Document: 408 U.S. 606 92 S.Ct. 2614 33 L.Ed.2d 583 Mike GRAVEL, United States Senator,v.UNITED STATES. UNITED STATES, Petitioner, v. Senator. Nos. 71—1017, 71—1026. Argued April 19, 20, 1972. Decided June 29, Syllabus A Senator read to a subcommittee from classified documents (the Pentagon Papers), which he then placed in the public record. The press reported that had arranged for private publication of Papers. grand jury investigating whether violations federal law were implicated subpoenaed an aide Senator, as intervenor, moved quash subpoena, contending it would violate Speech or Debate Clause compel testify. District Court denied motion but limited questioning aide. Appeals affirmed denial modified protective order, ruling congressional aides and other persons may not be questioned regarding legislative acts that, though was constitutionally protected, common-law privilege similar protecting executive officials liability libel, see Barr Matteo, 360 564, 79 1335, 3 1434, barred concerning such publication. Held: 1. applies only Member Congress also his aide, insofar aide's conduct protected act if performed by himself. Kilbourn Thompson, 103 168, 26 L.Ed. 377; Dombrowski Eastland, 387 82, 87 1425, 18 577, Powell McCormack, 395 486, 89 1944, 23 491 distinguished. Pp. 613—622. 2. does extend immunity Senator's testifying before about alleged arrangement Papers, no connection with process. 622—627. 3. similarly, non-constitutional testimonial being its inquiry into Papers violated law. P. 627. 4. Appeals' order overly broad enjoining interrogation respect any act, 'in broadest sense,' within scope employment, since extended immune. And source possession, long implicates act. respects suffice forbade others motives at meeting; communications between relating meeting Senator; steps preparatory meeting, relevant third-party crimes. 627—629. 455 F.2d 753, vacated remanded. Sam J. Ervin, Jr., Morganton, N.C., William B. Saxbe, Washington, D.C., Senate, amici curiae, special leave Court. Robert Reinstein, Baltimore, Md., Charles Louis Fishman, Gravel. Sol. Gen. Erwin N. Griswold States. Opinion Mr. Justice WHITE, announced BLACKMUN. 1 These cases arise out investigation possible criminal release Defense Department study entitled History Decision-Making Process on Viet Nam Policy. This document, popularly known bore security classification Top Secret-Sensitive. crimes investigated included retention property records intent convert (18 U.S.C. § 641), gathering transmitting national defense information 793), concealment removal 2071), conspiracy commit offenses defraud 371). 2 Among witnesses Leonard S. Rodberg, assistant Gravel Alaska resident fellow Institute Policy Studies, Howard Webber, Director M.I.T. Press. Gravel, intervenor,1 filed motions subpoenas require Government specify particular questions addressed Rodberg.2 He asserted requiring these appear testify under Constitution, Art. I, 6, cl. It appeared night 1971, Chairman Subcommittee Buildings Grounds Senate Public Works Committee, convened there extensively copy entire 47 volumes Rodberg been added staff earlier day assisted preparing conducting hearing.3 Some weeks later reports papers published Beacon Press4 members Gravel's talked Webber editor Press.5 4 overruled entered proscribing certain categories questions. Doe, 332 F.Supp. 930 (Mass.1971). Government's contention purposes applying courts free inquire regularity rejected.6 Because all acts, held shield anything did 'certain done preparation therefor.' Id., 935. prohibited 'inquiry things Dr. agent have therefore privileged, personally.' 937 938.7 trial court, however, privileged Clause. 936.8 5 reflect own views privilege. 753 (CA1 1972). Agreeing one foreclosed both viewed barring direct third parties, sources used performing duties.9 Although consider Press apparently neither nor could because akin judicially created officers libel contained news issued course their normal duties. See 1434 (1959). privilege, fashioned Appeals, protect parties inquiries jury. As observed prosecution was: 6 '(1) No witness currently nor, are directed behind him activities during period related said meeting. 7 '(2) actions sense, including observations communications, oral written, coming attention while interviewed for, after having engaged member personal extent they employment.' 8 petitioned certiorari challenging has materials introduced seeking reversal unprotected asserting too narrowly against parties. We granted petitions. 