Document: 112 S.Ct. 2188 504 U.S. 655 119 L.Ed.2d 441 UNITED STATES, Petitionerv.Humberto ALVAREZ-MACHAIN. No. 91-712. Argued April 1, 1992. Decided June 15, Syllabus Respondent, a citizen and resident of Mexico, was forcibly kidnapped from his home flown by private plane to Texas, where he arrested for participation in the kidnapping murder Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agent agent's pilot. After concluding that DEA agents were responsible abduction, District Court dismissed indictment on ground it violated Extradition Treaty between United States Mexico (Extradition or Treaty), ordered respondent's repatriation. The Appeals affirmed. Based one its prior decisions, court found that, since had authorized abduction Mexican government protested violation, jurisdiction improper. Held: fact forcible does not prohibit trial violations this country's criminal laws. Pp. 659-670. (a) A defendant may be prosecuted violation terms an extradition treaty. v. Rauscher, 407, 7 234, 30 L.Ed. 425. However, when treaty has been invoked, properly exercise even though defendant's presence is procured means abduction. Ker Illinois, 436, 225, 421. Thus, if rule applies proper. 659-662. (b) Neither Treaty's language nor history negotiations practice under supports proposition prohibits abductions outside terms. says nothing about either country refraining abducting people other's territory consequences occurs. In addition, although made aware doctrine as early 1906, curtail drafted 1935, current version contains no such clause. 663-666. (c) General principles international law provide basis interpreting include implied term prohibiting abductions. It would go beyond established precedent draw inference based argument are so clearly prohibited there reason prohibition itself. nations with regard treaties formed Court's decision supra, imply England. Respondent's argument, however, require much larger inferential leap only most general support it. While respondent correct "shocking" principles, whether should returned matter Treaty, Executive Branch. 666-670. 946 F.2d 1466 (CA9 1991), reversed remanded. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, which WHITE, SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, THOMAS, JJ., joined. STEVENS, J., filed dissenting opinion, BLACKMUN O'CONNOR, Kenneth W. Starr, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Paul Hoffman, Los Angeles, Cal., Robert K. Steinberg, counsel, respondent. THE CHIEF JUSTICE Court. 1 issue case defendant, abducted nation treaty, thereby acquires defense courts. We hold not, tried federal district States. 2 Humberto Alvarez-Machain, Mexico. He indicted participating kidnap special Enrique Camarena-Salazar pilot working Camarena, Alfredo Zavala-Avelar.1 believes respondent, medical doctor, participated prolonging Camarena's life others could further torture interrogate him. On 2, 1990, office Guadalajara, El Paso, officials. concluded they personally involved Caro-Quintero, 745 F.Supp. 599, 602-604, 609 (CD Cal.1990).2 3 Respondent moved dismiss indictment, claiming constituted outrageous governmental conduct, lacked try him because May 4, 1978, [1979] States-United States, 31 U.S.T. 5059, T.I.A.S. 9656 Treaty). rejected conduct claim, but held Treaty. discharged repatriated at 614. 4 affirmed dismissal repatriation relying Verdugo-Urquidez, 939 1341 cert. pending, 91-670. (1991). Verdugo, national authorization Mexico.3 Although expressly abductions, "purpose" F.2d, 1350, which, along formal protest offended nation, give right invoke defeat him.4 proper remedy 5 instant case, court's finding letters served official violation. Therefore, against 1467. granted certiorari, 502 ----, 857, 116 766 (1992), now reverse. 