Document: 406 U.S. 1 92 S.Ct. 1411. 31 L.Ed.2d 658 S & E CONTRACTORS, INC., Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. No. 70—88. Argued Oct. 21, 1971. Reargued March 20, 1972. Decided April 24, Syllabus In a contracts disputes procedure, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) approved claims of its contractor for additional compensation. response to an AEC certifying officer's request advice as one item, however, General Accounting Office (GAO) ruled that could not be certified payment. When then refused pay compensation, brought suit in Court Claims alleging GAO had no authority overturn approval. The Government, through Department Justice, defended on ground determination was final but subject judicial review under standards specified § 321 Wunderlich Act, '(t)hat . same is fraudulent or capricious arbitrary so grossly erroneous necessarily imply bad faith, supported by substantial evidence.' held 'the Government has right extent seek unfavorable administrative decision contract claim.' Held: 1. AEC, which purpose this United States, exclusive clause procedure resolve dispute here at issue, and neither between parties nor Act permitted still further GAO. Pp. 8—12. 2. does confer upon Justice appeal from agency, case involving contractor's fraud, concerning broad powers act several statutory provisions. 12—19. 433 F.2d 1373, 193 Ct.Cl. 335, reversed. Geoffrey Creyke, Jr., Washington, D.C., petitioner. Irving Jaffe, respondent. Mr. DOUGLAS delivered opinion Court. question presented whether may challenge finality made favor contractor, where provides shall 'final conclusive.' Section leaves open contest claim 'is evidence.'1 2 Moreover, 41 U.S.C. 322, '(n)o contain provision making law any official, representative, board.' 3 challenged settlement two grounds, (1) 'not evidence' (2) it 'erroneous matter law.' 4 But contract2 says conclusive,' unless court determines award vulnerable §§ Act. There federal statute submits character more agencies, there charge fraud faith. Nor enables another agency validity absent 5 plain lay language whether, can rely ruling with forced go tier review. We hold faith agency's binding Government; review; that, save being these purposes Federal Government. reverse judgment Claims. 6 * On August 4, 1961, petitioner contracted build testing facility National Reactor Test Station Idaho. work completed accepted June 29, 1962. Because various changes specifications difficulties meeting performance schedules, submitted series contracting officer resolution standard contained contract, asking equitable modifications 8 November 8, 1962, some disapproved others, sought adverse decisions AEC. 7 Since did have appeals board,3 referred petitioner's hearing examiner, before whom adversary held. 26, 1963, examiner decided eight remanded negotiations determine exact amount due A.E.C. 631. Commission. See 10 CFR 2.760 (Jan. 1, 1963). declined four claims, 738, effect sustaining examiner's them. 2.762(a) Included within group amounts retained offset allegedly owed other contractors agencies government. modified three remaining reversed him last, since abandoned. It 'remanded instructions proceed accordance dated (its) order 14, (that) decision.' 850, 856. 9 6, 1964, prior AEC's after upheld 'retainage' claim, requested voucher retainage Jurisdiction Comptroller General's purportedly founded 82d.4 After 33 months what amounted plenary proceedings concluded 46 Comp.Gen. 441. 27, 1967, wrote petitioner, saying, 'The Commission's view Contractors, Inc. exhausted recourse will take action, connection inconsistent views expressed ..' action seeking $1.95 million remanding time extension claimed entitled original decision. defenses tendered raised issue against States. 11 cross-motions summary judgment, commissioner holding lacked refusal follow own favorable breach contract. Claims, four-to-three vote. While majority acknowledged 'that effectively stopped payment claims,' pass legality action. 1375, 340. Reasoning, instead, allowed both equal abide earlier permissible means obtaining review, 'to his consideration report standards.' Id., 1381, Ct.Cl., 351. 12 Commissioner base now petition writ certiorari we granted. 402 971, 91 1659, 29 135. 