Document: 525 U.S. 316119 S.Ct. 765142 L.Ed.2d 797 11 F. Supp. 2d 76, appeal dismissed;19 543, affirmed. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATESDEPARTMENT COMMERCEv.UNITED STATES HOUSE Nos. 98 404 and 564 ON APPEAL FROM DISTRICT FOR COLUMBIA EASTERN VIRGINIA [January 25, 1999] Justice O'Connor delivered the opinion of Court, except as to Part III B. 1 The Census Bureau (Bureau) has announced a plan use two forms statistical sampling in 2000 Decennial address chronic apparently growing problem "undercounting" certain identifiable groups individuals. Two sets plaintiffs filed separate suits challenging legality constitutionality Bureau's plan. Convened three-judge courts, District Court for Eastern Virginia Columbia each held that census violates Act, 13 U.S.C. § et seq., both courts permanently enjoined planned determine population purposes congressional apportionment. 19 543 (ED Va. 1998); 76 (DC 1998). We noted probable jurisdiction cases, 524 ____ (1998); (1998), consolidated cases oral argument, (1998). now affirm judgment Virginia, we dismiss from Columbia. 2 * A 3 Article 1, §2, cl. 3, United States Constitution states "Representatives shall be apportioned among several according their respective Numbers." It further requires "[t]he actual Enumeration made within three Years after first Meeting Congress States, every subsequent Term ten Years, such Manner they by Law direct." Ibid. Finally, §2 Fourteenth Amendment provides numbers, counting whole number persons State, excluding Indians not taxed." 4 Pursuant this constitutional authority direct manner which "actual Enumeration" made, enacted Act (hereinafter or Act), delegating Secretary Commerce (Secretary) conduct decennial census. §4. "shall, year 1980 10 years thereafter, take day April year." §141(a). tabulation total required apportionment Representatives completed 9 months date reported President States." §141(b). Using information, must then "transmit statement showing State would entitled." 2a(a). Within 15 days Clerk House "send executive certificate is 2a(b) (1994 ed., III). 5 instant dispute centers on "undercount" For last few decades, sent household, it asked residents complete return. followed up mailing sending enumerators personally visit all households did respond mail. Despite comprehensive effort reach always failed thus count portion population. This shortfall been labeled "undercount." 6 measuring undercount rate since 1940, subject public debate at least early 1970's. See M. Anderson, American Census: Social History 221 222 (1988). measured one ways. Under method, known "demographic analysis," develops an independent estimate using birth, death, immigration, emigration records. Dept. Commerce, Census, Report Congress: Plan 2000, p. 2, n. (Aug. 1997) Report). second used 1990, involves large sample survey, called "Post-Enumeration Survey," conducted conjunction with compares information gathered during survey obtained uses comparison unenumerated people National Research Council, Modernizing 30 31 (B. Edmonston & C. Schultze eds. 1995). 7 Some including minorities, children, renters have historically had substantially higher rates than whole. 4. Accordingly, previous censuses, sought increase whom information. In instance, attempted out traditionally undercounted promoting awareness its importance, providing access Spanish language forms, offering toll free those who questions about forms. Id., Indeed, 1990 was "better designed executed any census." 2. Nonetheless, less accurate predecessor time began 1940. 8 concerns census, passed Improvement 1991, instructed contract Academy Sciences (Academy) study "means Government could achieve most possible." §2(a)(1), 105 Stat. 635, note following 141. Among issues directed consider "the appropriateness methods, combination basic data-collection techniques otherwise, acquisition refinement data." panels established pursuant concluded "[d]ifferential cannot reduced acceptable levels costs without integrated coverage measurement," procedure adjusts results account initial enumeration, 8, recommended measurement id., 29. Preparing Interim II (A. White K. Rust (report Panel Evaluate Alternative Methodologies); supra Requirements Year Beyond); Operational (1997). light these studies other research, formulated supplement data through traditional methods. types are challenge.1 First, appellees challenge proposed Nonresponse Followup program (NRFU). program, continue send households, well make available post offices places. expects 67 percent will return 26. plans divide into tracts approximately 4,000 "homogenous characteristics, economic status, living conditions." 