Document: 462 U.S. 725 103 S.Ct. 2653 77 L.Ed.2d 133 Alan J. KARCHER, Speaker, New Jersey Assembly, et al., Appellantsv.George T. DAGGETT al. No. 81-2057. Argued March 2, 1983. Decided June 22, Syllabus As a result of the 1980 census, Legislature reapportioned State's congressional districts. The reapportionment plan contained 14 districts, with an average population per district 526,059, each district, on average, differing from "ideal" figure by 0.1384%. largest (Fourth District) had 527,472, and smallest (Sixth 523,798, difference between them being 0.6984% district. In suit group individuals challenging plan's validity, District Court held that violated Art. I, § Constitution because deviations among although small, were not good-faith effort to achieve equality. Held: 1. "equal representation" standard requires districts be apportioned equality as nearly is practicable. Parties apportionment legislation bear burden proving populatio differences could have been reduced or eliminated draw equal population. If plaintiffs carry their burden, State must then significant variance was necessary some legitimate goal. Cf. Kirkpatrick v. Preisler, 394 526, 89 1225, 22 519; White Weiser, 412 783, 93 2348, 37 335. Pp. 730-731 2. Jersey's may regarded se product merely maximum deviation smaller than predictable undercount in available census data. 731-740. (a) "as practicable" for apportioning "is inconsistent adoption fixed numerical standards which excuse variances without regard circumstances particular case." Kirkpatrick, supra, U.S., at 530, S.Ct., 1228. Only principle developed Wesberry Sanders, 376 1, 84 11 481, reflects aspirations There are no de minimis variations, practicably avoided, considered meeting justification. 731-734. (b) merit contention ideal size should functional equivalent zero matter law where less figures. Even assuming extent system systematically undercounts actual can precisely determined, it would relevant. count provides only reliable—albeit perfect—indication districts' "real" relative levels, furnishes basis attempts 735-738. (c) involved here avoided significantly Resort simple device transferring entire political subdivisions known contiguous produced much closer Thus did err finding met showing come practicable 738-740. 3. properly found defendants meet consistent, nondiscriminatory legislative policy. show specificity objective required specific its plans. primary justification asserted preserving voting strength racial minority groups, but appellants failed disparities preserve strength. 740-744. 535 F.Supp. 978, affirmed. Kenneth Guido, Jr., Newark, N.J., appellants. Bernard Hellring, appellees. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 question presented this appeal whether satisfies 2 need further if one percent greater A three-judge declared 1982 unconstitutional authority 519 (1969), 335 (1973), n t We affirm. * After results decennial tabulated, Clerk United States House Representatives notified Governor number representatives entitled decreased 15 14. Accordingly, reapportion 199th passed two bills. One vetoed Governor, second, signed into law, occasioned dissatisfaction those who felt diluted city Newark. See App. 83-84, 86-90. response, 200th returned problem when convened January, 1982, swiftly bill (S-711) introduced Senator Feldman, President pro tem Senate, created issue case. January 19, becoming P.L. c. (hereinafter Feldman Plan). map resulting appended infra. 3 Like every Legislature, Plan (as determined census) 526,059.1 Each same On differed 0.1384%, about 726 people. Fourth District, includes Trenton, smallest, Sixth embracing most Middlesex County, 523,798. 3,674 people, populations other also varied. Ninth including Bergen northeastern corner State, 527,349, while Third along Atlantic shore, 524,825. 124. 4 before plans appreciably receiving attention designed Dr. Ernest Reock, science professor Rutgers University Director Bureau Government Research. version Reock Assemblyman Hardwick 2,375, 0.4514% figure. 133. 5 Almost immediately after became varying interests, all incumbent Republican members Congress Jersey, sought declaration Article Constitution2 injunction against proceeding election under plan. court pursuant 28 U.S.C. 2284(a). hearing Feb. 26, parties submitted deposition affidavits, moved summary judgment, waived right introduce evidence event motions judgment denied. 6 Shortly thereafter, issued order declaring unconstitutional. Denying resolving case record whole, "unavoidable despite absolute equality," see 531, 1229. rejected appellants' argument lower statistical imprecision "the mathematical equality." Daggett Kimmelman, 982-983 (NJ 1982). It justified Legislature's purported goals anticipating shifts Ibid. enjoined conducting general elections Plan, stayed pending Court, 455 1303, 102 1298, 71 635 (1982) (BRENNAN, Circuit Justice), we noted probable jurisdiction, 456 ----, 2955, 73 1347 (1982). II 7 establishes "high justice common sense" districts: representation numbers people." 18, 535, 481 (1964). Precise equality, however, impossible imperfect world; therefore enforced requiring practicable." id., 7-8, 535. explained supra: 8 "[T]he 'as practicable' make precise Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 577 [84 1362, 1390, 12 506] Unless shown resulted such effort, justify variance, how small." 530-531, 1228-1229. 9 therefore, "permits limited unavoidable shown." Id., Accord, 790, 2352. 