405 916, 963, 30 785 (1972). 9 * claim is Member's shares constitutional we first what himself exempt process commission crime. Our frame reference 1, Constitution: 10 'The Senators Representatives shall receive Compensation Services, ascertained Law, paid Treasury They Cases, except Treason, Felony Breach Peace, Arrest Attendance Session respective Houses, going returning same; either House, Place.' 11 last sentence provides Members two distinct privileges. Except 'Treason, Peace,' shields arrest attending traveling session House. reveals, prior so hold, this part exempts civil only. 'When Constitution adopted, arrests suits still common America. provision applies.' Long Ansell, 293 76, 83, 55 21, 22, 208 (1934) (footnote omitted). 'Since . term treason, felony, breach peace, relied upon, excepts operation offenses, conclusion results exemption without merit ..' Williamson States, 207 425, 446, 28 163, 170, 52 278 (1908).10 Nor freedom confer service defendant matters, supra, 82—83, case. constitution gives every man, charged offence, benefit compulsory process, secure attendance witnesses. I do know congress service, obligations, cases.' Cooper, Dall. 341, 859 (1800) (Chase, J., sitting Circuit). is, therefore, sufficiently plain ordinary laws, even imprisonment prevent interfere performance duties Members. supra; cf. Burton 202 344, 688, 50 1057 (1906). Indeed, implicit narrow Jefferson noted, judgment legislators ought stand above create generally bound persons. T. Jefferson, Manual Parliamentary Practice, S.Doc. No. 92—1, p. 437 (1971). 12 In recognition, doubt, force disvows assertion general But points portion affords another vital privilege—they place speech debate permits prosecutions nevertheless broadly forbids them. Rather, insistence very least protects elsewhere than events occurring hearing To us incontrovertible. designed assure co-equal branch government wide speech, debate, deliberation intimidation threats Executive Branch. thus directly impinge upon threaten doubt made answer—either terms defending prosecution—for occurred decision easier fact appears abandoned whatever position took contrary lower courts. 13 Even so, strongly urges confers 'Senators Representatives,' valid inquiry. our view, below correctly rejected position. agree purpose construing 'treated one,' F.2d, 761; or, put it: 'Speech prohibits F.Supp., 938. Both recognized urgently presses here: literally impossible, view complexities modern almost constantly matters concern proliferating, perform tasks help assistants; day-to-day work critical Members' must treated latter's alter egos; recognized, central role Clause—to accountability possibly hostile judiciary, Johnson, 383 169, 181, 86 749, 755, 15 681 (1966)—will inevitably diminished frustrated. 14 already embraced (1959), where, immunizing Acting Office Rent Stabilization release, restricted those cabinet rank. stated Harlan, 'privilege badge emolument exalted office, expression policy aid effective functioning government. magnitude governmental activity become great necessity delegation redelegation authority many functions, cannot say functions less important simply exercised rank hierarchy.' 572—573, S.Ct., 1340 true itself mentions plainly taken literalistic approach speaks Debate,' Court's consistent confine protection words spoken unacceptably view. Committee reports, resolutions, voting equally covered; '(i)n short, House relation business it.' 204, 377 (1881), quoted approval U.S., 179, 755. Rather giving clause cramped construction, sought implement fundamental freeing legislator judicial oversight realistically threatens control legislator. little exceeding powers mistakenly holding latter 16 can 577 (1967), (1969), where unavailable committee employees. Those hold beyond when acts. Kilbourn, who adopted resolution authorizing Kilbourn's arrest; clearly nature. subject review execution impinged citizen's rights there. That impunity unconstitutional afforded arrest. Stockdale Hansard, Ad. & E. 112 Eng.Rep. 1112 (K.B.1839): "So speaker illegal question, more justify person executed King Charles's warrant levying ship-money revenue officer," 202.11 construed immunize immune careful point themselves actual arrest, id., 200, and, significantly enough, reserved question might circumstances 'there done, other, extraordinary character, take legally responsible.' 204 (emphasis added). 