13 Petitioner argues text legislative history supports States contractual dispute, without decision, should abandon been favor. response, Solicitor contends give free assert whatever desires regard actions agency. II 14 included intended, provide quick efficient remedy avoid 'vexatious expensive and, oftentimes, ruinous litigation.' Kihlberg v. 97 398, 401, 24 L.Ed. 1106 (1878). ceded immediate redress grievances contractually bound himself 'proceed diligently contract' during process. avoiding litigation' would served, substituting officials acting derogation contract.5 15 result cases might sheer disaster. present nearly decade passed only empowered determined To postpone such period sanction precisely sort process designed avoid. 16 Here, exclusively rested. Disputes initially were resolved if satisfactory reached level, lie.6 Mason Hanger Co., 260 323, 43 128, 67 286; Corliss Steam-Engine 321, 23 397. 17 By clause7 conclusive' 'a competent jurisdiction' decides otherwise enumerated reasons. Neither empowers veto 'final' it. Congress except involved, part Executive Branch submit determination. words, cannot infer legerdemain approval,8 mean when supra, 326, S.Ct., 129. Kipps, Right Have Judicial Review Board Contract Appeals Decision Made Under Clause, Pub.Contract L.J. 286 (1969); Schultz, Revisited: New Limits Administrative Determination Disputes, Law Contemp.Prob. 115, 132—133 (1964). 18 A citizen expect fair dealing government, see Vitarelli Seaton, 359 535, 79 968, 1012, entails context treating government unit rather than amalgam separate entities. spoke honored. Cf. NLRB Nash-Finch 404 138, 373, 30 328. 19 withheld solely because he given function valid reason settle according For Small Business Administration McClellan, 364 446, 449, 81 191, 194, 200. 20 deny 'without legal authority' overreaching. E.g., McShain Co. 83 405, 409 (1936). James Graham Mfg. F.Supp. 715 (ND Cal.1950), example, reimbursement certain expenditures cost-plus-fee contracts, noted 'extensive broad' General, instances 'fraud overreaching,' power specific provisions 53, 'authority propriety payments' F.Supp., 716. Accordingly, entered court, said, 'Since Navy plaintiff sought, must adjudge accordingly.' 717. 21 contemplated giving indeed, Senate twice passed—in form McCarran bill—a they 'fraudulent, erroneous, mistaken reliable, probative, S. 83d Cong., 1st Sess. (1953). 'If enacted, (have) invest(ed) power—which never had—to upset (found) 'grossly erroneous' evidence." Proposed Changes Settlement: Legislative Battle over Case, Harv.L.Rev. 217, 243 House Representatives rejected provision, ultimately form. cannot, therefore, construe plainly denied. 22 suggested, merely force bring thus obtain Government.' clause, sets forth resolving disputes. arbiter nowhere oversight General. conducted 33-month de novo proceedings; blocked entitled; placed burden going receive That foreclosed clause. III F.2d, 1378, 346. adopts sees Attorney obligation conduct litigation behalf 28 516, 519, coordinate offices Department. duty 'conduct thereof party,' 'supervise all (such) litigation,' 519. pervasive appear how gives AtomicEnergy Normally, responsibility rendering vested branch implement repudiate 39 Op.Atty.Gen. 67, 68 (1937); 38 149, 150 (1934); 25 524, 529 (1905); 93, 96 (1903); 711, 713 (1894); 270, 272 (1891); 332, 333 (1882). Indeed, role traced back William Wirt, first our Attorneys keep detailed records tenure office. 'Writ who recorded propositions decide questions fact, sit arbitrator departments private individuals reviewing hear public officers H. Cummings C. McFarland, 84 (1937) (footnotes omitted). authorized make found underlying history.9 Wunderlich, 342 98, 72 154, 113 (1951), closed courthouse doors citizens aggrieved amounting something less fraud. S.Rep.No.32, Sess.; H.R.Rep.No.1380, 2d construed require perform Herculean task beheading Hydra justice 26 are reluctant enacted tyranny them bureaucratic oversight, evidence connection, committee reports accompanying indicate provided inflate their bids into account uncertainties action.10 This objective ill served contractors—having won contracted—had also run gantlet Justice. IV 27 course wholly different genus us. Even obtained expired, enforcing setting aside judgment. '(S) etting permit new trial, altering terms restraining beneficiaries taking benefit it,' Hazel-Atlas Hartford 322 238, 245, 64 997, 1001, 88 1250 usual forms relief Patents unclean hands based those patents similarly tainted enforced. Precision Automotive 324 806, 65 993, 89 1381. Contracts States—like patents—are matters far interest parties; entail interest: '(W)here equity concerns well litigants doctrine assumes even wider significant proportions. properly uses maxim withhold assistance prevents wrongdoer enjoying fruits transgression averts injury public.' 