Document: 395 U.S. 258 89 S.Ct. 1683 23 L.Ed.2d 291 James F. O'CALLAHAN, Petitioner,v.J. J. PARKER, Warden. No. 646. Argued Jan. 23, 1969. Decided June 2, Victor Rabinowitz, New York City, for petitioner. van R. Springer, Washington, D.C., respondent. Mr. Justice DOUGLAS delivered the opinion of Court. 1 Petitioner, then a sergeant in United States Army, was stationed July 1956, at Fort Shafter, Oahu, Territory Hawaii. On night 20, while on an evening pass, petitioner and friend left post dressed civilian clothes went into Honolulu. After few beers bar hotel, entered residential part hotel where he broke room young girl assaulted attempted to rape her. While fleeing from her onto Waikiki Beach, apprehended by security officer who him Honolulu city police questioning. determining that member Armed Forces, military police. extensive interrogation, confessed placed confinement. 2 Petitioner charged with rape, housebreaking, assault intent violation Articles 80, 130, 134 Uniform Code Military Justice.1 He tried court-martial, convicted all counts, given sentence 10 years' imprisonment hard labor, forfeiture pay allowances, dishonorable discharge. His conviction affirmed Army Board Review and, subsequently, Court Appeals. 3 Under confinement Penitentiary Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, filed petition writ habeas corpus District Middle alleging, inter alia, court-martial without jurisdiction try nonmilitary offenses committed off-post pass. The denied relief considering issue merits, Appeals Third Circuit affirmed. This granted certiorari limited question: 4 'Does held under War, Tit. 10, U.S.C. § 801 et seq., have Forces is commission crime cognizable court having no significance, alleged been leave, thus depriving his constitutional rights indictment grand jury trial petit court?' 393 822, 177, 21 93. 5 Constitution gives Congress power 'make Rules Government Regulation land naval Forces,' Art. I 88 cl. 14, it recognizes exigencies discipline require existence special system courts which not specific procedural protections deemed essential III trials need apply. Fifth Amendment specifically exempts 'cases arising or forces, Militia, when actual service time War public danger' requirement prosecution right jury. (Emphasis supplied.) See Ex parte Quirin, 317 1, 40, 63 16, 87 L.Ed. 3. result has establishment development justice fundamental differences practices courts. 6 If case does arise 'in forces,' accused gets first, benefit second, before as guaranteed Sixth III, provides: part: 7 'The Trial Crimes, except Cases Impeachment, shall be Jury; such State said Crimes committed; but within any State, Place Places may Law directed.' 8 Those civil are stakes present litigation. What we wrote States, ex rel. Toth v. Quarles, 350 11, 17—18, 76 5—6, 100 8, worth emphasis: 9 'We find nothing history treatment tribunals entitles them rank along Article adjudicators guilt innocence people they can deprived their life, liberty property. Unlike primary business armies navies fight ready wars should occasion arise. But soldiers maintain merely incidental army's fighting function. To extent those responsible performance this function diverted necessity trying cases, basic purpose served. And conceding personnel high degree honesty sense nearly undoubtedly have, still remains true probably never constituted way same kind qualifications fair civilians federal For instance, provide life tenure performing judicial functions trials. They appointed commanders removed will. Nor protect salaries salaries. Strides made toward making courts-martial less subject will executive department appoints, supervises ultimately controls them. very nature things, more independence passing than do tribunals. 