Document: 333 U.S. 203 68 S.Ct. 461 92 L.Ed. 649 PEOPLE OF STATE ILLINOIS ex rel. McCOLLUMv.BOARD EDUCATION SCHOOL DIST. NO. 71, CHAMPAIGN COUNTY, ILL, et al. No. 90. Argued Dec. 8, 1947. Decided March 1948. Appeal from the Supreme Court of State Illinois. Mr. Walter F. Dodd, Chicago, Ill., for appellant. Messrs. Owen Rall, and John L. Franklin, Champaign, appellees. Justice BLACK delivered opinion Court. 1 This case relates to power a state utilize its tax-supported public school system in aid religious instruction insofar as that may be restricted by First Fourteenth Amendments Federal Constitution. 2 The appellant, Vashti McCollum, began this action mandamus against Champaign Board Education Circuit County, Her asserted interest was resident taxpayer parent whose child then enrolled schools. Illinois has compulsory education law which, with exceptions, requires parents send their children, aged seven sixteen, schools where children are remain attendance during hours when regularly session. Parents who violate commit misdemeanor punishable fine unless attend private or parochial which meet educational standards fixed State. District boad § given general supervisory powers over use buildings within districts. Ill.Rev.Stat. ch. 122, §§ 123, 301 (1943). 3 Appellant's petition alleged teachers, employed groups, were permitted come weekly into regular set apart secular teaching, there period thirty minutes substitute teaching provided under law. petitioner charged joint public-school religious-group program violated United States prayer her ordered 'adopt enforce rules regulations prohibiting all Number * houses said district occupied schools.' board first moved dismiss on ground appellant had no standing maintain action. motion denied. An answer filed, admitted those pupils consented released temporarily classes limited purpose attending classes. denied coordinated instructions Much evidence heard, findings fact made, after school's neither federal nor constitutional provisions invoked On appeal affirmed. 396 Ill. 14, 71 N.E.2d 161. Appellant appealed 28 U.S.C. 344(a), U.S.C.A. we noted probable jurisdiction. 67 1524. 4 appellee presses several grounds, is judgment does not draw question 'validity statute any State' required 344(a). contention rests challenged expressly authorized statute. But sustained validity statutes granted authority establish such program. holding sufficient show an drawn meaning Hamilton v. Regents University California, 293 245, 258, 55 197, 202, 79 343. A second lacks action, also without merit. Coleman Miller, 307 433, 443, 445, 464, 59 972, 978, 986, 83 1385, 122 A.L.R. 695. third failed properly present challenge view express rulings both courts question, argument cannot successfully maintained. 5 Although disputes between parties various inferences concerning program, following facts shown record dispute.1 In 1940 interested members Jewish, Roman Catholic, few Protestant faiths formed voluntary association called Council Religious Education. They obtained permission offer schoolp upils grades four nine inclusive. Classes made up signed printed cards requesting attend;2 they held weekly, lower grades, forty-five higher. council teachers at expense authorities, but instructors subject approval supervision superintendent schools.3 taught three separate groups teachers,4 Catholic priests, Jewish rabbi, although past years have apparently been instructed religion. conducted classrooms building. Students did choose take duties; leave go some other place building pursuit studies. hand, students study Reports presence absence teachers.5 6 foregoing facts, reference others appear record, property close cooperation authorities promoting education. operation state's thus assists integrated carried sects. Pupils compelled part legal duty upon condition beyond utilization tax-established spread faith. And it falls squarely ban Amendment (made applicable Fourteenth) interpreted Everson Education, 330 1, 504. There said: 'Neither Government can church. Neither pass laws one religion, religions, prefer religion another.6 force influence person away church his will him profess belief disbelief No punished entertaining professing beliefs disbeliefs, nonattendance. tax amount, large small, levied support activities institutions, whatever called, form adopt teach practice religion.7 can, openly secretly, participate affairs organizations vice versa. words Jefferson, clause establishment intended erect 'a wall separation Church State." Id., pages 15, 16 U.S., page 511 majority case, minority quotations dissenting views our notes 7, agreed Amendment's language, interpreted, erected disagreed proper application language facts. 