Document: 436 U.S. 149 98 S.Ct. 1729 56 L.Ed.2d 185 FLAGG BROTHERS, INC., etc., et al., Petitioners,v.Shirley Herriott BROOKS al. Louis J. LEFKOWITZ, Attorney General of New York, Petitioner, v. Shirley AMERICAN WAREHOUSEMEN'S ASSOCIATION, and the International Association Refrigerated Warehouses, Inc., Petitioners, Nos. 77-25, 77-37, 77-42. Argued Jan. 18, 1978. Decided May 15, Syllabus After respondent Brooks her family had been evicted from their apartment belongings stored by petitioner storage company, was threatened with sale pursuant to York Uniform Commercial Code § 7-210 unless she paid account. She thereupon brought this class action under 42 U.S.C. 1983, seeking damages injunctive relief a declaration that (which provides procedure whereby warehouseman conforming provisions statute may convert his lien into good title) would violate Due Process Equal Protection Clauses Fourteenth Amendment. Subsequent interventions Jones as plaintiff petitioners warehouse associations State defendants were permitted. The District Court dismissed complaint for failure state claim which provides, inter alia, every person who color any subjects citizen deprivation rights secured Constitution federal laws shall be liable injured party. Appeals reversed, holding might found in exercise private party "some power delegated it is traditionally associated sovereignty," "by enacting not only portion its sovereign monopoly over binding conflict resolution . but also let him, selling goods, execute thus perform function has traditional y sheriff." Held: A warehouseman's proposed goods entrusted him storage, permitted 7-210, "state action," since allegation failed establish violation respondents' Amendment committed either company or properly concluded no stated respondents 1983. Pp. 155-166. (a) Respondents' allege participation public officials plainly distinguishes litigation decisions such North Georgia Finishing, Inc. Di-Chem, 419 601, 95 719, 751; Fuentes Shevin, 407 67, 92 32 556; Sniadach Family Finance Corp., 395 337, 89 1820, 23 349, imposed procedural restrictions on creditors' remedies. P. 157. (b) challenged does delegate an exclusive prerogative sovereign. Other remedies settlement disputes between debtors creditors function) remain available parties. Terry Adams, 345 461, 73 809, 97 1152; Smith Allwright, 321 649, 64 757, 88 L.Ed. 987; Nixon Condon, 286 73, 52 484, 76 984; Marsh Alabama, 326 501, 66 276, 90 265, distinguished. 157-163. (c) Though contend authorized encouraged company's State's mere acquiescence State. Moose Lodge No. 107 Irvis, 163, 1965, 267. 164-166. 553 F.2d 764, reversed. Alvin Altman, City, Flagg Brothers, A. Seth Greenwald, Lefkowitz, Atty. Gen. Martin Schwartz, respondents. Robert S. Catz, Antioch School Law, Washington, D.C., amicus curiae, Urban Law Institute. Mr. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion Court. 1 question presented whether (McKinney 1964),1 attributable York. conduct State, suit want jurisdiction 28 1343(3). 404 F.Supp. 1059 (S.D.N.Y.1975). Second Circuit, reversing judgment Court, sufficient involvement invoke Clause 764 (1977). We agree we therefore reverse. 2 * According complaint, allegations must accept true, Mount Vernon, N.Y., June 13, 1973. city marshal arranged Brooks' possessions warehouse. informed cost moving instructed workmen proceed, although price too high. On August 25, 1973, after series validity charges being claimed received letter demanding account up date within 10 days "or your furniture will sold." App. 13a. seri subsequent letters attorneys produced satisfaction. 3 initiated damages, injunction against belongings, later joined Gloria Jones, another resident Vernon whose Brothers following eviction. American Warehousemen's moved intervene defendants, did others defend constitutionality statute.2 July 7, 1975, relying primarily our decision Jackson Metropolitan Edison Co., 345, 449, 447 (1974), 4 divided panel reversed.3 majority noted suggested " 'some sovereignty.' F.2d, at 770, quoting U.S., 353, S.Ct., 454. found: 5 "[B]y [citations omitted], 771. 6 court, recognizing Ninth Circuit reached contrary conclusion dealing identical California Melara Kennedy, 541 802 (1976), delegation constituted support fede al dissenting judge reasoning persuasive. 7 granted certiorari, 434 817, 54, 54 72, resolve provision Code, effect 49 States Columbia, address important presents concerning meaning action" term Amendment.4 II 8 upon 1983 embody least two elements. Respondents are first bound show they have deprived right "secured laws" United States. They secondly them acting "under statute" It clear these elements denote separate areas inquiry. Adickes H. Kress & 398 144, 150, 1598, 1604, 26 142 (1970). 