Document: 538 U.S. 11 EWINGv.CALIFORNIA. No. 01-6978. Supreme Court of United States. Argued November 5, 2002. Decided March 2003. Under California's three strikes law, a defendant who is convicted felony and has previously been two or more serious violent felonies must receive an indeterminate life imprisonment term. Such becomes eligible for parole on date calculated by reference to minimum term, which, in this case, 25 years. While parole, petitioner Ewing was grand theft stealing golf clubs, worth $399 apiece. As required the prosecutor formally alleged, trial court found, that had four felonies. In sentencing him years life, refused exercise its discretion reduce conviction misdemeanor — under state law permits certain offenses, known as "wobblers," be classified either misdemeanors dismiss allegations some all his prior relevant convictio. The State Appeal affirmed. Relying Rummel v. Estelle, 445 U. S. 263, it rejected Ewing's claim sentence grossly disproportionate Eighth Amendment reasoned enhanced sentences served State's legitimate goal deterring incapacitating repeat offenders. denied review. Held: judgment Affirmed. JUSTICE O'CONNOR, joined THE CHIEF KENNEDY, concluded not therefore does violate Amendment's prohibition cruel unusual punishments. Pp. 20-31. (a) "narrow proportionality principle" "applies noncapital sentences." Harmelin Michigan, 501 957, 996-997 (KENNEDY, J., concurring part judgment). application context guided principles distilled KENNEDY's concurrence Harmelin: "[T]he primacy legislature, variety penological schemes, nature our federal system, requirement review objective factors" inform final principle "Eighth require strict between crime [but] forbids only extreme are `grossly disproportionate' crime." Id., at 1001. 20-24. (b) legislatures enacting laws made deliberate policy choice individuals have repeatedly engaged criminal behavior, whose conduct deterred conventional punishment approaches, isolated from society protect public safety. Though these relatively new, longstanding tradition deferring making implementing such important decisions. Constitution "does mandate adoption any one theory," S., 999, nothing prohibits California choosing incapacitate criminals already least crime. Recidivism long recognized basis increased safety concern Nation. Any criticism appropriately directed which primarily responsible choices underlying scheme. 24-28. (c) examining disproportionate, gravity offense compared harshness penalty. Even standing alone, should taken lightly. noted crime's seriousness review; "wobbler" no moment, remains unless imposes sentence. judge justifiably exercised her extend lenient treatment given history. weighing offense's gravity, both current history recidivism placed scales. other approach would accord proper deference judgments find expression legislature's sanctions. justified public-safety interest recidivist felons, amply supported own long, record. He numerous nine separate prison terms, committed most crimes while probation parole. His were including robbery residential burglary. reflects rational legislative entitled deference. 28-31. SCALIA agreed petitioner's against punishments, but ground aimed excluding modes punishment. This case demonstrates why cannot intelligently applied, Solem Helm, 463 277, stare decisis effect. 31-32. THOMAS punishments because contains principle. P. 32. announced delivered opinion, REHNQUIST, C. joined. SCALIA, post, p. 31, THOMAS, 32, filed opinions judgment. STEVENS, dissenting SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined, 35. 1 CERTIORARI TO COURT OF APPEAL CALIFORNIA, SECOND APPELLATE DISTRICT. 2 Quin Denvir, appointment Court, 535 1076, argued cause petitioner. With briefs David M. Porter, Karyn H. Bucur, Mark E. Haddad. 3 Donald De Nicola, Deputy Attorney General California, respondent. brief Bill Lockyer, General, Manuel Medeiros, Solicitor Robert R. Anderson, Chief Assistant Pamela Hamanaka, Senior Jaime L. Fuster, Kristofer Jorstad, Cook, Attorneys General. 4 Chertoff States amicus curiae urging affirmance. Olson, Dreeben, John Elwood, Joel Gershowitz.