6 we have never before addressed precise raised present previously considered proceedings claimed brought former 425 (1886); more precisely, Webster-Ashburton 1842, 8 Stat. 572, 576, governed extraditions England prosecution Rauscher crime other than extradited. Whether prohibition, known specialty, intended part disputed two some time. U.S., 411, S.Ct., 236. Justice Miller carefully examined treaty; regards treaties; states; writings commentators, reached following conclusion: "[A] person who within virtue can offences described offence charged extradition, until reasonable time opportunity given him, after release upon charge, return whose asylum taken those proceedings." Id., 430, 246 (emphasis added). Miller's noted any doubt interpretation put rest statutes imposed specialty party. 423, 242.5 Unlike us today, way 9 421 (1886), also written decided same day Frederick convicted Illinois larceny; Peru. messenger sent Lima warrant demand Peru messenger, disdained reliance processes, instead States.6 distinguished Ker's into Peru, accordance terms.7 due process broadly, holding line "the highest authorities" "such sufficient why party answer offence, presents valid objection court." Ker, 444, 229. 10 Frisbie Collins, 342 519, 72 509, 96 541, rehearing denied, 343 937, 768, 1344 (1952), applied Chicago Michigan officers Michigan. upheld conviction over objections clause Federal Kidnapping Act stated: 11 "This departed announced [Ker] power impaired 'forcible abduction.' No persuasive reasons presented justify overruling cases. They sound satisfied having fairly apprized charges fair constitutional procedural safeguards. There Constitution requires permit guilty rightfully escape justice will." Frisbie, 522, 511-512 (citation footnote omitted).8 12 differences premise involvement 443, 229; abducted, did object prosecution.9 finds these dispositive, 1346, contending show prosecution, like violates Government, hand, argues stands "exception" breach will limit court. Brief 17. our first inquiry must If conclude applies, need inquire how came 13 construing statute, look determine meaning. Air France Saks, 470 392, 397, 105 1338, 1341, 84 289 (1985); Valentine ex. rel. Neidecker, 299 5, 11, 57 100, 103, 81 (1936). obligations refrain submits Article 22(1) states "shall apply offenses specified [including murder] committed enters force," U.S.T., 5073-5074, evidences intent make application mandatory offenses. natural conclusion 22 included ensure requested went force, regardless occurred.10 14 More critical provides: 15 "1. Contracting Party shall bound deliver up own nationals, executive authority shall, prevented laws Party, them if, discretion, deemed do so. 16 "2. pursuant paragraph Article, submit competent authorities purpose provided offense." 5065. 17 According embodies bargain struck: wishes prosecute national, request individual's extradition. Upon extradite individual, way, reasons, each preserved choose nationals courts nation. This preservation rights frustrated free abduct purposes prosecution. Appeals, all processes restrictions obligation sense resort gain individual manner contemplated 1350. 18 read fashion. purport specify custody absence surrender their foreign 411-412, 236; Factor Laubenheimer, 290 276, 287, 54 191, 193, 78 315 (1933); cf. 8-9, 102 (United statute obligation). exist impose mutual individuals certain defined sets circumstances, procedures. See J. Moore, Treatise Interstate Rendition, § (1891). thus provides mechanism otherwise exist, requiring, country, establishing procedures followed invoked. 19 negotiation fails constitute As Solicitor notes, aware, doctrine, States' position States-Mexico treaty.11 Nonetheless, signed attempt establish effect Ker.12 Moreover, grant exactly sought 1935 prominent group legal scholars sponsored faculty Harvard Law School, appears treaty.13 20 context history, remaining question, therefore, interpreted obtained Valentine, 17, 106 ("Strictly question uniform practical construction denying power, recognized implied"). 21 contends backdrop customary law, "so law" 11. censure evidenced, according Nations Charter Organization American 106. argue sources independent asserts rather inform essential, order assert affected registered protest. 1357 ("in kidnapping"). agrees exercised derivative nation's authorized, notwithstanding voluntarily render completely protest, ensures "offended" actually objects rendered Thus gaining set forth objects. 