815, 998. elaborate contractors. Where convinced induced fraud,' directed 'certify facts Administrator Services, concerned.' 58 Stat. 664, amended, 116(b). Services investigation 'any information received indicating practices, appropriate action.' 118(d). whenever believes reported 118(e). And act. Ibid. addition, imposed severe penalties commit acts courts cases. 119. Broad, flexible civil remedies 'use engage agreement, combination, conspiracy use cause used engaged in, trick, scheme, device, securing obtaining, aiding secure obtain, person payment, property, benefits procurement, transfer, disposition property 63 392, 40 489(b). As 2514 that: 'A forfeited corruptly practices attempts practice proof, statement, establishment, allowance thereof. 32 'In specifically find attempt render forfeiture.'11 These show apart inherent deal indubitably standing intervene restrain enforcement See, e.g., Hougham, 310, 13, (1960); Rex Trailer 350 148, 76 219, 100 149 (1956); Dinerstein, 362 852 (CA2 1966). 34 So concerned, irrelevant deciding board appeals. common beginning designated officer, gross mistake failure exercise honest judgment.' U.S., 402, 1106. Later came boards 35 Boards respective today common. They creations established regulations. S.Doc.No.99, 89th Sess., Operation Effectiveness 20—21. Their 'constitute adjudication purest sense.' 21. noted,12 1964. long explains why 'of head department duly representative (emphasis added). 36 Bianchi 373 709, 1409, 652, appeals, record trial led proposals effect, rulings denied finality.13 25—26 n. 70. taken step. Some urged 159. leading problems, Professor Harold Petrowitz, observed, 'This done, anomalous relatively close relationship serve.' However serious problem dimensions, obviously resolve, us limits 37 involve situation timely rehearing prompt sua sponte reconsideration, wrong reason, refuses not, day, repudiated merits Nor, repeat, simply instance successfully delegated. labors frustrated, intermeddling rights disavow If ombudsman each every rendered branches mandate come Congress, Reversed. REHNQUIST took case. 42 BLACKMUN, THE CHIEF JUSTICE, STEWART, POWELL join, concurring. I agree case, charged, 321—322, operate finding fact Government's join Court's venture supportive comments: 44 acted executive capacity 448—450, 200 (1960). party contractor. Its Yet position here, grant itself Office, interposition, thinks done. This, me, good sense, absence clear congressional authorization, doubt law. 45 employed decades. drawn prescribed deals. years, exceptions, regarded conferring 3. accepting bears interim financial up rescission sue damages. What receives return assurances speedy delayed or, years. 47 4. compel arsenal arbitrariness unfairness, behest subjects untoward delay hazard prove ruinous. 48 5. strange if, concedes, possesses finality, 397 (1876); (1922), while higher level not. occasion issuance terms, apply. accepts Commission, conclusive fact. position, enjoy preferred status.* 49 6. Lurking background advantage resulting strikes me possible longterm understanding consented appeal, points. consent disavows decision—a notes, day withdrawn AEC—it seems imposes agreed. 50 7. history, dissent finds clearly conclusion, me. anyone reads absorbs Appendix dissent's indicative. it, dissenters decidedly ambiguous best. struggled conceded 'explicitly' Government-in-stituted 1376, 342. surprising, intended relieve restricted contractor-instigated alleged proved reinstate Interior Secretary's set 'arbitrary,' 'capricious,' erroneous.' urged—and prevailed dissenting votes—a narrow reacted, overrode restrictive measure opened door proviso 321. 51 am able read change corresponding nod direction flat rejection proposed significant. point defeat anyway. differing approaches themselves inconclusiveness history. 52 8. Of course, protected. protection, afforded nature workings system, emphasis expeditious getting job presence results fulfillment time, protection needs capriciousness, arbitrariness, evidence. area more. 53 therefore reversing itself, very opposite 54 BRENNAN, WHITE MARSHALL dissenting. 