Document: 464 U.S. 417 104 S.Ct. 774 78 L.Ed.2d 574 SONY CORPORATION OF AMERICA, et al., Petitionersv.UNIVERSAL CITY STUDIOS, INC., etc., al. No. 81-1687. Argued Jan. 18, 1983. Reargued Oct. 3, Decided 17, 1984. Rehearing Denied March 19, See U.S., 1619. Syllabus Petitioner Sony Corp. manufactures home video tape recorders (VTR's), and markets them through retail establishments, some of which are also petitioners. Respondents own the copyrights on television programs that broadcast public airwaves. brought an action against petitioners in Federal District Court, alleging VTR consumers had been recording respondents' copyrighted works exhibited commercially sponsored thereby infringed copyrights, further were liable for such copyright infringement because their marketing VTR's. sought money damages, equitable accounting profits, injunction manufacture The Court denied respondents all relief, holding noncommercial use material over airwaves was a fair did not constitute infringement, could be held as contributory infringers even if considered infringing use. Appeals reversed, ordering to fashion appropriate relief. Held: sale VTR's general does copyrights. Pp. 428-456. (a) protection given is wholly statutory, and, case like this, Congress has plainly marked course followed by judiciary, this must circumspect construing scope rights created statute never contemplated calculus interests. Any individual may reproduce work "fair use"; owner possess exclusive right 428-434. (b) Kalem Co. v. Harper Brothers, 222 55, 32 20, 56 L.Ed. 92, support novel theory supplying "means" accomplish activity encouraging advertisement sufficient establish liability infringement. This fall category those it manifestly just impose vicarious "contributory" infringer position control others authorized without permission from owner. Here, only contact between users occurred at moment sale. And there no precedent imposing sold with constructive knowledge customers might equipment make unauthorized copies material. copying equipment, other articles commerce, product widely used legitimate, unobjectionable purposes, or, indeed, merely capable substantial noninfringing uses. 434-442. (c) record Court's findings show (1) significant likelihood numbers holders who license free would object having time-shifted private viewers (i.e., recorded time when cannot view so can watched later time); (2) time-shifting cause nonminimal harm potential market for, or value of, works. therefore Private, satisfies standard uses both have prevent authorizing programs, reveal legitimate 442-456. 659 F.2d 963, reversed. Dean C. Dunlavey, Los Angeles, Cal., Stephen A. Kroft, Beverly Hills, respondents. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court. 1 Petitioners sell recorders. Some members these broadcasts, well large number broadcasts. question presented whether petitioners' violates any conferred upon Copyright Act. 2 commenced United States Central California 1976. alleged individuals Betamax (VTR's) contended maintained allegedly committed VTR's.1 relief consumer. Instead, they damages profits petitioners, 3 After lengthy trial, entered judgment 480 F.Supp. 429 (1979). Ninth Circuit reversed respondent's claim, 963 (1981). We granted certiorari, 457 1116, 102 2926, 73 1328 (1982); since we completed our study last Term, ordered reargument, --- ----, 103 3568, 77 1409 (1983). now reverse. 4 An explanation rejection unprecedented attempt distributors requires quite detailed recitation In summary, average member principally program he being televised then watch once time. practice, known "time-shifting," enlarges viewing audience. For reason, amount programming manner objection owners programs. same two case, do assert objections litigation, unable prove practice impaired commercial future harm. Given findings, basis Act hold distributing public. Appeals' entitled enjoin distribution VTR's, collect royalties obtain affirmed, enlarge statutory monopolies encompass article commerce subject protection. Such expansion privilege beyond limits grants Congress. 5 * action, Universal Studios, Inc. Walt Disney Productions, produce motion pictures audiovisual current marketplace, exploit ways: theatrical exhibitions, licensing limited showings cable network television, selling syndication repeated airings local stations, prerecorded videotapes videodiscs. suitable exploitation avenues, while more limited. 6 millions devices numerous action.2 Sony's mechanism consisting three basic components: tuner, receives electromagnetic signals transmitted band separates into audio visual signals; recorder, records magnetic tape; (3) adapter, converts composite signal received set. 7 Several capabilities machine noteworthy. separate tuner enables off one station set tuned another channel, permitting viewer, example, simultaneous news broadcasts watching "live" viewing. Tapes reused, erased either before after A timer activate deactivate predetermined times, enabling intended viewer she home. Thus person evening though during afternoon. equipped pause button fast-forward control. button, depressed, deactivates recorder until released, thus omit recording, provided, course, present recorded. fast forward previously run rapidly segment desire see played back screen. 8 conducted surveys way several hundred sample period 1978. Although differences surveys, showed primary most "time-shifting,"—the time, thereafter erasing it. Time-shifting otherwise miss home, occupied tasks, watch. Both showed, however, interviewees accumulated libraries tapes.3 survey indicated 80% least much regular owning Betamax.4 offered evidence decreased owners.5 9 introduced considerable describing copied holder, special emphasis sports, religious, educational programming. 7.3% sports events, representatives professional baseball, football, basketball, hockey testified events use.6 10 concerning impact unrestricted found, failed time-shifting. Id., 469. Decision 11 trial concerned private, charge viewer.7 No issue transfer tapes persons, home-recorded performances, pay systems raised. 