Document: 494 U.S. 775 110 S.Ct. 1542 108 L.Ed.2d 801 NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD, Petitionerv.CURTIN MATHESON SCIENTIFIC, INC. No. 88-1685. Argued Dec. 4, 1989. Decided April 17, 1990. Syllabus The National Labor Relations Act's irrebuttable presumption of majority support for a certified collective-bargaining agent becomes rebuttable after one year. According to the Board, an employer may rebut by showing, inter alia, that it had "good-faith" doubt, founded on sufficient objective basis, union's support. Station KKHI, 284 N.L.R.B. 1339. Although Board has changed its position over years as whether, in determining good-faith doubt question, should apply striker replacements either oppose union or same ratio strikers they replaced, presently follows no-presumption approach and determines replacements' sentiments case-by-case basis. Id., at 1344-1345. Applying this present case, concluded respondent employer's evidence was insufficient Among other things, therefore held violated Act withdrawing recognition from ordered bargain upon request. In refusing enforce Board's order, Court Appeals must presume union, that, accordingly, justified doubting Held: acted within discretion adopt replacement opposition union. Pp. 786-796. (a) Since Congress entrusted with primary responsibility developing applying national labor policy, rule is entitled considerable deference so long rational consistent Act, even if represents departure prior policy. See, e.g., NLRB v. J. Weingarten, Inc., 420 251, 265-266, 95 959, 967-968, 43 171. 286-787. (b) refusal antiunion empirical matter. often not favor incumbent reasonably concluded, light experience addressing these issues, probability ofre placement justify presumption, since circumstances surrounding each strike reasons crossing picket line vary greatly. For example, who otherwise supports desires representation be forced economic concerns work struck employer. He also want such though he disagrees purpose strategy of, refuses support, particular strike. Respondent's contention irrational because interests are diametrically opposed unions inevitably side unpersuasive. Unions do invariably demand displacement all replacements, extent which will depend their bargaining power, turn greatly If weak, many justifiably fear lose jobs end still thereafter. Moreover, conflict during strike, those converge job rights have been settled; surely capable looking past considering whether representation. Thus, irreconcilable Service Electric Co., 281 633, 641, Leveld Wholesale, 218 1344, 1350, no duty striking employment terms. Furthermore, deemed picket-line violence demands terminated irrelevant evaluation sentiments. Cf. Stormor, 268 860, 866-867; IT Services, 263 1183, 1185-1188. both supra, noted peaceful, neither case did actively negotiating ouster replacements. 788-793. (c) accorded rules, overriding policy achieving industrial peace. furthers promoting stability process. It reasonable conclude could allow eliminate entirely merely hiring number thereby avoid settlement. decide might chill employees' exercise statutory right engage concerted activity, including confronting them only prospect being permanently but greater risk would representative, diminishing chance obtaining reinstatement through 794-796. 859 F.2d 362 (CA5 1988), reversed remanded. MARSHALL, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., BRENNAN, WHITE, STEVENS, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion, post, p. 797. BLACKMUN, dissenting 798. SCALIA, O'CONNOR KENNEDY, joined, 801. David L. Shapiro, petitioner. James V. Carroll, III, Houston, Tex., respondent. Justice MARSHALL Court. 1 This presents question (NLRB Board), evaluating claim basis We hold reverse judgment Appeals. 2 * Upon certification exclusive unit employees, enjoys Fall River Dyeing & Finishing Corp. NLRB, 482 27, 37, 107 2225, 2233, 96 22 (1987). During time, per se unfair practice under §§ 8(a)(1) 8(a)(5) (NLRA), 49 Stat. 452, amended, 29 U.S.C. 158(a)(1), 158(a)(5).1 See Celanese America, 664, 672 (1951); R. Gorman, Law, Unionization Collective Bargaining 109 (1976). After first year, continues rebuttable. River, 38, S.Ct., 2233. Under longstanding approach, showing time bargain, (1) fact enjoy (2) 1339 (1987), enf'd, 891 230 (CA9 1989). presented must, union.2 3 presumed new employees hired nonstrike proportion replace. Plastic Products 78 699, 706 (1948). replace strikers, however, consistent. Initially, appeared assume Stoner Rubber 123 1440, 1444 (1959) (stating "unreasonable [for employer] none . permanent were adherents"); Jackson Mfg. 129 460, 478 (1960) "most improbable" desired strikers' union); Titan Metal 135 196, 215 (1962) (finding "good cause Union's majority" "no any authorized Union represent them" presented); § M 172 1008, 1009 (1968) (same). 