17 different principle. chairman, counsel. record evidence involvement result liability, 84, 1427, whereas counsel conspiring state carry seizure proceedings. Ibid. deemed some answering yet unproved charges Unlawful kind immunize. McCormack reasserted power determine validity impinging individual exclusion representative-elect—and afford relief invalid resolutions. dismissed case shielded defend it. reach 'whether petitioners maintain action solely agents participated challenged remedy available.' 506 n. 26, 1956. 19 None three simple proposition employees Senators; rather, protection. decidedly jaundiced towards extending essential foreclose associated Sergeant-at-Arms executing issuance fell Clause; hearing; Powell, Clerk Doorkeeper merely carrying directions each case, frustrated planned completed act; proof underlying threat independence posed, attach. 20 this, it, involves distinguishing immunity. Kilbourn-type situations, should leading resolution. So, too, litigation, senatorial enjoy helping hearings. On hand, if, hearing, seized invaded privacy citizen. Neither circumstances. Such legislating (1966).12 21 fears abuses history reveals invested relieve otherwise laws. abuses, seems us, most obviated applicable viewed, be, invocable behalf,13 available confined services places variety characteristically Congress, employment. likewise threatening others, direction knowledge direction. trials proceedings involving testimony impugn Thus refusal distinguish mean questioning. II 22 convinced determined publish meaning Constitution. Historically, English republication floor E., 114, Eng.Rep., 1156 (1839), '(f)or speeches Parliament prejudice person, hazardous enjoys complete impunity.' 'if calumnious inflammatory published, will attach responsibility publisher.'14 accepted Thompson 'sound statement legal effect Bill Rights parliamentary England' reasonable basis inferring 'that framers meant same thing use language borrowed source.' 202. 24 Prior 'broadly effectuate purposes,' 180, 'generally 204; Thus, protected; recognize today—as before, Tenney Brandhove, 341 367, 377—378, 71 783, 788—789, 95 1019 (1951)—that hearings, although various circumstances, legislation itself, 'sphere legitimate activity.' 376, 788.15 25 sphere. official capacity necessarily make touch Branch administrative agencies—they cajole, exhort administration statute—but conduct, activity. Johnson decided much. 'No argument made, think successfully contended, reaches involved attempt influence Justice, wise due process.' 172, 751. Cf. 367—368, 693, 1057. Legislative all-encompassing. heart Insofar integral deliberative communicative processes participate consideration passage rejection proposed jurisdiction pure 'only necessary indirect impairment deliberations.' 760. 27 Here, through cooperation way deliberations Senate; integrity impermissibly exposing influence. conducted hearings; report forthcoming Senate. advised, full ordered authorized publication.16 conclude arrangements parcel There additional considerations. Article emphasized, purport cases. Quite true. While recognizes voting, attach, implementing If crime Act pursuing investigation. participation, any, transaction, impugned. III 29 Similar considerations lead disagree fashioned, tentatively least, nonconstitutional matter thought considered advisable '(t)o congressman inform constituents far proscribed frustrate jury's statute. so-called never applied crime, quite sure matter, perceive conferring seemed do. IV finally consider, light foregoing, appropriate regulation pending 31 Focusing paragraph injunction interrogating restricts Rodberg's immunity, otherwise, extends jury, law, absent Fifth Amendment objections, answers arrangements, implicate witness, tracing obviously highly came possession basic questions.17 32 alone, ample Rodberg: (1) aides, subcommittee;18 (2) (3) employment (4) proves criminal, hearing. final form instance, court prefers, remanded further opinion. 34 So ordered. 35 Judgment 36 STEWART, dissenting part. 37 today holds Congressman forced petitions certiorari. dealt written briefs. tangentially arguments. Yet profound implications join summary vitally issue. 38 debates, roll calls, needs range information. Valuable often come citizens life. informants willing relate confidence, fearing disclosure identities cause loss jobs harassment colleagues employers. fact, suppose self-evident insist assurance confidentiality revealing acquisition promise nondisclosure concomitant properly duty. 39 First Circuit importance information-gathering function. bars reasoned allow 'grand senator chill vigor seek facts, willingness potential supply them.' 758—759. ruling, rather Representatives.1 40 Court, decides, sua sponte, may, despite Clause, compelled duties, 'proves crime.' Ante, 629 supplied).2 my dubious Clause—'to (of Congressmen) judiciary.' 