Document: 415 U.S. 724 94 S.Ct. 1274 39 L.Ed.2d 714 Thomas Tone STORER et al., Appellants,v.Edmund G. BROWN, Jr., al. Laurence H. FROMMHAGEN, Appellant, v. Edmund Nos. 72—812, 72—6050. Argued Nov. 5, 1973. Decided March 26, 1974. Rehearing Denied May 28, See 417 926, 2635. Syllabus Section 6830(d) (Supp.1974) of the California Elections Code forbids ballot position to an independent candidate for elective public office if he had a registered affiliation with qualified political party within one year prior immediately preceding primary election; § 6831 (1961) requires candidate's nominating papers be signed by voters not less in number than 5% nor more 6% entire vote cast general 6833 all such signatures obtained during 24-day period following and ending 60 days 6830(c) that none those persons who voted at primary. Appellants Storer Frommhagen were disqualified under status as candidates Congress 1972 elections because they affiliated no six months Hall Tyner President Vice same election failure meet petition requirements. brought actions challenging constitutionality above provisions, claiming their combined effect infringed on rights guaranteed First Fourteenth Amendments. A three-judge District Court dismissed complaints, concluding statutes served sufficiently important state interest sustain constitutionality. Held: 1. is unconstitutional, appellants (who before primary) properly barred from result its application. Pp. 728—737. (a) The provision reflects policy aimed maintaining integrity various routes ballot, involves discrimination against independents. Though must clear affiliations primary, 6490 have been another files his declaration, which done 83 113 733—734. (b) protects direct process, integral part process refusing recognize do make early plans leave take alternative course ballot; works candidacies prompted short-range goals, pique or personal quarrel; substantial barrier fielding 'independent' capture bleed off votes might well go party; thus furthers State's compelling stability system, outweighing supporters may making late rather decision seek status. 734—735. 2. Further proceedings should permit additional findings concerning extent burden imposed law, particularly respect whether place unconstitutional restriction access ballot. 738—746. It determined available pool possible signers so diminished disqualification provision, applied here apparently imposes 325,000-signature requirement, satisfied 24 days, unduly onerous. 739—740. While took view law anyone signing independent's petition, was confined nonpartisan matters, it would difficult record this ascertain any rational ground, let alone interest, disqualifying voters. 741—742. (c) Once ascertains required period, along total drawn, court then, determining context politics reasonably diligent could expected satisfy signature requirements will only rarely succeed securing placement, consider past experience, but also relationship between showing support through requirement percentage State can expect achieves election. 742—746. Affirmed part, vacated remanded part. Paul N. Halvonik Joseph Remcho, San Francisco, Cal., appellants. Clayton P. Roche, appellees. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 (Supp.1974),1 time (Supp.1974). file nomination area seeks run. (1961). All these election, (Supp.1974), gathered provisions challenged infringing Amendments adding qualifications United States Congressman, contrary Art. I, 2, cl. Constitution. 2 Prior elections, Storer, Frommhagen, Hall, Tyner, certain supporters, filed actions2 sections declared enforcement enjoined. each sought Congressman district.3 Both complained about disaffiliation asserted effects burdens Amendment rights. claimed right States. They members Communist Party California. They, too, indicated Election ability achieve position. 3 concluded complaints. Two separate appeals taken judgment. We noted probable jurisdiction consolidated cases oral argument. 410 965, 93 1441, 35 700 (1973). 