429, 432-433, 442 12 concluded It emphasized fact large, character use, entirely within Moreover, court found purpose served interest increasing access programming, "is consistent First Amendment policy providing fullest possible information Columbia Broadcasting System, Democratic National Committee, 412 94, [93 2080, 2086, 36 772]." F.Supp., 454.8 Even entire recorded, regarded "because accompanying reduction 'plaintiff's original work.' " Ibid. 13 As independent ground decision, noted direct involvement purchasers air. advertising silent but its instruction booklet contained following statement: 14 "Television films, materials copyrighted. Unauthorized contrary provisions laws." 436. 15 assumed probability "product variety uses, infringing." 461. reasoned: 16 "Selling staple e.g., typewriter, camera, photocopying technically contributes subsequently made thereof, kind 'contribution,' deemed liability, expand arguably judicial management. 17 "Commerce indeed hampered manufacturers items whenever 'constructively' knew occasions deemed, matter first impression, infringement." 18 Finally, discussed prayer injunctive noting asked preventing machines, requiring machines rendered incapable stated "found manufacturers, distributors, retailers, advertisors instrument sued holders," request unique." 465. 19 inappropriate outweighed "the still legally noncopyrighted whose consented copying. deprive ability off-the-air recording." 468. 20 claim. aside fact. Rather, law "productive use."9 unnecessary plaintiffs works, observed seemed clear cumulative effect mass reproduction tend diminish F.2d, 974. 21 On rejected analogy machines. "may benefit purposes" "even remotely raise problems." 975. "for reproducing programming" "virtually all" concluded, therefore, elect enforce rights. 22 reliance lack constituted Assuming defining remedies applied non-statutory tort defendant's good faith reduce his excuse conduct. chargeable homeowner's conspicuous use" major product. 23 "statutory appropriate," should reconsider determination remedy; referring analogous area," suggested continuing royalty pursuant judicially compulsory very acceptable resolution issue. 976. II 24 Article I, Sec. Constitution provides that: 25 "The shall Power . Promote Progress Science useful Arts, securing Times Authors Inventors Right respective Writings Discoveries." monopoly privileges authorize neither unlimited nor primarily designed provide benefit. grant means important achieved. motivate creative authors inventors provision reward, allow products genius expired. 26 law, patent statute, makes reward secondary consideration. Fox Film Doyal, 286 123, 127 [52 546, 547, 76 1010], Chief Hughes spoke follows respecting Congress, 'The sole conferring lie benefits derived labors authors.' said author artist serves induce release genius." Paramount Pictures, 334 131, 158, 68 915, 929, 92 1260. 27 text plain, assigned task order give Because involves difficult balance interests writings discoveries hand, society's competing flow ideas, information, statutes amended repeatedly.10 28 From beginning, developed response changes technology.11 Indeed, invention new form equipment—the printing press—that gave rise need protection.12 Repeatedly, developments country, fashioned rules technology necessary. Thus, long enactment 1909, 35 Stat. 1075, settled statutory. Wheaton Peters, 33 (8 Peters) 591, 661-662, 1055 (1834). "are prescribed Congress." Thompson Hubbard, 131 151, 710, 720, (1889). 29 judiciary's reluctance protections afforded explicit legislative guidance recurring theme. See, Teleprompter CBS, 415 394, 94 1129, 39 (1974); Fortnightly Artists, 392 390, 88 2084, 1176 (1968); White-Smith Music Publishing Apollo Co., 209 1, 319, 52 655 (1908); Williams Wilkins States, 487 1345, 203 Ct.Cl. 74 (1973), affirmed equally divided court, 420 376, 95 1344, 43 264 (1975). Sound policy, history, supports deference technological innovations alter materials. constitutional authority institutional accommodate fully varied permutations inevitably implicated technology. 30 doing so, guided Stewart's exposition correct approach ambiguities copyright: 31 holder's monopoly, duration required Constitution, reflects claims interest: Creative encouraged rewarded, motivation ultimately serve promoting broad availability literature, music, arts. immediate secure return 'author's' labor. But ultimate aim is, incentive, stimulate artistic creativity good. monopoly,' said, 'lie 1010]. Kendall Winsor, How. 322, 327-328 [16 165]; Grant Raymond, Pet. 218, 241-242 [8 376]. When change literal terms ambiguous, construed light purpose." Twentieth Century Aiken, 422 156, 2040, 2043, 45 84 (footnotes omitted). "subsists authorship fixed tangible medium expression." U.S.C. § 102(a). accorded complete work.13 holder "exclusive" five qualified ways, including copies. 106.14 All reproductions work, domain owner; domain. use;" Compare id., 106 107. "Anyone owner," anyone trespasses using ways forth copyright." 501(a). Conversely, specified respect 34 potent arsenal restrain violating rights, impoundment destruction violation recovery actual additional realized attorneys fees. §§ 502-505.15 seek class behalf broadcast, invoke whatever bring actions based works.16 evidence, represents small portion total taping standing To prevail, burden proving responsible III expressly render another. contrast, Patent brands "actively induces patent" infringer, 271(b), imposes certain labeled infringers, 271(c). absence express language preclude imposition infringements parties themselves engaged activity.17 imposed virtually areas concept species broader problem identifying circumstances accountable 37 (1911), decision place principal reliance. Kalem, producer film dramatization book Ben Hur picture jobbers, turn arranged exhibition film. Holmes, writing explained: 38 defendant expected invoked films dramatic story. That used, especially made. If contribute impossible except taking part final act. principles recognized every law." 63, S.Ct., 22. item "especially" was, display performance already personally appropriated owner's protected expression jobbers. authorize: possessed performances work. Further, advertised dispelling doubt authorized. 40 argue stands proposition argument rests gross generalization withstand scrutiny. activity; supplied itself, albeit expression. instant supply works; do. piece generally range televised: uncopyrighted, prefer copied. than particular involved Kalem. liability. 