Document: 482 U.S. 578 107 S.Ct. 2573 96 L.Ed.2d 510 Edwin W. EDWARDS, etc., et al., Appellantsv.Don AGUILLARD, al. No. 85-1513. Argued Dec. 10, 1986. Decided June 19, 1987. Syllabus Louisiana's "Creationism Act" forbids the teaching of theory evolution in public elementary and secondary schools unless accompanied by instruction "creation science." The Act does not require either other is taught. It defines theories as "the scientific evidences for [creation or evolution] inferences from those evidences." Appellees, who include Louisiana parents, teachers, religious leaders, challenged Act's constitutionality Federal District Court, seeking an injunction declaratory relief. Court granted summary judgment to appellees, holding that violated Establishment Clause First Amendment. Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. facially invalid violative Amendment, because it lacks a clear secular purpose. Pp. 585-594. (a) further its stated purpose "protecting academic freedom." enhance freedom teachers teach what they choose fails goal "teaching all evidence." Forbidding when creation science also taught undermines provision comprehensive education. Moreover, requiring with give schoolteachers flexibility did already possess supplant present curriculum presentation theories, besides evolution, about origin life. Furthermore, contention furthers "basic concept fairness" evidence on subject without merit. Indeed, evinces discriminatory preference against guides be developed resource services supplied creationism but limiting membership panel scientists," forbidding school boards discriminate anyone "chooses creation-scientist" science, while failing protect refuse science. A law intended maximize comprehensiveness effectiveness would encourage human origins. Instead, this has distinctly different discrediting counter-balancing at every turn creationism. 586-589. (b) impermissibly endorses religion advancing belief supernatural being created humankind. legislative history demonstrates term science," contemplated state legislature, embraces teaching. primary was change provide persuasive advantage particular doctrine rejects factual basis entirety. Thus, designed promote embodies tenet prohibit disfavored certain sects. In case, violates 589-594. 2. err granting upon finding appellants had failed raise genuine issue material fact. Appellants relied "uncontroverted" affidavits scientists, theologians, education administrator defining "origin through abrupt appearance complex form" alleging such viewpoint constitutes true theory. discretion, properly concluded postenactment testimony these experts concerning possible technical meanings terms illuminate contemporaneous legislature passed Act. None persons making produced participated contributed enactment law. 594-596. 765 F.2d 1251 (CA 5 1985), BRENNAN, J., delivered opinion which MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, POWELL, STEVENS, JJ., joined, Part II O'CONNOR, joined. filed concurring opinion, post, p. ----. WHITE, judgment, SCALIA, dissenting REHNQUIST, C.J., Wendell R. Bird, Atlanta, Ga., appellants. Jay Topkis, New York City, appellees. Justice BRENNAN Court. 1 question decision whether "Balanced Treatment Creation-Science Evolution-Science Public School Instruction" (Creationism Act), La.Rev.Stat.Ann. §§ 17:286.1-17:286.7 (West 1982), in- 2 O'CONNOR joins opinion. valid 3 * Creationism § 17:286.4A. No required If taught, however, must Ibid. are statutorily defined 17.286.3(2) (3). 4 parents children attending schools, relief.1 Appellants, officials charged implementing Act, defended ground legitimate interest, namely, freedom.2 Appellees attacked made motion judgment. motion. Aguillard v. Treen, 634 F.Supp. 426 (ED La.1985). court held there can no reason prohibiting historically opposed some denominations. 'creation-science' 'creationism,' statute, involves 'tailored principles' sect group sects." Id., 427 (citing Epperson Arkansas, 393 97, 106, 89 266, 271-72, 21 228 (1968)). therefore prohibited doctrine. (CA5 1985). observed statute's avowed protecting inconsistent requiring, risk sanction, whenever 1257. found Legislature's actual intent "to discredit counterbalancing creationism, belief." Because thus furthering belief, Clause. suggestion rehearing en banc denied over dissent. 778 225 We noted probable jurisdiction, 476 1103, 106 1946, 90 355 (1986), now affirm. 6 any "respecting establishment religion."3 applied three-pronged test determine legislation comports First, have adopted Second, principal effect one neither advances nor inhibits religion. Third, statute result excessive entanglement government Lemon Kurtzman, 403 602, 612-613, 91 2105, 2111, 29 745 (1971).4 State action if satisfy prongs. 7 special context system. States local generally afforded considerable discretion operating schools. See Bethel Dist. Fraser, 478 675, 683, 3159, 3164, 92 549 (1986); id., 687, S.Ct., 3166 (BRENNAN, judgment); Tinker Des Moines Independent Community Dist., 503, 507, 733, 737, 731 (1969). "At same time . we necessarily recognized matters exercised manner transcendent imperatives Amendment." Board Education, Island Trees Union Free 26 Pico, 457 853, 864, 102 2799, 2806, 73 435 (1982). 