9 complaints "the 7-210" law. 14a, 47a. previously noted, respect individual, "[w]hatever else necessary acted 'under [a] statute' purposes think essential he act knowledge statute." Adickes, supra, 162 n.23, 1611. Certainly, can fairly read part Brothers. However, need determine further showing necessary, apparent neither alleged facts constitute moment's reflection clarify distinction action. Some established law protected both governmental deprivation. See, e.g., Alfred Mayer 392 409, 422-424, 2186, 2194, 2195, 20 1189 (1968) (discussing 1982). Although cause right, subjected liability when so Cf. 424-425 n.33, 2195. most infringement governments. Jackson, 452; Civil Rights Cases, 109 3, 17-18, 25-26, 27 835 (1883). Here, Amendment, free deprivations property without due process Thus, statute, actions 11 named City Marshal, supervised evictions, case consent all parties.5 This total absence overt official earlier imposing 751 (1975); 556 (1972); 349 (1969). In thos cases, careful point out dictates "attac[h] interest encompassed Amendment's protection." Fuentes, 84, 1996. While factual matter physical deprive property, "may treated itself," 351, 453, "an protection," issue Brothers' attributed conclude not. III 12 primary contention "traditionally exclusively reserved State." 352, argue civil government, Respondents, however, much language previous cases. many functions performed governments, very few "exclusively 13 One area elections. protects association advocacy regard election officials, cases make elections themselves function. principle challenging exclusion blacks Texas. 1152 (1953); 987 (1944); 984 (1932). rationale subject some dispute,6 scope carefully defined. doctrine reach forms political activity, encompasses state-regulated conducted organizations practice produce uncontested choice officials." Terry, 820 (Clark, J., concurring). As Black described situation 469, 813: "The counted Texas county more than fifty years held Jaybirds Negroes excluded."7 14 second line public-function originated withMarsh 265 (1946). Just Democratic Party Jaybird effectively entire ublic selecting Gulf Shipbuilding Corp. municipal town Chickasaw, Ala., owned. Under those circumstances, recognize group Jehovah's Witnesses distribute religious literature streets. expanded municipal-function theory Amalgamated Food Employees Union Logan Valley Plaza, 391 308, 1601, 603 (1968), encompass activities shopping center. vigorous dissent Black, author Marsh. basis decision: 15 is, what circumstances though public? answer gives taken attributes town, i. e., 'residential buildings, streets, system sewers, sewage disposal plant "business block" business places situated.' 502, 276." 332, 1615 (dissenting opinion). 16 ultimately adopted Black's interpretation limited Hudgens NLRB, 424 507, 96 1029, 47 196 announced overruling Valley. 17 These branches common feature exclusivity.8 affiliates meaningful Texas, streets owned means resolving purely dispute. Respondent never barred waiver sell time storage. Presumably, alleges could sought replevy See N.Y.Civ.Prac.Law 7101 seq. 1963). itself remedy violations provisions. N.Y.U.C.C. 7-210(9) 1964). remedies, place arrangements ordering relationships commercial world,9 hardly said sovereign.10 18 Whatever particular law, do consider detailed description function.11 Kras, 409 434, 445-446, 93 631, 637-638, 34 626 (1973). Creditors historically far wider number choices one elected official, member wished decided. Our analysis requires parsing difference various liens other field activity outside Marsh.12 true created decisional To rely historical antecedents result constitutional condemnation perfectly permissible another. Compare Cox Bakeries Timm Moving Storage, 554 356, 358-359 (CA8 1977), withMelara, 05-806, n.7. Bell Maryland, 378 226, 334-335, 84 1814, 1872-1873, 822 (1964) (Black, dissenting).13 19 even if inclined extend sovereign-function present confined bounds, transactions particularly inappropriate expand it. finding here. today impairs way precedential value Norwood Harrison, 413 455, 2804, 37 723 (1973), Gilmore Montgomery, 417 556, 94 2416, 41 304 arose context programs benefited schools engaging racially discriminatory admissions practices judicial decrees desegregating school systems. And remiss note there covered governed administered greater degree exclusivity municipalities so-called "dispute resolution." Among education, fire police protection, tax collection.14 express view extent, any, parties performance thereby avoid strictures recitation possible permutations combinations situations suffices caution us should abide necessity deciding them. IV 21 urge because 7-210. "that responsible compelled act." 170, 1615. converts rejected similar argument 357, 456: 22 "Approval utility commission request regulated utility, where put own weight side it, transmute approved 'state action.' (Emphasis added.) clearest demonstration appears 627 (1972), Commonwealth Pennsylvania, racial discrimination voluntarily practiced club, require club comply rules. clearly notion prior imposition restraints simple device characterizing inaction "authorization" "encouragement." id., 190, 1979 (Brennan, dissenting). 