Document: 409 U.S. 418 93 S.Ct. 602 34 L.Ed.2d 613 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, Petitioner,v.Melvin CARTER. No. 71-564. Argued Nov. 6, 1972. Decided Jan. 10, 1973. Rehearing Denied Feb. 26, See 410 959, 1411. Syllabus The District of Columbia is not a 'State or Territory' within the meaning 42 U.S.C. § 1983, and Court Appeals therefore erred insofar as that court sustained respondent's claims for deprivation civil rights pursuant to statute. Pp. 420—433. 144 U.S.App.D.C. 388, 447 F.2d 358, reversed. Richard W. Barton Washington, D.C., petitioner. Warren K. Kaplan, respondent. Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 On February 12, 1969, respondent filed this action in United States alleging 1968 Police Officer John R. Carlson Metropolitan Department arrested him without probable cause and, while he was being held by two other officers, beat with brass knuckles. complaint alleged further Carlson's precinct captain, chief police, each had negligently failed train, instruct, supervise, control regard circumstances which an arrest may be made extent various degrees force used effect arrest. Respondent sought damages against defendant upon several theories, including common-law theory tort liability provides:1 2 'Every person who, under color any statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, usage, State Territory, subjects, causes subjected, citizen jurisdiction thereof rights, privileges, immunities secured Constitution laws, shall liable party injured at law, suit equity, proper proceeding redress.' 3 dismissed all defendants opinion.2 appeal, Circuit reversed, holding allegations were sufficient state both federal statutory theories liability. Carter v. Carlson, 358 (1971). In sustaining '(a)cts law are purpose 1983'. Id., 391 n. 3, F.2d, 361 3. We granted certiorari. Carter, 404 1014, 92 683, 30 661. For reasons stated below, we hold 1983. reverse judgment 1983.3 4 * Whether constitutes particular constitutional provision depends character aim specific involved.4 Indeed, such '(w)ords generally have different shades meaning, construed if reasonably possible effectuate intent lawmakers; instances arrived at, only consideration words themselves, but considering, wellThe context, purposes employed.' Puerto Rico Shell Co. (P.R.), Ltd., 302 253, 258, 58 167, 169, 82 L.Ed. 235 (1937); see Helvering Stockholms Enskilda Bank, 293 84, 86, 87—88, 55 50, 51—52, 79 211 (1934); Atlantic Cleaners & Dyers States, 286 427, 433, 52 607, 608—609, 76 1204 (1932). 5 Appeals' conclusion 1983 premised almost exclusively Court's earlier determination 'the included phrase 'every Territory" employed 1982. Hurd Hodge, 334 24, 31, 68 847, 851, 1187 (1948).5 At first glance, it might seem logical simply assume, did Appeals, identical related statutes intended same effect. Nevertheless, '(w)here subject-matter refer places where they used, conditions different, scope legislative power exercised one case broader than another, well vary meet . ..' supra, U.S., S.Ct., 609. And logic underlying assumption breaks down completely where, here, 'there variation connection warrant intent.' Ibid. 6 Section 1982, entered our jurisprudence Civil Rights Act 1866, Apr. 9, 14 Stat. 27, provides: 7 'All citizens right, every enjoyed white inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, convey real personal property.' 8 This enacted means enforce Thirteenth Amendment's proclamation '(n)either slavery nor involuntary servitude exist place subject their jurisdiction.' Jones Alfred H. Mayer Co., 392 409, 437—438, 88 2186, 2202, 20 1189 (1968). 'As its text reveals, Amendment 'is mere prohibition laws establishing upholding slavery, absolute declaration part States." Cases, 109 20, 18, 27—28, 27 835 (1883); Griffin Breckenridge, 403 88, 105, 91 1790, 1800, 29 338 (1971); 437—440, 2202—2203; Clyatt 197 207, 216, 218, 25 429, 430, 431, 49 726 (1905). Thus, cannot doubted vested Congress includes enact nationwide application. 9 Moreover, like based, 1982 'mere upholding' racial discrimination sale rental property but, rather, 'absolute' bar discrimination, private public, state. Cf. 413, 437, 2189, 2202. With mind, would anomalous indeed chose carve out ofColumbia sole exception act otherwise universal more true support applicability District. dangers example, provided focal point Congress' concern enacting legislation,6 were, are, present considerations led extend prohibitions Federal Government apply equal District, instrumentality Government. absence some express indication contrary,7 there ample justification outlaw elsewhere States. 