'Moreover, there great difference between selected members forces. It because training experience especially competent infractions rules. Such doubt particularly important offense against soldier purely military, disobedience order, leaving post, etc. whether wrong, premise underlying method laymen better specialists perform task. idea inherent institution jury.' 11 A tried, defendant's peers must decide unanimously, panel officers2 empowered act two-thirds vote. presiding judge whose objectivity protected undiminishable salary nurtured tradition, law officer.3 Substantially different rules evidence procedure apply trials.4 Apart differences, suggestion possibility influence actions convenes it, selects its counsel both sides, usually direct command authority over pervasive one law, despite strenuous efforts eliminate danger.5 12 yet independent instrument significant specialized overall mechanism preserved.6 13 That courts, proceeding obtaining regular general favorable defendants, necessary effective national defense establishment, would deny. justification rests needs teaches expansion beyond proper domain carries threat liberty. Court, mindful genuine recognized propriety appropriate sphere, e.g., Burns Wilson, 346 137, 73 1045, 97 1508, examining reach jurisdiction, 14 'There dangers lurking were sought avoided Bill Rights our Constitution. Free countries world restrict narrowest absolutely maintaining among troops active service. * 15 'Determining scope authorize presents another instance calling limitation 'the least possible adequate end proposed." 22—23, 8. 16 takes cognizance some court-martialed, singularly inept dealing nice subleties law. 134, already quoted, punishes 'all disorders neglects prejudice good order armed forces.' Does satisfy standards vaguencess developed courts? enough say reversed appeal. One benefits trap declaratory judgment otherwise. Dombrowski Pfister, 380 479, 85 1116, 22. trial, other words, atmosphere conducive protection individual rights, marked age-old manifest destiny retributive justice.7 17 As recently stated: 'None travesties perpetrated UCMJ really surprising, always continues primarily discipline, justice.' Glasser, Captain Levy, Columbia Forum 46, 49 (1969). 18 mere fact duty automatically dispose prior decisions. 19 We series decisions cannot extended person times trial. Thus, discharged court-martialed Similarly, neither employees overseas, McElroy Guagliardo, 361 281, 80 305, 282; Grisham Hagan, 278, 310, 279; nor dependents accompanying Kinsella Singleton, 234, 297, 268; Reid Covert, 354 77 1222, 1148, court-martial. 20 These cases matter how intimate connection concerns discipline. From these invites us draw conclusion once established lack relationship identifiable interests irrelevant nonsoldiers, whatever offense, necessarily imply unlimited soldiers, regardless charged. suggest interpretation. emphasizes decisions—especially Singleton—establish liability question 'status' 'whether regarded falling term 'land Forces." U.S., 241, S.Ct., 301. beginning inquiry, end. 'Status' jurisdiction; follow ascertainment completes nature, time, place offense. 22 Both England American Revolution own committing viewed suspicion.8 Abuses grievance parliamentary forces English crises 17th century. resolution conflict came acceptance William Mary 1689 future, Parliament, Crown, define courts-martial. W. & M., Sess. c. 2. century role enforcement domestic criminal not, however, dispute what organ government had jurisdiction. also involved substantive disapproval use ordinary crimes.9 possessed last final matter, quick authorize, annual renewal, maintenance standing army give certain crimes closely related Parliament's new exercised only sparingly ordain acts common first mutiny acts, 5, set tone. rule 24 'noe Man forejudged Life Limbe, subjected kinde punishment Martiall manner Judgment Peeres according knowne Established Laws Realme.' 25 proceeded grant courts—martial mutiny, sedition, desertion. In respects, 26 British common-law felonies extended,10 but, exception year,11 Isles. was, therefore, Britain could Britain; instead officers required energies office insure court.12 Evasion erosion principle civil, if available, grievances protested Colonists.13 27 Early practice followed model.14 Continental Congress, enacting articles war 1776, emphasized importance cooperating commt ted brought justice. clear context provision enacted expected courts.15 'general article,' punished '(a)ll capital, neglects, guilty of, though mentioned foregoing war,' interpreted embrace impact Winthrop *1123. altogether consistent, during 19th convictions aside reviewing ground charges recited failed state Id., *1124, nn. 82, 88.16 28 During Civil provided offenses17 regard effect applied war, insurrection, rebellion.' Act Mar. 3, 1863, 75, 30, Stat. 736; Rev.Stat. 1342, 58 (1874). 