Document: 426 U.S. 88 96 S.Ct. 1895 48 L.Ed.2d 495 Robert E. HAMPTON, Chairman of the United States Civil Service Commission, et al., Petitioners,v.MOW SUN WONG al. No. 73-1596. Argued Jan. 13, 1975. Reargued 12, 1976. Decided June 1, Syllabus The Commission (CSC) regulation barring noncitizens, including lawfully admitted resident aliens, from employment in federal competitive civil service Held unconstitutional as depriving such aliens liberty without due process law violation Fifth Amendment. Pp. 99-117. (a) While overriding national interests may justify a citizenship requirement even though an identical not be enforced by State, power over is so plenary that any agent Federal Government arbitrarily subject all to different substantive rules those applied citizens. When asserts interest discriminatory rule would violate Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment if adopted requires there legitimate basis for presuming was actually intended serve interest. 99-105. (b) CSC's policy conditioning eligibility on has been considered Congress certain Appropriation Acts imposing various limitations classes employees who receive compensation and Presidents Executive Orders relating authority establish standards employment, cannot fairly construed evidence either approval or disapproval CSC question. 105-114. (c) Assuming deciding explicit determination President exclude noncitizens adequately supported (1) providing with expendable token treaty negotiation purposes, (2) offering incentive become naturalized, (3) having, sake administrative convenience, one simple excluding when clearly appropriate some important sensitive positions, provide acceptable rationalization CSC. first two are matters properly concern third likewise unacceptable, where it does appear fully evaluated relative desirability exclusionary hand value enlarging pool eligible other, reasonably inferred burden establishing job classifications which particularly onerous. More significantly, view quality at stake, fair balancing public avoiding wholesale deprivation opportunities caused indiscriminate policy, opposed what nothing more than hypothetical justification, rejection convenience justification regulation. 114-116. (d) Since alien residents result decisions made President, implemented Immigration Naturalization acting under Attorney General, decision deprive comparable level government or, permitted CSC, justified reasons proper agency. P. 116. 500 F.2d 1031, affirmed. Sol. Gen. H. Bork, Washington, D. C., petitioners. Edward Steinman, Santa Clara, Cal., respondents. Mr. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court. 1 Five permanently residing States, brought this litigation challenge validity other agencies, excludes persons except American citizens natives Samoa most positions their respective jurisdictions.1 Because law, identity parties have changed somewhat since commenced, we state facts detail before addressing question granted certiorari resolve. 417 94 3067, 41 664. 2 * Each five plaintiffs denied solely because his her alienage. They were Chinese San Francisco each qualified available job. 3 After performing satisfactory work Post Office Department 10 days, respondent Kae Cheong Lui terminated personnel record disclosed he citizen.2 Respondents Mow Sun Wong Siu Hung Mok also demonstrated ability perform job; they both participated California Supplemental Training Education Program (STEP) assigned agencies until STEP program ended. As noncitizen, Wong, had electrical engineer China, ineligible janitor General Services Administration. Mok, 18 years' experience businessman could retain file clerk Records Center GSA. 4 Respondent Francene Lum take examination position evaluator educational programs Health, Education, Welfare. Her background included 15 years teaching experience, master's degree education, periods graduate study four universities. Anna Yu, fifth plaintiff, she did join appeal adverse District Court, sought clerk-typist, but typing test citizen. 5 Two plaintiffs, filed declarations intent citizens; three not. admitted, 1946, Yu 1965, 1968, 1969. 6 On December 22, 1970, commenced class action Northern California. defendants named Commissioners heads them employment.3 7 complaint alleged about million living States; face special problems seeking our culture, language, system foreign them; 300,000 jobs year, compete rare situations few exempted being filled. Plaintiffs further advantage given arbitrary violates Due Process Constitution4 Order 11,478, CFR 803 (1966-1970 Comp.), forbids discrimination "national origin." declaratory injunctive relief. 8 Defendants moved dismiss motions summary judgment affidavits setting forth stated above. 333 F.Supp. 527 rejected its jurisdiction,5 ruled favor merits. 