Document: 470 U.S. 414 105 S.Ct. 1421 84 L.Ed.2d 406 HERB'S WELDING, INC., et al., Petitionersv.Robert H. GRAY, Jr., al. No. 83-728. Argued Oct. 3, 1984. Decided March 18, 1985. Syllabus The Longshoremen's and Harbor Workers' Compensation Act (LHWCA), as amended in 1972, provides compensation for the death or disability of any person engaged "maritime employment" (status requirement), if results from an injury incurred upon navigable waters United States adjoining pier other area customarily used by employer loading, unloading, repairing, building a vessel (situs requirement). Respondent Gray (hereinafter respondent), who worked petitioner Herb's Welding, Inc., was injured while welding gas flow line on fixed offshore oil-drilling platform Louisiana territorial waters. When Fidelity & Guaranty Co., workers' carrier denied LHWCA benefits, respondent filed complaint with Department Labor. Administrative proceedings ultimately resulted conclusion that could recover virtue provision Outer Continental Shelf Lands (Lands Act) grants benefits to oil workers Shelf, since even though had been state rather than shelf, his be said have occurred "as result of" operations shelf. Court Appeals affirmed, but relied directly Act, concluding both status situs requirements were met. Held: Because respondent's employment not "maritime," he does qualify under LHWCA. Pp. 419-427. (a) Appeals' construction LHWCA—that drilling is maritime commerce anyone performing task part parcel activity purposes—is foreclosed earlier decisions this Court, legislative history 1972 Amendments Act. Congress' purpose cover those covered are involved essential elements loading construction, vessels. Respondent's work far removed such traditional activities. 421-426. (b) argument deny coverage someone position would sort inconsistent, checkered Congress sought avoid compelling. inconsistent here primarily explicit geographic limitations Act's incorporation If mistaken matter policy, it change them. 426-427. 703 F.2d 176 (5th Cir.1983) 711 666 Cir.1983), reversed remanded. Wood Brown, III, New Orleans, La., petitioners. Carolyn F. Corwin, Washington, D.C., federal respondent. T. Gerald Henderson, Alexandria, Robert Gray, Jr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 (LHWCA Act), 44 Stat. 1424, amended, 33 U.S.C. § 901 seq., employment," 902(3), vessel, 903(a).1 Thus, worker claiming must satisfy "status" "situs" test. court below held welder working waters, entitled We reverse reason employment. 2 * Bay Marchand field off coast. Welding provided services owners platforms. located partly i.e., within three miles shore, Shelf. ate slept situated He spent roughly three-quarters time platforms rest exclusively welder, replacing pipelines doing general maintenance 3 On July 11, 1975, platform2 burnt through bottom explosion occurred. ran area, so hurt knee. lost wages, disability, medical expenses.3 Law Judge (ALJ), relying our decision Rodrigue v. Aetna Casualty Surety 395 352, 89 1835, 23 360 (1969), ruled because Gray's totally exploration for, development transmission of, submerged lands, relevant law lacked significant connection. therefore did LHWCA's requirement. 4 Benefits Review Board grounds. 12 BRBS 752 (1980). By vote 2-1, concluded irrespective nature employment, 67 462, 43 1331 seq. Shelf.4 Although felt nonetheless occurred, words statute, outer It considered "integrally related" operations. BRBS, at 757. dissenting member argued only injuries actually occurring Id., 761-763. 5 reaffirmed its after case remanded ALJ entry judgment calculation petitioners review Fifth Circuit. That (1983). With regard requirement, noted compared wharves supra. Given extended accidents wharves, incongruous they also reach Also, movable barges, en route platforms, all covered, there "curious hole" not. F.2d, 177-178. As status, Appeals, differing ALJ, bore "a realistically relationship involving navigation waters," id. 179-180, integral process, which, Pippen Shell Oil 661 378 (1981), itself commerce. granted certiorari. 465 1098, 104 1589, 80 122 (1984). II A. 6 extractive first moved offshore, claims proceeded schemes. See Hearings, 396, 409, 411. Robertson 993. 