Document: 330 U.S. 1 67 S.Ct. 504 91 L.Ed. 711 EVERSONv.BOARD OF EDUCATION EWING TP. et al. No. 52. Argued Nov. 20, 1946. Decided Feb. 10, 1947. Rehearing Denied March See 855, 962. Appeal from the Court of Errors and Appeals State New jersey. Messrs. Edward R. Burke E. Hilton Jackson, both Washington, D.C., for appellant. Mr. William H. Speer, Jersey City, appellees. [Argument Counsel page 2 intentionally omitted] Justice BLACK delivered opinion Court. A statute authorizes its local school districts to make rules contracts transportation children schools.1 The appellee, a township board education, acting pursuant this authorized reimbursement parents money expended by them bus their on regular busses operated public system. Part was payment some in community Catholic parochial schools. These church schools give students, addition secular religious instruction conforming tenets modes worship Faith. superintendent these is priest. appellant, his capacity as district taxpayer, filed suit court challenging right Board reimburse students. He contended that resolution passed it violated Federal Constitutions. That held hat legislature without power authorize such under constitution. 132 N.J.L. 98, 39 A.2d 75. reversed, holding neither nor conflict with constitution or provisions Constitution issue. 133 350, 44 333. case here appeal 28 U.S.C. § 344(a), U.S.C.A. 344(a). 3 Since there has been no attack ground part language excludes attending private profit enjoying state transportation, we need not consider exclusionary language; relevancy any constitutional question presented.2 Furthermore, if exclusion clause had properly challenged, do know whether Jersey's highest would construe statutes precluding group pupils, even those run profit.3 Consequently, put one side validity against claim does generally Jersey. 4 only contention resolution, so far they schools, violate two respects, which extent, overlap. First. They take taxation property bestow upon others, be used own purposes. This, alleged violates due process F urteenth Amendment. Second. forced inhabitants pay taxes help support maintain are dedicated to, regularly teach, This use contrary prohibition First Amendment Fourteenth made applicable states. 5 argument law people others carry out purposes framed phases. first phase cannot tax B cost transporting said because sent satisfy personal desires parents, rather than public's interest general education all children. argument, valid, apply equally prohibit non-public school, church, other nongovernment individual group. But, decided purpose will served using tax-raised funds fares children, including who attend reached same conclusion. fact law, need, coincides individuals most directly affected certainly an inadequate reason us say erroneously appraised need. 6 It true has, rare instances, struck down were one. Citizens' Savings & Loan Association v. City Topeka, 20 Wall. 655, 22 455; Parkersburg Brown, 106 487, 442, 27 238; Thompson Consolidated Gas Utilities Corp., 300 55, 57 364, 81 510. But also pointed far-reaching authority must exercised extreme caution. Green Frazier, 253 233, 240, 40 499, 501, 64 878. Otherwise, state's legislate welfare might seriously curtailed, primary existence Changing conditions create new problems may lead authorities believe laws authorizing types services necessary promote well-being people. did strip states meet previously left solution. Davidson Orleans, 96 97, 103, 104, 24 616; Barbier Connolly, 113 27, 31, 32, 357, 360, 923; Fallbrook Irrigation District Bradley, 164 112, 157, 158, 17 56, 62, 63, 41 369. 7 much too late argue legislation intended facilitate opportunity get serves purpose. Cochran Louisiana Education, 281 370, 50 335, 74 913; Holmes, J., Interstate Street Ry. Co. Commonwealth Massachusetts, 207 79, 87, 26, 52 111, 12 Ann.Cas. 555. Cooley, Stuart School Village Kalamazoo, 1878, 30 Mich. 69. thing less needy can ride risk traffic hazards incident walking 'hitchhiking.' supra, at 359. cases collected 63 A.L.R. 413; 118 806. Nor follow provides paid i dividuals account spent way furthers program. Carmichael Southern Coal Coke Co., 301 495, 518, 868, 876, 1245, 109 1327. Subsidies loans farmers home owners, privately owned systems, well many kinds businesses, have commonplace practices our national history. 8 Insofar second differ first, suggesting constitutes religion State. invalid reason, Amendment's establishment law. exact raised appellant's contention, consideration now turn. 9 challenged 'law respecting religion.' Amendment, Fourteenth, Murdock Pennsylvania, 319 105, 870, 872, 87 1292, 146 81, commands 'shall religion, prohibiting free exercise thereof.' words reflected minds early Americans vivid mental picture fervently wished stamp order preserve liberty themselves posterity. Doubtless goal entirely reached; but Nation moved toward expression religion,' probably vividly remind present-day evils, fears, political caused written into Bill Rights. Whether 'establishment religion' requires understanding meaning language, particularly respect imposition taxes. Once again,4 therefore, inappropriate briefly review background environment period fashioned adopted. 