10 basic questions shape litigation over state First, consider altogether proof issue, they fail scheme upheld. If, establish 532, 1229; cf. Swann Adams, 385 440, 443-444, 87 569, 571-572, 17 501 (1967). III Appellants' principal addressed first described above. They contend A. squarely identical argument. "The whole thrust approach 1228; n. 8, 792-793, 2352, 2353-2354. Adopting any using best data available, 1229, subtly erode Constitution's representation. legislators knew certain level acceptable, doubtless strive rather equality.3 Furthermore, choosing different import high degree arbitrariness process reviewing case, argue approximately 0.7% minimis. accept argument, 0.8%, 0.95%, 1%, 1.1%? 13 Any standard, involves artificiality. point out, even perfect, well-known restlessness American people means counts localities outdated long completed. Yet problems hand apply equally population-based choose.4 standards—equality something-less-than equality—only former To legitimacy unjustified, though small mean reject premise Wesberry. decline invitation go far. unusual rigor has several times. Because rigor, paramount command regards national legislature outweighs local interests deem relevant legislatures, questioned See, e.g., 793, 2353; Regester, 755, 763, 2332, 2338, 314 (1973); Mahan Howell, 410 315, 321-323, 979, 983-984, 35 320 (1973). proved unjust socially economically harmful experience. Washington Dawson & Co., 264 219, 237, 44 302, 309, 68 L.Ed. 646 (1924) (Brandeis, J., dissenting); B. Cardozo, Nature Judicial Process 150 (1921). anything, cause difficulty now legislatures adopted rapid advances computer technology education during last decades relatively time whatever secondary has.5 Finally, abandon unnecessarily clear oft-confirmed constitutional interpretation impair our cases, Florida Department Health Nursing Home Assn., 450 147, 153-154, 101 1032, 1036-1037, 67 132 (1981) (STEVENS, concurring); Pollock Farmers' Loan Trust 157 429, 652, 673, 716, 39 759 (1895) (WHITE, dissenting), implicitly open door plethora requests reexamine rules burdensome, 149-150, prejudice relied upon rule seeking equipopulous Assn, 154, 1036 concurring). thus reaffirm there nonetheless justification.6 B sole theory proposed line gives illusion rationality predictability: "inevitable census." argue, "Where, here, figures, variation zero." Brief Appellants 18. approach. concentrate population—a which, known, Second, mere existence does 16 rely exclusively affidavit James Trussell, Princeton demographer. 97-104. Trussell's carefully worded statement reviews various studies 1950, 1960, 1970 censuses, draws three important conclusions: (1) likely above percent"; (2) "all date indicates places undercounted extent, since rate depend race, sex, age, income, education"; (3) "[t]he distribution . unknown, I reason believe uniformly spread municipalities." 103-104. Assuming purposes these statements correct, do support essence, benchmark little more attempt present attractive patina scientific authority. Neither nor specifies discussion makes develop reliable estimates anything nationwide scale. 98-101. His conclusion "likely percent" seems based previous censuses guess well new procedures reduce work. Therefore, accepted sets limit ability use tell might forced set far final analyses completed.7 18 Trussell admits, 103, irrelevant distributed evenly affects accuracy varies For one-percent explain census-populations times large larger district.8 highly unlikely, course, condition holds true, especially utterly compensate undercount. states undercounting vary municipality municipality, discuss vary, what variations reflected level, many municipalities combined. Nor indicate factors associated undercounting—race, etc.—vary (more importantly) reflect districts.9 completely unknown. bizarre coincidence systematic relationship drawn Plan. 19 population, place place. Those facts, render meaningless uncorrected counts. contrary, provide levels. cannot say certainty another higher count, size. That sufficient decisionmaking. City Newark Blumenthal, 457 30, 34 (DC 1978). represents "best available," 528, 1227, Attempts flaws supported precision achieved here. 1231. C 20 Given census-based real alone, inappropriate "functionally equivalent" 21 F.Supp., 982. 9, 9. object alternative comparable characters profoundly. 93-96 (affidavit S.H. Woodson, Jr.) (arguing protect black voters Trenton Camden areas). never denied process, pursue objectives consistent time. Nevertheless, claim considerations require belongs second judicial inquiry infra, 740-741, bears justifying particularity. event, unnecessary rest radically effects. "resort Starting itself enacted, 23-34, shifting handful another.10 445-446, 572-573; supra. ap ellees IV 23 By itself, foregoing Rather, appellees' success shifted prove objective. Weiser demonstrates willing defer policies, so norms, 795-797, 2354-2355; Upham Seamon, 37, 1518, (1982); Connor Finch, 431 407, 414-415, 97 1828, 1833-1834, 52 465 (1977). consistently applied policies including, instance, making compact, respecting municipal boundaries, cores prior avoiding contests Representatives. criteria nondiscriminatory, Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 81 125, 110 (1961), proper minor deviations. West Virginia Civil Liberties Union Rockefeller, 336 395, 398-400 (SD W.Va.1972) (approving 0.78% compactness provision constitution); 579, 506 (1964); Burns Richardson, 384 73, 89, 16, 86 1286, 1295, (1966). must, plan, simply relying assertions. flexible, depending deviations, importance consistency availability alternatives substa tially vindicate yet approximate closely. necessity, case-by-case factors. 