4 A 1974 decision, Peoples Gas System, 214 944 (1974), rev'd remanded grounds sub nom. Teamsters Local 769 174 U.S.App.D.C. 310, 316, 532 1385, 1391 (1976), signalled shift approach. recognized "it course possible chosen nevertheless favored representation." N.L.R.B., 947. Still, unreasonable [the infer degree among ignore Union-sponsored well somewhat weaker than offered vigorously engaged activity behalf [sic] objectives." Ibid. 5 year later, Cutten Supermarket, 220 507 (1975), completely, stating like generally, replaced. 509. initial adherence equivocal. Arkay Packaging Corp., 227 397 review denied New York Printing Pressmen Offset Workers Union, 51 575 1045 (CA2 1978), stated wholly unwarranted unrealistic matter law when hired, gone out strikers." 397-398. Beacon Upholstery 226 1360, 1368 (1976) (distinguishing Supermarket ground lawfully discharged, there unit). Nevertheless, Windham Community Memorial Hospital, 1070 (1977), 577 805 explicitly reaffirmed "[t]he general whom replaced." 1070. distinguished "limited exception" based "the unique circumstance apparently abandoned unit." Finally, 1980, reiterated applies equally Pennco, 250 716, 717-718 (1980), 684 340 (CA6), cert. denied, 459 994, 103 355, 74 392 (1982). 6 1987, several Courts rejected approach,3 determined universal generalizations made about On hand, found prounion lacked foundation "incumbent sometimes shown hostility toward replacements," "replacements typically aware concern striker's welfare, rather replacements." 1344. "equally unsupportable" factually. observed "may financial reasons, disapprove desire initiatives." adoption "substantially impair adding loss representative soon equal willing cross line." 717. Accordingly, regarding sentiments, determine views II 7 now application KKHI case. Respondent Curtin Matheson Scientific, buys sells laboratory instruments supplies. 1970, 968, General Drivers, Warehousemen Helpers (hereinafter Union) respondent's production maintenance employees. May 21, 1979, most recent agreement between expired. final offer 25, offer. then locked 27 bargaining-unit June 12, renewed 25 offer, again it. commenced record contains strike-related threats violence. 8 Five immediately crossed reported work. while effect, strikers. ended July 16, offering accept unconditionally contract 20, informed longer available. addition, withdrew refused further, doubted supported unit. subsequently provide information requested concerning total payroll, classification seniority employee. As consisted 19 strike's inception. 9 30, charge Board. Following investigation, Counsel issued complaint, alleging withdrawal recognition, execute embodying terms failure NLRA, 158(a)(5). defense charge, claimed based, status. Administrative Law Judge agreed dismissed complaint. reversed, holding 287 350 10 First, crossover original itself inference repudiated join "indicate[d] lack union." 352. Second, resignation two chief shop steward, commencement indicate served reduce size date recognition. Ibid.4 Third, discounted statements six some indicated rejection noted, others "appear[ed] ambiguous best." 353. stated, "[e]ven attributing meaning favorable Respondent, signify approximately 50 keep representative." Ibid.5 11 accordance "not use presumptions respect replacements'] sentiments," instead "take [and] require additional part significance factor doubt." attitudes employee relations director's account conversation reportedly told her worked nonunion workplaces see need company treated him well; said think represented 351; n. supra. statement employee's repudiation was, event, "inferring group." 12 [was] continuing status." failing furnish information, 1979. request, requisite agreement, make whole whatever losses suffered contract. 13 Appeals, divided 1988). Specifically, court decision endorsed so-called "Gorman presumption" union.6 granted certiorari, 492 905, 3212, 106 563 (1989), resolve Circuit split union.7 III A. 14 emphasized Beth Israel Hospital 437 483, 500-501, 98 2463, 2473, 57 370 (1978); Erie Resistor 373 221, 236, 83 1139, 1149, 308 (1963); Truck 353 87, 96, 77 643, 647, 676 (1957). 15 "Because task 'applying prohibitory language infinite combinations events charged violative terms,' body, accomplish set it, necessarily authority formulate rules fill interstices broad provisions." [437 U.S.], 500-501 [98 2473] (quoting Republic Aviation 324 793, 798 [65 982, 985, 89 L.Ed. 1372] (1945)). 