27. randomly selected nonresponding housing units, "statistically representative units [a] tract." 28. nonresponse follow-up tract vary mail response ensure obtains 90 tract. if 1,000 800 responded mail, 100 200 obtain units. However, only 400 500 600 same result. surveyed size characteristics visit. Thus, continuing example, visits remaining no ibid. challenged implemented Integrated Coverage Measurement (ICM). ICM employs technique Dual System Estimation (DSE) adjust enumeration. begin classifying country's million blocks "strata," defined block, state, racial, ethnic composition, proportion homeowners renters, revealed 30. select random stratum, 25,000 blocks, estimated 750,000 Enumerators interviews discrepancies were detected between pre-ICM response, interview "true" situation home. stage assign person poststratum group similar chances being counted collection state geographic subdivision (e.g., rural urban), owner renter, age, sex, race, Hispanic origin. 31. final DSE calls compare dual systems is, phase produce estimation factor poststratum. factors differences numbers enumeration applied 32. totals poststrata summed national totals. 12 announcement led flurry legislative activity. amended provide that, "[n]otwithstanding provision law, procedure, adjustment, may determination States," H. R. Conf. Rep. No. 119, (1997), but Clinton vetoed bill, see Message Returning Without Approval Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Legislation, 33 Weekly Comp. Pres. Doc. 846, 847 passed, signed, bill creation "comprehensive detailed outlining [the Bureau's] methodologies conducting methods population," explanation used. 1997 Recovery From Natural Disasters, Overseas Peacekeeping Efforts, Including Those Bosnia, Tit. VIII, 111 217. directive, Department issued Report. After receiving Report, 1998 Departments Justice, Judiciary, Related Agencies §209, 2482, "shall deemed constitute agency action regarding also permits aggrieved bring legal brought under heard district court. review directly Court. B publication occasioned challenges. suit, styled v. Glavin, February 12, 1998, four counties (Cobb County, Georgia; Bucks Pennsylvania; Delaware DuPage Illinois) (Arizona, California, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Montana, Nevada, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin), claimed 14 apportion Clause Constitution. They declaration unlawful and/or unconstitutional injunction barring NRFU procedures case ripe review, satisfied requirements standing, prohibited Representatives. 2d, 547, 548 550, 553. because statute clear face, court need presented. denied defendants' motion dismiss, granted plaintiffs' summary judgment, 545, October 9, 1998. ____. 16 20, apportioning Members permanent aspect 17 suit equitable warrant dismissal, violate separation powers principles, does permit 93, 95, 97, 104. Because allow procedures, declined House's Clause. preventing defendants 79, appealed September 10, ____, 564, 18 turn our attention presented analysis threshold issue justiciability. eliminated prudential "[a]ny method violation law (other connection later redistricting Congress, civil declaratory, injunctive, appropriate relief against method." §209(b), 2481. addition, below correctly found here. 547; Abbott Laboratories Gardner, 387 136, 149 (1967). open justiciability question whether satisfy standing. repeatedly order establish "[a] plaintiff allege personal injury fairly traceable defendant's allegedly likely redressed requested relief." Allen Wright, 468 737, 751 (1984). Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 555, 560 561 (1992); Valley Forge Christian College Americans Separation Church Inc., 454 464, 472 (1982). To prevail Federal Rule Civil Procedure 56 opposed however, mere allegations insufficient. Rather, there exists genuine material fact merits. Wildlife Federation, 497 871, 884 (1990). 