Document: 509 U.S. 155 113 S.Ct. 2549 125 L.Ed.2d 128 Chris SALE, Acting Commissioner, Immigration and Naturalization Service, et al., Petitionersv.HAITIAN CENTERS COUNCIL, INC., al. No. 92-344. Argued March 2, 1993. Decided June 21, Syllabus * An Executive Order directs the Coast Guard to intercept vessels illegally transporting passengers from Haiti United States return those without first determining whether they qualify as refugees, but "authorize[s] [such forced repatriation] be undertaken only beyond territorial sea of States." Respondents, organizations representing interdicted Haitians a number Haitians, sought temporary restraining order, contending that violates § 243(h)(1) Nationality Act 1952 (INA or Act) Article 33 Nations Convention Relating Status Refugees. The District Court denied relief, concluding does not protect aliens in international waters Convention's provisions are self-executing. In reversing, Appeals held, inter alia, apply within 33, like statute, covers all regardless location. Held: Neither 243(h) nor limits President's power order repatriate undocumented intercepted on high seas. Pp. ____. (a) INA's text structure demonstrate which provides "[t]he Attorney General shall deport any alien . country if determines such alien's life freedom would threatened ."—applies context domestic procedures by deportable excludable may remain States. light other INA expressly confer upon President officials certain responsibilities under immigration laws, 243(h)(1)'s reference cannot reasonably construed describe either Guard. Moreover, suggests section applies General's normal INA, particularly her conduct deportation exclusion hearings requests for asylum withholding ordinarily advanced. Since nowhere proceedings outside States, since Part V Act, 243 is located, obviously contemplates held this country, it presumed Acts Congress do borders, see, e.g., EEOC v. Arabian American Oil Co., 499 ----, 111 1227, 274, must territory. That word "return" limited render applicable extraterritorially, concluded used phrase "deport return" make section's protection available both already exclude at border. (b) history Refugee 1980—which amended adding "or deleting "within States" following "any alien"—confirms have extraterritorial application. foregoing relevant changes made 1980 amendment, fully explained intent, plainly identified legislative history, well proceedings. There no change however, could an assumption also intended provide statute's It been extraordinary important law mention possible effect. (c) 33's text—which "[n]o State expel ('refouler') refugee territories where his .," 33.1, benefit present provision claimed whom there reasonable grounds regarding danger security he [located]," 33.2—affirmatively indicates was First, 33.1 applied seas, 33.2 create absurd anomaly: dangerous entitled 33.1's benefits because "country" 33.2, while residing them so entitled. more assume 33.2's coverage understood obligated signatory state with respect its Second, use words "expel obvious parallel refers proceedings, see Leng May Ma Barber, 357 185, 187, 78 1072, 1073-1074, 2 1246, therefore has legal meaning narrower than common meaning. This suggestion reinforced parenthetical French "refouler," exact synonym English "return," interpreted respected dictionaries mean, among things, "expel." Although gathering fleeing refugees returning one had desperately escape violate spirit general humanitarian intent impose uncontemplated obligations treaty signatories. (d) dispositive, negotiating history—which indicates, right non-refoulement physically host term "refouler" included avoid concern about inappropriately broad reading reach resulted hard-fought bargain—solidly supports conclusion. 969 F.2d 1350 (CA2 1992), reversed. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, THOMAS, JJ., joined. BLACKMUN, filed dissenting opinion. Maureen E. Mahoney, Washington, DC, petitioners. Harold Hongju Koh, New Haven, CT, respondents. Justice STEVENS Court. 1 directed refugees. question presented case repatriation, "authorized States,"1 Act).2 We hold neither Protocol Refugees3 action taken Aliens subject after formal hearing.4 arriving border, who temporarily paroled into hearing, less process they, too, eventually removed States.5 proceeding seek political removal particular threaten freedom. Requests grant withhold typically, necessarily, advanced claims proceeding.6 When proves "refugee," discretion him pursuant 208 Act. If proof shows likely religious beliefs, send country.7 offers these statutory protections reside arrived border For 12 years, form another, interdiction program challenged here prevented respondents reaching our shores invoking protections. 