24 possibility legitimate, policy recognized itself. Missouri advanced theory, echoed WHITE dissent, post, 771-772, district-to-district eligible voters, projected shifts, 534-535, 1230-1231. arguments impermissible "[a]t made haphazard adjustments total population," "no attempt" account generally document findings thoroughly "throughout systematic, ad hoc manner." 1231.11 25 At emphasized Plan's deviations—preserving groups.12 affidav ts mayors Gibson Thomas Cooke East Orange, discussing having majority Newark's Tenth 86-92, S. Howard candidate mayor comparing treatment areas 93-96. 82-83 Karcher). found, 26 "[Appellants] attempted demonstrate, causal goal find related way Districts." 27 Under Districts, Sixth. None borders Tenth, one—the Fourth—is mentioned discussions Nowhere suggest strength; fact, effect diluting votes residents minorities, compared fewer voters. silent Districts. Court's easily pass "clearly erroneous" test. V two-part test Preisler correctly functionally evidence. 29 Affirmed. 30 Map Congressional Districts follows page] 31 STEVENS, concurring. 32 alternate ground affirmance, appellees contended oral configuration demonstrate "good faith." This understand it, boundaries politic l gerrymandering. Since my vote decisive appropriate influences analysis divides previously pointed gerrymandering species "vote dilution" proscribed Equal Protection Clause.1 adequate raises special problems, shall comment length legal claim, judging relevance 33 Relying Constitution, interpreted (1964), subsequent successfully challenged districting Legislature. reasons stated BRENNAN's join, doctrine stare decisis result. demonstrated, holding Wesberry, today, firmer roots provided mandate concerns "apportioned States."2 section says nothing composition within State.3 Indeed, text restriction whatsoever power define persons candidates. divide registered separate classes defined alphabetical initials, period residence affiliation, classification barred widely Harlan out his dissenting War actually contradicted "whole Number free Persons" counted, Indians excluded, "three-fifths added total.4 analyzing ignore regrettable fact that, originally framed, expressly tolerated institution slavery. hand, neither changes caused Amendments. planted firmly today's holding. 36 abolition slavery guarantees citizenship rights Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth Amendments effectively repealed 2's requirement given weight others. remains contain guarantee source elsewhere. But Clark perceptively partial concurrence Wesberry—and Black written earlier dissent Colegrove Green, 328 549, 66 1198, 1210, 90 1432 (1946)—that grounded Clause Fourteenth Amendment.5 Harlan's powerful flaw analysis. review laws redefining Clause. has, applying "one person vote" electoral Baker Carr, 369 186, 82 691, 663 (1962); Avery Midland 390 474, 88 1114, 45 (1968). wholly disregarded, unquestionably action officials defining just districts.6 38 govern impartially. When adopts governing machinery serve community. 565-566, 1383-1384. purpose favor segment—whether racial, ethnic, religious, economic, political—that occupy position time, disadvantage politically weak segment community, violate protection. 340, 126-127, (1960), invalidated change Tuskegee, Alabama, "from square uncouth twenty-eight-sided figure" excluding virtually city's identified right: 40 "When singles readily isolated discriminatory treatment, violates Amendment. involving unequal decision sanction differentiation lines whereby approval unequivocal withdrawal solely colored citizens." 346, 130. 41 Although explicitly rested Amendment, Whittaker's concurring opinion—like Clark's —is coherent, 349, 131. Moreover, subsequently treated decided protection grounds. Whitcomb Chavis, 403 124, 149, 91 1858, 1872, 363 (1971). 42 complete geographical exclusion racially-identified group. arising suggested "dilution" cognizablepolitical groups Thus, reserved Fortson Dorsey "operate minimize cancel elements 379 433, 439, 85 498, 501, 401 (1965). Gaffney Cummings, 735, 751, 754, 2321, 2330, 298 765-770, 2339-2341, 143-144, 1869; 88-89, 1294-1295, Williams Rhodes, 393 23, 39, 5, 15, (1968), Douglas protects "voting economic units, communities, entities." And Abate Mundt, absence "built-in bias tending geographic areas." 182, 187, 1904, 1908, 399 Justic agree "invidiously discriminated group." Post, 783. 43 citizens others, Zobel Williams, 55, 2309, 2317, 72 672 concurring), dilution confined groups. proscribes proscription cognizable well. written: "In line-drawing gerrymanders gerrymanders. "From standpoint affected recognize group's interest gaining maintaining stake. share religious background create strong enough manifested arises. function composition; numbers—specifically will way." Mobile Bolden, 446 88, 100 1490, 1511, 64 47 (1980) judgment); Cousins Council Chicago, 466 F.2d 830, 851-852 (CA7 1972) (Stevens, cert. denied, 409 893, 85, 181 (1972).7 46 WHITE, am convinced preoccupation perfect inadequate method constitutionality hold obvious gerrymander immune attack comes competing virtue proposal relax forth arbitrarily threshold crossed.8 commentator written, "Logic, experience, tells us sancturaries thicket, else unfairness shift form another."9 supplement additional "judicially manageable." evaluating challenges plans, attacks forms action, adverse impact identifiable group, indicia irregularity, then, able produce convincing nevertheless serves neutral, community whole. Until ago, constrained fear entering standardless abstained judge varied 914,053 112,116. 