10 large proportion settlers country came Europe escape bondage compelled government favored churches. centuries immediately before contemporaneous colonization America filled turmoil, civil strife, persecutions, generated established sects determined absolute supremacy. With supporting them, various times places, Catholics persecuted Protestants, Protestants Catholics, Protestant sects, shade belief another belief, time Jews. In efforts force loyalty whatever happened top league particular place, men women fined, cast jail, cruelly tortured, killed. Among offenses punishments inflicted things speaking disrespectfully views ministers government-established churches, nonattendance expressions non-belief doctrines, failure tithes them.5 11 old world transplanted began thrive soil America. very charters granted English Crown companies designated control destinies colonials erect establishments all, believers non-believers, required attend.6 An accompanied repetition persecutions. found hounded proscribed faith; Quakers followed conscience went jail; Baptists peculiarly obnoxious certain dominant sects; varied faiths minority locality steadfastly persisted worshipping God consciences dictated.7 And dissenters taxes8 government-sponsored churches whose preached inflammatory sermons designed strengthen consolidate faith generating burning hatred dissenters. became shock freedom-loving feeling abhorrence.9 ministers' salaries build aroused indignation.10 feelings No throughout Colonies rightly given entire credit having sentiment culminated adoption Rights' embracing liberty. Virginia, where achieved influence affairs excesses attracted wide attention, p ovided great stimulus able leadership movement. there, elsewhere, conviction could best stripped tax, support, otherwise assist religions, interfere beliefs 13 movement end dramatic climax Virginia 1785—86 when legislative body about renew Virginia's levy church. Thomas Jefferson James Madison led fight tax. wrote Memorial Remonstrance law.11 it, he eloquently argued law; person, either believer non-believer, should taxed institution kind; society always wholly free; cruel persecutions inevitable result religions. Madison's received strong Virginia,12 Assembly postponed proposed measure until next session. When proposal up session, died committee, enacted famous 'Virginia Religious Liberty' originally Jefferson.13 preamble stated among 14 'Almighty hath created mind attempts temporal punishments, burthens, incapacitations, tend beget habits hypocrisy meanness, departure plan Holy author being Lord mind, yet chose propagate coercions . .; compel man furnish contributions propagation opinions disbelieves, sinful tyrannical; forcing him teacher persuasion, depriving comfortable giving pastor, morals pattern * *' itself 15 'That shall frequent worship, ministry whatsoever, enforced, restrained, molested, burthened, goods, suffer belief. .'14 16 recognized drafting played leading roles, objective provide protection governmental intrusion statute. Reynolds United States, 98 164, 25 244; Watson Jones, 679, 666; Davis Beason, 333, 342, 299, 300, 33 637. Prior restraint states.15 Most soon similar protections liberty.16 half century imposing restraints discriminating groups.17 recent years, provision concerned, frequently arisen connection aid teachings accordance sect.18 Some sought accepted financial Here again obtain acceptance limited faith.19 courts, main, remained faithful protect freedom separate governments. Their decisions, however, show difficulty drawing line between institutions teach religion.20 scope preventing thereof, light history evils forever suppress, several elaborated decisions prior application Fourteenth.21 broad earlier concerning individual's rendered since interpreted prohibitions action abridging freedom.22 There every sam interpretation clause. interrelation complementary clauses summarized statement South Carolina,23 quoted approval Court, 730, 666: 'The structure preservation liberty, rescued interference. On hand, secured invasions authority.' 18 means least this: Neither Government set pass prefer over another. person go remain away profess disbelief religion. punished entertaining professing disbeliefs, attendance non-attendance. amount, small, levied activities institutions, called, adopt practice can, openly secretly, participate organizations groups vice versa. Jefferson, 'a wall separation Church State.' 244. 19 We foregoing limitations imposed strike within though approaches verge power. supra 85, 88, 28, consistently contribute teaches amendment hamper citizens exclude Lutherans, Mohammedans, Baptists, Jews, Methodists, Non-believers, Presbyterians, members faith, lack receiving benefits legislation. While mean intimate careful, protecting state-established sure inadvertently extending regard Measured standards, prohibits spending taxraised pupils program pays undoubtedly helped possibility children's pockets exists transit company reduced schools,24 municipally system undertakes charge. Moreover, state-paid policemen, detailed going real traffic, serve accomplish guarantee kind deems welfare. refuse serious danger accidents protected policemen. Similarly, reluctant permit cut off ordinary police fire protection, connections sewage disposal, highways sidewalks. Of course, cutting services, indisputably marked function, more difficult operate. obviously neutral relations non-believers; require adversary. handicap favor them. may, discharge duty compulsory laws, send meets educational requirements impose. Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 45 571, 69 1070, 468. appears requirements. contributes Its legislation, applied, regardless safely expeditiously accredited 21 erected state. kept high impregnable. approve slightest breach. breached here. Affirmed. 23 JACKSON, dissenting. I find myself, impressions, unable join decision. sympathy, ideological, feel constrained discipline Such reli f involves burden taxpayers assumed little principle. Study convinces me otherwise. Court's marshals puts favorable light, reasoning confirms my conclusions good grounds present fact, undertones opinion, advocating complete uncompromising State, seem utterly discordant conclusion yielding commingling matters. irresistibly comes fitting precedent Julia who, according Byron's reports, 'whispering 'I ne'er consent,' consented.' I. sustains assuming deviations facts case; assumes record secondly, refuses inescapable record. 