Document: 542 U.S. 507 HAMDI ET AL.v.RUMSFELD, SECRETARY OF DEFENSE, AL. No. 03-6696. Supreme Court of United States. Argued April 28, 2004. Decided June After Congress passed a resolution — the Authorization for Use Military Force (AUMF) empowering President to "use all necessary and appropriate force" against "nations, organizations, or persons" that he determines "planned, authorized, committed, aided" in September 11, 2001, al Qaeda terrorist attacks, ordered Armed Forces Afghanistan subdue quell supporting Taliban regime. Petitioner Yaser Hamdi, an American citizen whom Government has classified as "enemy combatant" allegedly taking up arms with during conflict, was captured presently is detained at naval brig Charleston, S.C. Hamdi's father filed this habeas petition on his behalf under 28 U.S.C. § 2241, alleging, among other things, holds son violation Fifth Fourteenth Amendments. Although did not elaborate factual circumstances capture detention, asserted documents record Hamdi went do "relief work" less than two months before 11 could have received military training. The attached its response declaration from Michael Mobbs (Mobbs Declaration), Defense Department official. Declaration alleges various details regarding trip Afghanistan, affiliation there unit time when battling U. S. allies, subsequent surrender assault rifle. District found Declaration, standing alone, support detention turn over numerous materials camera review. Fourth Circuit reversed, stressing that, because it undisputed active combat zone, no inquiry evidentiary hearing allowing be heard rebut Government's assertions proper. Concluding averments if accurate, provided sufficient basis upon which conclude had constitutionally court dismissed. appeals held assuming express congressional authorization required by 18 4001(a) provides "[n]o shall imprisoned otherwise States except pursuant Act Congress" AUMF's "necessary language detention. It also concluded entitled only limited judicial into detention's legality war powers political branches, searching review determinations underlying seizure. Held: judgment vacated, case remanded. 316 F. 3d 450, vacated JUSTICE O'CONNOR, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, KENNEDY, BREYER, although authorized combatants narrow alleged case, due process demands enemy combatant given meaningful opportunity contest neutral decisionmaker. P. 509. SOUTER, GINSBURG, unauthorized, but plurality remand should offer evidence combatant. Pp. 540-541, 553. J., announced delivered opinion, REHNQUIST, C. KENNEDY JJ., joined. opinion concurring part, dissenting judgment, joined, post, p. 539. SCALIA, STEVENS, 554. THOMAS, 579. CERTIORARI TO UNITED STATES COURT APPEALS FOR FOURTH CIRCUIT. Frank W. Dunham, Jr., argued cause petitioners. With him briefs were Geremy Kamens, Kenneth Troccoli, Frances H. Pratt. Deputy Solicitor General Clement respondents. brief Olson, Gregory G. Garre, John A. Drennan.* O'CONNOR BREYER join. 1 At difficult our Nation's history, we are called consider soil address owed one who seeks challenge classification such. Appeals petitioner legally further enemy-combatant label. We now vacate remand. hold here, 2 * On network used hijacked commercial airliners attack prominent targets Approximately 3,000 people killed those attacks. One week later, these "acts treacherous violence," authorizing force nations, persons planned, aided attacks" "harbored such organizations persons, order prevent any future acts international terrorism persons." (AUMF), 115 Stat. 224. Soon thereafter, mission regime known it. 3 This arises out man took conflict. His name Esam Hamdi. Born Louisiana 1980, moved family Saudi Arabia child. By parties agree, resided Afghanistan. some point year, seized members Northern Alliance, coalition groups opposed government, eventually turned military. asserts initially interrogated transferring Naval Base Guantanamo Bay January 2002. In 2002, learning citizen, authorities transferred Norfolk, Virginia, where remained until recent transfer South Carolina. contends combatant," status justifies holding indefinitely without formal charges proceedings unless makes determination access counsel warranted. 4 father, Fouad present writ corpus 2241 Eastern naming petitioners himself next friend. elder contact since custody "without legal notice pending him." App. 103, 104. authorized. Id., 105. argues "[a]s . enjoys full protections Constitution," charges, impartial tribunal, assistance "violated continue[s] violate Amendments Constitution." 107. asks court, (1) appoint Hamdi; (2) respondents cease interrogating him; (3) declare being Amendments; (4) "[t]o extent Respondents material allegations Petition, schedule hearing, Petitioners may adduce proof their allegations"; (5) released "unlawful custody." 108-109. regard surrounding son's elsewhere work," been country 188-189. 20-year-old traveling own first time, says, "[b]ecause lack experience, trapped once campaign began." Ibid. 5 proper friend, appointed federal public defender petitioners, 113-116. reversed order, failed extend deference security intelligence interests. 296 278, 279, 283 (2002). directed "the most cautious procedures first," id., 284, conduct deferential status, 283. opined "if indeed `enemy combatant' hostilities government's lawful one." 6 remand, motion dismiss petition. (hereinafter identified Special Advisor Under Secretary Policy. indicated position, "substantially involved matters related current terrorists harbor them (including Taliban)." 148. He expressed "familiar[ity]" policies applicable control, personnel, declared "[b]ased my relevant records reports, I am familiar facts ... forces." 7 then set forth what remains sole courts states "traveled Afghanistan" July August thereafter "affiliated weapons training." "remained following attacks 11" Alliance forces "engaged battle Taliban," "Hamdi's surrendered" forces, after "surrender[ed] Kalishnikov rifle" them. 148-149. "were hostile engaged armed conflict States," "individuals associated with" continue combatants." 149. labeled interviews light association Taliban." According declaration, series "U. screening team[s]" determined met criteria combatants," "[a] interview confirmed fact surrendered gave firearm supports combatant." 149-150. 8 submitted proceed accordance earlier ruling and, specifically, "`consider sufficiency independent matter proceeding further.'" 462 (2003). fell "far short" 292. criticized generic hearsay nature affidavit, calling "little more `say-so.'" 298. review, including copies statements notes taken reasons going activities therein; list interrogators questioned names addresses; capture; dates locations detentions; titles officials made brig. 185-186. "meaningful review" whether satisfy Due Process Clause Constitution treaties regulations. 