7 Recognizing barred if adhere expressed counsel respondents dicta urge reconsider repudiate them. argue historically forbid only government preference another, impartial governmental assistance religions. addition ask distinguish overrule 'establishment religion' prohibition States. After giving full consideration arguments presented unable accept either these contentions. 8 To hold consistently sects dissemination doctrines ideals not, urge, manifest hostility teachings. manifestation would war national tradition embodied guaranty free exercise For premise best work achieve lofty aims each left respective sphere. Or, must kept high impregnable. 9 Here taxsupported used doctrines. affords sectarian invaluable helps provide through machinery. 10 cause reversed remanded proceedings inconsistent opinion. 11 Reversed remanded. 12 FRANKFURTER opinion, JACKSON, RUTLEDGE BURTON join.* 13 We dissented 504, 512, because Constitutional principle requiring invalidation ordinance majority. here commingling Constitution forbids this. 14 light decision, demonstrates anew mere formulation relevant beginning o solution problem, answer. so spacious conception like unfolded case. reach far more penetrating conduct than merely 'established church.' agreement, abstract, designed 'wall State,' preclude clash what separates. Involved implications judicial review enforcement. Accommodation legislative freedom limitations achieved phrase. illuminatingly apply 'wall-of-separation' metaphor until considered history America, 'released time' movement history, precise before us. 15 understand particular now us conscientious attempt accommodate allowable functions special concerns framework due regard kind society designed, put historic setting. Traditionally, organized Western world It could hardly otherwise primarily Word ways God. Even countries, less identification State, basis largely Bible, chief inculcation piety. extent intervened, further Church. emigrants came shores brought Colonial certainly started orientation. When common problems early settlers Massachusetts Bay Colony revealed need schools, object defeat 'one project old deluder, Satan, keep men knowledge Scriptures.' Laws Liberties Massachusetts, 1648 edition (Cambridge 1929) 47.1 17 evolution colonial education, service today story changing conceptions regarding American democratic society, State-maintained role therein people. modern derived philosophy reflected Amendment. appropriate recall Remonstrance James Madison, event basic liberty, forth proposal involved See Rutledge's supra, 36, 37, 521, 522. As momentum popular increased turn evoked strong claims contests unlike Virginia produced Madison's appeared New York famous chapters established diassociation York, rise led, despite fierce opposition, barring founds later doctrine taught.2 efforts Horace Mann, teachings save being rent denominational conflict.3 upshot controversies, often long fierce, fairly summarized saying subjected new limitations, furtherance became guiding principle, feeling, sustaining Stephen Girard's will, referred inevitable conflicts engendered matters 'connected policy' particularly 'in country composed variety country.' Vidal Executors, How. 127, 198, 205. That hundred ago. 18 Separation field then, imposed unwilling superior respect dominant life. binding States, restriction whole experience Zealous watchfulness fusion itself, instruments especially agencies, response community needs young growing nation, unique composition people.4 totally different situation elsewhere, illustrated instance English serves illustrate societies cast mold. Act 1944, Geo. VI, c. 31. Different institutions evolve circumstances. 19 pertinent remind decline Mann devout Christian, deep feeling Madison stamped Remonstrance. imply indifference life people, rejection means fostering it. minimized refusing make agencies assertion. non-sectarian reconciling freedom. sharp confinement recognition educate undertook do so, atmosphere pressures realm most resisted easily bitterly engendered. Designed serve perhaps powerful agency cohesion among heterogeneous scrupulously freef rom entanglement strife preservation divisive conflicts, irreconcilable censorship coercion however subtly exercised, strict religious, leaving individual's home, indoctrination faith choice. 