Document: 420 U.S. 671 95 S.Ct. 1255. 43 L.Ed.2d 541 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.Ralph FEOLA. No. 73—1123. Argued Nov. 19, 1974. Decided March 1975. Syllabus Respondent and others were convicted in a jury trial of violating 18 U.S.C. § 111 for having assaulted federal officers (here undercover narcotics agents) the performance their official duties, conspiring to commit that offense, violation general conspiracy statute, 371. The court had instructed jurors that, order find any defendants guilty on either count or substantive count, they not required conclude aware quarry officers. Court Appeals approved instructions charges but, reliance United States v. Crimmins, 2 Cir., 123 F.2d 271, its progeny, reversed convictions ground erred charging knowledge victim's identity must be proved convict 371 charge. Held: 1. Section 111, which was enacted both protect functions provide forum try alleged offenders, requires no more than proof an intent assault, assault officer; it necessary under statute prove respondent his confederates knew victims Pp. 676-686. 2. Where facts giving rise jurisdiction is conviction offense embodying mens rea requirement, such equally irrelevant questions responsibility offense. Thus, this case where intended under. did have 686-696. (a) There nothing face would appear require greater degree status victim at least two decisions repudiate respondent's contentions contrary, In re Coy, 127 731, 8 1263, 32 L.Ed. 274; Freed, 401 601, 914 1112, 28 356. 687-688. (b) principle Crimmins case, supra, permit conspiratorial liability conspirators ignorant implications acts enlarge agreement beyond terms as understood them, has bearing like instant one type outlawed without regard actor accomplish result made criminal. Nor can said contemplated by are legally different from those actually performed solely because victim. 688-693. (c) Imposition strict 'anti-federal' scienter requirement relationship purposes law conspiracy, society dangers concerted criminal activity identify engage crime sufficiently threatening social warrant being subject sanctions regardless whether agreed upon committed. 693-694. Alsondo, 486 1339, reversed. Allan A. Tuttle, Raleigh, N.C., petitioner. George J. Bellantoni, White Plains, N.Y., respondent. Mr. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. 1 This presents issue officer requisite 371, violative 111,1 is, while engaged duties. Feola three (Alsondo, Rosa, Farr) indicted violations §§ 111. A found all four charges.2 received sentence years years, plus $3,000 fine, assault. three-year sentence, however, suspended he given years' probation 'to commence expiration confinement' conspiracy. respective appeals Feola, Rosa considered Second Circuit single opinion. After initial ruling partially affirmed judgment charges, but convictions. 1346 (1973).3 Because conflict among Circuits with respect charge,4 we granted Government's petition writ certiorari Feola's case.5 416 935, 94 1932, 40 285 (1974). 3 * reveal classic 'rip-off.' details particularly important our present purposes. We need note only evidence shows arranged sale heroin buyers who turned out agents Bureau Narcotics Dangerous Drugs. group planned palm off purchasers, substantial sum, form sugar place and, should ruse fail, simply surprise unwitting relieve them cash brought along payment. plan failed when agent, suspicions aroused,6 drew revolver time counter another agent rear. Instead enjoying rich benefits successful swindle, associates themselves charged, undoubted surprise, assaulting, 4 At trial, District Court, objection defense, charged one, officers.7 5 advanced defendants. Although court's charge assaulting officer,8 nonetheless concluded failure amounted plain error. F.2d, 1344. perceived itself bound line cases, commencing Judge Learned Hand's 271 (CA2 1941), holding factual element confers jurisdiction, unnecessary sustain noted Crimins rationale 'has been criticized,' 1343, indeed, offered argument support it, accepted 'the controlling precedents somewhat reluctantly.' Id., II 6 plea symmetry. It urges since described does depend assailant harbored specific officer, engrafted merely act proscribed Consideration contention us preliminarily pass premise, proposition acted. 