16 deference. U.S., 42, 2235; Iron Workers, 434 335, 350, 651, 660, 54 586 (1978). uphold 2235, we formulated different sat Charles D. Bonanno Linen Service, Inc. 454 404, 413, 418, 102 720, 725, 728, 70 656 171 (1975) ("The administrative agency evolutional particularly fitting. To earlier decisions froze development important aspect misconceive nature decisionmaking"). Accord, 351, 660. B 17 Before assessing justification rejecting clear precisely how differ operation current above, 777-778, starting point analysis basic bears burden rebutting lacks demonstrating here urges second, subsidiary presumption—that would, override ofcontinu ing contrast, "take[s] into retaining long-standing requirement come forth substantiate his F.2d, (Williams, dissenting).8 C 18 find Presumptions normally arise proof renders existence another "so probable sensible timesaving truth inferred] until adversary disproves it." E. Cleary, McCormick Evidence 343, 969 (3d ed.1984). despite willingness line. Economic concerns, instance, force wants benefits sense worker who, feeling heat himself family, abandon go back Lyng Automobile 485 360, 371, 1184, 1192, 99 380 (1988) (recognizing "a individual faces immediate drop income strike"). replacement, nonstriker crossover, disagree refuse wanting table. insists argues, stems directly negotiate employers settlements return jobs, displacing Belknap, Hale, 463 491, 513-514, 3172, 3184-3185, (1983) (BLACKMUN, judgment). asserts loyalty likely 1350 ("Strike can foresee successful, job"). related argument, contends "inherent conflict" incapable "bargain[ing] simultaneously best 641 (1986); 1350. 20 These arguments persuade us irrational. Dold Foods, 289 1323 (1988), ground: 21 "[U]nions demand, least discharged rehired. Frequently, instant modified negotiations issues underlying Indeed, wore on, took progressively discharge (about 32 201 replacements) yet completed probationary period." (citation omitted). workers logically power. Court's Mackay Radio Telegraph 304 333, 58 904, 82 1381 (1938), required conclusion room returning strikers; rather, reinstate vacancies arise. reinstatement, then, lies ability condition ending Unions' leverage compel settlement If, issue highly trained perform did, little incentive hire fire replacements; consequently, Consumers' reaction position. customers reluctance deal employer, poor strength hand negotiations. unlikely press employer—at very forcefully long—to Cognizant weak position, They though, role processing grievances, monitoring actions, performing roles. Because greatly, reject sentiments.9 23 once resolved. continues, whose appears relatively secure continue regardless posture Surely union.10 Electric, N.L.R.A. 1344 obligation 24 line, itself, does repudiate (emphasis added). id., 1345; 352; regards factors relevant contentions ring hollow. 866-867 (1984) (concluding face continued violence, together evidence, overcame former 1185-1188 (1982) (holding adamant terminated, presumption).11 sum, Even presumption. D 26 "overriding policy" " 'industrial peace.' 2233 Brooks 348 103, 75 176, 181, 125 (1954)).12 "further[s] 'promot[ing] relationships, without impairing free choice employees.' reasoned "enable[s] concentrate fairly administering worrying unless produces results, support." (citing 100, 179). "remove[s] temptation hope delaying, undermine employees." directed goal limits employers' oust adducing encourages negotiated solutions strikes. That thus encourage settlement, means removing altogether. 40, 2234 ("Without ., successor enterprise way getting rid eliminat[ing union's] presence"). Restricting terminating relationship serves policies settlements. 233-234, 1148, (1963) ("[The Act's] repeated solicitude predicated legitimately employed weapon great measure implements principles collective system"). 28 "concerted activities," 157 ("Employees shall activities mutual aid protection"). remove conclude, strike.13 generally act "as arbiter sort weapons parties use," Insurance Agents, 361 477, 497, 80 419, 431, (1960), restricting conduct threatens destroy activity. 412, 418-419, 728 (upholding prohibiting unilateral multiemployer impasse, "although deny weapon," advanced "pre-eminent goal" process); 230-237, 1146-1150 granting superseniority crossovers damage super-seniority future relationship); Great Dane Trailers, 388 26, 34-35, 87 1792, 1797-1798, 1027 (1967) payment vacation crossovers, nonstrikers destructive effect activity). rationally protecting process preserving find, accord 786-787, Act. IV 30 remand further proceedings opinion. 