Document: 454 U.S. 432 102 S.Ct. 735 70 L.Ed.2d 677 Clarence E. CABELL, et al., Appellantsv.Jose CHAVEZ-SALIDO al. No. 80-990. Argued Nov. 3, 1981. Decided Jan. 12, 1982. Syllabus Section 1031(a) of the Cal.Gov't Code Ann. (West 1980) requires "public officers or employees declared by law to be peace officers" United States citizens; § 830.5 Cal.Penal Supp.1981) declares probation and deputy "peace officers." Appellees, lawfully admitted permanent resident aliens, after unsuccessfully applying for positions as Deputy Probation Officers in Los Angeles County, filed suit Federal District Court challenging statutory citizenship requirement under, inter alia, Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment seeking declaratory, injunctive, other relief. The held unconstitutional both on its face applied appellees. Held: is valid. Pp. 436-447. (a) While a restriction aliens that primarily affects economic interests subject strict judicial scrutiny, such scrutiny out place when serves political function. A claim particular legally not goals evaluated two-step process. Sugarman v. Dougall, 413 634, 93 2842, 37 853. First, specificity classification will examined: substantially overinclusive underinclusive tends undercut governmental legitimate ends. Second, even if sufficiently tailored, it may case only "persons holding state elective important nonelective executive, legislative, positions." supra, at 647, S.Ct., 2850. 436-441. (b) statutes question are an attempt limit exercise sovereign's coercive police powers over community citizens. They tailored light aim withstand facial challenge reviewed under appropriate equal protection standard sovereign power. 441-444. (c) partake power force individual they required Although range individuals whom supervisory authority limited, officers' with respect those broad. limitation who and, therefore, symbolize this fall within jurisdiction. 444-447. 490 F.Supp. 984, reversed remanded. William F. Stewart, Angeles, Cal., appellants. Mary S. Burdick, Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 In we once again consider imposed State fill certain offices. California Gov't citizens States. Penal Supp.1981), provides three-judge Central appellees, sought Officers. 984. 2 * Appellees were, time complaint was filed, living Cal.1 Each County Department.2 With two three parties stipulated failure obtain result requirement.3 3 constitutionality 42 U.S.C. §§ 1981 1983. Named defendants were county officials, their official capacity, Angeles.4 4 alleged discrimination against impermissible infringement upon constitutional right travel, interference Congress' plenary regulate aliens. declaratory injunctive relief, well attorney's fees damages plaintiffs. court properly convened. 28 2281 (1970 ed.), 2284.5 5 February 1977, concluded applied. Chavez-Salido Cabell, 427 158. That decision rested entirely appellees' arguments Clause; did reach travel federal pre-emption claims. This Court, 436 901, 98 2228, 56 398 vacated remanded judgment further consideration Foley Connelie, 435 291, 1067, 55 287 (1978), which upheld New York statute requiring troopers Chavez-Salido, (1978). On remand, reconsidered previous position Foley, Ambach Norwick, 441 68, 99 1589, 60 49 (1979), refuse employ elementary secondary school teachers eligible but fail seek naturalization. Judge Curtis dissenting, found prior views still valid convincing. It, came identical conclusion scheme constitutionally invalid facially 6 We noted probable jurisdiction, 450 978, 101 1511, 67 813 (1981), now reverse. II 7 Over years, has many times considered classifications dealing See, e.g., supra; Nyquist Mauclet, 1, 97 2120, 53 63 (1977); Examining Board Flores de Otero, 426 572, 96 2264, 65 (1976); re Griffiths, 717, 2851, 910 (1973); 853 Graham Richardson, 403 365, 91 1848, 29 534 (1971); Takahashi Fish & Game Comm'n, 334 410, 68 1138, 92 L.Ed. 1478 (1948); Crane York, 239 195, 36 85, 218 (1915); Heim McCall, 175, 78, 206 Truax Raich, 33, 7, 131 Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, 30 220 (1886). As have before, cases "have formed unwavering line years." U.S., 72, 1592. But say decisions do into neat pattern no pattern. fact, illustrate unusual characteristic legal development; broad principles articulated, narrowed new contexts, finally replaced distinctions rely longer tenable. 8 could deny carry "harmless useful occupation" available proclaimed hostility toward permissible ground discriminatory classification, dealt situation government had actively intervened sphere private employment. series later became clear mean strictly neutral between citizens: continued uphold withhold from public benefits resources. Terrace Thompson, 263 197, 44 15, 255 (1923) (ownership land); supra (employment works projects); Patsone Pennsylvania, 232 138, 34 281, 58 539 (1914) (taking wild game). 