7 That 'federal officer' anything other jurisdictional9 seriously urged us; Feola10 Appeals, 1342, concede some early cases contrary,11 concession recognizes what now practical unanimity Courts Appeals.12 Nevertheless, always guided concessions parties, very considerations symmetry Government suggest first turn attention before. Ladner States, 358 169, 79 209, 199 (1958), shotgun blast wounded effected multiple assaults, within meaning 254 (1940 ed.), statutory predecessors 111.13 s deter interference enforcement activities well, forestall injury individual officers, 'wards' States. Given latter formulation legislative intent, argued Government, wounding constitute offenses. disagreed plausible reading congressional aim prevent hindrance execution duty . except incident aim,' U.S., 175—176, 213. Under view purpose, punishment number impeded incongruous. With clear choice between these alternative formulations light language sparse history, applied policy lenity adopted less harsh reading. 177—178, S.Ct., 213—214. therefore held discharge constituted 254. 9 see again possible consequences interpretation focuses statute's apparent aims. If primary purpose personnel, could well frustrated imposition requirement. On hand, if seen primarily anti-obstruction likely Congress imposed person acted impede activities. Otherwise, said: 'Were obstruction justice offenses terms, wholly innocent (or even socially desirable) behavior transformed into felony fortuitous circumstance concealed resisted.'14 adhere conclusion 'plausible,' think functions, furtherance advances other. rejection consistent 10 origin Act May 18, 1934, c. 299, 48 Stat. 781. Act, 1114 roots, kill certain personnel in, account of, duties,15 forbade forcible resistance with, upon, designated so engaged. history 1934 though scanty, offers insight pertinent committee reports consist, almost entirety, letter dated January 3, Attorney General Cummings urging passage legislation.16 states needed 'for protection Federal employees.' Compelled state courts, 'however respectable disposed, (federal) investigative law-enforcement personnel' inadequate, there resort forum. 11 refers clearly concerned safety insofar tied efficacy concern implicit decision list protected rather forbid employee. Indeed, originally formulated prohibited attack 'any civil official, inspector, employee States.' See H.R.Rep.No.1455, 73d Cong., 2d Sess., (1934). House rejected insisted version ultimately enacted. reason insistence unexplained, fair assume bill drafted strayed too far insuring integrity pursuits.17 12 resolving question condition actor's awareness victim, give weight here again, Ladner, make them. Rather, emphasize, take means chose achievement. 13 Cummings, letter, emphasized importance providing attacks named prosecuted. This, standing alone, indicate dispense locus define reach But office rests reference shorthand expression fill gap Fernandez, 497 730, 745 (CA9 1974) (concurring opinion), cert. pending, 73—6868. aggravated laws mandate increased assaults peace officers; punishable, law, simple As read requiring same state-law counterparts. Morissette 342 246, 263, 72 240, 249, 96 288 (1952). fails, fairly enacting counterpart proscriptions 14 General's call prosecute attacker directed sections proposed became Act. section prohibiting also killings. latter, 1, existing law. murder, until recently, enactment statutes response capital punishment, murder deemed usually punished murderers most severe sanction allows. Clearly, then, filling large part duplicating insure involving Fulfillment goal now, highest certainty killed justice. mind, tried matter how 'respectable disposed,' unreasonable suppose officials necessarily share feelings urgency necessity prompt vigorous prosecutions violate officer. From days prohibition modern rights movement, sworn uphold enforce popular every corner Nation. may uniformly including locally unpopular activity. 15 conclude, this, effectuate according maximum making prosecution cognizable cannot construed unexpressed All contrary insufficient enforcing none acting cover.18 16 poses risk unfairness snare unsuspecting. perpetrator 'rip-off,' involved here, surprised civilian apparel, knows outset course conduct wrongful. situation legitimate becomes unlawful agency affected. kind offender takes finds him. concept extend understand nature consequence judicial 17 implying defendant's never relevant consideration circumstances ignorance resisted negates existence rea. For example, fails himself might reasonably interpreted use force defendant property. kind, justified exerting resistance, honest mistake fact intent.19 hold, therefore, incur entertain do therein specified. consider rule persons conspire acts. III 19 Our establish itself. Ingram 360 672, 678, 1314, 1319, 1503 (1959). Pettibone 148 197, 542, 37 419 (1893). show offense; him agents, successfully agents. And effect 20 371,20 textual known violated makes 'conspire against natural words engaging forbidden conduct, conduct. Then where, know seem agreeing knowledge. 