24 quite immaterial embodied statutory form. If statutes all, courts still faced prohibit permit sort here aggrieved bailor came before relief. deny less "encouragement" legislature's statute. recognized earliest interpretations through different agencies,—either legislative, executive, authorities; prohibitions amendment State" infringing thereby. Virginia Rives, 100 313, 318, 25 667 (1880). denial considered encouragement acts, converted acts whenever whatever reason, denies putative owner. Not completely "essential dichotomy," 452, Evans Abney, 396 435, 458, 628, 640, 634 (1970), Brother BRENNAN contended authorizing establishment trusts restricted parks conferred "special power" testators taking advantage provision. nevertheless involved case. By same token, decision, permits compel, threaten belongings. bailor's merely interfere sale. Indeed, crux acted, refused act. refusal ordinary limitations declines provide passage given period time. otherwise Reversed. 29 took consideration 30 MARSHALL, dissenting. 31 I join my STEVENS' opinion, write separately emphasize certain aspects find disturbing. cannot silent demonstrates, time, attitude callous indifference realities life poor. e. g., Beal Doe, 432 438, 455-457, 2366, 2394, 2395-2396, 53 464 (1977) (MARSHALL, dissenting); 458-460, 644-645, (1973) blandly asserts "respondent law." Ante, 160. order obtain replevin sheriff "undertaking" surety latter pay "not twice value" perhaps substantially more, depending size potential debtor. 7102(e) Supp. 1977). Sureties bonds receiving substantial payment advance assurance debtor's ability awarded. 33 according home $87 per week job, apartment, $335, amount afford. 44a-46a. Court's assumption able bond, secure return household regarded highly questionable.1 technically correct "could sought" replevin, that, adequate funds, rent remained avoiding eviction seizure househol warehouseman. But close eyes led litigation. lacked funds prevent eviction, seems once seized, practical leave warehouseman, forced nonpayment charges. am troubled cavalier treatment factors are, course, occurred centuries ago England, see ante, 163 n. test decide State," 454, (1974) (emphasis added). Such resolved vacuum. York's highest court "[i]n [New York] execution Sheriff." Blye Globe-Wernicke Realty N.Y.2d 20, 347 N.Y.S.2d 175, 300 N.E.2d 710, 713-714 Numerous courts, elsewhere, conclusion. Sharrock Dell Buick-Cadillac, App.Div.2d 446, 393 166, 171 ("[T]he garageman executing performing Sheriff clothed authority law"); Parks "Mr. Ford," 132, 141 (CA3 1977) (en banc) ("Pennsylvania literally individuals, [forced-sale] powers 'traditionally reserved' sheriffs constables"); Bakeries, 358 J.) (by giving forced-sale powers, roles judge, jury sheriff"); Hall Garson, 430 430, 439 (CA5 1970) constable"). 35 ignoring history, approaches decided reference role always played doing, treats were, use words, "a monolithic, abstract concept hovering legal stratosphere." 160 10. state-action doctrine, developed past come down earth attention role. 36 dissent. STEVENS, whom WHITE MARSHALL join, 38 third Assuming, arguendo, followed inadequate holds protection involves nothing fundamentally inconsistent with, foreclosed by, authorization C rp., 349. 39 There proposes sell.1 has, derive respondents.2 derives solely specifically Code. authorizes meet requirements answered affirmative virtually unlimited transfer interests protections.3 40 determining scrutinized Clause, reasons "permits compel" sale, 165 added), 158 approach enact citizens self-help countless possibility challenge. authorize retain proceeds exceeded debt; finance companies enter homes repossess merchandise; indeed, "any power," 157, acquire weaker neighbor. An attempt challenge outrageous defeated uses today: characterize action, examples suggest, distinctions "permission" "compulsion" hand, "exclusive" "nonexclusive," other, determinative analysis. great chasm requiring fall definitional camp. Even 627, relies "compulsion," recognizes interveni g levels action.4 case, effective unambiguous section possessions; details procedures follow; grants convey title now party.5 Members alone action,6 suggestions variously phrased. Most frequently terms sovereignty. 447, Newton, 382 296, 299, 86 486, 488, 373. attempted nonconsensual overwhelming evidence contrary, however,7 wisely adopt position. Instead, function.8 distinction, consistent action;9 adhered case;10 and, importantly, beginning 43 Since regulating debtor-creditor relationship compliance Clause. Mitchell W. T. Grant 416 600, 1895, 406; 556. each prerequisite decision. seeks explain findings ground element "overt involvement." Given explanation baffling. instance, consisted clerk issued writ garnishment based affidavit creditor. 