Document: 523 U.S. 420118 S.Ct. 1428140 L.Ed.2d 575 Lorelyn Penero MILLER, Petitioner,v.Madeleine K. ALBRIGHT, Secretary of State. No. 96-1060. Supreme Court the United States Argued Nov. 4, 1997. Decided April 22, 1998. Syllabus * Petitioner was born out wedlock in 1970 Philippines. Her mother is a Filipino national. father, Charlie Miller, an American citizen residing Texas who served military Philippines at time petitioner's conception. He never married mother, and there no evidence that he her birth or ever returned after completing his tour duty. In 1992, State Department denied application for registration as citizen. After court granted Mr. Miller's petition paternity decree finding him to be petitioner reapplied citizenship status, which again on ground did not satisfy 8 U.S.C. §1409(a)(4)'s requirement child outside alien father legitimated before age 18 order acquire citizenship. Miller then sued Federal District Texas, seeking judgment declaring They emphasized out-of-wedlock, foreign-born established under §1409(c), alleged §1409's different treatment fathers mothers violated Fifth Amendment equal protection right by utilizing suspect classification gender without justification. Concluding have standing, dismissed party transferred venue Columbia. That suit federal courts do power grant The Appeals affirmed, holding had standing sue, but concluding §1409 requirements imposed like her, foreign-born, out-of-wedlock were justified governmental interests fostering child's ties with this country parent. Held: affirmed. 96 F.3d 1467, Justice STEVENS, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, concluded children abroad fathers, mothers, obtain formal proof does violate Amendment. Pp. ____-____. (a) foregoing only issue presented case's facts. Certain other issues need resolved: Whether Fiallo v. Bell, 430 787, 97 1473, 52 50, dictates outcome here; validity distinction drawn §§1401(g) 1409(c) between residency unmarried wishing transmit their children; §§1409(a)(1) (a)(3), impose additional such Because contesting Government's refusal register treat citizen, favor would confirm pre-existing rather than rights she now possess. therefore correct has invoke courts' jurisdiction. Moreover, because claim relies heavily proposition should same evaluate discrimination against him, well its impact her. See, e.g., Craig Boren, 429 190, 193-197, 451, 454-457, 50 397. (b) §1409(a)(4) rule applicable each class eminently reasonable important Government interests: ensuring reliable person claims actually shares blood relationship citizen; encouraging development healthy parent while minor; States. Male female parents are differently situated several pertinent respects. immediately obvious typically hospital records certificates, may often undisclosed unrecorded any contemporary public record. Similarly, certainly knows existence will immediate custody, whereas, due normal interval nine months conception birth, even know exists, father's identity. Section 1409(a)(4)'s requirement-that 18, either through legitimation, written acknowledgment oath, adjudication competent court-is tailored address these concerns. conclusion Congress require affirmative act children, directly supported Lehr Robertson, 463 248, 103 2985, 77 614. (c) argument unconstitutional it stereotypical "gender-based classification'' must rejected. None underlying can fairly characterized accidental byproduct traditional way thinking about members sex. biological differences single men women provide relevant basis differing rules governing ability confer foreign lands, impartial analysis those rebuts strong presumption gender-based legal distinctions suspect. O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, accorded raise claim. This applies third-party prudential limitation exercise jurisdiction, see, Singleton Wulff, 428 106, 113, 2868, 2873-2874, 49 826, rebutted particular circumstances: where litigant suffered injury fact close relation third party, some hindrance party's protect own see Powers Ohio, 499 400, 411, 111 1364, 1370-1371, 113 411. demonstrated genuine obstacle assert rises level hindrance. Accordingly, precluded from raising case. Although still rights, cannot trigger heightened scrutiny. 1409 draws based parent, child, differential illegitimate versus legitimate question certiorari granted. Thus, constitutional challenge subject rational Even though could withstand scrutiny, sustainable lower standard. SCALIA, THOMAS, agreed case complaint relief requested: conferral prescribed Congress. Petitioner, having been territory, become naturalization congressional authority. Wong Kim Ark, 169 649, 702-703, 456, 477-478, 42 L.Ed. 890. If enactment granting citizenship, remains alien. By plain language, sets forth precondition acquisition admittedly met. if agree difference citizen-fathers citizen-mothers unconstitutional, not, consistent extremely limited judicial area, 792, 1477-1478, remedy infirmity ordering approve INS Pangilinan, 486 875, 884, 108 2210, 2216-2217, 100 882. equal-protection violation expanding limiting benefits conferred so deny them equally all. J., announced delivered opinion, REHNQUIST, C. joined. filed opinion concurring judgment, GINSBURG, dissenting SOUTER BREYER, JJ., Donald R. Patterson, Tyler, TX, petitioner. Edwin S. Kneedler, Washington, DC, respondent. STEVENS JUSTICE 1 There "two sources two only: naturalization.'' 