Document: 436 U.S. 49 98 S.Ct. 1670 56 L.Ed.2d 106 SANTA CLARA PUEBLO et al., Petitioners,v.Julia MARTINEZ al. No. 76-682. Argued Nov. 29, 1977. Decided May 15, 1978. Syllabus Respondents, a female member of the Santa Clara Pueblo and her daughter, brought this action for declaratory injunctive relief against petitioners, its Governor, alleging that ordinance denies tribal membership to children members who marry outside tribe, but not similarly situated men violates Title I Indian Civil Rights Act 1968 (ICRA), 25 U.S.C. §§ 1301-1303, which in relevant part provides "[n]o tribe exercising powers self-government shall . deny any person within jurisdiction equal protection laws." § 1302(8). The ICRA's only express remedial provision, 1303, extends writ habeas corpus person, federal court, "to test legality his detention by order an tribe." District Court held was conferred 28 1343(4) 1302(8), apparently concluding substantive provisions impliedly authorized civil actions relief, also immune from such suit. Subsequently, court found petitioners on merits. Appeals, while agreeing jurisdictional issue, reversed Held: 1. Suits under ICRA are barred tribe's sovereign immunity suit, since nothing face purports subject tribes courts or relief. Pp. 58-59. 2. Nor does 1302 authorize private cause Pueblo's Governor. Congress' failure provide remedies other than enforcement deliberate, as is manifest structure statutory scheme legislative history I. 59-72. (a) Congress committed goal self-determination, evidenced itself. Section selectively incorporated some instances modified safeguards Bill fit unique needs governments, parts congressional purpose protect sovereignty undue interference. Creation rights would comport with protecting self-government. 62-65. (b) Tribal courts, have repeatedly been recognized appropriate forums adjudicating disputes involving important interes both Indians non-Indians, available vindicate created ICRA. 65-66. (c) After considering numerous alternatives review criminal convictions, decided way adequately individual interests at stake avoiding unnecessary intrusions governments. Similarly, considered rejected proposals alleged violations arising context. It thus clear limited mechanism 1303 contemplated. 66-70. (d) By exposing officials full array redress state officials, may resolution issues 1302, particularly those likely arise context, will frequently depend questions tradition custom be better position evaluate courts. 71-72. 10th Cir., 540 F.2d 1039, reversed. Marcelino Prelo, Jr., Albuquerque, N. M., petitioners. Richard B. Collins, Window Rock, Ariz., respondents. Mr. Justice MARSHALL delivered opinion Court.* 1 This case requires us decide whether pass validity denying certain members. 2 Petitioner has existence over 600 years. suit petitioner Lucario Padilla, seeking extending male tribe. Respondents claimed rule discriminates basis sex ancestry violation 1302(8).1 3 expressly bringing enforce provisions. threshold issue interpreted actions, officers For reasons set forth below, we hold cannot so read. 4 * Respondent Julia Martinez fullblooded Pueblo, resides Reservation Northern New Mexico. In 1941 she married Navajo whom had several children, including respondent Audrey Martinez. Two years before marriage, passed here bars admission because their father Claran.2 Although were raised reservation continue reside there now they adults, result exclusion vote elections secular office tribe; moreover, no right remain event mother's death, inherit home possessory communal lands. 5 unsuccessful efforts persuade change rule, respondents filed lawsuit United States Mexico, behalf themselves others situated.3 Petitioners moved dismiss complaint ground lacked intratribal controversies affecting matters sovereignty. petitioners' contention, finding concluded, first, second, suit.4 Accordingly, motion denied. 402 F.Supp. (1975). 