902 (Blackmun, J., dissenting). Here, considering motion, plaintiffs-appellees, standing "[g]eneral factual resulting Defendant's conduct." Supp., 550. not, 20 record before us amply supports conclusion met burden proof Court's holding. Director, Office Workers' Compensation Programs Perini North River Associates, 459 297, 303 305 (1983) (holding presence party assures controversy justiciable); Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Development Corp., 429 252, 264, (1977) (same). support submitted affidavit Dr. Ronald Weber, professor government University Wisconsin, demonstrates Indiana resident Gary A. Hofmeister plan.2 Affidavit App. pp. 79 Weber Affidavit). Utilizing published Bureau, projected populations net Department's 62 63. He determined basis projections how many "it virtual certainty lose seat Plan." 65. 21 Appellants set forth specific facts trial. Fed. Civ. Proc. 56(e). affidavits detail various deficiencies performed Weber. Declaration Signe I. Wetrogan, Assistant Division Chief Population Estimates Projections, 92 99 Wetrogan Declaration); John Thompson, Associate Director 110 Thompson Declaration). Appellants' experts do demonstrate alleged flaw Weber's his ultimate virtually seat. One expert, claims "of dubious credibility," she fails assertion. Declaration, 97. She outdated impact more recent Indiana. 97 98. Neither appellants' reestimates "accurate" "up-to-date" show different results. specifically admits precisely "to help expected error 2000." 106. therefore raise Indiana's loss Representative. 22 Appellee Hofmeister's Representative undoubtedly satisfies injury-in-fact requirement context apportionment, voters "[t]hey asserting 'a plain, adequate interest maintaining effectiveness votes.' " Baker Carr, 369 186, 208 (1962) (quoting Coleman Miller, 307 433, 438 (1939)). distinct here: With fewer Representative, residents' votes diluted. Moreover, threat vote dilution "concrete" imminent, 'conjectural' 'hypothetical.' Whitmore Arkansas, 495 149, 155 going alter doing so March 1999. Oversight Putting Dress Rehearsals Perspective, Hearing Subcommittee Committee Reform Oversight, 105th Cong., Sess., 84 (1998) (statement James Holmes, Acting Census) ("I caution next [i.e., train track. If uncertainty continues, staff continues jobs, census] truly imperiled"). 2480 (providing constitutes "final action"). And certainly necessary wait until here, pause result extreme possibly irremediable hardship. demonstrates, meets third There "traceable" substantial likelihood redress injury. 23 Appellees effects intrastate redistricting. indicated "[i]t Maricopa Arizona, Bergen New Jersey, Cumberland LaSalle Orange St. Johns Gallatin Forsyth Loudoun suffer local elections [Bureau's] Affidavit, supra, 77 78. Several reside counties,3 located require federal Jersey Constitution, senators Senate districts "as nearly inhabitants preceding Art. IV, §1, ¶1. Similarly, Pennsylvania "[i]n Legislative Reapportionment Commission constituted purpose reapportioning Commonwealth." §17(a). cited comparable laws.4 generated Karcher Daggett, 462 725, 738 ("[B]ecause represents 'best available,' good-faith attempts equality" (citation omitted)). live aforementioned strong claim injured diluted vis-a-vis larger rates. contested nine 99; 110. experts' general assertions methodology again insufficient create fact. reasons discussed above, 14-16, injury-in-fact, causation, redressibility requirements. carried pursue case. 24 accordingly arrive over meaning relevant provisions Act. examined plain text history seats agree. 25 An understanding historical background governs essential proper interpretation Act's present text. very 1790, calculating First legislation requiring swear oath "a just perfect enumeration" division assigned. Mar. 101. Each enumerator compile schedule district, listing family name fell five specified categories. 101 102. modified 1810, adding express said inquiry dwelling-house, head otherwise," expanding specifications 26, 565 566. home appeared statutes governing censuses.5 26 current positive 1954. contained statutes, "visit dwelling house subdivision" "every item particulars survey" Aug. 31, 1954, §25(c), 68 1012, 1015. departure collect household Nation came 1957 behest Secretary. amend gathering some Title 13, Code, Relating 7911 Post Service, 85th 1st. (1957) Hearing). §195, provided "[e]xcept purposes, may, where he deems appropriate, authorize 'sampling' carrying title." 