702, 477, 890 (1898). Within former category, Fourteenth Constitution guarantees every "born States, jurisdiction thereof, becomes once needs U.S., S.Ct., 477. Persons provided Acts Id., 703, 477-478. 2 challenges constitutionality statutory provisions specific §309 Immigration Nationality Act (INA), 66 Stat. 238, amended, §1409, one hand, other. Subject residence birth; latter unless until takes certain steps create relationship. contends taken minor violates statute contains within prove became birth. 3 We find merit they qualify It establish qualifications classes we persuaded classes, far implicated facts case, valid interests. conclude neither arbitrary nor invidious. 4 June 20, 1970, Angeles City, Republic Local Civil Registrar disclose registered 10 days later, named Lorena Penero, Luz national, "illegitimate.'' Spaces form referring name nationality blank. 5 grew up received high school college education At least 21st birthday, lived App. 19. resided Philippines.1 6 Petitioner's Texas.2 apparently Air Force stationed 21. unopposed entered "Voluntary Paternity Decree'' "to Miller.'' " [t]he parent-child created during marriage.'' Pet. Cert. 38. 7 November 1991, Department. March obtained July 1992. reapplication also "the 309(a)(4) INA, requires eighteen 301(g) INA (formerly 301(a)(7) INA).'' 33. further explanation reliance §309(a)(4), denial letter added: "Without legitimation eighteen, legally recognized acquires parent.''3 Ibid. II 1993, amended Eastern possess passport. INA's "right laws justification.'' 11. response motion dismiss Government, party. improper, 28 §1391(e), Columbia, site Secretary's residence. renewed forum, caused "redressable'' "grant citizenship.'' 870 F.Supp. 1, (1994) (citing 882 (1988)). 9 Columbia Circuit grounds. first held §1409(a). succeed, enter already pursuant INA. 1470 (C.A.D.C.1996). On merits, however, "illegitimate'' interest country. explained: [W]e conclude, Ninth Circuit, "a desire promote early relatives citizens a[n ir]rational made by' sections 1409(a)(3) (4). Ablang [v. Reno], [801] 806 [(9th Cir.1995)]. Furthermore, entirely special father. A less likely ignore carried womb natural aware existence. As recognized, "mothers similarly situated.' Parham Hughes, 441 347, 355, 99 1742, 1747, 60 269 (1979). "The putative goes unconscious child. conscious, very totally unconcerned absence mother.' Id. n. 7, 1748, (internal quotation marks citation omitted). sex-based seems especially warranted where, here, applicant fathered serviceman serving duty overseas.'' 1472. 11 Judge Wald concurred despite "no law formally reaches majority writing financial support date forever forfeit 1473. While "requiring sort minimal "family ties' connection country, government policy,'' goals justify set procedural hurdles men-and men-who wish children.'' 1474. She nevertheless regretfully believed our decision (1977), required uphold §1409. F.3d, 12 following question: 13 "Is "illegitimate' Constitution?'' 520 ----, 117 1551, 137 700 (1997). III 14 Before explaining answer address, useful put side resolved. First, decide whether Bell involved aliens immigration preference, whereas here is, years been, citizen.4 Additionally, "legitimate'' encompassed consider. 15 provision types wedlock. relates persons offspring, second defines 16 With respect eligible parents, satisfies §1401(g) alien.5 Under provision, total five years, attaining years.6 §1409(c) applies; subsection year continuous offspring.7 Since satisfied §1401(g), unusually generous issue.8 17 steps, §1409(a), 1986, imposes four concerning "as birth'' another Citizenship if: (1) clear convincing evidence, 19 (2) person's 20 (3) (unless deceased) 21 (4) years- 22 (A) domicile, 23 (B) acknowledges 24 (C) court.'' 25 Only expressly included unwed mothers. See supra. relying Wald's separate below, argues imposing three 26 parties disputed condition9 -and condition repeatedly targeted BREYER's dissent-we resolve debate unclear case; added falls interim allows elect pre-amendment 3, And apply Department's §1409(a)(4). Indeed, since disjunctive, necessary onerous alternative methods compliance sustain position. §1409(a)(4)-that court-violates 27 significance unlike petitioners Fiallo, 790, challenging status. prevail, courts. 1469-1470 (distinguishing shall 397 (1976).10 IV terms joint conduct results sufficient produce regardless male partner. engage act-if marry another-citizenship follow. deals cases occurs conception; determines parties, acting separately, 29 female, choose carry pregnancy term reject abortion-an available many, reality most, around world. give rewards choice labor conferring 30 male, participate abortion; present thereafter parental support, moral financial, preserve retroactively all willing able acknowledge oath minor. §1409(a)(4)(B). fact, father-that alternatively if, turns "is §1409(a)(4)(C). appear absent perhaps over express objection. 31 thus vast burdens respective potential land. more severe §1409(a)(4), argued offspring victims irrational product ""overbroad stereotypes relative abilities women.''' Brief 8. singularly unpersuasive.11 32 Insofar rests "forever citizenship'' come forward minor, limit relationship, overlooks substantive limitation. qualifies completed moment occur thereafter. hurdle limits method (or child) 33 embodied serves, part, ensure originally enacted 1952, §1409(a) simply [born wedlock] twenty-one legitimation.'' 