6 Following trial, While acknowledging relatively recent origin disputed nevertheless it reflect traditional values patriarchy still significant life. vital importance respondents' interests,5 determined rules "no more less social self-definition," basic survival cultural d economic entity. Id., 15.6 sustaining ordinance's "equal clause" ICRA, concluded balance struck between these competing left judgment Pueblo: 7 "[T]he guarantee should construed manner require determine promote therefore preserved Such determination made people Clara; can best what important, must live decision every day. 8 ". To abrogate decisions, delicate area membership, whatever 'good' reasons, destroy identity guise saving it." F.Supp., 18-19. 9 On appeal, Appeals Tenth Circuit upheld Court's 1042 (1976). "since [the ICRA] designed authority, intention allow suits essential aspect [of ICRA]. Otherwise, constitute mere unenforceable declaration principles." Ibid. disagreed, however, ruling recognizing standards analysis developed Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause necessarily controlling interpretation statute, classification one based upon presumptively invidious could sustained if justified compelling interest. See id., 1047-1048. Because vintage, court's view did rationally identify persons emotionally culturally Clarans, interest substantial enough justify discriminatory effect. 10 We granted certiorari, 431 913, 97 2172, 53 223 (1977), reverse. II 11 "distinct, independent political communities, retaining original natural rights" local Worcester v. Georgia, Pet. 515, 559, L.Ed. 483 (1832); see Mazurie, 419 544, 557, 95 710, 717, 42 706 (1975); F. Cohen, Handbook Federal Law 122-123 (1945). longer "possessed attributes sovereignty," "separate people, power regulating internal relations." Kagama, 118 375, 381-382, 1109, 1112-1113, 30 228 (1886). Wheeler, 435 313, 1079, 55 303 (1978). They make own law matters, Roff Burney, 168 218, 18 60, 442 (1897) (membership)s Jones Meehan, 175 1, 20 12, 44 (1899) (inheritance rules); Quiver, 241 602, 36 699, 60 1176 (1916) (domestic relations), forums, e. g., Williams Lee, 358 217, 79 269, 251 (1959). 12 As separate sovereigns pre-existing Constitution, historically regarded unconstrained constitutional framed specifically limitations authority. Thus, inTalton Mayes, 163 376, 16 986, 41 196 (1896), Fifth Amendment "operat[e] upon" "the enjoyed" tribes. 384, 989. ensuing lower extended holding Talton Rights, well Amendment.7 13 recognized, plenary authority limit, modify eliminate otherwise possess. See, supra, U.S., 379-381, 383-384, S.Ct., 1111-1112, 1113-1114; Cherokee Nation Hitchcock, 187 294, 305-307, 23 115, 119, 47 183 (1902). represents exercise acted effect progeny imposing restrictions governments similar, identical, contained Amendment.8 provision supplied Congress, "privilege corpus" "available States, 14 concede modifies applicable urge, intend except might corpus. argue, further, waive hand, contend powers, authorizes equitable consider contentions first respect III 15 long possessing common-law traditionally enjoyed powers. Turner 248 354, 358, 39 109, 110, 63 291 (1919); Fidelity & Guaranty Co., 309 506, 512-513, 653, 656, 84 894 (1940); Puyallup Tribe, Inc. Washington Dept. Game, 433 165, 172-173, 2616, 2620-2621, 667 (1977). sovereignty, like all others, superior control Congress. But "without authorization," "Indian Nations exempt suit." 512, 656. settled waiver " 'cannot implied unequivocally expressed.' Testan, 424 392, 399, 96 948, 953, 114 (1976), quoting, King, 395 4, 89 1501, 1502, 52 (1969). Nothing Moreover, custodian prisoner, see, 2243, hardly read general immunity. absence unequivocal expression contrary intent, conclude IV 17 officer Padilla protected 171-172, 2620-2621; cf. Ex parte Young, 209 123, 441, 714 (1908). inj nctive asserted respondents, though nonetheless implicit terms. addressing inquiry, bear mind providing forum constitutes interference autonomy beyond Even commercial domestic relations, "subject[ing] dispute among established themselves," Fisher Court, 382, 387-388, 943, 947, "undermine cour[T] AND HENCE iNfringe indians govern themselves." 223, 272.9 A fortiori, foreign "public" character, case, help unsettle government's ability maintain clearly officers, done proper itself cautions tread lightly indications intent. Cf. Antoine Washington, 420 194, 199-200, 944, 43 129 Choate Trapp, 224 665, 675, 32 565, 569, 941 (1912). 