21 unable lends implicitly position. appellants 274 (1888), induce election neglect safeguard ballots results. occurred Indiana voters, accordance voted local members Congress. Much asserted affect outcome races. short, embodied 753, 1269. agree participate Anderson 417 211, 226, 2253, 2263, 41 22 Similarly, 91 356 (1971), dismissal indictment possession possess, hand grenades registered, reguired 26 5861(d). dismissed allege unregistered. actual unregistered created upheld Again, declined underlying 23 Court's decisions, relies prove'antifederal' receive stolen bonds transported interstate commerce. Upon review, pointed moved State. Accepting sake assumption Hand nevertheless He capsulized distinction become 'traffic light' analogy: 24 'While may, instance, running past traffic whose ignorant, run light, unless supposes past.' 273. 25 attractive, perhaps seductive, analogy mixed reception Appeals. Circuit, course, followed it;21 it.22 appears avoided expedient inferring scope venture.23 analogy, effective prose, before us, bad law.24 posed just Crimmins. Criminal liability, runs 'evil intent' disobeying light's command; drove recklessly perceive light; whether, thinking observing rules, notice reared elsewhere, thought ornament. Traffic generally fall category Dotterweich, 320 277, 64 134, 88 (1943). These embody punish intentionally engages creates others, actor, through fault own, completely unaware risk. parties apparently unintended statute. 27 answer question, decline so, once 609 n. 14, 1118. passing, comes close stating 'Powell doctrine,' originating People Powell, 63 N.Y. (1875), criminal, animated corrupt motive wrong. principle, easily demonstrated wrongful itself; independently proscription. Note, Developments Law—Criminal Conspiracy, Harv.L.Rev. 920, 936—937 Interestingly, critics Powell doctrine.25 reject doctrine then create seems curious enough. Fatal announced meant apply. namely, receipt securities commerce, Such result. So, too, presently us. One 'of ignorant,' probably unearthly intervention. correct statement inapt, vitality all, variety; save day. hold embodies each elements, more. 29 foundation: improper illicit essence agreement. 'reason' little conclusion, conspirator precise Blumenthal 332 539, 557, 68 248, 256, 92 154 (1947). agreement, Put way, alter legal character to, germane color hair? 30 analysis Part II, sufficient convince guilt innocence, irrelevant. expect obtain policies behind served target official. 31 settled serves ends from, complementary prohibitions consecutive sentences crime. Callanan 364 587, 81 321, 312 (1961); Pinkerton 328 640, 66 1180, 90 1489 (1946). identified independent values activity, 593, 325; Dennis 341 494, 573 574, 71 857, 899—900, 1137 (1951) (Jackson, J., concurring). individuals joint venture violates totally seeks level opprobrious dangerous absence formation intent. 'antifederal' external unaware, serve difficult purpose. second aspect inchoate say, although antisocial point continuum preparation consummation, likelihood commission great formed justify intervention Harv.L.Rev., 923—925. identifies event threat overt pursuit Bayer, 331 532, 67 1394, 1399, 1654 crystallized, actual, fulfilled warrants preventive action. 33 relate carry fail blameworthy constitutes danger participants body intend violate. Therefore, render serving policy. 34 pursuant not, Hand, 'beyond reasonable intendment common understanding,' thereby enlarged, essential entrance 35 Again out, proceeding First, issues extent Second, important, establishing jurisdiction. jurisdictional satisfied tying area delineated exists committed manner described, attacked. Where, unfulfilled established calls specifically identified, name unique characteristic, putative characterized calling identity. object specificity carried impossible assert mere 36 To summarize, exception infrequent illegal 38 ordered. 39 Judgment STEWART, whom DOUGLAS joins, dissenting. Does 1111 know, private citizen or, confederate crime? decided squarely presented pending many months: 73—6868, Fernandez States.2 contained addressed briefs oral arguments. assumed separate Nevertheless sets sua sponte decide basic benefit briefing counsel. 