Document: 450 U.S. 662 101 S.Ct. 1309 67 L.Ed.2d 580 Raymond KASSEL et al., Appellants,v.CONSOLIDATED FREIGHTWAYS CORPORATION OF DELAWARE. No. 79-1320. Argued Nov. 4, 1980. Decided March 24, 1981. Syllabus Unlike all other States in the West and Midwest, Iowa by statute generally prohibits use of 65-foot double-trailer trucks within its borders, allowing 55-foot single-trailer 60-foot trucks. Appellee, a trucking company which carries commodities through on interstate highways, filed suit alleging that Iowa's statutory scheme unconstitutionally burdens commerce. Because appellee cannot doubles to move goods Iowa, it must either shorter truck units, detach trailers double shuttle each separately, or divert around Iowa. defended law as reasonable safety measure, asserting are more dangerous than singles any event promotes reduces road wear State diverting much traffic States. The District Court found evidence established were safe held state impermissibly burdened Appeals affirmed. Held : judgment is Pp. 669-679; 679-687. 612 F.2d 1064, Justice POWELL, joined WHITE, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, concluded truck-length limitations burden See Motor Transportation, Inc. v. Rice, 434 429, 98 787, 54 664. 669-679. (a) Commerce Clause itself, even without congressional implementation, limitation upon power regulate While "the has been most reluctant invalidate" regulations touch safety—especially highway constitutionality such nevertheless depends "a sensitive consideration weight nature regulatory concern light extent imposed course commerce." Raymond, supra, at 443, 441, 794. 669-671. (b) Since interest not demonstrated, since impair significantly federal efficient transportation, be harmonized with Clause. record, including statistical studies, supports Court's finding singles. And demonstrated substantially In addition increased costs companies routing using small units State, may aggravate, rather ameliorate, problem accidents. restriction—resulting smaller being driven same number larger longer distances bypass Iowa—requires miles transport quantity goods. Other things equal, accidents proportional distance traveled. Thus, if singles, tends increase accidents, shift their incidence from 671-678. (c) normally accords "special deference" legislature's enacting regulations, 444, n.18, 785, less deference due where, here, local regulation bears disproportionately out-of-state residents businesses. Exemptions scheme—particularly those permitting hauling livestock farm vehicles long 60 feet, cities abutting enact ordinances adopt length neighboring thus allow otherwise oversized city limits nearby commercial zones—secure Iowans many benefits large while shunting associated use. Moreover, history "border exemption" suggests have designed ban trucks, but discourage traffic. A constitutionally promote own parochial interests requiring detour round it. 675-678. BRENNAN, MARSHALL, considering challenge regulation, judicial task balance commerce against sought achieved State's lawmakers. It function court decide whether fact intended purpose, so an examination before available lawmaker indicates wholly irrational purposes. Here, advantages disadvantages different types lengths involved need analyzed, record legislative establish differences irrelevant decision maintain regulation. Rather, highways. This protectionist nature, impermissible under shunt off fair share maintaining routes, nor create hazards highways order decrease Mark E. Schantz, Sol.Gen Des Moines, for appellants. John H. Lederer, Madison, Wis., appellee. POWELL announced delivered opinion, STEVENS joined. 1 question certain 2 * Appellee Consolidated Freightways Corporation Delaware (Consolidated) one largest common carriers country. offers service 48 certificate public convenience necessity issued Interstate Commission. Among 80, principal east-west route linking New York, Chicago, west coast, 35, major north-south route. 