9 distinction distribution resources intervention market clearly established principle regulations struck down all employers more than five workers "not less eighty per cent. qualified electors native born States:" 10 "The defined act does pertain regulation domain, common property people State, enjoyment limited States." Id., 39-40, 9-10. 11 public/private distinction, "special interest" doctrine, seeGraham 372, 374, 1852, 1853; 643, 644, 2848, challenged bar obtaining commercial fishing licenses: 12 "To whatever extent fish three-mile belt off 'capable ownership' California, think 'ownership' inadequate justify excluding any lawful residents making ocean shores while permitting others so." 421, 1143. 13 governing analysis residents, eroded read "cast[ing] doubt continuing validity special public-interest doctrine contexts," 1853, distinguish welfare benefits. Returning Wo's present citing recent theory two-tiered implied there would very few any—areas legitimately aliens: 14 "Aliens class prime example 'discrete insular' minority . heightened solicitude appropriate. Accordingly, said Takahashi, 420 [68 1143] 'the apply laws exclusively alien inhabitants confined narrow limits.' " 1852. 15 through most part attempts retain Since Graham, confronted claims distinguishing functions government. been supported argument although relevant benefits, determining membership community. "We recognize State's interest establishing own form government, limiting participation basic conception community.' 642, 2847. retreating restrictions affect ibid.; function: "[O]ur so demanding where deal matters resting firmly prerogatives [and] responsibility establishment operation qualifications appropriately designated office holders." 648, thus abandoned general some bound up entity permit exclusion persons become process self-government." 73-74, 1593. And areas need "clear high hurdle 'strict scrutiny,' because [that] 'obliterate depreciate historic value citizenship.' Folley V 295, 1070 (citation omitted).6 16 processes deficiency democratic system necessary consequence community's self-definition. Self-government, whether direct representatives, begins defining scope governed governors well: Aliens definition outside Judicial incursions area interfere aspects self-government essential it. has, old distinction. rests firmer foundations difficult cases. 17 advised itself—all members competitive civil service—could support element "the define community," indiscriminately swept menial occupations, leaving functions. positions," "participate directly formulation, execution, review policy" hence "perform go heart representative government." 2850.7 must therefore inquire "position involves discretionary decisionmaking, execution policy, community." 296, 1070. 18 issue passes tests. III 19 argue, agreed, 1980), citizens, unconstitutionally overinclusive: "Section void 'sweeps too broadly.' F.Supp., 986.8 failed articulate reaching conclusion. Rather, relied wholly belief included officer," undefined number them "cannot matter how liberally category viewed." 987. Court's entire point consisted just one sentence: "There appears justification citizenship, employment cemetery sextons, furniture bedding inspectors, livestock identification toll service employees." 986. believing sufficient, far stricter approved 20 hold wrong concluding toll-service employees, inspectors striking face.9 assumed all, stand. proper standard. inquiry reaches haphazard belie attempting ensure function hands having "fundamental bond citizenship." 75, Under standard, used precise; substantial fit. Our examination convinces us challenge. 21 requirements, including 1031 1980). section, however, designate officer; rather, 830 lists specific occupations officer." Even casual reading makes unifying character categories enforcement Specific either geographical jurisdiction substantive enforce. Thus, surprisingly, first listed include county, city, district levels. 830.1. followed various authorized State: highway patrol officers, police, National Guard ordered active service. 830.2. After this, includes long list different law: charged alcoholic beverage laws, food drug fire horse racing laws. 830.3. Finally, several catchall provisions geographic responsibilities—e.g., park rangers, San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit harbor college security municipal utility districts, employed buildings—and "clientele"—e.g., welfare-fraud child-support investigators, correctional parole officers. 830.31-830.6. 22 these tenuous connection traditional enforcement, questionable comparatively number.10 underscored fact make arrests, 836, receive course training respective arrest use firearms. 