42 conspicuous disregard adversary system me indefensible. granted, after merits, subsidiary considered. late serious made. grant set rehearing had. rejects I perforce address fundamental question. '(t)he ('federal officer') jurisdictional, only.' Ante, p. 677 9. otherwise, write analogous federalize happens chooses interpretation, federal-officer only. inconsistent verbal structure canons construction, dictates sense. 44 Many penalty typically victim-status transforms misdemeanor felony.3 twofold purpose: reflect societal gravity associated public enhanced deterrent accord otherwise provides citizens activities.4 Consonant purposes, accused's function invariably recognized offense.5 knowledge, deterred sense unknowing reprehensible, moral retributive sense, been, supposed, citizen. 45 supplying functions. An apply knew, function. immaterial employed federal, opposed local, government. 'jurisdiction only,' act. applies; ordinance will crime, aggravation place, appropriate 46 permits doubt scienter. provision derives margin.6 Chairman Senate Committee Judiciary; reasons ones record provision.7 covered listed companion provision, simultaneously enacted, proscribing killing officers.8 emerged 1948 recodification Title 18,9 'with changes phraseology substance consolidation' former minor 1909 'Bureau Animal Industry Department Agriculture.'10 recognized, purport derived major source, enactment. 176 4, 213, 199. 47 Rummaging spare manages persuade pp. 679-684. intention, doubt, product. expressly conviction. perpetrated 'on duties.' 6, supra. possessed duties assailant's retaliation exercise proscription expanded cover 'while in,' of,' was, Reviser observed, technical alteration; produced instructive history. 10, written, knowing motive. reaches convert alteration importance, concededly not. 49 managed surest provision.11 unarmed made, remains, punishable imprisonment $5,000 fine. exhaustive survey appreciate harsher already defined varieties occurring admiralty, maritime, territorial States: extended graded steps, turning methods assailant, months' imprisonment.12 'jurisdictional only'—to basis trying courts—there append new Instead, cross-reference pre-existing idle speculation. precisely solution adopted, officer: provided pre-existing, graded, homicides States.13 50 deliberated difference definition treatment homicide obvious significance. gave substantively novel penalty. Unless wish scatterbrained, regarded substantive—and jurisdictional—importance. aggravating circumstance, true statutes, factor prosecutors judges deal 51 otherwise. Positing only, concludes 683-684. Even assuming follow. Quite apart radically ways offense-definition penalties, imagination victimstatus only' significant case. supplies reason: 52 '(The statute) allows.' 683. 53 words, suggests widely distinction, morality policy, depending echo homicide. conclusion—fortified provisions—would discriminated recognizing fathom, instead assumes discriminate fashion—that self-evident legislatures capacity National Legislature comprehend. says believe 'Congress silently treat differently. (W)e bifurcate interpretation.' 685 18. 'bifurcated' statute—by treating differently regards definition, What 'declines' wrote. 54 While 'scant,' 174, 212, locate implication Ladner: '(T)he duty, thus assure carrying interests, aim.' exactly supporting 'prevent hindrance' thinks citizen, 55 avoid proposition, effectively overrules aims much protecting execute. 677-682. shared opinion, held, did, event, today's revisionist succeed getting wants go. So concerned, individuals, both. extending assaults—will 'give cover.' 684. nonsense. 'protects' Absent 'protection' potential reasonably, erroneously, believes applicable circumstances. 56 'would law.' repeat Whatever 'popularity' executing, whatever construction placed 'protected' indication Assuming, arguendo, insufficiently enthusiastic about remains meets attitudes conceivably embolden populace interfere 'unpopular' 57 absolutely lax or—and point—that obsessed esoteric 'problem' who, known, unpopular, enact severely blind commonsense assaults. long varied 1934; so.14 design using techniques. letter15 disavowed criticism good faith authorities. pains stress 'Federal compelled rely courts states, however disposed ..' His particular '(i)n police court, affords relief circumstances, effort further Government.' absent misdemeanor—a 'police court' offense—in problem, sought obliged, interpretation. 