55 recover 'disputes clause,' factual arose 'be jurisdiction fraudulent, capricious, arbitrary, preclude (disputes) decisions,' (Commission's) advisory disputed items, disagreed pay. subsequent relied disputes, entitling grounds defenses. 56 helpful outset put perspective briefly developed past century regulate clauses procurement contracts. Until 1954, passage official parties. Although precluded decisions, 1878 consistently either official. Thus 'fraud' exception written judicially fashioned. 57 then, dissatisfied proving fraudulent. bore identical contested GAO, watchdog expenditures, thereby suit. GAO's consequence court; lawyear, Once recovered basis Over gradually broadened decisions. 1951, trend pursuant purporting final, challenger guilty 'conscious wrongdoing, intention cheat dishonest.' 100, 155, (1951). Wunderlich's definition alarmed contractors, for, practical meant virtually invulnerable challenge. 59 concern so-called drafted overruled directing 'shall pleaded limiting (the Government) alleged.' overrule explicitly stated decisions: Finally, (Government) 60 old unserviceable, longer bind reviewable Consequently, instead expressly tracked limited challenging 'fraudulent,' 'so faith,' evidence,' incorrect 'on last petitioner.1 61 above, pre-Wunderlich clauses, purported like avail created forcing represented path followed opinion, informed improper meet suit, Had arisen current ground. Like determines, asserted law.'2 62 holds defend holds, decisions.3 reaches conclusion strength assertions business exercising advising appearing always perpetrates Noticeably justification interpreting apply Somehow construes bar Today's demonstrably wrong. arm addition Yet, iota support governs 'any' suit,' Act's confirms expanded available unlike goes further, noted, purport final. denies privilege entering affords Hence, ensures also, Court, finality. produces absurd agreed nevertheless least specifying five including entitled, none all.4 worse deprived Wunderlich. flatly prohibits us, following face Analysis unfortunately unduly extend length opinion. devastation today's wreaks sufficient justification, alerted urgent need remedial legislation. alone restore former balance scope unspecified way, agreeing explicit already unable thwart will. A. 66 (1878), 'conclusive.' 'neither allegation proof faith' subjected revisory doing violence words contract.' 401. enunciated Claims: 'in premises (contractor) government.' laid down rule equally impeach today, departed Sweeney 109 618, 344, 1053 (1883), reiterated 'there officer,' held, States,' official's conclusive. 620, 344. 69 next Martinsburg Potomac R. March, 114 549, 1035, 255 (1885), do railroad company, company whose 553, 1037. stating 'case principles announced id., 550, 1035 (here, similar quotations, citations repeated), 'had estimates implied failed discharging him,' 70 Chicago, S.F. C.R. Price, 138 185, 290, 917 (1891), essentially March. reviewed stressed applied (supra) (supra).' 193, 291. pointed out '(t)he difference (March) mistakes engineer contractors.' 292. '(T)hat difference,' said 'cannot affect interpretation company's engineers, company. 195, 71 Price employee delegated although, test reaffirmed application Sheffield Birmingham Coal, Iron Gordon, 151 285, 343, 164 (1894), mistake' 'was company.' 292, 345. Gleason, 176 588, 228, 284 (1900), involved again affirmed intervening 73 one, term engineer, arise execution work, conclusive, courts. P.R. (supra); 602, 233. 74 Ripley 223 695, 701—702, 704, 352, 355—356, 614 (1912), Merrill-Ruckgaber 241 387, 662, 1058 (1916). 75 paid favor, Treasury subsequently deducted sums 325, 128. relying direct simple: 'We R.R. Gleason (supra). extending 77 Hanger, although Kihlberg. 78 power' 129, meaning disagreement parties' determined. prevail Comptroller's refuse favor.5 sum, had, 1922, (or, dispute) Kihlberg; Sweeney; March; Gleason. Price; Gordon; Hanger.6 80 Moorman, 338 457, 288, 94 256 (1950), once gave extended proper clauses. '(c)ontractual No enactment condemns creation enforcement.' 460, 290. Kihlberg, Sweeney, holdings foregoing stand principle agreements.' 461, added '(i)f anticipatory deprivation 462, providing 99, 155. noting stated: 82 'Contracts, governmental private, equivalent (this clause) enforced 99—100, unbroken line applying simple, straightforward agent full short, B Most cases, him, see, Kennedy 122 (1889); P. McLaughlin (1902); Pacific Hardware Steel 327 (1914); Brinck 170 (1918); Southern Shipyard Corp. 468 (1932), 85 Hardware, deduct price performing Deductions made, deductions. 