Document: 360 U.S. 548 79 S.Ct. 1322 3 L.Ed.2d 1422 PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD COMPANY, Petitioner,v.George M. DAY, Administrator Ad Litem of the Estate Charles A. DePriest. No. 397. Argued March 26, 1959. Decided June 29, Mr. Richard N. Clattenburg, Philadelphia, Pa., for petitioner. James Davis, Jr. Mt. Holly, N.J., respondent. Justice FRANKFURTER delivered opinion Court. 1 In April 1955 DePriest began an action in District Court New Jersey, claiming $27,000 additional compensation from Pennsylvania Railroad. had been employed as a locomotive engineer by Railroad May 1918 to 1955, at which time he resigned his employment and applied annuity. He alleged that under terms collective bargaining agreement between Brotherhood Locomotive Engineers was member, entitled extra day's pay each 1,000—1,500 times assigned leave switching limits perform service employer on tracks belonging Baltimore Ohio Co. relied provision provided engineers who were used beyond their specially defined circumstances. further claim rejected employer's representatives, including Railroad's chief operating officer region employed. His retirement occurred immediately after this rejection. Jurisdiction based diversity citizenship. The stayed proceedings awaiting disposition similar claims against then pending before First Division National Adjustment Board, v. R. Co., D.C., 145 F.Supp. 596. An appeal interlocutory decision, not one granting or denying injunction, dismissed. Cir., 243 F.2d 485. interim died replaced administrator. Following rejection Board involving same provisions agreement, dismissed complaint ground Board's interpretations final such binding respondent, 155 695. Appeals reversed, 258 62, holding determination respondent party him, jurisdiction over claim. We granted certiorari, 358 878, 124, 108, since decision raised important question administration Railway Labor Act 1934. That Act, 48 Stat. 1185, 45 U.S.C. § 151 et seq., U.S.C.A. established broad framework regulation adjustment industrial controversies railroads. 2 establishes, inter alia, with thefol lowing purposes functions: 'The disputes employee group employees carrier carriers growing out grievances interpretation application agreements concerning rates pay, rules, working conditions, cases unadjusted date approval shall be handled usual manner up designated handle disputes; but, failing reach manner, may referred petition parties either appropriate division full statement facts all supporting data bearing upon disputes.' 3, (i), 153, (1), subd. 1(i). 4 clash economic forces led passage history its enactment, legislative policies it expresses guide judicial have too thoroughly recently canvassed need repetition.1 On basis these guides construction we held exclusive primary unions agreement. Slocum Delaware, L. & W.R. 339 239, 70 577, 94 L.Ed. 795. day, also decided Order Conductors America Southern Ry. 255, 585, 811, principles fully applicable conductors they certain 'side trips' carrier. case, like case now us, involved could only adjudicated relevant However, here, claimant has retired railroad service. immediate is whether factual difference makes legal difference. 5 grants 'disputes * *.' It defines 'employee' including: 6 '* every person (subject continuing authority supervise direct rendition service) performs any work subordinate official orders Interstate Commerce Commission 7 tribunal settle arising relationship employee. All considerations Congress entrust expert administrative board are equally when, initiating performed while active duty. nature problem experience knowledge remain same. must construed uniformity orderly differences. There nothing requires subsist throughout entire process settlement. purpose fulfilled if itself arises regulated. accepted ajud icates employees.2 This uniform great importance, reflecting, does, needs fair expectations industry what might termed charter internal government. Moreover, discharged challenge validity discharge seeking reinstatement back pay. See Union Pacific Price, 601, 1351. Thus plain both reading light settled respondent's compensation. 