527. Court held reference origin" prohibited among rather between noncitizens. court argument inconsistent § 502 Public Works Water Pollution Control, Power Development Atomic Energy Act, payment regulation.6 point said: 9 "The acted permissibly relation Appropriations Act opening up whom indicated willing pay work." F.Supp., 531. Finally, Commission's against constitutional. noted "quite broad, almost plenary," therefore classification needed only rational basis. Ibid. It identified grounds upon President7 rely: First, formation execution, whatever level, should entrusted citizens, alternatively, "the intend economic security served reservation them, aliens." Id., 532. 11 Four appealed. During period pending Ninth Circuit, decided cases recognized importance protecting aliens.8 In Sugarman v. Dougall, 413 634, 93 2842, 37 853, section New York Law provided hold permanent State's violated Amendment; holding re Griffiths, 717, 2851, 910 same day, Connecticut's exclusion practice unconstitutional. 12 case, Appeals neither nor Griffiths controlling Amendment's restrictions directly applicable Government9 broad immigration naturalization do possess.10 Nevertheless, persuasive rejecting bases asserted justifications discriminating For specifically undivided loyalty servant participates formulation execution inadequate support restriction indiscriminately disqualifying "sanitation man, B," typist, office worker, U.S., 641-643, S.Ct., 2847-28, L.Ed.2d, 859-860, moreover, expressly considered, rejected, York's contention advancement profit own confinement 643-645, 2848-2849, 860-861. 13 reversed; agreed Court's analysis nonconstitutional issues, violative Although refusing accept respondents' protection coextensive Amendment, concluded "sweeps requiring examination" related small fraction covered rule. 1037. Thus, accepted might required involving policymaking decisions, interests, unwilling extraordinarily narrow shoulders. 14 Only petitioned certiorari. Several nonpetitioning no responsibility establishment applicants must meet; accordingly, participation necessary. former Postmaster now necessary party reason. 1971, after established new Postal removed officers jurisdiction Commission.11 existence retained substantially Commission.12 However, 1974, additional statutory direction, amended make accorded status high executive designated "sensitive."13 although case technically moot regards Service,14 defending challenged 16 We decide following presented petition: 17 "Whether bars constitutional." address II 19 Petitioners chosen argue merits brief, petitioners rephrased "(w)hether . within constitutional powers hence constitutionally forbidden aliens."15 20 This phrasing assumes mandated Congress, both. assumption, advance alternative arguments exercise naturalization. equal aspect wholly inapplicable necessary.16 Alternatively, imposes slight Government, easily met several factors Appeals. Before these arguments, discuss places classify jurisdiction. 21 sovereign, like govern impartially. concept justice guarantee process, well Amendments require type analysis, see Buckley Valeo, 424 93, 612, 670, 46 659, 730 (1976, slip op., 87), correctly protections always coextensive. Not language differ,17 importantly, selective legislation unacceptable individual State. hand, limited territory, Columbia, insular possession, involved, having significance Clause.18 22 deal nationwide impact. out paramount forecloses extension decisive case.19 agree petitioners' State.20 23 agree, however, primary submission National recognize draws political character naturalization.21 countervailing considerations extreme advanced 24 impact identifiable who, entirely apart itself, already disadvantages shared remainder community.22 Aliens entitled vote and, complaint, often handicapped lack familiarity customs. added disadvantage resulting enforcement ineligibility major sector economy sufficient characterized liberty.23 Indeed, deprives discrete By reason accompanied process. follows judicial scrutiny Constitution. 25 invalidation traditional analysis. true authorizes procedural aspect. resolve claim, narrower inquiry discloses essential procedures followed. 26 If agency promulgates direct fostering interest, presumed actual predicate That presumption would, course, fortified statement identifying relevant presume rationally fact give rise adoption. 27 deem service. argue, example, facilitate President's treaties enabling him offer country exchange reciprocal concessions jobs. reserving provides qualify thereby participate effectively society. imposed substantial consistency 100 accords international countries. need justifies least parts service, serves valid purpose trouble expense classifying belong categories.24 28 difficulty last identify can assumed influenced Service, Administration, Welfare administration responsibilities specifically, deny respondents litigation. assume t requirement, possibly negotiating purposes; original defendants, deliberately far normal responsibilities. Consequently, evaluating sufficiency rule, know whether reviewing determined Commission. III 29 perfectly clear ever Required