1953 passage more offshore. 1333(b). until 903 (1970 ed.), stationary rigs islands, supra, rig inside 3-mile limit left See, e.g., Freeman Chevron 517 201 (CA5 1975); Gifford Aurand Mfg. 207 So.2d 160 (La.App.1968). Any worker, outside limit, qualified seaman LHWCA, sue Jones 46 688, Death High Seas 761 law. 411-414, 450-459, 487; see n. 1, Wright, Jurisdiction Tidelands, 32 Tulane L.Rev. 175, 186 (1958). 7 So matters stood when 1972. What known about congressional intent behind legislation has amply described prior opinions. Director, OWCP Perini North River Associates, 459 297, 103 634, 74 (1983); Sun Ship, Inc. Pennsylvania, 447 715, 717-722, 100 2432, 2434-2438, 65 458 (1980); Northeast Marine Terminal Co. Caputo, 432 249, 256-265, 97 2348, 2353-2358, 53 320 (1977). most important concerns, present purposes, desire extend longshoremen, harborworkers, others piers, docks, areas load unload ships repair build ships, afloat. Whereas reached expressly "adjoining area[s]." At same time, definition "employee" limited employees employment." 8 mention thereon. amendments silent, although early bill introduced workers. died Committee. While hardly dispositive, worth noting Committee possible extension application apparently without ever two might duplicative. concurrent independent reconsideration view latter "[e]xtension [c]overage [s]horeside [a]reas," H.R.Rep. 92-1441, p. 10 (1972), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News pp. 4698, 4707 absence discussion combine suggest least intentionally Gray.5 B 9 rationale purposes. Since doubtful driller will pay maintain whose job unnecessary venture, approach virtually everyone platform. think untenable. define term cases foreclose reading. men killed Their families brought third-party negligence suits court, recovery Louisiana. District resort exclusive remedy. Circuit holding high seas source relief. reversed. First, artificial islands treated enclaves upland State. Federal govern these islands; but, contrary we borrowed law, constituted controlling "were albeit ones, no connection ordinary stuff admiralty do piers."6 U.S., 360, S.Ct., 1839. Indeed, observing previously "held jurisdiction," indicated suggestive affairs. 360-361, 1839-1840. 11 went examine (1) apply unless statute provided; (2) seriously applying rejected inapposite, untenable operation. very forecloses thereto purposes.7 cannot assume unfamiliar referred defining 1972.8 departure understanding use phrase generally. 13 Circuit's expansive expansion include large shoreside necessitated affirmative description particular covered. This function But seek breathe salt air. Its unloading; "clear persons overall process unloading vessels covered." 267, 2359. occupations specifically mentioned 2(3),9 neither can read eliminate requirement ships. said, "an occupational test focuses unloading." P.C. Pfeiffer Ford, 444 69, 80, 328, 336, 62 225 (1979). meant "to just activity." (1972); S.Rep. 92-1125, 4708. never beyond moving cargo between ship land transportation. Both Caputo make clear lead us purposes LHWCA.10 14 welder. His nothing nor indication employed equipment tasks. activities, notwithstanding fact unloaded own gear arriving boat. Tr. Oral Arg. 56. built maintained themselves. There inherently They performed land, their significantly altered marine environment,11 particularly themselves 15 dissent emphasizes generally near water faced hazards. Post, 445-449. To extent so, "situs," "status." hold necessarily ignore admonition automatically satisfies (1972). considers "[t]he occupation . apparent examining location terms expanded Amendments." 446. recognize defined location. classify situs, post, 448, environment," 450, blur together intended distinct. thus out statute.12 III 16 Respondents, dissenters, object denying exactly In below, creates coverage, 178, 17 find submission goes undoubted treat equally ship, whether dock. former 1972; Amendments. Second, always boundary people cross during Nacirema Operating Johnson, 396 212, 223-224, 90 347, 354-355, 24 371 (1969). phenomenon enough require much further argues should. Third, limitation indeed portion work-time, fell LHWCA.13 uniform reveals little whom partial separate statute. especially true draws geographical predictably coverage. 