291-292. 9 sought appeal production certified question "`standing law allow [Hamdi's] combatant.'" 3d, 462. squarely answer question. instead stressed "undisputed zone foreign theater conflict," 459. accurate," President's powers, 473. emphasized "vital purposes" uncharged preventing rejoining while relieving burden litigating wartime captures halfway around globe interests "directly derived Articles II." 465-466. court's view, "Article III contains nothing analogous specific so carefully enumerated II," 463, separation principles prohibited "delv[ing] capture," Accordingly, Court's vigorous "went far beyond acceptable scope review." 10 global exists all, rejected arguments Article Geneva Convention rendered detentions unlawful. doubt argument 4001(a), Congress," sort. But event, post-September AUMF. 467. Because "capturing detaining inherent part warfare," held, `necessary force' referenced necessarily includes arrayed troops." Ibid.; see 467-468 (noting Congress, 956(5), specifically expenditure funds keeping prisoners whose "to similar war," concluding appropriation measure demonstrated "authoriz[ed individuals'] instance"). likewise claim, convention self-executing even were, would preclude Executive cessation hostilities. 468-469. Finally, contention analyses scheme altered soil. Relying Ex parte Quirin, 317 (1942), "[o]ne takes war, regardless citizenship, properly designated treated such." 475. "The privilege citizenship," "entitles determine branches. least operations, satisfied does entitle seizure there." 12 denied rehearing en banc, 337 335 (2003), granted certiorari. 540 1099 (2004). below II 13 threshold us authority detain citizens qualify There debate term, never uses classifying individuals clear, however, purposes seeking individual who, alleges, "`part partners'" "`engaged States'" there. Brief 3. therefore us: falling within definition 14 maintains explicit required, possesses plenary Constitution. reach authority, agree alternative through 15 Our analysis point, below, substantially overlaps principal illegality posits forbidden 4001(a). Section Congress." 1971 bill repeal Emergency Detention 1950, 50 811 et seq., executive times emergency, deemed likely engage espionage sabotage. particularly concerned about possibility reprise Japanese-American internment camps World War II. R. Rep. 92-116 (1971); ("The concentration camp implications legislation render abhorrent"). again presses positions. First, legislative history location Title 18, applies control civilian prisons detentions," detentions. 21. Second, satisfied, "pursuant Congress"—the 21-22. Again, second assertion correct, first. words, follow, AUMF category describe (assuming, deciding, required), 4001(a)'s requirement detentions). 16 authorizes use "all can fought Taliban, organization supported responsible target passing considering, duration particular they captured, fundamental accepted incident exercise use. 17 capture, trial unlawful combatants, "universal agreement practice," "important incident[s] war." supra, 30. purpose returning field again. Naqvi, Doubtful Prisoner-of-War Status, 84 Int'l Rev. Red Cross 571, 572 (2002) ("[C]aptivity `neither revenge, nor punishment, solely protective custody, participation war'" (quoting decision Nuremberg Tribunal, reprinted 41 Am. J. L. 172, 229 (1947)); Winthrop, Law Precedents 788 (rev. 2d ed. 1920) long `no quarter' rule battlefield. recognized `Captivity neither punishment act vengeance,' `merely temporary devoid penal character.' `A prisoner convict; imprisonment simple measure'" (citations omitted)); cf. re Territo, 156 142, 145 (CA9 1946) object serving enemy. disarmed must removed completely practicable front, humanely exchanged, repatriated released" (footnotes omitted)). bar detainees, Haupt, naturalized citizen. S., 20. "[c]itizens associate themselves arm aid, guidance direction enter bent acts, belligerents meaning 37-38. While Haupt tried violations Quirin suggests citizenship precluded mere See 30-31. Lieber Code ¶ 153, Instructions Armies Field, Gen. Order 100 (1863), Lieber, Miscellaneous Writings, 273, 153 (1880) (contemplating, code binding Union Army Civil War, "captured rebels" "as war"). Nor reason drawing line here. A alien, "part partners" 3; released, pose same threat front ongoing 19 principles, moment combatant's return battlefield waging permitting force," clearly unmistakably considered 20 objects, nevertheless, indefinite subject. responds just `indefinite' fought." 16. take objection certainty date will end, substantial prospect perpetual recognize national underpinnings "war terror," crucially important, broad malleable. As concedes, "given unconventional nature, unlikely end cease-fire agreement." raises farfetched. If won generations, might, rejoin fighting States, position throughout litigation last rest life. 21 established principle longer 118 (III) Relative Treatment Prisoners Aug. 12, 1949, [1955] T. 3316, 3406, I. 3364 ("Prisoners delay hostilities"). Hague (II) Laws Customs Land, 29, 1899, 32 1817 (as soon possible "conclusion peace"); (IV), Oct. 1907, 36 2301 ("conclusion peace" (Art. 20)); Convention, 27, 1929, 47 2055 (repatriation accomplished conclusion peace 75)); Paust, Judicial Power Determine Status Rights Persons Detained Trial, 44 Harv. 503, 510-511 (2003) (prisoners "can release repatriate `without hostilities,' lawfully prosecuted convicted crimes sentences" (citing Arts. 118, 85, 99, 119, 129, (III), T., 3384, 3392, 3418)). 22 authorize Certainly, interrogation Further, understand Congress' grant include understanding based longstanding law-of-war principles. practical entirely unlike conflicts informed development unravel. situation face date. Active operations fighters apparently See, e. g., Constable, Launches New Operation Washington Post, Mar. 14, 2004, A22 (reporting 13,500 troops remain several thousand new arrivals); Dept. Defense, News Transcript, Abizaid Central Command Operations Update Briefing, Apr. 30, http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/2004/tr20040430-1402.html visited 8, available Clerk file) (media briefing describing involving 20,000 troops). detain, hostilities, legitimately States." establishes still 23 Milligan, Wall. 2, 125 (1866), undermine seize define term today. repeated reference tribunal jurisdiction try punish Milligan large resident Indiana arrested home 131. That central conclusion. Had assisting Confederate soldiers carrying rifle battlefield, might well different. explanations suggest different citizen.1 24 Moreover, SCALIA acknowledges, dismissed suggested prevented subject process. 570 (dissenting opinion). Clear rejection disavowal York State cases cited Wall., 128-129, relies. ibid. Both Smith v. Shaw, Johns. *257 (N. Y. 1815), M'Connell Hampton, *234 civil suits false imprisonment. Even accepting viewed sweeping proposition cites them—that accused spying wartime—Quirin undeniably clear like M'Connell, spy. "subject [a] tribuna[l]" change result. 