20 development symbol unity sudden achievement attained violent conflict.5 While small communities comparatively homogeneous beliefs, absolute urgencies, elsewhere growth encountered resistance strongly engaged inevitability attempts very reason concerned protection groups. shifting varying time time, place, representing totality nation. 21 Enough indicate dealing full-blown having definiteness surveyor's metes bounds. 1875 entanglements, firmly consciousness year President Grant remarks Convention Army Tennessee: 22 'Encourage resolve dollar appropriated shall Resolve combined, learning afford every land opportunity good unmixed sectarian, pagan, atheistical dogmas. Leave matter family altar, church, school, supported entirely contributions. Keep forever separated.' 'The President's Speech Des Moines,' World 434-35 (1876). 23 So conviction, rather rest comprehensive prohibitions Amendments, urged written elaborations including specific funds education,6 many constitutions.7 By 1894, urging adoption provision Constitution, Elihu Root able summarize century nation's history: 'It creed, party; declaring maintaining great eternal State.' Root, Addresses Citizenship, 137, 140.8 deemed presupposition strikingly Union since 1876 Congress write constitution requirement 'free control.'9 24 Prohibition course half story. people naturally about child's entrusted 'to school.' promotion took forms. Laboring financial difficulties exercising persuasive authority, denominations felt handicapped task Abortive therefore frequently obtain schools.10 major privately supported. Parochial maintained denominations. These, however, beset serious handicaps, otherwise, represented found directions. experiments vacation Saturday well Sunday schools.11 fell short purpose. appearing one-day-a-week matter, acquired acceptance, tended relegate thereby minor enforced piano lesson. 25 Out inadequate evolved week-day afternoons week school. continued children; wanted play out, so. leaders decided succeed, way give conceived 'business hours.' 26 initiation movement12 attributed Dr. George U. Wenner. underlying assumption proposal, Interfaith Conference Federation Ciy 1905, unduly monopolized churches entitled share it.13 This, should 'release.' Accordingly, Federation, citing example Third Republic France,14 request excused Wednesday afternoon, 'Sunday Wednesday.' out premises authority. Those desiring continue normal Lest unfairly compete requested refrain scheduling courses compelling importance. 27 aroused considerable opposition another decade scheme become system. Gary, Indiana, inaugurated movement. At industrial expansion strained communal facilities city, Superintendent Schools Writ suggested fuller buildings. Building theories current, he classroom. agencies. library, playground, function unfolding. Writ's plan sought rotate schedules school-day class, othr still playground. some, leading ministers City, might City cooperated did, 1914, begun. hand supervise choice taught. Nor assume responsibility attendance, school; received credit child, result arrangement cut truly affect feelings schools.15 From substantial proportions. 1914—15, Gary 619 week. According responsible figures almost 2,000,000 2,200 participated programs 1947.16 scope indicates importance problem directed. aspects open objection, extensively operates, ominous breaches separation. 29 Of course, generalized conception, undefined differentiating particularities, issue adjudication. Local differ crucial respects. Some auspices, jointly denominations, embracing affiliations community. sectarianism; emphasize democracy, spiritual values anchored creed. Insofar manifestations quite outside concern, except protect right execution scrutiny demanded exact relation Court.17 30 differences arrangements lumped together detailed analysis test applied. How operate Champaign? Public distribute supplied whether desire children. it, paid appointed them, but, court found, 'subject Superintendent.' subjects Their candid teaching. offered, sect wishing teacher devotees 'who determine practical group system.' If reasons offered classes, own devices. submitted instructor fails presumably truant. 31 patently woven working presents elements inherent pressure discriminate beside point. abstain fusing sects, treat them equally. alternative reduce constraint; eliminate sacred conscience domain. imitation nonconformity outstanding characteristic obvious attend.18 Again, while population represents fraction two fifty even practicing willing instruction. belonging non-participating inculcated separatism training habits community, parents. result, actively furthers tenets faiths, process sharpens least committed care. These consequences amenable statistics. precisely directed prohibited becoming embroiled, innocently, destructive records dark pages.19 32 Mention omitted integration practiced diverse writings Dewey.20 Movements seldom single origin aim. intrusion absorbs hour week; fact, design constitutionally objectionable. enabling receptive mind readily Sunday. all, French system, known 'dismissed time,' whereby day shortened allow please, school.21 planning behind instruction, order secure planning. speak quarters thread fabric. 