18 before should legislate Victory Carriers, Law, 404 202, 216, 92 418, 427, 30 383 (1971). IV 19 need determine satisfied express reversed, consistent opinion. 20 ordered. 21 MARSHALL, BRENNAN, BLACKMUN, O'CONNOR join, dissenting. 22 Today holds petroleum pursuing State's individual routinely travels over performs adjacent surrounded water, because, Court's view, 2(3), 902(3). reaches occupation, industry, tasks place, one capable floating.1 Neither parties identified why desired distinction. contrary, principal goal rid arbitrary distinctions derived jurisprudence. pattern adopts odds Amendments, accident meets Amendments' tests, I respectfully dissent. outset, useful pattern, and, particular, Before determined largely "locality" tort jurisdiction. Under test, (which usually vessel) how close may pier; contrast, pier, wharf water's edge. Cf. Carriers A longshoreman board stepping onto pier. 72, 332, (1979) ("A single governed scope [the Act's] coverage"). Behind system "checkered coverage" reality schemes different benefit levels, levels often being inadequate. 2, infra. professional lives move back forth land—"amphibious workers"—and protection rely imperfect amalgam laws. critics noted, system's adequacy given pure fortuity work-related accident's exact location.2 25 expanding landward means rationalizing pattern. involves immediately which likely spend lives. now "disability result[ing] (including wharf, dry dock, terminal, way, railway, vessel). ." 3(a), 903(a) (emphasis added). broke tradition strict locality jurisdiction 26 altered, new problem created. Expanding part, numbers members all. Workers truckdrivers clericals, certain times engaging purely land-bound, amphibious, occupations. (1977); 13; 10-11. expand workers, take them newly area[s]" uncovered inland locations, create serious demarcation problem, obviously recreate, enlarge, based injury. adopted exclude land-bound "The changed what essentially 'situs' eligibility looking 'status' injured." 264-265, 2357-2358. 27 "engaged 902(3): 28 'employee' including longshoring operations, harborworker repairman, shipbuilder, shipbreaker. ."3 29 changes effort rationalize wanted depend "fortuitous circumstance water," 10-11, 1976, 4708, "uniform otherwise Ibid. Analyzing stated goals efforts give meaning makes applies Gray. "amphibious workers" almost entire worklife either traveling laboring statutorily pier-like thereto. exposed daily basis hazards associated And important, floating recreates type "incongruous" 31 analyzes finding issue disposes "situs." starts analysis premise 'maritime employment,' " ante, 421, quite conclusory law's treatment found 1969 ignores precisely break rigid locality-based motivated pre-1972 cited distinctions, concludes "foreclose[s]" possibility offers comports structure interpreting Instead, derives straightforward applications concept coverage—the stop constructs interpretation around alter Rodrigue, wrongful-death actions 41 537, One using crane barge, derrick above presented existed accidents, force Sta. (prescribing choice Shelf). unanimously rig, Congress, passing result. reasoning inapplicability straightforward, best statement substantial irony, current insistence tells Amendments: declared "[a]dmiralty construed jetties, bridges, ramps railways running into sea." concluded, emphasizes, 'no piers.' Ante, 421-422 (quoting 1839). well bounds Most obviously, piers analogized 903(a). correctly (like piers), localities unconnected "the admiralty." However, "ordinary stuff" jurisprudence.4 34 Rodrigue's admiralty's doubted, understood For example, passage, 40 following '[i]n torts dependent act.' "5 simply necessary relation post-1972 Rather mandate instant case, irrelevant disposition.6 35 discussed show long 422-423. determination provide altering governs explicitly rule. sense, locality. 36 irrelevance seen point emphasized: chose adopt ties shore communities. 361-365, 1840-1842. Those gave communities shared interest continued access protective legislation. 