23 seems inconsistent remainder argument. force asserts, self-executing, appear enforce behalf offensiveness Great Britain cases importance attached cruel unusual punishment opposed murder. 24 fundamentally, difficulty garners none relates relation treaties. generally.14 find acts principle "exercise police another state." 16. many actions violate principle, including waging war, cannot seriously contended invasion nations.15 25 sum, infer goes practice. implication terms, required presentation evidence probable cause required, small step take. By contrast, obtaining establishes leap, cited simply fail persuade 26 amici "shocking," Tr. Oral Arg. 40, principles. through diplomatic App. 33-38, Branch.16 conclude, therefore fully applicable case. 27 judgment reversed, remanded consistent opinion. 28 So ordered. 29 whom O'CONNOR join, dissenting. correctly observes raises impression. ante, 659. unique several reasons. involve ordinary kidnaper, bounty hunter, apprehension fugitive State another, 541 (1952). Rather, involves citizen; territorial integrity kidnaped Mexico; offense allegedly both law. formally demanded least separate occasions1 represented punished alleged offense.2 clear Mexico's honored 1978 my reading light leads inexorably 599 Cal.1990), Ninth Circuit, (1991) (per curiam ), construed instrument. 32 * Mexico3 comprehensive document containing articles appendix listing extraditable covered agreement. parties preamble: Governments desire "to cooperate closely fight and, end, mutually better assistance matters extradition."4 From preamble, description parties' respect well requesting party,5 delineation evidentiary requirements extradition,6 provisions political capital punishment,7 details, designed cover entire subject 22, entitled "Scope Application" "Treaty directs "[e]xtradition take place, willful fall [the listed in] clauses Appendix."8 663, neither so, prosecution."9 33 Petitioner's claim exclusive, permits kidnaping, transform these, other, little verbiage. For example, requiring "sufficient" (Art. 3), withholding military 5), already 6), limitations lapsed 7), granting discretion refuse face death penalty 8), serve person. Circuit related "[e]ach utterly permissible course conduct." 1349 "only understood signatory comply whenever obtain located nation." 1351. 34 true, express promise Nation. 664,665-666. Relying omission,10 effect, concludes merely creates optional method offenders, silently reserved self help deem expeditious process.11 thought expedient execute options equally available they, too, explicitly Treaty.12 That, highly improbable consensual agreement,13 exclusive rules concerning extradition.14 manifest scope itself," 422, 242, plainly undertaking contracting That confirmed consideration "legal context" negotiated.15 Cannon University Chicago, 677, 699, 99 1946, 1958, 60 560 (1979). II 35 far less 1842 determined boundary Canada, suppression African slave trade, contained authorizing fugitives "in cases." 576. X, Nation agreed "deliver persons" seven specific crimes, 421, 241.16 extradited murder, lesser inflicting member crew vessel high seas. place demanding acquiring fugitive, murder.17 Britain. 36 provisions, crimes extradited, carried out, produced, is, other." 242. reasoned specifics "pas[s] hands positive just implications transfer takes place." 241. To interpret contrary mean then crime, Treaty; result, concluded, 37 Rejecting sole X procedure sovereign 38 "No view solemn public great earth sustained tribunal called judicial them. 39 "The opposite attempted maintained limitation alone once being what contrivance fraud pretence charge jurisdiction, here, liable here originally. restriction met itself." 40 similar issues, suffices protect despite itself purporting Nation's lawfully acquired jurisdiction.18 41 supported number precedents, holdings nearly uniform19 consensus condemns friendly neighbor.20 shocking might believe secretly seizures citizens party's territory.21 Story enough seizure Spanish port: 42 "But, supposing, moment, entry Apollon, her transit, follow, arrest meant given, she passed nation? think not. monstrous suppose revenue enter ports territories, seizing vessels presumed Congress nations." Wheat. 