Document: 512 U.S. 874114 S.Ct. 2581129 L.Ed.2d 687 Jackie HOLDER, etc., et al., Petitioners,v.E.K. HALL, Sr., al. No. 91-2012. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Oct. 4, 1993. Decided June 30, 1994. Syllabus * Bleckley County, Georgia, has always had a form government whereby single commissioner holds all legislative and executive authority. In 1985, State Legislature authorized county to adopt by referendum multimember commission consisting five members elected from single-member districts chair at large, but voters defeated proposal, although they previously approved five-member district plan for school board. Respondents, black local chapter National Association Advancement Colored People, filed this action. The District rejected their constitutional claim that was enacted or maintained with an intent exclude limit political influence county's community in violation Fourteenth Fifteenth Amendments. court also ruled against commission's size violated § 2 Voting Rights Act 1965, finding respondents satisfied only one three preconditions established Thornburg v. Gingles, 478 106 2752, 92 25. Appeals reversed on statutory claim, holding totality circumstances supported liability remanding formulation remedy, which it suggested could be modeled after board election system. Held: judgment is reversed, case remanded. 955 F.2d 1563, Justice KENNEDY, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE O'CONNOR, concluded Parts I, II-A, III: 1 1. governing authority not subject vote dilution challenge under 2. Along determining whether Gingles are met support finding, suit must find reasonable alternative practice as benchmark measure existing voting practice. However, there no objective workable standard choosing where, here, brought body's size. There reason why should picked over another. Respondents have offered convincing reasons hypothetical commission. That such most common does bear dilution, since sole system same impact strength shared none, all, Georgia's counties. expand its commission, adopted board, likewise irrelevant considerations. At most, indicate change body minimal disruption, failure do so says nothing about effects current citizens' power. Pp. ____. remanded consideration respondents' claim. P. 3 JUSTICE, Part II-B preclearance requirement 5 necessarily sections differ structure, purpose, application; contrast cases, baseline comparison exists definition: A proposed measured determine retrogression would result change. 4 O'CONNOR precedent compels conclusion both "standard, practice, procedure" procedure respect voting" 5, agreed authority's cannot because can never comparison. THOMAS, SCALIA, attacked within terms An examination 2's text makes clear those refer practices affect minority access ballot. Districting systems electoral mechanisms may "weight" given ballot duly cast counted simply beyond purview Act. decision 25 interprets reach claims "dilution," overruled. based upon flawed method construction produced interpretation odds proved unworkable 6 J., announced delivered opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., joined, joined. opinion concurring part judgment. judgment, BLACKMUN, dissenting STEVENS, SOUTER, GINSBURG, JJ., opinion. separate 7 R. Napier Murphy, Macon, GA, petitioners. 8 Christopher Coates, Milledgeville, respondents. 9 KENNEDY 10 This presents question 42 U.S.C. 1973. 11 Georgia 159 counties, rural central Georgia. Black persons make up nearly 20% eligible population County. Since creation 1912, single-commissioner exercise "county authority." See Ga.Code Ann. 1-3-3(7) (Supp.1993). Under system, County Commissioner performs functions government, including levying general special taxes, directing controlling property, settling claims. 36-5-22.1 (1993). addition other counties use system; rest commissions. 12 commissioners chairman large. 1985 Ga.Laws, p. 4406. held 1986, however, electorate did (In similar four years earlier, board.) 13 (six registered Cochran/Bleckley Chapter People) challenged petitioners (Jackie Holder, incumbent commissioner, Probate Judge Robert Johnson, superintendent elections). complaint raised 14 alleged outset, made extensive findings fact history dynamics found, example, when formed few if any citizens vote. Indeed, until passage federal civil rights laws, "enforced racial segregation aspects government—courthouse, jails, public housing, governmental services—and deprived opportunity participate government." 757 F.Supp. 1560, 1562 (MD Ga.1991). And even today, though legal longer exists, "more than white residents continue endure depressed socio-economic status." Ibid. No person run been office Commissioner, stated that, having himself, he "wouldn't [he] were County." 1571 (CA11 1992). 15 contention, concluding "ha[d] failed provide evidence County's member [wa]s product original continued animus discriminatory intent." F.Supp., 1571. Nor "for tenuous reasons" himself unresponsive "particularized needs" community. Id., 1564. "slating process" stand barrier candidates, testimony unaware appeals recent elections. 