195 (1970 ed.). allowed supplemental, nonapportionment population, unemployment, housing, matters collected much what "long form" ("Experience shown desired secured efficiently concurrently items"). 27 1964, repealed former §25(c) 78 information" repeal section permitted replace form returned via Postal Service. new authority, officials 60 "mailout-mailback" system 1970. 210 211 homes although suggestion quarter change altered prohibition §195 determining purposes. 28 1976, took form. revised §141 entitled "Population information." subsection (a) "take year, 'decennial date', content determine, special surveys." 141(a). added subsections §141, them specifying term "census relating housing." §141(g). Together, revisions broad collecting range demographic surveys. 29 grant given §141(a) informed, narrower revealingly entitled, "Use Sampling." Green Bock Laundry Machine Co., 490 504, (1989). authorization necessarily look remainder portions covers. When do, discover prohibits apportionment.6 longstanding changing "apportionment purposes" "purposes States" phrase "may, appropriate" considers feasible." 2464. reads: "Except shall, feasible, 195. As amended, assembling myriad But maintains Absent context, might reasonably read either permissive prohibitive regard appellants cite numerous examples "except/shall" sentence structure interpretations statute. See, e.g., Brief Glavin al. 36, 36 (citing Amendment, "when right male participation rebellion, crime, representation therein citizens bear twenty-one age State" (emphasis added)); Appellant 404, 29, 179n(a)(1) 384(a) 555(e), contain formulation contexts exception construed prohibiting excepted activity"). dueling serve illustrate depends primarily broader appears. concerned. background, plausible reading §195: 32 fact, itself "clearly" continued "historical precedent 'actual Enumeration' while eschewing estimates based matter sophisticated." 45 Reg. 69366, 69372 (1980). That Solicitor General argued "13 'sampling methods' state-by-state totals." Application Stay Klutznick Young, O.T. 1979, 533, 14, 7. Young Klutznick, 652 F.2d 617, 621 (CA6 1981) (noting explained trial "since 1790 never adjusted reflect adjustment figures Congressional apportionment"), cert. sub nom. Baldrige, 455 939 (1982); Philadelphia Klutznik, 503 663, 678 Pa. 1980) "Congress clearly rejected figure Act"); Carey 508 (SDNY ("Defendants [including Census] [contend the] preclude[s] utilization representatives"), rev'd, 653 732 (CA2 1981), denied, U. S 999 administration adopt contrary position 1994, when consistent Memorandum Attorney Dellinger (Oct. 7, 1994). history, deference Chevron Inc. Resources Defense 467 837 (1984), behalf Secretary's Reply 11, 10. holding 1976 amendments mean suggest, Stevens dissent, purpose. post, 6. served important purpose: changed "feasible." existing delegation carry indicating despite move mandatory non-apportionment retained conducted. 34 Stevens's argument reveals rather limited conception extent purposes," 4, Although originally sole Representatives, grown considerably past years. serves linchpin individuals, throughout country." Counting People Information Age (D. Steffey N. Bradburn say effect way imagines. 35 Breyer's equally unpersuasive. Breyer agrees substitute believes apply "supplement" distinction borne "for Whether "substitute," still "determining" act deciding definitely firmly." Webster's Ninth Collegiate Dictionary 346 (1983). plan, "determined," decided firmly, complete. drawn untenable perhaps best demonstrated own inability consistently. acknowledges % tract," added), yet nonetheless finds headcount discussions surrounding At point debates single Member suggest fundamentally calculate 122 Cong. Rec. 35171 35175 (1976); 9792 9803, 32251 32253, 33128 33132, 33305 33307, 33815; Mid-Decade Legislation: S. 3688 11337 Statistics 94th Sess. (1976). 