8 been particularly vigilant monitoring compliance Families entrust their children, condition trust understanding classroom will purposely used advance views may conflict private beliefs student his her family. Students institutions impressionable attendance involuntary. See, e.g., Grand Rapids Ball, 473 373, 383, 105 3216, 3222, 87 267 (1985); Wallace Jaffree, 472 38, 60, n. 51, 2479, 2492, 86 Meek Pittenger, 421 349, 369, 95 1753, 1765, 44 217 (1975); Abington Schempp, 374 203, 252-253, 83 1560, 1587-1588, 10 844 (1963) concurring). exerts great authority coercive power mandatory requirements, students' emulation role models children's susceptibility peer pressure.5 supra, U.S., 3164; 81, 2503 (O'CONNOR, judgment). "[t]he once symbol our democracy most pervasive means promoting common destiny. activity more vital keep out divisive forces than ." Illinois ex rel. McCollum 333 231, 68 461, 475, L.Ed. 649 (1948) (opinion Frankfurter, J.). 9 Consequently, often invalidate statutes supra (school district's use schools); (Alabama authorizing moment silence prayer); Stone Graham, 449 39, 101 192, 66 199 (1980) (posting copy Ten Commandments wall); (1968) (statute evolution); (daily reading Bible); Engel Vitale, 370 421, 430, 82 1261, 1266, 601 (1962) (recitation "denominationally neutral" prayer). Therefore, employing test, do so mindful concerns arise evaluation under test. III 11 Lemon's first prong focuses animated adoption "The asks government's endorse disapprove religion." Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 690, 104 1355, 1368, 79 604 (1984) governmental intention enacts serve This evidenced promotion general, see 52-53, 2487 (Establishment protects individual conscience select faith none all"), advancement 41, 194 (invalidating requirement post Commandments, "undeniably sacred text Jewish Christian faiths") (footnote omitted); 271 (holding banning Amendment since learning" "be tailored principles prohibitions dogma"). enacted endorsing religion, "no consideration second third criteria [of ] necessary." 56, 2489. identified 12 True, freedom. 17:286.2 1982). phrase might, parlance, understood referring enhancing will. Appeals, correctly goal.6 find merit State's argument "legislature [have] use[d] 'academic freedom' correct legal sense. They might [had] mind, instead, basic fairness; Tr. Oral Arg. 60. Even "academic freedom" read mean evidence" respect beings, providing furthered outlawing 13 While normally deferential articulation purpose, statement sincere sham. 64, 2494 (POWELL, concurring); 75, 2499 193; 223-224, 1572-73. As Wallace: "It trivial matter, manifest omit sectarian endorsements laws. That precisely Clause's assuring Government intentionally practice." 2499-2500 (concurring 14 sponsor, Senator Bill Keith, narrow curriculum. During hearings, Keith stated: "My [creationism taught." App. E-621. Such ban promote—indeed, undermines—the 15 equally grant F.2d, president Science Teachers Association testified, "[a]ny that's based established fact included already, allowing E-616. provides new authority. Thus it. 16 Alabama unconstitutional analogous. Wallace, characterized 1-minute period meditation. rejected insufficient, previously provided period. "[a]ppellants fully served [existing law] before [the question]." 59, 2491. 17 "fairness" hardly evolution.7 says nothing comparable evolution. 17:286.7A Similarly, 17:286.7B. Only scientists" supplies services. "creationism," non-creation theory, 17:286.4C. 18 solely instruction, encouraged origins humankind.8 But were free facets unable so. even ensure instead requires only agree Appeals' conclusion freedom, "evolution B 19 Graham invalidated posted classrooms. undeniably faiths, recitation supposed blind us fact." omitted). result, "fundamental code" "not sufficient avoid Similarly Schempp "requiring selection opening day verses Holy Bible Lord's Prayer students unison," despite proffer purposes "promotion moral values, contradiction materialistic trends times, perpetuation literature." 223, 1572. 20 Abington, need case legislature's preeminent enacting statute. There historic link between teachings denominations evolution.9 concerned (1968), involved facial challenge regulating reviewed Arkansas unlawful instructor textbook referred Although antievolution explicitly predominant could ignore product upsurge 'fundamentalist' fervor" long viewed contradicting literal interpretation Bible. 98, 106-107, 267, 271-272.10 After reviewing statutes, determined "there doubt motivation [Arkansas] [as anti-evolution statutes]: suppress which, thought, 'denied' divine man." 109, 273. interest religions "distasteful them," 107, 272 (citation omitted), "that permit learning dogma," 271. These antagonisms case. Legislature clearly humankind.11 science" embracing responsible passage Keith's leading expert Edward Boudreaux, testified hearings existence creator. E-421—E-422 (noting point high probability life "created intelligent mind").12 cited support creation-science view "a creator [was] universe everything it."13 E-497. reveals 22 happenstance coincided view. documents order sponsor explained during disdain resulted contrary own beliefs. According consonant "cardinal principle[s] humanism, theological liberalism, aetheistism [sic]." E312-313; E499-500. senator repeatedly supporting should redress incidentally he antithetical own.14 sought alter reflect endorsement antagonistic 23 restructure conform viewpoint. Out many subjects chose affect Epperson, groups tenets humankind "overriding fact" confronted Arkansas' selects body knowledge segment proscribes sole deemed Book Genesis group." 