31, 25 unanimous opinion. both postdates clarifies providing apposite precedent circumstances. Brushing aside precedent—particularly doing gives rise host questions dealt Court—is unjustified unwise. 26 To accepts precedential value cannot guide here "[i]n uncontested forces," challenges 571. unclear why, paradigm outlined concession relevance. envisions system options suspension prosecution treason crime. explain how historical addition third option—detention status—or why carry effect comports finds sufficiently is, fact, combatant; verifies seems beside point. 27 largely ignores context case: zone. refers scenario citizen-prisoner (a member Italian army) Sicily lawful. 2d, SCALIA'S treatment case—in footnote—suffers defect Quirin: irrelevant, distinction "conceded" 523. (whether territory) outside criminal 29 presumably come result kept Bay. 577. creates perverse incentive. faced stark choice submitting full-blown releasing suspected simply keep citizen-detainees abroad. Indeed, learned make determinative constitutional difference. 30 disputes status. timely "extra-judicial [that] begins ends submission affidavit third-hand hearsay" comport counters unworkable "constitutionally intolerable." 46. dispute requires careful examination corpus, employ mechanism Clause, informs procedural contours instance. 31 Though radically conclusions ought attend proceeding, begin common ground. All absent suspension, every Const., Art. I, 9, cl. Privilege Writ Habeas Corpus suspended, Cases Rebellion Invasion Safety require it"). Only rarest seen fit suspend writ. 3, 1863, ch. 81, 1, 755; 20, 1871, 22, 4, 14. times, critical check Executive, ensuring law. INS St. Cyr, 533 289, 301 (2001). occurred Thus, 2241. 12. companion provisions provide skeletal outline afforded Most notably, 2243 person may, oath, deny allege facts," 2246 allows deposition, interrogatories. envisioned retain ability vary ways mandated recognizes basic statute, 37-38, flexibility presented presentation completed development. separate due. B 33 urges adoption Circuit's below—that "undisputed" place purely law, factfinding necessary. easily rejected. dissenters denial banc noted, way characterized "undisputed," "those conceded susceptible permitted speak circumstances." 357 (opinion Luttig, J.); 371-372 Motz, J.). "facts" constitute insufficient accept today authorization, need States" justify "[w]hen Government, Mr. Afghanistan." An combat" 459 (emphasis added), certainly reject concessions eliminate right C 34 closer consideration. exploration unwarranted inappropriate extraordinary stake. extreme rendition argument, "[r]espect institutional capabilities decision-making connection conflict" process, restricting investigating broader scheme. 26. most, argues, very "some evidence" standard. ("Under standard, focus exclusively supplied determination" Superintendent, Mass. Correctional Institution Walpole Hill, 472 445, 455-457 (1985) (explaining standard "does require" "weighing evidence," rather calls assessing "whether conclusion"))). assume accuracy articulated assess legitimate one. 36; 473-474 (declining govern adjudication claims, noting "[t]he [Mobbs] confirm" detention). 35 response, emphasizes consistently challenging recourse Executive's justifications warrant Zadvydas Davis, 678, 690 (2001); Addington Texas, 441 418, 425-427 (1979). inappropriately "ceded power detained, judge proscribed conduct, imprison indefinitely," 21, receive counter evidence. Court, agreeing believed approach accompanies trial. disapproved anticipated quite extensive discovery affairs. Anything less, concluded, 291. positions highlight concerns. And emphasize tension often between autonomy pursue effectively goal deprived right. ordinary balancing serious competing interests, determining ensure "deprived life, liberty, property, law," Amdt. 5, test Mathews Eldridge, 424 319 (1976). Heller Doe, 509 312, 330-331 (1993); Zinermon Burch, 494 113, 127-128 (1990); Salerno, 481 739, 746 (1987); Schall Martin, 467 253, 274-275 (1984); 425. dictates instance weighing private interest affected official action" interest, "including function involved" burdens greater 335. calculus contemplates judicious concerns, risk erroneous deprivation" reduced "probable value, any, additional substitute safeguards." each steps turn. 37 lie sides scale case. "private action," ibid., elemental liberty interests—the free physical one's government. Foucha Louisiana, 504 71, 80 (1992) ("Freedom bodily restraint always core protected arbitrary governmental action"); Parham R., 442 584, 600 (1979) "substantial confined unnecessarily"). "In society norm," "is exception." 755. "We `minimize importance nature' individual's liberty," Foucha, 750), 38 weight side offset accusation treasonous behavior, "[i]t commitment constitutes significant deprivation protection," Jones 463 354, 361 (1983) added; internal quotation marks omitted), stage calculus, erroneously individual. Carey Piphus, 435 247, 259 (1978) ("Procedural rules meant protect deprivation, mistaken property"); 266 organized observed," emphasizing `absolute' sense depend merits claimant's substantive assertions"). amicus media relief emphasize, citizen's absence real. AmeriCares al. Amici Curiae 13-22 humanitarian work journalism detentions"). actually immediate teach unchecked carries potential become means oppression abuse others sort threat. ("[The Founders] knew—the world told them—the nation founding, existence short long, war; continued, human foresight tell; unlimited power, wherever lodged especially hazardous freemen"). live "[m]ere intolerance animosity person's O'Connor Donaldson, 422 563, 575 (1975), starting Eldridge unaltered detainee associated. reaffirm involuntary confinement government weigh opposing curtailment entails. 39 weighty sensitive discussed above, 518, realities appropriate, blink realities. Without doubt, strategic warmaking belong hands best positioned politically accountable making Navy Egan, 484 530 (1988) reluctance intrude affairs"); Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. Sawyer, 343 579, 587 (1952) (acknowledging "broad commanders day-to-day 40 length reducing heightened difficulties accompany trial-like officers unnecessarily dangerously distracted half away, secrets defense futile search buried rubble war. 46-49. triggered procedures, account analysis. Striking balance great Nation period combat. equally vital give shrift values dear citizenship. uncertain moments severely tested; preserve fight Kennedy Mendoza-Martinez, 372 144, 164-165 (1963) imperative necessity safeguarding rights gravest emergencies existed then, pressing exigencies crisis, greatest temptation dispense guarantees which, feared, inhibit Robel, 389 258, 264 (1967) ("It ironic if, defense, sanction subversion liberties worthwhile"). 