681. 41 Under vindictive committed compulsion occur, judiciary traditionally imposed virtually limitations investigatory powers; investigations specific standards materiality relevance greatly relaxed.3 reason believe probable violation means clear me Executive's interest justice always override informed Congress. Why not, given tension competing interests, dimensions, balance claims particularized contexts cases? why Houses proper institutions situations impose sanctions Representative withholds acquired duties?4 42 am prepared accept rigid For reason, dissent opinion inflexibly summarily decides question. 43 DOUGLAS, dissenting. 44 construe Clause1 insulate them, informing gone conception pursuit 'war' Vietnam. Alternatively, publishing undertaking 45 Alaska, Grounds. 'the allegedly contain seven million words, exhibit.' 756. Thereafter, supplied Press, Boston house, understanding profit subpoena; intervene. Intervention following now review: 46 48 introduction efforts them covered 377: 49 'It limit debate. rule forcible application presented body committees, resolutions offered, which, writing, reproduced vocally passing tellers. it.'2 One normally it' exhibits making. document certainly puts domain. Whether exercise prescribe rules governance discipline wayward members. supervisory over issue vested courts, prosecuted contempt makes refused answer germane permissible range. Uphaus Wyman, 72, 1040, 1090; 190. 51 udiciary's germaneness irrelevant. For, '(t) unworthy destroy privilege.' 377, 788, 1019. abuse, remedy; legislative, judicial. record's contents, dissemination material educational much philosophy mailing frank Congressman's across Nation. mentioned earlier, '(i)t duty representative look diligently affair talk sees. function preferred function.' W. Wilson, Congressional 303 (1885), 789. 'From earliest times history, assiduously 'informing function." Watkins 354 178, 200 33, 77 1173, 1186, 1273. 'Legislators obligation positions controversial political fully Bond Floyd, 385 116, 136, 339, 349, 235. 53 754, 681, established 'legislative privilege' 'by unfriendly conviction judiciary' Harlan ensure legislature.' hostility emanates stage present emphasizes need generously, niggardly. newspaper carries doubtless does, so. ambit confidences arranging Place' 54 stead. easy circumvention indeed mockery. surrogates job embraces. secrecy bone beginning.3 Most discussions centered stamping 'secret,' 'top secret,' 'confidential,' on, withholding eyes press. practice reached large proportions, estimated 56 Over 30,000 people wield stamp.4 57 State, Defense, Atomic Energy Commission files. 58 appropriates approximately $15 billion annually knowing money used.5 59 problem looms separation powers. Woodrow Wilson wrote function' Congress:6 60 voice, embody wisdom constituents. Unless acquainting disposition government, country helpless learn how served; unless scrutinize sift discussion, remain embarrassing, crippling ignorance affairs understand direct. discussed interrogated efficient administration, but, really self-governing discusses interrogates administration. sometimes justly condemn profitless squabble frivolous bills selfish party issues. hard conceive practical concerns earnestly purposefully conducted, clears mind shapes demands opinion.' 61 Classification stamped obtain sit ombudsman, refereeing disputes branches. whenever invoked censorship New York Times Co. 403 713, 91 2140, 822, punishment 'secret' contents Amendment. 62 Forcing coconspirator maintaining secrets war objectives guarantee meaningful version self-government immersing 'steady, robust, unimpeded, uncensored flow reporting continuously subjected critique, rebuttal, re-examination.' Branzburg Hayes, 665, 711, 715, 2646, 2686, 2688, 626 (Douglas, dissenting); Brandenburg Ohio, 444, 1827, 430; Stanley Georgia, 394 557, 1243, 1247, 542; Lamont Postmaster General, 381 301, 308, 85 1493, 1497, 398 (Brennan, concurring); Sullivan, 376 254, 270, 84 710, 720, 686. said, dissent, elsewhere, e.g., Branzburg, Kleindienst Mandel, 770, 771, 2576, 2585, 2586, 683, aimed speakers writers listeners readers. essence governing Black's reminder '(t)he bare people.' 