1916, eve World I, revised, 39 650, even peacetime, persons 'subject law' article, 96, modified capital.' 1950, capital well. 29 concluded connected, lest danger,'18 used Amendment, expanded deprive every services peers. make 'Rules read preserve two guarantees. assumed express harmony guarantees Rights. advised oral argument construed income tax evasion. article called 'a catch-all' 'incorporates almost Federal penal statute Code.' Everett, 68—69 (1956). catalogue put indeed long; see saving servicemen servicewomen jury, conclude properly 30 absent base There connection—not remotest one—between duties question. enclave; whom attacked relating military. Moreover, Hawaii, situs crime, camp control, far-flung outposts. 31 Finally, deal peacetime offenses, stemming power. open territorial limits, occupied zone foreign country. did involve flouting authority, integrity property.19 32 accordingly decided since petitioner's rather entitled 33 Reversed. 34 HARLAN, STEWART WHITE join, dissenting. 35 consider terms precedents point clearly sustaining instance. Court's largely one-sided discussion competing governmental stake, reliance upon best wholly inconclusive historical data, fall far short supporting contrary majority reached. sum, think grasped itself determination hands so doing thrown realm demoralizing uncertainty. dissent. I. 36 My starting language Constitution, empowers '(t)o Amendment's correlative 37 Writing plurality 1148 (1957), Black explained 'language Clause natural meaning (t)he Forces' refers *,' id., 19—20, 1232, encompasses "in' services.' 1233. 268 (1960), again looking language, noted 'military based accused, offense,' 243, 302, is, 'is 38 many others, Milligan, Wall. 123, 281 (1866); Coleman Tennessee, 509, 1118 (1879); Smith Whitney, 116 167, 184—185, 570, 579, 601 (1886); Johnson Sayre, 158 109, 114, 773, 775, 914 (1895); Grafton 206 333, 348, 749, 752, 51 1084 (1907), consistently asserted sufficient condition exercise previously questioned seem plain—that, requisite status, Judiciary determine subject-matter supra, 514. II. provides scant support novel interpretation pertinent proves, anything, quite contrary. 40 relies reveals long-standing multifaceted struggle hand, Parliament other, focused, King's prerogative peace. generally Tanner, Constitutional Conflicts Seventeenth Century (1961). martial moreover, arbitrary, alien legal principles. Blackstone's Commentaries 413; M. Hale, History Analysis Common 42 (6th ed. 1820). when, Glorious 1688, gained exclusive create sparingly: early Mutiny Acts permitted E.g., 1689, 4. 41 subsequently military's abroad home. 1712, Anne, 13; 1803, 43 Geo. 20. And, significantly, 46 1720, 6, authorized injured request Wiener, Civilians 245—246 (1967).1 burden lost Framers doubtless feared Executive's assertion unchecked acting through Legislature. 9, 4, Confederation—from taken2—was responsive apprehension: assembled sole regulation directing operations.' added.) 44 debates indicates forever precise existing England. contrary, Alexander Hamilton stated Congress' prescribe 'ought exist limitation: Because impossible foresee variety exigencies, corresponding means them.' Federalist, 23. omitted.) to, contemporaneous with, adoption lends position. records endo f Independence 1812 show frequent instances east frontier, laws, theft, assault, killing livestock.3 derived initially article' 1775,4 incorporated today 934. Winthrop's Precedents (2d 1896), leading treatise encompassed 'committed near post,' 724 (1920 reprint) (second emphasis added), limiting strictly observed. 