26 concludes 'legislation, schools,' draws comparison 'state transportation' implies dealing 'laws hypothesis permeates opinion. bear construction. Township Ewing furnishing form; operating contracting operation; performing service taxpayer's money. All paying passengers What does, what taxpayer complains of, intervals paid, provided expenditure possible effect child's safety expedition transit. As travel fast faster, safe safer, reimbursed before. thus type exist, insists close eyes discrimination exist. disbursement limits Act applied taxpayer. 29 makes character needs determine eligibility reimbursement. permits whole profit. Children often provide, backward defective special attention. If objects impartial solicitude, obvious denying students class, worthy Refusal understandable abstain aiding profit-making enterprise. Thus, brought classified aided C tholic allowed faiths. Baptist Jew Episcopalian pupil complaining discrimination. urging unconstitutional think entitled just written. holds Legislature 'for school,' 354, 337, view expressed, choose alternative except 31 decide us, simply Is complainant carrying specified denomination? II. 32 constitutionally depends nature relation Church. says nothing education. lays obligation undertake regulate systems see fit cannot, through policy means, invade rights States. West Education Barnette, 624, 1178, 1628, 147 674. One basic transgression command U.S.Const., Amend. I; Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 60 900, 84 1213, 128 1352. function subject meager. shows superintendence priest 'religion taught curriculum.' name—they, represent worldwide age-old Roman Under rubric 'Catholic Schools,' Canon Law bound, provides: 34 '1215. educated taught, moral training occupy place. (Canon 1372.)' 35 '1216. elementary must, age, instructed Christian doctrine. 36 young higher receive deeper knowledge, bishops appoint priests qualified work learning piety. 1373.)' 37 '1217. non-Catholic, indifferent, mixed, say, open non-Catholics alike. bishop diocese right, harmony instructions See, circumstances, safeguards prevent loss tolerated 1374.)' 38 '1224. teaching youth inspection Ordinaries watch morals, territory. 'They, moreover, books doctrine teachers demand, sake safeguarding removal books. 1381.)' (Woywod, Rev. Stanislaus, Law, imprimatur Francis J. Spellman, Archbishop York 1940.) exaggeration historic focus respective policies. Church, counseled experience ages lands sorts men, takes what, viewpoint progress success mission, wise estimate importance leave pick chance. relies indelible indoctrination word example persons consecrated task. 42 Our product Protestantism, consistent culture scheme values. relatively development dating 1840.1 organized premise isolated inculcate needed knowledge strict lofty neutrality assumption after worldly wisdom better fitted disjunction possible, wise, questions try answer. 43 surprised deny vital, choice, venerable institution, expect, forego mature young, choice. growth cohesion, loyalty, spring rock rests, render indistinguishable rendering itself. III. situation beneficiary primarily incidentally pupil, bestowed indirect school. carriage circumvented subsidy, bonus expense indoctrination. compares subsidies says, 'Nor 1327.' relieve pauperism, induce reward spend secure age want, skepticism. compensate employment, adherence creed. 46 seems fallacy reasoning, accounts principles avows, ignoring essentially test beneficiaries selected. policeman protects Catholic, course—but Catho ic; member society. fireman school—but school; property, assets ask renders 'Is building identified Church.' draw check student's fare question, such, while profit, withheld. To converse disclose fallacy. parallel apparent incongruity limitation service. Could sustain coming firemen extinguish blaze buildings profit? analogy pretty plain valid. 47 grievance therefore bound such. agree left, each state, latitude deciding itself, conditions, things. socialize utilities economic enterprises taxpayers' business conventionally business. welfare, health, entertainment security. instruction, character. answer proposition fully expounded RUTLEDGE form realm indirectly thereby supported expense. difference sets almost matter goes root overlooking today. Rights forefathers' minds; forth terms, strength rigidity. keep states' hands religion's above bitter controversy life denomination advantage getting purse. Those ends immeasurably compromised today's 48 never pleasing groups. quick invoke protections; irked restraints. gone long way, unreasonable hold paramount maintenance order, privacy home, pursued proselyting. dissent Douglas Jeannette, 166, 877, 882, 1324, 81; Martin Struthers, 141, 862, 1313; Jones Opelika, 316 584, 1231, 86 1691, 141 514, reversed rehearing 890, 1290. 49 ways. affair seeks impose regulations infringe indirectly, taxing another, all. harsh forgotten alone assures predominant forbid done want broken down. Many carried controls it. Indeed declared 'It hardly subsidizes.' Wickard Filburn, 317 131, 82, 92, 122. event, depend convenience restrain. read struggle ecclesiastical affairs, concur, today unconsciously clock's 51 FRANKFURTER joins RUTLEDGE, whom FRANKFURTER, JACKSON BURTON agree, 53 'Congress thereof. *.' U.S.Const.Am. Art. 54 'Well aware Almighty 55 'We, General Assembly, enact, burthened *'1 56 words, joined impregnable yesterday Fourteenth.2 sustained indeed breach action. third, fourth, still attempted, sure. For 913, opened oblique ruling3 decision, wider third. Thus solid steadily gives continuing corrosive forces squarely time4 'an conception; command. shortly, setting color problem. 