717, 2143 (concurring opinion). Similarly, Ervin observed: doing, govern accountable actions—and democratic system. By using devices secrecy, attains 'manage' manipulate opinion.'7 Ramsey Clark Attorney General expressed sentiment: 'If truly of, by, people, detail Nothing diminishes democracy secrecy.'8 Meiklejohn, Is An Absolute, 1961 Sup.Ct.Rev. 245; Freedoms Pressure: Report Twentieth Century Fund Task Force 109—117 (1972) (background paper Fred Graham access news); M. Secrecy Controversy 39—41 (1967). 63 letter Madison, dated December 1787, posed peace best preserved energy people,' answered, 'This certain, engine government.' Writings Thomas 392 (Memorial ed. 1903). 64 Madison time Whiskey Rebellion spoke censure groups stirring up turmoil rebellion. 65 "If advert nature Republican Government, find censorial people." Brant, Heritage, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 882, 900. 66 Yet, revealed expose My Lai massacres, Gulf Tonkin 'incident,' Bay Pigs invasion, usually suppresses damaging high lights favorable news. filtering stamp officials' tool suppression withhold '99 1/2%' danger security.9 refuse 'classified' relegate publisher distributing releases remaining silent; printed 'leaks' arm officialdom, critic. obtains print fear retribution, contains bearing future, sensitive planning Government.10 test reproduce inasmuch content 'is future events. recent 1968.' 722 3, 2146, 822 67 late situation perform: first, ascertain dispute lies compass President's power; second, head concerned—whether State Defense—determine 'would irreparably impair security.' Beyond inquiries, concluded, go. 757 758, 2163 (dissenting 68 different. When stands suspected disregard acquit overturn conflict. privilege—nowhere explicit Constitution—is subordinate express commands 69 Curtiss-Wright Corp., 299 304, 216, 81 255 proclamation President, pursuant Joint Resolution adequate sustain indictment. was, length President. President field international relations Congress; 'like power, subordination provisions Constitution.' 320, 221. 70 launches press, restraints 'abridging' analogous subordinated requirements fair trial. 72 Chief Marshall Aaron Burr ruled '(t)hat president subpoenaed, examined required produce controverted.' Burr, Fed.Cas. pages 187, 191 14,694 (CC Va.1807). 'may sufficient declining paper, restrain enforcing production.' concerns' 'forced view.' 192. shown 'to case,' ibid., (should) produced, continued.' 73 Jencks 353 657, 1007, 1103, tradition. perjury, telling accused investigators. asked contemporary notes time. Refusal based confidential character. reversible error.11 74 'We ground elects comply produce, accused's inspection admission evidence, statements touching Accord, Roviaro 53, 60—61, 623, 627—628, 639. burden Government's, shifted judge, decide allowing go unpunished greater attendant possession.' 672, 1015. 75 enacted Act, 3500, regulating prosecutions. sustained Act. Scales 367 203, 258, 1469, 1500, 782. 'on entitled, impeachment purposes, competent testified command statute just justice, goal guardian.' Campbell 365 85, 92, 421, 428. Clancy 312, 645, 574. 76 dislikes identity informer whose rests. disclosed desire Scher 305 251, 174, 176, 83 151. trial, concept re Murchison, 349 133, 625, 99 942, involved. Smith Illinois, 390 129, 88 748, 956. lesser magnitude. class 78 Aside publishers penalized printing documents, surely once classified, summon plans record,12 scrutiny reduces '(e)xposure purely sake exposure.' 1047 dissenting). Rumely, 345 41, 543, 97 inquired tracts customers' identities, '(i)f sanctioned serious censorship.' 57, 551 surveillance includes, prohibition restraints. publishes, species abridgment, nonetheless ban 80 story chronicle decisions reputations hides men worked amazingly successful scheme deception American people. astute frightened, regimented, submissive instrument, fattening favors forgetting tradition reporting. cowed frightening proportions. What 'stole' irrelevant today's decision. acting Clause.13 choice here lawless. 82 affirm reverse. BRENNAN, whom MARSHALL, join, facts detailed objections overclassification Executive, Brother repeated here. accorded effective. impossible close assistants. Their requires share extends. endanger continued workings extra-senatorial adopts assume recited copied report, wider audience, publicize committee, suddenly loses exposed anad republication. explanation anomalous belief Debate' encompasses internal legislation. 