3 On September 23, 1981, Republic entered agreement authorizing engaged illegal transportation shores. While parties agreed prosecute "illegal traffickers," Haitian Government guaranteed repatriated citizens punished their departure.8 established "whom authorities determine[d] status." App. 382. 4 29, Reagan issued proclamation characterized "the continuing migration large numbers southeastern "a serious national problem detrimental interests Presidential Proclamation 4865, CFR 50-51 (1981-1983 Comp.). He suspended entry seas ordered carrying point origin. His executive "provided, person will returned consent." 12324, 2(c)(3), p. 181 Comp.).9 5 ensuing decade, approximately 25,000 migrants.10 After interviews conducted board cutters, were economic migrants "screened out" promptly repatriated. Those credible showing status in" transported file applications asylum. 231.11 6 30, 1991, group military leaders displaced government Jean Bertrand Aristide, democratically elected president history. As stated uncontested finding fact, coup "hundreds killed, tortured, detained warrant, subjected violence destruction property beliefs. Thousands hiding." Pet. Cert. 144a. Following repatriations period several weeks, imposed sanctions Haiti. 7 November 18, announced resume repatriation. day, Center, Inc., class complaint Southern Florida alleging failed establish implement adequate qualified granted relief precluded until February 4, 1992, when reversal appeal Eleventh Circuit denial certiorari effectively terminated litigation. See Inc. Baker, 949 1109 (1991) (per curiam), cert. denied, 502 112 1245, 117 477 (1992). 8 meantime exodus expanded dramatically. During six months October over 34,000 Haitians. Because many safely processed Department Defense facilities Naval Base Guantanamo, Cuba, accommodate during screening process. facilities, capacity 12,500 persons. three weeks 127 (many considered unseaworthy, overcrowded, unsafe); carried 10,497 aliens. 22, Navy determined additional accommodated Guantanamo. 231-233. 9 With Guantanamo cutters saturated, emigrants unseaworthy craft increasing drowned attempted trip Florida), longer borders offer even modified choose between allowing repatriating giving opportunity qualifications judgment advisors, choice defeated original purpose (controlling immigration), impeded diplomatic efforts restore democratic posed life-threatening thousands persons embarking long voyages craft.12 second policies deprived time significant minority being screened in. 66. 10 Bush adopted choice.13 assuming office, Clinton decided seas; 11 "(4) continues attempting come necessary documentation otherwise illegally; "I, GEORGE BUSH, America, hereby follows: 13 14 "Sec. 2. Secretary operating, consultation, appropriate, Defense, General, State, issue appropriate instructions enforce suspension defined vessel 15 16 "(c) include directives providing Guard: 17 "(1) To stop vessels, reason believe irregular violations arrangement action. 18 "(2) inquiries board, examine documents take actions carry out order. 19 "(3) came, another offense committed against laws foreign we assist; provided, unreviewable discretion, decide consent. 20 "(d) These actions, section, authorized 21 22 5. effective immediately. 23 /s/ George THE WHITE HOUSE 24 24, 1992." 57 Fed.Reg. 12133-23134. 25 itself Haiti, press release contemporaneously explained: 26 "President permit begin picked up directly follows surge boat people seeking enter lives whose boats equipped 600-mile journey. 27 "The led unmanageable situation. Both processing facility base patrol filled capacity. allow continued orderly 12,000 presently 28 "Through broadcasts Voice America public statements media continue urge attempt journey Last week alone eighteen perished capsized off Cuban coast. 29 "Under current circumstances, safety best assured remaining country. fear persecution avail themselves service Embassy Port-au-Prince. February. utilize special procedure four countries world. prepared increase embassy staff necessary." 327. modify order; remains effect today. wisdom policy choices Presidents Reagan, Bush, matter consideration. 12807, 23133 (1992), reflects implements choices, consistent INA. II 30 Respondents lawsuit Eastern York 1992 before promulgation 12807. plaintiffs represent then They sued Commissioner Commandant Guard, Commander Base, complaining provided did adequately rights repatriation 31 alleged 1991 "triggered widely publicized reign terror Haiti"; 1,500 believed "have killed beliefs affiliations"; set small often overloaded, lacking basic equipment, operated inexperienced persons, braving hazards prolonged search freedom." 