4 * affirm judgment insofar refused relief men Democrats until 17 1972, January year. This both (Supp.1974); our prohibited Constitution enforcing men. 5 In Williams Rhodes, 393 23, 89 21 (1968), held although citizens are free associate two major parties, participate chosen party's then ballots provide feasible means other parties appear Ohio examination case made qualifying burdensome 'virtually impossible' new old, candidates. Id., 25, S.Ct., 7. Because restrictions, Equal Protection Clause, severely burdened purposes effectively, Court, borrowing cases, ruled discriminations justified interests. recognized encouraging compromise stability, attempting ensure winner represent majority community providing electorate understandable inferred 'reasonable position,' id., 32, 11, acceptable. But interests deemed insufficient warrant severe confer effective monopoly parties. Amendments, including Clause latter, much. 6 rely Rhodes assert subsequent dealing exclusionary voting qualifications, e.g., Dunn Blumstein, 405 330, 92 995, 31 274 (1972); Bullock Carter, 134, 849, Kramer Union Free School District, 395 621, 1886, 23 583 (1969), constitutionally suspect invalid unless essential serve interest. These however, necessarily condemn has never suggested Williams-Kramer-Dunn rule automatically invalidates every associate. Nor where given initial task elect Congress. Also 4, 1, authorizes prescribe '(t)he Times, Places Manner holding Senators Representatives.' Moreover, practical matter, there regulation fair honest some sort order, chaos, accompany democratic processes. event, evolved comprehensive, many respects complex, codes regulating most ways, federal time, place, manner registration voters, selection qualification 7 very unlikely even large portion laws fail pass muster cases; fashioned constitutional challenges specific provides litmus-paper test separating restrictions valid invidious Clause. self-executing substitute hard judgments made. Decision context, others, much 'matter degree,' supra, U.S., 348, 1006, matter 'consider(ing) facts circumstances behind claims protecting, disadvantaged classification.' 30, 10; 335, 999. What predict great assurance. 8 Blumstein invalidated Tennessee one-year residence agreed obviously sufficient limit residents, require voting, close books point deadline resident polls. Subsequently, district courts differed over validity 50 divided, sustained provision. Burns Fortson, 686, 1209, 633 (1973); Marston Lewis, 679, 1211, 627 9 Rosario Rockefeller, 752, 1245, 36 (1973), relevant problem us. That dealt voter member 30 previous date eight presidential 11 non-presidential Those failing deadline, exceptions, either 'in sense arbitrary,' 'tied (the) particularized legitimate purpose,' 762, 1252, preventing interparty raiding, bore 'the electoral process.' 761, 1251. 10 Later struck down similar Illinois evil, changing date. Kusper Pontikes, 414 51, 303, 38 260 One consequence wishing change occurred waiting period. did retreat question recognition States' strong raiding. Although 11-month New York accepted necessary remedy, unconvinced 23-month established instrument counter evil aimed. Other variables considered issue. Jenness 403 431, 91 1970, 29 554 (1971), we upheld demonstrate supporting amounting last filling candidate. said: 12 'There surely requiring preliminary significant modicum printing name organization's ballot—the other, avoiding confusion, deception, frustration election.' 442, 1976. 13 145, 857, unanimous 14 'The 1976; 11. doing, understandably prevent clogging machinery, avoid assure choice majority, least plurality, without expense runoff elections. way gauging enter primaries Texas unimpeded filing fees here, bound objectives overcrowded ballots. duty, protect processes frivolous fraudulent candidacies. 1976.' 15 Against pattern decisions, hesitation sustaining California, candidacy route obtaining candidate-nominating being nominated primaries. need stand qualify demonstrating way. Otherwise, to, identical with, 6401 flat upon seeking run 'registered declaration.' §§ 6402 6611 defeated person office, 16 expressive Indeed, primary; wanted Here, terminating wait become office. undergird period; significantly different. true desires anticipate substantially advance campaign, foresight little examined Rosario, impact candidate, neither complain year, them As them, valid. 18 After long came desirable carefully offices subject partisan call elections.4 after experience permitting party, forbade cross-filing practice 1959.5 now another; loses independent; associated 6401, 6611. merely exercise warm-up process,6 stage two-stage people choose officers. If functions winnow out finally reject contending forces employ campaign settle differences. reserved struggles; forum continuing intraparty feuds. running independents effectuates aim, visible losers struggle names won qualified. people, hoped, presented choices govern effectively. 