362, 1840. this, viewed [as] inapposite structures," id., 363, 1841; supports inference 37 clearly according worker's community, indeed, hard argue factor limiting targets initial 1927 longshoremen harborworkers; groups closely tied workers.7 aware yet less "connected" unlike coverage—would deprive remedies. "[T]he supplements, supplants, law." 720, 2436, made incompatibility "maritime" 38 general, arguably community form affairs occupation. attributed passed But, shown factors, explain LHWCA.8 39 issues closer examination whole authors views support case. number instances unrelated evidences attributes. Even leave safety hands States. locale indicate locale's activities some sense "maritime,"9 substantially indicating component problems rigs. vest authority regulation Coast Guard, agency traditionally charged enforcement matters." Pure Snipes, 293 60, 66 1961). 1333(d). accordance authorization, Guard promptly promulgated code regulations reflected existence associate environments. Fed.Reg. 900 (1956).10 Thus recognized affects conditions. C flawed uses boundaries premise, concept, highly suspect. (1983), emphasized status" 307, 17, 642, 17. appearance employee, "any [were] dock)." 2(4), 902(4) ed.). Despite language, "there litigation concerning employee employment' statutory employer." Perini, 309-310, 643-644. leading treatise describes situation: "Workers seamen nevertheless suffer doubt (or courts willing assume) employment'. [N]o seems doubted [LHWCA], proof 'navigable waters' test." G. Gilmore C. Black, Admiralty 428-430 (2d ed. 1975). well-defined pre-existing meaning, implied wide required regular presence supra.11 After erroneously determining mandated turns formulation "test" history, interpretations 2(3) brief. Much 423-424. Of course, none sources purported offer list occupations, agrees, "not 2(3)." 423. Nevertheless, presumes specific listed. 42 comes announcing involve inquiry sufficiently related confined moving, 423-424) class "inherently maritime." 425. justification category limited, evaluate fall commerce." content self-evident assumes,12 agree self-evidently "non-maritime."13 spite limited. cites established limits, 423-424, analyzed applied aspects contain discussions limits factual setting cases, is, distinguish among normally ship. purport setting, try precise setting. barge riverside sewage plant concerned actual implications course facts reads having importance mean situation where 424-425, 10. situations, hint radically depending injury's situs. 78-79, 334-335. Nor language allow that, effect, exempts declined focused instead saw principally occupation's aspect status. 45 "[W]e emphasize way receive merely meeting language. consider 'engaged historically locale, perform duties waters." 323-324, 650-651. occur did, repeated relevant. 47 repeatedly refused claimant's "direct" "substantial relation" notions 311, 21, 315, 318, 644, 646, 648. Such urged claimant, extensively discussing firmly incorporate today rejected. 48 turned principles questions. interpret light major S.Rep., H.R.Rep., 10, 725-726, 2439 ("The policy animating shift remedial [and] amendments' framers acted solicitude workers"). 49 concerns extending concern locations routine, "occupational concept." 79, 335. 50 "required 51 becomes perspective, glaring classified seamen, "on 323, 650. Other rig. Physically, structures similar.14 similarly small,15 relatively isolated, sea. types parts similar enterprises carried environment. structure, same. Moreover, similar, conditions hazards.16 believe measure designed patterns belonging nonmaritime.17 52 weighty evidence her calls inclusion classification. Here, welding, needed, scattered field. live regularly travel trivialized characterizes him entirely land-based takes boat work." 13. life commuter boat, environment engage ocean duties. jobs, requires Assuming then termed "land-based" Unlike typical statute's situs"—that here, easily fits 3(a)'s 54 Section 3(a) extends "pier, [adjoining waters] vessel." size completely materials customary people. commentator characterized follows: "Worker transportation basic Transportation accomplished boats helicopters. High-speed crew transport crews available distance miles. Helicopters personnel distances important. boats. These versatile, powered, mooring bits, bumpers, cranes, stairs, etc., boats." W. Graff, Introduction Offshore Structures (1981). 