* 5 O'CONNOR JUICE KENNEDY join. 6 we decide whether felon term "Three Strikes You're Out" law. 7 * A 8 shift policies toward offenders threaten designed "to ensure longer greater those commit and/or offenses." Cal. Penal Code Ann. § 667(b) (West 1999). On 3, 1993, Assemblymen Jones Jim Costa introduced Assembly 971, version what later become Committee Public Safety defeated bill weeks later. outrage over defeat sparked voter initiative add Proposition 184, based loosely bill, ballot 1994 general election. 9 October 1, 184 circulating, 12-year-old Polly Klaas kidnaped home Petaluma, California. Her admitted killer, Richard Allen Davis, included kidnaping convictions. Davis half recent (16 kidnaping, assault, burglary). Had entire sentence, he still day kidnaped. 10 Klaas' murder galvanized support initiative. Within days, way becoming fastest qualifying January 1994, sponsors 971 resubmitted amended conformed 184. passed 63 margin. Senate 29 margin 1994. Governor Pete Wilson signed into 7, voters approved 72 28 percent 8, thus became second enact Washington their Initiative 593, 1. Dept. Justice, National Institute J. Clark, Austin, & D. Henry, Out": Review Legislation (Sept. 1997) (hereinafter Legislation). Between 1993 1995, 24 Federal Government enacted laws. Ibid. vary State, they share common protecting providing lengthy terms habitual felons. B 12 consists virtually identical statutory schemes "designed increase felons." People Superior San Diego Cty. ex rel. Romero, 13 4th 497, 504, 917 2d 628, 630 (1996) (Romero). When felony, defined "serious" "violent" §§ 667.5 1192.7 Supp. 2002), conducted pursuant Prior convictions alleged charging document, right jury determination prosecution proved beyond reasonable doubt. 1025; 1158 1985). If conviction, sentenced "twice otherwise provided conviction." 667(e)(1) 1999); 1170.12(c)(1) 2002). convictions, "an imprisonment." 667(e)(2)(A) 1170.12(c)(2)(A) Defendants "minimum term," times years, determined 1170 enhancements. 667(e)(2)(A)(i)-(iii) 1170.12(c)(2)(A)(i)-(iii) 14 offenses may misdemeanors. These "wobblers." Some "wobblers" defendant's For example, petty theft, misdemeanor, when committing specified theft-related crimes. 490 666 Other crimes, regardless See 489(b) Both types triggering treated presumptively "remains except actually exercised" make misdemeanor. Williams, 27 220, 229, 163 692, 696 (1945) (emphasis deleted internal quotation marks omitted). 15 prosecutors charge Likewise, courts charged before preliminary examination avoid imposing 17(b)(5), 17(b)(1) Los Angeles Alvarez, 968, 978, 928 1171, 1177-1178 (1997). exercising discretion, consider "those factors direct similar decisions," "the circumstances offense, appreciation attitude offense,... [and] objectives sentencing." (internal citations 16 can also vacate motion sua sponte. supra, 529-530, 2d, 647-648. ruling whether, "in light [the defendant's] present particulars background, character, prospects, deemed outside [three strikes'] scheme's spirit, whole part." 17 148, 161, 948 429, 437 (1998). Thus, ways: first, reducing (which do qualify offenses), second, vacating C 9-year Gary walked pro shop El Segundo Golf Course County 12, 2000. out with priced apiece, concealed pants leg. employee, suspicions aroused observed limp shop, telephoned police. police apprehended parking lot. 18 stranger justice system. 1984, age 22, pleaded guilty theft. six months jail (suspended), years' probation, $300 fine. 1988, auto year probation. After completed however, reduced permitted withdraw plea, dismissed case. 1990, 60 days county 1992, battery 30 summary One month later, months' burglary year's February possessing drug paraphernalia July appropriating lost property September unlawfully firearm trespassing 19 burglaries Long Beach, apartment complex 5-week period. awakened victims, asleep living room sofa, tried disconnect video cassette recorder television room. she screamed, ran front door. another occasion, accosted victim mailroom complex. claimed gun ordered hand wallet. resisted, produced knife forced back itself. rifled through bedroom, fled screaming help. absconded victim's money credit cards. 20 December 9, arrested premises lying officer. used glass cocaine pipe found seat patrol car transport station. first-degree counts Sentenced eight prison, paroled 1999. 21 Only stole clubs issue with, ultimately of, count personal excess $400. 