832. made here that. pass lower level articulated Sugarman.11 IV 23 also here—deputy conclusion, focused narrowly comparison characteristics Ambach. describe outer limits requirements. For example, emphasized communitywide responsibilities suggestion judges, subclass community, cannot requirement. See Sugarman, Similarly, unsupervised discretion exercised teacher officer performance duties, neither suggested jurors, set instructions, Perkins Smith, 370 134 (Md.1974), summarily aff'd, 913, 2616, 368 (1976). Definition necessarily primary branches review.12 24 Looking conclude they, like involved authority.13 arrest, 830.5, 1203.2 Supp.1981); Cal.Civ.Proc.Code 131.4 1954); release he 1203.1a Supp.1981). He supervise probationers insure conditions met probationer accomplishes successful reintegration 1203.1 Supp. 1981). juveniles, determine detain offenders, Cal.Welf. Inst.Code 628 institute proceedings take steps minor. 630, 653-654. carrying great that, teacher, exercised, instance, without supervision: 25 "Because officer's much compel conformance code behavior rehabilitation, entrusted traditionally judge progress rehabilitation cases, armed recommend declare revocation." Gagnon Scarpelli, 411 778, 784, 1756, 1760, 656 (1973). 26 One overly idealistic view educational during period acts extension judiciary's lead lives executive's coerce obedience conditions.14 From perspective probationer, his personify powers; larger control over, for, violated norms social order. perspectives, seem 27 Therefore, reversed, consistent opinion. So ordered. BLACKMUN, BRENNAN, MARSHALL, STEVENS join, dissenting. Jose Pedro Luis Ybarra, Ricardo Bohorquez American-educated Spanish-speaking California.1 Seven years ago, each modest aspiration—to "Deputy Officer, Spanish-speaking." willing swear loyalty Governments; indeed, appellee intent citizen. By examination, possibly third, demonstrated fitness jobs desired.2 Appellants denied solely 31 today concludes chosen profession "a self-definition." Ante, 439. misstating alienage classifications. It then asserts disabled serving job 'go[es] government.' 440, quoting 2850, 32 my view, today's rewrites precedents, ignores history, defies sense, reinstates deadening mantle parochialism I dissent. 33 acknowledges our regarding 436. (1886), recognized honored work 41, 10, (1915), essence personal freedom opportunity purpose [Fourteenth] secure. If refused race nationality, prohibition denial person barren words." 35 expressly exempt rule. 8-1 decision, inconsistent excluded offered basis examinations. directed barred There, here, asserted ensuring "that performed State." Brief O.T. 1972, 71-1222, p. 10. Without denying weight interest, "judged context framework justifications present[ed]," 640, 2846, means insufficiently precise consistently chooses discriminate claimed carefully examined order substantial, adopted achieve goal precisely drawn." De 605, 2282, 2124, 721-722, 2854-2855, 376, 1854, (1971). "Alienage stringent stand." 2124. Applying face, (West) (1980) violates Clause. six unrelated prerequisites office[r] employe[e] [a] office[r]."3 Scattered sections variegated collection officers," When appellees jobs, officer" encompassed apparently takers, game wardens, voluntary racetrack coroners, Supreme Courts Appeal bailiffs, messengers Treasurer's office, Dental Examiners. 158, 169-170, n. (CD Cal. 1977) (listing positions). To day, legislature reason why divergent classes gathered umbrella.4 38 history statute, suggests answer. Before 1961, require 986 Indeed, 1851, granted sheriffs, policemen, marshals, constables status. 986, 4. century, reserve four decades, dozens subsequent enactments added list, none Ibid. Some reasons totally logic.5 39 stating rationale, "in fell swoop, passed Government mandatory list." arguably might exclude plainly irrelevant. Nine enacted, California's Attorney General stated: 40 "It can validly imposed. 41 "[P]rior officer. aware change occurred date. [W]e permitted. There appear compelling classifying alienage." Opinion 69-199, Op.Cal.Atty.Gen. 63, 67-68 (1970). reviewing sensibly concluded, twice, survive rigorous mandated progeny. 169-171; 985-986. Noting counsel unsupported Legislature never reasoned position. 985-987. provision "is grossly overbroad sweeps broadly proscription employment." 43 glance 1031(a)'s reverses, reasoning improperly "applied cases." 442. reads "strict [on aliens] function." Based "casual reading" excluded, decides 443. Conceding bars "may enforcement," ante, 443, nevertheless "need fit" interest. fundamentally distorts Sugarman. condone looser barring "political" jobs. Nyquist, name exercising "historical voters 'elective nonelective' officials 'who participate policy.' 