10 situation wholly however, respect Unlike derives from has roots Ku Klux Klan 1871, 1, 17 13. distinction great significance, unlike 1866 Act, passed Amendment, primary 1871 'to Provisions Fourteenth Amendment.' 13; see, e.g., Lynch Household Finance Corp., 405 538, 545, 1113, 1118, 31 424 (1972); Monroe Pape, 365 171, 81 473, 475—476, 492 (1961); also Cong. Globe, Cong., 1st Sess., App. 68, 80, 83—85. long been recognized '(d)ifferent problems presented enactments deriving sources. (3 835). Compare Williams, (341 70, 71 581, 95 758), Screws 325 (65 1031, 89 1495).' 205—206, 494 (separate Frankfurter, J.). 11 contrast reach limited applicability; commands addressed those acting uner authority. See, supra; Harris, 106 629, 601, 290 Cruikshank, 542, 23 588 (1876). itself 'erects no shield merely conduct, however discriminatory wrongful.'8 Shelley Kraemer, 13, 836, 842, 1161 (1948); Price, 383 787, 86 1152, 16 267 (1966); Evans Newton, 382 296, 486, 15 373 Hodges 203 51 65 (1906). Similarly, actions officers beyond purview Amendment. since 'State' Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 499, 74 693, 694, 98 884 (1954); 8, 839—840; Wight Davidson, 181 371, 384, 21 616, 621, 45 900 (1901), neither restrictions.9 12 Like scope. statute deals deprivations accomplished 'any Territory.'10 It does purely conduct Territories,11 least facially exempt proscriptions. Hurd, instant involve applicability. so, expansive reading so include do must examine history determine whether adopted similarly broad construction. II 13 Any analysis take cognizance events passions time enacted.12 After War ended 1865, race relations South became increasingly turbulent. organized southern whites wave murders assaults launched blacks Union sympathizers.13 opening 42d Congress, considerable apprehension expressed Republicans about insecurity life South,14 on March 23, President Grant sent message requesting additional legislation curb rising tide violence. Such deemed essential light inability governments situation.15 Five days later, Congressman Shellabarger Ohio introduced bill eventually become 1871.16 Although threads many thoughts running through debates seems clear here concerned, designed primarily response unwillingness own violating others.17 principal catalyst legislation, remedy created 'was (the Klan) members who representing capacity unable unwilling law.' 175—176, 478 (emphasis original). Senator Pratt Indiana summarized when said:18 '(O)f hundreds outrages committed loyal people agency organization punished. defect administration cases. Vigorously enough enforced people. They fail efficiency man known sentiments, black, invokes aid. Then closes door her temples.' Hoar Massachusetts stated:19 'Now, effectual denial protection class charged permanently rule refuse protection. If sheriff Carolina refuses serve writ colored sheriffs kept office year after Carolina, verdict them failure duty can obtained before jury, representatives afford citizens, denied protection.' 18 To Reconstruction need form intervention clear. equally clear, authority exert direct control, day-to-day basis, over officials. solution chosen judiciary. adopted, remembered, existed general federal-question lower courts.20 Rather, 'Congress relied courts vindicate arising laws.'21 Zwickler Koota, 389 241, 245, 391, 394, 19 444 (1967). growing awareness reliance misplaced, original provide indirect unconstitutional officials.22 Coburn explained:23 'The above local influence county courts; judges independence, put terror, can; sympathies nearly identified vicinage; jurors taken State, neighborhood; will able rise prejudices bad terror easily. believe trust courts, propose so.' final analysis, viewed effort right because, reason prejudice, passion, neglect, intolerance otherwise, enjoyment guaranteed agencies.' 180, 480. There need, create Columbia. Even prior possessed matters. Mar. 1863, c. 91, 762. jurisdictional aspects entirely superfluous officials, authorized Art. I, cl. 17, exercise plenary officers.24 '(t)he powers affairs.' Berman Parker, 348 75 98, 102, 99 Thompson, Inc., 346 100, 108, 73 1007, 1011—1012, 97 1480 (1953); National Mutual Insurance Tidewater Transfer 337 582, 602, 69 1173, 1183, 1556 (1949); Kendall Pet. 524, 619, 1181 (1838). seat Government, position observe large extent, supervise activities officials.25 rationale decision similar officials—the could keep control—is applicable then existing 22 true, course, Territories.26 practical reasons, effective territorial officials virtually impossible. territories ruled immediately Washington; day poor roads slow mails, unthinkable should be. left municipal developed largely legislatures, framework