336. waive deductions circumstances. argued violated policy vitiated argument, waiving deductions, rule: 86 'Of error implies remain liable.' 337. 87 Yale Towne 633 (1923), reposed faith.' 637. Supreme requires (contractor's) contention,' 'Provisions reposing frequent occurrence. Such inserted largely invoked (contractor), effective perchance occasionally way.' 638 90 Penn Bridge 892 (1924), referring 'substitute eliminate adjudication,' 898, 'action comptroller (not) way conclude contract,' 896. rule. 897. Bridge, reaffirming demonstrates correctness court. power—the purse—was favored Eaton, Brown Simpson, 668 (1926), controlled determining States.' 685. 93 Carroll 103 assessed damages sum greater excess. replied: novel insofar precedents concerned. At uniformly containing conclusiveness findings supervisory overturned warrant implication fraud.' 124—125. 95 Albina Marine Works 714 (1934), matter. proven. behind makes which, numerous.' 720. repeating establishment concluded: 98 'It seldom arises instant upholding attempting overthrow appointed carry undertaking. Unless proven contrary, credit accorded arriving impartial part.' 721. 99 405 (1936), completing unavoidable. later fault said: 'Neither numerous 'his therein thereto.' authority. States; Gleason.' 409.7 101 B—W Construction (1942), '(i)t erroneous. event General.' 123. 102 Mitchell Canneries 498, 111 228 (1948), off 502, 247. cogent was, until exactly applicable challenges likewise 104 district result. accept adhered contrary view. 105 'Another general control government's purse strings, approved. is: Has made? 106 extensive broad. overreaching, payments vest department. (Supra); Moorman (Supra).' 716.8 107 Consolidated Vultee Aircraft 948 (D.C.Del.1951), reversal pay, Graham. 951. C 108 crystal clear. courts, rule, originally almost ago enforceable ever questioned refusing approve review.9 rise attained. Carlo 713, 1412, 652 (1963), court's governed 'disputes' extremely decision'; 'somewhat expanded' 'over years.' Needles Use Ben. 601—607 (1944). expansion addressed. 110 Certiorari granted clarify decision(s).' exception. 'Despite 'negligence,' 'incompetence,' 'capriciousness' 'arbitrary' opinions, head's proved. essence conscious dishonest. head, conduct, 112 Within month decided, Leeds Northrup 999 (ED Pa.1951), reimbursed costs. Several years later, compelled persons, employ parties, unequivocally declared many cases.' 1002. quoting extensively Graham, follows: 115 Bureau's determinations clause,) wrongdoing dishonest, Wunderlich.' 1003. 116 Sunroc Refrigeration 131 Pa.1952), Northrup, 117 concluded, adhere too limited, Congress.' 156. Almost immediately issued, legislation expand sense. attached detailing summarize here. 118 bills introduced 82d attention focused 2487. form, 2487 provided: 119 'That relating (official), arising limit (official) 120 2487, acceptance invitation itself. specify be, indication overruling (Emphasis added.) 121 initial abundantly criticized interests undesirable impact interest, 'officials just expense taxpayers.'10 And, Assistant testimony hearings, 'means extreme difficulty fraud.'11 concern.12 offered substitute bill believed protect interests. 123 treated official) 124 differed respects. First, defined aside. Clearly had. suppose 125 Second, More precisely, previously Rather, point, irrelevant. bill, increased enormously, oust considered unacceptable. Not surprisingly, proposal became highly controversial. 126 Extended hearings Senate. most witnesses statements concerned urging adverting notable exceptions. Associated Contractors attorneys specialized representation contractors.13 Opponents contractors.14 objecting adoption deprive defense permitting utilize accounting payment.'15 suggested 127 An amended Committee hearings.16 128 129 Thus, moreover, slightest command 'plead' Amended party, party's 130 went beyond incorporating bill: '(A)nd void respect having jurisdiction, 132 adopted 133 Report Wunderlich) disadvantage sometimes happens, detrimental claim.'17 seen 134 explained GOA's 135 'have wittingly unwittingly, necessary to, (sic) collection rightfully due.'18 136 defined, likewise, party. 'simply recognize has,'19 entirely second claims. 