484 2002); 489 Beach 667(g) 1170.12(e) 22 At hearing, asked so 17(b), 667(d)(1) 1170.12(b)(1) again purposes avoiding 4th, 529-531, Before Ewing, took note history, fact latest offense. heard arguments defense counsel plea himself. 23 end, remain felony. ruled stand. newly past, life. affirmed unpublished opinion. B143745 (Apr. 25, 2001). decision 263 (1980), Amendment. Enhanced statutes like reasoned, serve "legitimate goal" petition review, granted certiorari, 969 (2002). We now affirm. II Amendment, (1991) judgment); cf. Weems States, 217 349, 371 (1910); Robinson 370 660, 667 (1962) (applying via Fourteenth Amendment). recently addressed applied series cases beginning supra. Rummel, held did three-time offender possibility 284-285. Like statute. Rummel's 1964 "fraudulent use card obtain $80 goods services," 1969 "passing forged check amount $28.36." 265. "obtaining $120.75 false pretenses." 266. 26 "[h]aving twice imprisoned felonies, Texas place upon onus simply unable bring within social norms prescribed State." 284. statute "is than societal person commits yet subjected admittedly penalty incarceration subject grant parole." 278. "has occasion stated imposition severity 271. But "[o]utside capital punishment, successful challenges particular exceedingly rare." 272. Although "would ... come play example if legislature overtime punishable imprisonment," id., 274, n. 11, mandatory imposed constitute Amendments," 285. Hutto 454 (1982) (per curiam), consecutive possession intent distribute ounces marijuana distribution marijuana. constitutional: "In short, stands proposition reluctant legislatively mandated imprisonment, 374 (citations Three after 279 (1983), prohibited "a without seventh nonviolent felony." "uttering `no account' $100." 281. specifically ban "prohibits committed," "constitutional explicitly almost century." 284, 286. then explained violates Amendment: "(i) penalty; (ii) same jurisdiction; (iii) commission jurisdictions." 292. Applying Solem, struck down contrast 297; see 300 ("[T]he South Dakota commutation system fundamentally different us Rummel"). Indeed, declined overrule Rummel: "[O]ur conclusion today inconsistent Estelle." 303, 32; 288, ("[O]ur entirely consistent Court's Estelle"). Eight grappled Harmelin. rather involved first-time 672 grams cocaine. majority Harmelin's violated could agree argument failed. JUSTICE, wrote aspect death jurisprudence, generalizable law." 994. apply gross disproportionality reviewing sentences. 31 Members concurred "[t]he applies 997. identified "inform one: Rather, 1001 (citing 288). "did mandate" comparative analysis "within 1004-1005. 32 guide new called consider. 33 many See, e. g., Bureau Justice Assistance, Assessment Structured Sentencing (1996). Yet effected sea change throughout Nation.1 responded widespread concerns about targeting class pose greatest threat safety: career criminals. chief architects explained: intended go tougher. It focused effort create judicial Ardaiz, Law: History, Expectations, Consequences, McGeorge Rev. (2000) Ardaiz). 34 Throughout approaches order decisions longstanding. Weems, 379; Gore 357 386, 393 (1958); Payne Tennessee, 808, 824 (1991); 274; 290; Harmelin, 998 35 Our traditional finds corollary theory." 999 justifications, incapacitation, deterrence, retribution, rehabilitation. W. LaFave A. Scott, Substantive Criminal Law 1.5, pp. 30-36 (1986) (explaining theories punishment). justifications role Selecting rationales generally legislatures, courts. 36 Legislature requires Nothing choice. To contrary, establish "States valid segregating criminals." Parke Raley, 506 20, (1992); Oyler Boles, 368 448, 451 constitutionality practice inflicting severer penalties open challenge"). Almendarez-Torres 523 224, 230 (1998) (recidivism typical factor might imagine"); Witte 515 389, 400 (1995) ("In upholding statutes, double jeopardy [is] `a stiffened crime, considered aggravated repetitive one'" (quoting Gryger Burke, 334 728, 732 (1948))). 37 justification pretext. According report, approximately 67 former inmates released prisons release. Statistics, Langan Levin, Special Report: Prisoners Released (June particular, higher rates violent, drug, public-order offenses. 8. Approximately 73 61 offenders, 62 66 38 1996, Sacramento Bee studied 233 aggregate 1,165 average Furillo, Verdict: Most Offenders Have Histories, Bee, Mar. A1. 