607, 722. clerk's ministerial, until today, ministerial "minor functionaries" action.11 suggestion review Sniadach, Finishing marks major judgment, unwise expansion doctrine. functionary plays legion;12 base fortuity intervention demean majestic 44 viewed reflecting recognition significance defining controlling relationship. unequivocal. Shevin stressed "abdicate[d] control power." 93, 2001. concern achieve placed hands interested party, just judicially sales satisfaction 45 "Private parties, serving advantage, unilaterally No participates seek writ; reviews repossession; evaluates immediate seizure. requirement information matters." Ibid. 46 made, equally emphatically, 614-616, 1903-1904, Yet defect made unconstitutional—lack control—is, today's factor precludes command incongruous results. unconstitutional allow supervision mechanical, surely immunize scrutiny removing mechanical supervision. removed nominal case,13 equally, significant exercised Finishing. Florida allowed seized pending outcome creditor's repossession. finally disposed adjudication underlying claim. Similarly, provided debtor garnishee's broader, pointed out: "After speci ied notice, entitled determines be. unquestionably unilaterally." 48 Whether termed "traditional," "exclusive," "significant," binding, creditor exactly concerned. accordingly, scrutiny. This, least, teaching fears, remotely suggest "all [will] owner." 165. focus authorization. "[W]hat vital remember state's conduct, inaction, rise attack." Friendly, Dartmouth College Case Public-Private Penumbra, Quarterly, 2, p. (1969) (Supp.) original). takes concrete form enactment, challenged. 50 My assumes conform specified legislature process. enacted ask deviation statute—such give notice required law—the remedied occasion well ever explanations 17, 835: 51 "[C]ivil rights, guaranteed aggression, impaired wrongful unsupported shape laws, customs, executive proceedings. authority, simply wrong, crime individual; sanctioned done full force, presumably vindicated resort redress."14 legislative enabled take court.15 approach, f deral foreclosure proceeding claims constituting Rather, district court's challenges itself—challenges kind Shevin. Finally, obviously society sphere. longer possible, was, believe sharp drawn actions.16 examination delegations rare instances ceded powers. indicated, limitation logical nor practical. More troubling, reflect concerns aspect broad protection. broadest sense, expect government "to reasonable fair framework rules facilitate ." 624, 1908. (Powell, "framework rules" premised will, turn, Clause.17 legally surrenders correlatives system. effect, allows divorce expedient transferring implementation policy Because countenance division responsibility, respectfully reads full: "§ Enforcement Warehouseman's Lien "(1) Except subsection (2), enforced bloc parcels, commercially reasonable, notifying persons known goods. notification include statement due, nature fact better obtained method selected manner. sells usual manner market therefor, current tim sold conformity among dealers type sold, apparently offered insure obligation except preceding sentence. "(2) merchant course follows: "(a) All notified. "(b) sent registered certified last "(c) itemized claim, lien, demand ten receipt notification, conspicuous advertised auction place. "(d) notification. "(e) nearest suitable stored. "(f) expiration advertisement published weeks consecutively newspaper general circulation held. name held, fifteen publication. posted six neighborhood "(3) Before claiming satisfy expenses incurred section. event retained Article. "(4) buy "(5) purchaser faith enforce valid, despite noncompliance "(6) hold balance, delivery deliver "(7) addition "(8) Where accordance (1) (2). "(9) caused willful conversion." granting motions intervene, Judge Gurfein returned her, saved mootness damages. 63 F.R.D. 412 (SDNY1974). correctness concluded, n.3, infra, remains alive. died 1988, survived benefit estate, comparable survive applicable 768 For simplicity, referred herein. recovered dismissal Unlike Brooks, demanded "only threats twenty-month detention goods." At litigation, respondent. available, merits demonstrate suffered monetary damage reason workings Liner Jafco, 375 301, 305-306, 391, 394, (1964). submitted Jones' charged auctioneer's fee, 7-210(3), paid. invocation constitutes recover fee. prove causally related ultimate inquiry protects. Of defendant merge. direct petitioner's officially authorized, lawful." 152, 1605, (1970) (citations omitted). three opinions, none commanded construing context, special Congress, 1971(a)(1), protect equal access ballot. 