19 carries credentials. pique, quarrel. party. 20 has, believes Founding Fathers splintered unrestrained factionalism damage fabric government. Federalist, No. (Madison). appears obvious us system. permissible, reason device chose, overall mechanism acceptable goals. does ineffectual aims. To conclude otherwise sacrifice system State, profound consequences citizenry, particular having instantaneous application.7 Cf. Lippitt Cipollone, 404 1032, 729, 725 (1972). Having reached result, examine operate singly combination Even wholly partly still placed 34, 12, spoke terms assessing 'totality' affected rights, absolutely validly laws, cannot challenge concept applicable facially tandem produce impermissible barriers character when code. absolute bar candidacy, one. heard age becoming Congress, request desire unqualified candidates.8 II 22 come different conclusions Tyner.9 vacate remand further determine start proposition attaining unconstitutionally severe. supra. must, therefore, inquire nature, extent, likely Beyond condition satisfied, percentage, such, excessive, see assess realistically excessively know critical evidentiary case. 25 first instance 'entire vote' Appellees suggest figure, whatever is, 325,000. Assuming correct time. disqualifies theory, 100% registered, registrations since closing day low, eligible unaffiliated required. unlikely, usual undoubtedly millions signers, eliminating vote, smaller 325,000 signatures. excess, percentagewise, anything approved precondition excess said higher codes.10 26 quite sure, law. Standing alone, gathering impossible burden. Signatures rate 13,542 per required, 1,000 canvassers perform day. On face, statute impractical undertaking President. requirement; likelihood seems be, tht amount stipulated statute, claim frivolous. Before dismissed, size too 27 resolve issues dispute order ground rules fact-finding clearly appear. First, doubt independent. greater length American White, 767, 785—786, 1296, 1308, 744, repeat confine maintain warranted limiting participating procedures, nonpartisan, 28 Second, propositions.11 asserts erroneous interpretation abstained address question. attempt justify themselves 311 With what us, think reconsider light tentative views expressed here. Under controlling may, advised, abstain construe statute. hand, difference ultimate assessment fact insignificant consideration meriting abstention.12 Third, once ascertained, arise inevitable judgment: politics, requirements, getting ballot? Past helpful, always unerring, guide: thing regularity not. note mentions 6430, disclaims comprehensive survey official records perhaps reveal truth matter. difficulties vary hence recent defectors, achieved purpose protecting chiefly turn, protected kept limits voter. approach 10% manageable crowded into days?13 Of course, end reasonable verified. Neither abandon confinding single act petition. remains await conclusion untenable solicitation begin finish afterwards. definitely privilege canceling casting And alternatives unacceptable, remain gather group permitted solicit support.14 insist, provided position, pursued, 135 equal 1% gubernatorial county clerks intention affiliate if, vote.15 argued feasible, recently resorted successfully goes far 32 extending 744. approaches activity entirely satisfactory other. organization contemplates statewide, ongoing distinctive character. Its goal typically gain control machinery government electing From standpoint potential supporter, mean giving up ties sacrificing own status, though centers around For himself, serious responsibilities conduct conventions, promulgation platforms. fundamentally, definition one, himself man, surrendering Must wants election? 33 opportunity seemingly all. comply organizations No discernible complicated regulations Similarly, perceive conditioning forming itself contender, truly independent, level support.16 34 Accordingly, 72—812 consistent opinion. respects, 72 812 72—6050 affirmed. So ordered. APPENDIX TO OPINION OF THE COURT 37 s 41. 'Nonpartisan office' nominate Judicial, school, county, municipal offices. Declaration affiliation; 40 At registering transferring registration, elector declare intends ensuing shall stated affidavit index. 