58 By boards 'to school' routes, child lives 'remote school.'5 'the Trenton Pennington High Schools carrier. *'6 59 Named conveyance homes three four outside district.7 Semiannually taxation. Religion curriculum affirmatively testimony Diocese Trenton. Jersey, reversing Supreme 75, board's contravention Constitution. ruling accords implied Fourteenth. 61 Not forbidd n. broadly loosely phrased. compact summation author's formed during freedom. characterizing Jefferson's Establishing Freedom, guaranty charter, like bill piloted Model technical precision, perspicuous brevity.'8 confused 'church' 'religion,' church' 62 merely official single sect, creed outlawing formal prevailed England colonies. Necessarily uproot relationships. object broader separating narrow sense. permanent spheres activity comprehensively forbidding proof wording unite utterances whenever attention fixed question. 'Religion' once governs meanings, establishment' broader, securing 'Thereof' brings 'religion' content, less, guaranty, Congress restricted regarding other. constricted, 'prohibiting exercise' creedal observance, sect many. secures forms expression, creedal, sectarian nonsectarian wherever however taking conduct trenches freedoms clearly presently endangers community's security.9 protective street preaching, oral distribution literature, estate preaching pulpits.'10 basis private, Accordingly, daily commingled guaranty's comprehensive scope. So form. connotes broadest formality occurs, essential details. 65 significance twin establishment.' duplicitous. 'establishment' forbids other, guise, degree. outlaws 66 closely tied content refined terse includes authorship proceedings Congress, intensive America, especially Virginia,11 direct culmination.12 documents times, Madison, leader sponsor, writings issues engendered irrefutable confirmation sweeping content. crux general. Remonstrance, Par. 15, Appendix hereto. coauthor George Mason Declaration 1776. credited changing mere principle tolerance pronouncement inherent individual.13 expressly condemn existing establishment.14 then strong. 68 Accordingly yielded long. At resumed fight, succeeding sessions. 1779 threw full weight behind Freedom. prime democratic reform undertaken return Continental 1776 submitted Assembly's revised code.15 1784, Bill's sponser.16 Enactment failed successive legislatures introduction June 1779, January, 1786. forward fronts growing intensity. throughout, Patrick Henry's powerful opposing Henry elected governor November, 1784. 1784—1785 Assessment Bill. Supplemental revive suspended 1777. singled preference incurred active hostility dissentient broadened include subsided temporarily opposition.17 altered, gave privilege designating share default designation pious uses.18 utmost here, 'in final option education.'19 70 unyielding vigor nondiscriminatory discriminatory assessments proposed. modified reading December, enacted. followers, maneuvered deferment 1785. reconvened fall issued Remonstrance.20 71 complete, only, liberty.21 broadside particular, selective. Reflecting conflicts Freedom also, example, struggles incorporations continued glebes, concise accurate Because behooves dimming distance lose sight coworkers when, stroke pen, forbade exercise, text appended current reference, together copy directed. 72 stirring storm popular protest, killed Bill.22 collapsed committee shortly Christmas, this, cleared last enactment promptly drove January 1786, seven years introduced. dual victory substantially ended establishments, settling issue note 33. 73 year Constitutional Convention. done, fought valiantly ratification nowhere else effectively.23 'there shadow intermeddle religion'24 'this is, honor perfectly unshackled. jurisdiction .'25 Nevertheless pledged Rights, specific freedom, ith states, ratified assurance.26 Ratification accomplished, Congress. pledge establish nation Virginia. Within submission article Rights.27 75 instruments warp woof tradition, course history, common unifying life, thought sponsorship. epitomized tradition compact, nonetheless comprehensive, phrasing. 76 discloses opposed degree authority. beyond restrain support.28 Denial abridgment violation natural equality. destructive 'Establishment' 'free correlative coextensive ideas, representing different facets fundamental following statute's referred effects historical, suppress exercise. believed tolerate fragment perpetuate Hence tear partially branch, bar forever. 77 unrelentingly 'three pence' contribution exacted citizen 3.29 Tithes blood compulsions disappeared. exceptions abridgments created. objection small tithes. whatsoever. 'If lawful admission pave oppressive levies.'30 amount assessment wrong.' interference intervention matters.31 field authors experiment liberties' 'wait till usurped strengthened entangled precedents.' 3. we. 78 further appropriation, exercises. called for, debates expressions, touched directly,32 supply 79 contrast congressional reveal sparse discussion, reflecting settled.33 become understood taken Hence, enlightening reference concern, gifts virtue breadth wording.34 margin noted principal confirm prohibition.35 80 Compulsory exercises observance ceremonies.36 Test oaths qualification office later.37 none devoted bringing back. today, apart inject surviving threat maintaining foundation function. Does power? Certainly remains undiluted another's one's own.38 Today 'contributions disbelieves' forbidden exaction; consequence mount end. 82 dispute encouragement instruction. 'support' concerned legal 'entangled helps aids substantial secure, namely, teaching. 83 Believers faiths, express ultimate form, extent proportionate Lutheran, Jewish religiously affiliated non-Catholic likewise proportionately Each differ, accept differences. exaction denies liberty' agency approves.39 exactly fits evil struck. given. element shown plainly increasing demand assume pretense relates attempt allocating proportional shares precisely th defray conveying place secular, religious, guidance. 