137 expired reintroduced Congress,20 Senator McCarran, bill's sponsor, observed 'cuts ways' cited discussed, (E.D.Pa.1951), attempted interposed (T)he recovery Government.'21 recognized floor debate, emphasized 'operate greatly contractors,' Government.'22 Congress.23 July 1953, essential enable decisions.24 Opposition empowering invalidate objection quite predictably, 'court claims.' (A)n functions branch.'25 139 Understanding precise important. Obviously, suggest authorize ability All Wunderlich; done away broader, insert opposition urged, unreasonably, avowed expanding transform deletion leave 140 bowed opposition. Stating (erroneously, think) 'has asked case,' deleting objectionable provision. He 'this accomplish striving along place before' Wunderlich.26 minor 141 failure. left get 142 resumed January 1954. revised Counsel despite 'against Certainly contract(ors) coextensive.'27 Similarly, Associate adequate 'insure opportunity excessive generosity,' 'could setoff felt Government.'28 143 Many opposed shared suggestion precluding Any absurd, power. witness objected say contractor.' ensuing colloquy members 'necessarily include(d) parties.'29 Committee, contractors.30 Senate, adopted. Instead, 144 did. plain. foresees possibility creating enactment, prescribed.'31 power, claims." hand, diminish existing stressed. elimination mention Office.'32 was. 145 about reference repeating. object opponents prevailed, deleted. Deletion courts.33 146 hurt deleted 'designed purpose.'34 purpose, 'accomplish purpose' leaving all. responded affirmatively statement modification effect,'35 bill. 147 purpose. review.' defines 148 impossible search meaning.36 event, says. Two considerations buttress my construction patently grievously First. exception, General.'37 taxpayers.'38 add 'fraudulent' erroneous,' delete authorizing joined forces strong passage. pressed yet grounds. Second. absurdity compounded consequences Before follows principal 'board' however board's determination, helpless loss dollars American taxpayers. stake countless millions. secured preposterous.39 penetrate primary premise exposed sentences these: Ante, 8.40 it.' Id. approval 'Here, honored.' 1041 Ibid.42 cause.' 12. '(The Act) overreaching.' Ibid.43 (preventing inflating bids) Justice.' 152 tenoire, primarily sideswipe infer, gather, distaste activities device denying abolish disapprove use, suits dispositive answers supposition. 153 notion completely figment imagination. shows, exercised decades complaints discover complete quote accompanied 154 legislation, narrow, restrict, audit, has. 155 Office. practice, orders intent 156 affects letter 157 quoted Committee's 2487: 158 '(I)t restrict audit; (it) has.'44 159 establishes 10. exposes fallacy states Act.' 3—4 9: 'By reasons.' 160 Third. states, nonexistent contention Department,' 12, (of States) Commission,' ibid. ibid.: history.' suggests 'right appeal.' lawsuit lawyer, defend. confess 161 quoted, invites comment: 162 '(J)udicial 14—15. 163 Contractor attack says, bids. recognizing this, got prevent necessity bids, all, preventing inflated 'would ill-served.' difficult imagine obvious non sequitur. easily '(t)his served' lost 165 'objective means, Only that. 166 lengths must, forecloses escape statutes 'Congress 16. Apart explanation why, available, fashion, alike, frivolous.45 Obviously mentions discussing 167 construing guard 'decision fraudulent.' challenged, decision: wat 'fraudulent'? 'capricious'? 'arbitrary'? erroneous'? evidence'?46 abgenus us.' solutely '(a) 15. 168 time-tested wording revealed totally discards purports hostility toward 'intermeddling,' 19, subjection 'citizens oversight,' 14. century-long language, refute proposition. affirm APPENDIX TO OPINION OF J., DISSENTING 169 six introduced. 2432 (Sen. Chavez); McCarran); H.R. 6214 (Rep. Celler); 6301 Springer); 6338 Wilson); 6404 Walter). Hearings Subcommittee Judiciary, (1952). 171 Judiciary GAO'S 'undesirable 5—6. latter interest. 172 'I deeply allows uncontrolled discretion affairs places reckless taxpayers.' 173 174 'inadequate Without questioning officer.' 175 recommended 'Any stipulation finally 177 Frank L. Yates, Subcommittee. 'were disturbed foundation fact.' Yates continued, works ways,' burden, taxpayers country.' 9. 'it appears so, may, agreement circumvent operations detriment 9—10. normal jurisdiction,' for: 178 (administrative officers) et cetera. resort coextensive.' 11. 