725, 730 732. held, respect that: 45 referred manifestly enforced No excepted conferred courts-martial, nature. (T)he (is) concurrent courts.'5 Even otherwise, hardly lead lacked circumstances. seriously argued limits congressional coterminous late 18th centuries.6 however restrictively construed, patently wrong limit disciplinary requirements today's force 3,000,000 men7 718-man army8 1789. Cf. 277. By token, otherwise valid power, perceive basis curtailment it. III. 47 light hitherto consistent provision, believe controversy calls balancing interests. engage process, fairly hope come up meaningful answer unless sides fully explored. this. Rather, chooses ignore strong legitimate 'nonmilitary' crimes. 48 vital interest creating honest, upright, well-disciplined persons, preserving reputation, morale, services. Furthermore, must, perforce, live work close proximity another, obligation each misconduct fellow servicemen.9 manifests qualities attitude character equally destructive safety. Hyde leave best, precarious Dr. Jekyll back duty. General George Washington recognized: 'All improper inhabitant being well subversive society much breach punishable other.' Writings 140—141 (Bicent. ed.). 50 soldier's directed civilians, brings discredit member: 'Under either extends tend bring disgrace reproach members, done duties, position *.' 183—184, 578, (1886). 52 Government, thus, concern keeping house deterring engaging off base, rehabilitating offenders return useful service.10 53 practical detained authorities pending imprisoned, rendered useless released bail recognizance, probation, remain unavailable transfer rest unit requires. 54 contrast, awaiting simply restricted 'participate activities organization restriction.' Manual Courts-Martial, (1969), b. committed. See, Voorhees, U.S.C.M.A. 515, C.M.R. 83, (1954); cf. Gravitt, 249, 256, 256 (1954). punishments—such pay, restriction labor confinement—may imposed keep serviceman duties. 126 g, h, k. IV. 55 explain 'service-connected' appropriate, appears extend intimates relevant jurisdictional wearing uniform Ante, 259, implies plundering, abusing, stealing from, sometimes constitute abuse position, ante, 270, n. crimes, '(i)n 'honor' thought significance.'11 Ibid. illustrative suggests standard permissible. 56 Whatever ad hoc approach areas know certainty allowable Otherwise, infinite permutations possibly factors bound confusion proliferate litigation Absolutely history, logic justifies uneasy affairs created. 57 affirm (10 880) '(a) An act, commit chapter, amounting preparation tending, failing, efe ct commission, attempt '(b) Any chapter attempts direct, prescribed.' 130 930) 'Any unlawfully enters building structure therein housebreaking direct.' 934) 'Though conduct guilty, taken general, special, summary discretion court.' 25(c) Justice, 825(c), one-third enlisted man men requests included senior personnel, i.e., noncommissioned officers, selected. Crawford, 31, motion file denied, 970, 1349, 281. Schiesser, Peers: Enlisted Members Catholic U.L.Rev. 171 (1966). At presided 'law officer,' certified Judge Advocate officer. U.C.M.J. 26(a). officer' subordinate convening authority. 1951, g(1). 1968, 82 1335, establishes judges' intended presidig professional judge, directly example, access compulsory process witnesses extent, dependent approval prosecution. Harvey, 538, 42, approving 115a. Melnick, Defendant's Right Obtain Evidence: Examination Viewpoint, Mil.L.Rev. (1965). listed Hearings Personnel Subcommittee Senate Committee pursuant S.Res.No. 260, 87th Cong., 2d Sess., 780—781 (1962), Appeal excessive influence. 36, 1240, 1148. sobering accounts so-called Services S.Res.No.260, Feb. 21, March 12, 1962; Joint Special Am ed Committee, 89th S. 745 al., Pt. 18, 19, 25, 26, 1966, newly 1335. Summary-Report Personnel, Judiciary, 58, 88th 1st (1963) (Comm.Print). record u risdiction extensively reviewed Black's 23—30, 1233—1237, also, Duke Vogel, Standing Army: Another Problem Court-Martial Jurisdiction, Vand.L.Rev. 435, 441—449 (1960); (1967) (hereinafter cited Wiener). 23—26, 1233 1235, Wiener 1. 