24. 32 April, preliminary injunction requiring defendants give access counsel stayed April 503 1714, 118 419, and, defendants' pending, now attack. Plaintiffs enjoin implementation Order. contended violated application "unavailable source waters," Protocol's "self-executing." 166a-168a.14 Centers Council, McNary, 1992). decision 953 1498 bar consideration issue, found conclusion mandated definition "alien" 101(a)(3)15 plain language 243(h), amendment States."16 reasoned statute Circuit's reliance placement (titled "Deportation; Adjustment Status") evidence States.17 rejected Government's restricted only, limit 34 Nor accept Refugees.18 recognized conform Convention,19 read prohibition return, statute's, "plainly" cover "all location." F.2d, 1362. supported "object purpose" whole.20 disclosed representatives least countries21 narrowly, thought views might represented position that, event, "turn construction head" ambiguous outweigh text. Id., 1366.22 35 Second conflicted Center expressed Judge Edwards Gracey, 257 U.S.App.D.C. 367, 410-414, 809 794, 837-841 (1987) (Edwards, concurring part part). manifest importance certiorari, 506 52, 121 (1992).23 III 36 argue dispositive. reads 37 (other described 1251(a)(4)(D) title) account race, religion, nationality, membership social group, opinion." U.S.C. 1253(h)(1) (1988 ed., Supp. IV). 38 emphasize alien" "return"; contend prior n. supra, gave change, further argue, required Convention, find unambiguous 39 Petitioners' response fair whole demonstrates States; reading; indicate 40 review consider Convention. A. Text Structure 41 "difficult proscription 243(h)(1)—returning persecutors forbidden done attorney permitted some arm branch." 1360. "understood" "President's agent dealing matters," intend restrict similar official. Ibid. understanding, court cited 1103(a). conveys us different message. provides, part: 42 charged administration enforcement chapter relating naturalization aliens, except insofar relate powers, functions, duties conferred President, officers consular officers. ." (Emphasis added.) 43 Other State,24 President,25 indeed, well.26 1981 Orders relied authority suspend aliens" "impose restrictions deem appropriate."27 say created enforce, usurped delegated to, implicated on, alone.28 44 most purposes INA29 contemplate construe geographic areas she contains 45 Even strictly procedures, presumption support interpretation applying See, 274 (quoting Foley Bros., Filardo, 336 281, 285, 69 575, 577, 93 L.Ed. 680 (1949)); Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 ---- - 2130, 2141, 119 351 (1992) (STEVENS, judgment); Argentine Amerada Hess Shipping Corp., 488 428, 440, 109 683, 691, 102 818 (1989) ("When desires so, knows how place jurisdictional statute"). extraterritoriality "no relevance context" risk can enforced courts conflict nations. 1358. recently foundation broader desire Smith 507 5, 1178, 1183 122 548 (1993). 46 Respondents' expansive raises problem: "deport" redundant. referred solely destination removed, sufficient encompass involved And meant refer sent back potential oppressors, location, unnecessary. By using words, implies exclusively application, kinds traditional division two hearings. conclude 243(h)'s Indeed, confirms B. History 47 enacted 1952, States."30 Six years later admissibility determined. though 243(h). 186, 1073, 1246 (1958).31 distinction "deportation" "expulsion," hand, "exclusion," other: 48 "It note outset admission, petitioner, entry, irrespective legality. latter instance privileges extended former category merely 'on threshold initial entry.' Shaughnessy ex rel. Mezei, 345 206, 212 [73 625, 629, 97 956] (1953). Kwong Hai Chew Colding, 344 590, 596 472, 477, 576] carefully preserved Title Act." U.S., S.Ct., 1073. Under now, "admission" trying "exclusion" territory (or border), treated never all; admitted way in) "expulsion" added "deportation proceedings"; actual presence 49 erased long-maintained removing types nothing cured drawback 243(h): Ma, 50 Of course, addition purpose, limitation double-barreled result.32 possibility, substitute affirmative cases require. whatsoever latter, alternative, purpose. 