3 mainly uses two kinds One consists three-axle tractor pulling 40-foot two-axle trailer. unit, commonly called single, "semi," 55 feet overall. Such used Nation's also single-axle trailer which, turn, pulls dolly second combination, known double, twin, 65 overall.1 Many companies, Consolidated, increasingly prefer ship commodities. Doubles capacities, can detached routed separately necessary. would like trips 4 however, restricts App. 605, borders. Instead, combinations restricted length. Doubles,2 mobile homes,3 carrying tractors equipment,4 livestock,5 permitted feet. Notwithstanding these restrictions, permits line ordinance adjoining State. Code § 321.457(7) (1979). Where exercised this option, zones. Ibid.6 5 provides relevant exemptions. An manufacturer obtain permit 70 321E.10 Permits homes, provided unit moved point resident. 321E.28(5).7 6 scheme, do four things: (i) singles; (ii) doubles; (iii) separately; (iv) 7 Dissatisfied options, averring commerce.8 measure enacted pursuant police power. asserted and, event, States.9 8 14-day trial, both sides adduced safety, law. On "evidence clearly establishes twin semi." 475 F.Supp. 544, 549 (SD 1979). For reason, 9 "there no valid reason barring twins because configuration. 10 "The convincingly, overwhelmingly, foot as, safer than, semi. . 11 12 "Twins semis characteristics. Twins maneuverable, wind, splash spray. However, they likely jackknife upset. They backed only short distance. negative characteristics render Semis stable 'rear end' another vehicle." Id., 548-549. 13 findings, applied standard we enunciated 664 (1978), commerce: 14 "[T]he here struck favor interests. total effect reducing casualties slight problematical does outweigh national keeping free interferences seriously impede it." F.Supp., 551 (emphasis original). 15 Eighth Circuit 1064 accepted 1069. apparent benefit was resulting forcing thereby overall noted permissible interest. 1070. commented several exemptions identified above, applicable border shipment livestock, suggested benefited expense 1070-1071. combination weakened presumption validity accorded reasons, agreed 16 appealed, probable jurisdiction. 446 950, 100 2915, 64 806 (1980). We now affirm. II 17 unnecessary review detail evolution principles adjudication. "prolific sourc[e] equally prolific source conflict legislation state[s]." P. Hood & Sons, Du Mond, 336 525, 534, 69 657, 663, 93 L.Ed. 865 (1949). Congress legislate when perceives welfare furthered independent actions well established, also, itself implementation." Hunt Washington Apple Advertising Comm'n, 432 333, 350, 97 2434, 2445, 53 383 (1977). requires some aspects trade remain interference When ventures excessively into commerce, "trespasses interests," Great P Tea Co. Cottrell, 424 366, 373, 96 923, 928, 47 (1976), courts will hold invalid alone. 18 not, course, invalidate restrictions recognized that, "in absence conflicting Congress, there residuum make laws governing matters affect even, extent, Southern Pacific Arizona, 325 761, 767, 1515, 1519, 89 1915 (1945). always easy measure. said confidence, never greater traditionally concern. U.S., 2445. example, safety—are invalidate." S.Ct., 795; accord, Railway Express Agency, 106, 109, 463, 465, 533 (1949); South Carolina Highway Dept. Barnwell Brothers, Inc., 303 177, 187, 58 510, 514, 82 734 (1938); Sproles Binford,, 286 374, 390, 52 581, 585, 76 1167 (1932); Hendrick Maryland, 235 610, 622, 35 140, 142, 59 385 (1915). Indeed, "if justifications illusory, second-guess about importance comparison related 449, 798 (BLACKMUN, J., concurring). Those who bona fide overcome "strong validity." Bibb Navajo Freight Lines, 359 520, 524, 79 962, 964, 1003 (1959). 19 But incantation purpose health insulate attack. Regulations salutary further marginally, interfere substantially, recent unanimous Raymond,10 declined "accept contention inquiry ended weighing degree 795. "weighing" requires—and indeed on—"a 794; Pike Bruce Church, 397 137, 90 844, 847, 25 174 (1970); Bibb, 525-530, 965-968; Pacific, 770, 1521. III 20 Applying general principles, conclude 21 Wisconsin precluded violated case revisited. failed present persuasive out step Midwestern Western flow truck. action set uniform standards,11 tolerated. Clause.12 22 made serious effort support rationale did persuasive. As finding. 