19 With considerations [as] backdrop statut[e] read," McClanahan Arizona State Tax Comm'n, 411 164, 172, 93 1257, 1262, (1973), turn factors relevance determining statute one. Cort Ash, 422 66, 2080, 45 26 (1975).10 note outset acentral particular "secur[e] American broad afforded Americans," thereby "protect arbitrary unjust governments." S.Rep. 841, 90th Cong., 1st Sess., 5-6 (1967). There doubt living Reservation, class whose especial benefit legislation enacted. Texas Pacific R. Co. Rigsby, 33, 39, 482, 484, 874 (1916); 78, 2087. freq ently propriety inferring rights, even when spoken purely declarative Alfred H. Mayer 392 409, 414 n. 13, 88 2186, 2189, 1189 (1968); Sullivan Little Hunting Park, Inc., 396 229, 238-240, 90 400, 405-406, 24 386 Bivens Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 91 1999, 29 619 (1971). These precedents, simply dispositive here. Not unpersuaded judicially sanctioned intrusion into required fulfill purposes contrary, suggest deliberate National Railroad Passenger Corp. Na- tional Assn. Passengers, 453, 94 690, 38 646 (1974); supra. distinct ICRA: addition objective strengthening vis-a-vis intended well-established "policy furthering self-government." Morton Mancari, 417 535, 551, 2474, 2483, 290 391, 948.11 commitment self-determination demonstrated rather wholesale fashion extension requirements initially proposed,12 political, cultural, governments.13 8, example, prohibit establishment religion, nor jury trials cases, appointment counsel indigents Argersinger Hamlin, 407 25, 92 2006, 530 (1972).14 21 Titles instance, III, 1321-1326, hailed supporters most Act,15 assume country" without prior consent abrogating contrary.16 Other through training judges,17 minimizing Bureau Affairs litigation.18 22 Where seeks dual objectives single usually hesitant infer silence that, serving purpose, disserve other. I, however useful securing compliance plainly odds undermine 59-60, impose serious financial burdens already "financially disadvantaged" Subcommittee Constitutional Senate Judiciary Committee, Indian: Summary Report Hearings Investigations Pursuant S.Res. 89th 2d (Comm. Print 1966) (hereinafter cited Report).19 reasoning implication remedy give norms changing obliged apply.20 exclusive adjudication personal property non-Indians.21 (1976); Crow Dog, 109 556, 396, 27 1030 (1883). Nonjudicial institutions competent law-applying bodies. (1975).22 Under circumstances, reluctant disturb B Our reluctance strongly reinforced specific underlying 1303. history, three years,23 indicates more, reflected accommodation goals "preventing injustices perpetrated and, other, precipitous affairs people." 11. settling means federal-court proceedings, opted intrusive proposed. Originally, de novo convictions obtained courts.24 At hearings proposed 1965, became agreement thrust provision—to form judicial proceedings courts—believed unmanageable needlessly displace 12; 1965 22-23, 157, 162, 341-342. representatives argued "deprive having harmful reservation," urged instead "decisions reviewed district petition corpus." 79. direct import introduced, Attorney General "receive investigate" complaints relating deprivations Indian's bring "such he deems secure Indian."25 Notwithstanding screening proposal frivolous vexatious lawsuits, bitterly opposed Tribe representative stated: "This [bill] government. [B]y terms [it] kind appropriate. bill, time satisfied [tribal] council, them [sic ] file multitude investigations threat action." 235 (statement Real Bird). similar vein, Mescalero Apache Council "[i]f perpetually dissatisfied armed [this bill] disrupt whole government." 343. response, completely eliminated same time, substitute Interior Department adjudicate concerning final decisions agency.26 Given highly unlikely 1302. Committee form, Sess. (1967), sheds little additional light question, support conclusion.27 Indeed description I,28 floor debates bill,29 generally understood 1303.30 factors, together rejection causes corpus, aware self-government, create review, namely, provided V bill's chief sponsor, Senator Ervin,31 commented urging passage, "should solution many problems con ronting Indian." 113 Cong.Rec. 13473 explored extent adhering contexts, investigation revealed abuses occurred administration justice. ibid., quoting 24. finding, given desire intrude surprising chose stage proceedings. 