85 sincerely avowed faiths,40 separated emphasis. inadequacy necessity sending taught. philosophy justification, undeniably admixture institutions. being. constitutionality contradict ethical convictions schooling. Yet disestablished Commingling divest permeation emphasis minor part, material. Indeed, view, naught adding modicum secular. appropriation treasury Sunday weekday classes parish house, meetings people's societies, Y.M.C.A., Y.M.H.A., Epworth League, withstand attack. true, mixed religious. stand, hard how becomes valid extended scale Surely turn occurs. 88 Finally, needed, element. total expense, textbooks, lunches, athletic equipment, writing materials; items composing burden. Now core teacher-pupil relationship. Without richest equipment facilities naught. Judd 278 N.Y. 200, 212, N.E.2d 576, 789. proverbial Mark Hopkins conception longer suffices country's buildings, library, textbooks materials, bring effective environment, skeleton require. Hardly maintained items, aid, encourage, do, accomplish. cost, classroom teacher's sustenance. considered essential, without. 89 me, feat impossible select indispensable item composite costs, characterize aiding, contributing promoting sustaining about. Unless maintained, outlawed. Payment more, tuitions, teachers' salaries, materials. related, achieve. rational drawn larger, necessary, transportation. dollars less. measure. 90 Collins, 323 516, 315, 430.41 Now, time, wrong. IV. told public, purpose, promotion majority idea 'public legislation.' destroyed, pertinent. extensive 92 determinative engaged legislature's decision moneys basis, dubious policy, refusal be, objection.42 93 promotes cause individual. obviously, urge opportunities nationwide rests grants 94 beside materiality obscure all-pervading Cf. supra. Stripped phase, presents federal Id. casting terms individual, ignores factor leaving vital case. welfare' 'social legislation' come thing. 95 issue, two. her raising appropriated ends, Conversely, ones. teaching, matters establishments. declares so, understand why father 97 truth contradicts heretofore conceived. function'—'public welfare'—' social 'employ (that education) engine Civil policy.' 5. piece preamble, although explicitly states.43 opposite. value training, observance. Rather r sphere activity, ad distinguished intellectual liberties, twofold and, forbid, perform altogether private. act. heart 99 furthered so. Both courts distinction. observe lies function'—'social facilitated easy transference argument's basing unrelated aspect 100 declaration gift uses generally, bodies overcome bar. finding consequences appropriations uses. Norris Alabama, 294 587, 590, 579, 580, 1074; Hooven Allison Evatt, 324 652, 659, 874, 1252; Akins Texas, 325 398, 402, 1276, 1278, 1692. Legislatures make, sustain, promote, encourage observances, small. removed judicial competence exclusively affair. 101 reasons underlying vanished diminished force. adopted price double. live safeguarded agencies domain dependency largesse. 6, 8.44 condition sustenance, interferences, rest vanishes resting. Id., 7, 8.45 Public quest more. larger any. numbers benefit most, societies dissident 8, 11. experienced guard against, blunt screened forms. Ibid. strife destroy cherished dominating achieve benefit; embroil dissensions. 11.46 102 Exactly centered around providing funds.47 dissension typically, phrase, 'destroy moderation forbearance Religion, produced amongst sects.' knew measures threshold 3, 9, 103 obtained forwarded; hence determination.48 divided receives benefit.49 few dichotomy false, aided.50 104 views. both, benefited substantially.51 function—social thesis. contrary, concedes implication absence denial, concede reach enterprise provided. 105 Notwithstanding recognition two-way denial furthered, elision added gloss partakes measure, unneutral matters, hampering receive. noted, contradicted cloth function' excision factor.52 important approach, supplies ready method nullifying involving transplant welfare—public proper nonreligious bearing application, 'supported' helping training. 107 fares. paraphrase distant differs degree; step direction. 9.53 pence establishment, him' more; conform whatsoever.' n w, then, 'either authority; plenitude authority, sweep rights; or, untouched sacred.' 15. 108 remains, kingdom God. inviolately precedents'54 confounded legitimately domain. V. conscious values unsympathetic desire others' own. happily denied receive, demand. 110 prevail, unjust attendants sustenance teachers, cost. Hardship blink. assuring undergo greater, design firm intent 111 sense foregoes exercising seeks. 112 Were protest atmosphere necessity, staked 12. necessarily entails hardship advantages precluded giving. parent withhold give. observing rigidly avoid partisanship dissensions opposes demands degree, indirectly. Like St. Paul's bought. fully, insisting greater others. 114 problem absence. treat al ke. faith,55 stand. adherent childless fortunate. Then making expenses hours places embraches believe. Again, fathers multiplying all-inclusiveness exacted. requires, identification separation. VI. 115 Short treatment dispose remains. Whatever statute, semblance indeed, expeditious conveyance. supplied conveyance, delays highway streets multifarious 116 comparable access highways. safety.56 department stand idly burns. education.57 117 Needless add, Frazie , 878, 1327, dealt situations determinative. chosen decisive, strictly narrower issues. face schools.58 assume, majority, write explicit schools.59 showing populous district.60 none.61 taken, unnecessary limit grounding 119 Two drives constantly motion abridge, name division forefathers made. introduce observances Johnson, Legal Status Church-State Relationships States (1934); Thayer, (1947); Note (1941) Yale L.J. 917. avenues closed quantity, measured expended. day principle, drew them; liberties; becoming precedents. untarnished shield 120 judgment reversed. 