'Here,' according 'private Senate.' 625. Therefore, 626. excludes sphere supposed lay speak, course, legislator's affecting falls it,' explicitly acknowledged 1273 (1957). speaking 'power corruption, maladministration inefficiency agencies Government,' noted '(f)rom nature.' 1185. supporting observation Watkins. provided financial support public, franking letters, telephone telegraph allowances, stationery allotments, prices reprints Record. moreover, distribution, widely publicized, televised, alerting electorate import concern. list endless, small sampling contemporaneous hearings include Kefauver organized 1966 automobile safety, numerous Foreign Relations origins done' cited students politics, among responsibilities office. example, emphasized preserving ensuring understood legislature electorate: direct.' (1885). 90 Others give-and-take communication educating constituents: 'With decline original legislation, keeping becomes increasingly important. longer governs country; Administration ramifications actually governs. serves forum expressed, discussed, criticized.' Reorganization Political Science Association (1945). Though values served function, another, perhaps fundamental, stake. citation current issues—the war, race relations, invasions privacy—has transformed years crisis system meet wants Communication tends alleviate clarifying system, policies new laws succeeds fostering faith responsiveness 'ordinary' task vitality institutions. 93 Unlike Congressmen communicating privileged; intervention departments not. persuasive protections something Congressmen, concessions cost communication, important, furthers several well-recognized goals face give artificial reading unsupported reason. 94 supported history. substantial Framers intended cover Samuel Cabell, Virginia. 1797 Virginia sending newsletters administration's France. found endeavored 'at real danger, disseminate unfounded calumnies happy thereby separate therefrom; increase foreign influence, ruinous happiness, States.' immediately drafted essay signed Cabell's district, condemning blatant Revised joined James protest forwarded Delegates. reads follows: '(T)hat have, enable usefully, land, representatives, discharge cognizance coercion co-ordinate branches, Judiciary Executive; right, also, free, full, unawed any: intercourse derive principally descent correspondence constituent pass expense channel post, arrested suspended until home counties 96 'That ancient confederation sister concerns, improved regular principle legislature, chosen principles remained unaltered notice Judiciary; safe convenient exercise, intercommunication expense. Judiciary, permanent indeed, pro hac vice responsible judges actings doings office: interpose department representative, overawe exists exist dictate punish jeopardy prosecution, vexation, expense, private, exactly square ideas designs wrong, feet shadow, away substance representation, essentially interchange sentiment lawful transaction business; representatives excluding knowledge, terror punishment, misinformation suit views; dangerous jurors selected nominated .; finally, preponderance rendering ineffectual cautious distribution subordinating depends themselves, short periods.' 322—327 (Ford 1904). 98 Jefferson's significant cogent analysis public. Its comments purpose, room notion dialogue. alone protest, 'should fullest liberty resentment one, however powerful, occasion offence.' 421 (R. McCloskey 1967). drafting plainest Congress: open represent, republican maxim, truth smallest entertained. That, consequence, measure, facilitate delegated patronised state, unavoidable former.' 422. 100 Wilson's statements, like deep Framers, selfgovernment succeed interference founding. honor embodied 101 offers shred Framers' intent, relies instead interpretation Like ante, 623—624, 14, particularly post-dating adoption event misread relies. product struggle Crown type litigation. During reign II, Commons received number plot France restore Catholicism religion England. famous Dangerfield's Narrative, Journal republished Speaker Sir Williams, consent Commons. 1686, throne, informations charging Williams King's Bench. Despite arguments attorney, Atkyns, 'counselling' 'enquiring' Parliament, Williams' plea fined 10,000. Shortly sent exile, appointed 'such absolutely securing Laws Liberties Nation.' Debates Commons, coll. A. Grey, 1763, 37. chairman 'for punished Parliament,' 81. Following consultation Lords, Rights, declared 'illegal subversive parliament.' Townsend, Memoirs 414 (2d 1844). 