31 relations "always anomalous complex character." 381, 1112. early notion "foreign states" Art. (1831), quasi-sovereign nations which, government structure, culture, source ways Elk Wilkins, 112 94, 41, 643 (1884). suggested 54, judiciary apply prohibitions context substantially interfere politically entity.32 emphasized, extraordinarily broad, role adjusting correspondingly restrained. Lone Wolf 553, 216, 221, 299 (1903). retains prove deficient applying enforcing unless until makes permit represent, constrained find either officers. 33 is, accordingly, 34 Reversed. 35 BLACKMUN took consideration case. WHITE, dissenting. 37 declared (ICRA Act), 1301-1341, insure secured Americans." (1967) Report). today, allege denied tribes, undermines frustrates I's1 "protect[ing] believe I's authorization officials2 provisions, dissent. 1343(4), "any commenced [t]o recover damages vote." unquestionably "providing rights," necessary inquiry commencement noted Bell Hood, 327 678, 684, 66 773, 777, 939 (1946) (footnote omitted), "where federally invaded, beginning alert adjust grant relief." fact merely "does not, course, prevent fashioning effective remedy," 2190, (1968), "[t]he implies remedies." 239, 405, previously identified one: plaintiff enacted; indication intent one; consistent statute; relegated law. 2087, Application present inferred. 40 majority readily concedes, "respondents, reservation, enacted." Ante, 61. spite recognition laws, access concludes My reading convinces me gives enforced actions. rary, specified invoked noncustodial situations,3 assumption dispelled enumerate broadly, originally proposed, restraints imposed Government Constitution." S. 961, (1965). reflects indicate protections possesses relation tribe," "peculiarities condition, customs, beliefs, attitudes ." Judiciary, pursuant S.Res.194, uniqueness culture taken do think insulation official scrutiny. intended. inferences draws various changes my unsupported history. points substitution 962's ante, 67. change, restricted concern question inconsistent action. explains 962 displeasure degree permitted provision: "No appearing subcommittee submitting testimony subcommittee's type appeal Criticism 962, directed use trial appellate review. "There considerable suggestion reviewing basis, accused deprived right. If deprivation found, stand. If, suffered denial hands remanded instructions dismissal retrial, decide." 12-13 omitted). 46 greater proceeding. duty challenged violated enumerated rights. violation, invalidated; allowed authorized, proceeding, wisdom authorities. am persuaded rejecting administrative indicated violations. notes, version written him citizens laws Constitution States." 963, bill deemed true inference draw unwarranted. 48 focus 963 large aimed nontribal explaining need stated received Indians' following two actions: "[I]llegal officials; decisionmaking Affairs; welfare services off reservations; discrimination health services; mistreatment brutality officers; job agencies businesses." 961-968 S.J.Res. (1965) Hearings). 86 (testimony Arthur Lazarus, Counsel Association Affairs, Inc.: "It understanding off-reservation along lines Act"). difference focus, elimination us. Furthermore, proposal's deletion seems indicate. witnesses fears expressed gave possessed. 92, 104, 227, 319. Acting Secretary thought needed routinely referred litigation. 50 adopt Interior's "[a]ny action, deprives freedom take corrective action" necessary. 318. tandem conviction Secretary, then affirm, modify, reverse decision. Most discussion about joint focused objection improperly "mixed" process executive process." 96. 294. Ervin himself difficulty reconciling [his] ideas nature taking supposed proceeding branch Government." 225. limited, assumed equally unreceptive idea Executive Branch's "corrective actions" regard noncriminal 51 sum, then, positive 1302.4 approval inference, for, : "[I]n situations show tocreate although explicit controlling." 82, 2090 consideration, Act. outset, states "is 6. achievement. concerned, lack have. During legislation, pointed out "[t]hough abridgment authorities." 