94 944 1719 1256 true profoundly affect shifting altering lines others. tests limits reason silence, voting intended enact arguably significant inception. changes §§141 focus partisan debate, 5, almost due statute, we, prohibit hard imagine having explicitly 1957, reverse course enacting subtle phraseology. IV 37 stated, conclude conclude, find unnecessary Spector Motor McLaughlin, 323 101, (1944) ("If doctrine deeply rooted process adjudication, ought pass unless adjudication unavoidable"); Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 347 (1936) (Brandeis, concurring) ("[I]f can grounds, involving question, statutory construction decide latter"). 564. decision resolves substantive longer presents question. dismissed. Cf. Sanks 401 144, 145 (1971). 38 ordered. Notes 39 1. Vacancy Check 545 1998) ("The lawsuit"). 80 litigation"). 40 suggested conceded Tr. Oral Arg. motions hearing "concede[d]," arguendo, "is [sic] seat." 85 Clearly purported concession sake treated decline view appellees' amounting concession. 41 3. predicts relative Matthew (Forsyth Georgia), Stephen Gons (Cumberland Pennsylvania), McLaughlin (Bergen Jersey), Taylor (Loudoun Virginia), Deborah Hardman (St. Florida), Jim Lacy (Orange California), Helen V. England (Maricopa Arizona), Amie Carter (Gallatin Montana), Michael T. (LaSalle Illinois). Complaint Declaratory Injunctive Relief, 12. 42 Fla. §11.031(1) ("All acts Florida Legislature upon apportionments statewide census"); Ga. Const., Assembly Ill. §3(b) ("In redistrict Districts Districts"); Stat., ch. 55, 3001c (1993) reapportionment county election board, '[p]opulation' means census"). 43 5. 1820, 548, 549 ("And family, otherwise"); 23, 1830, 384 ("[T]he marshals assistants, family"); 1839, 332 (substantially same); May 1850, §10, 430 (governing censuses 1850 1870) ("[E]ach assistant perform service him, assigned ascertain, inquiries member capable giving agent thereof, place birth each, act"); 1879, §8, 475 ("It duty dwelling-house subdivision, therein, individual abode, thereof credible worthy trust, 1889, §9, 763 (same); 1899, §12, 1018 July 1909, 1919, 1296 (same; introducing permitting gather neighbors present); June 18, 1929, §5, 46 1930 1950 censuses) same). W. Holt, Its History, Activities Organization (1929) (describing evolution census); Growth (prepared Census), 194, 56th 1st 130 (1900) 44 applies mid-decade §141(e)(2) ("Information nor prescribing districts"). Scalia, concurring Thomas joins, Kennedy join II, part. I excluding, course, resort legislators committees (and worse yet), legislators. write separately somewhat greater length Stevens' 141(a), add additional points textual analysis, invoke doubt, major my decision. 47 Section 141(a) "decennial contradicts provision. seems me conflict all. population" refers far "tabulation ." I, includes aspects (for Fourth Amendment). looks techniques, 48 If, utterly universally agreed related strange contend authorizing work, "contradicts" authorizes lawful sampling, include obviously extend far. think impediment imposed §195. correct interpreting "consistently 141(a)," latter authorized "all entirely harmonious. 49 creates palpable absurdity itself. "shall" exception, two. first, introduced "Except." "if command feasible. Is even thinkable (though not) feasible? implication "shall," not. draw "may" word exception. 50 finally, swallows camel strains gnat. 181 annual biennial "interim data" useful hardly indispensable function. performance function determines "current, comprehensive, reliable §181(a). carefully circumscribes discretion compiling data," leaves closest Congress's heart): 51 Even persuaded foregoing arguments, acknowledged intent clear. circumstances, practice construe fashion avoid serious doubt. Edward J. DeBartolo Corp. Gulf Coast Building Constr. Trades 485 568, 575 unquestionably doubtful Enumeration," sampling. 52 Dictionaries roughly contemporaneous ratification "enumeration" counting, number. Noah 1828 English Language defines "enumerate" "[t]o tell, number; reckon mention things, separately"; telling number, naming particular," "[a]n particular article." Samuel Johnson's 1773 658 (4th ed.) "To singly; distinctly; number"; "The numbering over; told out." Sheridan's 1796 Complete (6th distinctly"; over." notion "singly," "separately," "number number," "distinctly," runs definitions incompatible (or incompatible, needs established) gross estimates. 