23 trial focused performance various categories. showed, found, least equal single ability brake, maneuver. axle placement, produces spray wet weather.13 And, articulation middle, susceptible "off-tracking,"14 wind. 24 None findings disputed points three ways arguably superior: take time passed clear intersections; back up distances; somewhat jackknife. first limited relevance modern negligible difference required pass, cross intersections, insignificant 4-lane divided passing require crossing oncoming lanes, 795, interstates few, any, intersections. over backing capability seldom necessary interstate.15 between bans. Similarly, although tend actually doubles. 26 Statistical studies supported view study, credited, reviewed Consolidated's comparative accident experience 1978 Each kind 56 million identical routes. 27 injuries fatality. 106 expert statistician admitted study "moderately strong evidence" higher injury rate 488. Another prepared Department Transportation request legislature, "[s]ixty-five shown experiences states conventional tractor-semitrailers" 584. Numerous insurance executives, transportation officials Federal Government States, testified concedes produce statistically significant permits. Brief Appellants 28, 32. Nor, noted, witness 549. sum, introduced whole favorable State.16 B meanwhile, Trucking wish continue them separately. Alternatively, options engenders inefficiency added expense. shows $12.6 year companies. alone incurred $2 per costs. 28 increasing (and, indirectly, consumers), Fifty-five carry freight Either drive case, restriction 604, 615.17 States.18 IV 29 Perhaps recognizing weakness supporting argument, substantial create, urges simply "defer" argues generally, perhaps imprecisely, safety. drawing contends should left legislature. 30 accord regulations. n. 18, n.18. traditional "derives part assumption where discriminate face usually falls economic States' interests, insuring political processes serve check unduly burdensome regulations." Ibid. Less due, disproportionate here. banning secure use.19 31 At particularly First, §§ 321.457(5), 321.457(3) provision undoubtedly helpful Cf. 434, 790 (exemption milk shippers). Second adopting exemption offered individuals businesses important cities20 burdening traffic.21 446-447, 796, shipments plants).22 32 origin 1974, legislature bill 6, supra. Governor Ray vetoed bill. He said: 33 "I find sympathy doing business our whose enterprises could gain cargo bill, Legislature pursued few Iowa-based providing great advantage firms competitors citizens." 626.23 34 After veto, immediately signed Governor. far motivated primarily seems hoped limit deflecting traffic.24 Appeals, explicitly attempted justify claimed accompanying text, correctly F.2d, V 36 exemptions, history, arguments advanced litigation, suggest warranted. 795 796-797.25 controlling factors Court, respect relative issue, substantiality 37 countervailing interest,26 violates Clause.27 affirmed.28 38 ordered. 39 whom MARSHALL joins, concurring judgment. 40 challenged nearly down violation my dictated holding invalidation insofar 41 reasoning bringing me conclusion require, I engage debate Brothers REHNQUIST what With respect, ask answer wrong question. 42 me, analysis challenges account principles: (1) empowered empirical judgments lawmakers concerning utility legislation. (2) balanced lawmakers, after counsel. (3) Protectionist unconstitutional Clause, economics. 43 Both opinion Brother predicated supposition determined factual created lawyers court. correct, depend vagaries litigation 44 (1970). determining benefits, focus ultimately purposes might Minnesota Clover Leaf Creamery Co., 449 456, 464, 473, 715, 724, 729, 66 659 (1981). confine had concerns rationally believed foster Locomotive Firemen R. I. 393 129, 138-139, 323, 327-328, 289 (1968); Bros., 192-193, 517-518, (1938). 469, 726, 729.1 45 My mistake disregarding intention assuming resolution hinge argument attorneys: then canvass below reach opposite conclusions adequately repeat: asked answered basis doubles, actual nothing purported differences. highways.2 decision.3 46 "[i]t traffic." Ante, 677. amply consistently taken position size, weight, speed accordance standards. stated achieve uniformity Act setting 1947 periodically amended then, entitled "An matter motor vehicles. ." Acts, ch. 177 added). Following proposals American Association Officials, gradually again voted conform standards legislation, Bill 671, maximum operable broke prior policy, override maintained. his veto,4 rest inherent type size "basically ope[n] literally thousands year." 628. would, Governor's estimation, greatly maintenance costs, borne citizens id., 628-629, fatalities response accede action, basic premise, exemption." areas throughout Although "[i]n field safety," go presume inherently tied 19, 19. emphasized validity" "cannot closing eyes uncontroverted record," ibid.