179 managing director E. Foreman, testified industry success industry's latest Foreman hearing, nothing carrying jurisdiction.' 24. association's counsel, John Hayes, department, bureau, guarantee reasonable, based.' 29. amplifying Hayes 'by protected.' 'enter review' abridging null void.' 30. commenting association welcome review,' 'should doesn't difference. cut ways 31. Replying question, one-way street contractor,' cuts ways.' wished absolutely 32. 180 much discussion counsel O. McGuire, 'accept facts, unless, mistake.' 41. W. Gaskins, brief revision granting 'jurisdiction (administrative) decision' conport 68. Gardiner Johnson, attorney understood wanted practically requesting, consider unfair unreasonable 84. understood, 'our people basic quarrel unfair, taxpayer 83. 181 statements, protecting 2—3, 62, 70—75, 85—87, 119—136. few further. Robert Kline, representing Association River Harbors amendments assure restoration unjust heads.' 58. contractors' 59. Alan Johnstone, law, notwithstanding.' 61—62. Johnstone returned testify expressing preference 'bill mak(ing) justiciable grievance have,' himself, testified, Harry D. Ruddiman, hearings. of' 107. 182 contrast, adhering representatives annual convention based,' thereto 114. 183 sent copy Chairman bills. 116—119. comments Committee. bills, employing (while) report, 184 substance proposal. 185 conclusiveness, board, alleged; .' S.Rep. 1670, 186 overcome inequitable recent 187 'S. due.' 188 has.' 2—3. 189 Cong.Rec. 7783—7784; 9059, Congress. formal changes, S.RepNo.32, allege deliberately cheated, defraud question.' 4572. 190 'Senators looked know ways. badly, injustice (t)he 191 bill.' 4573. 192 Air Force 'objected 4598. feels 4599. 6170. 6201. Representative Reed 1839, related 3634 Celler) H.R.6946 Willis). 1839 al. ser. (1953, 1954). 194 Elwyn Simmons, 'incompetent negligent representative(s),' 'work readily contractor' 'only your unprecedented situation.' Referring debates Simmons 195 inclusion objection, auditing staff objection.' 196 George Leonard, Contracting officers' though saw 'no anybody passing officers.' 197 prepared asserting decisions.' view, Although, light Ruddiman discounted '(f)ears possesses,' removed striking or" 1839. 13. testimony, reservations removing 198 'Lastly, don't is, fears groundless. figured ought think 199 'At thought probably mentioned you reference, jurisdiction. However, dangerous misconstrued Office.' member, replied 'needless refer to' day. 201 feel amendment, would, orders, confronted throw strike ineffective Senate.' 17. 202 18. wide portals anyone, grievance,' referring, defense, sauce goose gander.' 19. 203 becoming apparent. Among letters 22—30, calling branch.' 26. 204 Shortly considerable quarters express officials.' Nevertheless, little groups agencies. 136. 205 alleged: Provided, 206 With filed filed,' retroactivity 48, 82, eventually 207 Fisher, hearing. 'rule 38. 208 forth. 39. 209 associate Administration, J. Macomber, interests, portion, insure generosity, Macomber 210 6946 court(,) gets difficulty.' 211 appeared objections industries 76. 212 52—56, 77—88, 91—95, 101—104, 123—124. Louis F. Dahling, Automobile Manufacturers Association, 'make Claims' 213 'Now, office probability evidence, redress. Furthermore, sense becomes judge jury prosecutor.' 97. 214 Dahling 98. Charles Maechling, Radio-Electronics-Television echoed 215 'Under vastly enlarged, heretofore principally investigatory audit functions, clothed nature. third disputes.' 105. 216 Merchant Institute 217 intermediate 'floating' vests (an administrative) fully .. function, literal thereafter clause.' 122. 218 premised fear sole 61—75, fundamental contracts.' 62. 219 evident examination Willis' 6946, omitted or.' 'Wunderlich react reacted unfavorably party.' occurred: 220 'Mr. Hyde. occurred likely party? 221 Willis. be. Now, adversely days ways, showing caught ruled. 222 finding, circumstances want appeal? Who say, appeal'? interested, Defense. Suppose (a)nd way. Then side someone.' 33—34. 224 Franklin M. professor problems Schultz member include parties.' 110. ensued: 225 Schultz. Yes, point. (S)everal now, two-way street, upsetting 226 compared 24? 227 Well, persuasive, sir, sponsoring (GAO's) saying coextensive. 110—111. implicit above colloquy, 'substantial test. indicated 'own phrase 113, 118—119. 229 with, upon, Bar 89. H.R.Rep. 1380, (1954). 230 covercome officers. 231 '. prescribes uniform reasonable requirements 1—2. 