33 consider, indeed though colloquially characterized situations differing crucial. forms taken include us, withstand Constitution; unexceptionable. weigh scale detail combination factors valid find Illinois, speaking Court, sponsoring effectively furthering arrangement. 34 separation, something less. Jefferson's describing speaks separation,' line overstepped. schooli once democracy pervasive destiny. activity vital forces avoid confusing, say fusing, strictly apart. separation'—Elihu Root's phrase bears repetition—is reliances assuring unities stronger diversities. Court's integrity. 35 renew conviction 'we staked existence complete religion.' 59, 532. nowhere else, 'good fences neighbors.' 36 concurring. 37 I join FRANKFURTER, concur reached reservations: think doubtful jurisdiction bounds demands interference local empowered entertain. reservations number litigations likely decision. 38 interfere invade personal liberty protected Ordinarily ways: 39 First. submit rite deprived threatened deprivation resisting unconstitutional requirement. enjoin prosecution. Typical cases West Barnette, 319 624, 63 1178, 87 1628, 147 674. penalties refusal latter perform ritual offended convictions. intervened shield penalty. here, complainant's son chooses request, stay complaint sets dissenter, humiliating. admitting true, doubted protects dissent, construed embarrassment always attends nonconformity, politics, behavior dress. Since compulsion applied himself penalty relieve him, base ground. 40 Second. Where taxed purposes, directly indirectly establishment. levy. Case, saw see now. complained treasurer drew check reimburse bus fare went Reference School operating busses, allowing ride publicly owned busses along others, interests safety, health morals. travel commercial paying passengers, exposed same dangers. could, fairness, expeni ture measure morals youngsters, grant it; refuse Catholic. Case direct, measurable burden complainant raise subsidize transportation Hence, examine constitutionality levy subsidy unconstitutional. 41 cost taxpayers incalculable negligible. argued, perhaps, add wear tear heat light, sessions devoted length day. measurable, seriously bill proved plan. injury. 42 If, exist, important circumscribe decision What asked defensive aside reverse threats prosecution taxation. relief extraordinary writ tell do. 'ordering immediately plaintiff, she be, avowed atheist. end suggests recognizes She Scriptures. mentions invasion rights 'having learn recite statements as, Lord my Shepherd, want." objects King version Bible 'is Christian's Guide Book, Holy God,' similar matters. directing generally sustain plaintiff's exception grounds complaint, discriminating laying down define limits effect 43 me, sweep complaints danger signal warns controversy arbitrate limitation compliance jurisdictional requirements. Authorities list 256 bodies exist continental Each suit discontented unpenalized untaxed representative, plaintiff demand compel sift everything objectionable warring doctrines, shreds. Nothing confusion discrediting subjecting constant suits. 44 formal explicit times prohibit creed catechism ceremonial forthright proselyting demonstrated possible, desirable, comply completely isolate reasonably Perhaps mathematics, physics chemistry are, secularized. seem appreciation arts exposure youth influences. Music music, architecture minus cathedral, painting scriptural themes eccentric incomplete, point view. Yet inspirational guises sermon. 'science' biology raises creation explanation planet. Certainly literature uses mother tongue ends pretty barren. suppose proper, indispensable, preparation worldly know roles religions played tragic mankind. that, ill, nearly culture worth transmitting, gives life, saturated influences, paganism, Judaism, Christianity—both Protestant—and accepted world's peoples. One student wholly ignorant currents thought move prepared. 45 how teach, satisfaction justice Reformation, Inquisition, England effort Bishop King,' know. too much expect mortals contemporaries passionate controversies detachment summon remote Confucius Mohamet. turns imparting becomes evangelism is, crudest cases, subtle inquiry. 