 6—7. 11. 12. 16. constitution modern Cyprus divides electorate Greek Turkish communities. Aug. 1960, Pt. I, Art. 2(3). allotted 70% 30% Turkish. IV, 62(2). Each elects chamber power select matters, e.g., education, personal status, etc. Id. V, Arts. 86, 87. Allocation specified offices forms stratum government. For example Greek, Vice President, 1. service composed seventy centum Greeks thirty Turks.' VII, 123(1). shows end products fractionalizing After recent riots Turks versus Greeks, Arnold Toynbee commented Cyrus complex: 'Unfortunately Cypriots contend incubus history, memories history rankling 'Cyprus, Lebanon, last unpartitioned remnant great multi-national society, Ottoman Empire. 150 years, vast former dominions partitioned mosaic successor states, single nationality now master house. tide run too direction partition woes inevitably entails. mutual animosity intermingled peoples strong; prestige exotic Western ideology nationalism potent. regime requiring cooperation ex-Ottoman nationalities something tour de force, civil showed. utopian lion lamb lie together, little child lead them. truth lambs; lions tigers. looks price stabilization irreconcilable.' Washington Post, Jan. 11, 1964, A8. 1927 Lebanese unicameral II Patai, Republic (1956), 533. deputies 99. Statesman's Year-Book 1963—1964, 1222. Prior increase 66 elected according groups: Maronites; Moslems, Shi'ites; Orthodox; Druses; Catholics; Armenian Catholic; minority. Encylopedia Americana (1963), 175. Khalil, Arab League (1962), 124, 133; Ziadeh, Elections, Middle J. 367 (1960). Dawidowicz Goldstein, Politics Pluralistic Democracy stated: submitted plaintiffs, visual redistricting Isle (New County) follows: 'Manhattan 1,698,281 congressmen. census figures 1960 ethnic classes—white classes counted 1,058,589 62.3% 639,622 37.7% fixed make-up: Non-White Total Population Origin _% __of District__ 382,320 362,668 94.9% 19,652 5.1% 431,330 59,216 13.7% 372,114 445,175 318,223 71.5% 126,952 28.5% _439,456 __318,482 _72.5% _120,974 _27.5% 639,692 county: % 3.1% 58.2% 19.8% 18.9% 100.0% encompass further 15.4% 12% adjoining encompasses white. Its above average.' 472. brief candidly asserts 'consider' prohibition classifications recurs proved? required legislature's adequately geometric, geographic, equalization, party-compromise, basis. recommended November 9, passed 10, signed date. hearings

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