121 APPENDIX. 122 MEMORIAL AND REMONSTRANCE AGAINST RELIGIOUS AS SESSMENTS. 123 TO THE HONORABLE GENERAL ASSEMBLY COMMONWEALTH VIRGINIA. 124 REMONSTRANCE. 125 We, subscribers, Commonwealth, consideration, printed Session 'A establishing Religion,' conceiving same, finally armed sanctions dangerous abuse power, remonstrate declare determined. remonstruate Bill, 126 1. undeniable truth, 'that owe Creator, manner discharging directed conviction, violence.'1 man; dictate. unalienable right. unalienable; depending evidence contemplated minds, dictates men: also; towards Creator. Creator homage, believes acceptable him. predecent obligation, claims Society. Before Society, Governor Universe: enters subordinate Association, reservation saving allegiance Universal Sovereign. man's abridged exempt cognizance. True rule exists, divide ultimately determined, majority; trespass minority. 127 2. large, Legislative Body. latter creatures vicegerents former. derivative limited: co-ordinate departments, constituents. merely, metes bounds invariably maintained; especially, suffered overleap Barrier defends Rulers guilty encroachment, exceed commission derive Tyrants. People submit governed themselves, derived slaves. Because, alarm liberties. prudent jealousy citizens, (the) noblest characteristics Revolution. freemen wait saw avoided revere lesson much, forget Who Christianity, Religions, ease Christians, Sects? whatsoever? 129 4. equality ought indispensable, expediency liable impeached. 'all independent,'2 entering equal conditions; relinquishing retaining rights. Above 'equal title conscience'.3 Whilst assert ourselves embrace, divine origin, convinced us. abused, offence God, man: rendered. subjecting peculiar burdens; granting exemptions. Are Menonists compulsive religions unwarrantable? Can piety intrusted care worship? Ought Religions endowed extraordinary privileges, proselytes enticed others? favorably justice denominations, covet pre-eminencies fellow seduced opposition 130 Magistrate competent Judge truth; employ policy. arrogant pretension falsified contradictory ages, world: unhallowed perversion salvation. 131 6. requisite Religion. contradiction itself; disavows dependence powers fact; known existed flourished, human spite miraculous evidence, Providence: Nay, terms; invented pre-existed supported, moreover weaken confidence innate excellence, patronage Author; foster reject suspicion friends fallacies, trust merits. 7. witnesseth instead purity efficacy operation. During fifteen centuries, Christianity trial. fruits? More pride indolence Clergy; ignorance servility laity; superstition, bigotry persecution. Enquire Teachers appeared greatest lustre; point incorporation Propose restoration primitive depended voluntary rewards flocks; predict downfall. weight, interest? 8. Government. urged cognizance Government, becessary Government? Society? instances seen spiritual tyranny ruins upholding thrones tyranny; instance guardans liberties subvert clergy convenient auxiliaries. government, instituted not. enjoyment hand property; invading Sect, suffering Sect 134 9. generous which, offering asylum oppressed promised lustre country, accession number citizens. melancholy mark sudden degeneracy? Instead persecuted, signal degrades rank Citizens bend Distant Inquisition step, career intolerance. magnanimous sufferer scourge foreign Regions, Beacon Coast, warning seek haven, philanthropy offer repose troubles. 135 10. tendency banish Citizens. allurements presented thinning mumber. superadd fresh motive emigration, revoking enjoy, species folly dishonoured depopulated flourishing kingdoms. 136 sects. Torrents spilt world, vain arm discord, proscribing opinions. Time length revealed remedy. Every relaxation rigorous tried, assuage disease. American Theatre exhibited proofs, eradicate sufficiently destroys malignant health prosperity salutary o eyes, begin contract bonds severely reproach folly. let fruit threatened innovation. appearance transformed 'Christian forbearance,4 love charity,' mutually prevailed, animosities jealousies, appeased. mischiefs dreaded enemy quiet law? 137 adverse diffusion Christianity. wish enjoy precious gift, imparted race mankind. Compare remaining dominion false Religions; former! lessen disproportion? No; discourages strangers (revelation) Region it; countenances, nations continue darkness, shutting convey levelling obstacle victorious ignoble unchristian timidity circumscribe defence, encroachments error. 138 13. enforce sanctions, acts Citizens, enervate general, slacken bands execute deemed salutary, dangerous? striking impotency authority? 