46 opinions practices problem. Neighborhoods racial, cultural compositions. expected customs emphasis induce experiments. prevails, possibly belligerent minorities. flexibility conditions, chance progress trial error. agree permissible limits, granted. stop, itself. 47 separating magnitude, intricacy delicacy. lay sweeping approved alike boards schools,' decree uniform, rigid and, consistent, unchanging standard countless serving highly localized themselves change attitudes. seems me allowz eal ideas super 48 idle pretend word help judges decide begins guidance source. prepossessions. surer variation controversy, raised persons dissatisfied business sort. And, importantly, state' winding serpentine Jefferson founded. 49 REED, dissenting. 50 decisions reversing interpret effective states Amendment, electing, parents, given, clerical interdenominational, education.1 periods conflict recitations. supplies interdenominational group.2 am convinced interpretation erroneous, feel impelled disagreement. attention instances recalling relations more, dissent appraisal lead disapproval below. 51 reversal judgment, excerpts. stating says: 504.' Another phrases thus: 'We b solute arrangement.' expressions litigation variations Actually, future run gantlet entered accompanying opinions. difficult extract conclusion Is instruction; release hours; so-called handing pupils, keeping lists attendance; principals arranging appearance Council's instructors? None ingredient formula makes 52 tenor conclude pupil's off necessary facilitate ban. notwithstanding sentence indefinite opinion: crucial.' 'cooperation,' 'fusion,' 'complete hands-off,' 'integrate' 'integrated' describe evidences 'aid.' criticized 'momentum atmosphere,' 'feeling separatism' 'obvious attend,' 'divisiveness' stated conclusion. opinions, deduce prohibited. 53 condemned respecting contrary all. says sects' concludes 'This faith,' intention author rule 'respecting 508. permitting certain assuming elect embarrassed Board's constitutes 54 adequately abstract wod concrete incidents record. correct 'consented' 'consent' mean signing card margin.3 'instructors understood definitive excerpts below.4 substance determined council, superintendent.5 preceding convince 'approval supervision' above studies orderly presentation covered Biblical incidents.6 real sense, financed, regulated Board. 'an aimed pending substantially form, 'Mr. said, apprehended observation law, worship God manner conscience.'7 Passing years, acceptance broader meaning, never today, believe, widened degree nation granting, qualified representatives principal optional, extracurricular buildings, equivalent reading eminent statesmen former days, circumstances minds authors. spirit wholeheartedly impugning Illinois.8 56 founders Virginia, 1819 governed, managed controlled Virginia,9 faced today: annual report Rector, Directors Literary Fund, dated October 1822, Visitors whom one,10 length.11 suggestions adopted12 II, Regulations 4, 1824, that: 57 'Should according invitation within, adjacent to, precincts University, sect, free, morning, hour.'13 58 Thus, built founded exclude difference generality specificity conclusions considerable. figure speech. Memorial Assessments14 relied Justices here.15 opponents General Assembly Bill Establishing Provision Teachers Christian Religion. monies taxing section16 'by Vestries, Elders, Minister Teacher Gospel deo mination, providing places divine worship, none whatsoever *.' conclusive struggle act fall 1785 Rights. issued convened instrumental final died committee. Throughout Remonstrance, 'establishment' effected act. clear historical setting protest Issues instant discussed. Rector gives, clearer indication subject. 60 amendment's field, scope, supra. quotes gist reasoning Everson. entities 'set 'aid' 'over another.' purposeful itself organization doing character performing ecclesiastical functions. 'Prefer' advantage 'be duty' discretion permit violated. pupils' duty, excuse pupil control voluntarily class disagree. toward punish beliefs. Champaign's things. 61 incidental advantages bodies, similarly situated, by-product society. h explains well-known receive justified Jersey safety reasons. accords Cochran Louisiana 281 370, 335, 74 913, upheld textbook charge aided books Likewise National Lunch aids exempt schools.17 Bradfield Roberts, 175 291, 121, 168, payment money build hospital, chartered individuals sisterhood, operated auspices done objection religion.18 obviously churches, aided, violation Amendments. 