51 deletion 243(h)(1), amendment.33 Not scintilla 52 sum, official directed, location failure suggest dual return," general—leads unerringly context: IV 53 afforded 1980, authorize INS Stevic, 467 415-416, 104 2493-2495. acceded 1968, therefore, offered classes though, expect burden acknowledgment dramatically broadened scope. Branch extensive ratifying 1968; published appears possibility obligations.34 Nevertheless, disclose argued clear Congress, acceding Protocol, amending harmonize two, correspondingly Or, just obligation (the argument rejected), not; Supremacy Clause, controlling rule law.35 possibilities mind itself. 54 Like completely silent Article's own borders. remedial goals require nation oppressors nation's spite moral weight argument, affirmatively 55 Two aspects persuasive. explicit located; terms "refouler." 56 full "Article 33.—Prohibition expulsion ('refoulement ') 58 "1. No Contracting ('refouler manner frontiers 59 "2. not, is, who, having convicted final crime, constitutes community country." Refugees, July 28, 1951, U.S.T. 6259, 6276, T.I.A.S. 6577 (emphasis added). 60 paragraph claim poses located. invoke paragraph's exception there: all. not. territory.36 61 uses ('refouler')" 243(h)(1). dispute "expel" same "deport"; "return " 1073 212, 73 956 (1953)). 62 suggestion—that meaning—is "refouler", "return." English-French Dictionaries mentions "refouler translations "return."37 Conversely, "return."38 do, "repulse," "repel," "drive back," extent relevant, imply means defensive act resistance rather someone destination. "repulse" "reinstate."39 63 thus fits Edwards' understanding "that 'expulsion' 'refugee country' 'return' yet resident there.' Thus, govern parties' borders." U.S.App.D.C., 413, 840 (footnotes omitted). From commentators consistently view.40 64 drafters Protocol—like —may contemplated gather escape; 33; ratify through intent. anything toward territory, prohibit actions.41 Negotiating 65 early drafts what finally emerged numbered 28. At conference plenipotentiaries Geneva, Switzerland 11, Swiss delegate covered stated: 66 "Mr. ZUTTER (Switzerland) said Federal saw why article should stood; one. thought, wording left room various interpretations, attached 'expel' 'return'. view, ' refoulement vaguer meaning; 'return', text, idea exactly. Yet implied existence categories refugee: liable expelled, returned. case, Conference definite regard there. According interpretation, compelled groups claiming cross frontiers. glad know accepted interpretations question. did, willing articles draft reservation." (Emphases added.)42 67 disagreement day session again discussed. session, Netherlands recalled delegate's earlier position: 68 "Baron van BOETZELAER (Netherlands) representative related whereas mass migrations across migrations. "He wished revert point, very great scope contained 33. 70 "At Belgium, Germany, Italy, Sweden interpretation. conversations representatives, gathered consensus favour 71 "In dispel ambiguity reassure Government, placed record 72 "There objection, PRESIDENT ruled given record. HOARE (United Kingdom) remarked Style Committee nearest equivalent 'refoulement '. assumed wider 74 suggested accordance practice followed previous Conventions, verbal uses) brackets inverted commas wherever occurred text." added.)43 75 significance comment remarks "placed record" entirely clear, much denied: "general consensus," 1951 delegates country.44 position. version 76 Therefore, 12807 states found, acknowledge carefully—and successfully —sought implication. deliberate bargain, solidly reluctance interpret contracting commands. 77 dangers faced unwillingly fulfilled central 1980. must, guided persuaded places perfectly 1182(f), 27, grants ample naval blockade simply deny ability disembark Whether chosen method preventing "attempted migration" Haitians—to Dutch —poses greater harm face voyage, irrelevant clearly prohibits. noted, normally unless manifested. force construing involve affairs unique responsibility. Cf. Curtiss-Wright Export 299 304, 216, 81 255 (1936). ourselves 414, 841: 79 "This presents painfully situation desperate people, convinced homeland, measures escape. human crisis compelling, solution judicial remedy." 80 ordered. 82 dissenting. 83 When, Jan. 31, 1967, [1968] 6223, 6577, pledged whatsoever" persecution. reflect directives. 94 Stat. 102. Cardoza-Fonseca, 480 421, 429, 436-437, 107 1207, 1212, 1215-1216, 1217-1218, 434 (1987); 407, 418, 2489, 2494-2495, 2496, 321 (1984). Today's majority nevertheless decides legal, mean ante, ____, opposite role enforcing control immigration, 84 I duty nonreturn clear. finds "extraordinary," ban sea. remarkable. What Executive, disregard law, persecutors—and strain sanction conduct. 