31 ordered. Chief concurring. "no-presumption" seems me limit reality, I agree exceeded. consider, substantial determination here, believe left remand. 33 By resort what seem commonsense assumptions entire class workers—those strikers—the sharply satisfy "good-faith doubt" requirement. preclude finding circumstantial suggest requires show "expressed desires" order establish Tube Craft, 862, (1988); Johns-Manville Sales 358, Tile, Terrazzo Marble Contractors Assn., 769, prevents polling establishes Texas Petrochemicals 296 1057, 1064 (1989) (the standard recognition). insist bar using effective But before today. 34 dissenting. 35 much SCALIA says dissent, write separately certain respects differs mine. ably demonstrates, cannot reconciled cases 633 (1986), (1975). Those rest premises tend own members expense workers; expected give balanced groups; "can job." are, say least, tension presume, direct preferences, good faith 36 SCALIA's read rests belief correct substantively Certainly expressed Wholesale my understanding reality. eminently foreseeable disfavor break strike; attempt, element ultimate employees; antagonism own.1 expert participants behave fashion, consistently determination, juncture invalidate necessary assert implausible assessment Rather, enough departed, explanation, announced decisions. effort explain apparent inconsistency analyses invalid alone.2 37 am struck, moreover, position—a significant view part, (e.g., abuse "hiring out" duty), expect (or assert) abuses actually occurred period place. troubled fact, THE CHIEF JUSTICE's ante, 797, established express avowals practically impossible amass workers' views.3 point, emphasize, thepropri ety simply asking rule, isolation, demonstrably misguided facts. reviewing ask agency's product adequate deliberative consonant pronouncements analogous areas. 38 Perhaps difference emphasis, worth noting. Rarely feel wrongness substituting courts decisionmaking closely ensure adequately explained bases conclusions, various components form internally whole, contradictions acknowledged addressed. emphasis allows meaningful control unelected officials second-guessing judgments ill equipped make. Such affords range discretion. Confronted court's inconsistent, choose path follow, attempt why contradiction exists. 39 never statute recognize defense, power remains open question. purported take step, articulated legitimate irreconcilably conflict, proclaim affirmed. 40 respectfully dissent. 41 KENNEDY join, 42 makes heavy weather is, well-established law, straightforward Board) central factual determinations unfair-labor-practice adjudications, reasonable, status bargain. request containing affirmative evidence. principal employment-related interest (to retain jobs) almost members) unsupported stand. dissent thejudg ment reversing Fifth Circuit's order. describes, 1970. composed began, last prestrike proposal. date, according employees: work, complaint charging (and 8(a)(1)) 158(a)(1) (5). formal hearing, (ALJ) respondent, objectively introduced commanded ALJ 44 entered NLRA. began reciting '[a]n wishes withdraw presenting bargain.' 352 (1987) 1339, 1340 (1987)). Purporting evaluate action standard, five relying provided evidentiary inferring 352-353. criticizing (footnote 45 enforcement "was union," contrary 362, 365, 367 (1988). 46 An proceeding known adjudication, governed Procedure (APA), 556, 557. 554(a). more judicialized ordinary addition procedural provisions NLRA provide, "shall, far practicable, conducted applicable district United States civil procedure States," 160(b). attributes adjudication contain "findings therefor, material record," 557(c), "hold unlawful aside action, findings, conclusions evidence," 706(2)(E); accord, 160(f) ("[T]he findings questions considered conclusive"). 47 challenged 'sufficient 1340). shifts "come forward refusal-to-bargain appropriate 1445 original). leading subject, cited approvingly formed described follows: 48 "We answer Section depends, demonstrate Employer believed nature, questioned resolved simple formula. answered totality involved circumstances, essential prerequisites raised certified. There all, believing lost certification. And, secondly, context illegal activities. ." 