238. section offered means proving modified supra, expanded allow alternatives found subsections (4)(B) (4)(C). Pub.L. 99-653, §13, 3657. purpose amendment "simplify facilitate determinations eliminating necessity determining domicile establishing satisfaction jurisdiction.'' Hearings, 150. 1986 §1409(a)(1), deter fraudulent claims; standard viewed ancillary measure, replacement alternative. id., 150, 155. 34 doubt objective. Trimble Gordon, 762, 770-771, 1459, 1465, (1977); 799, 8, 1482, Nor respect. certificates; make timely paternity, produces rough equivalent documentation appropriate "gender-neutral'' face, practical operation disfavor males virtually superfluous mother. Surely comparable what provides discriminating 35 Nevertheless, reiterates suggestion advent genetic testing fully addresses problem (a)(1) evidence. respectfully disagree. Nothing test. difficult, moreover, understand why signing prior 18th birthday burdensome obtaining test, relatively expensive,12 normally physical intrusion both child,13 countries.14 recent scientific advances, preferable coupled clear-and-convincing fraud. limitation, turn, assurance upon deters fraud.15 course free revise collective permit requiring court,16 change. 36 serves purposes unrelated determination paternity: related When custody Such opportunity develop age, grow returns. contrast, 1409(a)(4) easy, step shows beyond assuring personal 37 ready example concern. failed take indication record contact whatsoever applied Given size establishment various parts world past half century, assume unusual. when born, 683,000 service personnel Far East, 24,000 whom Dept. Commerce, Statistical Abstract 381 (99th ed.1978). Of Americans time, percent female.17 These figures, regularly return ends, suggest concerns servicemen necessarily about, known by, children. surely today, award demonstrates, minimum, possibility country-a performs meaningful 38 possible ultimately fail engaged abandon returning acknowledging die abscond bond visit achieved legitimacy importance interest. If, reasonably assumed, tend just baby's statute's effect reduce, aggravate, disparity 39 convinced used serve perfectly act, other's adjudication, lessens risk required. place obviously powerful formative years. reliable, contemporaneous familial bonds turned demand show citizen.18 40 Our 614 (1983). New York automatically notice adoption proceeding veto adoption, extended whose filing intent 251-252, 5, 266, 2988, 2996. Lehr, mailed postcard State's "putative registry'' enjoy undisputed 264, 2995, yet Equal Protection Clause. rejected argument, anything, persuasive. Whereas deprived (when took place), unfavorable attributable failure action "competent court'' 18.19 41 policies, amici argue classification.'' comment briefly argument. V words "stereotype,'' "stereotyping,'' "stereotypical'' amici's briefs. note condemned classifications rest assumption proxy administrator estate, Reed Reed, 404 71, 92 251, 225 (1971), professional nursing, Mississippi Univ. Women Hogan, 458 718, 102 3331, 73 1090 (1982), train service, Virginia, 518 515, 116 2264, 135 735 (1996), few examples. repudiated rested sex suitably practice bar. 725, 10, 3336, (commenting Bradwell State, Wall. 130, 83 442 (1872) Goesaert Cleary, 335 464, 69 198, 93 163 (1948)). Discrimination merely females'' unacceptable. Califano Goldfarb, 199, 223, 1021, 1035, 51 270 (1977) (STEVENS, judgment). 43 equality principle indirectly reasons.20 coinciding factors, citizen21 alien, Alternatively, member and, end duty, quite probably irrelevant force itself.22 Second, statute; rather, event creating child-the itself post-birth offspring. outmoded stereotype, invalid. 44 "gender stereotypes'' supposedly premised "that anything proverbial breadwinner aloof day-to-day rearing duties,''23 closer his.''24 disregarding separate, non-stereotypical propositions reflects justifications issue. 45 concerned average unwilling unable adjudication. unlikely foster solid effort acquainted good, better, opposite 46 fathers. transmits certificates parentage unnecessary, initial caring 1409(a)(4)-the consider-is relationships, simply, BREYER contends, post, __, advantage exists.25 assumptions firmly grounded adequately explain unnecessary 47 premises lands. authorized conditions might An plainly presumption.26 48 ordered. KENNEDY joins, judgment. long courts, held, "must hesitate resolving controversy, resolve, litigation.'' 2874, 826 (1976); Warth Seldin, 422 490, 499, 95 2197, 2205, 343 (1975). Contrary rule, recognizes statute, accords sons daughters. although clearly injured discriminatory longer suit. Consequently, I believe consider mother'' resolves "evaluate [petitioner's father] [petitioner].'' Ante, __. But allegedly illegal affects party,'' plaintiff "cannot [the] part[y].'' Labor Triplett, 494 715, 720, 110 1428, 1431, 701 (1990) demonstrate feature [of statute] injures him'' "he unconstitutional.'' Heald 259 114, 123, 434, 435, 852 (1922). arises understanding rightholder question, belief "third themselves usually best proponents rights.'' Singleton, 113-114, 2874; Holden Hardy, 366, 397, 383, 390, 780 53 claim, Court, dissent, cite (1976). allowed vendor state permitted sales 3.2% beer females reached prohibited proscribed sale consumption beer, determined "least awkward challenger'' distinction. 197, 456. reasoned objectives rejecting ha[d] entertained challenge.'' 193, 455. Here, below account instead reviewing first-party opposed 54 More importantly, decided Craig, articulated contours inquiry greater detail. 