41 Holmes "contributed" copyright, label "contributory infringement" lower cases involving ongoing relationship conduct occurred. cases, situations just, owner.18 category. disclosed "no employee Sony, Sonam DDBI off-the-air." 460. "there Griffiths witnesses suit influenced [Sony's] advertisements." rest There theory. closest provided refer historic kinship law.19 42 Code defined statute.20 prohibition confined knowing component connection patent. suggestion patentee patents. "staple commodity predicated purchaser infringe patent, necessarily implicated. finding not, remove altogether; does, effective item. normally functional equivalent disputed patentee.21 44 arising under laws always critical importance allowing extend specific grant. These deny unpatented unless "unsuited use." Dawson Chemical Rohm & Hass 448 176, 198, 100 2601, 2614, 65 696 (1980). Unless "has patented method," ibid, claim constitutes "To almost uniquely suited invention." P. Rosenberg, Law Fundamentals 17.02[2] (1982). "[A] adapted lawful enough seller infringer. rule block wheels commerce." Henry A.B. Dick 224 48, 364, 379, 645 (1912), overruled grounds, Motion Picture Patents Mfg. 243 502, 517, 416, 421, 61 871 (1917). recognize laws. doctrine grounded recognition adequate require courts look duplication device publication activities possible. strike demand effective—not symbolic—protection freely engage substantially unrelated commerce. Accordingly, purposes. IV 46 resolve question, explore different determine consider facts district non-infringing. precise content how significant. standard, however understood: (A) (B) factual Authorized Time Shifting 47 Each owns inventory valuable spectrum combined share small. exact percentage specified, below 10%.22 outcome litigation producers remaining 90% Nation. doubt, many concern about consequences Nevertheless audience willing continue, experimental period.23 found: 48 "Even home-use recording. "Defendants testimony 49 included Offices Commissioners Football, Basketball, Baseball Hockey Leagues Associations, Executive Director Religious Broadcasters various communications agencies. Plaintiffs attack weight contend warranted outweigh uses." 50 "Whatever legal versus illegal be, seeks tool extremely harsh remedy, 51 statements context considering propriety "sports, educational, quantity broadcasting authorized, amply supported record. addition religious officials identified explicitly Court,24 deserve mention. John Kenaston, manager Channel 58, Angeles affiliated Public Service. He explained authenticated station's published guide programs.25 each program, tells restrictions (such erasure seven days), all. Spring 1978 edition described 107 Sixty-two 58% taping. Twenty-one 20% taping.26 53 Second Fred Rogers, president corporation produces Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood. carried stations program. Its 3,000,000 families day. absolutely expressed real service able children's times.27 54 Mister Neighborhood, proprietors welcome business feasible stifled simply represent composed holders. Yet frustrate broadcasters reaching available 55 Of mean copy Third party irrelevant prevail affects speaks outcome. perfectly national find nothing objectionable enlargement size results use.28 expands producers' audiences if, true activity. infringing. unlicensed conflicts statute. 154-155, 84. definition prefaced words "subject sections 118." Those describe notwithstanding 106." pertinent 107, endorsement use."29 57 section identifies factors30 enable apply "equitable reason" analysis infringement.31 conclusive, factor nonprofit activity" weighed decision.32 profit-making purpose, presumptively unfair. presumption here, characterized noncommercial, considers nature 107(2), timeshifting invited witness entirety charge, reproduced, 107(3), ordinary militating use.33 58 end inquiry directed us work." 107(4). create incentives effort. purposes impair rewards him have. demonstrable prohibited protect author's incentive create. inhibit ideas countervailing benefit.34 59 although unfair belongs matter. challenge proof harmful, become widespread, adversely affect Actual shown; requirement leave defense predictable damage. Nor necessary certainty will result. What showing preponderance meaningful exists. gain, presumed. demonstrated. 60 carry regard follows: "Plaintiffs' experts admitted points librarying result 'not great deal harm.' Plaintiffs' greatest 'a point philosophy transcends judgment.' They fear usage, 'invisible boundaries' passed: 'the lost program.' 467. 62 Later opinion, observed: 63 "Most plaintiffs' predictions hinge speculation patterns ratings, measurement system Sidney Sheinberg, MCA's president, calls 'black art' level imprecision calculations." 469.35 64 say past "Plaintiffs date." 451. time-shifting, evidence. "fear persons 'watching' telecast measured live ratings revenues decrease," observing allows reflected. 466.36 prediction "that movie decrease people alternative," observation "[t]here [the underlying] assumption." Ibid.37 reruns," instead "given practices, aid rather them." Ibid.38 declared theater rental suffer time-shift program" "lacks merit." 467.39 66 completing review, restated overall conclusion ways. "Harm speculative best, minimal." capability discussed. implausible accrue plaintiffs, broadcasters, advertisers, broadcasts." "No shown 468-469. "Testimony adjustments strategy, harm." production today profitable ever been, weeks concrete suggest studios' financial picture." 67 conclusions buttressed extent yields societal benefits. Earlier year, Community Television Southern Gottfried, ---- - n. 12, 885, 891-892, 705 (1983), acknowledged making available. Concededly, unlimited. interpretation demonstrate condemn act federal law. factors balance, conclude regarding state empirical data, erred presently written bars conduct.40 69 lead conclusions. First, demonstrated viewers. second, V 70 direction Art. I power promote progress science When, permissive, sign far chosen go come Deepsouth Packing Laitram Corp., 406 518, 530, 1700, 1707, 273 (1972). 