322 robberies 262 burglaries. About 84 all, homicides, attempted slayings, 91 sexual assaults child molestations. concluded, investigation, "[i]n vast cases, third strike, strikes] snaring [the] long-term multiple convictions...." 39 lends viewed incapacitation deterrence statutes: "[A] statute['s] primary goals deter and, point enough punished segregate rest extended period time." Four passage rate parolees returned dropped nearly percent. Office Its Impact System Years, dramatically: 40 "An unintended positive consequence `Three Strikes' impact leaving state. More jurisdictions entering striking turnaround started first time left entered since 1976. trend continued 1997 1,000 net California." 41 Janiskee Erler, Crime, Punishment, Romero: An Analysis Case Against Law, Duquesne 43, 45-46 ("Prosecutors routinely report `felons tell them moving fear getting strike offense'" Sanchez, Movement Builds Strikes" Post, Feb. 18, 2000, A3)). 42 sure, controversy. Critics doubted law's wisdom, cost-efficiency, effectiveness reaching goals. Zimring, Hawkins, Kamin, Punishment Democracy: Out (2001); Vitiello, Strikes: Can Return Rationality? 87 Crim. 395, 423 responsibility difficult underlie sit "superlegislature" second-guess choices. believing dramatically felons "advance[s] [its] substantial way." 297, 22. III 43 backdrop, unconstitutionally "shoplifting clubs." Brief Petitioner 6. address threshold, incorrectly frames issue. merely $1,200 merchandise having certainly "one passive commit." 296 "seriousness" re Lynch, 3d 410, 432, 503 921, 936, (1972). Theft 641, App. 21a. 44 That moment. "unless until sentence." 69 613, 626, 447 117, 126 (1968) (Tobriner, concurring); B. Witkin N. Epstein, (3d ed. 2000). "The purpose judge's discretion" downgrade "impose rehabilitation require, adversely affected by, felon." 664-665, 152 concurring). reduction notion "conceptually misdemeanor." Necochea 1012, 1016, 100 Rptr. 693, 695 "intended misdemeanant potential 45 scales recidivism. fail punishing "triggering" offense: "[I]t addition dealing harsher manner repeated acts shown incapable conforming established 276; 296. give full effect goal, take account. 46 record.2 incarceration, "strikes" one. judgment, deference, continue incapacitated. "was [Ewing] rare threshold comparison leads inference disproportionality." 1005 47 hold 48 ordered. Notes: Falk, Andrew Schapiro, Mary Price Families Mandatory Minimums reversal. Briefs amici affirmance Alabama et al. William Pryor, Jr., Alabama, Nathan Forrester, Michael Billingsley, respective follows: Steve Carter Indiana, Don Stenberg Nebraska, Drew Edmondson Oklahoma, Hardy Myers Oregon, Cornyn Texas, Shurtleff Utah, Christine O. Gregoire Washington, Hoke MacMillan Wyoming; Legal Foundation Kent Scheidegger Charles Hobson. Dennis Stout Grover Merritt District Association curiae. hardly surprising statistics relied BREYER show enactment "no prison." (dissenting opinion) added). Profound disappointment perceived lenity (especially felons) led place. argues on"property-crime-related grounds" strikes. 51. limited. explained, overarching prevent repeating behavior. 1999) ("It . offenses"). "deliberate determinative `triggering' Law." Ardaiz 9. Neither nor precedent forecloses 49 50 my opinion 985 (1991), I "cruel punishments" "guarantee respect decisis, nonetheless accept contrary holding 277 (1983) narrow felt it. cannot. 51 Proportionality fit inherently concept tied retribution. even speak `proportionality,' once significant weight," 989 mention giving weight law: incapacitation. game up plurality acknowledged "sentence rehabilitation." Ante, acknowledgment made, suffices assess penalty," ante, 28; classic description (alone itself quite resistant policy-free, legal analysis) "first" step inquiry, ibid. Having (by discussion fairness, convincingly 25-years-to-life "proportionate" clubs), "Ewing's 29. 52 Which indeed though anything mystery. Perhaps revise terminology, reads unstated reasonably proportionate pursue formulation clearer ever, course, applying evaluating policy. 53 Because concur 54 55 SCALIA's view test application. Solem's perfectly clear, feel compelled view, Cruel Unusual Punishments Clause 966-985 (opinion J.). 56 concludes 57 whom join, dissenting. 