8 Since jurisdiction, jurisdiction. meaning policy compelled conclusion submit resort courts first instance, when seeks remained A contrary would create insubstantial class preferred claimants.3 Retired allowed bypass constituted hearing whenever deemed advantageous do so, whereas other required present Board. forcefully illustrates difficulties construction. Several workers To allow try accentuate danger inequality treatment consequent discontent aim eliminate. can take notice fact specialized technical calling ascertaining application. Wholly apart adaptability judges juries make determinations, varying jury verdicts imbed into judgments constructions subject review secure uniformity. Not engender but through greater spur conflicts, eventually conflicts resulting strikes, than different unfair differentials, respect centralized questions hamper defeat central Act. 9 Our Moore Illinois Central 312 630, 61 754, 85 1089, does stand way this. given proper, limited scope carved controlling doctrine unusual special situation wrongful where aggrieved expelled relationship. employee, probable damagesacc rued primarily terminated. 10 consistent regard importance having NRAB adjudication 11 judgment cause remanded, order returned Court, instructions dismiss lack 12 Reversed remanded. 13 BLACK, whom CHIEF JUSTICE DOUGLAS concur, dissenting. 14 I affirm two reasons: agree back-wage Board; believe here grant railroads court trials wage them compelling determination, denies equal protection law violation Due Process Clause Fifth Amendment. Cf. Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 74 693, 98 884. I. 15 holds gives back-pay ex-employer cannot read way. provision, confers power adjust *.'1 Seemingly highlight govern only, 'every *.'2 railway brought suit within definition. Prior job, claimed annuity Retirement 1937, worker making relinquish rights return future.3 Under circumstances, be, 'in service' 'subject service.' No language brings think Court's represents altogether unjustifiable interpretative liberty. 16 perhaps few statutes providing less excuse departing congressional least insofar coverage concerned. step series efforts establish machinery peaceful settlement quarrels avoid strikes interruption whole product many years thought, study, conferences, discussions, experiments. Many witnesses, representatives employees, testified hearings. hearings show solicitous interest groups legislation. touches sensitive subjects peace, represented enacted balance interests reasonably satisfactory groups. As such, should lightly disturbed. 17 finds reasons outside however, expanding thebou ndaries set definitions Congress. These reasons, my judgment, support expansion Act's makes. argues 'All duty.' am afraid assumes have. Of course some apply. agree, example, wages ex-employee true, sues Yet hesitated three separate occasions say actions courts, themselves construe 1089; 795; Transcontinental Western Air, Inc., Koppal, 345 653, 73 906, 97 1325. Similarly, award adverse forced go enforced, felt free interpret differently had.4 18 problems suits ex-employees necessarily One know complex adopt surmise carefully limiting employers. clear, together day day; frequently live neighborhood; they, fact, constitute almost family people, discussing affairs, airing among complaints company. atmosphere individual dissatisfactions tend become those group, breeding disturbances strikes. true seems granted. Instead, very opposite seem much more likely assumption. give daily contact workers, even move long off old localities, therefore personal so breed dissatisfaction leading Consequently, wrong intimate strife productive would, entertained workers. Certainly, questionable assumption effect supplies slim clear 19 But external statute, 'lop-sided' awards furnishes weighty reason excluding provides invoke compulsory Board.5 Section (m) states 'awards dispute, except contain money award.'6 constued , prohibits ruling courts.7 And determining denial employee's 'money award' falling exception (m), refused trial Board.8 Today's 1351, appears position. contrast, obtain substantially de novo it. For, (p) voluntarily comply award, damages, earner enforce bringing, United States 'shall proceed respects civil suits, findings prima facie evidence therein stated *.'9 20 Construed way, creates glaring After get no claims; railroads, precisely kind there case. For Douglas dissent redetermination judge him affords view Price. unfairness