557, 1202. Carr abandoned extreme restraint enunciated principle. manageable" concrete reasonably judges multiply divide. 48 protecting individual capacity, shortcomings. quantified, measure significance difference. easy element allowing 112,116 elect congressman elected 914,053. 527,472 523,798? birth rate, mortality transient character modern society, acknowledged errors know vanish next election. Absolute achieve. 49 More important, directly individuals, indirectly best. 561, 1381. voter challenge voters; plaintiff combined separated others affiliation. plainly unrealistic assume disparity always fairer observed Wells 542, 551, 1234, 1240, "of perfectly compatible 'gerrymandering' worst sort. grind totally frustrate popular overwhelming critical issues." wrote, developments task gerrymanderer easier. 776 dissenting).10 50 imperfections not, useless. neutral criterion Numerical State. equipoise, conclude arly attains fairest major shortcoming failure take relevant—indeed, important—criteria relating fairness participation process. indeed counterproductive. 748-749, 2330.11 51 taken cognizance path sometimes used enter thicket marked label "intent." deliberately difficult objectively Rogers Lodge, 458 3272, 3276, 1012 already length, inadequate. 3289 83, 1508 (concurring judgment). condemn legislature's proponents motivated, part, partisanship animus. Legislators are, all, politicians; proscribe essentially redistricting. run, adjudication premised appraisal subjective intent decisionmakers possibly satisfy impartial administration embodied departs dramatically suffice defendants. reasons, few cases. matter, whose diluted. belong salient class, p. 749-750, sufficiently ascertainable drawing boundaries.12 proportionate influence adversely scheme.13 Third, prima facie rebuttable presumption discrimination. 53 disadvantaged reliance principle, depends statewide surely ways. type configurations themselves. Stewart's classic definition obscenity—"I it"14—as ultimate irregular shapes probative force call explanation.15 54 Substantial divergences symptoms illegitimate "Without compactness, twist wind across fantastic fashion absorb scattered pockets partisan support."16 independent values; facilitates organization, campaigning, constituent representation.17 statutes constitutions compact contiguous. These utility precision.18 Professor scholars methods measuring computed count.19 evaluate, figures said disparities. addition, inescapable uneven density State,20 degrees maps compared. fair drastic departures signal something amiss. 55 Extensive established possible wrote "Indiscriminate districting, subdivision natural historical boundary lines, gerrymandering." 1390.21 Subdivision tend remain stable Residents units townships, cities, counties often interest, particularly plays role governmental services. cross administratively convenient confuse voters.22 seats number, size, subdivisions, counted23 56 procedural obviously precise, enlightening. formulating adopting excluded divergent viewpoints, openly criteria, explanation selecting another, seem action.24 opportunity presentation consideration points view, guidelines explained, validity attach produced. 57 worsens group,25 genesis discussed, constitutionally valid embodies objectives. kinds accepts context whenever shape, decisionmaking sent up warning flags. overcome invalidity, adduce "legitimate incident effectuation rational policy," 1391, 58 "show substantially closely." Ante, ----.26 59 unable respond plaintiff's either irrational entirely motivated desire curtail federal courts invalidate maneuvering.27 Judiciary powerless remedy egregious cases.28 60 beyond reasoning opinions reach correct cast doubt propriety decide shortcomings regarding certainly strengthen 61 glance map, ante, following 744, shows deserving kind descriptive adjectives "uncouth"29 "bizarre"30—that traditionally describe measures think fare disregarding redistricting wantonly disregards county boundaries. example, words commentator, flight cartographic fancy, packed North Republicans 'the Swan.' Its neck twisted body stretch York suburbs rural upper reaches Delaware River." Fifth, contains segments least seven counties. c mmentator Seventh comprised parts five counties, tracing "a curving through industrial Elizabeth, liberal, academic largely Jewish Marlboro Monmouth County. monstrosity called Fishhook' detractors." Cong.Q. 1194-1195 (1982).31 62 Such prompts led adoption. sponsored leadership Democratic party, controlled both houses Governor's office, day inauguration Governor. formally Several expert, impartiality credentials challenged. "was leadership's concerns." conclusion, arises naturally persuasive justifications rejection buttressed letter Speaker General Assembly. frankly Democrats taking advantage control census. own overt describing past—and present.32 sum, leading neutral. increase Democrats, decrease Republicans, send future years.33 irregularities concededly tried 63 comparative study offer specifically directed toward gerrymander. full agreement objective, stand. Further, check gerrymandering, effective like this. unconstrained, dominant unfavorable providing grotesque-appearing acceptable inequality. prevent consequence hard look things hearing, scrutinize original care determine distortions criteria. Otherwise, promise Sims—that judicially manageable assure "full citizens," 565, 1383—may fulfilled. whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE, POWELL, REHNQUIST dissenting. 