—here obvious provide motivation legislators 49 Though recognizes "to traffic," ante, 677, he fails recognize Clause.5 blocked efforts raise change "would 626; see 185-186. Appellant Kassel, Director admitting overall, restrictive 50 "Q: Overall, fewer operation, fatalities? 51 "A: Yes, scene. Does causes Do you mean outside border? Overall. Our primary system operate state." 281. predicted effect. found: 57 "Iowa's affected travel roads means exposure fatalities. More subjected wear. fuel consumed incurred." 550 attempt hallmarks "simple protectionism" condemned area. Philadelphia Jersey, 437 617, 624, 2531, 2535, (1978). Just avoid competition damage prosperity Nation whole, deflect hazardous. That therefore subject virtually se rule invalidity." heightened 670, largely attributable disinclination weigh societal secondguess concurring) direct merits deference. No special acuity demanded perceive sort Cardozo written, "was framed theory peoples sink swim together, run salvation union division." Baldwin G. A. F. Seelig, 294 511, 523, 497, 500, 1032 (1935). concur 61 REHNQUIST, THE CHIEF JUSTICE STEWART join, dissenting. 62 result suggests, paraphrase Jackson, "that able get hands on." Jungersen Ostby Barton 335 560, 572, 269, 274, (1949) (dissenting opinion). plurality strike believe opinions oversteps "limited authority clause," 136, 326, (1968), intrudes fundamental right pass citizens. Accordingly, dissent. 63 elaborate facts presented appreciate fully today. limiting sense unusual. Every Union regulates roads. Nor renegade having exclude favored Consolidated. These prohibited country well, Columbia, England Southeast.1 pointing coast," 665, neglects note Pennsylvania 80 runs reaching short, persistent paint oddity standing block carried facts. convey lower declared seven Highways Iowa2 "access routes Plaintiff's terminals, access facilities food, fuel, repairs, rest." 10. granted relief, Interstates five terminal facilities, closer available. 553-554 (S.D.Iowa To relies rejecting justifications, 672-673, scope upholds. additions facts, examine appropriate applied. Casual readers decisions surprised, turning Constitution discover shall Power among States." Art. I, 8, cl. 3. phrased terms affirmative grant National Legislature, read imposing Congress. 623, hastened emphasize, implication discerned "In undue mind 'conferring cut legislating subjects relating health, life, citizens, though indirectly country.' " Huron Portland Cement Detroit, 362 440, 443-444, 813, 815, 852 (1960) (quoting Sherlock Alling, 99, 103, 819, 823 (1876)). 68 793, (1978); is, all, courts. interprets "dormant" aspect unwarranted intrusion, cry undertaking facilitate Northwest Airlines, Minnesota, 322 292, 302, 955, 88 1283 (1944) (Black, ("The gives [Congress] states, until acts think enter extreme caution"). 'state propriety recognized.' 143, (1970)). Morris Duby, 274 135, 548, 549, 71 966 (1927), Chief Taft wrote especially covering rightfully prescribe adapted conservation use, alike moving very recently reaffirmed longstanding safety." 111, 466, Binford, challenging validity," (1959), when, acted area claim bare possession Congress" invalidates 514.3 determination rational end inquiry. "sensitive consideration" relation required. engaging directly compare latter vague "outweigh" former. approach empty gesture measures, arrogate functions forming Framers legislatures. "[I]n reviewing acted, upon, legislatures, determine what, judgment, suitable possible, choose best diverse affected." 190, 516. Firemen, 138, 327 ("[T]he circumstances essentially policy can, constitutional system, fixed people acting elected representatives"); 964 ("If alternative solving problem, sit suited objective. Policy legislature"). admonitions peculiarly apt involves difficult financial losses loss lives limbs workers highways." 