71 One search vain elected day unlawful enacted flat 72 take fresh technology, often examined past. job yet written. Applying reads, ordered. BLACKMUN, whom MARSHALL, POWELL, REHNQUIST join, dissenting. restatement history necessary, my view, proper focus issues. Respondents' hardly "unprecedented," ante, really embody "gross generalization," 436, "novel liability," 437, like, belittling claims, describes efforts 75 introduction videotape (VTR) enabled Americans recordings homes, convenience. While proved highly popular sets VTRs, understandably raising issues VTRs infringers. hope questions seriously depth resolved there, despite little congressional action. Our meantime, best ill-fitting existing answer, stress, "consistent Congress" "major innovations" appear. Ante, 431. Perhaps better accurate description tended evade hard arise area reason particularly pleased tradition continue fairly 1976 meant old pattern enact cover technologies, old. 1976, City Inc., Productions (Studios) against, among others, Corporation, Japanese corporation, Corporation America, New York manufacturer distributor, respectively, VTR. Studios wide-ranging sales tapes. Betamax, air cassettes, playing time.1 Two kinds usage here.2 whereby user it, erases single second "library-building," keep longer term. advertisements, "record favorite shows" "build library." warnings warning appear operating instructions. 79 "movies" theaters broadcast. rent License fees according compiled rating services measure playbacks videotapes. serious revenue 80 5-week ruled Studios' 4, 1909 (1909 Act), (formerly codified seq. (1976 ed.)), Revision 90 2541, 101 (1982 ed.).3 theories theories. 81 respect. implied exemption "home use," reasoning anticipated air, induced, caused, materially contributed remanded relief; award lieu injunction. 82 Clause 8, cl. empowers Nation's initial passed Entitled "An encouragement learning," liberty printing, reprinting, publishing vending" "map, chart, books" years. May 31, 1790, 124. Since then, creating preserving changed, governing changed By amendments, revisions 1831, 1870, 1976,4 authors' expanded "original expression," "motion works." 102(a).5 83 Section work,6 "to phonorecords."7 107-118, exemptions limitations sections, 107; states copyright."8 Act, predecessors,9 full put enumerated 106, 393-395, 2085-2086, (1968). videotaping comes exemption, inquire appears violate right, instance 106(1), phonorecords." 85 word "copies" plural prohibited. Senate House Reports explain: references 'copies phonorecords,' plural, here throughout bill include singular (1 1)."10 S.Rep. 94-473, p. (1975) (1975 Report); H.R.Rep. 94-1476, (1976) Report), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 5675. established 106(1): 86 "[T]he 'to phonorecords' duplicated, transcribed, imitated, simulated 'perceived, communicated, directly device.' whole part, duplicating exactly imitation simulation." 1975 Report 58; 61, 87 falls definition; perceived. personal 106(1). reports specify detail concerns. 108(a), permits library archives phonorecord work" patron, conditions; moreover, obtained elsewhere price.11 108(e); 112(a) (broadcaster "make transmission program," conditions). respects, permissible confines doctrine. report, headed "Single multiple copying," notes permit teacher classroom, "sizable" treatise. 63-64; accord, 68-69, 71. Other reports.12 suggests intent 89 possibility exemption. raised early revision process, studies prepared supervision Office. Latman, Fair Use Copyrighted Works (1958), reprinted Committee Judiciary, Revision, Studies Prepared Subcommittee Patents, Trademarks, Copyrights, 86th Cong., 2d Sess., (1960) (Latman Study). reported supporting existence taken, liability." 12. reviewing foreign 25, Professor Latman outlined approaches adoption particularized situations, field 33.13 Rejecting latter alternative, Register Copyrights recommended revised mention indicate scope. opposed situations,14 preferring, instead, rely judge-made problems arose. Register's 1961 25; Supplementary 27-28. 91 reflected bills, drafted Office 1964. exceptions out sections. H.R. 11947/S. 3008, 88th 5(a) (1964). exception 6, containing identical bills underwent respects 1964 passage portions change.15 Register, doctrine, per se impermissible.16 protective treatment explicitly. statement itself. perform contrast copies, 106(4) "publicly," afford others. "performed" images sounds audible. 101. Like "sing[ing] lyric shower," 155, (1975), one's family friends performance. 59-60; 63.17 Home nevertheless copyright—but contains "publicly."18 60-61; 29-30. distinction 106(1)'s copies.19 93 Similarly, reference 108. Under section, patron types use: "private study, scholarship, research."20 108(d)(1) (e)(1); CFR 201.14(b) Limits type institution inapplicable 108(h). superfluous use.21 B "home-use 444-446. relied 1971 amendment duplicate. 430, 11. amendment, addressed piracy sound recordings. 15, 1971, 391 (1971 Amendment). Amendment, "Home Recording," "In approving creation intention title 17. Specifically, records, where capitalizing common unrestrained today, performers musical compositions years." 92-487, (1971) Report). 96 Similar hearings bill22 floor,23 proceedings. concluding paid too heed made, structure 97 Unlike pictures, prior Amendment. underlying copyrighted, performer's rendition "compulsory license": payment 2-cent 1(e), 1075-1076. times unpaid royalty. 25(e), 1081-1082; Shapiro, Bernstein Goody, 248 260, 262-263, 265 (CA2 1957), cert. denied, 355 952, 536, 529 (1958). practical legalize piracy. 92-72, (1971); 2. 98 suppress piracy, extended themselves. chose, protection: "[t]o [their works] distribute [them] public." 1(a), 1(f) ed.)).24 distribution. 117 Cong.Rec. 34748-34749 (colloquy Reps. Kazen Kastenmeier) ("the protects duplicated only"). 99 Against background, light. "common unrestrained" 7, plus cents With stake, surprising Assistant "d[id] anybody going anyone's sort thing." Hearings 23. Amendment's generalized unsuccessful controlling quote Ringer again, "not what legislation [was] to." 22.25 narrowed loophole 1912, Aug. 24, 488, perhaps before, Edison Lubin, 122 F. 240 (CA3 1903), app. dism'd, 195 625, 790, 349 (1904). continued associated 106(1) distribution; exists independently, "mere distributed." 16; 61. comprehensive aspects unlike Report, contain somehow outside all-inclusive clearly implied.26 copy, Taping permitted called, justification, troublesome Dellar Samuel Goldwyn, 661, 662 1939); Triangle Publications, Knight-Ridder Newspapers, 626 1171, 1174 (CA5 1980); Meeropol Nizer, 560 1061, 1068 1977), 434 1013, 727, 756 (1978). constructed lists determining fair,27 criteria emerged guidance; twice, occasion forthcoming. 