65 Jersey. enacted P.L.1982, cl. 0.1384% 0.6984%. words, encompassing half million divided good faith Today, affirms thereby striking experience 1%. respectfully unreasonable insistence unattainable equalizing today compelled (1969) part cases demand reached arrived reconsider precedents. affirmance below majority's "modifications" require, minimum, IV, achieving aim apportionment." 566, 1384, suspend credulity draconian response trifling promotes "fair man's worth another's," understood light malapportionment decided. (pop. 823,680) Atlanta Georgia's (272,154) double years, possessing one-fifth one-tenth Congressmen. Georgia atypical; throughout country redrawn 50% rule.1 substantial diminished, sense, representativeness elections. invalidation profoundly read sensibly "it [for States] precision." 17-18, 589, 1395-1396, Term, disavowed exactness explicit terms: "We realize practical impossibility arrange residents, citizens, Mathematical hardly workable requirement." 69 responded eliminating gross struck years later companion, (1969). percentage 5.97% 13.1%, respectively. Over obj ctions four Justices, 536, 1231-1232 (Fortas, 1234-1235 (Harlan, joined Stewart, 553, 1241 standard. (1973) Texas' 4.13%. 70 Just ineluctably lead today. nonarbitrary way" pick point, eight posed argued fall officially range Interestingly enough, approved 0.629% Secretary 341 1158, 1162 (W.D.Mo.) aff'd, 407 901, 92 2440, 678 (1972).2 view foreordained Weiser. Apparently who, staying order, wrote: appear achieves exactitude, left latitude arguably 'statistically insignificant' "statistically insignificant." government strives accurate humanly possible, Census intimated inexactitude 2.3%,3 considerably dwarfs 0.2470% selected Reock. amount differs act unproven assumption tiny Trussel, expert matters, testimony purports accept, explained: municipalities. truly relies meaningful rank superior small. professional opinion, enumerated differ push exercise illusion." 104.4 74 encompassed scope miniscule var ations inherent translating citizens' votes. process." 746, 2328, "It single instant constantly changing, rates direction, down." completed." 732.5 too young register disqualified alienage.6 proportion otherwise register.7 overwhelm minimal attributable itself.8 75 Accepting backsliding commitment assuring Congress. views Judge Gibbons, dissented "prohibition toleration statistically representation." 984. plus-minus falls category. 76 unjustified import, bad enough. Unfortunately, "there justification," 734, invites nation. twelve completed quite similar Jersey's9 Of rationale, Rhode Island's plan—whose 0.02% 95 people—would subject attack. pressed preference "unavoidable." "reduced altogether." 730. With assistance computers, ideal. Then, goal." 731. illustrates, literally "significant."10 state's met: particularity." 739. fails sustain select choice disputed until very eve election, see, 44, 1522, (per curiam ), leaving candidates confusion. 78 bipartisan commission hope avoid dismiss opt automatically deviation.11 seriously inflexible promote extension move fulfilling Fortas' prophecy running down middle corridor apartment house dividing single-family districts." 538, 1232. sterile mechanistic application brings man, disrepute. 79 expect Sisyphean states. offers positive virtues follow decision. No pretense insuring citizens. expended Congressmen "by people," demands level. requirement, exist, irreconcilable recognition variances. 740. express holding, compromised disparities, normal course uphold actions constitutionally-delegated responsibility prescribe manner Senators 4. Doing keeping oft-expressed primarily judgment. 41, 1521; 795, 2354, 586, 1394, "[A] suited identify reconcile traditional mandated framework ." 80 Instead purely defensive refuses adopt intervene, asserting experience." 733. unjust; rub. Leaving aside vengeance witnessed many, myself, self-congratulatory success. decade sort." dissenting). ever sophisticated countless ramifications. alone deliberate ready Wells: "[Those] decisions downgrade potential threat representation, Legislatures minimizing invited adhere incorrect." 555, 1242. predict "[e]ven past, maximize party temporarily public affairs." 552, 1240.12 addition respectability gerrymander, regime assured extensive intrusion judiciary business. task, dealing fundamental 'choices nature representation,' 92, 1296, 749, 2329. What respect apropos here: [is not] furthered recurringly removed hands performed themselves formulate official plan." 83 decade's lost arena refight battles court. Consequently, "[m]ost current Courts." Bar Association, Districting (1981). noted, extending 1% Representative rendered vulnerable after-the-fact anyone complaint calculator. ultimately seeks refuge decisis. slight due, ironic invoked proceeds overrule holdings decision? fragmenting subdivisions: legally necessarily existing county, municipal, boundaries." 534, 1230.13 pages later, uncategorical terms idea compact. 535-536, "A pleasingly shaped districts," concluded, "can variances." "reject[s], seriatim, been—possibly, advanced." 537, Court—with mention contrary —opines: "Any welcome overruling ill-considered Kirkpatrick. STEVENS recognizes "give served deviations." 760, 26. appears "with deference State." 