139 14. singular magnitude delicacy imposed, clearest citizens: satisfactory voice secured. counties requested signify Assembly.' representation equal, Representatives Counties, hope former will, expouse Should event disappoint confidence, fair reverse sentence 140 finally, conscience' tenure recur nature; weigh importance, dear us; consult pertain 'basis Government,'5 enumerated solemnity, studied Either plentitude sacred: controul press, abolish trial jury, swallow Executive Judiciary Powers State; nay despoil suffrage, independent hereditary assembly: enact consideration. subscribers authority: d effort omitted usurpation, oppose remonstrance; earnestly praying, Lawgiver Universe, illuminating addressed, councils act affront holy prerogative, committed them: guide (blessing, re) dound praise, firmly prosperity, Happiness Commonwealth. II 183—191. SUPPLEMENTAL 142 Provision 143 Whereas correct vices, peace society; effected learned enabled devote instructing circumstances attain knowledge; judged Legislature, counteracting liberal preserved abolishing distinctions pre-eminence communities Christians; 144 Be teachers,—per centum or—in pound sum payable hereby assessed, chargeable due; Sheriffs Counties collect restrictions limitations, prescribed Revenues 145 enacted, Sheriff Collector receipt, expressing therein socity Christians keeping distinct thereof County, shall, _ year, oath, alphabetical lists payments made, distinguishing columns opposite names appropriated; column lists, recorded book Clerk office; Court-house, concerned. Sheriff, deducting five per collection, forthwith appointed Vestry, Elders, Directors, denominated society, execution awarded security, executors administrators; ten days previous notice motion. execution, Officer serving proceed immediate sale security months, goods forthcoming sale; direction wherein, endorse taken. Act, Vestr es, Directors Minister Teacher Gospel denomination, whatsoever; denominations Menonists, members, fund, disposed calculated mode worship. DP sums accounted directed; (upon certified Auditors Accounts, Treasurer) Treasury, seminaries whence arise, THIS commence, force, _. 148 Copy Engrossed 149 John Beckley, C.H.D. 150 Washington Mss. (Papers Vol. 231); Library Congress.* 'Whenever living remote schoolhouse, part. 'When route residing part.' Laws 1941, c. 191, p. 581, N.J.Rev.Stat. 18:14—8, N.J.S.A. Appellant challenge excluding attends 'private profit.' Although appellant allege, anything allegation, attended attended, appropriate proved occurred, position ruled adversely challenger. Striking moment ex mero motu postulate charged proved, possibility. Liverpool, Philadelphia Steamship Com'rs Emigration, 33, 39, 352, 355, 899. excepting invalid, excised. Section 1:1—10 N.J.Rev.Stat., N.J.S.A., 'any jurisdiction, unconstitutional, enforced suggests pupils. stated: 'Since conclude authorization P.L.1941, Chapter R.S. 18:7—78.' 337. (Italics supplied.) 145, 162, cf. Knowlton Moore, 178 41, 89, 106, 747, 766, 772, 969. e.g. Macaulay, History (1849) I, cc. 2, 4; Cambridge Modern (1908) V, IX, XI; Beard, Rise Civilization (1937) 60; Cobb, Liberty (1902) II; Sweet, Story (1939) Colonial (194 ) 320—322. charter colony Carolina grantees 'patronage advowsons chapels licence oratories consecrated, England.' Poore, Constitutions (1878) II, 1390, 1391. Maryland grantee Baltimore Patronages Advowsons Churches happen built, Licence Faculty erecting founding Churches, Chapels, Places Worship causing Ecclesiastical Kingdom England, ample Jurisdictions, Privileges, Bishop ever had. McDonald, Documentary Source Book (1934) Commission Hampshire 1680, 1277, 'And comand Councill ye discountenancing encouraging living; examples infidle invited partake satisfaction sd loving subjects yt unto protestants; conformable rites Engd countenanced encouraged.' Town Pawlet Clark, Cranch 292, 735. Semple, (1894); 131—152, 322—339. Almost support. op. cit. 5, (Virginia); (North Carolina); 169 (Massachusetts); 270 (Connecticut); 304, 310, 339 (New York); 386 (Maryland); 295 Hampshire). friend 1774: diabolical, hell-conceived persecution rages some. vexes worst whatever. adjacent six well-meaning jail publishing sentiments, main orthodox. patience hear, talk, relative matter; squabbled scolded, abused ridiculed, am patience. beg you pity pray all.' Writings (1900) 18, 21. resistance crystalized 'Parson's Case' 1763. cit., 111. 183. recently discovered collection papers, recollected 'met approbation Presby-terians, Quakers, universally; Methodists part; formerly law.' Monopolies, Perpetuities, Corporations, Endowments, Fleet, 'Detached Memorandum,' Mary Q. (1946) 534, 551, evolution James, Struggle (1900); Thom, Virginia; 74—115; 12, 554, 556. Hening, Statutes (1823) 84; Commager, Documents (1944) 125. Permoli Municipality How. 589, 739. Barron, Use Tiernan Mayor Council Baltimore, Pet. 243, 672. Gavel, Funds Private 148—149. Limitations (1927) 960—985. holders 'deny North 1776, XXXII, 1413. permitted 1818, 819, 820, 832. 917; Synod Dakota S.D. 366, N.W. 632, L.R.A. 418; 879; 1148. 16. Terrett Taylor, 43, 650; 637; Reuben Quick Bear Leupp, 210 50, 690, 954. Conn., 1352; Jamison 318 413, 669, 869; Largent 418, 667, 873; supra; 674; Follett McCormick, 321 573, 717, 938, 152 317; Marsh 326 276; Bradfield Roberts, 175 291, 121, 168. Harmon Dreher, 1843, Speer's Eq., S.C., 120. ago charge rates. Service Utility Com'rs. 1917, 363, A. 27; Mass., Columbia Code cent Jan. 14, 1933, 1, subd. 19, Stat. 752, 759, D.C.Code 1940, 44—214 note. Cubberley, ch. VI; Knight, VIII. Freedom,' Randall, Life (1858) 219—220; XII Hening's 84. Schneider 308 147, 146, 155; Prince 438, 645; 530, 322, 430. briefs raise hether involved IV, infra. facts, inseparable furnished only. infra seq., IV; 35. reads: 18:14—8. Senior School, Junior School. affording stop eighth grade. tuitions covered Mary's Cathedral Boys Hedwig's Parochial tuitions. notes 58, IX (ed. Hunt, 1904) 288; Padover, (1942) 74. characterization related revision Code, Mormon 792, 481; Jacobson 197 11, 358, 643, 765; Cleveland 329 Possibly 'clear danger' Statute Freedom: enough rightful officers break overt order.' Thoma 220; 81. effect, 109, 873, Tucker 517, 274. Conflicts colonies, contributed generation formative wording. (1902); (1939). Charter Rhode Island 1663, 1595, colonial climactic covers decade 1776—1786, short V; Brant, Revolutionist XII, XV; X, Eckenrode, Separation (1910). works cited authors. Citations 'Jefferson' refer Works Ford, 1904—1905); 'Madison,' 1901—1910). Eckenrode. 243. view. 'Madison looked judge concentrated freedom.' 243; 4, Appendix. 