362, 370-371, 111 (1824) added).22 43 Nations, 1824, changed. leading treatise explains: 44 "A perform sovereignty State. 45 . 46 "It International send apprehend persons accused crime. Apart satisfaction, duty offending hand apprehended." Oppenheim's 295, n. (H. Lauterpacht 8th ed. 1955).23 47 Commenting chief reporter Institute's Restatement Foreign Relations used reminiscent Story's characterization "monstrous:" "When done without consent government, gross disrespect norm mankind. blatant state; eviscerates system (established network involving virtually states)."24 48 background covenant different invading partner case.25 decided—and I am convinced was—its rationale dictates comparable result case.26 III 49 flaw pervades differentiate citizens, obligation, Branch unquestionably constitutes flagrant law,27 obligations. outset "whether courts." Ante, 657. course, today. 50 distinction property wrongfully seized citizen, state enforcement agent, predicated acting conferred explained Brandeis Cook 288 102, 53 305, 77 641 (1933). era board British ascertain engaged importing alcoholic beverages. boarded 111/2 miles off coast Massachusetts, carrying unmanifested beverages, port. Collector Customs assessed collect libels cargo vessel. 51 occurred shore.28 Government argued illegality immaterial because, possession wrongful. acknowledged succeed act prevails lacks seize. distinguishing explained: 52 "Fourth. Mazel Tov dismissed. immaterial. facts proved forfeiture prescribed; may, filing libel forfeiture, ratify illegal seizure; Port Providence, Rhode Island jurisdiction; moreover, claimant answering merits waived penalties. rests misconceptions." true property, files resulting laws, wrongful Dodge 272 530, 532 [47 71 392 (1926) ]. Compare 444 [7 229, (1886) primarily common-law peril, seize become forfeited to, forfeitable by, Government; authority, ratification equivalent antecedent delegation Gelston Hoyt, 246, 310 [4 381 (1818) ]; Taylor How. 197, 205-206 [11 559 (1845) here. made. seize, authority. fixes conditions 'vessel port territories possessions adjudication with' Thereby, follow rightful seizure. Our lacking nullify 407 ]." 120-122, 311-12. reasoning employed explain arresting officer pretend capacity Ker. noted, dominions States." 229 added).29 exact Cook.30 55 failure invasions sovereign's accounts misplaced proposal Advisory Committee Research Law. 665-666, 13. text states, case.31 adopt recommendation speak decides admittedly disdain conventional see 669, entirely unsupported commentary. IV 56 especially brutal agent. fact, Executive's intense interest punishing courts.32 Such explanation, justification disregarding Rule uphold.33 wish reinterpret34 allow action authorizes influence interpretation.35 Indeed, revenge exerts "a kind hydraulic pressure settled bend," Northern Securities Co. 193 401, 468, 679 (1904) (Holmes, dissenting), precisely moments remember guided evenly dispassionately understanding it." Mine Workers, 330 258, 342, 67 720, 91 884 (1947) (Rutledge, dissenting). example tribunals countries sure emulate. significance precedents illustrated recent Appeal Republic South Africa. largely import cases—including Illinois—that Africa Ebrahim, S.Afr.L.Rep. (Apr.-June 1991).36 Africa—indeed, suspect throughout civilized world—will deeply disturbed "monstrous" announces every preserving affected, directly indirectly, character.37 Thomas Paine warned, "avidity punish always dangerous liberty" stretch, misinterpret, misapply best laws."38 counter tendency, reminds us: 58 "He liberty secure guard enemy oppression; reach himself."39 59 respectfully dissent. sixth superseding with: conspiracy commit violent furtherance racketeering activity (in U.S.C. §§ 371, 1959); committing 1959(a)(2)); 1201(a)(5), 1201(c)); 1201(a)(5)); felony 1111(a), 1114). 