328.4 referred above justification, rational, merely pretext discrimination demonstrably trivial great. Thus measures "slight problematical," 964. ("[I]f commerce"). illustrated examining cases grounds. regulating train viewed "at dubious advantage, unregulated lengths," 779, 1525; tended trains, 777, 1524. contoured mudguards Illinois, hazards. 965; 530, 968 (Harlan, A&P 375-376, 929-930, Mississippi "reciprocity clause" inspection "disserve[d] promote[d] quality standards." demonstrate dormant 72 defends There doubt strongest challenges. Coast Hotel Parrish, 300 379, 399, 578, 81 703 (1937) adoption similar requirements evidences deepseated conviction presence evil it"). Officials (AASHTO) recommended vehicles.5 Supreme Wood Thresher Eicher, 231 550, 559-560, N.W.2d 655, 660 (1942); United-Buckingham 211 288, 290 (1973), "[t]his occasion sizes weights automobiles convenient control." Maurer Hamilton, 309 598, 609, 732, 84 969 (1940). particular chosen Iowa—60 feet—is Most 645, choice widely range. 73 vehicle indicated passed, risks during inclement weather uncommon 504-505. exposes driver visibility-impairing bad period Iowa.6 Longer clog 457, intersections Highways, went beyond themselves arise "[a]t every trip origin, destination, intermediate stop picking trailers, reconfiguring loads, drivers, eating, refueling—every generate situation." Division Patrol Public Safety pose problems scene accident. often unloaded scene, 400, bigger load. 74 rebuttal upset, 507. 549.7 records showing exceeded last years, 668-675, drivers expressed preference handling 75 elicited undermining probative value evidence. experienced seniority driving paying job leading cause error, based drivers. 27-28. fail fact, negated establishing considered See, e. g., 23, 32-36, 45, 89, 153, 289, 304, 586, 609. beside point. wants length, allowed operates experts forced admit draw opposed 26, 53, 308. Conclusions configuration "off track" better conceded cross-examination off-track double. 97, 107. sufficient undermines conclusion. approached others regard "clearly erroneous." 612, question, problematical. classification legislative, judicial, function. Its weighed rejected appears standard." Clark Paul Gray, 306 583, 594, 744, 745, 83 1001 (1939). "Since width another, choice, scales 191, 517.8 77 answering appreciably comparing slightly limit. emphatically incremental prohibiting Lines drawn rarely muster increment sacrificing Holmes put it: 78 "When legal distinction determined, doubts be, night day, childhood maturity, extremes, drawn, picked successive decisions, mark takes place. Looked behind arbitrary. little side other. seen mathematical logical way fixing precisely, unless say wide mark." Louisville Gas Electric Coleman, 277 32, 41, 423, 426, 770 (1938) flowing problematical." one. Once determines considers marginal plaintiffs desire. 1525 (train-length "affords lengths") supplied); 190-192, 516-517. difficulties contrary patent. compared 105-foot truck, discernible 5-foot jumps. Appellee's accomplished lawsuit done separate suits, additional Any balancing sole factor, odd reasons violate another. Georgia prohibit operated Southeast, demonstrable laws, maintains given hand, win (both permitted) claims case. Freightways, become final arbiter norm. travels. 92, 240, 364-365. come sizes; indeed, adopted 1963, AASHTO recommendations. Striking voluntary employ compelling yield choices Under body pre-empt Forcing perverts vesting represented. upheld inches "all engaged 184, 513. Then Stone, writing stressed: exercise bound hardly contended none, complex elements 195-196, 519. Sproles, 585. preempted invest books. 390-391, 585-586.9 85 felt compelled agrees revisited," 671.10 control "[o]ur narrow one, restricting operation long, produced issue overwhelmingly one-sided case." 447, 797.11 TheRaymond repeatedly stressed "made contradict own," 437, 791 companies' "uncontroverted," 445, "virtually defaulted defense measure," By contrast, effort" "zealously arguments" 548; 1067-1068. rebutted submitted 86 Furthermore, exception prohibition specifically finds parallel plant border. 446, 24. discriminated industries border-cities not. shippers border-city coming well. Cities neither export import "[v]iewed realistically," exception, "be product compromise forces seek retain limit, complain burdensome." 