102 England traced republication, citing (K.B.1839), says 'English House.' 622. reflects erroneous precedent. publisher.' 1156. concerned publisher's Parliament; thus, instant Furthermore, assertion, repudiated Wason Walter, L.R. Q.B. (1868), reasons strikingly protest.1 precedent, all, supports standpoint material, discipline, (1966), Congressman, motives. 'from deterrents uninhibited duty,' (1951), legislators' indulgence good.' 788. 104 defeated finds irregular business. secures him, office rules.' Coffin Coffin, Mass. (1808). unauthorized rules, fashion sanction 105 strip 'did business.' Brief 41. Grounds, Vietnam domestic economy lack funds provide facilities. wrong contention, exceeded subcommittee's jurisdiction, again call task. permitted nongermaneness. seeks rights, domain legislature. turn notions propriety relevance. weaken structure becoming partner assault 106 goes fate single Congressman. stake right elected inform, informed, Government. dialogue days founding, elements retreat because, dialogue, embarrassing branches violates secrecy. exceeds bounds called chamber. violence concepts instance Executive.2 'prosecution judiciary,' avoid, timidity Nation whole benefits exposure corruption deceit. suffers replaced muted criticism, carefully hushed walls. 107 Equally troubling bar receipt steps, they, motives, Judiciary. obvious—that speeches, casting votes advance. accomplish toward intimidating scrutiny, intimately deterred threat. reasoning guided today, basis, offer departing name 108 further, exclude possess me, Corrupt deceitful post examination misdeeds. ferreted out, subordinates. reveal spark well depend assurances contact obtaining strictest confidence. permit expectation dampen risk, break colleagues, 'unfriendly executive' 'hostile evaluating conduct. event, assuming methods information, inquiry, 109 respectfully dissent. intervene proceeding subpoena ordering appearance exact Rodberg. contested standing appeal court's appealed refusing contempt. Ryan, 402 530, 1580, (1971); Cobbledick 309 323, 540, 783 (1940). 756—757 1972), counted risk intervenor's 'powerless avert mischief order' appeal, Perlman 247 7, 13, 417, 950 (1918). challenge appeal. directing testimony, amicus curiae Technically, states, 71—1026, appeals However, intervened, point. Amicus Curiae 'as movant (Gravel), subsequently disclosing movant's constituents, 'Pentagon Papers,' relations." 930, 932 division Unitarian Universalist Association, App. 15—18. maintained unlimited curb extralegislative incursions (1957); McGrain Daugherty, 273 135, 319, 580 (1927); Hentoff Ichord, 318 1175 (DC 1970), unrelated purpose. 'convened special, unauthorized, untimely (at midnight 1971), thereafter unread portions record, soliciting meeting.' 9. contention: 'Senator suggested availability construction improvement buildings grounds affected costs development subcommittee. rejects merits position, restricting operations.' Cases Watkins, distinguished purview action. Also, committee's investigation, 'intimidation executive." 936. joining dealt. 934. 1971 'including dealing intervenor aides.' 761. wrongful bring 758 Williamson, guilty subornation perjury purchase land. objected protested deprive 'go to, attend at, return ensuing Congress.' 433, 165, (1908). freed 198, second Coleridge 225—226, 1112, 1196—1197 "Let suppose, illustration, extreme case; resolves wearing dress manufacture orders constable parish. brought, pleaded justification. supposed, plaintiff's distinction privilege; lawyer seriously exists: confounds enquire, ranges other. this." personally 'stolen' prosecuted, assistants theft. Consolidated 93. follows waived reviewed precedents interplay forcefully 1689: Freedom Speech, Proceedings impeached Place Parliament.' M., Sess. 2, c. From cases, Rex Creevey, 273, (K.B.1813); Wright, T.R. 293, 1396 (K.B.1799); Abingdon, Esp. 226, 170 337 (N.P.1794); Show.K.B. 471, 1048 (1686), apparent precedent little, reacted Hansard adopting 1840, Vict., 9, stayed bona fide circulated malice. C. Wittke, Privilege (1921). proprietor accurate Lords. founded analogy 87—90. 'unhesitating unqualified adhesion' 'masterly judgments' rendered characterized apart lawful.' 86—87. privileges nonmalicious proceedings—later qualified—were coextensive respects, 95, underscores inappositeness absolute. Much Holdsworth comment absolute qualified 'part played malice tort defamation' probably helped retard recognition Holds-worth, Law (1926). 