58 cogently unusual.1 concurrences prompt writing emphasize capable 59 succinctly `excessive' sanctions." Atkins Virginia, 536 304, 311 (2002); Const., Amdt. ("Excessive bail shall required, excessive fines imposed, inflicted"). Faithful text, directs judges best determining fines, see, Bajakajian, 524 321, 334-336 (1998), bail, Stack Boyle, 342 (1951), forms Coker Georgia, 433 584, 592 (1977). anomalous indeed" suggest makes applicable imprisonment. 289 (1983). broadly prohibiting sanctions, wise assessing absence black-letter rule disable construing outer limits authority imposes. "constantly draw lines contexts," 294, meaning Constitution's phrased protections. Due Process employ punitive damages awards case-by-case basis. BMW North America, Inc. Gore, 517 559, 562 Also, although Sixth guarantees defendants speedy trial, often determine delay constitutionally permissible not. Doggett 505 647 (1992).2 Nation's guideline prevalent specific grants gave uncabined broad ranges. K. Stith Cabranes, Fear Judging: Guidelines Courts Cabranes) ("From Republic, entrusted wide discretion"); Mistretta 488 361, 364 (1989). unheard authorize ranging example. Perley, 86 Me. 427, 74, 75 (1894) Maine years); Southard, 298 Mich. 75, 77, 457 (1941) ("The `robbery armed' years"). wisely employed account namely, Cabranes 14. think clear expresses basic takes penal preclude reliance support, parking. (1980). Accordingly, respectfully dissent. "present purposes,"post, 36, opinion), framework 1004-1005 analyzing claim. framework. However, controlled three-factor 290-291 sentencing, seems directly point. Numerous examples situations faced imprecise commands See,e. Kyles Whitley, 514 419 (reviewing undisclosed evidence material); Arizona Fulminante, 499 (considering confession coerced so, admission harmless error); Strickland 466 668 (1984) (addressing counsel's performance deficient deficiency prejudicial); Darden Wainwright, 477 168 (assessing prosecutorial misconduct deprived fair trial); Christensen Harris County, 529 576, 589 (SCALIA, judgment) agency's construction "`reasonable'"). GINSBURG 64 constitutional question "three strikes" repeat-offender "grossly disproportionate" 14, 30-31 (plurality opinion). amounts real sentence-triggering total $1,197. 18. includes arising (one armed). 18-19. somewhat less severe. differences determinative, reach ultimate here. 65 sets forth forbids, punishments," (including years) disproportionate." 303; Lockyer Andrade, 71. "gross disproportionality" principle, keep mind "legislative policy" will appropriateness punishment's "severity," hence defer judgments. 289-290; 274-276 (1980); 373 (1910). properly judgments, fails instances. 290, 16; 1004 272 ("[S]uccessful rare"). And "`rarely'" necessary "`engage analysis'" rejecting 16). analytical 23-24. And, purposes, terms. 32-33, (STEVENS, dissenting). implement approach, imposed." crosses occurrence compare "imposed criminals" same, other, jurisdictions. 290-291; "validate" invalidate initial recognize warnings implicit frequent repetition words "rare." Nonetheless believe "rare" say confidence 68 "threshold." First, raises question. recidivist. Hence sentencing: Solem. falls cases. stronger presented where upheld recidivist's constitutional. weaker unconstitutional. kinds sentence-related characteristics define spectrum: length time, i. e., likely spend prison; conduct, offender's actual behavior offense-related circumstances; 265-266, 269, 276, 278, 280-281 (using factors); 290-303 (same). Cf. Commission, Manual ch. pt. A, intro., (Nov. 1987) (USSG) (empirical study "summary reports 40,000 sample 10,000 augmented presentence reports" record); s. 3. 70 available obtaining $120 pretenses, (involving small money). 263; 21. unconstitutional $100 nonexistent bank account, 277; 22-23. pertinent difference? 71 factor, record, explain difference. record worse too monetary loss same. critical explains difference outcome measured time. authorized offender, 280; 293 (Powell, prison. Now differ significantly here burglaries, knife) contrasted Helm's none weapons). degree. (shoplifting) differs (passing bad check) (obtaining pretenses). Rather lies value obtained. difference, feature (loss victim, wholesale value) adjusted irrelevant inflation, comes (in 1979 values) $379 1973 $232 Rummel. USSG 2B1.1, comment., 2(A)(i) 2002) measures taken); Labor, Labor Inflation Consumer Spending, Calculator (Jan. 23, 2003), http://www.bls.gov Calculator). Alternatively, inflation-adjusted clubs' sticker price, $505 $309 Calculator. critical, considerably important. amounts, good-time credits. shorter amounted, unlike (but Solem), consume productive remainder (It means himself, seriously ill 38, die prison.) 