785, (POWELL, room accommodate non-census factors, deviation, permitted required. discourages considering "legitimate" lest wanting, invalidated, substitute put continues invite bury opposition employ preclude cartographer work terms. Our sensible themselves, ordinarily constitute violation. upheld reasonable insure fairness, Cummings fully applicable redistricting: vital worthy goal, attainment insignificant Fair destroyed apparent populations. An overemphasis raw nose submerge furnish tool ignoring day-to-day operation arrangement." Bringing together imply overlooking two. normally accordingly margin "[C]ongressional intertwined freighted strictly 2353. ongressional commensurately degree. entertain absent circumstances, nonexistent.14 wedded figure, 5% cutoff reasonable. challenges, extraordinary 5%. Somewhat rationally permissible.15 Certainly, efforts interests. model reflection minimis, and, regardless infirmities have, otherwise, violation 2—the us. would, invidiously 751-754, 2330-2332; (1971); (1960). 94 disposition not. vacate remand consideration. indicated, finally recogniz "any policies" so. concerned considerations.16 notes: "many encountered stemmed 733, 5. record, chance defend basis. Surely, concluded foreclosed introduction futile. 96 join WHITE's excellent expressed Constitution—a living charter centuries wise flexibility key provisions—could exactitude reapportionment." 798, 2356, write separately thoughts relation presumably thought invalidates principally "appreciably 728. "appreciable" significant. demonstrates, 769-772 (dissenting opinion), self-deluding, inaccuracies difficulties exist years. 1232 concurring) (pursuit search will-o'-the-wisp"). become leaves preservation decisions,1 2329, 329, 987, observes, 775-776, confirmed fears dissenters uncompromising emphasis encourage outrageously 551-552, 1240 (HARLAN, 1242 plain accomplished popula ion.2 98 continue permits "theoretical 'exactitude' impracticality interests." 2356 Certainly 0.6984%, complied amo g 99 me gerrymandering—"the arbitrary distortion personal purposes," observation ago presents "precise adherence admittedly inexact figures." injuries rise dimensions. "serve protection." 748 opinion). produces "without lines," 578-579, destructive representation," 1383. legislator represent constituents properly—nor fragmented ballot intelligently—when artificial unit divorced from, conflict with, communities attached illustrates better describe. prepared discrimination STEVENS. invariably dispositive. Some irregularity inevitable, considerations, ones, democratic system. court, "attemp[t] extirpating politics processes sovereign States." Gaffney, 2332. invalid viewed accord discretion considerations. believe, Reynolds, 1383, disenfranchising Generally, presumpti e indicated face purpose. states, "dramatically explanation," 755 opinion); "drastic amiss," 758; "[e]xtensive gerrymandering," ibid. drawn. 568, 1385 (the "presented crazy quilts, lacking rationality, alone"). suggested, contorted 3, natural, historical, boundaries.4 quality confound congressmen Gibbons eloquently below: me, citizen disturbed. creates yachtsmen. While maintained, television radio stations, newspapers, transportation systems northern southern localities. Moreover harshly tone Christopher Jackman's C. Jr. disedifying, least. plain, well, bulges appendages residences Smith Courter incumbents." 984 104 resident 764 opinion. Three early 1981, released preliminary 7,364,158. October, corrected data, increased Orange (and whole) 665 All calculations refer Legislature—that is, October 1981 proceedings correction adding 188 bringing 7,365,011. it. part: composed Members chosen Year People included Union, according respective Numbers. infer happened Karcher, testified he Joint Ex. 56-58 (Karcher deposition), serious seek improvements solution, 782, apparently embarrassment discarding reasoning. tied mitigates adults eligible, registered, discussed below, 736-738, unless norm exacerbate "correct" haphazard, inconsistent, conjectural manner. 1230-1231; 740-741. Note decision, challenged, 567 municipalities, ranging 329,248 (Newark) (Tavistock Borough). 36, 38. Preserving intact, permissible failing 533-534, 791, objects sort," 776. true extent: explicit, expected inhibitory effect, Backstrom, Robins Eller, Issues Gerrymandering: Exploratory Measure Partisan Gerrymandering Applied Minnesota, Minn.L.Rev. 1121, 1144-1159 (1978); 4, 1230, object, ambitious address y opposed stop it) empty. steps inhibit Colo. Const. art. V, (guidelines contiguity, interest); Mass. CI, (boundaries); N.Y.Elec.Law 4-100(2) (McKinney 1978) (compactness boundaries). argues lack encourages affairs. 777-778. gainsaid proposes unattractive. proves apportionment, court-ordered stead, frequently arise newly enact recent grossly malapportioned. Carstens Lamm, 543 (D.Colo.1982); Shayer 541 922 (WD Mo.), aff'd mem., 966, 2228, 841 O'Sullivan Brier, 540 1200 (D Kan.1982); Donnelly Meskill, 345 962 Conn.1972); David Cahill, 342 463 (DNJ 1972); Skolnick Electoral Board Illinois, 839 (ND Ill.1971). Passel, Siegel Robinson, Coverage National Population Census, Age, Sex, Race: Preliminary Estimates Demographic Analysis (Nov. 1981) (Docket Entry 31) Passel). 2.5% 3.3%. Panel Decennial Plans, Counting 1980: Appraisal Plans (Nat'l Acad. Sciences hypothetical 502,500, 497,500. 5,000, mean. percent, 507,525, 502,475. percent. 3/4 uncounted live happen A, 1.98%. white Passel 9-20. unrelated blacks 0.268% mean; 17.3% 94. Fi st 14.6% black, 96, almost exactly overall predicted severe populous First District. According Pub.L.1982, 0.449%, somewhat Legislature: Fifth add Oakland Franklin Lakes (from Eighth District), Hillsdale, Woodcliff Lake, Norwood District). Brunswick Roosevelt South Plainfield Helmetta Montville Boonton Town River Edge Oradell obvious. Shifting town mean, surrounded Similarly, Edge, Oradell, Norwood, barely Further improvement aid detailed prejudge incorporating changes, conceive improvements. illustrate reductions policies. 