3. Subcommittee's explained: operation enjoy something ights. council prohibiting peyote resulted religious applied Native Church, sect uses cactus plant connection worship services. 54 "The Circuit, dismissing Church instructive pointing up resolving differences officials." 3-4 (footnotes omitted).5 "[t]o safeguard resulting 5. Several testified authorities inability gain Frank Takes Gun, President instituted deprive liberty property. suppose abstractedly [sic] said [certain] ., blunt elects confer 164. Miss Emily Schuler, accompanied former Governor Isleta hearings, echoed concerns. She complained get governors sometimes hungry all," responded: 'Power hungry' pretty good shorthand statement why drew Constitution. wanted compel rulers stay bounds let hunger carry 264. 57 authorities, believe, majority, desired very them. vested body, Council. App. 3-5. body "appropriate" ignore reality aggrieved leaders.6 58 Report's refers granting Indians. agree demonstrates concerned agree, congress precludes our major enacted mandated "in self-government" observe And once possess government, follows creating "constitut[e] itself," 59, further step taken; otherwise, meaningless. 59 appropriateness question. acknowledges, "we above, exception jurisdiction, proceed merits claim. dissent Court. REHNQUIST joins Parts II, IV, opinion. 1967, 35473, containing six Titles. 1843, re-enacted 5838, amendment House-originated H.R. 2516, approved House signed VII 1968, Pub.L. 90-284, 82 Stat. 77. 1968. herein title numbers appeared 1843 1967. ordinance, establishes rules: "1. All born marriages Pueblo. "2. [C]hildren non-members "3. Children "4. Persons naturalized circumstances." subparagraphs virtue subparagraph Martinez' husband precluded joining assuring children's certified represent consisting women Claran "jurisdiction (emphasis added). evidently believed exist cases. presenting availability (jurisdiction 1331). Memphis Cotton Oil 288 62, 67-68, 278, 280, 77 (1933) (Cardozo, J.). "Audrey speak Tewa language, participate life, are, culturally, practical purposes, Indians." 18. small Approximately 1,200 reservation; 150 elsewhere. members, 150-200 nonmembers reservation. Twin Cities Chippewa Minnesota 370 529, 533 (CA8 1967) (Due Process Amendment); Council, 272 131 (CA10 1959) (freedom religion First Amendments); Barta Oglala Sioux 259 553 1958), cert. denied, 932, 320, 304 (1959) (Fourteenth Amendment). Southern Ute 249 915, 919 1957), 356 960, 78 998, 1067 (1958) (applying due claim); Groundhog Keeler, 674, 678 1971). Colliflower Garland, 342 369 (CA9 1965), Settler Yakima 486 1969), 398 903, 1690, 61 (1970), where pervasively regulated agency instrumentality, lie detained line growing Talton, exempting addressed Governments, relieve Governments obligations entirety that: shall— "(1) free abridging speech, press, peaceably assemble grievances; "(2) violate persons, houses, papers, effects unreasonable search seizures, warrants, probable cause, supported oath affirmation, describing place searched thing seized; "(3) offense twice put jeopardy; "(4) witness himself; "(5) public just compensation; "(6) speedy informed accusation, confronted him, compulsory obtaining favor, expense assistance defense; "(7) excessive bail, fines, inflict cruel unusual punishments, penalty punishment imprisonment term months fine $500, both; "(8) law; "(9) attainder ex post facto "(10) punishable right, request, persons." 1301 definitional section, provides, inter alia, "powers include "all governmental possessed executive, legislative, judicial, offices, bodies, tribunals executed 1301(2). Fisher, adoption parties residents Rejecting argument constituted impermissible racial discrimination, reasoned: derive race status Cheyenne [E]ven occasionally results non-Indian access, disparate treatment policy 390-391, 948. merchant invoke collect debt owed merchant's activities seek exclusively remedies. "First, 'one enacted,' [36 874] supplied)—that favor plaintiff? Second, implicit, one? 458, 460, (1974) (Amtrak ). Third, imply Amtrak, supra ; Securities Investor Barbour, 421 423, 1733, 263 Calhoon Harvey, 379 134, 85 292, 190 (1964). finally, [or tribal] law, basically tribes], inappropriate solely law?" 2088. Note, Implication Remedies Act, 75 Mich.L.Rev. 210 One month passage Johnson enactment program overall "self-determination," "self-help," "self-development" 5518, 5520 (1968). Exploratory led 1961 Righ Committee. 