55 "area [or] 56 Fixed physically analogous wharves. size, 15, anywhere deck proximity water. Similarly, decks elevated influenced surrounding classifying situs,18 "other unloading" facility. 57 determination, distinct truckdriver clerical exemplifies nonmaritime worker. 430-431. Truckdrivers clericals sporadically greatest done locales Therefore, "checkered" "fortuitous." Avoiding widespread envisioned 430-432. overwhelming work. Classifying constant conforms partially approach, remain 58 last face testimony official company recent hearing safety: 59 "Offshore special set hybrid industry. onshore industry initially crept fair characterize merchant other. 60 "In fact, share industries, plus few uniquely ours."19 61 sentiment delegation regulatory regulations, accompanying text, legal health authorities.20 Clearly "breathe air." arguing land. fail reasons. identical rigs—which maritime. 63 many indisputably non-maritime forklift operator moves "checker" inventories warehousing 2350 ("checker" employment"); (1983) (construction employment"). enterprise question necessitates Longshoring work, regardless similarity extraction beneath floor ocean. 64 whatever similarities schedules, conditions, ways counterparts. differences 448-449. V reasons above, affirm Appeals. 86 1251, provides: shipbreaker, master small eighteen tons net." 903(a), part: "Compensation shall payable chapter respect vessel)." sorts: floating. Hearings S. 2318 Subcommittee Labor Senate Public Welfare, 92d Cong., 2d Sess., 395-396, 480-486 (1972) Hearings). Floating lower courts. E.g., Producers Drilling 361 432, 437 1966). them, enjoy remedies permanently attached crewmembers, regarded seamen; not, Robertson, Injuries Petroleum Workers: Plea Radical Simplification, Texas 973, 982-992 (1977) Robertson). advantage cases. All, all, production 77-LHCA-1308, Board, 12. dispute platform, contention question, therefore, scheme, receiving weekly totalling $3,172.50 years $1,696.14 expenses. payments credited against later recovery. App. Pet. Cert. A-45. State mutually section "With resulting conducted exploring developing, removing transporting pipeline natural resources, rights subsoil seabed provisions Act." 463, Petitioners failure rejection below. appears bill, 1547, increase scheme. 117 Cong.Rec. 10490-10491 (1971) (statement Sen. Tower); 396-403, 418-419, 602. opposed recoveries better 589-590, Boudreaux American Workover, 680 1034, 1053 1982). finds irony" analogy piers. 433-434. irony dissipates observe like islands. suggested thereon 437-438. acknowledges, several emphatically locales. Undeterred, points Guard. Yet expected otherwise, geographically Guard's No contends note providing fields, "employer" operations," "exploring removing, resources covers shipbreaker." "including," exclusive. 77-78, 7, 334-335, (1979); occasional enumerated 1980 Representative Erlenborn proposed deleting longshoreman, builder, breaker, harbor worker" "was relating injured. H.R. 7610, 96th 2(a) excluded who, injury, administration, clerical, custodial, delivery, maintenance, employments direct building, breaking." Committee, 126 15417 (1980), reported preclude claim agreed counsel oral except operation 46, 52-54. 179. dissent's reliance 442-443, carefully "injured 299, 638; 305, 311-312, 324, 641, 644-645, 651. first, second, intend restrict adopting was, "of course," 34, 651, group belong. says contours enactment constrict wholly refusing meaningful International Association Contractors 1972: "Irrespective design, resting, semi-submersible, full floating, [drilling platforms] base conducts once place All methods utilized exposure Accident frequency rates severity greater, less, selection confinement permits concentrated training programs." 410-411. Throughout proceedings, status/situs falls benefits. held. repeats free do. York Telephone 434 159, 166, 8, 98 364, 369, 376 fully briefed decline it. Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 475-476, 6, 1153, 1156-1157, 491 (1970). open remand. traveled transit. ("We transiently fortuitously waters"). fraction however, cry paradigmatic walked workday amounts attributable de minimis. difference requiring "Floating" jurisprudence, 1966), 2. emphasized, classification "floating" capacity float, relevance buoyancy Many floated sites; there, supported legs bottom. (classification includes 'almost .' 'special float water' ") Robison, 266 769, 771 1959). 14, House Reports accompanied stated: "[C]overage stops edge; Workmen's disparity side edge occurs. "To worse, laws 12-13 S.Rep.); 10-11 (containing language) H.R.Rep.), Cong.News 4707. exclusion "[m]aster[s] member[s] corresponds "seamen" 688. exception word 2(3)'s word's usage jurisdictional 320, 29, 649, ("Although 'maritime' occurs [in] ., statutes 'each histories jurisprudential decades' 1049-1050 1982)). 205, Story Thomas Lane, F.Cas. 957, 960 (No. 13,902) (CC Me.1813). Swaim, Yes, Virginia, Is An Admiralty: Case, Loyola (1969-1970) (criticizing example narrow test). 215, 350, affirmed "settled doctrine" overturned illustrated decedents, Dore, docked 353, 1836. today, Dore's defends curious way. asserts gone analogizing "are islands." 422, 6. put imply rested something simple distinction "piers" "islands." additional metaphor equating added decision. say least, peculiar look opinion's casual metaphors subsequently created harborworkers communities, facilities sea, prolonged periods time. Gulf Mexico, prevailing practice seven days, followed days away Labour Office, Safety Problems Industry (1978). community. testified schedule. Judge, 31. notable Nacirema's taken action overturn Carriers' variety circumstances concerns. 326, 652, (STEVENS, J., dissenting) (listing defense bases, Columbia, etc.). "whether submersible, midst perils regulated such." 66-67 (1961). continues regulate structures, 2199 (1981) (Memorandum Geological Survey Guard), still reflect dangers. CFR pts. 144 146 (requiring equipped bouyant vests, preservers, floats, emergency communications equipment, alarm systems, sufficient hand rails, bouys). Subchapter N status-like doctrine called local," "direct local [would not] materially affect" uniformity Grant Smith-Porter Rohde, 257 469, 477, 157, 158, L.Ed. 321 (1922). Western Fuel Garcia, 233, 242, 89, 90, 210 (1921). Like ill-defined, rise "one flourishing, surely depressing, branches jurisprudence." 420 642. eventually local" doctrine. Calbeck Travelers Insurance 370 114, 82 1196, 368 (1962); cf. Davis Labor, 317 225, 87 246 (1942); Parker Motor Boat Sales, 314 244, 221, 184 (1941). More recently, reinsert "concept plagued years." 322, Unfortunately, accomplishing reinsertion. accepts shipbuilding, included "maritime." contracts shipbuilding contract People's Ferry Beers, How. 393, 961 (1858). 16. Black begin jurisdiction, intuitively 27. Alston, Platforms: Reconsidered, 379 (1982) (urging platforms); 973 (same). assertion commerce" conclusory. extracting 176, 180 1983); 378, 384 1981). Leaving aside intuitions constitutes commerce," rigs, vessels, presumably ("Jack-up rigs," up 42% world's "self-elevating lowered sea bed main kept raised surface"). record platform's size. S.2318 836 Hearings) (oil document calling "150-foot-square deck" "real giant"); 834 (floating 200-foot-square deck). Counsel declare: different. absolutely assigned drilling." Beyond classifications, factors militate treating 383, (75% 25% rigs). "fixed" one. "tender platforms" ships" moored 480; divided tender connected walkways L.Rev., 997-998. contexts, "walking eliminate. 992 ("Admiralty fine questionable devastating consequences. context accustomed line-drawing fixed/floating distinction] looks peculiar" (footnotes omitted)). 279-280, 2365, (1977), facility 424 1975) broad reading problems). Hearing Life Sea Gas Rigs Panama Canal/Outer Merchant Fisheries, 98th 1st (testimony T.S. McIntosh, executive vice-president chief operating officer Zapata Corp. president Off-Shore Co.). 402-403; 994-996. supra (exposure weather); ibid. (extended isolation morale, alcoholism, problems); 21-23 (controlling fires blow-outs difficult inaccessibility platform); (confined space excessive noise operations); (slipperiness, clutter, weather danger falling overboard transfer supplies dangerous).

Category: 7