42 recognition believe proposed strikes detainee's unacceptably high rule, "additional safeguards" value" impose cases. Mathews, 43 citizen-detainee classification, fair Cleveland Bd. Ed. Loudermill, 470 532, ("An essential property `be preceded case'" Mullane Hanover Bank Trust Co., 339 306, 313 (1950)); Concrete Pipe Products Cal., Inc. Construction Laborers Pension Southern 508 602, 617 (1993) ("due `neutral detached instance'" Ward Monroeville, 409 57, 61-62 (1972))). "For century clear: `Parties heard; enjoy notified.' `must manner.'" Fuentes Shevin, 407 67, (1972) Baldwin Hale, 223, 233 (1864); Armstrong Manzo, 380 545, 552 (1965) (other citations These promises eroded. demand elements, tailored alleviate uncommon Hearsay, example, reliable proceeding. Likewise, offended presumption favor evidence, rebuttable rebuttal provided. puts credible meets criteria, onus shift persuasive falls criteria. burden-shifting meet errant tourist, embedded journalist, local aid worker chance prove error giving put words "risk eliminating certain questionable Government. 335.2 45 think dire impact functions forecasts. initial here; seized. documentation detainees already course 3-4. Any imposition created requiring knowledgeable affiant summarize minimal wage lose much steam hearings acts. meddles little, strategy inquiring appropriateness continuing claimed accord respect consideration judgments relating actual discretion wide, infringe role time-honored roles reviewing resolving claims Cf. Korematsu 323 214, 233-234 (1944) (Murphy, dissenting) ("[L]ike conflicting individual, claim itself having reasonableness reconciled"); Sterling Constantin, 287 378, 401 (1932) ("What allowable limits discretion, overstepped questions"). 46 sum, settings setting, threats posed trump meaningfully adjudicator. D holding, mandate heavily circumscribed forgo reasonable view serves condense single branch state blank comes citizens. Tube, 587. Whatever exchanges nations assuredly three branches Mistretta 488 361, (1989) (it Framers scheme, coordinate Branches preservation liberty"); Home Building Loan Assn. Blaisdell, 290 398, 426 (1934) (The successfully, thus permits harnessing entire energies supreme cooperative effort nation. remove limitations liberties"). it, Great Branch play maintaining delicate governance, important realm ("At core, served strongest"). assessment pay keen attention action, checks balances head opposes challenge. Absent 48 refute inadequate. go wholly unchallenged presumed correct demonstrate short. recognized, utilized past proof. 35. primarily employed examining administrative developed adversarial proceeding—one setting. supra; 455-457. ill suited prior 49 Today Aside unspecified "screening" processes, 3-4, interrogations contested Tr. Oral Arg. 40, 42, captor, however effective intelligence-gathering tool, hardly adequate Compare 42-43 (discussing "secure environment," controlled "interrogation dynamic" "a relationship trust dependency" source" "timely intelligence") Pipe, 617-618 ("[O]ne adjudicator average lead nice, true" (internal purportedly adjudicators "are disqualified controversy decided course, general rule." Tumey Ohio, 273 510, 522 (1927). Plainly, "process" Clause. standards appropriately constituted tribunal. notable regulations instances, dictating tribunals assert prisoner-of-war Convention. Headquarters Depts. Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Enemy Retained Personnel, Civilian Internees Other Detainees, Regulation 190-8, 1-6 (1997). receives minimum requirements achieved. much, focusing him. too, proceeded assumption, presenting evaluated discussed, contained return. anticipate caution engaging prudent incremental. heed arise vibrant IV 51 erred denying disposing attorney. 19. Since certiorari counsel, consultation occasions, unmonitored meetings. unquestionably No issue 52 53 remanded proceedings. 54 ordered. Notes: Briefs ofamici curiae urging reversal Bar Association Dennis Archer Barry Sullivan; Steven M. Pesner, Small, Jeffrey Kehne; Liberties Shapiro, Sharon McGowan, David Saperstein, Sinensky, Kara Stein, Arthur Bryant; Cato Institute Timothy Lynch; Global James Fitzpatrick, Kathleen Behan, Gay McDougall; William Aceves Douglas Baruch; Charles B. Gittings, Donald Rehkopf, Jr.; Honorable Nathaniel Robert LoBue; Peterson Philip Allen Lacovara Andrew Pincus; Mary Robinson Harold Hongju Koh Jonathan Freiman. amici affirmance Center Justice Jay Alan Sekulow, Thomas Monaghan, Stuart Roth, Colby May, Henderson, Sr., Joel Thornton, Tuskey, Shannon D. Woodruff; Unity Barnaby Zall; Claremont Constitutional Jurisprudence Eastman Edwin Meese III; Citizens Common Defence Adam Charnes; Legal Foundation V. Loran, DeVinney, Daniel Popeo, Richard Samp. 03-6696 03-1027 Senator Cornyn Cornyn, pro se. Karen Tripp Eagle Forum Education Fund curiae. Here weapon battlefield; elaborated detail. permissible bounds defined lower described treaty 55 GINSBURG joins, judgment. 56 brought him, soil, explanation side. charged espionage, treason, crime domestic year nine months, designation send communication prison particular, represent him.1 conditions indefinitely, threatened exemplified 2001. 57 petition, distinct true, implicate (Non-Detention Act), bars "except 58 incommunicado Commander Chief laws usages event statutes. enquire designation, 34-36; locked Executive. responding accorded 40; ("[H]e words" "[d]uring interrogation"). either enquiry virtually worthless hear theoretical practical, leaving close unconditional. 59 rejects limit does, (at period) 224 Resolution). Ante, 517-521. Here, disagree respectfully dissent. Resolution complained claims. shows, Non-Detention entitles released. 60 violates prohibiting statute apply detentions, sphere Next, says apply, Acts demands: "prisoners war" "similar" Resolution, manner described, acting Constitution, brings invoke customary us, theory. 61 broadly narrowly read Act, tone severe: "No Should severity relieved stated justification terrorism, said "pursuant" terms fall individuals? though qualification, infra, 548-549, no. For number reasons, prohibition 62 adopted interpretation. provision superseded cold-war 1950 (formerly seq. (1970 ed.)), Attorney General, anyone reasonably thought repealed fear repetition Japanese ancestry; another episode 214 (1944). 92-116, pp. 4-5 (1971). struck considering repealer existing protection, seem statutory protecting liberty. (mere "might leave demarcation authority"); 117 Cong. Rec. 31544 (1971) (Emergency "remains barrier resulted in" internment); 31548 (in provisions, "will stripped naked has"). action expanded inclusive enacted. 