adopt condition effect created 1883, infer Legislature aware acquiesced it. order acquiescence express Presidential command, review extent consideration nature delegated 30 originally pursuant Pendleton 1883.25 piece reform designed eliminate abuses associated patronage much service.26 passed, Senate bill appointment citizens.27 summarize references indicating Senators Commission,28 matter area better handled statute.29 31 historical context, assumption employed understood. merit appointment, based examination, replacing treated method rewarding polls; rewards presumably reserved voters (or members families) necessarily most, all, time. survive enactment statute means equivalent so. 32 Moreover, acknowledged 1883 doubt greater inclination regard "foreigners" less desirable A provincial attitude toward partially explain But implicitly repudiated dignity respect persons,30 affect form disregard evaluation Congress' impose requirement. 33 created, immediately duly reported Congress.31Congress thereafter repudiated, repudiating, policy. has, number Government. These conflicting inferences illustrated Acts. 34 1938 Congressman Starnes offered amendment appropriation bill32 none authorized funds used employee citizen States.33 preference during widespread unemployment. House opposition. Senate, modified allow person owing allegiance then requisite qualifications available.34 1939 similar provision broadened declaration intention Coast Guard veterans citizenship.35 1942 Commonwealth Philippines prohibition,36 1943 exemption extended "nationals countries allied prosecution war,"37 1953 Baltic countries.38 35 argued exemptions 1969 constitute congressional repudiating Though controlling, force argument. repeatedly implies continuing giving preference, unrelated efficiency aliens. judgment, significant consistently broader potential category regularly States. settled oath allegiance,39 category, precisely defined, plainly flexible expansive present purposes merely conclude specific case. 36 Our leads us conclusion promulgated Arthur every applicant disclose citizenship, information name address.40 prescribe eligibility. true, referred above, became marked difference acceptance objection himself. Over revised times. 1895, apparently time 1896.41 1903 Theodore Roosevelt permit "owe States" qualify.42 define persons. explained apply Puerto Rico noncitizen nationals. amendment, seem enough cover allegiance.43 38 1906 again adding authorization discretion, examinations "there eligibles citizens."44 certified available. increasing unquestionably indicates approved 39 promulgation involved issued Eisenhower 1954. part provides: 40 (Civil Service) age, training suitability, physical mental fitness, residence requirements meet rated examinations." Exec. 10,577, 2.1(a), 218, 219 (1954-1958 Comp.). direction "to standard, citizenship" command general employment. Rather equally, reasonably, susceptible interpretation required. Even remain President. elimination took place commenced. Pursuant grant comparable, generality absence Commission,45 postal withdrew Neither withdrawal questioned 42 directive regulations "as will best promote (the) Service," U.S.C. 3301(1), pertinent Order, gives discretion exercised; modify President.46 persuaded identifies rely making implicating social values stake 43 think accurately petition. valid. proceed assuming, deciding, adopted. IV 44 business enforce affairs, negotiations, quotas conditions entry, policies. concerned consequences permitting prohibiting market. contrary, performs function. 45 promotion efficient service.47 goal removing unnecessary With exception, put supporting issue exception manifest positions. Arguably, therefore, obligation expertise, known decisions. There us, notice, indicate other. Nor onerous task expert matters; indeed, encountered particular classification. Of significance, stake. Any case.48 47 sum, assuming millions aggregate invalidated Sugarman. broadly denying liberty. States,49 338.101(a) Regulations deprived invalid. Affirmed. 49 BRENNAN, MARSHALL joins, concurring. 50 I understanding questions raised bar 51 REHNQUIST, THE CHIEF JUSTICE, WHITE, BLACKMUN join, dissenting. 52 enunciates novel conception guaranteed proceeds evolve doctrine delegation legislative seems me quite contrary long hitherto line innovations completely treat outweighed mischief bids areas law. 53 At outset courts severely reiterated recently Kleindienst Mandel, 408 753, 766, 92 2576, 2583, 683, 693 (1972): 54 " 'The altogether terms come country, declared exclusively through officers, intervention, previous adjudications.' Quoting Lem Moon Sing 158 538, 547, 967, 970, L.Ed. 1082, 1085 (1895). 55 exclusive entry includes regulate ways once here. g., Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 69-70, 61 399, 405, 85 581, 588 (1941). Indeed presumptively "expressly Congress," Ante, 103, concedes desires limit participation. 