1562, n. 2, 1583. 16 asserted 79 Stat. 437, amended, statute, contended, sufficient districts, constitute majority districts. Applying framework (1986), found first sufficiently numerous compact constituted particular, "[i]f increased number six present 'safe' . result." 1565. satisfy second third preconditions—that whites bloc manner defeat black-preferred candidate blacks politically cohesive. 17 Eleventh Circuit Relying Carrollton Branch NAACP Stallings, 829 1547 1987), analysis used Gingles. analysis, precondition showing explained "appropriate consider geographical compactness group restructured structure being dilutive." F.2d, 1569. further erred met. Turning circumstances, therefore which, suggested, "could well modeled" elect 1573-1574, 20. Because ruling, Court's ruling 18 We granted certiorari review Appeals. 507 ----, 113 1382, 122 758 II A. 19 Section 1965 provides "[n]o qualification prerequisite voting, standard, shall imposed applied subdivision results denial abridgement right citizen account race color." 1973(a). suit, along met1 supports liability, post, ____ (O'CONNOR, judgment). As Gingles: "The phrase itself suggests norm ascertained. [I]n order decide harder candidates prefer, idea mind how hard preferred acceptable system." U.S., 88, S.Ct., 2786 (opinion judgment) (internal quotation marks omitted). 20 certain obvious. effect anti-single-shot rule, instance, evaluated comparing rule without rule. But where evaluate follows dilutive 21 facts illustrate, search quite problematic body. principled another here argue we compare dilutive. amicus curiae give compared (instead of, say, 3-, 10-, 15-member body): (1) State; (2) state legislature chose (it not); (3) moved education Brief Amicus Curiae 17-18. 22 These referents dilution. It matter, popular dilutes uncommon common, tells us group's strength. regardless little sense say (as States) rare—but immune common. 23 considerations inquiry. disruption. power citizens. Surely more less diluted alter enlarged One gets chosen sake benchmark. thing place. B 24 To bolster argument, point out our cases interpreted covered jurisdictions bodies obtaining Attorney General courts. 29; see Presley Etowah Comm'n, 502 ---- - 112 820, 831-832, 117 51 (1992); Lockhart States, 460 125, 131-132, 103 998, 1002-1003, 74 863 (1983); City Rome 446 156, 161, 100 ,S.Ct. 1548, 1553, 64 119 (1980). contend these together similarity language between §§ Act, compel true Chisom Roemer, 501 380, 401-402, 111 2354, 2358-2359, 115 348 (1991), said coverage presumed (at least differential anomalous). conclusive effect, think precleared means sure, purpose mirrored then interpreting application convincing. two application.2 applies specified Congress "only changes procedures." Beer 425 130, 138, 96 1357, 1362, 47 629 (1976); 1973b(b) (specifying applies). jurisdictions, advance 1973c. "has insure voting-procedure lead position minorities effective franchise." 141, 1364. then, id., 1363. definition; status. While difficulty cause retrogression, discerning occur. 28 CFR 51.54(b) 26 Retrogression inquiry cases. 1973(a) (whether "results color"); S.Rep. 97-417, 68, 224 (1982) U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News 1982, 177 ("Plaintiffs establish merely reapportionment annexation, involved retrogressive group"). Unlike therefore, exist definition above, some practices, appropriate For reason, requirements 27 unremarkable. Perkins Matthews, 400 379, 388, 91 431, 436, 476 (1971), town's annexation land 5. Notwithstanding holding, improbable suggest boundaries (in attempt force annex surrounding land) arguing dilute new boundaries. Likewise, McCain Lybrand, 465 236, 104 1037, 271 (1984), indicated appointive Here, again, doubt contemplated bring elective office) office. examples serve show III With challenges authority, fail explain benchmarks begin end, principles deciding future wide range possibilities choice "inherently standardless," judgment), conclude plaintiff maintain body, Commission. 29 ordered. 30 31 I agree Justices THOMAS somewhat different rationale. rejects notion covers challenges, hold limited "state enactments regulate processes counting ballot." Post, STEVENS points out, stare decisis concerns weigh heavily here. J.); 84, 2784, (1986) ("We know intended allow 2"); 87, 2785 ("I proof 2"). require me reject THOMAS' suggestion overhaul reading 32 ____, precedents Commission See, e.g., 829, (1992) (change "increase[s] diminish[es] officials whom vote"); (1983) three-member preclearance); 160-161, (1980) "is disputed" expansion Board Education Bunton Patterson, decided Allen Elections, 393 544, 569-571, 89 817, 833-834, (1969) appointed Allen, supra, 566-567, 832 (§ "the broadest possible scope"). 33 BLACKMUN recognize, consistently preclearance. ante, (BLACKMUN, dissenting). involving concerned read narrowly procedure," while voting." textual voting," yet procedure." led threshold coverage, parallel scope. 