85 Convention,1 undisputed passed nondiscretionary parallels States' mandatory 33.1. Doherty, --- 719, 729, 116 823 (Scalia, 1217-1218; 2494-95, 2496. backdrop understood.2 86 categorically geographical limitation: "No 87 unambiguous. Vulnerable command straightforward; end inquiry. litigation ensued, 794 (1987), acknowledged seas.3 88 majority, difficulty Treaty's ')." "Return," claims, instead distinctive Ante, proposition relies almost fact makes exclusion. Without explanation, asserts Treaty somehow entry' (citation 89 Setting aside moment seem "on entry"—at eyes seized "attempting documentation," Preamble 12,807, (1992)—I tortured unsupported reached indeterminate "threshold"; bans settled according "ordinary meaning." 31.1 Vienna Law Treaties, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331, T.S. (1980), I.L.M. 679 (1969). ordinary "to bring, send, put (a thing) position." Webster's Third International Dictionary 1941 (1986). describes precisely petitioners doing dispensing outset, taking starting Treaty, "has meaning," leads astray. 90 straightforward strongly "refouler. "refouler, concedes, "[t]o repulse, .; drive back, repel." Dictionnaire Larousse 631 (1981).4 Thus construed, reads: [repulse, repel] threatened. That, exactly doing. surprise here, Le bourbier haitien, Monde, 31-June 1, ("[L]es Etats-Unis ont de refouler directement les refugies recueillis par la garde cotiere." (The [de refouler] Guard)). 91 insists "refoulement. reaches peculiar fashion. acknowledging elaboration declares: "To am loss narrow notion "exclusion border" back." Gage repulsed (initially) Bunker Hill. Lee repelled Gettysburg. Rommel driven North Africa. majority's puzzling progression ("refouler repel back; border; apply) hardly justifies departure path operative prohibits actions.5 92 says, say: limitation. "to", from. surprising, aim contrast, contain reference, seizes signatory's inference flawed. "may 95 signatories' understandable nations criminal apprehension noncriminal ever it. One wonders "constitute families." logic, inclusion presumably families. 96 Far constituting "an anomaly," seize expresses objectives concerns Non-return rule; sole (neither invoked here) endangered refugee's unsafe chooses. tautological observation pose "in is" nothing. B remark Baron Boetzelaer, Netherlands' conference, contention extraterritorially. reliance, reasons, misplaced. isolated statement alter proper context, Boetzelaer's 98 axiomatic treaty's absent "extraordinarily strong contrary evidence." Sumitomo Shoji Avagliano, 457 176, 2374, 2380, 765 (1982). Stuart, 489 353, 371, 1183, 1194, 103 388 (SCALIA, id., 370, 1193 (KENNEDY, judgment). Reliance (travaux preparatoires ) disfavored alternative last resort, document obscure lead "manifestly unreasonable" results. Art. 32, U.N.T.S., 340, I.L.M., 692 resort travaux oral embodied writing communicated negotiator body." Arizona California, 292 341, 360, 735, 742-43, 1298 (1934). Senate connection ratification 99 pitfalls relying underscored certainly represent, High mere "parliamentary gesture prevail whole" original). Brief Office Refugees Amicus Curiae Baron, sentiments restated, reserve close "According [the delegate's] [their] frontiers." Plenipotentiaries Stateless Persons, Summary Record Sixteenth Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2/SR.16, (July 1951). Boetzelaer maintained, "would migrations" territory." Thirty-Fifth A/CONF.2/SR.35, pp. 21-22 (Dec. 3, seriously contends depend Allowing disavow obligations" eviscerate leaving "small" 100 land trap persecutors' territory.6 agrees 2364. maintain prevailed. 101 evidenced record," unlike amendments "agreed to" "adopted."7 object colleague's request memorialize it, "this 'general consensus,' wrong. All "he gathered" consensus, reflecting dominant Nation gone forth Nothing comments hints intention countenance course odds purpose.8 fragments deference, voted adopted, probably event address case. goes saying, evidence," 2379, overcome statement: dictates embodies, 105 1253(h)(1). 106 "With scheme, bound used." 431, 1213 (internal quotation marks Ordinary, literal. personally alien, agents so. acting General. deemed department rules regulations promulgated law." 89(b). laws. 12,807 illegally." Guard's task aliens." "when assist." indirectly enforces carries violating administering. baseless. 