'any Capital Crime, Violence Offense Person, Estate, Property Subjects Kingdom, known Land' eight days demanded turned November relied Scotland—where functioning—by murder prosecuted 245—246. next year—perhaps response ruling, 14—the eliminated reappear. 1721 successors unavailable. Prichard, Murder Abroad, 1954 Camb.L.J. 232; 24—28. Failure produce concerned. 1765, reprinted Winthrop, *1448, *1456 1896, 1920 Winthrop). 27—28 49, 1236, brief lists large number Nation claims indicate period. facts reflected summaries available us, conclusion. summarized, existed. Many peculiarly desertions, assaults thefts might felonies, Revolutionary long defined distinctively Acts. remainder identifiably prosecutions abusing plundering population women perhaps sort victim 'inhabitant'. Most recite offender judging appear settings officers. significance. 1773 1783 wartime pattern days, immediate theater operations. 1776 *1494. Mason, 105 696, 698, 1213, conviction, guard killed prisoner, said, '(s)hooting kill shooting prison, prisoner confined therein, society, atrocious discipline.' Larceny, robbery, burglary, arson, mayhem, manslaughter, murder, battery kill, wounding stabbing rape. e v.Stat. suggested, various times, phrase 'when 'arising Militia,' defendant 'service danger.' date, above clause modifies 'Militia.' accepted forces' militia, 'called Service States' (Art. II, U.S.Const.) 'to execute Union, suppress Insurrections repel Invasions.' U.S.Const. 'actual relates militia.' 701, 1213. 186, 580, 601; Kurtz Moffitt, 115 487, 500, 148, 152, 458; Dynes Hoover, How. 65, 838. 914, Navy paymaster embezzlement peace arguing jury: decision below construction words refer, antecedent, 'or militia,' previous clause, grammatically possible. opposed evident itself, so, considered together provisions constitution.' 775. Thompson Willingham, 217 F.Supp. 901 (D.C.M.D.Pa.), aff'd, 318 F.2d 657 (C.A.3d Cir.). commenting discipline' predecessor said: 'A Article, circumstances offended state. Thus theft robbery officer, soldier, trader, camp-follower; forgery name battery, person; inasmuch affect relations be—as frequently been—the Article. description treated offenses.' Pp. *1124—*1125. proviso dropped 1721, thereafter 'Place(s) Seas form Our Judicature Force.' (1967). Farrand, Records Convention 1787, p. 330 (1911); Elliot, Debates Several Conventions Adoption Recommended Philadelphia 443 (1836). example: orders report 'killing Cow *, Fowls eleven Geese ed.) (H.Q., Newburgh, January 28, 1783), 'for Shirts blanketts out store Newburgh 322 April 15, 1783). Orderly Books Corps Artillerists Engineers Sergeant Harris 'beating Williams living garrison,' Book pp. 157—158 (West Point, October 1795), Private Kelly 'abusing using violence Mrs. Cronkhyte, citizen States,' 45—46 1796). Numerous period 1775—1815 summarized appendix Brief 35—52. regimental offence, discretion.' 957 reprint). explicitly noncapital offenses. 93, 664. revised renumbered read: articles, service, Testifying Affairs, Brigadier Crowder, revision (cf. supra): 'You notice transposition language. qualifies neglects.' stands to-day often contended qualified 'l l about neglects,' capital' qualify latter clause. (B)ut Harlan, case, seems rest, am proposing legislation lines Harlan's decision.' Appendix S.Rep. 64th 91. 736, including ones, rebellion. 92 1916 664, death, 'no geographical Union peace.' deleted 118, 120, §§ 918, 920, distinction theory, permissibly waited, did, until 1875, 470, confer federal-question district courts; presenty-day 1331, unconstitutional. Statistical Abstract 257 (1968). Weigley, 566 assume responsibility protecting harms membr bringing locality thousands personnel—whose numbers as, exceed, neighboring population—thereby imposing local law-enforcement agencies unable carry. presentence hearing, Powell testified 'through rehabilitation, O'Callahan soldier,' Record Transcript 61, Major Turner testified: 'He superior performance, know. gone school lot money wrapped man. here rehabilitation program order.' 64. least, strange

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