12-32. Apparently, officials informal officials, unsuccessful. then, contact offered pay reward expenses delivery 602-604 Cal.1990). Rene Martin Verdugo-Urquidez Camarena. earlier decision, Fourth Amendment search Verdugo-Urquidez' 494 259, 110 1056, 108 222 (1990). hearing Verdugo's 1362 1991). Gray, concurring, rested alone. 433, 247. Chief Waite dissented, forbid granted, change "effect treaty." 249. failed authorities, commentators suggested aftermath revolution "proper presented. Kester, Some Myths Law, 76 Geo.L.J. 1441, 1451 (1988). words Miller, "treaty operation, relied upon, pretext arrest, (1886). Two during Prohibition Era dealt entered assist off-shore passenger ships carry liquor while waters 1761 (1924). 111-118, 308-311, provision operating three-mile form conviction. Ford 273 593, 531, 793 (1927), personal waived. numerous interstate See, e.g., Mahon Justice, 127 700, 1204, 283 (1888); Hart, 146 183, 934 (1892); Pettibone Nichols, 203 192, 215-216, 111, 119, 148 (1906). whereas abducted. difference 26. second "[r]equests date resolved February, 1899, ." 5074, 9656. correspondence growing out 1905 Martinez incident, trial, wrote Secretary protesting Martinez' pending man [on] foundation." Letter Balbino Davalos reprinted Papers Relating H.R.Doc. 59th Cong., 2d Sess., pt. p. 1121 responded incident open namely abductor Bacon Charge, 1121-1122 stress statement 1881 James Blaine governor Texas authorize unconsented 1354; 14. misses mark, Government's respondent; recognition Rauscher. 5071-5072. Draft Convention Jurisdiction Respect Crime, proposed: "In exercising Convention, recourse measures convention measures." Am.J. Int'l L. 442 (Supp.1935). Similarly, Verdugo stating "[t]he safeguarding nations, ensuring treatment individuals." ambitious ascribed believe, places greater burden logically bear. broad sense, agreements common seek peaceful relations nations. This, particular category examples 18, citing, inter alia, Bassiouni, Extradition: Practice, 5.4, pp. 235-237 (2d rev. 1987). These aid later point Ship Richmond, Cranch 670 (1815), Merino, 391, 118 (1824), affect adjudicate connection discussed, distinguished, 122, 312. suspects kidnapping. 39-66. advantage approach resolution difficulties unilateral discussed supra. interested able hovered 3-mile supply motor launches took intoxicating distribution initially proposed agree searches limit; approach, problem hovering waters. appeared loggerheads; Cunard Steamship Mellon, 262 504, 894 (1923), merchant domestic liquors successfully negotiated giving (which desired), bring long sealed desired). 1990. 603 quickly unequivocally. 33; 3. report role 16, 1990 July 19, notes Embassy Department Amicus Curiae (Mexican ) 5-6; 1a-24a. 16th note, said believed "carried knowledge countries," 5a, 19th provisional 9a-15a. members resulted Rafael co-conspirator Alvarez-Machain imprisoned 40-year sentence. Lawyers Human Rights 4. 72-87. 72. "responsibility meaning shared expectations parties." 399, 1342, (1985). difficult encourages foster cooperation assistance—the stated goals Presidential Transmittal Senate Advice Consent (Treaty "make significant contribution enforcement"). prevent conflict providing agreed-upon standards avoid retaliatory sovereignty. writer, became common, European often arms. inducement remained World War I." M. Public Order (1974). writer "designed [to] restrict impermissible Practice Ch. 194 reducing promoting explains fugitives, state-sponsored (Third) (Restatement) 432, Comments a-c (1987). 72-74 (Articles 4). 73, 75, 76-79 3, 7, 10, 12, 13). 74-75 8). 83, 73. 76. resorts analysis dissent recognize explicit provision, one, extradited: justice, demand, surrendered, not." 434, 248. starkly, has, new says: "Notwithstanding paragraphs can, ironic torture, kidnaping 5a. point, promote harmonious orderly treaties, followed. generally nature contract nations," Foster Neilson, Pet. 253, 314, 415 (1829); 418, 239; land. Pet., 314; 418-419, 240. governs comprehensively 'for Party.' " Curiae, O.T.1991, 91-670, 6. And shares large border understands removal" territory, unless gives consent. Canada negotiating record, process, communications suggestion reached. 