1103(a), exceptions, "shall acknowledges designation, speculates ____.9 fails proviso exception: "Provided, guard boundaries doubt returns 108 boat" Guard.10 purports "unreviewable discretion" returned.11 Discretion him. Such given; ("shall ") discretionary function ("The deportation"). decline follow encounters refugee, takes orders prevent crossing assigned plenary matters. Kleindienst Mandel, 408 753, 766, 2576, 2583, 683 (1972). Accordingly, merit concomitant 110 Comparison pre-1980 says. Before provided: deems reason" explicitly critical respects. (1) deleted States"; (2) barred "return[ing]," "deport[ing]," refugees; (3) mandatory, thereby eliminating decisions. import persecutors. mandate restriction removed. "Few principles compelling sub silentio enact discarded favor language." 442-443, 1219-1220 (citations acknowledge, Protocol. shown above, absolute similarly devoid restrictions. 114 downplays improvise "return."12 analyzing inspired amendments,13 lone mentioned books amendments' enactment. 115 (1958), detention benefits. Pointing decision, negative Congress' extend But remotely ridiculous. concept amendment's alien." problems theory run deeper, however. States," exceedingly strange hypothesis work technical adjustment extending in, legally stranger elsewhere revised code comprehensive, tripartite system persecution.14 Section 207 governs overseas processing. 208, turn, "physically port." Unlike sections, specific locations, includes limiting language. design sections instructive, undermines assertion wanted port entry," 208(a).15 examination designed INA—not elaborate 1958 proceedings—is basis analysis statute.16 C clarity implausibility theories pause due, think, heavy extraterritoriality. runs throughout opinion, stacks deck produce "affirmative evidence" prohibited "any" indeed interception judicially canon congressional "unexpressed." (1991); 577-576, (1949). Here doubt: deliberately statute. unexpressed, assessed primary (besides desire—not —to nations) common-sense generally legislates mind." Where seems unjustified unenlightening, generally-worded covering varying matters routinely Hellenic Lines Ltd. Rhoditis, 398 306, 1731, 252 (1970) (extraterritorial Jones Act); Steele Bulova Watch 280, 252, 319 (1952) (Lanham extraterritorially); Kawakita 343 717, 950, 1249 treason statute); Ford 273 593, 602, 531, 534, 793 (1927) (applying National Prohibition despite silence extraterritoriality). 120 deal regulates distinctively matter: nationalities, Whatever primarily evaporates context. blind crafting implications Nation's "common-sense notion" looking inwards—perfectly valid involving Tort Claims Smith,—cannot regard, dictum "special force" "statutory responsibility," legislate extraterritorially force—perhaps, relates affairs. getting at, citation (1936), suggests, areas, constitutional authority. decidedly areas. '[O]ver conceivable complete. .' Fiallo Bell, 430 787, 792, 1473, 1477-1478, (1977), quoting Oceanic Navigation Co. Stranahan, 214 320, 339, 671, 676, 1013 (1909). Commander-in-Chief thwarted 12,807's numerous references once invoked.17 well-settled congress ought remains." Murray Charming Betsy, Cranch 64, 117-118, (1804). improbable flies principle. 123 embodies largely experience Jewish Europe World War II. tragic consequences world's indifference known. resulting refoulement, easily Court's protestations impotence regret notwithstanding. 124 admission boats. demand guardian freedom, cease forcibly driving detention, abuse, death. modest plea, vindicated ears 126 dissent. syllabus Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. Comp.), Bush. 1253(h) ed. IV), 203(e) Pub.L. 96-212, 107. provides: "(h) Withholding return. 243(h)(2), 1253(h)(2), Paragraph — "(D) 1965, 214, physical reason." (1976 ed.); 6, 2493, 6577. 1252 1226. located (in exclusion) treats admitted; 1226(a), example, says inquiry officer determine "whether allowed excluded deported." "deportation," refer, refers, "deportables" "excludables." 423, 2497, 18. 424-425; 426, 20, 2499, 20. agreement, obtained assurance 'not prosecution departure.' Agreement Migrant(s)—Interdiction, Sept. States-Haiti, 3559, 3560, 10241." Ray, 541, 544-545, 526. reflected Legal Counsel procedural withdrawn advisor Department. 202-230. 231. 1985 Columbia upheld program, specifically 600 F.Supp. 1396, 1406. holding, noted "over 1800 interdicted. interviewed none bona fide status. date interdictees Haiti." 797 (1987). affirmed ground standing, separate merits. "intended accession. decisions adhere belief worked substantive existing law. '[t]he [8 ] refuge due persecution.' 