671-673 (1951). circumstances" precise finding. plainly not. 52 (25) doubtful latter group thought suffices focus believed. deep inherent explained: "Strike job. understandable look persons lines 53 "The lay returned jobs." relies reality "diametrically opposed" rules: commit conditions employment. (1986). fair employment—in words, propose "negotiations strikers," ibid. 639 ("[I]t logical bargaining] pendency strike") (internal quotation omitted; citation omitted); (even ended, groups remains" contractual dispute resolved); ("It where line"). 55 therefore, complainant foolish indeed (3) breakers subverted wherever possible. shred supported, reason facts, factfinder possessed, certainty, At three effectively assessment, doubt. Soule Glass Glazing Co. 652 1055, 1110 (CA1 1981); Car Rental 594 1203, 1206-1207 (CA8 1979); Randle-Eastern Ambulance 584 728-729 1978). 56 making no-reasonable-doubt finding, relied stated: "[T]he representative. regard, initiatives. factually compelling." (footnotes finds reasoning persuasive: "Economic Ante, 789. responses inadequate. reasons. Undoubtedly do—the lead seek terminate Nor Some perhaps would. "union representation" abstract, 59 Also embarrassingly wide mark observation "[u]nions 790. (as person must) account, accurately describe suggests "to premise always demands." 11. APA requires, probative (expressed opinions adopted) demands, know that. 60 facts case" belie proposition 808, "is employees," "did settling strike." 791, 9. true, true determinative here. happened: "On 61 unconditional Later day, notified accepted proposal." 351 62 "on work" allowing Does really mean interpret stay proposal, remain unemployed? Or proposal double force, paying offer? later negotiation. No union—which, negotiations, (indeed, legal obligation) strikebreakers Electric: 63 "[E]ven virtue announcement concluding suddenly better able 'to replacements,' previously do. remains." 641. 64 mentions afterthought fundamental center case: 65 "Moreover, 792 66 trouble posits species rarely exist case) status—i.e., "job resolved." How secure" agrees strikers? workers, somehow knows (by imagine) back,1 assurance honor strike-breakers. overwhelmingly old back, relative displaced. "replacement ibid.—in man $1 million jump off cliff consequence performance contemplate fun survive. anticipate poststrike weigh less heavily calculus gets way, jobs. 67 response achieve Its conceivably prefer alternatives, try him. suppose so. hopes because, knows, president son-in-law. introduce special circumstances. appear record, reasonableness assess probabilities improbable strikebreaking prefers bet strong wager bad unnecessary, fellow objective, risking voting over, election. 68 reiterate 100% "reasonable absurd sustained burden. 69 addresses issue, petition certiorari possessed 778, 2. equivalent characterizing appeal criminal conviction, defendant indictment demonstrated scene crime, involving, adequacy jury places time. altered presumptions. same. asserts, held, "pre sumption" (I place word marks describe, terminology misleading) "presumption" gave (viz., accurate probabilities) inherently produce framing presented, invites confuse factfinding policymaking. readily invitation. Prior understood inevitable logic Part indication 1368; (1962); 1445. called dictum, precedent. There, describes 1341, "inexplicably stated," replacements: "[I]t well-settled principle dictum became 716 union] even, especially, event 717 KKHI: Pennco assertion 'long held.' held' fashion 1975, (i.e., ) supporting rationale precedent." 1343. 71 Unsurprisingly, given feeble repeating "uniformly 72 framework today, 1340. went error infects opinion: 73 unsupportable. mistake treat elements decisionmaking, applications device, display commitment "real facts" other. applied law," 717, inference, "[a] sought deduced state already proved admitted." Black's Dictionary 700 (5th ed. 1979). One refer presumption: identity sole Englishman remote Africa, encounters white pith helmet sipping gin tonic, perfectly "Dr. Livingston, presume." text writers used call "presumption fact," Wigmore, 2491, (J. Chadbourn rev. 1981), quite Pennco-type law" insofar judicial review, proceed explain. proper business agencies, law) inferences (presumptions fact). create teeth implementing adjudication. example virtually following latter, however—inferences fact)—are creatures masters, representing dictates adjudicatory determinations. Whenever "substantial ignored drawn, drawn be. discussed happened here.2 76 Of implement forbidding just requiring nonrational (which is). And reached outcome fashion—saying inferred half resolved, permit made. (This close eliminating except demonstrate, statements, union.) rested reasoning, false. factfinding, evidence" test. added, seemingly make-weight: disrupt balance competing situations substantially seeming suffice sustaining action. First adopting counterfactual (what validate action) ignoring inferences. thing say: X, decline impose X adverse consequences." "Even reasons." properly grounds. suggestion facts; having opposite doubt), idea regard accepting long-established yet-to-be-made behalf, SEC Chenery 318 80, 88, 454, 626 (1943). 