1964, Ervin, Chairman Subcommittee, introduced 3041-3048, 88th had. bills reintroduced extensive Subcommittee. 961 Government. criticism adopted approach submitted Department, reprinted 318, wording, 1302-1303. 8-11, 1966); 17, 21, (statements Solicitor Interior); 65 Affairs). fully differ language substance respects modeled. Second Third Amendments, Seventh Amendment, omitted entirely. differs guarantees tribe's] laws," 1302(7), prohibits punishments bails, sets absolute limit months' $500 penalties impose. Finally, interesting prosecutions initiated grand indictment, requirement inapplicable discussed, 56. 9596 (1968) (remarks Rep. Meeds); 15419 Insular 108 198 Director, Indians). 1323(b), repealed Aug. 1953, 67 590, reservations consent. "for establishing educational classes judges offenses." 1311(4). Courts offenses administer justice lacking wn W. Hagan, Police Judges 104-125 (1966). 81, Commissioner approve contract attorney. exploratory apparent engaged inordinate delays approving contracts hindered defending asserting legal S.Res.53, 87th 211 (1961) Hearings); 290, 341, 410. 1331, act applications attorney days submission application granted. cost litigation located far reservations, doubtless exceeds forums. Policy Review Commission, Final 160-166 (1977); M. Price, 154-160 (1973). poorer resources income ill afford shoulder lawsuits. 131, 157; 1679; 69 San Felipe Pueblo). Prior detailed inquiries constitutions "Bill Rights" guarantees, differed e, 121, 166, 359; S.Res.58, 823 (1963). Both Johnson, explained few included Rights. Sen. Ervin); (message President). 287 117 operating 1976. 19, 5, 163. 1973 handled approximately 70,000 163-164. Judgments properly circumstances entitled faith credit rel. Mackey Coxe, How. 100, (1856); Standley Roberts, 836, 845 1894), dismissed, 999, 1177 (1896). 1935 accordance Reorganization 1934, 476, council. Many requiring ordinances approval. 187-188; 95. instances, may, pursuing remedies, able Interior. Senate, extremely abbreviated. Hearings, 9614-9615 Aspinall). (1965), 6-7. substitute, part: "Any request Indian. determines freedom, Any arose thereof." proposal, "Congress court," "would actually problems." 23-24. noteworthy portion current rely heavily rambling discussing Mayes progeny, 7, 8-11. suggesting unavailability nowhere enforceable conclusion characterized follows: "These cases illustrate continued litigants entities apply." 10. states: accomplished placing Id. "[i]t hoped [25 1311], recommend model code [to justice] implement I." (Although 1311 offenses, serve 6, 11.) appears viewed described 28, vehicle objectives" achieved. 13475 Congressman Reifel, House, "by assure fundamental rights." 9553 Only opportunity comment day legislation. 23, Pueblos testifying opposition "opens avenue knowledge values, offset councils." 37. inconceivable remained silent, did, possibility. overriding deal fairly Indians," Ruiz, 415 199, 236, 1055, 1075, 270 (1974), views. Burnett, An Historical Analysis Harv.J.Legis. 574-602, 603 (1972). define central community. (1897); Intermarriage Cases, 203 76, (1906). often vast gulf traditions intimately familiar, rush matters. 1301-1303. silent seek, charged laws. compensation References II's effectuating possibility wording 1311, directs code, enacting primarily Thus "provisions (1) being tried privileges, immunities guaranteed citizen offense, (2) advised constitution remaining qualifications judges. shows defendants upgrade quality referring 1959), dismissed challenging making introduce country, sell, possession bean known 132. contended plaintiffs' religion. "even regulations] impact forms worship." 135. "rambling passage." 27. "whether successfully challenge grounds acts practices 9. exception, binding section Report, heading "Need Legislation," Testimony observed. Lawrence Jaramillo, despite constitution's attempted "alter procedures Catholic priest reservation." 261, Jaramillo "has rulings," implored Subcommittee: "Honorable ask you want State. keep jurisdiction. asking this. know court."

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