74, 1345 aff'd, (1975); Benny Loew's, 239 532 (CA9 1956), aff'd sub nom. Loew's 356 43, 667, 583 definitive Act; incorporated list considered": "purpose "nature work," "amount substantiality used," important, "effect (emphasis supplied). weight, these, exclusive. explain recognition" doctrine; restate change, narrow, way." 66, 5680. 62; 93-983, 116 83, 90th 1st (1967); 2237, 89th (1966). 105 Despite standards, plays crucial role copyright. protection, "promote Arts." belief granting create, "encouragement effort gain advance welfare talents 'Science Arts.' Mazer Stein, 347 201, 219, 460, 471, 630 (1954). 127-128, 1010 (1932); 2222, 60th (1909). nevertheless, strict enforcement "Progress Arts" promote. obvious example researcher scholar depends scholars. Obviously, repeat research gone him.28 scholar, user, left bargain difference user. decides price high, forgoes loser. suffer, deprived contribution knowledge. scholar's words, external everyone profits. acts subsidy—albeit expense—to Study 31; Gordon, Market Failure: Structural Analysis Case Predecessors, Colum.L.Rev. 1600, 1630 similar subsidy pure scholarship. commonly listed itself; criticism, comment, reporting, teaching, research." somewhat,29 examples law.30 theme: productive resulting added produced work.31 "socially laudable purposes." Office, Briefing Papers Current Issues, 2051, 2055. am aware use.32 108 suggest, depend whether, circumstances, reasonable expect dual risks system: depriving other, others.33 flexible one, endless precludes formulation rules. reproduces public, usually apply. whatsoever expense. 109 "Betamax original. add own." 453. applying argues, increase airwaves, think misconceives gives limit cut 127, (1932). creates justify limiting right. extinguished choice licensed reproduction. irrelevant; borrowed purchased. 110 tempting, as, tempted, stretch unfettered extension eroding consequently create.34 avoided temptation; passing situations. 71; 64. And, report adds, "[t]he committee intend convenience 'fair use.' 66. disregard admonitions. 111 recognize, unproductive Photocopying newspaper clipping send friend example; pinning quotation bulletin board truly de minimis. fair. 112 Courts move caution, "ordinary" above, 107(4) consideration added). seem economic assume tremendous come." 14. harmless viewed isolation, "[i]solated instances minor infringements, multiplied aggregate inroad prevented." 65. 113 that, proposed M. Nimmer, 13.05[E][4][c], 13-84 Proof harm, probable speculative, "real danger confining years by, loses unforeseen technical advances." Infringement demonstrates done so. 114 damage pre-recorded videodiscs; rerun audience, showings. advertisers audiences, believe delete commercials use; first-run Library-building well.35 115 468, incorrect substantive misallocated proof. reasoned library-building occur extent," 467; videodiscs compete "arguably desirable," ibid; 468; deleting tedious" viewers, ibid. occur, "marketing alternatives hand recoup predicted loss." 452. "based assumptions changing," "hesitant identify 'probable effects' copying." understandable, but, mistaken bear risk uncertainty. refuted stage development. 107(4).36 putatively "fair," "potential" implications. demonstrating suffered net infringer's resulted suffice. compensation (or to) group hear Second, compensating holder. Iowa State University Research Foundation, American Cos., 621 1980). 118 amici advent consists inconvenient wish times. convenience, evidenced tapes; undoubtedly, correctly sizable market. 119 apparent adverse "potential for" advanced Contributory 120 perspective, taped tapes, rented advantage; accrues Betamax. proceed discuss contributorily infringe. 121 actually 62-63, 21-22, (1911); 12.04[A] 160, 11, 2046, Buck Jewell-LaSalle Realty 283 191, 410, 411, 971 (1931). "[a]nyone copyright," 501(a), retain doctrines 57; 61.37 well-defined. few attempts Gershwin Artists Management, 443 1159 1971). "one who, activity, induces, causes another, 'contributory' infringer." 1162 (footnote quarrel statement, easily case; Appeals, purporting reached diametrically opposite results. 123 absolving users, participate copying, know agree formal concert promoter associations sponsored; 1162-1163. depended infringement; place. 1162; Screen Gems-Columbia Music, Mark-Fi Records, 256 399 (SDNY 1966).38 so-called "dance hall" frequency, entertainment establishments routinely premises, performed. effect, charged performances.39 124 504(c)(2) proves "was her establishes legal. meaningless prospective sought; defendants future. undisputed 459-460. 125 owners. kind, causation indirectly; advertisements. decided Terms ago, approved court's trademark "suggested, implication" retailer manufacturer's goods Inwood Laboratories, Ives 456 844, 851, 2182, 2186, 606 860, 2191 (concurring opinion). context. 126 "favorite shows," "novels television," "classic movies," visible VTR, off-the-air. Off-the-air foreseeable induced owners.40 argues absolved Brief 41-42. held, borrowing commerce" 271.41 less positive. 440-442. considerations Haas 187-199, 2608-2614, (1980), imported wholesale source, Const., parallel fashion, concepts sparingly. Bobbs-Merrill Straus, 210 339, 345-346, 722, 724, 1086 (1908). 128 concerns well. noted, infringe—a machine—the "wheels blocked. 461; 62, 21. 129 product's noninfringing, sellers 440-441. infringe, imposed; buy alone, purposely profiting appropriately imposed. bounds; thereby, 130 "[v]ideotape manufactured, advertised, programming," "[v]irtually material." propositions,42 me, problematic. key infringing.43 argued vigorously covered given. proportion fact,44 specifically declined "percentage essential. remand VI adopted outlined. alters dramatically courts. Should choose respond resurrected. stands, erodes coherence struggled achieve. 132 disposition turns conclusion, correct, settle concludes reasons. flawed. 133 "respondents programs." 442. explains "inevitably time-shifting." 446. reasoning, confuses difficulty fashioning remedy. prohibiting taken account remedy found. Remedies interfere mentioned unabated, devise narrowly tailored remedies. able, build scramble "jam" them. misconstrue holders' prevents when, development techniques, becomes available.45 134 447. troubling. begins suggesting operates reason." mischaracterizes ignores repeatedly flexibly case-by-case basis, limitation comports facilitate indication application purely consumption scale case,46 deprives cohesive force evolution 135 Having bypassed hurdle establishing fair, purports four 107(1). confidently clear, 107(1) protects. encourage humanitarian impulse. likewise something mischaracterization sense term commentator observed, stealing jewelry wearing it—instead reselling it—is noncommercial.47 Purely consumptive certainly protect, awkwardness clearer productive. 