34 scope end inquiry, far concerned. agree, answer challenge. plaintiffs power, greater voters. "Put simply, 'should' said, "[u]nless possess potential representatives absence injured practice." 50, 17, 2677, (emphasis original); 99, 2791-2792 ("the relative lack success plan, predicted undiluted employing, powerful dilution") added). 35 Accordingly, courts choose objectively On this, agreement. J.) ("a practice"); dissenting) allegedly mechanism specific case"). arises—the former employed jurisdiction seeking approval J.). 36 raise difficult questions. whether, size, ever be. often self-evident. at-large multiple 38, 2759, 2766; Davidson, Minority Vote Dilution: Overview, Dilution (C. Davidson ed. 1984). Similarly, assess requirements, numbered posts, staggered terms, residency anti-single shot rules Cf. Rome, 183-185, 1564-1565; Comm'n Civil Rights, Act: Ten Years After, pp. 206-208 (1975). Note, Application Runoff Primary Election Laws, Colum.L.Rev. 1127, 1148 (1991). Though disagreements precise 88-89, 2785-2786 determinable constraints 37 however. comparison—a larger (or smaller) authority—is extremely problematic. inherently standardless. argued African-Americans probably able representative choice. Some groups, will Once accepts reasoning, insufficiently large geographically jurisdiction's 15-, 25-commissioner Romero Pomona, 883 1418, 1425, (CA9 1989); Heath, Managing Political Thicket: Developing Objective Standards Litigation, Stetson L.Rev. 819, 827 ("[O]nce departs test loses validity standard"). 38 concern arbitrary standardless intrusions into overstated. Respondents' principal Georgia: commissions (and 11-member commission). Moreover, good Expanding nationwide produces many 20-person Tennessee, 40-member Wisconsin. DeSantis, Government: Century Change, Municipal Yearbook 1989, 80, 83. sum, before reliable comparison, nor end. 39 meaningful demonstrates allowing open-ended test, Within each forms dramatically New Jersey seven members, smaller 76. South Carolina seven-member deviate. 79. average 40. 80. Wisconsin sizes 46. 40 deviations Statewide authorities correlate State. Texas Senate, tiny Rhode Island 50. Council Governments, Elective Officials Legislatures 1993-94, vi. Senate national larger. California unusually small 80-person Assembly, Hampshire 400-person House. 41 discrepancies among reinforce my limiting principle very little. purport unique, not. throughout Jersey, Carolina, Wisconsin, Texas, Island, California, ripe theory, fit extreme ones, alone. perhaps more, meaningfully circumscribed "reasonable workable." reasons, concur join KENNEDY's appropriately reverses below remands intentional discrimination, djQ SCALIA joins, 43 asked "dilutive" share reaching conclusion. persuasively might Both rely 44 practical inform proper explicitly anchor text. Only "voting view, derived exclude, advanced methods considered past. 45 believe systematic reassessment required case. broad section like diluting group, come gloss placed words alleging statute utterly shows construing cover potentially mechanisms, immersed hopeless project weighing questions theory judges confront concept "undiluted" Worse, pursuing ideal strength, devised remedial encourages segregate racially designated ensure success. doing so, collaborated what aptly termed "balkaniz[ation]" Nation. Shaw Reno, 509 2816, 2832, 125 511 46 adhere comport disastrous misadventure judicial policymaking. because, properly understood, If surveys 1973 seq., struck sea occurred enforcement passed 1965. originally perceived provision directed specifically eradicating restricted blacks' ability register segregated South. Now, grown something entirely different. converted device regulating, rationing, apportioning ethnic groups. process, essentially grant judiciary develop theories basic resort enable "fairest" levels representation "effective" votes minorities. 48 Before turn why, authorize undertaken name intend describe development contours actions Act.1 decisions obvious simple too long gone unmentioned: highly judgments—judgments ill-equipped make. understanding destructive assumptions developed guide role redrawing landscape Nation pressing need reassess 49 enforced immediately following enactment, Pub.L. 89-110, primarily legislation eliminating literacy tests devices prevent voter registration Thernstrom, Whose Votes Count? Affirmative Action 17-27 (1987) (hereinafter Thernstrom). Guinier, Representation Interests: Question Single-Member Districts, Cardozo 1135, 1151 (1993) (referring securing "first generation" claims).2 focus flowed, doubt, emphasis apparent mathematical formula turnout 1964 define "covered" suspended. 438. reflected provided examiners dispatched whenever deemed necessary supervise 1973d. evasion obtain "preclearance" Department altering 50 notably successful removing barriers ensuring Mississippi, skyrocketed 6.7% 59.8% mere years; Alabama increase 19.3% 51.6% time period. Thernstrom 18. By 1967, reached 50% every B. Grofman, L. Handley, Niemi, Quest Equality (1992). Bd. (1969), marked fundamental shift focal dealing companion determined scope." 