62 Well-recognized long-established question. statute, comparable states.19 All extent. fair example.20 delegates communicants faiths.21 significant. buildings; Metropolitan centers usually available convenient Unless smaller cities rural recitations, taking nature schools.22 extent, thwarted judgment.23 Under dismissed pursue retained. establishing religion; Cases running scores last resort Except exercises significance partook upheld.24 promptly struck violative partaking ceremony. People Ring 245 334, N.E. 251, L.R.A., N.S., 442, Ann.Cas. 220. Lord's Prayer singing hymns—were forbidden 'worship services.' pointed compulsory; this, educational. 20, 21, 64 examples chaplain House daily invokes blessings proceedings.25 armed commissioned chaplains days.26 services accordance liturgical requirements ashore afloat, employing dedicated religion.27 Servicemen's Readjustment eligible veterans ministry schools.28 Columbia opening 'include note comment, prayer.'29 65 Naval Academy Military Academy, government, activities. Chaplains attached Attendance Academies.30 Point Cadet Chapel, Old Chapel; Annapolis reservation, midshipmen persuasions city Annapolis. earliest beginnings pattern participation worship. 66 With states, virtue Amendments,31 'make religion,' agreement. But, precedents, customs, above, unconstitutionally aided. Whatever wisdom shows non-ecclesiastical body actual property, ought type state. enactments bar friendly gesture conceivable Amendment—free speech, press—are absolutes.32 abuses occur doubt, tend erroneous cautious upsetting embedded experience. leeway legislation social population.33 definite established. stretched taxation.34 Devotion guarantee where, determinative decorous introduction text. Appellant, courts, argues invalid reasons: (1) overshadowing propagation sects; (2) name bear (3) reject selected prior unnecessary consider disputed depend. described follows: '* Admission allowed designated Cards distributed elementary desired filled returned *' (396 162.) consent therefor work, grade minutes' hours, junior *. Certain obtaining courses, offices hands district. Said prepared handling distribution duties suspend employees defendant discloses conducting superintendent. found: 'Before r similar, equal rooms president testified: Protestants Catholics, room treated alike, understanding bring individual Presbyterian foreign missionary testified 'I affiliated Methodist Presbyterian. married Lutheran.' director absent slip just superintendent's office. piece paper square, absentees. names section belong. sheet geography use, furnished judges,s aid: terms discrimination absence. alike. furnishing 'contributions disbelieves' fathers outlawed. consequence removed multiplying all-inclusiveness exacted. requires, separation.' 60, 533. 'In proof needed appropriation, exercises. Legislatures make, sustain, appropriations aid, promote, encourage observances, amount small.' 41, 52, 53, 524. concurred exposition origins S. W. Brown, Secularization (1912) cc. I, II; Knight, (2d rev. ed. 1941) III, V; Cubberly, (1934) III. Boese, (1869) XIV; Hall, (1914) VIII; Palmer, (1905) VII, X, XII. 1842, 150, amended, 1844, 320, 12. M. Smith, Relation (1926) VII; Culver, Religion (1929). 'product 'the utter impossibility harmonizing multiform creeds." T. Marshall, Secular Quarterly Review 278, 308. 'utter impossibility' 'hands-off,' religiously ours. Cubberley, pp. 230 seq.; Zollmann, Lotz Crawford, Studies (1931) 403, 418 Payson (Sperry, Editor, 1945) Mahoney, Early 1633—1825 (1941) VI; McLaughlin, History Legislation Affecting Private Elementary Secondary 1870—1945 (1946) I; 10, infra. Grant's Annual Message Congress, December 1875, Cong.Rec. Ames, Proposed Century History, H.Doc.No.353, Pt. 2, 54th Cong., 2d Sess., 277, 278. Blaine Amendment,' five cited Ames. failure 'That constitutions adequate subject, amendment secured.' Id. passed Representatives, read 'No thereof; ever qualification office trust revenue of, loan Territory, District, municipal corporation, for, institution, anti-religious organization, denomination, wherein denomination institution credit; appropriation promote tenets. article institution; impair already vested H.Res. 44th 1st Sess. Constitutions Report Committee (1938) Index, 1766, 1767. worthy lawyer, distinguished judges, Jeremiah Black, forty Root: framed country, politics—that say, meant engine Our perfectly sincere patriotic, citizens separate. perfect partition two.' Liberty (1856) Essays Speeches (1886) 51, 53; cf. Brigance, Sullivan Black (1934). things common, Secretary Buchanan, Theodore Roosevelt. men, political alignment, shared identic well-being striking accorded principle. Stat. 676, 677, North Dakota, South Montana Washington, conventions 'provide, ordinances irrevocable maintenance systems control. contained Enabling Utah, 107, 108; Oklahoma, 267, 270; Mexico Arizona, 557, 559, 570. Idaho Wyoming constitutions; terms. 