411 (1991), stated interrelated criteria: giving sufficiently concrete dispute; party; exist interests.'' 1370-71 citations omitted); Campbell Louisiana, --- 118 1419, 1423, ---- (1998). significant stake substantial rights. earlier precedents precludes standing. 1370 (explaining [all] criteria [must be] satisfied,'' i.e., interests'' rebutted); 116, 2875 ("Even close, reasons generally apply''). 55 confronted "genuine obstacle'' assertion 2875; Barrows Jackson, 346 249, 257, 1031, 1586 (1953) (third-party "would difficult impossible asserted grievance court''). opted pursue throughout litigation. true wrongly misguided any, action.'' Motion Dismiss Plaintiff's First Amended Complaint or, Alternative, Transfer Venue 4. appeal erroneous dismissal vindication self imposed. 56 am reluctant accept litigation strategy, ruling litigant's warrant exception requirements. Those adopted institutional convenience litigants. FW/PBS, Inc. Dallas, 493 215, 231, 596, 607-608, 107 603 (1990); Bender Williamsport Area School Dist., 475 534, 541, 106 1326, 1331, 89 501 (1986). asserts appeals money, change left uncertain appeal. inconvenience litigation, involves transfer venue. indicated suit, faced unusual barriers Instituting burdensome-arguably claim-and events transpired constituted toward prong altogether. 57 Thus far, "daunting'' deterred rightholder. Powers, 414, 1372-1373. To extreme example, Hodel Irving, 481 704, 2076, 668 (1987), plaintiffs deceased parents. 711-712, 2080-2081. noted jurors proceeding, easily declaratory injunctive prosecutor's peremptory challenges, likelihood recur, economic disincentives 414-415, Privacy compelling Carey Population Services Int'l, 431 678, 2010, 675 prohibiting distribution contraceptives minors avoid publicity purchasers defending 684, 2015 4; Eisenstadt Baird, 405 438, 446, 1029, 1034-1035, 349 (1972). Likewise, NAACP Alabama ex rel. 357 449, 78 1163, 1488 (1958), organization privacy initiated identity destroy sought protect. 459, 1170. Where insurmountable obstacles preclude rightholder's physicians indigent funding abortion imminent mootness prevented bringing claims. 108, 2871. prospective racially restrictive real estate covenant, unidentified Court. 254, 1033-1034. garners sole according mooted beer-sale restriction. 192, 454. 58 exist, lie control rightholder, stems disability disinterest. signals decline bring behalf, so. ("If . loses tendency truly stake, default right's proponent''). impedes asserted-and enforced-unless Barrows, underlie denying another's rights'' "outweighed fundamental otherwise denied. 1035. 59 contrast white property owner covenant "only effective adversary'' charge keeping repose[d] continue use discriminate discontinue use.'' 259, 1036. us, discriminated suited undertake task. Gladstone, Realtors Village Bellwood, 91, 100, 1601, 1608, (1979) (prudential seek access litigants claim''). light status problems fashioning injury, __-__ (SCALIA, judgment), allowing dilute own. objections territory Johnson Eisentrager, 339 763, 70 936, 94 1255 (1950), Verdugo-Urquidez, 1056, 222 (1990), challenge, triggers pointed above, draw discrimination. Allen Wright, 468 737, 755, 104 3315, 3326, 82 556 (1984) (an arising "accords personally challenged conduct'') discriminates "between fathers,'' presented. 61 triggering irrationally share STEVENS' assessment withstands ante, __-__, passes scrutiny gives sustaining higher unlikely, my survive defended generalized unsupported empirical Heller Doe, 509 312, 320, 2637, 2462-2463, 125 257 (1993) (" [A] upheld conceivable classification. obligation rationality classification'') particularly reference immigration, area frequently base decisions generalizations groups people. 62 *** 63 court's "properly limited'' role, Warth, 498, 2204-2205, identified circumstances rebut presumption. considerations, prong, criteria. accord concur affirming Appeals' decision. 64 THOMAS 65 reason relied STEVENS. view makes "heightened scrutiny'' test apply. "contemplates Amendment, [e]very concerned, "can being naturalized, treaty, annexation territory; authority Congress.'' 477; Rogers Bellei, 401 815, 827, 91 1060, 1067, (1971). Here "authority Congress'' appealed to-its Art. I, §8, cl. "establish uniform Rule Naturalization.'' 67 establishes 1409(a) provides, confers apply: 68 if- 71 72 74 75 76 citizen-father. into claiming met precondition, contrary factually error. Rather, meet last §§1409(a)(3) nonetheless asks "declaratory [she] States'' 11-12, citizen-mothers, Clause.1 "Once district discretion defect 2216, (1988) Judicial limited. "Our "have expel exclude sovereign attribute exercised political departments largely immune control.''' 1478, (quoting Shaughnessy Mezei, 345 206, 210, 625, 628, 956 (1953)). Landon Plasencia, 459 21, 32, 321, 329, (1982) [T]he admit prerogative''); Mathews Diaz, 426 67, 79-80, 1883, 1891, 478 (1976) ("In broad unacceptable citizens''); Kleindienst Mandel, 408 753, 769-770, 2576, 2585, 683 (1972) [P]lenary policies exclusion established''); Galvan Press, 347 522, 531, 743, 98 911 (1954) ("That formulation [policies pertaining entry remain here] entrusted exclusively imbedded legislative tissues body politic aspect government''). guise remedial "Neither doctrine estoppel, invocation equitable powers, [statutory] limitations.'' 