245—246. liberally remonstrance quotations indicates outlawed prevailing technically. chairman revising chief draftsman. Corevisers Wythe, Pendleton, Lee. portion revision, barring entailments. Primogeniture followed. Much Freedom; death corollary V 153. However, linked disestablishment collorary parts freedoms. 78. sponsorship, nearly status time. Acknowledging 'restrain Assemblies irrevocable law,' concluding nevertheless asserted: 'Yet declare, asserted mankind, hereafter repeal operations, infringement right.' 220. 70—71; 447; 80. regarded desertion. letter Monroe April 1785; 129, 131—132; XI. 91, surrender inevitable. provided: paid. manuscripts Papers 231. crucial role meaning, 99, 100. 100; 113. sheriff above. 183; ff. Memoranda' III (3d Series) 554—562. major causes assigned defeat elevation governorship November 1784; blunder proponents allowing Incorporations floor incur acted on; astute leadership, 'break' convert initial fall; flood protesting petitions; poverty excellent short, account. 176. 37. 132. 250. assurance constituents responsible Convention 154—158. read, introduced it: established, manner, pretext, infringed.' Annals 434. debate 729—731, 34. Appendix; 13, 24, text. exception 'preserving letter, 484, adopted: usurpation corrupting coalition alliance guarded agst. abstinance Govt. whatever, preserving trespasses others.' third remonstrance, Appendix, bears here: 'Because, whatsoever?' (Emphasis added.) 183, 185—186. summary Remonstrance. 'Because pretention salvation.' 5; 187. above, IV infra, 25. views, agreeing remove doubt guaranties original 1791 ended, vestiges later, sold 1802. 147. Fixing date 'disestablishment' impossible, piecemeal. 1777 Anglican suspended. resumed. Eckenrode states: 'This act, destroyed establishment. dates end, really 1777, suspending effective. freeing Nobody Anglicans recruit ranks dissent.' P. 53. pp. 61, 64. revived 'with ever, summer 1784.' factual fix 1785-January, settled. proposed: 'No 729. 27. Representative Huntington Connecticut feared construed enforcement pledges. extremely hurtful expressed gentleman construction congregations Eastward belonged meeting-houses manner. regulated by-laws. cases, neglected engagements 730. possibility, suggested inserting 'national' disclaiming unmistakably meant 731. 484—487. touching raised, sharply trustee individuals, Indian wards, beneficial owners. disbursed patrons statutory involved, 'it settled school.' 697, Ponce Apostolic 737, 1068. 168, highly artificial indigent patients hospital. '* Qualification Office Trust States.' Const. VI, cl. President's Oath Affirmation. Ex parte Garland, 366; Cummings Missouri, 277, 356; Lovett 328 303, 1073. beginning opinion: pastor pattern, feels persuasive righteousness, withdrawing rewards, proceeding conduct, additional incitement earnest unremitting labors mankind.' 29, 30, 38. Bower, 58: self justified sound modern functional concept experience.' Vere, Elementary Essays 110—111; Gabel, 737—739. strange 'reasonable,' presumably license fee placed amounts stress 'denying principle' waiting 'usurped precedents,' reinforced Bill: 'District intolerance.' 9; 188. smaller ones this. class expenditures supports declaration, perhaps cumulative use. 'Whereas Foote, Sketches (1850) 340. Establishment world. guardians l berties people.' 187, operation.' 'At forbearance, appeased.' 189. amici curiae behalf labor union, Liberties Union, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Michigan York. Mississippi sort brief. Delaware, Oklahoma, York, Dakota, Wisconsin. overturned 1938. XI, divided, judges split, dissenting nine Appeals. typical. 49. 49; 54. demoninational theory Nichols Henry, Ky. 434, 191 S.W.2d 930, compare Sherrard County 469, 171 963; 168 La. 1030, So. 664, affirmed Borden 1005, 1183; Wheat, 174 Md. 314, 199 628; Adams 180 550, 370; Chance Textbook O. Board, 190 Miss. 453, 200 706. Bowker Baker, Cal.App.2d 653, 167 P.2d 256. Other constitutions 789, Smith Donahue, 202 App.Div. 656, 195 N.Y.S. 715; rel. Traub Del. 181, W.W.Harr. 172 835; Gurney Ferguson, Okl. 254, 1002; Mitchell District, Wash.2d 612; Van Straten Milquet, Wis. 192 392. Hlebanja Brewe, 351, 236 296. purposes, 'public' 'private' present. 917, 925. E.g., 255, 68, 316, 340, 628, 639. institution. Questions gravity object, applies payment. averaged roughly $40.00 child. brief supporters action, 47, strongly maintains controlling 17—19 cited; XV. thesis, writings, incompatible 'nondiscriminatory' XII. specially earmarked, disorder accidental incidents life. destruction. recalled President Grant exemption Grant's Seventh Annual Message December 1875, Messages Presidents (1897) 4288 4289. Garfield, accepting nomination presidency, said: people, revenues nation, everything relating absolute.' Abram Garfield Hibsdale, 1883) 783. rate-making utility extends compulsion extend extension system, consider. Former instance, rate, latter, doubtfully sufficient reasonable classification excluded feasible attend, geographic situation, conducted follows, minutes proof: recommended carrier years. Ralph Ryan M. French adopted.' court's conferred binding Reinman Little Rock, 237 171, 176, 511, 513, 900; Hadacheck Sebastian, 239 394, 414, 143, 348, Ann.Cas.1917B, 927. population Township, located near Trenton, 10,146 census 1940. Sixteenth Census Population, 430, preferred sanctity sanction permitting intrusions.' Pars. usual presumption save excursions field. Carolene Products 304 144, 152, 778, 783, 1234, Wechsler, Stone Col.L.Rev. 764, 795 seq. Apart ordinance singles alone, unless positively available advantages. Decl.Rights, (Note original.) Decl. Reghts, Rights-title. hand-bills postponed, ordered distributed House Delegates. Journal Delegates, 102—103. House.

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