41 declines affiliation, 'Nonpartisan' 'Declines state,' chooses. informed entitled registration. He delegates convention designated 42 2500. General 43 There throughout Tuesday Monday November even-numbered known 44 2501. Direct 45 legally polling places precinct June. 46 2502. Primary 47 Any Tuesday, three weeks next held. 48 49 declaration membership central committee filed, sponsors behalf, (1) presentation continuously register state, shown seeks, (2) declaration. clerk attach certificate intending indicating 12-month 51 6402. Independent nominees 52 chapter prohibit Chapter (commencing 6800) division, limitations: 53 whose ineligible named fill vacancy 54 55 6430. Qualified 56 election: 57 polled percent State; 58 who, affidavits residence, joint 59 135th Secretary examining totaling statement transmitted him clerks, (d) declaring proposed circulated, signed, verified certified initiative petitions. Each page bear caption 18-point blackface type, followed words 'Petition assume designation existing mislead Whenever falls below one-fifteenth abandoned unjustifiable small group. remove list, notice, publication containing 61 62 printed used 63 behalf. 64 When acceptance 65 Unsuccessful candidate; ineligibility 66 fails receive highest 67 6803. Group electors; vice 68 electors, electors entitled, paper pursuant chapter, contain whom pledge vote. 69 6804. Printing 70 designates 71 6830 Contents contain: 73 resides. 74 nomination. 75 signer mentioned paper. subdivision omitted 76 not, paper, directed. 77 6831. 78 Nomination nominated, Representative Senator Assemblyman, special vacancy, 500 whichever less, 1,000. 79 Time filing, circulation signing; verification 80 prepared, left examination, earlier 84 later p.m. submitted needed void verify counties, working report writing filed. finds minimum notify counties involved 81 10014. Ballots 82 furnished affiliate. 10232. Inconveniently board determines due measures larger conveniently handled, local form orders, ballots, procedure prescribed handling canvassing modified use case, second tint assign numbers assigned statewide measures. 85 10318. 86 voter, together material appearing heading Offices' itself, provides, 87 18600 Write-in 88 written counted, 18603, written, blank space therefor, cross ( ) stamped pen pencil square written. 18601 90 Every counted stating write-in title 18602 Declaration; eighth applies. registrar secretary responsible counted. 18603 Requirements tabulation city, city 95 Sections 96 fee 6555 paid 18602. 97 BRENNAN, DOUGLAS MARSHALL concur, dissenting. 98 Court's hold—correctly my view—that legislation legislation, strictly scrutinized, Ante, 736; 780, 1305; for, 10, 'place different, overlapping, kinds individuals advancement beliefs, regardless persuasion, effectively.' derives association core Amendment, infringement Amendment. NAACP Button, 371 415, 430, 328, 336, (1963); Bates Little Rock, 361 516, 522—523, 412, 416, 480 (1960); Alabama, 357 449, 460—461, 1163, 1170, 1488 (1958). 'a fundamental right, preservative rights,' Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 370, 1064, 1071, L.Ed. 220 (1886), '(o)ther basic, illusory undermined,' Wesberry Sanders, 376 17, 526, 535, 481 (1964). Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 555, ,S.Ct. 1362, 1378, 506 Thus, enough legislative rationally promote governmental ends. Rather, 99 'governmental action withstand scrutiny Shapiro Thompson, 394 (618, 634, 1322, 1331, 600 (1969)); Jackson, 390 570, 582—583, 1216, 138 (1968); Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 406—409, 1790, 1795, 1797, 965 (1963). onus intrusive adequately Speiser Randall, 513, 525 1332, 1341, 1460 (1958).' Oregon Mitchell, 400 112, 238, 260, 321, 272 (1970) (separate WHITE, MARSHALL, JJ. 100 336—337, 999, 627, 1889, (1969); 31, 24. 101 I joined supra,1 agree that, conditions nevertheless 'are measures, pursuit vital equally ways.' Supra, 781, 1306. dissent, Rule, California's 'cannot 102 denies Intertwined Cal. 2500, 2501 (1961), five plainly candidacy—and therefore effectively 143, 855, (1972)—because candidates, currently affirmative toward fully when, realities be. shoulder. 33, principal policies . identity shortly ..' Today, casual observer realize often unanticipated event dramatically alter fortunes influence voters' issues. By anticipate, crystallize responses changes events step fluidity life,' 439, 1975, operating discourage freeze quo. 103 pointedly illustrate how respective districts term House Representatives, years. disaffiliate seven congressional Few incumbent Congressmen, re-election four terms. Yet, despite unavailability patently piece information, forced evaluate opportunities opt 104 acknowledges liberties, ante, 734, agrees assertion 736. Without argument runs, capable subversion opts method access, abandons candidate-selection taking supporters. unrestricted direct-primary 736.2 105 identification interests, accept, inquiry. necessity Compelling pursued 106 'means unnecessarily restrict activity. Statutes affecting drawn 'precision,' 438, 340, Robel, 389 258, 265, 419 ,424, 508 (1967), 'tailored' objectives. Thompson (394 618, 631, 1329, (1969)). ways goals lesser activity, interference. acts all, 'less drastic means.' Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 488, 247, 252, 231 (1960).' 343, 1003, 107 purports means,' analysis inadequate. discussion limited passing remarks, 736: 108 'Nor ballot.' 109 Naturally, ineffective demonstrate, 'necessary.' 1331 (1969). 780—781, 1305. 110 searched vain slightest evidence effort absence achieving crucial remedied conjecture 'might State' (emphasis added). conceded liberty speculate able means; affirmatively State. 1003; 1331; 111 means—which give 'instantaneous ballot'—seem unreasonable face. splintering effected contrary, threat exist surface identities field known. set closer actually sweeps broadly application Such poses utilizing thereby splitting 112 dissent remand, statutes, President, However, excluded Furthermore, petitioners primaries, avoids resolving remanding proceedings. directed predicate computation statutory efforts reasons determination 'whether President.' 740. agree, complete data facilitate actual secure. unnecessary based already cited 742 n. 744 14. Evaluated room Tyner. Official statistics published indicate 6,633,400 1970 Statement Vote, Election, 7, p. 6. secure number, i.e., 331,670. September 14, 1972—the petitions—was 9,953,124. Report Registration, 8. 6,460,220 sign petitions Consolidated June 6, pp. 3, 4—23. reduced approximately 3,492,904, 331,670 9.5%.3 114 view, approaching range 9.5% serves means. acknowledged that: 115 116 Georgia's full circulate drawn. circumstance, found Georgia noted: 117 'A nonparty thereafter previously so, notarized.' 438—439, 1974 (footnotes omitted). States, 'balanced arbitrary eligibility wishes.' 119 pointing identified Jenness, insuring possess support, confused sharp contrast scheme greatly restricted draw reality, unlike six-month signatures, days. conceding substantiality aims, completely failed why high short period—such enacted Georgia—will 120 reverse dismissing actions, appendix Storer's action, first. allowed intervene. suit. '(b)y appropriate orders stipulations, consolidated, rulings common briefing herein dispositive cases.' Sixth Congressional Twelfth. judicial, Gaylord, History Laws 59, contained West's Ann.Elec. 1—11499. re McGee, Cal.2d 592, 226 P.2d (1951). resort over, moot, presented, candidacies, persist future controversy 'capable repetition, yet evading review.' 756 1249 5; 333 998 Moore Ogilvie, 814, 816, 1493, 1494, Southern Pacific Terminal Co. ICC, 219 498, 515, 279, 283, 310 (1911). review' doctrine, 'as applied' typical involving facial attacks. construction understanding operation, application, simplifying challenges, increasing timely adjudicated 6803, 6830. claims, standing raise Hall's Tyner's occur. apparent, suggestion, ample requirement. Hereafter, text notes, reference understood referring Auerbach Mandel, 409 808, 55, (1972) (3%); Wood Putterman, 316 F.Supp. 646 (Ind.1970) (three-judge court), aff'd mem., 859, 104, Beller Kirk, 328 485 (S.D.Fla.1970) mem. sub nom. Askew, 925, 2248, 705 (1971) (3%). Socialist Labor 318 1262 (SD 1970) 7% issue became moot appeal, Gilligan, 406 583, 585, 1716, 1717, 317 authorized propositions. 10014, 10232, refrain 6,460,220, while 5,880,845. Thus 579,000 assuming maximum addition 579,000, probably relatively signers. argue announcement winners platforms sign, meaningful nominations referred appellees help put proper hypothesize scope employing sources 6,633,400, 9,105,287. 3. Adding figure estimate increase subtracting calculation, 4,072,279, 8, 331,670, 8.1%. 10%-signature involve contend establish merit. supported elected non-affiliation establishes win demonsrate support. Douglas adheres dissenting 795, 1313. opines party,' 735. suggests reliance alleged turn objective. prospect misuse fanciful real and, '(n)o remote danger (an) immediate crippling basic .' computations, collected 8.1% pool. calculation assumes included makes exception; expressly 'did exclusion

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