74 upshot Solem/Rummel places closer moves slightly direction. Overall, well twilight zone unconstitutionality substantial, themselves outcome. Second, face severe subsequently conduct. infra, 44-45. deny shoplifting, tells costs retailers range $30 billion annually. Amicus Curiae 27. mentioned "harm caused threatened society," "absolute magnitude crime," "culpability." 292-293. criteria, ranks bottom scale. 76 urged criteria: "frequency" commission, "ease difficulty detection," degree differing punishment." 24-25. criteria latter Unlike, say, shoplifting stores customers presence, along store employees cameras, help detect Nor there enforcement community believes adequately shoplifting. well-publicized instances all. hand, frequently crime; "frequency," Otherwise traffic warrant 77 involves argue potentially warranting 25-year recognition per se constitutional." that, involving focus [offense] triggers sentence," playing "relevant," necessarily role. 296, 21; 402, 403 (the "punished conviction," "`is here, said, among serious, serious. 288 dissenting) (overtime violation trigger recidivist). 78 Third, suggests experienced disproportionately harsh. Commission (having how offenders) include (or offenses) especially recidivists, 4B1.1 (Guideline "career offenders"); (sentences Commission's reports"); 45, Congress sought "at near maximum" Rep. 98-225, 175 (1983); 994(h) (requiring "violence" related); 3559(c) (grand "strike" law); 45-46. 994(i)(1) imprisonment" convictions"). 79 Taken together, strong being pass "threshold" test. not, function test? permit arguably sentences, unusually ones. blocked every invalid ones failed highly information, 291-292, 298-300. comparisons particularly provide content. By contrast, assessment subjective. transform earlier precedent. 291-292; 1000, 80 Believing one, sufficient turn analysis. answers questions. times, penalty) punish conduct? California) impose term? Moreover, hypothetical beside point, serve. 81 shed little normally set maximum choose range, credits permitting release after, one-third served, Alaska Stat. 33.20.010(a) (2000); Conn. Gen. 18-7a rarely served. part, parties' discuss statutes. Nonetheless, discussion, readily validates belief comparatively speaking, extreme. 82 itself, know following: end World War (when 15), 484, 1970); Corrections, Offender Information Services, Administrative Services Division, Historical Data Time Served Male Felons Paroled Institutions: 1945 Through 1981, (Table 10) Felons), Lodging Petitioner. From 1976 (and currently, absent penalty), Ewing-type received 1999), 667.5(b) "habitual offender" 644(a), 1970) (repealed 1977). far statistical data median (other theft) 90 10). 83 recidivists sorts during fraction real-time average, additional (recidivist-related) serving seven 21). reserved, reserves, Ewing's. Statistics indicate (nonrecidivist) male murderers 2). moved (where approximates served), punishes harshly imposes, nonrecidivists arson causing great bodily injury 451(a) (prison causes injury); voluntary manslaughter 193 6, manslaughter). reserves (former-burglar-now-golf-club-thief) nonrecidivist, murderers. 190(a) 2003) (sentence murder). 85 jurisdictions, bound Guidelines, recidivist, ordinary exceed 2B1.1(a) (assuming base level VI, mitigating aggravating adjustments); Table. 37, 41, reserve currently murder, 2A1.2; air piracy, 2A5.1; discharge firearm, injury, $1 million), 2B3.1; than, pounds heroin, 2D1.1; million, 2B1.1; (with good time) commit, instance, manslaughter, 2A1.3; assault (causing motivated money), 2A2.2; 2A4.1; $5 2B2.1; pound cocaine, 3559(c), exceptions, 46-47, information know, legally impossible courts, Appendix, Part B, C, infra. possible more, D, infra mean done so. page. "might" five last restricts ability supporting despite incentive someone else serve, anywhere approaching precisely examples. 28-29, 13. points Ex parte Howington, 622 So. 896 (Ala. 1993), "life" tractor-trailer. Heftel, 513 397 (S. 1994), cites Sims 107 Nev. 438, 814 Nevada armed robbery) purse wallet containing $476. 