885, 2217. "An seeks Nation rightfully specified Courts sanction changes modifications. '' Ginsberg, 243 472, 474, 422, 425, 853 (1917) (emphasis added). argues, dissent agree, (BREYER, dissenting), meets declare "at entirely, unconstitutionally away 14-15. adopts fanciful whereby unconditionally conferred-as subsequent conveyance will. course, precedent, says "shall if'' forth. unitary picked apart fashion. sure, read isolation, refer King St. Vincent's Hospital, 502 221, 112 570, 574, 578 (1991). 1401(g) satisfied. 79 exempting (either part §1409(a)) rewriting law, ignoring portion nullity. dissenting). assumes, sever remainder, remainder unencumbered. exists cases-and Court's invalidated provision. 505 144, 186, 2408, 2433-2434, 120 (1992). instance, severed restriction incompatible plenary fields judges speculate did-whether would, preferred extend entirely. specifically descent.'' Rogers, 830, 1069.) mere character enough render severing statement intent: "A naturalized manner subchapter otherwise. §1421(d) general severability clause, 281, §406, misplaced governs general, Morales Trans World Airlines, Inc., 504 374, 384-385, 2031, 2037-2038, 119 157 severance "whether inseparable virtue inherent character,'' Carter Coal Co., 298 322, 855, 877, 80 1160 (1936), gleaned structure nature Act. Another deletion occurred, foreordained vice consists unequal treatment, logically attributed disparately (here, supposedly, mothers) parsimonious (the fathers). [an protection] faces alternatives: [it] [the nullity legislature intended benefit, coverage include aggrieved exclusion.''' Heckler Mathews, 465 728, 738, 1387, 1394-1395, 646 (1984), quoting Welsh 398 333, 361, 90 1792, 1807-1808, 308 (1970) (Harlan, result). given command ("under otherwise'') employ. done 81 event, ordinary subjected exempt. e. g., 191-192, 453-454, (men alcoholic beverages 18). restrictions exempt, exempt.2 situation, complies Clause (assuming initially violation), treats favorably "fix'' unconstitutional. disregard both, leaving whatever (what think proper course) (since meant unqualified children). sensitive naturalization, radical surgery, here. sum, "We dealing Nation's foreigners accordance perceived national 795, 6, 1479, 6. are, them. Congress, requests. 84 join, dissenting. 85 convincingly classifies capacity familiar generalizations: responsible wedlock; ordinarily, not. criterion. Instead, way, another, shaping policy fit reinforce stereotype historic pattern. 86 Characteristic classifications, legislation hold individuals. official actions classify unnecessarily overbroadly accurate functional lines drawn. divided adheres vital understanding. O'CONNOR's plain, [i]t scrutiny.'' (opinion judgment); 87 surface, favorably. seen benign sorts. Compare 731, 17, 3340 740-744, 3344-3346 (Powell, Two Justices today view. portrays helpfully recognizing situations pre-natal period equalizing "burdens'' bears. pages history real-world perspective. remaining Code uses criterion delineating citizens' innovation respect: During most past, transmission adversely 88 abroad, 1790, stated: sea, considered citizens: Provided, descend resident States.'' Mar. 26, ch. 104. Statutes passed 1795 1802 conditioned one-time Jan. 29, 1795, §3, 415; Apr. 14, 1802, §4, suggests gain That, indeed, England time. J. Kent, Commentaries Law *50-*51 (hereinafter Kent's Commentaries); Geo. 2, (1731). language adopted, ambiguous. One "children citizens'' mean point Binney, Alienigenae Am. L. Reg. 203-205 (1854). Or, Chancellor Kent observed, pass. *53. legislation, qualify. Daniel Webster, among others, proposed legislation. His bill States-born unsuccessful. Cong. Globe, 30th Cong., 1st Sess., 827 (1848); F. Franklin, Legislative History Naturalization 271-276 (reprint ed.1971). 1855, clarified pass Feb. §2, 604. Codified §1993 Revised Statutes, originating 1855 read: "All heretofore hereafter declared States; Rev. §1993. statutes, differentiate applied, Op. Atty. Gen. 162, 164-165 (1920); Guyer Smith, Md. 239 (1864) (foreign citizenship). reported instances, gained majority. re P, I. & N. Dec. 354 (C.O. 1951); Mailman, Yale-Loehr, Procedure §93.04[2][d], pp. 93-43 93-44 (1992) Gordon). G. Hackworth, Digest International (1942) (noting post-majority deemed sufficient, maintaining [n]ormally minority child''). reasoning that, wedlock, "stands father.'' House Committee Naturalization, Report Proposing Revision Codification Laws Part One: Proposed Explanatory Comments, 76th (Comm. Print 1939) Code). Ultimately, Attorney General reasoning, §1993's exclusive (1939). Women's inability many laws. woman risked losing nationality. days, "marriage friend enemy, produce[d] dissolution native allegiance wife.'' Shanks Dupont, 242, 246, 666 (1830) (Story, J.). nineteenth woman's followed husband's, Pequignot Detroit, 211, 216 (C.C.E.D.Mich.1883), husband's Ruckgaber Moore, 947, 948-949 (C.C.E.D.N.Y.1900). Bredbenner, Toward Independent Citizenship: Married Rights States: 1855-1937, 54-59 (Ph. D. dissertation, University 1990) Bredbenner); Sapiro, Women, Citizenship, Nationality: Policies Politics Soc. 4-10 (1984). officials inclined towards well. Gettys, (1934). 1907, settled matter: lost marriage 1228. noting husband wife ancient jurisprudence.'' Mackenzie Hare, 299, 311, 297 (1915). relinquished encountered increasing opposition, fueled large women's suffrage movement enhanced vote. Bredbenner 81, 95-105; 12-13. response, measure relief. 