63 intended guard internments powerful placed cell. merely shows anticipation present, safety threatened. appreciate significant, recall 1940's action. ratified exclude areas accommodate remove, Endo, 283, 285-288 (1944), whatever removed, 300-301; creatures rested 287-293. When, therefore, avoiding Korematsu, reliance vague (for "accommodations" removal) (maintaining citizens, example). enactment 64 interpretive subjected enactments limiting statement accordingly. clarity day Korematsu. Endo began interned claiming loyal law-abiding "unlawfully detained." U.S., 294. scrutinizing statutes derogation liberty: 65 interpreting [its] accommodation assume, asked find implied makers used." 300. 66 Congress's teeth authorization. 67 spared cautionary example II, interpretation, compelling manifest defining character constant partial helpings each. separated deciding finally degree guaranteed (or condition between) entrusted responsibility maintain security. inescapable striking win cost victory; naturally amplify raises. reached branch, Madison remarking aim divide arrange offices other—that sentinel rights." Federalist 51, 349 (J. Cooke 1961). Hence lockup, 68 reading robustly none suffices 69 resting placement Code, gathering text not, reach, restricted terms. draft original unauthorized 18. 4. Justice's seemed wrongly amended replacing title "Act Committee Judiciary, discussing change, "[limiting] situations Congres[s] exists" "assure acquiescence 5. 542-544. understanding, sweep furtherance security, extended debate. Representative Ichord, chairman House Internal Security opponent bill, feared redrafted "deprive emergency coping sabotage agents war-related crises." Rec., 31542. Railsback, bill's sponsor, spoke absolute terms: "[I]n prohibit [the bill] assures undertaken consent 31551. indicates aware say vindicate statutorily wartime, claims.2 70 plurality, described,3 fails detain. speaks generality, power. fairly armies weapons, terrorists. But, word perceived augment deal dangerous well-stocked arsenal offenses covering gamut actions sympathetic commit. e.g., 2339A (material acts); 2339B organization); 2332a (use mass destruction, conspiracy attempt); 2332b(a)(1) (acts "transcending boundaries," threats, conspiracy, 2339C (2000 ed., Supp. II) (financing 3142(e) (pretrial generally Janet Reno Rumsfeld Padilla, O. 2003, 03-1027, 14-19, n. (listing tools here); Louis Henkin 23, 27.4 71 so, treating Assuming sound, advantage. 72 goes, according customs collectively 20-22; ante, 517-521 (accepting argument). enemies, perhaps captive repeatedly amounts battle: 73 need, enough (among captured) odds hence brief, detainees." Office White Press Secretary, Fact Sheet, Detainees (Feb. 7, 2002), www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/ 02/20020207-13.html Release) (cited 24, 9). detainee, account, bearing Third party. 3320, 3364. 74 incommunicado, obviously 24; Release. appears captives "until competent tribunal." 3324. answers conclusive removes trigger application Convention's requirement. 24. categorical pronouncement settle regulation, §§ 1-5, (1997), implement setting detailed procedure ("A composed commissioned officers"; "written proceedings"; "[p]roceedings open" exceptions; "[p]ersons advised beginning hearings," "allowed open sessions," call witnesses available, Tribunal," "have testify"; "[p]reponderance evidence"). types be, "[i]nnocent immediately returned released." 1-6e(10)(c). jointly promulgated Departments executed, imprisoned, penalized committed penalty imposed." 1-6g. regulation incorporates "persons protection 1-6a. authority. 75 Whether, degree, violating resolve What say, though, applied Resolution. accordingly 76 worth adding bear justifying exercising declaring satisfied. Thirty-eight days adopting Uniting Strengthening America Providing Appropriate Tools Required Intercept Obstruct Terrorism 2001 (USA PATRIOT ACT), 272; alien seven deportation proceedings, 1226a(a)(5) I). incommunicado. 77 deflect further; hints presents will, stray across territory note weakness mixed inherent, extrastatutory combination inadequacy well. Beyond instructive Jackson's observation country, 643-644 (concurring opinion); 637-638 (Presidential "at lowest ebb" contrary will). 78 room qualification statement, however: genuine deliberation, able imminent (though want 547-548). question, emergency; years. 127 (1866) (martial justified "actual present" invasion closes courts). 79 Whether insisting scrutiny heirs tradition voice 800 years ago Magna Carta, barons' insistence, land." disputed issues itself. me, showing conforms demonstration unconstitutional. consistent view. 81 disposition command majority eight Members rejecting me join ordering closest impose. Screws 325 91, 134 (1945) (Rutledge, result). unnecessary, plurality's combatant, benefit opportunity. 82 saying joining produce adopt reach. (given Resolution) someone decisionmaker, 533; nor, affirmation hand, mean imply casting 534, litigate obviate truncate habeas, 538. 83 Subject qualifications, vacating remanding February 2004 consult policy, concede obligation this. 39-46 distinguish anotherKorematsu (arguing exempt). agency ran camps, relocation Chief. Presidential invoked intent goes noted,supra, 541, spend money appropriated care other, prisoners, 956(5). occasion spending money. reported chosen criminally shortage allege. SeeUnited Lindh, 212 547 (ED Va. 2002); Khan, 309 789, 796 2004). STEVENS dissenting. 85 charge Norfolk Charleston Brigs years, allegation bore Taliban. contrary, inexperienced caught wrong time. citizens' personal share evident unease reconcile two, resolution. 86 Where accuses prosecute Constitution's Suspension relax usual temporarily. exigency permit charge. relies implementation reverse below. 87 secured Anglo-Saxon freedom Blackstone clearly: 88 "Of left highest, magistrate arbitrarily whomever immunities. bereave violence confiscate estate, trial, gross notorious despotism, convey alarm tyranny whole kingdom. person, secretly hurrying gaol, sufferings unknown forgotten; public, striking, engine 89 "To lawful, judicature, officer, commit prison; writing, hand seal magistrate, causes commitment, examined (if necessary) corpus. expressed, gaoler bound prisoner. judges respect, unreasonable prisoner, signify withal Blackstone, Commentaries England 131-133 (1765) Blackstone). 90 Founders. Hamilton quoted passage 84, 444 (G. McClellan eds. 2001). ideas Blackstone's secured, instrument insisted illegally —found expression Clauses. 5; 2. 91 gist understood founding since, follow common-law traditionally depriving property. When typically committal followed indictment Mary, (1555); Story, 1783, 661 (1833) Story) (equating "due law" presentment indictment, thereto law"). "in affirms law." Cooley, Principles ("When life proceedings; implies accusation, jurisdiction, conviction inflicted" 92 sure, noncriminal dependent procedure. However, well-recognized exceptions mentally ill, quarantine infectious. Opinion Corpus, Wilm. 77, 88-92, 97 Eng. 36-37 (H. 1758) (Wilmot, unthinkable grounds disclaiming prosecute, asserting incapacitating offenders punishing wrongdoing. Kansas Hendricks, 521 346, 358 (1997) finding dangerousness, ordinarily ground commitment"). 