88 (as Rummel), here). Ala. 15-22-28(e) 1982). factually 401. Sims, legally, vote 2) concede single instance population million individuals. Programs, Prison http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/prisons.htm (available Clerk file). 89 practices, crimes), suggested. Given available, data, failure assume following statement true: Outside context, unique considerable IV matter. represents stricter recidivists. offenses"); 24. special related justify (thereby punishment), seem 998-999, (noting legislature" policy). obvious bringing ambit administrative. kind workable line trigger, "But drawn somewhere anywhere." Pearce Commissioner, 315 543, 558 (1942) (Frankfurter, statute's administrative separating job well. 92 draws separates "felonies" "misdemeanors." Respondent relies, fundamentally, classifications felonies"). Those graduated labels reflect differences. Watson, 411, 438-441 (1976) (Marshall, (felony/misdemeanor distinction logic); 284 casual various systems force Union shows dividing larceny, usually taken, varies markedly another"). uses unrelated "`wobblers,'" 16, 93 classify depending 17(a), 16-17, depends defendant" "require" "be by") "incarceration part); felony/misdemeanor classification turns 94 subset "petty prior" statute, defining companion 63, authorizes Again, 95 result importing anomalies. anomaly "Wobbler" cover deadly weapon, 245, vehicular 193(c)(1), laundering, 186.10(a), defacement graffiti, 594(b)(2)(A) chickens, nuts, avocados, 487(b)(1)(A) 2003); obviously twice, pure misdemeanors, reckless driving, Veh. 23103 23104(a) 2000) (reckless driving injury), interfere another's civil rights, 422.6 selling poisoned alcohol, 347b, neglect, 270, manufacturing government documents conceal true citizenship, 112(a) 96 Another temporal order. fall chicken $100, violence. scope 97 further classifies "felony" if, Thus steals $200 reveals instead previous (Ewing's brought realm inflation.) 98 need lower boundary done. "strikes," lists definition "strike." 667.5(c) (listing felonies); 1192.7(c) felonies). There reason enumerate, anomalies chosen grounds Parts III, 99 inclusion "triggering crime") objective. several "incapacitate" them, future. object says, seeks "`to crime.'" added)). definitions person, danger physical harm, 667.5(c)(1) 1192.7(c)(1) (murder manslaughter); 667.5(c)(21) 1192.7(c)(18) (first-degree burglary); 1192.7(c)(24) (selling offering sell heroin minor). They property, large money, embezzlement, fraud. omission categories (unarmed) definition, argue, property-crime-related grounds, triggers. remaining relevant. No "retribution." 427 (1997) (California's "[h]abitual statutes[, is] retributive" regard culpability harm behavior," offens[e]"). reasons discussed, "deterrence," overkill. "rehabilitation" rescue considerations V 101 (THOMAS, Otherwise, legislators just practices muster. 102 bright-line guidance. approach. plurality, meaningful demands sentencing's bounds. 103 offer guidance is, minimum, circumstances. sufficiently active questions way, identify fairly bounds sentencing. 104 sum, plurality's framework, (life notwithstanding. 105 reasons, 106 APPENDIX OPINION Thirty-three prison:1 108 Federal: months. 2B1.1 109 Alaska: years; presumptive 11.46.130(a)(1), (c), 12.55.125(e) (2000). 110 Arizona: Ariz. 13-604(C), 13-1802(E) 111 Connecticut: 53a-35a(6), 53a-40(j), 53a-124(a)(2) (2001). 112 Delaware: Del. Ann., Tit. 840(d) (Supp. 2000); 4205(b)(7) (1995). Recidivist applicable. 4214; Buckingham 482 327 (Del. 1984). 113 Columbia: 22-3212(a) 22-1804a(c)(2) 2001) (amended 114 Florida: Fla. 775.084(1)(a), (4)(a)(3) 812.014(c)(1) 115 Georgia: Ga. 16-8-12(a)(1) (1996); 17-10-7(a) 1996). 116 Hawaii: Haw. 708-831(1)(b), 706-606.5(1)(a)(iv), (7)(a) 117 Idaho: Idaho 18-2403, 18-2407(b)(1), 18-2408(2)(a) (1948-1997). Recidivist/habitual 19-2514, "`convictions establishing status.'" Harrington, 133 563, 565, 990 144, 146 (App. Brandt, 341, 344, 715 1011, 1014 1986)). situation examined [this] appropriate." stemmed complex, each other; fourth earlier. 6; Tr. (Information, NA018343-01 (Cal. Super. Ct.) file)). distinguishable adhere rule. 343, 1013, (three separately homes victims "during two-month period"); Mace, 903, 907, 994 1066, 1070 (unrelated DUI) dates counties); Smith, 553, 560, 777 1226, 1233 1989) (separate counties). 