discriminatory procedure upheld manifest me. bound incite bitter resentment will produce discord interrupting flow commerce creating evil sought me provide arguments plainly covered language. refuses exclude consider constitutional contentions II. 21 Respondent giving 'final binding' hiswag e deprives Seventh Amendment 'Suits common *.'10 contention serious where, and—as understand Price—is never trial. comparable situation, amended reparation specific avoiding guaranteeing it.11 Significantly, copied verbatim 16(2) Act.12 section (§ passed assure did 'abridge right jury, away incidents.' Meeker Lehigh Valley 236 412, 430, 35 328, 335, 59 644. hard Constitution railroad. believed 1360 (dissenting opinion). Instead Price rejects construction, follow deprived trial, although one. 22 surely easy uphol th constitutionality takes dispute ancient common-law jury.13 impossible uphold second chance other. Such unequal side far better win Analogous practices criminal consistently struck down courts.14 today upholds without hardly discrimination litigants justified. Indeed, 'justification' attempted Brotherhoods willing forego exchange benefits allegedly gave them. Taken concession unions. did, able involved. assuming contract additionally still doubtful proposition organization can, contract, estop members thereafter, statements union leaders taken effect. valuable safeguard our liberty us easily discarded. hold accorded railroad, well taken. 23 Appeals. 24 Byron Scott, Washington, respondents. 25 HARLAN announced opinion, FRANKFURTER, CLARK, WHITTAKER join. 26 called weigh particular context high again come sharp conflict—on hand, citizen pecuniary damage caused oppressive malicious part officials Federal Government; other, public shielding responsible governmental officers harassment inevitable hazards vindictive illfounded account exercise responsibilities. 27 libel suit, Columbia respondents, former Office Rent Stabilization. contained press release issued office February 5, 1953, direction petitioner, Acting Drector.1 circumstances rise issuance follow. 28 1950 statutory existence Housing Expediter, predecessor agency Stabilization, about expire. Madigan, Deputy Director charge personnel fiscal matters, Matteo, branch, suggested Expediter plan designed utilize $2,600,000 funds earmarked agency's appropriation year exclusively terminal-leave payments. obviate possibility large payments during next general funds, life extended essence, mechanics discharged, paid accrued annual payments, rehired temporary restored permanent status extended. 29 Petitioner, General Manager agency, opposed respondnts ' violated spirit Thomas Amendment, 64 768,2 expressed opposition Expediter. adoption plan, Matteo's request permission use connection approximately fifty voluntary basis.3 Thereafter face 30 Some half later, January 28, Stabilization received letter Senator John J. Williams inquiring made 1950. Madigan drafted reply letter, attempt bring attention prepared sent petitioner's signature agency. Petitioner office, secretary signed submitted morning 1953. 31 4, speech floor Senate strongly criticizing stating 'to raid Treasury, heads Government condoned practice task.' above ordered printed Congressional Record. Other Senators joined attack plan.4 Their comments widely reported capacity number inquiries newspapers news media position matter. 32 petitioner served respondents letters expressing intention suspend duty, litigation, text margin.5 33 Respondents sued, charging release, coupled contemporaneous reports senatorial reaction defamed injury, alleging publication actuated malice defended, protected qualified absolute privilege. overruled contentions, instructed verdict found defamatory. 34 appealed, raising issue affirmed Appeals, explaining (to respondents) (petitioner) went entirely line duty' thus privilege, assumed otherwise available, attach. 100 U.S.App.D.C. 319, 244 767, 768. vacated Appeals' remanded 'with directions pass privilege.' 355 171, 173, 78 204, 206, 179. remand conclude acted maliciously, spoken reasonable grounds believing Accordingly retrial. 