103, 270. sects Clause, "forbids alike prohibition dogma." (emphasis added). violation 24 imply never critiques prevailing acknowledged posting ever played exclusively Western Civilization. 42, 194. similar way, variety schoolchildren validly done instruction. doctrine, Clause.15 IV 25 contend issues remain dispute, erred Rule Civil Procedure 56(c) "shall rendered forthwith pleadings, depositions, answers interrogatories, admissions file, together affidavits, any, show moving party entitled matter law." court's improper behind appropriately face, history, administrative agency. 56-61, 2490-2492; 41-42, 193-94; 103-109, 269-73. plain meaning words, enlightened control determination 74, Richards United States, 369 1, 9, 585, 591, 492 (1962); Boyd, 351 345, 357, 76 919, 926, 100 1242 (1956). determining considered historical specific sequence events Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 429 252, 97 555, 50 450 (1977). appellees' rested language Board's report survey superintendents, correspondence key witnesses. two barred. define allege Brief A-7 A-40. 27 lower courts "uncontroverted affidavits" bar judgment.16 outside little hear rely passing bill,17 implementation.18 Monday-morning "battle experts" law.19 conclude fact, judgment.20 V 28 banishment classrooms seeks employ symbolic financial achieve Affirmed. 30 whom joins, concurring. 31 I write separately note aspects emphasize Court's diminishes traditionally broad accorded 32 consistently (1971), Constitution.1 (1985) ("We involving sensitive relationship children"). "secular purpose." 612, 2111. Committee Education & Religious Liberty Nyquist, 413 756, 773, 93 2955, 2965, 37 948 (1973). identified, then 33 starting construction itself." Blue Chip Stamps Manor Drug Stores, 723, 1917, 1935, 539 (1975) Balanced (Act 17:286.1 seq. part: 34 "[P]ublic within [the] shall balanced treatment evolution-science. given lectures taken whole each course, materials library sciences humanities, educational programs extent lectures, textbooks, materials, deal way man, life, earth, universe. When rather proven 17:286.4(A). 35 treatment" "providing whatever information both teacher determines necessary appropriate insight into textbooks instructional available classroom." 17:286.3(1). "Creation-science" 17:286.3(2). "Evolution-science" 17:286.3(3). 36 term. "A fundamental canon statutory that, otherwise defined, words interpreted taking ordinary, contemporary, meaning." Perrin 444 37, 311, 314, 62 (1979). "doctrine creation" commonly "holding various forms world God outof nothing." Webster's Third International Dictionary 532 (unabridged 1981). "Evolution" types animals plants preexisting types, distinguishable differences due modifications successive generations." 463 789, 103 3335. mandates "[C]oncepts supreme sort manifestly religious. concepts shed religiosity merely presented philosophy Malnak Yogi, 440 1284, 1322 (NJ 1977), aff'd per curiam, 592 197 (CA3 1979). From face apparent. alone enough act legislature. predominate. 2490, 681, 6, 1363, (1984). contains purpose: "protec[t] 17:286.2. puzzling. Of receive it, broad. circumscribed "Academic encompass right structure belief. 271, (1968). Nevertheless, rendering least ambiguous. Accordingly, proceed review 38 1980, introduced Senate 956 Legislature. bill "assure nihilo where E-1.2 "theory nihilo" elements, galaxy, solar system, species animals, things processes relationships fixed God." E-1a—E-1b. "scientific creationism." E-2. 39 committee studying draft bill, "evolution-science" "creation-science." E-108. "instruction materials," E-302, "creation-science" 40 related indicate sudden universe, energy, nothing; insufficiency mutation natural bringing development living kinds single organism; (c) changes limits originally animals; (d) separate ancestry man apes; (e) explanation earth's geology catastrophism, including occurrence worldwide flood; (f) relatively recent inception earth kinds." E-298—E-299. 41 Significantly, model Arkansas. McLean 529 1255 Ark.1982). carefully examined section "[b]oth [its] wording convey inescapable religiosity." 1265. ideas [this section] Genesis; identical parallel story creation." 42 complaint May 27, 1981. On 28, amended delete illustrative list evidences. legislator proposed amendment, try gut bill] defeat [for] [it]," E-432, working "any violence bill." E-438. concern "whether inclusive list." 43 became review. scientist testify Dr. Boudreaux. He elaborate nature except evidences" objective [that] point[s] conditions creator." E-501—E-502. scientists "numbe[r] something like thousand [and] hold doctorate masters degrees areas affiliated Institute Creation Research Society. E-503—E-504. Information organizations part goals activities sheds light to, by, affiliate Heritage College San Diego, California. address "urgent nation return personal, omnipotent Creator, His people eventually account." E-197. revival world." currently "development methods schools." E-197 E-199. Society (CRS) located Ann Arbor, Michigan. member subscribe following belief: written word God, inspired throughout, assertions scientifically true." E-583. To study CRS, accept account simple truth." Ibid.3 C 45 When, here, "both below discern