58 Turning structure, propriety manifest. proscribes whole series related applies 'forcibly resists, opposes, impedes, intimidates, interferes (a officer) (Emphasis added.) hardly denied imply Generally speaking, wrongs 'victim' enjoys privilege detain about. art, arising justice.16 254, referred express implied requirements, analogue.17 Whether implied, country 204—207, 545—547, 419. sole innovation executive Obviously 59 grouped 'assaults' scienter, follows Latin Phrases ejusdem generis noscitur sociis conclusion. treated differently, unfairness,' assailant—unlike 'opposes' 'resists'—'knows wrongful' 'may apparel.' 685. do, elementary 60 saying wrong, 'fair' strange theory recognize, reprehensible assault; harshly real 'risk unfairness.' unprecedented stringent legislation, today rewrites inequity intention inflicting. 61 pure legislation. 176, 'Government frankly conceded activities.' 'necessary lack lumps rest offensive actions,' id., dictum strictly reached Ladner. No squared history.18 62 proper 288. larceny over government's silent subject. 'Congressional silence mental elements adopting quite inferences creating guidance '. (W)here borrows art accumulated tradition centuries practice, presumably adopts cluster ideas attached borrowed word learning taken convey mind instructed.' 262—263, 249—250. 65 here. flow well-defined familiar obstructions justice, complements pattern uniform unambiguous unfortunate deciding process.19 rush judgment, precedents, subverted. Legislative ignored imaginatively reconstructed. Statutory broken context unnatural readings. top disregards firmly cannons construction—'two wise principles followed': 'First, recently reaffirmed, 'ambiguity concerning ambit resolved favor lenity.' Rewis 808, 812, 1056, 1059, 493 (1971). 177, (1958); Bell 349 81, 75 620, 99 905 (1955); Five Gambling Devices etc., 346 441, 74 190, 98 179 (1953) (plurality affirmance) (S)econd .: conveys clearly, significantly changed federal-state balance. traditionally reluctant readily denounced sensitive areas, legislation affecting balance, assures legislature faced, bring issue, critical matters decision.' Bass, 404 336, 347, 515, 522, 488. 69 desires sweep employees suitable hope doing Congress, State dealt matter, double advantage today. product lawmaking branch Government. 70 stated, fortiori equivalent Accordingly, respectfully dissent '§ Assaulting, resisting, impeding employees. 'Whoever forcibly title shall fined imprisoned 'Whoever, uses deadly weapon, $10,000 ten both.' Among 'designated 1114' Drugs.' Codefendant Alsondo firearm unlawfully during felonies, 924(c) (2). appeal fourth defendant, Farr, processed separately panel, authority similarly 487 1023 1973), 73—953. concurrent Farr's review See, e.g., Iannelli, 477 999, 1002 (CA3 907, 2602, 211 (1974); Thompson, 476 1196, 1198—1200 (CA7), denied, 414 918, 214, (1973); Polesti, 489 822, 824 (CA7 73—5489; Roselli, 432 879, 891—892 1970), 924, 883, 828 (1971); 738—739 1974), codefendants concurrency cases. opened closet door Manhattan apartment observed man floor, gagged. App. 11—12. charged: 'In connection, government going resist It's enough, conspired assault.' Tr. 513. 'I previously mentioned you imped(ed) intimidated officer.' 525. consistently held. Lombardozzi, 335 414, 416, 379 914, 85 261, 185 (1964); Montanaro, 362 527, 528, 385 87 233, 144 (1966); Ulan, 421 787, 788 (1970). content way despite mislead. Labeling 'jurisdictional' mean, describe punish. confer crimes implicates factors concern. deterring undesirable jurisdiction; interest involvement. significance labeling viewed outside evil forestall, perpetrates Brief 6; Oral Arg. 19. E.g., Sparks 61, (CA6 1937); Hall 235 249 (CA5 1956). Perkins, 488 652, 654 (CA1 913, 2612, 217 (CA2); Goodwin, 440 1152, 1156 1971); Wallace, 368 537 (CA4 1966), 386 976, 1169, 136 (1967); Bennett 567, 570—571 1960), 366 911, 1087, 236 Kiraly, 445 291, 292 (CA6), 915, 230, 189 Ganter, 436 364, 367 1970); Kartman, 893, 894 1969). Leach, 429 956, 959—960 (CA8 402 986, 1675, 151 1948, 688, replaced 118 ed.). Reviser's Note done consolidation.' H.R.Rep.No.304, 80th 1st A12 744 (Hufstedler, provided: 'That whoever kill, 273 Code, marshal deputy marshal, special Division Investigation Justice, post-office Secret Service operative, enlisted Coast Guard, penal correctional institution, customs internal revenue, immigrant inspector immigration patrol 275 Code.' C. 780. glance reveals greatly expanded. Plainly, named, viz., 'employee Postal Service' Park Service,' S.Rep.No.535, Cong.2d Sess. (1934); H.R.Conf.RepNo.1593, 78 Cong.Rec. 8126—8127 Senator Ashurst, Judiciary, full follows: 'My Dear Senator: renew recommendation resist, impede, Agriculture (sec. 62, C.C.; sec. 118, U.S.C.); Customs Internal Revenue, 65, 121, beat, wound, duly authorized, attempting process 140, 245, 16, Immigration Feb. 5, 1917, 29, 885; Sec. 152, 8, U.S.C.). Three cited impose weapon used resisting 'The character, embraced above cited, increasingly personnel; indicated cited. similar adequate division investigation, sev- eral year, preferable, piecemeal books, broad embrace Other carriers, Post Office several legislation; wounding, couple ago, warden Penitentiary Leavenworth escaped convicts escape; shooting warden. honor, enclose herewith copy S.3184, introduced request Seventy-second urge reintroduction Congress; your committee. 