1889, Ordinances, 5. Idaho, ordinance, art. IX, See, e.g., experience, including, inter alia, Hughes 1840—42, culminating restore revision Charter, 1901, 1938. 119—25; 46—47; Compare vol. 3, 1152, p. 492, amendment, id., 668; Nicholas Murray Butler, (Editorial) Educational 101, June, 1901; Times, April col. 1; 9, 5; 19, 2; 3; Editorial, 22, 6, 1. 2499, 79th inclusion fully discussed in, Nation's Schools,' January surveys see, A. Recent Times (1923); Athearn, Democracy (1917); Burns Kohlbrenner, (1937); Parts IV. Jacob Gould Schurman, 1903 proposed bearing resemblance Champaign. Symposium, 75 Outlook 635, 636, November 1903; Crooker, Freedom (1903) seq. text resolution, brief support, inspired, Wenner's book, (rev. 1913). Wenner 'restoring York.' Place Instruction System, Vital 167, 168 (Nov. 28, 1940); 1934, 22—24. note, viewed emancipate revolution, Paul Bert, Ferdinand Buission, Jules Ferry, step towards, retreat from, Separation. events Muzzey, Church, France, Review, 1911. effect, moreover, differs respects Proposal 1882 'Public closed desire, buildings.' Law 11,696, 1882, Bulletin des Lois, 690. approximates aspect time.' day, impel towards 'outside Vichy attempted introduce remarkably defeated intense included clergy, feared Schwartz, Pertain, 1170, Sept. 24, 1941. expositions plan, Week-Day (1916); Writ, Churches, id. 221 (1916). 1947 Yearbook, International 76; September 1947, Respects include, example, performance study, selection teachers; methods enrollment dismissal classes; program; administrative machinery involved; time'; proportion seek excused; non-participants; publicity voluminous. Most issues periodicals Journal Century. Davis, Weekday Office bullei n 1941, Gorham, Study Status (1934); Lotz, School, XII; Forsyth, (1930); Settle, 601 Shaver, Present-Day Trends (1928) Gove, Time (1926). deserves notice discussing relator son's inability get classmates, 'allowing member group.' divergent briefs behalf organizations, amici curiae, suggest ironic community: Unitarian Association; Seventh Day Adventists; Joint Relations Southern Baptist Convention, Northern Inc., Convention; York; Synagogue Community Advisory Council. prolific educational, merits mentioned: Erwin Director Department Week-day publications numerous (e.g., Reach One-Third, Dec., 1943, 11; Today, Jan., 6), Survey Feb., 1922, 51; Movement Jan.—Feb., 1946, 6); Information Service, Churches Christ, May 29, 1943. Cutton, Answering Arguments, 1930, Released Time, Sept., 1942, 12; Hauser, 'Hands Off School?', Mar.—Apr., 99; Collins, Release Instruction, Association Bulletin, May, 1945, 27—28; Weigle, Religion, Apr.—June, 1940, 67; 167 Howlett, 523, 1944; Blair, Frontiers 75, 1940; Allred, Legal Aspects (National Welfare Conference, 1947). Favorable 17, sur a. Many opposed declared 'hardly enough' 'pitifully inadequate.' E.g., Fleming, 1944) 80—86; 104; Cavert, Points Tension Between America Modern (1937) 161, 168; E. Johnson, Society (1935) 125; Hubner, Professional Attitudes 1900 (1944) 108—109, 113; Ryan, Experiment World, 1922; Elliott, Are Solution?, Nov., 8; Discussion, July—Sept., 158. opposing views, V. Thayer, (1947) Moehlman, Educator X; Chave, Functional Approach 104—107; Church-State Relationships 129—130; Newman, Sectarian Invasion (1925). 32, 42—47; Herrick, American, 119, 1945; Kallen, Churchmen's Claims Schools, 49; 52. Dewey, (1908), reprinted Characters Events (1929) 508, 514. 'Released introduced Associations. sources pro con collected 94 symposia, Teaching Democracy, 6—16; Aims 15; Progress 6; Can Do More Religion?, 125 273, 1942; 72—77, articles 519 seq., 1944. Indications inconsiderable time. 22; Jan 9. "The Education' (is) district.' extra theoretical accounting teachers. connection attend. Increased custodial likewise nominal. customary purposes. Ill.Rev.Stat., Smith-Hurd Stats.Ill. 6—43. 'Champaign 1945—1946 Parent's Request Card Please ..... Grade .. Auspices (Check which) Date ( ) Interdenominational Signed (Parent name) Telephone Address fee cents semester cover material used. you wish your please sign return Mae Chapin, Director.' Director, employee. Jehovah's Witnesses qualifications, bad grammar, instance, pupils. developed Missouri Synod Lutheran tends indicated affiliate feels honest outlined. manner.' finding reads: curriculum committee consultation council. deny divinity Jesus Christ. Jews. undoubtedly, evidence, religions.' testimony emphasized testifie, mostly families, fostered tolerance intolerance.' prayers hymns.' 