93 historically vindicated tool confinement. effective. Darnel's Case, How. (K. 1627), King failing assist England's France Spain. writs arguing "imprisonment ever; subjects kingdom restrained perpetually." 8. replied Crown's ripe timely" 37. relief, producing widespread outrage, Parliament responded Petition Right, 1628, expressly Car. 10. 94 struggle Crown culminated 1679, "second magna carta, stable bulwark liberties." 133. governed "committed crime." felony plainly sureties (unless nonbailable offense). release, commence specified 7. "indicted Time Term," "required Liberty Prisoner Bail" unable witnesses. Able no, succeeding "he discharged Imprisonment." English sat four per 275-277, exceed approximately six months. 95 preserved explicitly mentioned. lauded establishment corpus" practice imprisonments ages, [one of] favourite formidable instruments tyranny." 444. availability (along jury cases, III, 3) additional, unnecessary. 83, 433. 96 accusations activity. believes participated different, special wrongdoing aiding wartime. writing crimes) 518-519. probably accurate description aliens. traitors 98 early 1350, Statute Treasons "levy Lord Realm, adherent King's Enemies Aid Comfort, elsewhere." Edw. c. 1762 Discourse High Treason, Sir Foster explained: 99 "With Natural-born Subjects Doubt. They owe Allegiance Times Places. 101 Rebels Rebellion, Hostility, Man Traitor: Case Levying Adhering enemies. 102 103 "States Actual Hostility Us, solemnly Declared, Act. Indictment Enemies, Aver Prince Adhered Enemy, shewing Proclaimed. Foreign Amity invadeth Kingdom Commission Sovereign, Enemy. adhering Him Traitor Act." Report Some Proceedings Trial Year 1746 County Surry, Cases, Introduction, 183; Ch. 216; 219. 104 levying routinely treason. E.g., Harding's Ventris 315, 461 1690); Parkyns, 1696); Vaughan, 485 Downie, (1794). Founders inherited punished criminally. provides: "Treason consist them, Comfort"; (two witnesses) "convic[t]" offense. 1. 105 noncitizen co-conspirators not. Germany court. Fricke, 673 (SDNY 1919); Robinson, 685 1919). German ex rel. Wessels McDonald, 265 754 (EDNY 1920). During famous saboteurs (with exception citizen-saboteur, below) 330 631 (1947); Fisher, Nazi Saboteurs 80-84 (2003); Cramer (1945). 106 modern 2381; basically tracks provision. criminalize adherence (destruction aircraft facilities), destruction), 2332b transcending boundaries), (providing terrorists), organizations), 2382 (misprision treason), 2383 (rebellion insurrection), 2384 (seditious conspiracy), 2390 (enlistment serve hostility States). CFR 595.204 (prohibiting "making receiving contribution funds, goods, services" terrorists); 1705(b) (criminalizing 595.204). guilty plea. 541 2002) (denying motions dismissal); Seelye, N. Times, A1, col. 107 renders resort traditional impracticable. accommodated periods. 108 "And yet sometimes, real danger, [i. e., detention] measure. happiness constitution danger great, expedient. parliament only, whenever sees proper, crown, suspending doing. experiment parts it[s] while, ever." 132. 109 pursued charge, committal, conviction, Legislature's approval suspension. England, occasions suspensions rebellion. E. M., (1688) (threatened II); Will. (1696) (same); Geo. (1744) French invasion); (1746) rebellion Scotland); (1777) (the Revolution). Not Massachusetts clause Const. pt. 6, art. VII (1780), Federal Constitutions, Colonial Charters Organic 1888, 1910 (F. Thorpe 1909), suspended Shay's Suspending 10, 1786 510. 110 invoked: it." effected by, act, understood, Clause's Bollman, Cranch 75, (1807); Merryman, Cas. 151-152 (CD Md. 1861) (Taney, Lincoln's suspension); Story 1336, 208-209. 111 design valve, "express crisis," 650 (Jackson, concurring). Very Jefferson unsuccessfully Aaron Burr's overthrow Annals 402-425 (1807). 755, many proclamations (e. Proclamation 730 (1862)) Later relied 734 (1863). Reconstruction, Ku Klux Klan included writ, Grant quelling Carolina counties. 14; [of 17, 1871], Compilation Messages Papers Presidents 136-138 Richardson 1899) Papers); 138-139. 112 Two later governors possessions. Philippine 1902 Governor Philippines rebellion, insurrection, invasion. 1902, 1369, 692. 1905 proclamation Governor. Fisher Baker, 203 174, 179-181 (1906). Hawaiian 1900 Hawaii thereof). 339, 153. 113 Of convictions oversight. total liberation 34. dealing levied theoretically alternatives. 114 believe, possibility. 1679 suspicion option enemy, "enforc[ing] Watkins, Pet. 193, 202 (1830), shaped noted 557-558, addressed remedy indicted term. bobtailed King. Rather, prescribed contain omission conspicuous, addresses offense "High Treason," nature. 560. Writings generation exception, alternatives 1788, wrote questioning letter illustrates constraints operate: 116 "Why Hab. corp. insurrections rebellions? instantly publick probable testimony emergencies; let tried, retaken retried, continues, redress damages." (July 1788) Boyd 1956). reflected 1807 debates uprising came conspiracy: implicated consequence? apprehended, justice, decide farther prosecution. From appeared commitment. Several elapse final collect sufficient, fail merited crimes, inflicted country." 405 (remarks Burwell). 119 probability 1812. first, Stacy, *328 1813), "carrying information enemy." *330 deleted). Stacy petitioned defendant custodian attempted avoid complying, Kent attachment color crime" "holding confinement, contemning state." *333-*334. 120 128-129 upheld verdicts officers. affirmed award damages was, "an enemy's spy *265. "[n]one offences Shaw cognizable court-martial, spy; offence. amenable treason; punished, martial spy." "If justifiable did, would, exposed authority." *266. awarded $9,000 officer verdict excessive, "it appear defendant] knew plaintiff] citizen." *238 (Spencer, Wuerth, Detain "Enemy Combatants": Modern Lessons Madison's Forgotten Nw. 1567 121 Lincoln, purported message 1861, permitted. Session Message, 20-31. 122 Further supra. There, issued commission conspiring munitions, liberate 6-7. "under `laws war,'" 121: 123 "It useful inquire are, whence originated, found, operate; unobstructed," ibid.1 124 exactly death, reasoning logically cover admits open, Milligan's war: 126 dangerous, affairs, unrestrained `conspired comfort rebels, incited insurrection,' arrest confine closely, powerless mischief; grand district, proofs guilt, indicted, done, vindicated, 1863 enforced, securities defended." 122. primary traitors, incapacitate 128 lacks Founders' mistrust permanently disposal. "blessings liberty" establishments gradually poison fountain." 