103 176, 256 890. At point sought, 917, 287, 237, determine privilege stood bar maintenance despite allegations complaint. defense government defamation kindred torts making, Houses speech, debate, vote, report, done session.6 early superior absolutely privileged recover functions, irrespective motives acts performed, Bradley Fisher, Wall. 646, immunity extends whose duties related process. Yaselli Goff, 396, 56 A.L.R. 1239, per curiam, 275 503, 155, 72 395, Special Assistant Attorny G eneral.7 Nor confined branches executive Yaselli. Spalding Vilas, 161 483, 631, 40 780, Postmaster General, latter maliciously circulated postmasters, past present, information knew false intended deceive postmasters detriment plaintiff. sustained plea pages 498—499, page 637: 36 'In exercising functions head department, keeping authority, apprehension control conduct may, time, inquiry damages. seriously cripple proper effective affairs entrusted branch government, subjected restraint. act, discretion premises always duty invested. acts, foundation personally disagreeably impressed injuriously affects individuals.'8 37 recognition often stated. thought unembarrassed fear duties—suits consume energies devoted threat appreciably inhibit fearless, vigorous, matter admirably Judge Learned Hand: 38 'It indeed saying official, guilty using powers vent spleen others, motive connected good, escape liability injuries cause; and, possible confine guilty, monstrous deny recovery. justification doing founded until tried, officials, innocent burden outcome dampen ardor most resolute, irresponsible, unflinching duties. Again calls turn mistake, later find himself put satisfy good faith. means punishing officrs truant duties; quite another exposing honestly mistaken anyone suffered errors. answer evils alternative. instance end unredressed wrongs doen dishonest constant dread retaliation. 39 decisions have, indeed, imposed limitation official's act powers; argued powers, exist cover aim, hence dishonestly overstep bounds. moment's reflection shows, defeating doctrine. What meant acting occasion justified vested him. *' Gregoire Biddle, 177 579, 581. principle Vilas properly restricted cabinet rank, lower federal courts.9 badge emolument exalted expression aid functioning complexities magnitude activity necessity delegation redelegation simply because exercised rank hierarchy.10 41 sure, department doubtless broader sweeping functions. higher post, range responsibilities duties, wider discretion, entails. title respond damages entrusted—the relation complained 'matters committed supervision,' supra, 498, 637,—which delineating rule clothes suits. 42 Judged standards, published sustained. close one, clothed publish disclosed record. government,11 'all conferred President Title II 1947 *.'12 integrity operations headed, own capacity, directly severely challenged charges wide publicity; correspondence impliedly defending beginning incorporated releases standard practice, agencies times. publicly expessed head, announcing planned reference disseminated public, possess function effectively. unduly restrictive policy-making matters concern superiors speak underlie mandatory apply force discretionary levels concept encompasses sound authority.13 43 outer perimeter enough render applicable, complaint, said privilege: 44 unworthy destroy Legislators immune deterrents uninhibited private indulgence good. expect uncommon courage legislators. little value cost inconvenience distractions pleader, hazard upo jury's speculation motives.' Tenney Brandhove, 341 367, 377, 71 783, 788, 95 1019. told forbear sanctioning lest open door wholesale oppression abuses unscrupulous officials. fears sort realized area judicially formulated prvilege existed. wholly chimerical suggest hangs standards attempts reconcile fundamentally antagonistic social policies, occasional instances actual injustice unredressed, price necessary sanctions tort available deter prone irresponsible manner. deterred establishing announce remote forebodings. 46 Reversed. 47 concurring. concur reversal briefly summarize HARLAN. 49 Barr, Agency, why Matteo Agency. indication record affirmative Barr this, however forbidden neither nor duly promulgated force. discussed germane Agency Barr's being controversy threatened suspensions based, revealed requested opportunity testify Committee dispute. 50 ours depends largely informed opinion. widest understanding quality rendered elective appointed employees. depends, course, freedom people applaud criticize jobs, important. 