136 next ignored Court—though applicability. factor—"the work"—strongly rationale guiding typically "more diligence originality inventiveness," Roxbury Data Interface, 217, 221 (NJ informational reports, readily lend entertainment. shows percent owners.48 137 third used"—is devastating interpretation. 454, substitute endeavors. bears resemblance alone wonder ignore factor.49 138 fourth evaluation focuses, misread mightily reduced markets. true, inquiry. Studios. purchase time-shift.50 them, currently sales. compensated self-evident. 139 legality addresses absolve itself test operate aspect formulated deserves comment. "capable essentially eviscerates Only unimaginative image-duplicating "capable" Surely desired exclusively copyrights; exist presumably bearing desire. 140 More importantly, narrow reveals confused finds implicates attendant question. seems likely unfortunate allowed infect VII 141 liable, too, decide concur, royalties, injunction, balancing equities case.51 merits proposal, conclude, feasible. relegated unavailable, 142 interaction satisfactory solution acts." 167, 2049 (dissenting solution, avoid refusing "take it," 401-402, 2090, (1968), "do traditional legislates." 404, 2091 asserted 43(a) Trademark 1946, 441, 1125(a). retailers Carter, Hawley, Hales, Stores, Inc.; Associated Dry Goods Corp.; Federated Department Henry's Camera owned subsidiary, America. agency Doyle, Dane, Burnbock, petitioner. Willis Griffiths, named respondent him. collectively Sony. William Griffiths. defendant, client firm. summarized "He approximately bought (record, play-back erase) cassettes. Maintaining library, expensive, earlier reusing "Griffiths minutes called 'Never Give Inch,' episodes series 'Baa Baa Black Sheep' 'Holmes Yo Yo.' counsel kept. 'Alpha Caper' (erased saw it) 'Amelia Earhart.' At deposition library. documentaries, sporting political Nixon/Kennedy debate." 436-437. Four "According survey, 75.4% half Defendants' 96% missed. "When cassettes 55.8% fewer. defendants' month, 70.4% 57.9%, plans viewing." 438. "81.9% 83.2% frequency unaffected Betamax." 439. Def.Exh. OT, Table 20; Tr. 2447-2450, 2480, 2486-2487, 2515-2516, 2530-2534. briefly touched demonstrations 456-457, holding, 976, cross-petition "access suggested. Access inconvenience competitive counterprogramming." 454. "Without 'productive use', i.e. reproduced intrinsic 971-972. Judiciary Representatives balance: natural writings, arts promoted periods writings. enacting questions: detrimental public? conditions, confers outweighs evils temporary monopoly." Sess. player pianos perforated roles (1908), preceded 1909; techniques embodied law; retransmit microwave systems, (1974), prompted complex 111(d)(2)(B) 111(d)(5) Eastern Microwave, Doubleday Sports, 691 125, 1982). Recording 391, piracy" recorder. H.Rep. 487, 92nd indicates prohibit equipment. issue, "Copyright became press beginnings British censorship fortunes closely connected freedom expression, improvements dissemination, other. Successive ages drawn balances writer intellectual property, related publisher, society untrammeled dissemination ideas." Foreword B. Kaplan, Unhurried View vii-viii (1967). 323, cf. Deep South Lathram 530-531, 1707-1708, absolute tendency exclusion else pronounced constitutionally sanctioned 156-158, 928-929, 1260 (1948) (copyright claiming tie law); (1932) renders immune taxation royalties); 349-351, 725-726, (1908) fix resale copyright); International Business Machines 298 701, 1085 (1936) (patentees lease device). provides: 'Subject 118, following: phonorecords; prepare derivative work; phonorecords ownership, rental, lease, lending; (4) literary, musical, dramatic, choreographic pantomimes, publicly; (5) pictorial, graphic, sculptural publicly." willfully infringes advantage criminal penalties year imprisonment $25,000 fine offense $50,000 subsequent offense, 506(a), fruits instrumentalities crime forfeited conviction, 506(b). regard, reject cast comparable positions treat case. Respondent, 52, 116. desires influence decision; examine amicus curiae brief solely analyzing us. lines drawn. ." 457-458. clarity may, attributable authorization owner, authorizes note parties' "doctrines" "direct "vicarious liability" nominally Brief, 9, 22, 41, Petitioners' Reply observe, entails arguments forwarded labels, hall cases," Famous Bay Harness Horse Racing Breeding Ass'n, 554 1213 (CA1 1977) (racetrack retained music paying customers); KECA MUSIC, Dingus McGee's 432 (W.D.Mo.1977) (cocktail lounge hired musicians Dreamland Ball Room 354 (CA7 1929) (dance orchestra customers) contrasted landlord-tenant landlords leased premises E.g., Deutsch Arnold, 686 1938). H.L. Green 316 304 1963) twenty-three chain stores departments. structured arrangement, bore none running department. 10% 12% receipts. concluded: "[The dance-hall cases] closer employer-employee model, model. us, Green's licensee, strong success phonograph concession, 'bootleg' records. unduly police carefully concessionaire; placing responsibility effectively exercised." 308 original). 1971), manage performances. titles performed, print organizations 1161. artists managing performing artists, 1163. 1966), manufactured bootleg denying summary judgment, agency, radio boxed mailed dealing goods. (1948); 548, Donaldson Peters Grigg, Pet.) 657-658, naturally, twins, exercise caution generally, 217-218, 470, (1954); 345, consistently process similarities Trade-Mark Cases, 82, 91-92, 550 (1879); also, Drug Rectanus 90, 97, 50, (1918) (trademark analogy" patent); McLean Fleming, 245, 254 (1877); Canal Clark, Wall. 311, 581 (1871). fundamental Laboratories 854-855, 2188, (1982), crafted cases. distributor intentionally merchant down pass mislabeling mark. Inwood's governed merit discussion. "intentionally induce[ ]" engaging 855, 2188. 271 "(a) Except title, whoever makes, sells invention, therefor, "(b) Whoever actively "(c) machine, manufacture, combination composition, apparatus practicing constituting "(d) guilty misuse performed consent patent; extraordinary collectively, That, logical implication seek, declare contraband. Their respondents, claimed Disney's consisted hour week syndicated series. Universal's 5%. 