11, 2126 (footnote omitted), At same time, warned purpose, employs drawn acknowledged purpose." 2848. 45 explored boundaries altered review. tempered declaration entrust "its policy responsibilities" caveat "accomplish end indiscriminately,' regard differences involved." 296 297, 5, 1071, tolerance requirements offices exception applicable based 46 lying squarely excludes unthinking manner. represent found, deny, permitted teach schools, works, serve state, positions—all community.6 47 exactly fatally underinclusive. numerous proffered little, any, relevance. allows naturally purpose. Cf. "Our treat differently greater degree precision." 48 Nor reconcile notion "substantial Every single position, hundreds thousands novel condones legislative rationally them.7 involve noncitizens not. Today's earlier holdings required. 1073; unambiguously proscribed blanket dictum circumscribed posts involving policy." Sugarman's exception, 50 originally understood, exceedingly narrow. Less deemed deriving historical institutions" "constitutional Long before limits," 420, 1143, (1948). (1973), decided day "narrowness [Sugarman] exception" asserting every "vital role." 2126, 729, 2858. 51 entail "execution limited. clarified formulation review, executive meet 's constitute "one government" "fulfil[l] fundamental obligation constituency." 1071. 52 accepting judgments binding, embrace assertion "Foley requirements." 444. Ambach, invoke showing.8 show historically reserved prerogativ[e]." Furthermore, demonstrate employee exercises portion citizen population. clientele intervening supervision. then, prove 'bears rational relationship demands position.' Dougall 339 906, 911 (SDNY 1971) (Lumbard, J., concurring). 54 test, swallows Yet test today. Instead, "look[s] importance [governmental] factor giving substance concept 441, 7. nebulous perform "important 445. inspection, justifies "partake individual." concedes limited." individuals, conditioned statute. guns. 985, 2. bringing determination should released. authorize juveniles emergencies brief periods. 309, 313, 315 "limit[s] citizens." assertion. gives 830.7 (describing "[p]ersons arrest"). Moreover, authorizes "private person," actually committed felonies attempted offenses presence. 834, 837. hollow reality already bestowed persons, 57 "discretion supervision." 446. little. Almost everyone bureaucracy instance. itself observes investigate, supervise, evaluate, recommend. Their duties preparing presentence reports, supervising probationers, recommending sentences probationary terms. 171. denigrate functions, equate jurors. Unlike "clothed almost infinite variety powers." 1071.9 jurors deliver final verdicts judges impose sentences, always advisory supervised themselves revocation probation. investigative reporting extensively regulated 1203.2-1203.12. play integral role criminal justice separate prison guards, clerks, myriad functionaries execute policy. 59 More significantly, inflexible roles system. counties appoint chief juvenile adult "if best served." 24001 practice law. Raffaelli Committee Bar Examiners, Cal.3d 288, Cal.Rptr. 896, 496 P.2d 1264 (1972). becoming Superior justices.10 defendant represented trial appeal attorney, tried appealed justice, department headed alien. find absurd words, tolerates "haphazard 'fundamental citizenship.'" 61 third actual symbolic "extension" to, 751 conditions. 447. Yet, saying, simply ultimate lies elsewhere. "officers court." 722-727, 2855-2857. Given size bureaucracy, little left "extended" authority.11 62 am convinced personifies eyes knows limit. Surely taxpayer feels local tax collector comes door; recognizes firefighters put fire. demand thoroughly eviscerating sight foreign-born merely following, encouraging follow, equally powerful symbol society's norms. end, identified disables performing 308, 1077 (STEVENS, dissenting). dispute possess background entails. nn. 2, supra. advances Spanish-speakers graduate academic degrees, superbly 84, 87-88, 1598, 1600 (dissenting opinion). 64 lack familiarity rules. Such disqualify nonresident lived lives. presume loyal State. rulings 726, 18, 2857, Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 88, 111, 43, 1895, 1909, 495 (1976), good conscience Constitution. expressed willingness oaths. become, became, enacting 1031(a), seeks encourage objective 10-11, 2125-2126. stems foreigners come country lawfully. ironic invokes resided lawfully, desire help enforce rights treatment individualized fitness. 