413-414, 840-841 part) 415, 2493. A "refugee" 1101(a)(42)(A), 1158. person's nationality or, habitually resided, unable unwilling himself herself of, well-founded 1158(a) status, asylum, 1101(a)(42)(A) title." standard similar, quite strict generally, 244-245. "Interdiction Illegal "By vested me Constitution including 212(f) 215(a)(1) (8 1182(f) 1185(a)(1), whereas: coming documentation, regarding, limitations (U.S. 6577; 6223) 4865 suspends based executive's policy. wrote: "On face, imposes Notwithstanding dicta Supreme Cardoza Fonseca, (1984), precedent Sava Protocols' 684 204, 218 (2d Cir.1982)." 101(a)(3), 1101(a)(3), 'alien' citizen "Before distinguished aliens: 'within States', others. distinction, although 243(h)(2)(C) preserves 'serious nonpolitical crime' exception. government's rewrite add omitted them, Gregory Ashcroft, [501 2395, 410] West Virginia Univ. Hosps., Casey, [499 83, 1138, 68] (1991), restraint statute: 'Few discarded.' Nachman Corp. Pe nsion Benefit Guaranty 446 359, 392-93 [100 1723, 1742, 354] (1980) (Stewart, dissenting) (quoted approval 442-43, [107 1219].) 'To supply omissions transcends function.' Iselin 270 245, 250 (1926) (Brandeis, J.)." 1359. 1980—when 'deportation'. 'deportation'—it necessarily 'in aliens). 243, whereabouts, portions V, each 'in' 'within' surrounded bearing itself." itself, 1968 comply Articles become events January 1951. 416, 2494. incorporated here. "One considerations 'endeavored assure widest exercise fundamental freedoms.' freedoms, transit, sovereign area, freely 'the exercise' rights, 'a cruel hoax.' 1363. Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland. 1365. Newman concurred separately, 1368-1369, Walker dissented, noting previously 1375-1377. 187-189, 1073-1075, (1958); Plyler Doe, 202, 212-213, 12, 2382, 2392, 786 respondents' motion briefing. 531. §§ 1104, 1105, 1153, 1201, 1202 1157(a), (b), (d); 1182(f); 1185(a) (b); 1324a(d) 1161(a), (Secretaries Agriculture Labor); 1188 (Secretary 1421 (federal courts). "Whenever proclamation, necessary, immigrant nonimmigrants, appropriate." true 23133, 23134 Guard," consent"). phrase, retains subsidiary leaders, commands, out. powers. had, executive, command, challenge 1158(a), quoted supra. 214; "We petitioner's parole bring 243(h)." amendment. 9, 12. H.R.Rep. 96-608, (1979) "require deportation, proceedings"); S.Rep. 96-256, (1979), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News 141, 157. accession E.g., S.Exec.Rep. 14, 90th Cong., 2d Sess., (1968) ('refugees enjoyed protocol calls for'); ('the meets standards Protocol'); also, 2; S.Exec. K, III, VII (1968); Cong.Rec. 29391 (remarks Sen. Mansfield); 27757 Proxmire). 'absolutely clear' 'requir[e] admit new aliens.' 19. apparent differences reconciled modification VIII." 407 417-418, 2494-2495. Const., VI, cl. Constitution, Laws Pursuance thereof; Treaties made, Authority supreme Land; (1804), Chief Marshall wrote remains. Weinberger Rossi, 456 25, 1510, 1516, 715 (1982); Clark Allen, 331 503, 508-511, 1431, 1434-1436, 1633 (1947); Cook 288 102, 118-120, 305, 311-312, 641 (1933). 243(h)(2)(D), "country language, reading, 33(2). apply" "there "security replaces is." surely Cassell's 440 (1973), gives translation: (I) [rit%70:n], v.i. Revenir (to back); retourner go rentrer again); repondre, repliquer answer). subject, revenir au sujet, (fam.) ses moutons.—v.t. Rendre renvoyer rembourser repay); rapporter (interest); repondre a; rendre compte of); elire (candidates). returned, il fut elu; money interest, largent rapporte interet; good evil, le bien pour mal.—n. Retour (coming going back), m.; rentree (c oming in), f.; renvoi (sending remise en (putting profit, gain (profit), restitution (restitution), remboursement (reimbursement), election (election), rapport, rendu, releve, etat (report); (Comm. montant des operations, remises; bilan (of bank), (pl.) produit, m. post, retour du courrier; for, de; nil neant, my retour, comme je revenais chez moi; sale depot, commission; address, addrese l'expediteur, home, foyer, journey, match, revanche, casualties, pertes, profits (and) quick returns, petits profits, vente rapide; releves officiels, pl.; payer retour." Modern French-English 545 (1978), them. [r%70fule], v.t. (train etc.); repel; compress; repress, suppress, inhibit; (aliens); refuse entry; stem tide); tamp; tread (grapes etc.) again; (stuffs) ram home charge gun). Refouler maree, stem, tide.