797. wanting plants. narrower applicability: exception. population eight percent State.12 87 BRENNAN consider statute. calls Roman Legions: lost battles, war, let war won contexts, compare, United Railroad Retirement Board Fritz, 166, 179-180, 453, 461, 368 (1980), 187-188, 465-466 (BRENNAN, dissenting) Michael M. Superior Sonoma County, 469-470, 1200, 1204-1205, (plurality opinion), 494-496, 1217-1218 dissenting), cite proposition possible cases. apparent. name just assumes individual "actual" ignores vote piece reasons. M., 1204-1205; Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 429 252, 265, 555, 563, (1977); McGinnis Royster, 410 263, 276-277, 1055, 1063, 282 (1973). How, adhering views statute, votes considerations, protectionism, 40-20? What thelegislature case? wisely "never insisted articulate statute." 179, 461.13 concurrence attach significance veto Whatever motives, strikes today goals ascribe Reply 1a, 2a. motives enough, possibly passed. am aware, unprecedented history. portray error. Whenever enacts stringent neighbors, affects incidental separated: vehiclesis protect unsafe If chooses danger business, penalized paranoid next "hit list."14 true today's guidance whatsoever how defend them. matter, either. Perhaps, done, says all. know jurisprudence "negative side" remains hopelessly confused. illustration 417 1352, 1363 (W.D. Wis. 1976) (three-judge court), rev'd, 321.457(6) anywhere except trailer, turn attached odd-sized compatible interchangeable combinations. 353, 354. 321.457(4) 321.457(5). 321.457(3). Appeals' 1980 1100. 1974 House noting Veto Message 2, reprinted 626. "border-cities General Assembly shortly thereafter. Commission, conferred 307.10(5) (1979), subsequently legalized studded snow tires. void promulgation action. Club 251 510 home homes commented, message: "This bridge manufactured sold third. activity Iowa." 16, 1972, 641. Defendants, appellants Robert D. Ray, Rigler, L. Stanley Schoelerman, Donald Gardner, Jules Busker, Allan Thomas, Barbara Dunn, William McGrath, Jon McCoy, Charles W. Larson, Edward Dickinson, Richard C. Turner. 1979); 1068, 1069-1070 (CA8 places emphasis argument. took Raymond. Senate pre-empted S. 1390, 96th Cong., 2d Sess. (1980) (reprinted 126 Cong.Rec. 3309, 3303 (1980)). adjournment. highly contains weaken IV, infra. Twin axles; semis, tandem axles. semi aggravates forward tire creates upward wind currents place rear downward currents. confluence occurs turbulence blasted outward, 95-96. "Off-tracking" refers wheels deviate path front turning. Evidence show enough 103. suggesting dissenting discredited dissent implies Post, 695. author study—Iowa's statistician—conceded calculations biased, "not meaningful." Tr. 1678; 669-670, 1742-1747. bolstered recommends lengths. 693, 699. out, 602-603. diverted rerouted Missouri U. 36, predominantly 2-lane road. denying stay pending appeal, "more injuries, consumption." 579. Kassel trial. explained, occur deflected noted: "Our diversion auto premiums, staffing needs, 550. Five ten cities—Davenport, Sioux City, Dubuque, Council Bluffs, Clinton—are location Bureau Census, Census Population: 1970 Number Inhabitants, Final Report PC(1)-A1, Summary 1-136, 1-137. vast majority seeking 175-176, 560. makers, manufacturers purchasers, 321E.28(5). controversy contribute pattern parochialism state, millions genuine insists defer represent collective Legislature. post, 691-692, 696-697, 699, 700. curious because, approved legalizing Governor, legitimate explain result, language, consistent There, Arkansas "full-crew" easily perceived nonillusory contributions 136-138, 326-327. recognize, 553. 796-797, briefed argued Court. reads "only Justices Raymond." 700, derived (1970), participated. Today, flawed threshold reason. complaint declaration 10-11. validly unsafe. emphasize fields deserving deference—the role fields. Compare 798, (1978) (safety regulation), 848, (1970) (regulation enhance reputation growers State"). once insubstantial, nonexistent, disagree asserts instance "weighed" interests: "Regulations [to safety] Clause." 670 attorneys forthrightly discouraging Iowa); 1069 "argument" post hoc counsel "has contexts." 