56 respects deportation proceedings claims citizen, claim. Ng Fung Ho White, 259 276, 492, 66 938 (1922). obtains tenured protected discharge cause, hearing discharged. Arnett Kennedy, 416 134, 1633, (1974); Perry Sindermann, 593, 2694, 570 (1972). obtaining Cafeteria Workers McElroy, 367 886, 896-899, 81 1743, 1749-1750, 1230, 1236-1238 (1961). tenure prior discharge, "government legislation, revoked appointing officer." iId., 896, 1749, 1237. See Vitarelli Seaton, 359 535, 79 968, 1012 (1959). 57 overlook limitation justifying intervention holding: 58 community." p. 102. 59 classic formed 641, 2847, 859 (1973), State principles (as Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 74 693, 98 884 (1954)). 60 while positing problem, conceding "overriding State." 101. Thus invalidating denial instead inexplicably melds together concepts produce process." 102-103. 62 meaning apparent. noted, "liberty" acquiring tenure, retaining it, discharged insist hearing. Truax Raich, 239 33, 41, 7, 10, 131, 135 (1915), cited proposition remains unmodified Workers, supra, deals Substantive enactment; closely akin Sugarman, (1973). declines pass claim cases, difficult how 63 circumstances, citation Board Regents Roth, 564, 573-574, 2701, 2707, 548, 558-559 (1972) 102, n. 23, indicates. passage Schware Bar Examiners, 353 232, 77 752, 796 (1957), Willner Committee Character, 373 96, 83 1175, 224 (1963), distinguishable respects. efforts go proscribe right one's profession Private economy. vice found failure "full hearing," 574, 559. 64 presently simply disputed fact. All freely concede Their fact; indeed request purpose. assert alienage barred contend be. 65 Yet issue, shield scalpel dissect organization "When interest." 103. 67 interest" formulating policies Harisiades Shaughnessy, 342 580, 72 512, 586 (1952). demonstrate why chose To abjures. 100-101. What engraft notions onto dealing agencies. 68 October Term 1934 "is abdicate transfer others functions vested" Art. I, Schechter Corp. 295 495, 529, 837-843, 1570, 1580 (1935). Panama Rfg. Co. Ryan, 293 388, 241, 446 Nothing opinions, delegations struck down, suggested reliance say seen fit enlarge slightest relatively holdings. 69 unjustified scope guarantee, flies manner concerning branches scrutiny. 683 Galvan Press, 522, 531, 737, 911, 922 (1954).1 70 sole ground improper authority, previously thought depend Clause. 71 shaping here faulty. Yet, too admit governing empowered act 3301, 73 "(1) admission individuals into branch service; (and) "(2) ascertain fitness health, character, knowledge, ."2 75 "authority vested (him) Constitution," 218 76 education 219. Acting (except circumstances) 78 Both thus possessed exercising directly, delegate forbid dismantle entire structure Branch. majority procedure cases. Rather, leveled "rais(e) questions." 113 46. becomes agency, concededly power, actions eyes courts. But, discussed, overlooks basic principle wisdom Once regarding prospective servants, exercised foreclosed itself. back door attack otherwise immune attack.3 80 114, effectuate policies, "no responsibility" interfere itself responsibility": obviously Gave evaluate. Finally note that, so, assertion, spoken issue. Water, Stat. 336 (discussed 93-94), paid "a date citizen" "owes States." arises categories into. effective 11, according record, August 1970 one, Lum, never 82 allegiance," mean something, assertion qualified. begun, Sin asserting: "I owe imply statute. believe correct concluding invalid promulgate interests" "determination service." saved 853 case." 100. 84 "For valid, regulating relationship visitors committed Government." Mathews Diaz, 67, 81, 1892, 478, 490 (1975). "(A)ny vitally intricately interwoven contemporaneous conduct relations, war maintenance republican government. Such largely interference." 5-589, 519, 586, 598, quoted 17, 490. 86 765-767, 2582-2584, 693-694; Fong Yue Ting 149 698, 711-713, 1016, 1021-1022, 905, 912-913 (1893). 87 excluded chose, separate decision, render governmental "political" consequently, reasoning supra 478. here, nearly century, infringe reverse regulations, 338.101 (1976), part: "(a) owes "(b) assignment 305.509 chapter 316.601 chapter, unless statute." Apparently "nationals." §§ 1101(a)(21), (22), 1408. Solicitor advised construes phrase covering Samoa. Brief 67. termination letter, dated 19, read: "Your records you Therefore, terminate your services close 20/1970 accordance Manual 711.531." Hampton, Chairman, James Johnson, L. J. Andolsek, Commissioners, Nicholas Oganovic, Director, Asa T. Briley, Regional Commission; Kunzig, Administrator, Thomas Hannon, Administration; Elliot Richardson, Secretary, Coop, Welfare; Winton Blount, Lim Poon Lee, city county Francisco; Russel James, Director Department. Constitution "No shall life, liberty, property, ." Judge Peckham conferred 1331. He waiver sovereign immunity; satisfied "arises under" laws plaintiff's jurisdictional amount. Section follows: "(N)o contained officer (including stock owned States) whose post