79 upholding ruling made, defended Circuit, plus depriving defenses occasion courts. "with representatives" define term "representatives," "includes organization." 152(4). anywhere "representative" purposes 158(a)(5) decertified. test liable patently exception certification—is arguably implementation 159(e)(2), precludes elections frequently annually. if, nor obligated discussion 806-807. confront purport deciding assumption guilty status; exclusively challenged, Circuit. permitted enforced reached, decision.3 Despite explicit rulemaking authority, 156, chosen—unlike major Federal Government—to Bell Aerospace 416 267, 294-295, 94 1757, 1771-1772, 134 disguise policymaking escape political limitations subject. purports determination. Here not, enforced. 81 What recalls Hughes' description unscrupulous administrator's prayer: 'Let people country, care lays down principles.' Address Bar Association, February 1931, quoted Frank, Forness, 928, 942 1942), reprinted Owl Sigma Nu Phi 9, (1931). provides, pertinent part: "(a) employer— "(1) interfere with, restrain, coerce guaranteed section title; "(5) collectively representatives subject 159(a) title." assertion, 801, 807 (dissenting opinion), "factual finding" misconstrues issue. Pet. Cert. ("Whether, asserted employees"). Brief Petitioner I. Whether permissibly type inapplicable us. Baptist 442 773, 787, 2598, 2606, 251 (1979) 'for consistency rationality' ") 501, (1978)). possess views, 7, infra. steward Shady Goodson Union. director middle uncomfortable situation difficulty staffing providing assistance maintaining "conveyed disapproval strike," "reasonably interpreted relations, Elizabeth Price, Tony Lopez Bill Lee, done nothing pay dues Price J.R. Blackshire anger handling payments reinstatement. "there [,] [, and] wanted work." 351. Clint Waller walking felt end. resigned Striker Raymond Brunner retiring Schneider well. derives name Professor Robert Gorman's treatise "if serve (in parlance, strikebreaker, worse), assumed ought counted majority." 112 context, endorse 112-113 196 (1962)). Eighth Circuits albeit 1206 Second Sixth Circuits, 805, 813 1978); Ninth expressly approved Buckley Broadcasting 230, 233-234 (1989). Contrary constitute unexplained abandonment charge. indicating amount prove rely evidence; actual numerical (noting doubt). assuming, has, silentio, forsaken standard. American Federation Industrial Organizations, amicus curiae, Board-conducted Flynn, Strike Bar: Looking Beyond "Union Sentiments" Permanent Replacements, Temple L.Rev. 691, 720 validity 41, 8, passing validity). address resolution our decision. Parcel Mitchell, 451 56, 60, 2, 101 1559, 1562, 732 (1981). characterizes "embarrassingly mark" "almost certain[ly]" Post, 808 opinion). confident vast reservoir resolving disputes, situated frequency sweeping characterization inevitability infra, 793. 809, hardly rehire Here, reinstated. Depending skills, threatened More importantly, turns up credible force. 790-791, pressure Absent contrary, questioning pressing misunderstand 810-811 opposes accrue assuming sake argument supposition, cases. reason, imply inconsistent ignores considerations, illegitimate 812-813 earlier, supra 778-779, real consider disserve policies. 2606. considerations alone urged (opinion judgment) ("During settlement"). Greater Boston Television FCC, 143 383, 394, 444 841, 852 (1970) ("[A]n changing supply standards deliberately changed, casually ignored, glosses swerves precedents tolerably terse intolerably mute") omitted), 403 923, 91 701 (1971). recently meet poll election, placed difficult bind. Mingtree Restaurant, 736 1295, 1297 1984) ("By allowed so, recognition"). emphasizes "at 792, easy this, full-dress inquiring historical fact. wonders advertise dwindling, learned remaining routine fraternization. knew, probably not; course, assessed probabilities. believes now, promises later. "assuming 'almost certain[ly]' demands. presumably compelled mind. compelling place, entertained status—which affirm enough. "need matter." 795-796, 13. text, possibly clear, today's ultimately matter" credible.

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