376—377, activity' all-encompassing, limits Branch: 'Legislatures acquire unwarranted extension Commons' establish pretense Ashby White, Ld.Raym. 938, id. 320. hesitated individuals outside role. Gordon, 243 521, 448, 881; compare 329, 580.' sole address issues Member, and/or materials. Of 5, 'keep Proceedings, same, excepting Parts extensive examination. Field Clark, 143 649, 670—671, 495, 496—497, 294 (1892); Ballin, 144 4, 507, 508, 321 (1892). inquiries. fears, invite abuse. contends insufficiently Hence, Having subject. undisputed, intend imply, crimes, keep improvident fishing expeditions petition certiorari, consider: 'Whether Section providing '* Representatives' 'shall Debate." Senator-employer subcommittee.' 785. 622, 628. See, 221 361, 538, 771; Hendricks 223 313, 394; 319 503, 1233, 1546. generally, Holt 218 245, 1021; Costello 350 359, 406, 397. argument, Solicitor conceded, arguing information: 'Q. Solicitor, correct you wouldn't able got from? 'A. Oh, relates Well, related, agree, debate? contrary. .' Tr. Oral Arg., Apr. 1972, pp. 27—28. exchange place: You can't ask your speech. Yes, Justice. can't. Yes.' 29. At '(t)hey respond debates. historic Representatives.' 32. 177, 751, Developments Law—The National Security Interest Civil Liberties, Harv.L.Rev. 1130, 1207—1215 (1972); Note, Right Employees Furnish Information Statutory Constitutional Aspects, Va.L.Rev. 885 887 Berger, Inquiry, U.C.L.A.L.Rev. 1044 (1965); Schwartz, Investigatory Power, Calif.L.Rev. (1959); Privilege: Withholding Hearing 1125 Separation Powers 92d Cong., 1st statutory procedure bureaucracies, claimed measures exemptions 552(b) espionage §§ 792—799. regime implemented series described 1192—1198. sections (such designation Commander-in-Chief Army Navy) inherent classify documents. Security, 64, 85th Sess., 158 Hearings 1125, 517—518. estimate higher. 803 Secret; 7,687 permission Secret, 31,048 authorization denominate Confidential. Policies Practices—The Operations, pt. 599 (statement David Cooke, Deputy Assistant Secretary Defense). Fulbright, recently unsuccessful hire investigators send Southeast Asia. S.1125, 206. 303—304 Free Society, 213 454, 456 General's Memorandum Administrative Procedure Ad.L.Rev. 263, 264 97; Cong. Horton, Public's Know, Case Comm. told military withheld selection photographs showing atrocities 'Vietnamese civilians wrought Communist forces. training manual devoted Bolshevik revolution dubbed secret military. Hearings, 966, 967 (testimony former officer). clippings criticism routinely marked secret. 100. Former Ambassador Nations Arthur Goldberg stated: 'I countless thousands experience, percent place; quickly outlived secrecy; genuinely time.' 12. Moreover, permitted, Drummond, 132, 152 (CA2), overbroad unnecessarily sweeps nonsensitive locked files bureaucracies. general, occasions yield compelling overriding interests. Professor Henkin observed, kept confidential, juries Conferences, breadth diminished. Henkin, Know Duty Withhold: 120 U.Pa.L.Rev. 271, 274—275 Alderman 961, disclose unlawful electronic surveillance: prospect dismiss deference concededly faces obtained illegally admits, judge find, arguably offered defendant.' 184, 972. moving specified sued. Reynolds, 12, 528, 534, 727. Republication filled Record commonplace. Newspapers, television, radio constantly. difference amounting book. Once committees conceded undertaken London sued account libelous agreed declaring privileged. gave 86. 'is, independently 87. severely criticized Stockdale, stating Justices 'very shortsighted subject.' 91. good faith, action; constituents.' 95. Relying, response paramount houses parliament communicated deepest passes walls, seeing welfare community depends. Where confidence framed, charge interests committed,—where attachment live,—if council realm shrouded secresy concealed nation? How working usefully carried constituencies doing? petitioning parliament, undoubted subject, house? Can man publicity maintenance subsisting large?' 89. 'Independently houses, nothing (A)ny debates contravention house unimportant. litigation firmly implication perform. Gilbert Campion, scholar, memorandum Select Official Secrets Acts. After reviewing Wason, concluded: (otherwise Acts), apply proceeded unless, session. admitted, repugnant sense circulation member's not.' Minutes Evidence Taken Acts (1939). Different apply, attacked, redress invasion rights.

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