702. Apparently, overlooked Allied Stores Ohio, Bowers, 358 522, 480 described earlier Wheeling Steel Corp. Glander, 337 562, 1291, 1544 (1949): statutes, admittedly discriminatory nonresidents, purpose. Having Ohio room conceive existence. arbitrarily escape 529-530, 442, 480. Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 420 636, 648, 95 1225, 1233, 514 (1975), accept assertions purposes, demonstrates goal legislation." (Citing cases.) Massachusetts Murgia, 427 307, 314, 2562, 2567, "rationally furthers State." 7, 723, (1981); Califano Goldfarb, 430 199, 212-213, 1021, 1029-30, 270 (1977) opinion); Hughes Alexandria Scrap 426 794, 2488, 2499, 220 (1976); Johnson Robison, 415 361, 381-382, 94 1160, 1172, 389 (1974). rely surrounding passage bearing classification, necessarily focuses suggestions counsel, 528-529, 441-442 (relied dissent, 703-704, 13). Even "marginally demanding scrutiny" "test plausibility tendered purpose." Schweiker Wilson, 221, 245, 1074, 1088, 186 (POWELL, dissenting). lawmakers' forth, 458-459, 721; 376, 1170, 23; 274-277, 1061-1062, take—and, 187-193, 463 taken—the extraordinary "imaginary 277, 1063. principle separation powers requires, accomplish end, lawyers. If, ever articulated illegitimate, precedent sound adjudication base conceived dissent's strained demonstrates, 694-696, implausible imaginary. Powell's give illegitimacy do, Part III, infra, to, dispositive of, 677-678. message, printed 626-631, complete statement Ray's vetoing 671. 172 (deposition Ray). conclude, does, warranted." 678. Maine, Hampshire, Vermont, (except turnpike), Rhode Island, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, Alabama, Columbia. York (on designated only, Mississippi, Georgia. Sixty-five Oregon, Dakota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Missouri, Louisiana, Kentucky, Florida. 645. 280, 380, 29, 680, 235. times S.Rep.No.93-1111, p. (1974) Committee believes remain, been, decision"). notice goes agreeing illusory. 681, 1. lipservice principle, 670. agree somehow 702-703. "AASHTO doubles," 674, 16. process, recommendation exactly that: follow. justification "produced uncontradicted appreciable threat motorists traveling access, four-lane supplied). connection hazard, hour hour, 92 full second. 505. involved, Interstates. certainly stability critical factor maneuverability straight expanses mischaracterizes assume "resolution trucks." 681. sort. preceding paragraph, erred undertook ones opinions, prove, aided proving preponderance excluded thought clear, time, intersection obstruction, 65- assertion compel neighbors clearest asks currently East Southeast surrounded begins stating "nearly identical" 679, approaches completely manner illusory—indeed, declines benefits—but nature. therefore, BLACKMUN others, [the] decision." 448, According preliminary census data, 2,908,797. ordinances, populations, are: Akron, 1,514; Bettendorf, 27,377; Clinton, 32,779; 56,269; Davenport, 103,036; 61,932; Hawarden, 2,719; 81,434. capital, 190,910, avail Cedar Rapids, city, 110,124, Waterloo, fifth 75,535. Bureau, Population Division, Preliminary Count. pleasant Members Member fragmentation, command adherence help unsettle certainty govern lay foundation uncertainty sorts Nonetheless, feel obliged cudgels, however unwillingly, BRENNAN'S concurrence, mistaken interpret meaning decision. cited protection area, context. suppose proffered lawyers, cloak aims Statutes group Equal Protection proscribe prevent barriers supportable cases, force realm generally. unpersuasive. 682-683, 3, against, position. Bowers stated: "What policies questioned proviso certainty, should, Southwestern Oil Texas, 217 114, 126, 496, 688 declare reasonably proviso, encourage construction leasing warehouses non-residents attendant economy, stimulate market merchandise agricultural products enabling nonresidents purchase storage taxes, anticipation future needs. conceived." 441-442. "reasonably conceived," requirement (1949), Glander proffer "need legislation," (1975) supplied), upholding 520 State," "State" meant "legislature," attorneys, emphasize" attaches examines criticizes "disregarding lawmakers," Finally, strayed regards faith albeit vigorous aid His vigorous, sufficiently deter six joining opinion. plaintiff

Category: 7