arguably hesitate one." 66, My examination confirms strikingly found: 46 fundamentalist conviction law's existence. Its antecedent, Tennessee's 'monkey law,' candidly make 'to denies Divine Bible, descended animals.' Perhaps sensational publicity attendant Scopes trial induced adopt less explicit language. eliminated reference 'the man' same: 107-109, 272-73 (footnotes 47 Here, "reason existence." creation,4 "[N]o 194, (1980). finally contain indication deletion four statements sources different. purported add detract my analysis. Both legislatures acted structuring compatible "divine 48 limited render secular. reaching unconstitutional, "[did] deny underpinnings supported 1251, 1256 (1985). And Whatever pick among them convince me 49 though adhere locally elected responsibility policy 893, 2822, (1982) dissenting). respecting violate simply " 'happens coincide harmonize religions.' Harris McRae, 448 297, 319, 2671, 2689, 65 784 (quoting McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 442, 81 1101, 1113, (1961)). interference decisions authorities warranted Religion Clauses chronicled detail. Everson 330 8-14, 67 504, 507-11, 711 (1947); 425-430, 1264-67, 437-442, 1111-1114. brief appropriate. early settlers came country Europe escape persecution took form forced state-established churches. Americans reacted strongly perceived type intolerance emerging country. reaction Virginia, home Founding Fathers, instructive. George Mason's Virginia Declaration Rights House Burgesses 1776. James Madison's influence, embodied guarantee exercise toleration. Eight years later, Memorial Remonstrance Assessments, response proposal citizens taxed spurred consider Thomas Jefferson's Establishing Freedom. 770, 2964, 28. guarantees incorporated drafter, Madison. 51 "meaning scope Amendment" "in evils forever suppress," 14-15, 511, "this Nation's entirely sanitized separation Church State." 760, 2959. Fathers believed devotedly unalienable rights rooted Him writings, Mayflower Compact Constitution 213, 1566, (1963).5 "an unbroken official acknowledgment American life." 674, 1360, references "our heritage" constitutionally acceptable. 677, 1361. 52 informed heritage. constitutional problem Father's how affected attitudes times government.6 Courses comparative course customary appropriate.7 permeates familiarity understand well contemporary events.8 addition, worth noting se instrument religion," 224, 1573, "may civilization, ethics, like." 225, 1572). book is, world's all-time best seller"9 undoubted literary value apart content. 53 sum, unquestionably demonstrate curricula broad, concur Constitution. 54 55 comes us, difficult Based setting construed refer conditioned 56 usually defer appeals especially district disagree, plainly wrong. ascribed rational Brockett Spokane Arcades, Inc., 491, 499-500, 2794, 2799-2800, 394 Chardon Fumero Soto, 462 650, 654-655, 5, 2611, 2614-2615, 77 74 (1983); Haring Prosise, 306, 8, 2368, 2373, 595 Pierson Ray, 386 547, 558, 12, 1213, 1220, 288 (1967); General Box Co. 159, 165, 728, 732, 1055 believe better schooled able interpret laws respective States." 500, 2800. indicates usual rule applies cases. 57 Judge, relying discerned furtherance agreed. judges, Louisianians. original arrived record cannot say wrong reversed. Rehearing 8-7 vote, dissenters expressing disagreement decision. disagreement, assessment offers justification departing counseling de novo constructions statutes. 58 accepted, prior cases imposing requirements Unless, therefore, reconsider interpreting 59 THE CHIEF JUSTICE dissenting. 60 agreed questionable premise alone, regard effects, still today's legislators (Balanced sworn Constitution,1 aware potential problems aspect care. seven several months study, resulting substantial revision proposal, approved overwhelmingly specifically articulated meant serve. abundant sincerity (the pertinent case), today holds, essentially "its visceral regarding motivated legislators," 227 1985) (Gee, dissenting) added), members knowingly oaths lied Had apparent clarified Supreme implementation, unconstitutional; rightly disposed gallop, impugning motives supporters. 61 arrives here posture: opportunity attempted implement full evidentiary hearing. guess meaning. know other, 17:286.4A, parties sharply divided consists of. insist collection educationally valuable data censored embarrassed establishment. thinly veiled interpretations history. At stage litigation, appellants' means. begin with, itself 17:286.3(2) If, definition thought sufficiently helpful, precise content quite clear—and again, favors "Creation "term art," 72 Nobel Laureates Amici Curiae 20, thus, law, according received acceptation learned art, trade profession [it] refer[s]." La.Civ. Code Ann., Art. 1952).2 "received acceptation" five philosopher, theologian, educator, claim extensive swear physical appeared suddenly changed substantially appearing. Juris.Statement A-19 (Kenyon); A-36 (Morrow); A-41 (Miethe). strictly reference. A-19—A-20, A-35 A-36—A-38 A-40, A-41, A-43 (Miethe); A-47, A-48 (Most); A-49 (Clinkert). point, then, assume 63 Nothing contrary, Like 1253, 1254 finds ante, 586, 593—594, 596. examining social context, holds purpose" "purpose" three-part set forth 2105 (1971). explain below, infra, 636—640, proper Constitution; were, satisfied here. 64 said component Almost invariably, effortlessly