532-533, 549-550. uncopyrighted. movie—My Man Godfrey —falls category, 2300-2301, government 105. Cf. Schnapper Foley, 667 (CADC 1981) (explaining commissioned government). significant, bolsters conclusion. perpetual, increases year. 2447-2450 (Alexander Hadden, Major League Baseball); 2486-2487 (Jay Moyer, Football League); 2515-2516 (David Stern, Basketball Association); 2530-2534 (Gilbert 2543-2552 (Thomas Hansen, Collegiate Athletic 2565-2572 (Benjamin Armstrong, Broadcasters). official spokespersons institutions litigation. 2432, 2479, 2509-2510, 2530, 2538, 2563. Fed.Rules Civ.Proc. 30(b)(6). 2863-2902; Def. Exh. PI. 2833-2844 (similar executive director Jersey Authority). 2592-2605 (testimony chief Education Department's Bureau Mass Communications purposes). "Some 'Neighborhood' hours children it's felt off-the-air, I'm speaking that's produce, active family's life. Very frankly, programmed My 'You you are. You healthy decisions.' Maybe long, feel anything life, way, important." T.R. 2920-2921. PI, 85. rare demanding fee copier. broadcasting, method capitalize airwaves—is assumption displaying revenues. evidently enhances Irrespective reasons non-infringing dispute legitimacy exchange compromised demonstrates, noneconomic receiving tell copyrights: competitors ill-advised videotaping, paradigmatic Time-Shifting provision. Act's compendium print, reprint, publish, vend interactions construed. refused read literally situation. "intended 94th pp. 5659, 5679. "Notwithstanding teaching (including classroom use), research, include— "(1) purposes; "(2) "(3) relation whole; "(4) section: "Although emerged. applicable possible, facts. General behind offers However, combinations endorses freeze rapid change. Beyond adapt basis." 65-66, similarly eschewed rigid, bright line endorsed convenience" imaginable. 65-66. qualifying quoted dissent, post, 481, Read context, farthest thing Committee's intention. considered—'the use'—to includes 'whether non-profit purposes.' interpreted not-for-profit conclusive along decisions." "consumptive consumer homemade separately copyrightholder." Works: Hearing Courts, Civil Liberties Administration 97th Session, pt. 2, 1250 (1982) (memorandum Prof. Laurence H. Tribe). Furthermore, error excusing theft noncommercial," told, "can seen simple analogy: jewel converted veniality stolen jewels worn sold." premise simple, argument. jewelery possessory venial; physical possession thief Theft property significance, individual. Timeshifting entail timeshifter steals timeshifter. (1960): suffers Here partial marriage maxim minimis non curat lex." 451: "It complicated plaintiff's Wilkins. ask assumptions. Part IV, infra, experience, admit inconsistent illogical." "There Nielsen Ratings diary augment 466. attractiveness diminished advertisements: remembered, commercials, playback, guess passed. recordings, tedious. 92% 25% Advertisers judgments advertisements interrupt "Here theater. assumption. play want attend. negative ownership attendance." accept. fewer attract. syndication, opposite. Today, larger telecast, higher comprised event, reflect "This lacks merit. definition, erasing, begins. satisfy will, patronize exhibitions. librarying, V.C., infra. exhibitions film." chose rigidly circumscribed "productive." receive scheduling conflict understanding erroneous. instructed sensitive "productive" "unproductive" helpful calibrating determinative. scholarly endeavor stronger interrupting poker game, two-dimensional. thing, fungible. govern greater Copying picture. weaker enrichment. notion social "productivity" answer analysis. lecture sake broadening specialty. Or legislator constituents watching; constituent help vote. Making blind entertain inform hospital setting, patient contributing psychological well-being patient. Virtually dichotomy nonproductive ("RF") airwaves; adapter RF audio-video places tape. built-in tuners; movies videotape, channel watched. auxiliary features, timer, control, control; present, (if present) messages, skip Videotape reusable; sharing trading VTRs. January 1978, date effective. focuses Feb. ch. 16, 436; July 85-111, 212-217; Mar. 1075 ed.)); 2541 (codified ed.)). 102(a) subsists, accordance developed, perceived, device. categories: literary words; music; pantomimes "(5) "(6) "(7) recordings." Definitions 102(a)(6) 101:¶ "Audiovisual works" "works consist intrinsically projectors, electronic together sounds, any, regardless objects, embodied." pictures" "audiovisual which, succession, impart impression motion, any." Most qualify categories mutually exclusive, "Subject "phonorecord" "copy" phonorecord. "illustrative limitative." lasting Spurred "significant communications" inadequate, (1976), 5660, 1955 Thirty-four recommendations, Law, 87th (Comm.Print 1961) (Register's near H.R.11947/S.3008, issued 1965, recommendations. Pt. Law: 1965 Bill, 1965) Action delayed 1967 1974 V, 2-26 (Draft Oct.-Dec. 1975) compromise led relevant part: meaning importing singular. requests "a copy" requester's exceeds 108(f)(2). unsupervised notice informing 108(f)(1). person" excerpt calligrapher client" excerpts student learning situation." 66-67; 73-74, 5687. Application copy. "personal disturbed recent Photoduplication publishers' groups apprehensive. Charter recently Confederation Societies Composers] emphasizes 'private' developments, interests." 33-34. photocopy out-of-print requester certified needed met opposition initially 26; (1964); 26. restored 1969, pressure associations. III, 10-11; S. 543, 91st Dec. 10, 1969); 48. "such research" "factors considered" Revised mentioning indicating scope: H.R.4347/S.1006, (1965). wording, 5, (1966), remained Congresses. H.R.2512/S.597, S.543, (1969); S.644, 92d S.1361, 93d (1973); H.R.2223/S.22, additions 5; H.R.Conf.Rep. 94-1733, statutes, Claims "hand copying" permissible, typewriters photostat 84-88, 1350-1352. me flaws reasoning. permissible; subject, possibly thought worthwhile sue. 11-12; 13.05[E][4][a] treatise "if handwriting, excepting manuscript infringment." Weil, 1066 typewriter self-limiting. drudgery ordinarily ensures taken; unlikely minimal. inexpensive dimensions problem. 