53 impressed recited ante, 17: Acts 1800 name, 1810 person. tradition forbidding Could Congresses unaware (in words dissent) "will admittedly futile attempt inspection, interview, written interrogatory"? Post, 9. difficult-to-reach 1800's, today indeed, them, society overwhelmingly composed farmers, largely frontiersmen. though professional statisticians, estimating unreachable assuming exist. (Thomas Jefferson's 1782 assumptions thought margin one-to-two percent. Alterman, People: 168 170 (1969).) Yet centuries. stronger dissents irrationality Congresses, one, estimations permissible. Printz 521 898, 905 (1997) (historical evidence "earlier avoided [the] highly attractive power [to compel officers administer programs]" gave "reason believe exist"). 54 clause: goal equal representation. . 'Manner' accurate." (internal quotation marks citation omitted). enough, prove (1) headcount, (2) relied headcounts. metaphysically proposition false, morally is. give power, guise regulating "Manner" taken, incredible) "expert" support, controlling distort favor. words, minimal possibility manipulation. prospect reviewing future, distortion allowed, happy one. (I foresee specialty "Census Law.") separation-of-powers considerations aside raw effectively. pointed able assess accuracy comparing headcount. 55 tradition, fully compatible sensible, "sampling techniques" requires. (Appellant once courts. 1318, 1332 Mich. 1980), rev'd 617 1981).) so, us, interpreted so. Stevens, dissenting Souter Ginsburg Parts joins III, dissenting. 57 unambiguously taking am judgments. 58 contains relate unlimited authorization; mandate. 59 plainly states, gives unqualified reads follows: "(a) 61 mandate commands limitations: 63 neither Not qualifies ambiguous, should consistently whereas Edmond 520 651, 657 perfectly clear: 64 predecessors Prior Instead, merely (1958 coextensive changes, significant. §141(a), "in Second, replacing "shall." Both endorsed amendment previously possess, command. 65 primary enactment concerned comment encourage surveys 1256, Given import Re- port establishes population"). 66 Nevertheless, unusual tour de force, concludes scope authority: census-related purpose, plurality omission probative pertinent plurality, incredible floor debates. 25.1 appears, controversial,2 objected change. become sheds views 1976.3 unanimous vote, versions easily Conference recommending legislation.4 Surely presume voted familiar references Reports.5 agreement surveys" encouraged save money reliability count, surprising perceived desirable law.6 What drains meaning.7 correct, prior authority. Why, wonder, 1976?8 revision dismissed "only phraseology." Ante, "tests suggest" Id. 25. reference taxes precludes Art merit argument. 69 1787, drafted, Framers negotiated allocated feasible census.9 442, 448, (1992). provided, paramount principle codified clause rule periodic post-1787 counts, speculation bare estimate, purport limit counts made. 70 1787 future key constitutionally fixed allocations property. Records Convention 71, 542, 559 562, 566 570, 578 579, 579 580, 586, 594 (M. Farrand ed. 1911); Jack Rakove, ("What fundamental principles secondary exactly compiled"); Original Meanings: Politics Ideas Making 74 (1996). Style, charged delivering polished version draft adjournment. Records, 590 591. stylistic 71 representation." Franklin Massachusetts, 505 788, 804 accurate. emphasized Wisconsin City York, 517 (1996), respect wide bestowed Congress." Methodological improvements employed ease administrative collected. considered innovation 1970 census.10 Requiring face-to-face yield absurd results: unable gain entry occupied apartment complex zero occupants. reason, here impute designated vacant appear occupied.11 Since interrogatory, legitimate making commands. 72 agree discussion convinced validity State's delegation. Powell McCormack, 395 486, (1969) ("Unquestionably, preserving institutional integrity"). held, concrete particularized "institutional composition" III. 86 respectfully dissent cases. judgments 73 credit, unlike rely watchdog bark Chisom Roemer, 501 380, 396, (1991). case, Reports. identified contentious involved penalty noncompliance. 9796, 9800 35171, 33305. bills announcing harmonized confirms substitutions penalties failure answer compelled disclose religious affiliation. Joint Explanatory Statement Committee, 1719, (1976) measure centered refusal neglect cooperate censuses. managers part receded beliefs membership body"). 