444, 572, (1967); justified. Doulin White, 528 1323, 1330 (ED Ark.1982) (rejecting 1.87% growth); W.Va.1972). evaluate remedies apportionments often, lowest slightly 839, 842-846 disapproved practice possibility. E.g., Kelly Bumpers, 340 571 Ark.1972); 413 3047, 1019 Ferrell Oklahoma ex rel. Hall, 339 84-85 Okla.), 406 939, 2045, (1972); Sewell St. Tammany Parish Police Jury, 338 252, 255 La.1971). Graves Barnes, 343 704 Tex.1972)—later reversed (1973)—characterized follows: same: Has variances, however policy." 713; 713-716. drafters namely "to districts" Tr. Oral Argument Answer Counterclaim Behalf Karcher ¶ 10. Karcher's suggests lie 84. way, excludes them: "Whether justifies i. kept intact all-Bergen County 66-74. 848-853 86-89, 1509-1511, --- 3294, Page 744-Continued provides, "Representatives direct Taxes Numbers, Persons, bound Service Term Years, taxed, fifths Persons." Const., (emphasis supplied). During Nation's history, widespread plus three-fifths slave voted, inclusion gave favored excess slaves intended prohibited: 'weighted' States. Alternatively, men speak slaves. States, indicating Convention believed nonvoting still speaking 27-28, 540. Reading person, historically textually unsound. Kelly, Clio Court: Illicit Love Affair, 1965 Sup.Ct.Rev. 119, 135-136. clause "does permit qualified deny all. prohibit give half-vote vote. 1901 Apportionment Act coming appellants, instances one-ninth prohibit." (1946) (Black, quoted 536 (Clark, part). rule, grounded, developed, accorded clea maximized urban Hacker, Districting: Issue Representation 20-26 (1963); Standards (Apportionment), Hearings Before Subcommittee Committee H.R. 575, 8266 8473, 86th Cong., 1st Sess. 65-90 (1959). voter, mechanism identifying curtailing motivation turns derived cohesive patterns, F.2d, 852. 734-735, 6; latter 780-783. Either approaches leave unrestricted wide open. Engstrom, Supreme Equipopulous Remaining Obstacle Quest Effective Representation, 1976 Ariz.St.L.J. 277, 285-286, 296; Baker, Quantitative Descriptive Guidelines Minimize Gerrymandering, 219 Annals N.Y.Acad.Sci. 200, 208 ("If forthcoming, great principle—one vote—will degenerated simplistic arithmetical facade cartography scale"). Dixon, People, "One Man, Vote," Reapportionment 1970s (N. Polsby ed. 1971). Computers generate short analyze characteristics considerable detail. contrast, 1970's round reapportionment, allotted task." Conference Legislatures, Reapportionment: Law Technology (June 1980); supra 281-282. Edwards, Gerrymander N.Y.U.L.Rev. 879 Elliott, Prometheus, Proteus, Pandora, Procrustes Unbound: Political Consequences Reapportionment, U.Chi.L.Rev. 483-488 (1970); 8. Identifiable ethnic origin, religion, status, context. Clinton, Explorations Thicket: 38-39 (cognizable coherent policy); Note, Statutory Compactness Standard Antidote Impotence, 398, 407-408 (1974) (clearly group). stems strategies dilution. Depending demonstrated concentration roup overconcentrated greatly needed choice. 91, 13, 1512, 6, 46-50; Compensatory Racial Stanford L.Rev. 84, 97-100 (1972) (pointing tests strength, swing representative Voting Rights Act, familiarity concepts statutory adjudicating claims types harm adherents base party's registration past vote-getting performance contests. Robins, 1131-1139 (1978). Jacobellis Ohio, 378 184, 197, 1676, 1683, 793 Dixon warns odd shapes. R. Representation: Politics 459-460 "if odd-shaped merit." 460. L. Tribe, Constitutional 760 (1978) (oddity district's coupled State). Measuring Requirement Legislative Apportionment, Midwest J.Pol.Sci. 70, 1126, 1137 eliminate band dilute 280. Taylor, Shape Evaluating Patterns, Am.Poli.Sci.Rev. 947, 948 confused physical area. 580, "Modern communications hollow, mid-1960's, validly Arguments sparsely settled access impaired unconvincing." low geographically creation distorted irregular, indented statute compact; formed territory. Research Service, Provisions Concerning Redistricting 1981). 12, (ineffective enforcement); 412-413. scholarly literature focusing variables. area circumscribing circle. 71. calculation sensitive elongation shape. Another ratio figure's perimeter circumference circle, measurement indentation. Schwartzberg, Gerrymanders, Notion Compactness, 443-452 Other aggregate distances geometrical population-weighted center gravity points, Kaiser, Objective Method Establishing 200-223 (1966); Weaver Hess, Procedure Nonpartisan Development Computer Techniques, Yale L.J. 288, 296-300 indentation nonconvex 17; Common Cause, Toward System "Fair Representation" 54-55 (November 1977); Statute: Model Process: Continuing Representation," Harv.J.Legis. 825, 875-876, 184 (1977); 11, 894; Walker, Man-One Vote: Pursuit Elusive Ideal, Hastings Const.L.Q. 453, 475 (1976); minimum diameters Morrill, Geographic Theory measurement, Iowa Legis.Serv., H.F. 707, pp. 397-409 (setting determining plans: value width "ratio dispersion district"). oddly-shaped adhering detract compactness. Colo.Rev.Stat. §§ 2-2-105, 2-2-203 (legislative explanations enumeration density, retain adjacent districts"); 184. sociopolitical 205. geographer noted: regions, uneven, perhaps strung roads railroads. Travel easier cheaper directions elongated astride transport sense travel around so, modified criterion, preferred measure." 22. My dicta notion disagree. 25. 