468, 821 (opinion J.); Smith, 651, 758. congressional pronouncement speaks transaction 373 (1966), establishes operation park recreational doubt Newton intended teeth experience several entrepreneurs amassed fortunes operating purposes. rests extraordinary circumstances. emphasizes record showed "no change maintenance facility," 489, trustees. That shown eliminated actual daily care park. parade horribles STEVENS dissent, post, involve breach peace. undoubtedly says 169, "respondents sell." stratosphere. bundle personalty, metes bounds determined acquired depends lost transferred likewise intolerably broaden, beyond existence body statutory, amounted enforcing distinguishable participated concededly plaintiff's occurred. attaches because, impounded Georgia. pursue collection debt law; invoked turn ordered garnishee money (1880); Shelley Kraemer, 334 1, 836, 1161 (1948). "consent" supplied sheriff. directed triggered property. puts cart horse; concludes lack triggers protections provide. Thus coda becomes theme be, contends, "[t]he system." Post, 178-179. unlike Wisconsin surrender whatever. title. not, wished, compel "surrenders property" refers, reviewed customary hearing proceeding. seldom encountered bears witness rights. source Columbia. burdened constraints compensatory abuse, atypical historically, legislatively enacted. actors ascribed Steele Louisville Nashville R. 323 192, 65 173 Railway Employees' Dept. Hanson, 351 225, 714, 1112 (1956). say dispute category human affairs constraints. apply Self-help significantly generally, legislatures. (and indeed limit) official—what tend do, authorization, dispose valuable space. departure arrangements. Davis Richmond, 512 201, 203 (CA1 1975): "[W]e disinclined enjoy freedom Elizabethan Georgian England." Contrary suggestion, 172 n.8, functions. Griffin 130, 1770, 754 (1964), deputy security employee, "purported Id., 135, 1772. sheds light status forces, poor violated "undertaking." Laprease Raymours Furniture 315 716 (NDNY (three-judge court); Tamburro Trama, 59 Misc.2d 299 528 balancing interests. 604, 1898, 406. stages "implied contract" providing 767 conceded fact, must, contractual Tr. Oral Arg. 11. argued create interests, attend Arnett 134, 153-154, 1633, 1644-1645, (Rehnquist, J.). position, revives somewhat setting shield legislation affecting delegating Liquor Control Board's regulation "[e]very licensee adhere By-Laws." recognized, neutral face, 178, 1974, membership rule. 7-210(5) provides: "A section." Burton Wilmington Parking Authority, 365 715, 726, 81 856, 862, (Stewart, concurring); 727, 862 (Frankfurter 729, 863 (Harlan, Blackstone, Commentaries §§ 7-11, pp. 3-6, notes severely limited. fully depend 'whether England.' (citation Nonetheless history well-settled "traditional function." 477. Pennsylvania decisions, rendered 1879 fur ishing services 157-158. understand "exclusivity," common-law theories, 159-160. incomprehensible. uniquely function, forecloses recovering activity. force unique entail 754. analysis, remedy, imprisonment, individual "private" policeman. vague, inappropriate, complain about offers glimmer hope redeeming possessions, availability relevant issue. attempts distinguish park, actually rested determination "daily park." Ante 159 8. stark rewrite White's White observed that: "It evident continued park—the point." 304, 491. recognize, squared wide range typically functions, "education, collection." 163. Ford", 148 (Adams, Gibbs Titelman, 502 1107, 1113 1974), cert. denied sub nom. Garver, 1039, 526, 316; Nat. Bank Connecticut, 493 739, 743 (CA2 1974). often ownership motor vehicles real estate. Burke Reber, Action, Congressional Power Creditors' Rights: Essay Fourth S.Cal.L.Rev. 19-23 difficult car invested 141. "supervise" sense prescribes warehousemen follow complete Furthermore, deviated requirements, justify With while concepts law" analyzed, Lucas Electric 466 638, 654-655 (CA7 1972), normally involvement. Price, 383 787, 794 1152, 1157, court. Thompson, Piercing Veil Action: Revisionist Theory Mythical Application Self-Help Repossession, 1977 Wis.L.Rev. 1; Glennon Nowak, Functional Analysis "State Action" Requirement, 1976 S.Ct.Rev. 221; Foreword: Action," Protection, California's Proposition 14, Harv.L.Rev. 69 (1967); Williams, Twilight L.Rev. (1963); Van Alstyne Karst, Stan.L.Rev. (1961). Harlan explained "American society, bottoms systematic definition duties, machinery settlement, custom strategically model. quasi-judicial bodies, look regularized, orderly settlement. Within framework, wrote original Constitution, Fifth drafted centrality Without guarantee liberty techniques acceptable scheme things. Only social enforcement mechanism strictly maintain just. premise flesh principle." Boddie Connect cut, 401 371, 375, 91 780, 784, 113.

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