discovered measures typically devoting sentence matter. Witters Washington Dept. Services Blind, 474 481, 485-486, 748, 750-751, 88 846 Mueller Allen, 388, 394-395, 3062, 3066-3067, 721 Larkin Grendel's Den, 459 116, 123-124, 505, 510-511, 297 (1982); Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 269, 275, 70 (1981); Regan, 646, 654, 657, 840, 846, 848, 94 (1980); Wolman Walter, 433 229, 236, 2593, 2599, 714 (1977) (plurality opinion); 363, 1762, (1973); Levitt Liberty, 472, 479-480, 7, 2814, 2818-2819, 736 Tilton Richardson, 672, 678-679, 2091, 2095-2096, 790 (1971) 613, deciding Lemon, twice since, lack (per curiam); few emerged cases, should, unfortunately large not, guide application today. clear, all, regardless "legislative contexts, "actual" action. recognizes this, past, see, 486, 751; "sincere" 587, survives likely achieved provisions enacted. Our confirmed purpose," author writing invalidation [is] wholly considerations." 680, 1362, (Burger, C.J.) added); 6; 2489 ("[T]he religion") added; footnote three struck down motive 57, 2489, 2491; 43, 193, 5; 107-108, 272-273; 1362 (describing "motivated considerations"). majority's defensible important stress forbidden "advance 2111; accord, 585 ( "promote" religion); 751 ("endorse religion"); 2490 ("advance ibid. "endorse 788, 2973 (" 'advancing' 2820 ("advancing Walz Tax Comm'n 397 664, 1409, 1414, 697 (1970) ("establishing, sponsoring, 392 243, 1923, 1926, 1060 'advancement inhibition religion' ") 222, 1571, (1963)). convictions. surely strike money feed hungry shelter homeless demonstrated legislators, funds approved. Also, political activism religiously Notwithstanding implication 589-591, presume organized adherents faiths. 670, 1412; cf. 319-320, 2689-2690, deprive men women participate process. Today's yesterday's abolition slavery, tomorrow's bring relief famine victims. religions,' 2689 (1961)), benefits substantially. have, example, turned back challenges restrictions abortion funding, Sunday closing laws, "agre[e] dictates [some] Judaeo-Christian religions," 1114. "In instances, Congress general welfare society, considerations, demands regulation." past occasions difficulty far 3066-3067 (tax deduction expenses education); 2599 opinion) (aid 1762 (same); 2965 2111 1413 exemption church property); 1926 (textbook loans schools). coincides religions, majority relies heavily, justify 69 Finally, actions undertaken improving position religion" Lemon. Rather, circumstances described desire "disapprove," "inhibit," evince "hostility" toward 'disapprove' 1368 concurring)); 673, 1359 ("hostility"); 'inhibi[t]' "); "neutrality" 382, 3221-3222; Roemer Maryland Works Bd., 736, 747, 2337, 2345, 179 (1976) 792-793, 2975-2976; discovers employees inhibiting take steps prevent doing so, Cf. 1413. sincerely hostile eliminate hostility running afoul 71 intentional sometimes Exercise For Hobbie Unemployment Fla., 480 136, 1046, 190 (1987); Review Indiana Employment Security Div., 707, 1425, 624 Wisconsin Yoder, 406 205, 1526, (1972); Sherbert Verner, 398, 1790, 965 (1963), accommodate exempting applicable regulations. yet come close reconciling really try. 144-145, ----; 719-720, 1432-1433. approval permissible accommodation co-extensive noninterference mandated Clause." 1413; Gillette 401 437, 453, 828, 838, 168 implied voluntary permissible, desirable. Title VII 1964, discrimination private-sector employers, 78 Stat. 255, U.S.C. 2000e-2(a)(1), reasonably practices employees, 2000e(j), almost certainly warned devolve fostering 145, 1051, suggested (or roughly) be. possible, voting actually required, Clauses, nonetheless survive scrutiny One final observation test: gives hint affirmed reluctance attribute 394, 3066; 699, 1373 "presume manner." Krull, 340-351, 1160, 1168, 364 Clements Fashing, 957, 963, 2836, 2843, 508 Rostker Goldberg, 453 2646, 2651, McDonald Election Comm'rs Chicago, 802, 809, 1404, 1408, 739 Whenever called judge "we 'due exercising sitting oath observe carrying government.' 2651 Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee McGrath, 341 123, 164, 624, 644, 817 (1951) (Frankfurter, concurring)). true, said, constitutionality. With foregoing underlying A. 75 About direct transcripts considered. Unfortunately, sparsely attended, revealed motives. reports, floor debates, remarks inserted Governor, bill's legislators. 56-57, 2482, 2489-2490. ample outset, fly wings fervor—which unlikely, event, small minority belong B. Quinn, H. Anderson, M. Bradley, P. Goetting, Shriver, Churches Membership genesis (so speak) 1980. asked commission composed Houses expressed hope joint careful arguments "legitimate." E-29—E-30. met interim, heard (both bill) witnesses, staff reports. again reconvened. after amending (in objection). Senate, Education. conducted lengthy hearing, amendments, sent House, favorable consideration. concurred amendments July 1981, Governor signed committees confidence preaching converted. colleagues "keep open mind" "biased" misleading characterizations E-33. urged "look merits preconceived idea." E-34; E-491. reception warm. Over strenuous objection, voted 5-1 amend force; amended, gave permission balance other. E-442—E-461. restored "mandatory" vote 6-5, E-626—E-627, (by 52-35), E-700—E-706, (23-15), E-735—E-738, repel efforts bill. "unique" subject, E-106 (Rep. Thompson), problems, E-26—E-28 (McGehee); E-38 E-39 (Sen. Keith); E-241—E-242 (Rossman); E-257 (Probst); E-261 (Beck); E-282 Keith). requirement, favor Act: 71-19 (with absent), E-716—E-722; 26-12 present), E-741—E-744. designated protection accurately assess "sham," until examine done. Before summarizing supporters, wish intend accuracy. (and Court) be) beside point. task debate ascertain believed. vast approve purpose; crucial wisdom believing 80 Most himself educators presented, enjoyed credentials regarded impressive extent, devoted lengthy, and, layman, seemingly expositions E-11—E-18 (Sunderland); E-50 E-60 (Boudreaux); E-86—E-89 (Ward); E-130—E-153 (Boudreaux paper); E-321—E-326 E-423—E-428 touched upon, inter alia, biology, paleontology, genetics, astronomy, astrophysics, analysis, biochemistry. witnesses assured "hundreds hundreds" highly respected, internationally renowned testimony. E-5 E-76 E-100—E-101 (Reiboldt); E-327—E-328 E-503—E-504 (Boudreaux). numbered paragraphs: (1) explanations beginning life3—evolution E-6 E-34 E-280 E-417—E-418 bona fide "sciences." E-6—E-7 E-12 E-416 E-427 E-491—E-492 E-497—E-498 posit empirical testing. Evolution posits arose inanimate chemical compounds gradually evolved millions years. recently little. Since tends disprove prove vice versa. fossil extreme rarity transitional record, E-7 E-12—E-18 E-45—E-60 E-67 (Harlow); E-423 E-428 (2) strong stronger. E-214 (Young statement); 310 E-492 compelling led believe. "fact," laboratory. "guess." E-20—E-21 (Morris); E-85 E-100 E-328—E-329 E-506 very bad that. serious termed "myth." E-92—E-93 (Kalivoda); E-95—E-97 E-154 E-329 E-453 E-505—E-506 E-516 (Young). 84 (3) valuable. exposed current E-19 E-79 E-308 E-513—E-514 (Morris). Those (Sunderland). E-22 (Sanderford); E-35—E-36 E-101 E-279—E-280 85 (4) scientific, misrepresented E-21 E-37 E-42 E-92 E-97—E-98 E-218 E-309 E-513 Evolution, turn, absolute truth. E-63 E-74 E-81 E-507 brainwashed entrenched "religion." evolution's weaknesses exposed. E-61 E-63—E-64 E-78—E-79 E-80 E-129 E-357 E-430 (5) censorship harmful effects. deprives leads fact; suffers wrongly proved false. humanism E-36 Keith) (referring Torcaso Watkins, 367 488, 495, 11, 1680, 1683, 982 (1961)); E-418 E-499 Belief central E-312—E-313 E-317 censoring instructing E-2—E-4 E-36—E-37, E-154—E-155 E-281—E-282 E-313 E-315—E-316 E-499—E-500 vehemently outset hearing legislation, testified: "We going you kind instructions talking am proposing class chapter Genesis." E-35. later stressed: "[T]o disguise intent. censored." E-280. throughout hearings. E-41; E-282; E-310; E-417; E-44 (Kalivoda). knowing, absence contrary,4 did. Given assumption, errs purposes. go on, think extraordinary Striking democratically representatives minor cardinal principle save destroy. valid, duty act." NLRB Jones Laughlin Steel 301 30, 615, 621, 893 (1937). So, too, seems me, discerning silent ambiguous purpose—and not—the 's validation mere ("protecting freedom") La.Rev.Stat. deferred expressions, 846-47; 367-368, 1764-1765; 2965-66; 2819 7; 2095-96 1926. evade force expression stubbornly misinterpreting misinterpreted thereby showing surmises "enhancing will," 586 —even sense structured curriculums concerned. Alternatively, suggests "maximiz[ing] instruction," 588 —though exceedingly strange refuted 17:286.5. legislatively fraction research quotations readily meant: indoctrination. wanted decide themselves began, fair evidence—that [student] voluntarily believe) pressures 385, 3223. care topic taught; wished 'all evidence.' Ante, 60). introduced, read: "This Chapter assisting search E-292 Among findings contained version following: "Public evolution-science choice indoctrinates alone." E-295 added).5 "freedom indoctrination." (purpose choice"); E-283 giving "choice" subjecting "indoctrination origins"). adopts obviously freedom," concluding express "sham." 587. pursues consistently. covered, "taught (viz., science") well. 17:286.4A Living up title Act," 17:286.1, treats way. mandate 17:286.5; "as fact," 17:286.4A; bans (to terminology) "discredit[ed] '. turn' 589 1257). surpasses viewpoint," 593, doctrine," 592, tenet," 594. "creation" convincing evidenc[e]," stressed 623. anything abruptly earth. 4, supra. proponents insist, whence evolved. eternal personal object veneration. "unmoved mover" hypothesized Aristotle notably nonfundamentalist philosophers. however cites argues, "discriminatory 588. prohibits develop creation-science." 17:286.7A. designate shall, request, assist developing guides. casts legislators' freedom"—unless, erroneous preferred told scorned surprising, balanced, "nonindoctrinating" curriculum, protected suffering discrimination. (Also, undoubtedly evolutionists prohibited.) consistent Witnesses badly texts. unavailability works suitable (a appellees concede, 40) reasonable attempting easily accessible scientists. much Witness witness "indoctrinated" themselves, evidence, E-18 (Sunderland) ("all advocating" presenting data" "letting [them] mind[s]"); E-19—E-20 (Students "censored books. All asking unbiased your deserve"); (Morris) ("A [make life] [evolution science]"); (Sanderford) [be presented] alongside let mind[s] up"); E-23 (Young) live "obligation theories" enable "students judgments themselves"); E—44 (Boudreaux) ("Our truth scientist, interested truth"); E-60—E-61 ("[W]e [teachers] guilty lot brainwashing. [present the] truth" "at levels gradeschool college level"); (Kalivoda) ("This [hearing] benefit handicapped having creation"); ("I [students] side"); E-98 (Reiboldt) ("The alternate creationist suppor[t] alternative"); statement) (passage "communication discoveries unhindered"); E-514 ("[A]re allow look stand fall merits, pass another viewpoint?"); E-516—E-517 want equal sides theories"). views. E-36; E-280; E-283. Legislators motives, cast primarily schools—specifically, misled Representatives Cain, Jenkins, F. Thompson seemed impressed E-530 Thompson); E-533 Cain); E-613 Jenkins). Picard Representative questioned teachers' E-71—E-74. audience: [it]. idea [biology] [are] excluded school[s]. status situation is." E-104. 