3; 2223 Liberties, 194 Hearings) (remarks Rep. Danielson); 234 (statement Robert W. Cairns); 250 Irwin Karp); 467 Rondo Cameron); 1795 Barbara Ringer, Copyrights). supposition 101-102 trio 398, 2088, 403-405, 1135-1136, reception "performance" "narrow construction" "perform" "completely overturned [1976 Act] 'perform' 101." 87, 5701. "publicly" takes "at open normal circle acquaintances gathered." lawfully "[n]ew probably precluded reminded "[i]n 'performance' distinguished sharply copies." During provision, Representative Danielson inquired fiction "Gone Wind," "strictly information." uncontradicted "general [and] arts." 251 300 Harry Rosenfield) ("We asking 'Gone Wind' "). doctrine—for person, 66; 73, "recordings students criticism," 63—would supra. took Copyrights: "[Rep.] Biester. pirate son cassette hit, retrieve onto [T]his legislation, activities, it? "Miss Ringer. clearly, 'No, not.' spoken couple seminars lately, asked: 'What recorders?' again philosophical dogma sooner crunch here. to, coming forcing engineer taping." 646 6927 22-23 Hearings). Shortly bill, colloquy Kastenmeier, chairman subcommittee Kazen, committee: "Mr. Kazen. Am assuming only? Kastenmeier. Yes. your child pleasure, listening bill? bill. glad gentleman raises point. "On page 'Home Recordings,' Members prevails for; namely, report." (1971). "copy," assistance "copy." Copyrights); ed.)) ("For [specified 1(a) ], [sound recording] thereof"). distinguishes "phonorecords." Copyrights) "created situation piracy"); 1380 (letter Lorenz, Acting Librarian Congress) (under "only amendment"). sponsor opening hearings: "[F]rom unified code, operation not? "Therefore, fail dealt So conscious omission. "By virtue Whether completely resolving corners presume everything 115. phrase apparently enter 1869, Lawrence Dana, F.Cas. 26, (No. 8,136) (CC Mass.), Folsom Marsh, 342 4,901) Mass.1841). Story faced "intricate embarrassing questio[n]" biography letters justifiable materials, recognizes plaintiffs." 344, 348. permitted, Story, objects selections degree prejudice sale, supersede Much must, injured thereby." 348-349. Tennessee Fabricating Moultrie 421 279, (CA5), 398 928, 1819, (1970); Mathews Conveyer Palmer-Bee (CA6 1943); Pictures 348 (SD Cal.1955); P.F. Collier Son U.S.P.Q. 40, 1934); Hill Whalen Martell, 220 359, 360 1914). world goes ahead builds predecessors. 'A dwarf shoulders giant farther himself.' Chafee, Reflections Copyright: 503, 511 (1945). Quoting uses: 'quotation review criticism illustration comment; short passages clarification observations; parody parodied; address article, quotations, report; replace damaged copy; illustrate lesson; proceedings reports; incidental fortuitous reproduction, newsreel located scene event recorded.' 61-62; 65, 5678. 1171 1980) (comparative advertising). Seltzer "reflect[ing] adjudication in: L. Seltzer, Exemptions (1978) removed). mere purpose—to 'ordinary' it." "ordinary customarily triggered, notions 13.05[A][1] ("Use foregoing contexts work"). scientific journal articles; stressed "devoted advancement medical knowledge," Ct.Cl., 91, 1354, "medical hurt stopped." 95, 1356. "authoriz[ing] practices 67; 5688, (e)(1). Lord Mansfield: "[W]e care guard extremes prejudicial; men ability, employed community, merits, ingenuity labour; improvements, retarded." Sayre Moore, East 361 (b), Eng.Rep. 139, (K.B.1785). 13. Copyrights. Mentioning "multitude developments" "remarkable tape," xiv-xv, cautioned: "I realize, 1961, revolution ever-growing gain. sincere 'that heart civilization owes author'; ironically, seeking freeing restrictions, realize whittling away nurtures accommodation conflicting demands worked out, enough, directive: cultural time." xv; movie, rerun, discs, usage; wants library-builders time-shifters commercials; builder playback. expert 440. avoidance commercials. sides submitted 40% "library"; planned once; sides' 438-439. Concern lent Congress' imprimatur judicially-created 57, work"); 1070 ("A tends work"), (1978); 88, 1352 (1973) Encyclopaedia Britannica Educational Crooks, 542 1156, 1173 (WDNY 1982) ("[T]he focused work's greater, question") manifested exempt participating 108(f)(1) (library premises," posted); 110(6) ("governmental body" "nonprofit agricultural horticultural organization" concessionaire "in annual exhibition"). Gems, relied, shipper "bootleg" records' low marketed "constructive knowledge" shown. Assn., 1977); Room, 1929); Witmark Sons Tremont Social Club, 188 787, 790 (Mass.1960); 157, 2044; 198-199, 411-412, (1931); 12.04[A], 12-35 premised supervise see, 304, 307 1963); 72, (WD Mo.1977). notion, fictional; escape instructing inserting performers' contract. 1214-1215; 75; Veltin, 648, 649 La.1942). proposal 141-142; 159-160; 1812-1813 1813 Pattison Ringer). distinguish "control," obviously unpersuasive. liable; contractor. Neither agent Gems apparent. defendants. assisted campaign Betamax's record, sufficiently enterprise accountable," campaign, agency's differs inventions—for paper ink dry ice refrigeration Carbice 27, 334, 819 patent-holder 509-510, 417-418, (1917); 271(a), patent-holders extending suppressing competition components supplies 197-198, 2613-2614, attention 202-212, 2616-2621, 1952, 792, relevance contains. tuners. 9. remain account. Noninfringing include, domain, qualifies Bruzzone Miller Brewing 202 809 (N.D.Cal.1979) (use studies). asserts ineligible assertions suit. determined whole. assertion faulty premise; registered deposit frames 202.20(c)(2)(ii) 202.21(g) registered, 411(a), registration condition 408(a). unregistered 506(a) (liability conditioned registration). stage, somewhat cavalier. relies heavily leagues states, holders, overwhelming. 7.3 kinds. 20. forms figure tenuous fact-finding own. cites gap phrases hypothetical. states: "If practice," "should stifled" 446 inescapable. explained, friend, magnitude, precluding exception. Subcomm. Comm. Survey Owners, R. 2353, cited 52. oblique acknowledgement factor, 447, free. misses invitation implicitly central Nations Laws Treaties World (UNESCO/BNA (English translation), reprinting Literature Art Related Rights (Austria), 42(5)-(7), (Federal Republic Germany), 53(5). Commission European Communities requirements "serve pattern" community. Dietz, collecting societies, 119, 136, societies familiar Broadcast 441 4-5, 1551, 1554, Fashioning sort, bringing certification otherwise.

Category: 7