164. Annals 730. appears letter acknowledging affectionate sentiments esteem approbation' testimonial himself. context 'Believing lies solely man God, owes account actions only, contemplate sovereign reverence legislature thereof,' Writings Thomas (Washington ed., 1861) 113. Acts 1818—19 (1819) Phillips 97 Va. 472, 474, 475, S.E. 66, L.R.A. 284. (Memorial edition, 1904) 408, 409. 414—417: precluded indifferent contrary, Maker, resulting relations, interesting human being, mos incumbent investigation. want creeds existing presents, therefore, chasm useful sciences remedy, promising aspect, excludes domain freedom, benefit branches science has, contemplation, pious individuals, perceive associating confines ready access scientific lectures University; maintain, means, destined professions science, weight respectability, benefits University. Such establishments greater professor erected, regulations, commissioners, lecturing circle embraced fill existing, principles inviolate inalienable rights, state, individually publicly, manifested watchful jealousy; jealousy alarmed, legislature, suggested, idea relinquished surmise disapprobation express.' commented Cooper, 'And bringing together, mixing mass students, soften asperities, liberalize neutralize prejudices, peace, reason, morality.' Ford, Works (Fed. 1905) 272. Randall, Life (1858) 471. 449. texts aimed, wit, 63—74, 517, 534—539. generally, Rutledge, 517. 72, 73, 539: 'Be enacted Assembly, teachers,—per centum or—in pound sum payable Commonwealth, hereby assessed, chargeable due; Sheriffs Counties collect restrictions prescribed raising Revenues enacted, paid, Sheriff Collector receipt, expressing Christians direct distinct thereof books. Stat.ch. 281, 11(d)(3), 1753, 1760(d)(3). Selective Draft (Arver States), 366, 390, 159, 349, L.R.A.1918 C, 361, Ann.Cas.1918B, 856; Quick Bear Leupp, 210 50, 690, 954. Code Cal. (Deering, 8286; Ind.Stat.Ann. (Burns, 1934) 1945 Supp. 28-505a; Iowa 299, 299.2 (1946); Ky.Rev.Stat. 158.220; Rev.Stat. Maine 131; Ann.Laws Mass. (1945) 76, Minn.Stat. 132.05; N.Y. Law, 3210(1); Or. (1940) 111-3014; Pa.Stat.Ann. (Purdon, 1930) 1563; S.D. (1939) 15.3202; (1943), 18-8-1 (§ 1847). 3210(1) provides 'a. resides employed, entire session subordinate attending. 'b. Absene observance commissioner establish.' Acting Commissioner issued, July regulations: '1 Absence writing guardian pupil. '2 duly constituted bodies. '3 registered copy registration filed authorities. '4 '5 '6 district, 13, govern adopted York. this: initiative home; accomplished technique: distributes handled authorities; discipline church; work. Rules Nov. Association, (1943); (1945). Appeals passage 3210(1). Lewis Graves, 195, 156 663. supervised Greater Coordinating laymen Jews, Catholics. broad cooperative vary basically Committee. Brief Sketches (1944). unusual. (Bulletin 3) 27; Research Bulleth (Feb. 1946) 36. advises possible. Remember Weekday, (1946). 'Today, approximately thousand million pupils.' (Jan.-Feb. 1946). sanctioned courts. permitted: selections comment; repeating Prayer; Ten Commandments; prayers; using textbooks based emphasizing fundamental hymns morning textbook. wearing garb hours. constitutionality, constitutions, conflict. Nichols Henry, Ky. 434, 191 S.W.2d 930, 1385; Findley Conneaut, Prob. Ct., Ohio earlier 866 141 1144. Representatives (1943) Rule Senate Manual fn. 2. 297 (1816). Reg., 60—5 (1944); Navy Reg. (1920), 34, 1—2. 289, 693 Rules, 4. Corps Cadets 47: 'At endance chapel cadet's training; cadet exempted. faiths: Protestant, Jewish.' Art. 4301(b): '(b) Midshipmen Sundays Chapel Annapolis.' Morning 4301 (a): 'Daily, Sundays, Chaplain messhall, breakfast.' Rpotestant Catholis prayers. absorbed Pennekamp Florida, 328 331, 1029, 1031, 90 1295. Whitney 274 357, 371, 641, 646, 1095; Reynolds 98 145, 166, 244; Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 303, 900, 903, 84 1213, 128 1352; Cox Hampshire, 312 569, 574, 576, 762, 765, 85 1049, 133 1396; Chaplinsky 315 56, 571, 766, 768, 86 1031; Prince Commonwealth 321 158, 438, 88 645. Cf. Bob-Lo Excursion Co. Michigan, 358. Higgins 308 473, 355, 406; Helvering Clifford, 309 554, 788; Internal Revenue Tower, 327 280, 532, 670, 164 1135; Lusthaus Revenue, 293, 539, 679.

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