98 comments suggesting misrepresentation information. E-386 McLeod); E-527 Jenkins); E-528 E-534 Fair). 99 prompted attention (rather inaccurate topics) awareness tension children. concede impermissible pursuit sensitivities. 56. falsely bones Jesus Christ discovered, physics Shroud Turin conclusively inexplicable causes, (despite 592—593) board corrective action, misinstructed students. concedes, sake argument, partly foster against) beliefs, establish suffice moreover, adequate disbelieving itself, sham conceal office. astonished unprecedented readiness reach conclusion, intellectual predisposition facts legend State, 154 Tenn. 105, 289 S.W. 363 (1927)—an instinctive governmentally imposed bearing manifestation repression. repressive one. Louisiana, fundamentalists, entitled, just Mr. scheme amount Genesis. includes uncontradicted Infinitely say) conclusive gullible real legislation's lie. Yet illiberal Scopes-in-reverse, ultimately facile rejection rest. dispositive, discuss well-established exceptions impermissibility applicable—the validating facilitate exercise, enamored amorphous exceptions, unpredictable correctives (as next discuss) fundamentally unsound rule. applicable.6 requires, reverse remand assumed validity pessimistic totality prong: amendment interpret, apply yields unprincipled results. 112, 2519 (REHNQUIST, applying maze conscientious unconstitutional. (which then); eliminating existing exists sometimes); accommodating uninhibited practices, (it unclear where) results knowing vitiating looking compared (i.e., good appear directed), formal was, avail, here), subjective honest, always impossible task. number motivations, binary, indeed finite. improve jobs district, amends faction alienated friend repaying owed leader, hoped appreciate fundraising him, pressured disliked wealthy contributor flood constituent mail, publicity, reluctant hurt feelings loyal worked settling old score mad wife intoxicated utterly unmotivated called, accidentally "yes" "no," or, have) combination above motivations. probably exist. Putting aside, ought legislator's purpose? (if, were) pre-enactment statement. Quite obviously, "[w]hat motivates speech scores others enact it." O'Brien, 391 367, 384, 1673, 672 Can assume, staff-prepared reports read—even unwilling for? Should post-enactment statements? Or obtained expressly lawsuit? media realities bargaining? sources, eminently manipulable. Legislative histories contrived sanitized, coverage orchestrated, recollections conveniently distorted. indications—for affiliations. why fervor tepidity beliefs? Having achieved, means, intended, confront (yet addressed cases) invalidating senate approves 25, unconstitutional? What intent? intent, "balance" votes colleagues? it—on perhaps, everyone else's pure, fruit tree? 108 questions, Chief Marshall, Fletcher Peck, Cranch 87, 0, 162 (1810), Warren, 383-384, 1682-83, perilous enterprise. Palmer Thompson, 217, 224-225, 1940, 1944-1945, 438 (1971); 113, 275 (Black, perilous, note, judges legislation—and condemnation measure—not contains, intend, mind. 109 hazards assessing decisionmakers, defensible, think, states "Congress argue, suppose, acts "law religion"; unavoidable reading, unnatural doubt, Clayton 730, seq., bizarre lacked discernible nonsecular effect. short, inevitable religion; inevitable, untoward consequences 110 embarrassing jurisprudence7 "sacrifices clarity predictability flexibility." 662, 851. commentator aptly euphemism principled rationale." Choper, 681. sacrifice "flexibility" "clarity predictability." Abandoning test—a exacerbates shows, wonderfully flexible consequences—would place start. Attorney General, Superintendent, Department St. Tammany Parish Board, pending outcome litigation. Elementary Secondary Orleans defendants suit realigned plaintiffs. initially stayed resolution lawsuit brought injunctive dismissed jurisdictional grounds, 553 295 (MD La. lifted stay ruled grants system appeal, certified Constitution, So.2d 704 (1983). remanded 720 676 1983). states: Under Fourteenth liberty" States. Cantwell Connecticut, 296, 303, 900, 903, 1213 (1940). 1971, Marsh Chambers, 783, 3330, 1019 (1983), Nebraska practice session prayer chaplain paid acceptance practice. approach useful roles virtually nonexistent adopted. 80, 2503, judgment) 238, 1580, undue influence significant enroll courses. distinction warrants difference results." 253, 1587 instance, colleges universities offer courses theology. (1981) J.); 281, 280 (STEVENS, "[a]cademic instructors liberty deem professional judgment." But, prescribed free, absent permission, required. 