duty continental date, 336. using term "Executive," defendant heads: "It reasonable Executive, via Legislature, determine herein, 910, 25, 1973. Graham 403 365, 91 1848, 534, 14, weeks decision. "(N)or law; laws." Article 8, cl. 4, (t)o uniform Rule Pub.L. 91-375; 719. technical Title Rate definitions Personnel Handbook provided: "317.3 Citizenship Requirements ".31 Applicability ".311 Except 317.312 below, of, appointments Service. Natives group, ".312 Postmasters approve nationals unusual circumstances General. ".32 Responsibility Determining responsible determining selected requirement." Transmittal Letter 2, 8-18-72. Bulletin May 1974 substituted "citizenship requirements" supra: Noncitizens levels PES-20 sensitive. Appointments above Assistant headquarters. appointee eligible's sworn affirmed statement, Form 61, Appointment Affidavit, appointment. noncitizen's appointee's Alien Registration Receipt Card (Form I-151), furnished ".33 sections 317.31 317.32. "Regional local officials measures insure announcements forms conform policy." Cf. W. Grant Co., 345 629, 894, 97 1303. modifying (n. ), doing "(a)s recent litigation." Bull., 2. state: "Our beyond reach principle." 24-25. appears Amendments, whereas not, latter differs from, additive to, former. 884; Cong Eng Trinidad, 271 500, 619, 1059. conflict comprehensive naturalization, 646, 2849, 862, 376-380, 1854-1856, 544-546, careful avoid intimating us. stated: "We aspects 3301; 10577, Fed.Reg. 7521, 2.1 (1954); 338.101, 302.203(g) (1973); Treasury, 1972, 602, 92-49, 122, 502, 91-439, 902. intimate challenge. Jalil 148 U.S.App.D.C. 415, 460 923, cert. denied, 409 887, 112, 144 (1972); Comment, Service: Closed Door?, Geo.L.J. 207 (1972)." 646 862. should, flat ban little withstand Clause, preclude individualized determinations refused noncitizenship, qualification appropriately defined 646-647, 2849-2850, control 42, 135, review. 713, 1022, 913, Gray, writing expel affecting departments government, regulated executed established, department statute, constitution, intervene." Some stem 651-653, 2862-2863, 865-866 (Rehnquist, J., dissenting). legitimacy delineation affected buttresses "A 'discrete insular' minority," 721, 2854, 915 course consistent premise suffer disabilities. 558-559, cited. Hughes aliens: show common occupations community very essence personal freedom opportunity secure. race nationality, prohibition barren words." L.Ed., 135. note, serving discussion "special 860-861, explains press occasion, when, ever, legislation. 403. 149, 1641, 15, 30; Kaplan, 1-11 (1958). companion introduced Senator Dawes (S. 939) "appointments open competition male female. (V)acancies filled conformity provisions .." Appendix S.Rep. 576, 47th Cong., 1st Sess., (1882). eliminated, unnecessary, preamble allowing "so practicable citizens" opportunities. Supra, XII; Cong.Rec. 661 See, remarks Hawley: "Of everybody applies anybody moment limits certainly able read write." 243. noteworthy, normally governed habitually intoxicating beverages excess, family represented 406. "its inception, Nation welcomed drew strength 719, 2853, 913. referring self-evident contributions life objectionable alienage, "Resident taxes, economy, Armed Forces, contribute myriad bear heavy opportunities." 722, 2855, 915. Instructions Applicants Who Wish Enter reprinted Second Report U. S. (1885). Independent Offices Bill (H.R. 8837, 75th 3d Sess.). 357. 2424. Manager's Conference H.R. 8947, H.R.Conf.Rep. 1981, Sess. (1938). appeared 148, 289, 435, 1162. 422. 196. 435. 726 18, 2857, 917. XI, Rules, Nov. 1883. First (1884). V Rules 6, 1896, "Every Thirteenth (1897). Twentieth (1904). is, good conscience 458 (June 1906). Prior waiving 434 (March 28, portions 1001 "s 1001. status. title, appoint Officers (other appointed 202, 204, 1001(c) title) career promotions procedures, assure meaningful development full rights guaranteeing actions, representatives choosing. "(e) right, 1003 title laws, collective-bargaining agreements performance official duties; hire, promote, transfer, assign, suspend, demote, disciplinary employees; "(3) relieve duties reasons; "(4) maintain operations it; "(5) methods, means, conducted; "(6) dress worn letter carriers "(7) carry mission emergency situations." doubtful, accepting consciously raising Peters Hobby, 349 331, 345, 790, 797, 99 1129, 1140; Ex parte Endo, 323 283, 299-300, 208, 217, 89 243, 254. acts 3301(1) 1302(a) prescribed for, control, supervise, preserve find inevitably breed turn enhance burden. total exclusion, reflecting matters. imposition mission. 1103. "pertaining peculiarly government." 743, 922. such, respected demands themselves Also, 1302 "prescribe Ludecke Watkins, 335 160, 1429, 1881 (1948), deport "alien enemies" deemed "dangerous peace safety Proclamation 2655, 870 (1945). "Attorney voice conscience. transmuted judicially reviewable chooses authorized." 165-166, 1432, 1886.

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