4.3, 82 ("Negotiations, preparatory works, integral th[e] surrounding [are] ascertaining intentions parties") (footnote omitted). provided: Her Britannic Majesty requisitions them, ministers, officers, respectively made, who, assault piracy, arson, robbery, forgery, utterance forged paper, either, asylum, found, other: criminality as, commitment committed: respective judges magistrates complaint oath, charged, magistrates, respectively, end heard considered; hearing, sustain examining judge magistrate certify fugitive. expense borne defrayed makes requisition, receives fugitive." Rauscher—that extradited—has come "doctrine specialty." suggests dictated 660. statutes, contain Court; rather, protection trial. briefs O.T. 1885, 1249, 6-10 (citing Caldwell, Blatchford 131 (SDNY 1871); Lawrence, 295 1876); Adriance Lagrave, N.Y. (1874)); 8-16 (same). embodied Apr. 30, 1948, 2394, 2361, amended Protocol Buenos Aires, Feb. 27, 1967, 607, 6847, Charter, 26, 1945, 1031, T.S. 993 (to signatories). Mann, Reflections Prosecution Persons Abducted Breach Time Perplexity (Y. Dinstein Tabory eds. 1989). When Abraham Sofaer, Legal Adviser Department, questioned congressional resisted notion acceptable: 'Can you imagine going Paris terrorist .? [H]ow feel nation—let Kingdom—came New York City, Boston, Philadelphia, refused normal channels international, communications, individual?' Bill Authorize Terrorists Others Who Attack Employees Citizens Abroad: Hearing Subcommittee Security Terrorism Judiciary, 99th 1st 63 continued: must, restrained complete, waters, ocean, highway said, distinct maritime range shot shores. Collection 1799, visitation four leagues coasts, referred proof assertion. But exercised? sovereign? Certainly not; very confine right, act, vessels, ports, others. gone this, usurpation universal search, yet pertinacity American." Wheat., 371-373. Comment c ("If unauthorized includes person, returned"). Henkin, Decent Opinions Mankind, John Marshall L.J. 215, 231 (1992) part: "(2) state's functions state, duly state. "c. Consequences limits enforcement. latter's consent, appropriate cases, receive reparation returned. return, prevailing proceed laws." c. Just standing raise issue, Certainly, agreement permitted courts, victim order, Norms circumstances fulfill rescind retaliate, steps." Vazquez, Treaty-Based Remedies Individuals, 92 Colum.L.Rev. 301, 375 (1992). boarding distance traverse hour, vessel's speed exceed hour. 107, 110, 306, 308, Supreme action: detention government. wrong done, individuals, perhaps owing allegiance government." Ill. 627, 643 (1884). 9-10, party; reference letter Governor unequivocally disapproved 1984, Schultz expressed Canadian national. remarked understandable "outraged" affront sovereignty." Leich, Contemporary 200, 208 (1984). Am.J.Int'l 435, 623 Storm Arises Over Camarena; Wants Harder Line Adopted, Latin Am. Weekly Rep., Mar. 8, 1985, 10; Presses Find Agent, Tribune, 20, 10. wisely urged: existence imperilled observe scrupulously. potent, omnipresent teacher. good ill, teaches whole example. Crime contagious. becomes lawbreaker, breeds contempt law; invites unto himself; anarchy. declare administration justifies means—to criminal—would terrible retribution. Against pernicious resolutely face." Olmstead 277 438, 485, 564, 575, 944 (1928) (Brandeis, changed At Office Counsel advised compromised undertaken 4B Op.Off. 549, 556 (1980). recently, revised President override Civil Constitutional House 101st 4-5 (1989) (statement William P. Barr, Assistant Attorney General, Counsel, Justice). Cf. Perkins Elg, 307 325, 884, 83 1320 (1939) (construing historical refusing defer policy); Johnson Browne, 205 309, 539, 816 (1907) (rejecting interpretation). appellant "abduction represents [South African] deprives competence hear [appellant's] S.Afr.L.Rep., 8-9. Judge Mansfield presciently observed unlike today: "Society ultimate loser when, convict guilty, uses methods lead decreased law." Toscanino, 500 267, 274 (CA2 1974). Complete Writings 588 (P. Foner 1945). Ibid.

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