232 discussed reports. 233 234 6—7. 235 debate. 5510. 236 preserve 237 takes language. satisfaction language.' 5717. 238 assured 'satisfied bill' 'otherwise (he) care along,' ibid., 239 Thye. understand, House. speak? 240 McCarran. correct. Type. else involved. Is correct? 242 correct.' 5718. 81, provides: 'No 322. '6. Except disposed Officer, reduce writing mail furnish Contractor. Officer date receipt copy, mails furnishes addressed proceeding heard offer appeal. Pending hereunder, Officer's '(b) 'Disputes' Clause paragraph (a) above; 3.1 seq. 1971). Volume 876, liability employees manner disbursing accountable officers; vouchers certification.' amicus curiae, notes disputes—the Commission—should 'veto' 6(a) dealt 6(b) (see 2, supra), believe pari materia avenue speaks 'consideration (a).' relates reviewability establish avenues supra. types investigative powers. kickbacks inspect plants books prime subcontractor negotiated 741, criminal violation established. 54. broad, roving, asserted, grants superfluous. everyone.' 286, 295 (1969). Suffice best ambiguous. laws wary analyses phrases sponsors laws. generally Fruit Packers, 377 58, 66, 1063, 1068, (1964); Mastro Plastics NLRB, 349, 360, 309 Schwegmann Bros. Calvert Corp., 341 384, 394—395, 745, 750, (1951); St. Paul, M.R. 247 318, 525, 528, 1130 Omaha Council Bluffs Street ICC, 324, 333, 890, 1501 (1913); Trans-Missouri Freight Assn., 540, 1007 (1897). caveat Holmes, inquire legislature meant; ask means.' Theory Legal Interpretation, 417, 419. stated, continuation (created decision) attractive responsible competitive work. discourage element engaging attract speculative elements contingent allowances unconscionable H.R.Rep.No. vein, version firms who, condition production materials, great puff sure funds unforeseen contingencies.' S.Rep.No. 32, disallowed Kamen Soap Products 608, 619, (1954) (fraudulent preparation evidence); Morris Demolition 336 (1943); Jerman 540 (1942) invoices); Mervin (1941) (false payroll vouchers); Atlantic (1922) (embezzlement). 3, Fed.Reg. 12829 aspects exhaustion 256; Grace Sons, 384 424, 1539, Utah 394, 1545, 642. Judge Collins, well: 'When 'dispute' followed. voluntarily dispute. do, end reached, officer. again, If, matter; sue. anomaly elaboration. officers, highest level.' 1397—1398, 379—380. (Footnote omitted.) concurring judicial-review clause: 'And status.' 'conclusive status' 'specific provision' directs unless' added) etc. clause' surely opening sentence 'provides conclusive." recognizes obvious: oral argument subsequently, prompted post-audit, recoup method. fortiori certainly pays. constant repetition casual reader That, true, Act: contrast decisionmaker. Rather clear: Claims.' 9—10 Part refers 'bad Again, citation ante, least, perplexing. Goltra Weeks, 271 536, 613, 1074 'unless 548, 617. Significantly, authority, (in relied. cites proposition 'absent example understand statement. excerpt demonstrates, 'deny GAO; rather, 11, District 'where 53,' 'kickbacks statute, intimate relevant. overreaching' shorthand usage apparent glance citations: Carroll, 'summary accordingly." omits preceding opinion: Department's particular dues contributions reimbursable unconscionable.' 717 asserts points.' speaking authorities utter inaccuracy assertion. 'for disputes) italicized assertions, misleading assert, 'closed citizens.' 'restricted 'prevailed' opinion's surprising recognition 9, 10, 29—32, 68, 83—84, 107, 59, 6301, ease continue 3—20. foray assertion they' satisfied concludes denied.' anyway.' 22—23. Unfortunately, overlook decision,' (opinion Court); 'power (concurring opinion). Both reveals reserve somewhat odd considers worthwhile everyone" 'find(s) ambiguous.' professes 'decidedly best,' 22, 'intended 'opened inexplicable cursory analysis no. 31, '(i)n Government,' 23. clear,' 'inconclusive,' 23, albeit obscurely, subjecting litigation. 43, infra. understand. Assume reason' Was nonpayment Act? say. connected petitioner.' 1421. 'nonrepudication' case: agreed.' 22. 'disavowal' 'subject added), so. Fraud available. 6—7 refutation curtailed allay depriving 'throw court.' Appendix, infra, pp. 78—80. fulfills prophecy. (41 53) superfluous.' satisfy illegal Enforcement prohibition 'superfluous.' Brother Douglas this: allow bounds perverse, captious, incompetent palpably wrong.' 102, (dissenting opinion)

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