319, 323, 982, 984, 1145, 71; dubious suspect territory subdivisions. Wright 52, 73-74, 603, 614-615, 512 (1964) (Goldberg, 881 1961 committee staff member party; hearings held; adoption; straight party-line afternoon session legislature; day). grounds adequately shown. plaintiffs' reduced, gerrymandered favor. 1134-1137 (discussing representation"). carried justification, perspective implied 533-536, potentially justifiable worse. inevitably residential patterns; 1127. factor defense demanding satisfied 90, 1511-1512 judgment) ("the spawning manage"); 93, 1513, (quoting Frankfurter 267, 738-739, (1962)). 341, 127 (noting allegations "abundantly 140 ordinary familiar abuses gerrymandering"). Tuskegee limits, violated. Tribe comparably hypothetical: "For jurisdiction consisting 460 subdivided randomly probably six However, malevolent precision, isolate win votes, capturing 90% commanding 46% vote." 756, 47-50. 126. article "New Imaginative Gerrymander," appearing Quarterly: four-star boasts bizarrely nation." 1190 quick lends credence conclusion. 1983-1984 Official Directory 989-1039 (1983). Thirteenth manner: 'dumping ground' troubling Hughes Howard, 13th stretches Philadelphia County." Cong.Q., 1198. likeness district—the Fourth—and back. Arg. 21. "Congressional broad-based perspective. consequently dominated sun-belt close margin, entirely." 991. Copies legislators. disagreed concluding paragraphs unambiguously He 1962, 100,000. 20-21, 536-537, "enormous variations" 744 2327 e.g. 450, 451 (E.D.Ark.1982) (court ordered implementation 0.13%.) Users' Guide, Housing (March Academy estimated 2.5%. estimate error nationwide, D. (Dr. Trussel), million. entry 31). professing "assume [Dr. Trussel's] correct," paragraph denigrate guesswork imprecision, i.e., persons, precisely. quantify uncertainty pretending exist. 2% practical. required, Bureau—last 2.3% selected. certainty. confidence opting amerliorating aggravating Bureau's selection "Data compiled equating component summing coded Where split boundary, reviewed fell, district." Bureau, 98th A-1 (1983) (preliminary draft). effects, dismisses concept sophistic "Even size." 738. certainty, speculative. Four Six, larger, vis-a-vis variable finer gradations doing increases decreases growth enlarged 26%, 8.7% 32-3. 746 2328 11. point. "Given achieve." ---- old 1978, 282,000 429,000. Metropolitan Area Data Book 549 (1979). 747 13. Throughout nation, 71% age registers ballots, citizen's races 92,852 186,879 Cong. Quarterly 391 (Feb. 1983). Indiana (2.96%); Alabama (2.45%); Tennessee (2.40%); (2.00%); (1.81%); Carolina (1.76%); (1.64%); Kentucky (1.39%); (1.30%); Massachusetts (1.09%); Mexico (0.87%); Arkansas (0.78%). Ohio (0.68%); Nevada (0.60%); (0.58%); (0.50%). Governments Information Update language supported, Consider staggering imposed: justified, none challenge. avoidable variations. counter appellant's position, disqualifying faults. Instead, tries concludes moving 0.449%. 739-740, message cl ar: alternatives, conceivable devise. Unlike lend arithmetic proof. country, offered assessment: nobly aimed 'one-man, one-vote' increasing weapon bent From California between, alike remaps demonstrating 1964 possible. Meanwhile, stake redistricting—such grouping constitutencies concerns—are brushed aside. one-man, one-vote crossing city, township lines. Once made, step dances jaggedly region state. Local informed longer past. court's hairsplitting game country." Quarterly, 1-2 Arizona Journal 278 ("Not checks pursuing satiety facilitated practice."); G. Vote, Fairness," Emory 701, 710 (hereafter Baker) ("Priority typically expense Charges reasons: activity norms lines.") eyes commentators, aftermath instructive. "Subsequent prototype 'equal-population gerrymander.' Whereas pattern nullified compromise controlling house, governorship. assistant counsel senate leader chief coordinator redistricting) candidly remarked: 'The be.' Not subjected surgery, upstate cities fragmented, portions suburban concentrations Democrats." 712-713. Yet, deviated 490 revealed contours. Privileged Sanctuary Next Target, 138 (Polsby Ironically, Wells, pattern, February, 1970, ask restored. " 'One Vote'—What Happens Next?" Nat'l Civic Rev. 265 993, part) ("What pertinent districting. integrity may, instances, elected. malapportioned supra.") rooted aware, provisions justifies, let requires, emerged decisions. cross-cited, formulation 1395, 529-530. paths decision's nonpopulation long-awaited remaining disappears reapportionment. Experience field allowance receive due. prediction tolerating "jeopardize gains" 781, 2347, proven, indeed, refuted undertaken Deposition 91-94 (concern incumbents); Jackman 91-92 subdivisions). "[a]ny Representatives." remarkable silently discards features simultaneously invoking remainder 778-780 law. hoped (recognizing deviations"). illustration Illinois. Illinois chose 0.02851% 0.14797% deviation. Following "Democratic plan" Republicans. re Cases, 81-C-3915 Ill.1981), sub nom. Ryan Otto, 454 1130, 985, 284 victory due program 171 one. seemed impress concern carved state." Unpleasant Surprise GOP, 573, 573 68, (Colo.1982) (three-judge 0.0015%, 15-person difference, 0.0031%); 1200, 1202 (Kan.1982) asked choose 0.11% 0.09% deviation). unfortunate side-effect Kirkpatrick: tendency governors—who learned "vulnerable calculator," 778 dissenting) spurn criterion. placed instance. "voter identity": "Most in, cities. knows is. voting." 98, 78. needs responsive them. plan) fragments. Hardwick, fragments, 123 (Appendix Affidavit Samuel Alito, Executive Office Services Legislature).

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