44-46. understood, relevant context. explained, "requires, presumably sanction dismissal failure comply, prescribe ordinary circumstances, compulsion inherent universally understood." 1257 original). serves diminish removing effective prescribing provisions, topics driver training, civics, associated nominally "equal time" opposing opinions area learning. 17:261-17:281 1982 Supp. 1987). dissent concludes students, teachers. Post, 628. odds shared parents), advanced provisions. Supra, astonishing dissent, assertion, deleted Compare 3702 (text amendment) contends section—which "obviously freedom.' main cautioned E-429. Bd. Ed., 1255, 1258-1264 Ark.1982) (reviewing movements). evaluated series dating Tennessee focus celebrated 1925. 101, "monkey law," 'religious establishments dogmas instantaneous man.' 270, 126, (1927) (Chambliss, spiritual outlook. 23-29. Boudreaux supports E-501—E-502 (equating pointing creator"); E-153—E-154 ("Creation involvement intelligence"). lead introducing Luther Sunderland, postulating intelligence external universe." E9-10. view: "One world. evolved." Besides vocal E-441, E-443 Saunders texts theory); E-561—E-562, E-610 Jenkins contending fact). E74-E75 family's beliefs); E313 (contending own); E357 (stating "almost teachers); E418 (arguing cornerstone E763-E764 (author derived, advised "I battle anti-God forces. permitted continue Being unnecessary ."). Neither "When negating opponent's claim." Celotex Corp. Catrett, 477 317, 323, 2548, 2553, 265 (1986) experts, regulate technological developments. assuming, arguendo, art represented appellants, agency submitted 1981 superintendents charge percent E-798 E-799. group, largest proportion remaining elucidation relevance 45, 2491, 45; 2500 Numerous trial. E.g., (1962). recognizes, 583, exception "ex "from nothing" "inherently concept." 1266 [§] 4(a)(1) Act] involve deity support. 'creation nothing' unique religions. traditional conception God. 'out ultimate actor." elements CRS subscribe: '[i] things, creative Week biological occurred accomplished kinds. [ii] Flood Genesis, Noachian Deluge, world-wide [iii] organization Lord Savior. Adam Eve woman, subsequent Fall sin, necessity Savior mankind. salvation thru (sic) accepting Savior.' F.Supp., 1260, 7. numerous parallels specific." 1265, 19. "sudden nothing," origin, "kinds" derived "relatively inception" age 6,000 10,000 years" "on genealogy Old Testament using astronomical ages assigned patriarchs"; "separate ape" portion Fundamentalists offensive." John Adams wrote Jefferson: "[T]he libraries seen; parts reconcile philosophy, postpone future investigation." Letter 1813, (1856). enormous Encyclopedia Religions (2d ed. 1987) describes 1,347 organizations. Census Bureau major into: Buddhist America; Eastern Churches; Jews; Catholic, Polish National Armenian Roman Catholic Church; Protestants; Miscellaneous. Statistical Abstract (106th 1986). become multireligious multiracial multiethnic. perhaps write, States' proposals competing York's Resolution Ratification reprinted Documentary History 190, 191 (1894) ("[N]o Sect favoured Law others"). State-sponsored integrating studies Approximately half state-sponsored University Baton Rouge courses: Introduction Religion, Testament, Faith Doubt, Tradition, Religions, Philosophy Religion. maturity college-age analysis policy. 274, 14, 276, (1981). suggest integrated C. Kniker, Teaching Schools Social Studies Project, Final Report (Fla.State Univ.1976); L. Karp, Literature controversies Northern Ireland, Middle East, India conflicts tend generate. N.Y. Times, 2, 24, col. 3; N. McWhirter, 1986 Guiness World Records 144 widely distributed book). Article VI, cl. 3, Members Legislatures bound Oath Affirmation, Constitution." popular dictionary definitions 598-599 opinion), 26; 32, 34, irrelevant, majority, 595, 18. Three-quarters surveyed "[n]o" "[l]imited" "creation-science theory," superintendent claimed "[e]xtensive" subject. E-798. disagree opponents focused amici dismiss pure fantasy, bother submit them. contrast, whose impressive. Juris. Statement A-17—A-18 A-39—A-40 A-46 A-47 affiants A-19—A-20 A-38 A-18 A-40—A-41 (Clinkert); hypothesis little, hundreds respected A-20 A-21 A-34—A-35 A-37—A-38 valuable, A-38—A-39 content, A-40 A-43—A-44 A-39 A-50 affidavits—the substantive record—that laymen serving disbelieved "astonishing" cite 589, 8. meant—there retained, sections consent) resembled "findings felt, legislation. absolutely E-314—E-320; E-440—E-442. E-418; E-499, E-312—E-313; E-317; E-499. "held" E-36, (In 1684, (1961), "Secular Humanism" "religio[n].") supporters raised "religion" suggests, source "disdain evolution," violating misrepresenting depriving remedy ensuring neutrality matters, E-39; E-313, questionable, Professor Choper summarized aid thusly: "[A] therapeutic diagnostic health parochial pupils school, offered neutral site, mobile unit adjacent school. Reimbursement expense administering teacher-prepared tests invalid, reimburse state-prepared tests. lend because, books checked 'self-policing'; self-policing items tape recorders maps. pay cost bus transportation 'permeated' field trip visits governmental, industrial, cultural, centers enrich students.' Amendment: Reconciling Conflict, U.Pitt.L.Rev. 680-681 written, rendered, leave theme chaos securely unimpaired. Aguilar Felton, 402, 3232, 290

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