'Respectfully, 'Homer 'Attorney General.' supported wording (and 111), (to) oppose, intimidate, with' duty. appeared 1866, July 179, embracing comprehensive scheme prevention smuggling. bulk sure, essentially regulatory matters; range actions—beyond resistance—that frustrate employing presumed Some exclude inclusion term 'Secret operative' revision, re- secret service Narcotics.' 756. Bureau, Treasury, abolished transferred Drugs, predecessor Drug Enforcement Administration. Reorganization Plan 1973, Fed.Reg. 15932. Brother STEWART asserts, post, 705-706, 'nonsense' conveniently ignores prohibition. Certainly prior 'nonsense,' prohibition—completely coverage fatuity. plausible, think, entrust interdiction attacks, fatal officials—a morale central differently; 654—655; 789—790; 1156; Young, 464 160, 163 1972). provides: 'If defraud thereof five Vilhotti, 452 1186, 1190 406 947, 2051, (1972), sub nom. Maloney 405 1041, 582 (1972); Sherman, 171 619, 623—624 (1948), Grimaldi Whelan 337 931, 1484, 93 1738 (1949). 824; 891—892. Garafola, 471 291 1972); Iacovetti, 466 1147, 1154 1972), 410 908, 963, 270 Cimini, 427 129, 130 Nassif 370 147, 152—153 1966). commentary attracted critical. Law 937—940 (1959); Model Penal Code 5.03 (Tent. Draft 1960); Working Papers Commission Reform Laws 388—389 (1970); Final Report 203, 204, 1004 exposes fallacy recasting element. suggested example Indian reservation. Surely, disobey 'Starting anomalous indeed gained footing circuit 'corrupt Yet hard why contemplation commit.' Mack, 112 290, 1940). Ninth affirming 730. Cal.Penal 241, 243, 245(b) (Supp.1975); D.C.Code Ann. 22—505 Ill.Rev.Stat., 38, 12—2(a)(6) Mich.Comp.Laws 750.479 Mo.Rev.Stat. 557.215 (1969); N.J.Stat.Ann. 2A:99—1 R.I.Gen.Laws 11—5—5 (Supp.1974); Tex.Penal 22.02(a)(2) & Wis.Stat.Ann. 940.205 (Supp.1974—1975); 242.1 (Proposed Official 1962). Baca, 247 Cal.App.2d 487, Cal.Rptr. 681; Celmer Quarberg, Wis.2d 581, 203 N.W.2d 45. Glover, 257 502, 219; Litch, Ill.App.3d 788, 281 N.E.2d 745; Lewis, 184 Neb. 165 569; Ford State, 158 Tex.Cr. 26, 252 S.W.2d 948; supra; 253 $5,000, both; whoever, section, $10,000, 2, reprinted ante, 680-681 16. 780, amended, 1114. original read: 453 title, assist employee, Interior Secretary protection, preservation, restoration game wid birds animals, Service, assigned field Grazing Interior, 454 title.' U.S.C.A. includes, 1114: judge Attorney, Assistant revenue assisting wild regulation, perform connection program Puerto Rico, Guam, Virgin Islands Columbia, control eradication introduction dissemination animal diseases, Land Management, Agriculture, Aeronautics Space Administration guard property administration Administration, security Foreign Health, Education, Welfare Labor investigative, inspection, functions.' June 25, 688. consolidated Mar. 1909, 1100. 'as latest intent.' 455 (1926 276, 1143. definitions penalties for, forth 452—454 273, 11, 7, Comparable obstruction-of-justice 1501—1505, 1507, 1509, 1752, 2231. 245 121 mentioned, judicially Scienter. Gay 433, 434—435. earlier, By contrast, 'engaged more, less, recodification, asymmetry eliminated, allow consolidation 1909. Now account' utterly farfetched alteration, aiming toward symmetry, emboldened rough consensus 677, 12. recent shaky. continue complain 'substantial statute' resulted 'disagreement cases' regarding 654; Chunn, 347 717, 721. 1964, virtually unanimous way—that obstructing 248; Carter 231 232, 351 984, 76 1052, 100 1498; Owens 201 749; Hargett 183 859; 61; Bell, 219 F.Supp. 260; Page, 277 F. 459; Taylor, 391; Miller, F.R.D. 486. 185, eliminated historically erroneous transfer class untrustworthy prosecutors' offices. Lombardozzi promptly followed, fresh analysis, nearly Circuit. Just promptly, thoughts emerged. acknowledged unsoundly premised. 736 739. her concurring Hufstedler strongly desirability re-examining entire 740—747. felt constrained limit distinctions directly odds provisions 163. Having hastily, appreciating reconsideration. Acting haste, bids forever sealed.

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