organic acts retained veto. selfgovernment these delegations .' Glidden Zdanok, 370 530, 546, 1459, 1470, 671 (1962); E. Pomeroy, Territories 1861—1890, p. (1947); H.R.Rep.No.440, 48th Sess. (1884); S.Rep.No.1249, 49th (1886). although 'confused ineffective,'27 making problem enforcement Columbia.28 analogize context faces strong theoretical obstacles. aptly described 'one pupilage best.' Nelson F. 112, 115 (Or. 1887). From moment creation, destined admission into Union, 'as preliminary step toward foreordained end—to period ineligibility—Congress, time, governments, existence necessarily pupilage.' O'Donoghue 289 516, 537, 53 740, 745, 77 1356 (1933); McAllister 141 174, 188, 949, 954, 35 693 (1891). transitory nature condition, treat inchoate quite respects whose status inevitably ascend. 24 Columbia, hand, exceptional community established Government.' Murphy, 314 441, 452, 62 303, 308, 329 (1941). As such, lasting states carved union permanent capital became.' 746. very heart—of itself, maintained 'permanent' abiding supreme departments, immense government 539, either Territories, truly sui generis i governmental structure. unique language, purposes, coverage, compelled 'States Just '(w)e liberty seek ingenious analytical instruments' avoid giving congressional enactment language origins require, 801, 1160 too recast expand application gave it. say, claim, claim litigable Bivens Six Unknown Named Agents Bureau Narcotics, 1999, 619 Bell Hood, 327 678, 66 773, 90 939 (1946). But rested be, is, 26 Judgment Rev.Stat. 1979, never found service process. captain police moved dismiss ground relief granted. Their supporting memorandum argued committed, event protected doctrine official immunity. sovereign occasion whether, urged petitioner, 'person' addition, intimate view merits predicated Talbott Silver Bow County, 139 438, 594, 210 (1891); Geofroy Riggs, 133 295, 33 642 (1890); Callan Wilson, 127 540, 1301, 32 223 (1888), (1901); Hepburn Ellzey, Cranch 445, 332 (1805). cited Sewell Pegelow, 291 196 (CA4 1961), which, relying That likewise disapproved. 422—436, 2194—2201, debate focus specifically numerous indications 'extend parts country.' 39th 322 (Sen. Trumbull); id., 426, 474. proscribe Guest, 762, 1170, 1180, 239 (1966) (Clark, J., concurring); 782—784, 1190—1192 (Brennan, concurring dissenting). Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 1717, 828 (1966). inclusion subsumed necessitate separate legislate 17. observed that, uses geographical description, expression substantive limitation types prohibited. initially enacted, applied 'State.' 'or added, explanation, 1874 codification revision Statutes Large. 1979 (1874). Since 'States' Porto Sugar Buscaglia, 154 96, 101 (CA1 1946); Anderson v.Scholes, 83 F.Supp. 681, 687 (Alaska 1949), addition presumably regulate IV, 2. Stampp, Era Reconstruction, 1865 1877 (1965); A. Nevins, Emergence Modern America, 1865—1878 (1927). 351. appreciation appeared S.Rep. (1871), voluminous report Joint Select Committee inquire Condition Affairs late Insurrectionary published 41, pts. 1—13 H.R.Rep. 22, 2d (1872). 116—117. 226. 317. 154—159 Sherman), (Cong. Stoughton), 374 Lowe), 428 Beatty), 516—519 Shellabarger), 653 Osborn), 72 Blair), 78 Perry), 100—110 Pool). 505. 334. Original 'arising under' jurisdiction, III, 2, 1801, 92, repealed later 1802, 132. until 1875 'original cognizance, concurrent suits common matter dispute exceeds, exclusive costs, sum value five hundred dollars, 1875, 470. amount raised $500 $2,000 1887, 552; $3,000 1911, 36 1091; $10,000 July 25, 1958, 415. now codified 28 1331(a). Judiciary 1789, 85, providing Supreme review whenever court. originally proceedings prosecuted district circuit aspect 1343(3). 460. pertinent part, provides '(t)o Legislation Cases whatsoever, Seat system, operated direction board commissioners appointed advice consent Senate. creating metropolitan system network regulations reporting requirements enabled watchful eye conduct. Aug. 1861, 320; 16, 1862, 578. seeks make much fact 'territorial' governor assembly, affairs committed. 21, 419. development, argues, word 'Territory' What apparently overlooks, June 1874, formally revised version 11, abolished stead, President, Senate, appoint commission three previously assembly. 337, 116. Article Power dispose needful Rules Regulations respecting Territory Property belonging 1861 1890, (1947). (1933), American Canter, 511, 242 (1828). significance for, terms four years. 1864 result, peculiarly susceptible pressures, reappointments often dependent favorable recommendations legislatures. 102.

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