—v.i. ebb, flow back. La maree refoule, tide ebbing." Cassell's, 627. [-le] tr. (1). (la maree). Naut. (un courant). Techn. (une cheville); deliver (l'eau); etoffe); compress gaz); hammer, fuller (du metal). Milit. repulse attaque); (l'ennemi); projectile). Philos. repress instinct). Ch. De F. train). Fig. choke sanglot). —v. intr. (foule); ebb (maree). Med. Refoule, inhibited." Larousse, 607. all, sending departed; been. meaning, sense (one been), think something closer "exclude" "send N. Robinson, Refugees: Its History, Contents Interpretation 162-163 (1953) Study Statelessness [,U.N. Dept. Social Affairs (1949),] juridical administrative whereby individual leave 'reconduction' (which 'refoulement' changed Ad Hoc 'return') ejecting therein gained regularly irregularly.'. illegally, entrance [the] territory"); Grahl-Madsen, (1972) ("[Non-refoulement present—lawfully unlawfully—in State. (refoulement suffer persecution; obligate foot respective territories"). recent evolution (and possibly extraterritorial) non-return respondents, admits obligations. referring another. G. Goodwin-Gill, 74-76 (1983). implicitly conceding qualifies "basic requirements" office burden, announce protected promise 'at State.' Handbook Procedures Criteria Determining (Geneva, Sept.1979) Official Records Assembly, Thirty-second Session, Supplement (A/32/12/Add.1), 53(6)(e)). requirements applicant 'to pending request.' Status, 460. reconduction regretted). Aga Khan, Problems Displaced Hague Academy Int'l Law, 149 Recueil Cours, 318 (1976) ("Does State? gap instruments filled"); 163 ("[I]f succeeded eluding frontier guards, safe; hard luck. satisfactory asylum"); ("A categorical refusal disembarkation equated breach principle non-refoulement, result asylum-seekers"). U.N.Doc. Thirty-fifth moreover, conditioned understanding. 189 150. 19, dissent (unless relevant) independent force. 2500, (1984) (By modifying practice, 'implemented' "honor[ed]" requirements). agree near-universal coextensive, rely standing alone. generous former. Op.Off. 242, 248 (1981) (under proposed flag "[i]ndividuals persecuted substantiate claims" Convention); Country Mass First Asylum: Hearing Subcommittee Policy Judiciary, 97th 1st 208-209 (letter stating: "Aliens (such vessels) Protocol"); (statement Thomas O. Enders, Assistant Inter-American Affairs, program: "I underscore refugees"). translated Petitioners 38-39. observed, redundantly forbidding refugee. 1350, 1363 surprised uncertain ("To relev ant, ."), pertinent aid ("these ."). step assumption, neglecting treat overlooks versions equally authoritative. remarks, France, Kingdom existed France Belgium proscribe rejection country's frontier. Related Problems, Twenty-First E/AC.32/SR.21, 4-5 (1950). Consistent historically nonreturn, Committee, Louis Henkin, confirmed this: "Whether closing asked admittance, turning crossed frontier, expelling residence same. "Whatever turned overrule guarantee, concerned get rid costs, internment camp." Twentieth E/AC.32/SR.20, &Par; 55, 11-12 Speaking next, Israeli concluded: liberty danger." ¶ 61, 13. A/Conf.2/SR.35, ("adopt[ing] unanimously" proposal alongside ibid. "membership group" inserted); ("agree[ing]" 33). cites secondary sources share nn. 41. explains entire drafting race tantamount delivering hands persecutors." 161 need asylum—questions 2A. ("Article territories") added); asylum-seekers") Recuil Cours laid down intentional undertake presenting frontiers, seeks filled") incidental 1979 "implici[t] acknowledg[ment]" subscribes view neglects Curiae. allows "for nonimmigrants." entry. invocation somewhat stretch. pertains interrupt entries "suspended"—they disallowed. declares, solemnly hopefully: suspended. 48,107 (1981). dependent recognition "[T]he INA; indication specialized 1101(a)(27)(A) ("special immigrant" lawfully "who visit abroad"); ("refugee" "unable persecution); 1182(a)(7)(B)(i)(I) (nonimmigrant possess passport which" came excludable); (deportable revoked "returned custody"); 1353 (travel expenses paid "become eligible voluntary retirement States"). "identical parts Atlantic Cleaners Dyers, 286 427, 433, 607, 609, 1204 (1932). reasoning backwards, actually looks scheme illuminate Treaty. reason, mistaken deals "are advanced." delimit 1159 (adjustment status); 1101(a)(27(I) (defining visa purposes); 1254(a)(1)-(2) (eligibility deportation); 1255a(a)(3) (requirements 1401(d), (e), (g) citizenship birth); 1409(c) children born wedlock); 1503(b) (requirement 1254a(c)(1)(A)(i), (c)(3)(B) IV) status). well. correct, today's result. custody analyzed still custody." determination constitute confined 188, 1074. stands including, privile ge parole—are reasoning, then, unadmitted custody. themselves. hard-pressed restraints infringe agency direct Transportation. Declaration Admiral Leahy, 233.

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