51 peculiarly inform Subjecting certainly restraint So concerned, restraints reporting views how run better, expressly laws Columbia.* How barring unauthorized business, instead supervision. ila s, 493, 635—637, 780. 52 Chief WARREN, joins, 53 principal purports launch balancing obtaining fearless performance redress defamation. Even accepting moment balanced, ultimate result balance. sets vague tell certainty receive acts. slightest consideration defamed. complete annihilation interest. 54 it—though agree—if adopted classes executive, broadly extending yield allowing advance statements. opinion's tests conduct. acknowledged oral argument, Congress, agencies, authorizes new decree not. By necessity, therefore, require appraisal official. records probably us—with bald assertions resulted authorized release; precise situation. 575, 1341. presumption officer's unless plaintiff prove otherwise. admitted that, rarely enumerated, assertion bahalf place proof approach, traditional defendant sustain privilege—and negate defense—is apparently disregarded.1 55 privileges story uneven development. Absolute dates 1399.2 Constitution3 State Legislatures Constitutions Union.4 existed 1608 England.5 privilege? Apparently, earliest English presenting Sutton Johnstone, T.R. 1786. There, plaintiff, captain warship, sued commander-in-chief squadron cause, disobedience putting arrest forcing court-martial. Exchequer took 510, purely military cognizance courts.6 During century several decided.7 57 Chatterton Secretary India, (1895) Q.B. 189, apprised parliamentary inquiry. communication libelous, asked Parliament. dismissal relying Fraser Law Libel Slander (1st ed.), p. 95, author, citations, observed, relating cases: 58 'For doubt, anything state, e.g., state minister another, Crown.'8 birth England. 60 year, supra. cases. Thus, leaving aside cases, unique, appear creature 65 years' existence. Yet, relatively innumerable assumed, arguendo, according superior's order. Taylor Glotfelty, 201 51; Farr Valentine, App.D.C. 413; De Arnaud Ainsworth, 167, L.R.A.,N.S., 163. practical department. unreasonable assume uttered recognized discredited dissemination. 62 presents dealing General—a Cabinet operation major departments Glass Ickes, 117 273, 132 1328; Mellon Brewer, 126, 168, 1519. positions policymakers Executive trust confidence partakes presidential immunity. Perhaps rationale extension though positions.9 President. originally delegated Economic redelegated Stabilization.10 contended 63 extend lesser Releases imply dangers libels. First, statement—especially arguably libelous—is normally reaches larger audience internally communicated report. shown libeled original release. Second, evaluate accuracy; report internally, usually so. If false, undo harm countermanding halting spread. Giving below equivalent Colpoys Gates, 193, 118 16. foregoing discussion argument majority's here. happens balanced. Barenblatt States, 109, 134, 1081, 1097 plaintiff's wrong. adequately paralleled importance: preserving unfair—and privileged—retorts. permit wish name information, preserve foster operation. 66 situations speaker accurate results conclusions opinions facts. Only minority critic qualifiedly wrong.11 best, amorphous officials—who public—an criticized. brave knowing added deterring desirable aspects sanctify powerful silence debate. occasionally defend III. 67 attempting thinks factors weighed, effectuated goal strove. Rather, rsul t uncertain unfold case-to-case basis, important, weakened interest—honest criticism Government. 68 BRENNAN, 69 demonstrable solution HARLAN's offered it, unnecessarily Surely recognize deep-rooted generally extinguishes remedy, erecting barrier view, afford citizens circumstances.1 protect appeared (a) defamatory, (b) untrue, (c) 'malicious.'2 write clean slate allows suits,3 see warrant extent done—apparently include color utter communications public. Magruder pointed below, 250 912, 915, applications narrowly confined,4 rightly approach clothe obscure subforeman arsenal production hire fire defames discharges. described, consequences honest mistakes, quoted, matter, 'monstrous' preclude examination injury. involved? societal relieving outweigh affording relief. Hand's