45, 238 Madison). fewer devoted allaying fears peacetime. Many safeguards reflect raise Armies" hedged proviso "no Appropriation Money Term Years." Except maintenance explained, "much inferior" British King: 129 amount admiral confederacy: king extends raising regulating fleets armies; consideration, appertain legislature." 69, 357. 130 flies engendered provisions. 131 jurisprudence ratifies territorial courts. places upholding saboteurs, whom, Herbert finest hour. curiam oral 18-19, unnumbered note; carried commission's death sentence Haupt. explained written later. 132 paragraphs lengthy Haupt's 45-46. contention, interpret above unobstructed") manner: 133 "Elsewhere pains twenty Indiana, belligerent penalties imposed belligerents. construe inapplicability non-belligerent, ." 45. revise issues) questions: issuance war's mentioned war) discussion 121. factors pertaining discussion, 131, it) parties, respective jurisdictions, administration unimpaired," 116. described: "belligerents" war."2 135 irrevocable revision forces. "admitted invaders," landed service "upon "plainly [the] boundaries" added).3 jurisdictional conceded—where insists —Quirin pre-existing place: decree release.4 V 136 follows promptly brought, could, lay down continued today's prescribes difference people's representatives' (and prescribing it), so. 137 224, 138 "That harbored 2(a). 139 remotely is. Contrary canon construed grave Edward DeBartolo Corp. Florida Gulf Coast Constr. Trades Council, 568, (1988); 300 Duncan Kahanamoku, 327 304, 314-316, 324 (1946); overcome prescription 4001(a).5 entitlement relief. circumscribes withheld, sham evaded unavailing. guarantee exist taken; detained; little indeed. 140 thought, evisceration augments, principally, Congress. usual, major improvisation increase Court. Having exists; discarded Clause; proceeds, guise prescribe thinks appropriate. "weigh[s] interest," 529 and—just Constitution—comes unheard-of bears proof, witnesses, presiding "neutral" jury. 533-534. "judicious balancing" (1976), withdrawal disability benefits! technique newly questionable), supply answer. 141 distorted finishes transmogrifying Writ—disposing "engag[e] incremental," process], achieved." remediation default unheard of. omitted legal. Preiser Rodriguez, 411 475, (1973) ("[T]he essence secure illegal custody"); 132-133. supplying provided, chose to. (because law), granted; authorities, else 142 harmony failure needed procedures—an reflects Fix-it Mentality. Make Everything Come Out consequences, concerned, branches' omissions. Has Legislature emergency? Well, included. conditions? ourselves good, fellow dangerous) free. problem courts' modest democratic society; encourages lassitude saps vitality people. VI 143 views relatively compass. group; currently know Jose Padilla. Johnson Eisentrager, 763, 769-771 (1950); Reid Covert, 354 74-75 (1957) (Harlan, result); Rasul Bush, 502-504 (SCALIA, dissenting). citizen-enemy progress contemplation. Riverside McLaughlin, 500 (1991) (brief warrantless arrest); 739 (1987) Bail Reform Act). notably successful securing long-term execution, waged state. 144 frankly needs, obtain interrogation. competence, that. Congress's. ask writ—which deems novelties invented "invasion," 208-209.6 curtailed done openly democratically, requires, silent erosion 146 tradeoff freedom. "Safety external danger," declared, 147 director conduct. ardent love dictates. violent destruction continual attendant compel repose institutions tendency destroy rights. safe, they, length, willing run free." (A. Hamilton). 148 warned risk, equipped designed 149 inevitable crisis—that, extremes exigency, inter arma leges. silences modulates voice, interpretation precisely confront accords envision, discuss presently, seeinfra, 570-572, (1942). Quirin's indicator meaning. (plurality opinion) (Milligan "one landmarks history"). bothering respond analysis, thatMilligan "turned part" defendant's 522. Neither true. extent, conditional effect. SeeIn F.2d 143-145 1946); Colepaugh Looney, 235 429, 432 (CA10 complains Territo [was] zone," Indeed is; surely rare. battlefields; carve complaint would) admitted) denied. thatQuirin somehow "clarifies" 523, false. 570-571 page, propounded Milligan; nonetheless record," avoided 45-46 added). ignoring limitation, "beside point" belligerency "by process" (not trial) "that certainty." Bill methods depends. one-paragraph "[c]lear disavowal" 1812, 522, defies logic; plaintiffs concededly force. Moyer Peabody, (1909), suit Colorado, ringleader quelled militia Governor's insurrection (he contended) thereto." Moyer, Colo. 154, 157, 738, 740 (1905). Peabody (even transferable state-militia standing-army suspension) "[s]o arrests [were] good faith honest belief off," lie. "good-faith" forebear doctrine qualified immunity. Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 247-248 (1974) (understanding way). lasted 2½ roughly 557-558. THOMAS Luther Borden, (1849), legislature law—a step drastic 590-591 theatre really prevails," closed. (1866); 129-130 (distinguishing Luther). "specific detention" "fundamental war."Ante, 519. Its irrelevant sense. noncitizens, similarly situated. 763 4067, (Alien captivity complies restrictions 571-572, remaining pertain reasons: 246; 2; Confederacy, regarded worries "during necessary,"post, 594. imagine seriously met. 150 151 Branch, vested approval, detained. expertise capacity second-guess decision. such, petitioners' fail, reaches adequately structure relates affairs using balanced away Arguably, protections, insist takes, particulars. utterly inability concerns correctly. 152 `obvious unarguable' Nation." Haig Agee, 453 280, 307 (1981) Aptheker State, 378 500, (1964)). 662 (Clark, judgment); 146-147 1961) Hamilton) answered defence members—the convulsions attacks"). foresee myriad arise, create handle Nation. "ought limitation [b]ecause impossible variety exigencies, correspondent endanger infinite; shackles wisely committed." 147. 154 Nos. 41. 155 responsibility—along power—to relations. principally structural advantages unitary domains. "Energy leading community attacks." 70, 471 "ingredien[t]" "energy executive" "unity." 472. "[d]ecision, activity, secrecy, dispatch characterise man, eminent number." national-security foreign-affairs contexts. cares peculiarly qualities hand." 74, Also Marshall organ relations, representative nations." 613 (1800); 613-614. vests Power," "shall the" Forces, governments, 157 features discretion. 158 nation, resist initiate waiting authority.... fulfilling duties, in-chief, suppressing resistance Prize Black 635, 668, 670 159 acknowledged "employ Forces] deem effectual harass conquer Fleming Page, 603, 615 (1850). well, interference. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 320 (1936) "has confidential sources information. form diplomatic, consular officials. Secrecy gathered highly necessary, premature disclosure productive harmful results"); Chicago Lines, Waterman 333 (1948). 160 crucial interference domains destroys vesting improve speaking Court: 161 President, Commander-in-Chief services reports published world. intolerable courts, information, nullify secret. sit confidences. disclosure, decisions policy political, judicial. Such confided departments Legislative. delicate, complex, involve elements prophecy. directly welfare advance imperil. kind Judiciary aptitude, facilities domain intrusion inquiry." 162 points, forcefully Jackson, emphasizing. withheld. "[t]hey prophecy." Third, Lines correctly primacy 163 "Congress legislate act," surprise "[s]uch `especially security,' `congressional disapproval' Executive." Dames Moore Regan, 654, 678 291). domains, imply—and infer—that deprive enumerated. Moore, 678. closely evinces `invite' `measures presidential responsibility.'" Youngstown, 637 concurring)). 164 exercises delegated Congress[, i]n `would strongest presumptions widest latitude persuasion it.'" 668 one, detention[,] danger[, is] [it enacted." (Chase, judgment) (stating "must clearest reconciled Congress"). predicates ("We guilt innocence petitioners"). Hirabayashi (1943); Black, 670; Martin Mott, Wheat. 19, 29-30 (1827). 165 circumstances, acted distinguishable ways. admittedly ancestry. relied. Those pressed 301-302. "stress[ed] silence [relevant] Orders." added); 301-304. sensibly conceivably allegations. Jackson ha[d] covered inconsistent th[e] seizure." 639 comply point). 166 acknowledge resolved agrees "of 111. see, branches.1 then-Judge Scalia: 167 Old Testament days, ruled Israel led battle, professing halt operation lands startling phenomenon. elected delegates people, extraordinary. [C]ourt's willingness know, out, harm doing." Ramirez de Arellano Weinberger, 745 1500, 1550-1551 (CADC 1984) (en banc) (footnote omitted). 168 1551, "[e]ven ancient Israelites realized shortcomings commanders-in-chief"). "delicate, involv[es] prophecy," 111, incidentally such," 516. 597-598 decisions). 169 "`The successfully."'" Lichter 334 742, 767, (1948) Hughes, Powers (1917)). victories field, renewal Yamashita, Stewart Kahn, 493, (1871), citizens) 28-29, 30-31; 37-39; 313-314 (2d rev. 1920); Whiting, (43d 1871); 44-46 "rebels" belligerents); 170 troops, 517. previously materially identical "make ...; kill milder seizing [and detaining] bodies considers stand restoring peace." 78, (1909). 171 qualifies precedent. 3364, hostilities." 520. establis[h] because, force.'" 521. diminish apply. infra. Ludecke 160, 167-170 (1948); Wheat., And, Madsen Kinsella, 341, 360 (1952); 786 85. 172 "supported interpretation." omitted).2 becomes (rather alone) More precisely, used. 173 combatants. 518. breadth findings. considerations precedent, determination. 174 complete clear. matter, `law land'—that provisions." Winship, 397 358, 382 (1970) (Black, context. 175 strikingly responsible, insurrection. Holmes 176 "When yield necessities moment. Public warrants substitution admitted killing men clash arms, obvious, disputed, true apprehended harm." (citation omitted; emphasis 177 Moyer's 178 depends varies subject-matter situation. Thus summary suffice taxes, exclusion country.... precaution power." 84-85 179 context, good-faith determination.3 executive, unilaterally mistaken. 180 exceptional request "`to for, suppress [an] insurrection.'" Feb. 1795). legislatures executives. How., 43. determination, duty (provided incorrectly) discharge far," [referring IV, 4] anarchy, order." contemplated evidently comported militia, 181 natural concern placing "this abused." 44. "[a]ll abused unworthy hands," effectual." Putting aside, conferred respected enforced tribunals." remedy. administer 182 Almost 748 (1987), "lays [no] imperative." continued: 183 regulatory can, outweigh interest. society's peak, dangerous." (1948), latter Selective Draft 245 366 (1918); Jacobson Massachusetts, 197 27-29 (1905) (upholding legislated vaccinations approving forced quarantines Americans show signs illness); 346 (1997); Juragua Iron 297 184 continue, show, second-guessing. determinations, defeat unity, function. Part 185 choose processes 578 567-568, wake 565-566. admit position. there, arguably dicta, 122, Justices believed, 132, 134-136 Wayne, Swayne, Miller, judgment). 186 importantly, referred frequently pervasively instituted Milligan. feature *328, *334 1813) commander citizen" added)); *257, *265 1815) (Shaw spy" (same treason). 187 punishment-nonpunishment harmonizes implicitly distinguished way. ("Such precaution"). overruled inconsistent. (limiting facts). 518-519, control. 188 Madison. 564. leads "clear enacted," 25, nullifying 189 concern. suffice, 577-578. "unless it," poses problems. unconstitutionally4 needs unconstitutional President. unconstitutionally lawfully. 190 thereby unconvincingly attempts do. 191 analytical analyze case,5 help misapplies framework, reached. devotes misplaced. 531-532. But: Aptheker, 509). paramount tranquility Colorado town. soldier fight. explains, gather intentions adversaries, avers terrorism. 15; 347-351. 192 Additional 43-45. matter. divulge secrets. 193 manages problems discounting few sentences putatively analysis." 532. announces 532-533 decisions. 194 opines "[w]e forecasts." 534. Apparently acts," "meddl[e] 535. invasive inquiry. again, situated judgments. 195 Ultimately, dismissive apparent "central warmaking," wrong: Taking quintessential aspect 518-519; 28. highlights applying strength costs imposing 196 ostensibly warmaking." recounts: "Parties notified. manner." 198 ("notice" [those] decisionmaker" process). bomb extinguish targets. November Intelligence Agency (CIA) Predator drone fired Hellfire missile vehicle Yemen leader, others. Priest, CIA Killed Citizen Missile Strike, Nov. A1. vehicle. Tennessee Garner, (1985). examples same. 199 realize sense, many, expedient, principled condemns Hamdi) operations. truth, sensible, bright-line distinction. bombings civilians killed. Hamdi.6 This, bolsters sovereign's powers. 200 Undeniably, Against this, overriding town, Nation, fortiori, 201 approach, 532-533. accounting suffices, thoroughly explains 42-43. 347-351 (affidavit Col. Woolfolk). Equally obvious 779, 527 (President's "authority classify determine" gets "flows Clause] apart grant"); revocation former employee's passport secrecy operations").7 affirm Appeals. responsibilities demanded Alliance. F.3d (CA4 2003) See,e.g., 2243, 2246. Walker Johnston, 312 275, 284 (1941). faith. SeeMoyer, Governor's] honest, material, [Moyer] end"). Seeante, Evidently, citeMathews once. 22-24 observations cast usefulness ofMathews acquired threat?

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