75 Many object statistics districting. presently districting plan"). 944, Republican Congressmen insisted frequency stability. Views 11337, 9794 9799 9802 9792, 33305, 32253. page quoted statements whenever possible. Consider, succinct Report: section, strengthens possible, used." 13; ("Section revises title authorizes, require, clarifies wherever used"). 1; Schroeder) ("Support come sector society"); Gerald Ford Signing Law, 1535 ("[I]t better data, consistency, cost"). "subtle phraseology" transformed simply acknowledge removed discretionary pre-1976 reasoning 8. Stone INS, 514 386, 397 (1995) ("When intends real effect"). 81 "until Hampshire chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island Providence Plantations Connecticut five, New-York six, four, Maryland ten, Carolina South Georgia three." 82 83 11. Effect Special Procedures Improve (Dec. 1974). Ginsburg, Hofmeister, appellee ground Respecting merits, dissent. Opinion Breyer, 87 88 majority concerning barred view, bar focuses proposal heart (namely, Measurement, ICM) intended. seeks demands. 141 (directing possible"). 89 supplement. literal wording "except" added). applying apportionment-connected irrespective kind. applicable "determination apportionment." conceivable than, say, "vehicles" park everything characterized "vehicle." generally H.L.A. Hart, Concept 124 136 (2d 1994) (discussing "open texture law"). Context normally informs often scope. favors section. 19; Gephardt 38; 1335 derived solely techniques. addition tools count"), 1981); 415 (Census long enumeration). 1940's variety Taking: Questions, (Nov. 1989). 1950's, short containing information-gathering questions. individuals families, Ibid.; Jenkins, Procedural 1940 (1985). long-form answers, extrapolating trends, about, unemployment conditions, 91 focused kind model explaining spoke "sample [that] substituted full (Statement Purpose Need) "[e]xperience [and] instances universe included covered terms: something implied 'census,' efficient effected survey." 1043, added); accord, (1976 lieu feasible" added)). linked hence helps section's capacity another quality check Margo Anderson ¶12, 348 (first post-enumeration inaccuracies). 93 "imputation" fill gaps residence there, "imputes" demographics nearby households. Imputation responsible, 761,000 Nation's 53,590 1990. 1970, discovered minute mistakenly assumed vacant, 1,068,882 people, 0.5% for, supplement, namely, accuracy. learned racial rent systematically 4; problem. understand it, results, intensively investigating investigation calculated Union inaccuracies. 95 recognize reduce inaccuracies complicated matter. overall improvement tell story. Apportionment demands State. reflected evenly distributed (say, 20%) count; comparatively worse. earlier ICM-like adjustments difficulties account, (strata crossed strata basis); cf. (explaining methodology, evaluate quality, "undergone improvement" accepted improve results"). And, uncover undercounting minority populations. Any emphasis neighborhoods samples justified shows undercounted. amici execution itself, aware potential difficulties, created expert panel statisticians social scientists, guide particularly 51. unadjusted headcounts bias differential method); (without ICM, census). 96 out, 1957. tends favor 1015, thereby ("Population information") time, strengthened §195's interpret creating coherent whole, strengthen restricts being, placing beyond outer conceptually (i.e., supplementary) needed statute's proposal, verify 10% concede "follow-up" sense sample. supplementary great enough "substitute" falling clause. exclusively supplemented imputation degree absolute stop imputing existence behind closed doors house, refuse bell. prevents ascertain families fail back then, "number" sufficiently like terms form," degree, Followup, 10%, small, justified, disproportionately costs, remains, effectively, headcount? (made 1,700 units), 90% actually visited 10%. advantage financial; cheaper search Methods, addresses immense visiting overall, whole." 27; concluding fruitless trying physical enumeration"). answering remains considerable weight Secretary, entrusts line 5% 1%, tract's approach exceeds limit. Consequently, basis. 102 reasons,

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