factor imperative: 'it outcome, duties.' place, Professors Harper think, squarely met refuted terms: 'Where mistake exempt deem worse (which condone). stretching pretty mere not, minute, abused greatest improper, swing way.' James, Torts (1956), 1645. wary subjecting nuisance litigation uncertainties undue business. peculiar officers; risk right, miscarriage justice. goals well-operating system keep risks miscarriages minimum; area, govened law, bare forthcoming,5 summary offers defendant; minimizing burdens lie abolition method flavor throwing baby bath—today's insures low defamatory statements, achieves letting worst remedy. basic objection deals concepts recovery characterizing favoring 'an government.' explanation 'important This, fear, gossamer web self-spun scintilla point. conclusion, shift already extensive doctrine, demands resolution imponderables business Legislative Branch. Branch carry publicity campaigns activities? (Without reviewing history, seen eye eye. 212, 54, 54.) actually carrying business? it? Where healthy frankness boldness shade bureaucratic tyranny? supervision administrator's assuring abuse suit? referral constituent Congressmen (already myriad routinized processing) securing injured redress? Can assume, enjoyed severe abuse? Does recent instructive parallels constitutionally forms privilege—say purport answers questions, lead forsake effort modify indicates drawn particularly foreclosed previous combining maximum exposure citizen's reputation attenuated remembered, fashioning afforded analogous circumstances)6 modified strength today, forum determination. preenc discussed, political flavor, practicalities management conclusion. materialized workings arose showing malice, disposed intervene. intervention drastic form today. Pursuant defendants alleviated participation Department Justice. Rev.Stat. 359, amended, 309, 309; Booth Fletcher, 351, 101 676. intervene officers, Tort Claims amendment encompass actions,7 eliminating formal party. ought foreclose immunizing incidental jobs.8 affirm. STEWART, 75 My brother HARLAN'S contains, me, lucid persuasive analysis troublesome law. company 76 'action (set note opinion) serve function. motivated disassociate chicanery charged. 77 publicizing became Director, attitude functionary, reputation. within, 'the dissenting 564, 1347. See, Trainmen Chicago River Indiana 353 30, 635, 622; Pitney, 326 561, 322, 90 318; Elgin, E. Burley, 325 711, 1282, 89 1886. E.g., Division, Award 15406; id., Awards Nos. 11888 (with Volume 81 awards), 12418, 16129. 1956—1957 361,000 receiving 228a seq. H.R.Doc. 278, 85th Cong., 2d Sess. inapplicability Commission, 337 426, 1410, 93 1451, dealt 1191, Fifth, 151, 5. 228b, 228b. S.S. Clarks, Freight Handlers, Express Station Employees 238 181; Dahlberg Pittsburgh L.E.R. 138 121. held, vigorous protest compulsory, enjoined striking exercised. 622. 1(m). 8, infra. Courts intimated, rulings permissible insuring procedural due Ellerd 241 541; Barnett Pennsylvania-Reading Seashore Lines, 245 579. Reynolds Denver Rio Grande 174 673; Parker 108 186; Ramsey Chesapeake O.R. 740. 1192, (p), 1(p). suit. 644; 435, 1415, 1451. also, Suits exceed twenty dollars, preserved, tried reexamined rules law.' U.S.Const. Amend. VII. Clark, 207 F. 717; York P.R. Penn Refining Limited, 137 343, 349—350. 444, 454—455, 1420, 1425, 1451 opinion); Councill A.R. I.C.C. 339, 344—345; Heck East Tennessee, V. G.R. 495, 502. 617, 1360, construed, Comm'n, shippers railways. reads part: 'Such district commission stated.' 590, 16(2), 16(2). 'Since Acts (Interstate Act) came Committees finds, naturally enough, enforcement Commission.' 749, 760, 1302, 1307, 1886 Blackstone Commentaries (15th ed. 1809) 162; 442. reason, mandate negligent injury semi-administrative board. 