66 affirm ruling subsequently openings previously grounds noncitizenship. question, present, consider, intimate about, Constitution action permission who, kinds opinion, refer "probation discussing issue. appellee, Bohorquez, score disqualified him, informed useless. relief suit, examination. contest court, did. complaint, waived 1983—the Monell City Dept. Social Services, 658, 2018, 611 brought county. argued, 1981, 1331(a) $10,000 controversy. second readopted jurisdictional declined waiver possible resolution merits clear, evaluate otherwise accept findings Congress since availability courts, Three-Judge Amendments 1976, Pub.L. 94-381, 90 Stat. 1119. case, affected changes, actions commenced date statute's enactment. dissent seems imply establish review—e.g., "[Sugarman] 'political jobs.' Post, 453. times, explicitly refers "Sugarman "[l]ess 'a institutions.' 456. full quotation follows: '[E]ach prescribe manner shall chosen.' Boyd Nebraska ex rel. Thayer, 143 135, 161 [12 375, 382, 103] (1892). Luther Borden, How. 581] (1849); Pope Williams, 193 621, 632-633 [24 573, 575, 817] (1904). inheres virtue obligation, above, 'to preserve Dunn Blumstein, 405 [330], 344 [92 995, 1004, 274]. applies, voters, positions, 'participate language itself: understood participating policies. easily defined, Sugarman—Foley (1979)—suggest look breadth employee. self-government. Both mistakenly "overbreadth." "Overbreadth" standing First litigants assert presently court. Broadrick Oklahoma, 601, 611-615, 2908, 2915-2917, others; denies destroys justification. worth noting, mentioned Bureau Livestock, sextons eliminated coverage amendments 830.4 1980. 1980 Cal.Stats., ch. 1340, 4724, effective Sept. 30, specifically questions positions. 455, Three these—Dental Inspectors, Parks Recreation Department wardens—are "primary duty" enforcement. 830.3(b), (c), (j) accuses covered application 455. indicate noncitizen applicants successfully them. argue impermissibly contention, advanced fails teachers. 29. points, relies underinclusiveness indicating appropriate, 2847, open closed considered. Underinclusiveness involved—the wide sweeping indiscriminate categorization raises arbitrariness raised power—to category, category: Are there, citizens? respect, underinclusive: officers"—and requirement—security institutions higher education authority. Measuring contacts appear. relatively small contact broader section His bring him supervision interact—e.g., employers, teachers, landlords, family. policeman, carries interactions segment Thus statistics presented amicus Service Employees International Union, cited oral argument, Tr. Oral Arg. 40, growing caseload, spend offender minimal. Mexico, years. received formal Bachelor Arts Mexican-American studies College Beach. Spain, 1972. possesses theology Camillas University Master African Studies Angeles. working another Master's degree, sociology, Northridge. Colombia, 1961. Latin-American App. 19-23. scored 95 100 qualifying Officer (DPO) II, Spanish-speaking, DPO Trainee citizenship. Ybarra passing examinations initial results appellants told 19-24. least fingerprinted, moral character, (or equivalent thereof), physically mentally healthy, litigation began, twice unconstitutional, amended Code, removing adding others. 986-987, additions deletions list). (same). what criteria uses decide deserves noted: "No mystery surrounds unrecognizable Legislature. respond groups. Correctional status 'peace better group insurance [B]ecause enjoyed past, groups, tangentially associated persuaded term officer.' Hetherington Personnel Bd., 82 Cal.App.3d 582, 600, 147 300, 311 (1978) (Reynoso, Purdy Fitzpatrick 71 Cal.2d 566, 79 77, 456 645 (1969) (invalidating works); 1970 653, 1277, repealing Art. Pt. Div. Cal.Lab.Code 1940 1955) (former city). generally Comment, Exclusion Permanent Resident Appointive Public Office, C.W.L.R. 117, 126-131 (1974) excluded). seriously inspector, messenger Recreations employee, volunteer warden see type legislature's latest amendments, remain 1031(a). policemen with" described "plenary 297-298, Policemen "over generally" "pervasive" presence modern society. 297-299, 1071-1072. Because often "without authority," grant "prophylactic authority" 298, Exercise "very discretion, abuse misuse serious impact individuals." teaching schools similarly significant "governmental Schoolteachers, noted, "degree discretion" fulfill government's provide education. "direct, day-to-day contact" students, them, models, influence students' attitudes about 78-79, 1595-1596. analogy probationers' "attitudes process, citizen's responsibilities." 79, 1596. ignore life. 1973, average nearly offenders. Center, Time Study (Feb. 26, 1973). accorded eight hours year, seven nine minutes week. blinks suggest pressures inclination give lessons civics. Until 1966, 69500, 68804 justices 1967, repealed. 1967 17, pp. 841, 845, 61, 87. result, remaining Cal.Const., VI, 15. Raffaelli, hence, judges. notes "almost policies."

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