1922 Cable Act, stripped automatically. Sept. (Cable Act), 1022. remained partially realized. ineligible citizenship; presumed renounced elsewhere §§3, 5; 11-12. noncitizen alive separated. Status Minor Children, F.2d 210 (D.N.J.1928) ("the dependent husband, acquired source theretofore existent common law''); 56-57. No kind citizens. treated wives immigrants benevolently. 604; Kelly Owen, 496, 283 (1868) "confers privileges action). 1804 died actual widow "considered citizens.'' 1804, 292, 293. corresponding dispensation woman. addition, exemptions husbands women. 1903, §37, 1213, 1221 (wives entering join permanent contracted contagious diseases transit deported curable danger others); S.Rep. 1515, 81st 2d 415-417 (1950) exempt literacy quota requirements). 1934, moved new direction. terminated regard abroad. Specifically, "Any be, previous child.'' May 24, §1, 797.1 Senate Reports complete matter 865, 73d (1934); accord, H.R.Rep. 131, (1933); Orfield, U. Chi. L.Rev. 99, 100-106 (1935). speak 1934 "was construed authorizing descent wedlock.'' Gordon §93.04[2][b], p. 93-42; §93.04[2][d][iii], 93-46. Act's stature unmodified. Six 1940, replaced Statutes' array outlying possession citizens, 1940 preserved Congress' recognition regime disadvantaged previously possession, mother's order.2 minority. live couples §§201, 205, 1138-1140.3 Subsequent retained 1952 regarding removed established.4 §309, 238-239. differentials. Legislature substitution legitimation. extent, eased requirements: production promising 18. same; territorial possessions 3657, codified 101 counsels skeptical examination prime line §1409-the distant fleeting father-child link. puts it, presence identification certificate, "initial custody'' "opportunity child,'' legitimately lacks. For mother-child affiliation. bears emphasis, too, simultaneously citizens) fulfill requirement: comes resides therein continuously eighteenth birthday.'' 797. Commentary underscores text conveys. requirement, assure abiding affiliation 10-11, 14. accepts face value current rationale, (stereotypes) men) are. pervade constantly "typically,'' "normally,'' "probably'' happens "often.'' E.g., cautioned, controls "gates opportunity,'' "may qualified individuals "fixed notions roles females.''' 2280, (1996) (1982)); Orr Orr, 440 268, 283, 1102, 1114, 306 ("Where, gender-neutral carries baggage sexual stereotypes, sex.''). ""exceedingly persuasive justification,''' Kirchberg Feenstra, 450 455, 461, 1195, 1199, (1981) Personnel Administrator Mass. Feeney, 256, 273, 2282, 2293, (1979)), "not rely overbroad talents, capacities, preferences females,'' 2275, J.E.B. T. B., 511 127, 152, 114 1433, 128 (Kennedy, judgment) prevailing "reveal[s] invalid''). demur observation elucidated, responsibility, purpose-assuring States-can gender. commented discussing analogous Appeals, 105 "Congress family absolutely 18.'' Christopher, 1476 (C.A.D.C.1996) (Wald, gave husbands' marriages brought natives affected But, testified (and later sit judge), [w]hether lot people suffer suffer, us ought receive recognition.'' Hearings H.R. 3673 (1933) (testimony Burnita Shelton Matthews). positioned restore impartiality century out. GINSBURG 109 founding Nation, reflecting long-established tradition, child-even Today's focuses statutes "citizens birth.'' §§1401 1409. American, parent-whether mother-to hers requirement. go promise court) 18-if What sense today's world-where readily proved earn living workplace? O'CONNOR agrees, __-__. lack "exceedingly persuasive'' requires. 530, 2281, (1996). Amendment's "equal protection'' guarantee. Bolling Sharpe, 497, 500, 693, 694-695, 884 (1954). Philippines, daughter, Lorelyn. "citize[n] birth,'' §1401, "had "blood evidence,'' physically and: 115 §§1409(a) 1401(g). above forbids forbid application. resolution threshold Lorelyn's infringe Charlie, Respondent adds Lorelyn, himself lacks "standing'' 11, 2. clear, "assert'' person, "suffered "injury fact'''; "close relationship''; "there hindrance'' "asserting'' "own (1998); fact.'' "close'' namely, "some asserting began lawsuit (originally Texas) complaint, contending "should lacked standing.'' Complaint, "standing,'' 11a. plaintiff, venue, §1391(e)(1), §1406(a). "hindered'' Charlie's irresistible. points adverse ruling. money; appeal; heard event; resulting comparison costs (viewed prospectively) discouraged pursuit route. successful consequences much said "hindrances'' standing'' Campbell, 1419 (criminal defendant racially-excluded petit "arduous'' process surrounding, small accruing to, juror vindicate rights); cf. 193-194, ("decision forgo consideration merits await'' identical "foster repetitive time-consuming caution prudence''). 121 citing vindicated Charlie's, Lorelyn's. And, cases, out, irrelevant, (1971) (considering citizen's suit). 122 Third, succeed seeks, 43-50. detail, beside point, for, clauses excised operates §1401; V, infra. 123 "she placed path substantially hindered efforts practice. Several mentioned none "hindrance,'' do. 234, 609, (husband wife's moot claim); 544-545, 1332-1333, (1986) (school board defend board's behalf voted defend); 112, 25, 1614, (nonresidents local practices discriminatory); (1922) (District tax nonresidents District). "hindrance'' approximate degree Supra, arguably involve 2080-2081, (1987); 2015, 2871, 454; (1972); 1170, (1958); 1033-1034, (1953). inner limit. 124 "rational belongs citizen-fathers, distinguishes solely grounds parent's assume, review ancestry, say voting educational religion, racial make-up, grandparent. so, calls contrary. 