579 (Board prior employee). Burns Ohio, 919, 292, 238; 1164 (state indigent forma pauperis conviction defendants); Griffin People Illinois, 351 12, 891 (same); City Spartanburg Cudd, S.C. 264, 128 S.E. (right condemnation municipality permitted property owner); Georgia Power brooks, Ga. 406, S.E.2d 183 (statute valuation introduce 'similar sales' invalid); Sholem, Ill, 203, 87 N.E. 390 (appeal estate tax party); Hecker 231 Ill. 574, 83 456 supreme court's reversed intermediate appellate court, upheld, invalid). surprising ad j udges questioned Washington Terminal Boswell, 1, 11, 124 235, 245, divided 319 732, 1430, 1694; 459, 1429, 719, 1287, 9, occupied designation retiring absent city. Appropriation 1951, that: 'No of, expenditure corporation included Columbia, accumulated civilian calendar unused 1951 Accounting subsequently ruled illegal, Claims, 142 Ct.Cl. 641. various 'a highly procedure,' 'raid Treasury,' conspiracy defraud funds,' racket,' 'definitely involv(ing) action.' constitue money,' irregular, immoral, device Cong.Rec. 868—871. 'William G. suspension 2,681 cash. 'Mr. appointment becomes Monday, Administration, Linda Personnel. "In 1950,' stated, 'my stop action. Furthermore, completed. 'When learn wre cash settlements specifically notified demand resignations complied request. "While advised legal, violently 9th, effective, take.' written Joseph McCarthy, Chairman Operations, Representative Phillips, House Subcommittee Independent Offices Appropriations, requesting heard matter.' Art. I, 6. Kilbourn Thompson, 377. Cooper O'Connor, 100, 99 135, 1440; compare Brown Shimabukuro, 194, 17. distributed segment thereof Statements contents relate 1519; 1328. see, Smith O'Brien, 387, 88 769; 163; Use Parravicino Brunswick, 65, 383; Carson Behlen, 136 222; Tinkoff Campbell, 86 331; Miles McGrath, 603. torts, Jones Kennedy, 121 40; Adams Home Owners' Loan Corp., 107 139; supra; Busk Harvin, 212 143; Lang Wood, 92 211. description Cummings McFarland, (1937), pp. 80—81, quoted 107, 142, Attorney days Republic: "Not clerical assistance. December 1791, Randolph, success urged clerk. Madison, evident residence greatly increased General's labor, 1816 supplied appurtenances office.' bill offices clerk 10, 1817.' 'Thirty organized. Now, Treasury $1,000 small contingent fund $500 essentials stationery, fuel, boy attend menial duties.'" 2,500 U.S.C.A.Appendix, 1881 Fed.Reg. 7630. Compare Macdaniel, Pet. 14, 587; Birdsall, 233 223, 230—231, 512, 514, 930. concerns companion Howard Lyons, 593, 1331, liable Massachusetts. Restatement, Torts, 613, Prosser, (2d 1955), 629 cited. Veeder, Immunity Defamation: Proceedings, Col.L.Rev. 131, 132. 372, 786, Art, 375, 787, inferior delibeative bodies. city councils, Mills Denny, Iowa 584, N.W.2d 222, A.L.R.2d 933; Greenwood Cobbey, Neb. 449, N.W. Ivie Minton, Or. 147 P. 395; cf. Tanner Gault, App. 243, 153 124. Weber Lane, Mo.App. 69, S.W. 1099 (board aldermen); Bradford Me. 298, 229 (town meeting); Higgins, Gray (Mass.) 251 meeting). Floyd Barker, Co.Rep. 23. King Skinner, Lofft 55. excellent development Judicial 463. 646. following basis: 'Commanders, battle, delicate suspicions; eye; desperate commands; instantaneous obedience. misbehaviour, others places. 'A bribunal capable feeling first, second, third soldier condition commander in, if, judicature? unjustly accused properest men. Reparation acquittal. blasted ever, T.R., 549—550. Lords affirmed. Bro.P.C. 76. Bentinck, B. 130 (1820), asserted producing document libel. effectively Dickson Earl Wilton, 419 (1859); Keighly Bell, 763 (1866); Dawkins Lord Paulet, L.R. (1869); Grant C.P.D. 445 (1877). Though last officer, 1895 India figure member Cabinet. Statesman's Year-Book 10. Throughout years, British wer di smissed theory solely agent liable. Macbeath Haldimand, 172 (1786); Gidley Palmerston, (1822). well, 1953—the libel, later. (The devolve who—by virtue superiors' town—was highest ranking moment. 'Acting' libel.) officially Stablization 'could have' directed releases. When appealed ultimately reinstated. compilation adhere Noel, Defamation Public Officers Candidates, 875, 896—897, n. 102—106. 95. Actual 'malice' vitiate 'constructive' inferred publication. 5.27. Definitions essayed 625—629; Tots, §§ 599—605. much, more, interference relationships reviewed statement. 487—493, 633—635. publishes statement, factually inaccurate, Department's competence, charged improper leaned heavily defamatory) accurate, publishing foreclosing motives. Id., 489 Different untrue; thing adversely affecting untrue covers bureaucracy, compared numerically privileges. former, speaks, obviously courts' competence. 2, 350, 177, 890, 891. They presently excluded. 2680(h), 2680(h). Congressmen. words possibly defense. Farmers Educational Cooperative WDAY, 525, 1302.

Category: 7