118 Illinois: Ill. Comp. Stat., 730, 5/ 5-8-1(a)(6) 2001); 720, 5/16-1(b)(4). 5/33B-1(a) 119 Indiana: added circumstances). Ind. 35-43-4-2(a) (1993); 35-50-2-7(a). 35-50-2-8 120 Iowa: Iowa 714.2(2), 902.9(5) 902.8 1994). 121 Kansas: Kan. 21-3701(b)(2), 21-4704(a) 21-4504(e)(3). 122 Kentucky: Ky. 514.030(2) (Lexis 532.060(2)(c), (d), 532.080(2), (5) 123 Maine: year. 17-A, 353 1983); 362(4)(B) 1252(2)(D) 1983 1252(4-A) 124 Massachusetts: Mass. Laws, 266, 30(1) 279, 1998); Commonwealth Hall, 466, 468, 492 84, (1986). 125 Minnesota: Minn. 609.52, subd. 3(3)(a) 609.1095, 2. Mississippi: Miss. 97-17-41(1)(a) 1973-2000). 99-19-81. 127 Nebraska: Neb. 28-105(1) (2000 Cum. Supp.); 28-518(2) 29-2221(1). 128 New Jersey: Extended (instead §2C:43-6 (1995)), 2C:43-7(a)(4) 2C:20-2(b)(2)(a), 2C:20-11(b), (c)(2), because, regarded predicate 6-month authorized, 2C:44-3(a); 2C:44-4(c) 129 Mexico: 30-16-20(B)(3) (1994); 31-18-15(A)(6) 31-18-17(B) 130 York: Y. 70.06(3)(e) 155.30 131 Carolina: exact dependent details history). 15A-1340.14, 15A-1340.17(c), 14-72(a) 14-7.1, 14-7.6. 132 Dakota: Cent. 12.1-23-05(2)(a) (1997); 12.1-32-09(1), (2)(c) Ohio: Ohio 2913.02(B)(2), 2929.14(A)(5) 134 Oregon: Ore. 161.605 164.055(1)(a), (3) 1998). 135 Pennsylvania: (if "retail theft"); otherwise, Pa. 1103(3), 1104(1) (Purdon 3903(b), 3929(b)(1)(iii)-(iv) 3921 1983). Cons. 9714(a)(1) 136 Rhode Island: I. Laws 11-41-5(a) 12-19-21(a). 137 16-13-30, 16-13-110(B)(2) 2001 Supp.). 17-25-45. 138 Tennessee: Tenn. 39-14-105(3), 40-35-106(a)(1), 40-35-112(b)(4) 139 Utah: Utah 76-3-203(3) (1999) 76-6-412(1)(b)(i) (1999). 76-3-203.5 140 Washington: score), Wash. 9A.56.040(1)(a), (2) 9.94A.510(1), 9.94A.515, 9.94A.525 (2003 Pamphlet); (2), 9A.20.021(1)(c) 9.94A.030(27), (31) 9.94A.570 Pamphlet). 141 Wyoming: Wyo. 6-3-404(a)(i) (Michie 6-10-201(a). 142 prison: 143 Colorado: "extraordinary circumstances" (e. offense). Colo. 18-1-105(1)(a)(V)(A), 18-1-105(9)(a)(II), 18-4-401(2)(c) 16-13-101(f)(1.5), 144 Maryland: Md. Code, Art. 27, 342(f)(1) 643B. 145 Hampshire: 637:11(I)(a), 651:2(II)(a) 651:6(I)(c). Wisconsin: (at Wis. 939.50(3)(e) 939.62(1)(b), 943.20(3)(b) 1996) Wisconsin 939.51(3)(a), 943.20(3)(a), 939.62(1)(a) 2003). effective 2003, 939.62(1)(a). 147 148 Arkansas: Ark. 5-36-103(b)(2)(A) §§5-4-501(a)(2)(D), (e)(1) Eligible 5-4-501 16-93-608 (1987). 149 Missouri: Mo. 558.016(7)(3) 570.030(3)(1) latest. 558.011(4)(1)(c). 150 Texas: Tex. 12.33(a), 12.35(c)(2)(A) 12.42(a)(3), 31.03(e)(4)(D) one-fourth Govt. 508.145(f) 151 Virginia: bench trial), Va. 18.2-95 discretionary ranges Virginia 17.1-805, 19.2-298.01 (2000), months, Manual, Larceny Section Recommendation Table (6th falling month, 33, 25). 19.2-297.1 D offender. States,2 parole-eligible years: 153 Alabama: "life years." 13A-5-9(c)(2) 13A-8-3(a), (1994). lesser 154 Louisiana: Louisiana La. 14:67.10(B)(1), 14:2(4), (13)(y) 15:529.1(A)(1)(b)(ii) (c)(i)-(ii) 1992) carefully scrutinized 35-36, 29; 24-25, Hayes, 98-1526, (La. 6/25/99), 739 301, 303-304 (holding impermissibly $1,000, conviction). 45-46, (contesting argument). 2/3 15:529.1(A)(b)(i). 155 Michigan: "imprisonment 769.12(1)(a) "not years," 769.12(1)(b), contends, 34, 26; 15, 22-23, 20), "punishable more," larceny was, Michigan 750.356(3)(a) judge. 769.12(4) 156 Montana: Mont. 45-6-301(7)(b) (1999); 46-18-501, 46-18-502(1) suggests, 44) meet requirements 46-18-502(2) (must "persistent offender," Reply 46-23-201(2). 157 Nevada: parole," [after serving] definite eligibility 207.010(1)(b)(1)-(3) 158 Oklahoma: Okla. 21, 51.1(B) 51.1(C) 2001)); 1704 1991) 57, 332.7(B) assuming Montana, 60), arise late 159 Codified 22-7-8 (1998); 22-30A-17(1) one-half 24-15-5(3) 160 Vermont: "up life," Vt. 13, 2501; Angelucci, 272, 289-290, 405 (1979) (court alone). 28, 161 West contends 61-3A-1, 61-3A-3(a)(2) 19, 33-34, 25. Chadwell Duncil, 196 643, 647-648, 474 573, 577-578 (prosecutor larceny), penitentiary (or, court, jail). 61-3-13(a). Virginia's confinement [imprisonment]," 61-11-18(c), 62-12-13(c). behalf notes existing state-law precedents, countenance 25-26 Barker, 186 73, 74-75, 410 712, 713-714 curiam); Deal, 178 142, 146-147, 358 226, 230-231 (1987)). A-D, listed jurisdiction pertaining parole-eligibility provisions Louisiana, Dakota,infra page 60-61.

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