3326-3327 (black schoolchildren's claimed "stigmatizing injury'' Internal Revenue Service private schools "personally treatment,'' injured). Regardless, "do share,'' share, "Justice unlikely'' scrutiny,'' shared survive. 126 said, precious right.'' Kennedy Mendoza-Martinez, 372 159, 554, 562-563, 644 (1963); Fedorenko 449 507, 747-748, 686 (citizenship "priceless treasure'') Luria 231 9, 13, (1913) ("Citizenship membership society''); Afroyim Rusk, 387 253, 1660, 1668, 757 (1967) [This Nation's] citizenry citizenry''). 127 Further, tie one, protection. Wisconsin Yoder, 406 1526, Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 571, 1070 (1925); Meyer Nebraska, 262 1042 (1923); Skinner Oklahoma Williamson, 316 535, 1110, 1655 (1942). consistently §1 103; 155; §1993; §6, 1229; 797; §201(g), 1139; §301(a)(7), (b), 235, 236, cf., Oppenheim's §384 (R. Jennings A. Watts 9th ed.1992) nationals nationals); Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary Roman 389 (Roman principally parentage); Sandifer, Comparative Study Relating Birth Loss Nationality, Int'l 248-261, 278 (1935) (discussing "widespread extent jus sanguinis''); E. de Vattel, Nations 101-102 (J. Chitty trans., 1883) (1758). 129 Finally, gender-based, principle, capacities neutral categories legislature's end. 540-546, 2274-2279. 130 diminish quality review-that specially lenient standards-when statutes. focus serious human individual other, transforming strengthening loyalty connect Nation. Yet loyalties underlies aliens, precedent review. (1977). 131 contrary, couple travel temporarily work lenient, independent result, lacking domain basic protections. anomalous result. 132 recognize War, sanguinis, played role secondary birthplace, soli. 828, 1067-1068; Weedin Chin Bow, 274 657, 669-671, 772, 775-777, 1284 (1927) 674, 466-467, (1898), 714, 481-482 (Fuller, dissenting)). lesser mention Const., Amdt. (stating [a]ll citizens''). omission, 835, 1071, embody 133 decides enact. purpose. wrote hoped thereby newly freed slaves-born States-from protections provided, including laws.'' 262, 1665; 283-284, 1675-1676 dissenting); H. Flack, Adoption 83-97 (1908). care, lest deprivation undermine guarantee Care transferring How diminished review? 134 sanguinis unbroken tradition transmitting __; 1071. gap occurred when, brief (perhaps inadvertently) group 1855. Montana Kennedy, 366 308, 311-312, 1336, 1338-1339, 313 (1961); Weedin, 663-664, 773-774; 673-674, 466-467. then, right, common-law Ludlam Ludlam, N.Y. 356, 362-372 (1863); Lynch Clarke, Sand.Ch. 583, 659-663 (N.Y.1844). reveal considerable women, 1934. (GINSBURG, now, tolerated, "de jure segregation juries,'' "now coexisted Clause.'' T.B., 142, 15, (1994). 136 Neither matters ""immigration naturalization.''' 82, 1892-1893, (1976)). involving aliens. phrase "naturalization.'' §1101(a)(23) ("The "naturalization' whatsoever'') knowledge deferential supra (rights residents); (citizens' alien); aliens). lowered 828-836, 1067-1072 (evaluating standard). 138 differ significantly owed nation. difference, consequently deprive millions Americans, unmarried, working traveling, say, Canada Mexico, Bureau Census, (1997) (table 54) (reporting 1990, 1.86 million sea parents); Hearing Subcommittee Operations Foreign Affairs, 102d (1991) Andrew P. Sundberg) ("According survey Department, 40,000 parent''). prevailing, standards 139 undiluted standards, gender, making citizen-parent man, paternity. woman, either. §1409(c). 140 Distinctions kind-based gender-are ""strong presumption''' invalidity. 532, 2275 J.E.B., 1433-1434 (KENNEDY, judgment)). permits "demanding'' burden showing persuasive''' justification 533, 2276; 136, 1425; 724, (1982); (1979); (1981). objectives, employed "substantially related'' achievement objectives. 2271 3336). genuine, hypothesized invented post hoc 2275. "it females.'' Ibid.; 139-140, 1427, 11; 201, 458-459; 223-224, 1035-1036, Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 420 636, 643, 1225, 1230-1231, 514 "discriminat[e] point. 723, 3335. 141 standards. depend generalization care relationships how abandons line-drawing be. 726, 730, 3337, 3339. Caretaker Parent. Parent equivalent) support. Female Non-Caretaker circumstance, forgive complying (for promises support) Again, 142 illustrate compare us-Charlie, Luz-with imagined family-Carlos, Philippine Lucy, Lenora, Lucy's Suppose soon Carlos daughter. Why, circumstances, Lenora Charlie? imagine daughter back raise. conditions. imaginary Lucy anyone caretaker 143 Let me deal finds adequate. (a)(4) first, "ensuring parent,'' second, "encouraging'' ties, namely minor,'' important. misfit. 144 Subsection requires, "acknowledg[e]'' (legitimation paternity). "produces documentation,'' certificate memorialized records, "already "equivalency'' (only argument's sake, invariably omit father's), prior-to-18 legitimation-or-acknowledgment written, offering false inexpensive DNA certainty. Shapiro, Reifler, Psome, Test: Legislating Future Action, Health (1992-1993) (current determine probability 99.999999% accuracy); 98-527, 145 (a)(1), "clear evidence.'' contests imposition (a)(4)'s needed. concedes evidence'' "time meeting legitimation-or-acknowledgement reflect, concern.'' 146 "other concern'' concern According existence-in says, exists. 147 distance too great tailoring proportionality. knowledge-of-birth gender-related host unproved hypotheses. Simple may, kinds hopes. knowing knowledge, comply weak comply. little acknowledges, "absent objection.'' 148 plausible "relationship'' goals, factual scenario knowledge-equivalent birth-could lead parenting America. "war baby'' problem-the fathering overseas America unaware disproportionately problem. refers East born. applies, 3.2 925,000 employees, live, stationed, abroad-of 240,000 active Private Citizens Residing Abroad (Nov. 1997); Overseas Censuses, Technical Paper 62, (Nov.1993) (1990 census figures); Defense, Selected Manpower Statistics 23, (DIOR/MO1-96 1996). seem aimed problem, precursor 1938 report War II. Message President pt. 17-18 submitted Comm. 1939); §205, 1139. 149 interested achieving posits suggests, substitute (a)(4); distinguish non-caretaker distinctions, appears only, equate caretaking-generalizations constitutionally impermissible. 542, 546, ---, (striking down men-only admissions Virginia Military Institute assuming "most VMI's adversative method''); 139, (invalidating [e]ven truth justify'' them); drinking ages supporting trivial statistical sense''); 645, 1231-1232 (holding widowed notion primary supporters spouses support''). cites (1983), advances described earlier. 150 similar reasons, denies "agre[e] support'' "reaches 18,'' objective helping 26. Parent, assurances caretakers, "breadwinners,'' caretakers men, "breadwinners'' This, again, justifying cases. 2274-2279; 1231-1232. 151 draws. 152 SCALIA Constitution, powerless remedy. striking offend Constitution's (a)(3) (a)(4). omitted, who, 1401. Whatever limitations powers grants automatically, (1988), conceding asked equity. Cf. (assessing identifying problems). 153 excise prefer excision, Westcott, 443 76, 89-93, 2655, 2663-2665, 382 designed difficulties (along providing encouragement overcome paternity-proof difficulties, severance. 154 wrong, believe, intent'' sever, explicit provision: 155 "If thereof invalid, thereby.'' 281; §1101, 38, "Separability.'' 156 cited says: title otherwise.'' §310(d), 239, §1421(d). 158 "naturalization'' birth'') 159 excised, parentage; reverse favoritism fears. 160 Appeals. syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions reader. Detroit Timber Lumber 200 337, 282, 287, 499. Leyte. man Frank Raspotnik raised City. 22. undisputed. attorney, acknowledged "satisfied possesses applicant's probable conception.'' 32-33. comment, inaccurate; §309(a) narrow bracket apply, (Effective Date Amendment) §23(e), added, Pub 100-525, §8(r), 2619). oversight affect entered. defined "child'' "parent,'' eligibility preference "children'' "parents'' lawful residents. 788-789, 1476, "Child'' "an whom, privilege, benefit mother.'' §1101(b)(1)(D) (1976 ed.)). 789, 1476. Following upholding provisions, "parent'' "if bona fide person.'' 99-603, §315(a), 3439, (1982 ed., Supp. IV). (directing §§1401(c), (d), (e), (g) 1408(2) apply'' met). Title §1401 provides: birth: ..... geographical periods totaling fourteen Prior 236. 309(c) Notwithstanding section, December year.'' explanations abroad: countries established. submits minimize stateless. 32-34. §1409(a)(3) ""to enforcement thus, lessen chance states.''' 25-26, 4823 et al. Immigration, Refugees, Judiciary, 99th (statement Joan M. Clark, Assistant Consular Affairs) Hearings)). matter, argues-though position opposition certiorari-that "has cognizable Amendment.'' whether, claims, predicate accurate. relies, complaining Though descent. 1068-1069, 828-830, 1067-1069; (1917). Deference branches 1892, argue, context, ---------, 2275-2276, Affairs Manual §1131.5-4(c) Manual). Commercially presently cost $450 $600 per Hotaling, Is Isn't He?, Los Times Magazine, 1997, 36, Hotaling); Mirabella, Lab's Tests Give Answers Genetic Questions, Baltimore Sun, 1C, 8C, cols. Mirabella). Laboratories samples cells scraped inside cheek Faigman, Kaye, Saks, Sanders, Modern Scientific Evidence §§19-2.2, 19-2.7.1, 761, 775 (1997); 54; observed competence, integrity, availability facilities vary world.'' §1131.5-4(c). laboratories accredited Association Blood Banks. 36. Once majority, liability context testing. 1474-1475 Child Support Enforcement Amendments 1984). Office Background Study, Use (2d proportion dropped 2.2% 1945. 3. steadily increased percent. c hild issuance visa residence, §§1101(b)(1), 1153(d). questions relevance testing, was, promptly irrelevant; stronger. Theoretically soldier Reno, 801, 802 (C.A.9 1995), cert. denied, 516 1043, 701, 658 All wherein reside.'' §1. Liberties Union Amici Curiae 1473 dispute replace "knowledge-of-birth'' "caretaker parents.'' Post, candidate consideration. occurs; option eliminate youth. confusing best, tell "caretaker'' "non-caretaker''; protective families Michael Superior Sonoma Cty., 497-498, 1200, 1218-1219, 437 requested.'' remedy, question. behalf. [s]he "close' relationship'' hindrance' __ (1991)). original inadequate, demanding impairment sue does. 456-457, (1976), indeed barrier whatever'' 20. 216, 466-467 (Burger, Certainly challenger,'' stake. charitably called clarification, leave day. reach (which Court) 1921 contained provided: 1993 derive section.'' 15603, 66th 3d §33(2), (1921). bill, proceeded further. 1185, (1921); 137. synonymous; §1101(a)(22). residents Samoa Swains Island. Aleinikoff, Martin, Motomura, Immigration: Process Policy 974-975, (3d ed.1995). gains interpreted well; §93.04[2][d][viii], 93-49. retroactively; nonretroactive. net result 1933 1994 retroactive. 103-416, Tit. §101(a)(2), 4306, §1401(h). Armed Forces count satisfying January 1941. §§301(a)(7), 309(b), §§1401(g), 1409(b).

Category: 1