567, 832. Thus, Fairley switch districting supervisors 569, 833. Stating "was aimed subtle, obvious, regulations denying race," 565, 831, reasoned 5's provisions apply, laws pertain ballot, "dilute" counted. thus ensured extend encompass array reducing votes. 52 consequence, complex assessing case, course, measured. Frankfurter observed several "[t]alk 'debasement' 'dilution' circular talk. speak value defined reference worth." Baker Carr, 369 186, 300, 82 691, 755, 663 (1962) (Frankfurter, 2786, ("[I]n system"). setting fully be, judgments purely assessment theory. Harlan pointed his dissent supplies deciding, is, "Under Negroes officers; other, groups selection fewer officers." 586, 842 part). one, depends defining vote—at bottom, participation government. short, actually "to competing bases ultimately, really, philosophy." Baker, 755 53 Perhaps prominent feature philosophy emerged preference schemes, measuring guaranteeing Growe Emison, 1075, 1084, 388 (1993); 2766, (declaring "single-member generally elect"); Mobile Bolden, 55, 66, 12, 1490, 1499, (plurality opinion) (noting court-ordered schemes); Connor Finch, 431 407, 415, 97 1828, 1834, (1977) (same). commentators surveying litigation attack schemes replace them drawn majority-minority control seats. L.Rev., 1151; Guinier 49-54; 193. 54 apparent, inherent Nation's "proper" electing giving numerical minority. contrary, earliest days Republic, systems. Framers left unanswered Constitution congressional delegations ticket whole scheme matter resolved Congress. Const., Art. cl. 1842 Representatives States. 25, 1842, ch. 47, 491.3 Single-member themselves, Constitutions legislatures districts.4 Today, increasing American landscape, especially municipal governments. (table) (1988) (over 60% cities bodies). 55 advantage tendency enhance gain seats 50-51, 2766-2767. basis and, indeed, prior Harlan's Allen. seats, lesser 842. answering query, vote—or —is words, effort standards view numerically significant denied franchise unless body.5 wasted; who go unrepresented just surely disenfranchised barred registering. 833 (equating vote). Such conclusions, depend vote, democracy itself.6 56 fact, guided reflect franchise, "represented" delegate mirror views halls. H. Pitkin, Concept 60-91 (1967).7 certainly construct accord importance voters' influence, rather control, two-party ours, "swing" composing 10%-20% considerable.8 Even component conceptions emphasize formal seat 14-59.9 unable posts vote; rather, other. plausibly attributed inescapable majoritarian lose elections.10 57 undoubtedly infinite suffrage, representation, apportionment posed supra. pretend sophisticated various possibilities; matters ordinary sphere judges. precisely point. set resolve philosophy, law.11 such, readily subjected judicially manageable attempting select theories. 58 choices determination primary providing control. sense, critical devising itself, tell judge create. "how" "how many" allowed 59 issue. proposition effectiveness core assertion seats—that minority's percentage "fair" ratios numbers controlled. noted, "any extent proportion large." 2784 result, calculation once selecting minority—the ratio case—a 60 opted, driving direct proportionality. Members candidly recognized roughly proportional proportionality geographic dispersion populations. 85, 91, 98-99, 2787, 2791 strike intuitively fairest opting still choice, law. 61 dabbling prompted, hardly worst aspect jurisprudence. Far pernicious willingness accept underlying premise claim: assumption asserting distinct interests well. Of necessity, resolving credence defines interest. acted implicit alike important policy own "minority preferred" represented all. 62 "politically cohesive" assumed, 51, 56, 2769. Growe, 1084-1085. cohesion insubstantial "precondition" much behalf group.12 test—indeed, designed test—of determines distinctive According tend prefer candidates. 61-67, 2771-2774 Brennan, strong correlation (to determine, socioeconomic factor related race) unnecessary. 100, 2792 judgment).13 similarities preferences lines exist, proclaim irrelevant, effectively assume unique interests. 63 Gingles' cohesiveness, practically applied, working conceived largely interest operating assumption, assigned task assured "just" achieve through currently fashionable drawing embarked characterized process "creating 'safe boroughs.' " Dallas 850 1433, 1444 1988) (Hill, specially), cert. denied, 490 1030, 109 1768, 203 (1989). courts, indeed Nation, enterprise systematically dividing country segregating races homelands amounts, truth, short "political apartheid." Shaw, 2827. 2832 gerrymandering "may balkanize factions"). Blacks "black districts" representatives"; Hispanics Hispanic "Hispanic on. Worse still, taken project. response promptings Department, avoid costly disruptive litigation, begun gerrymander according race. now promises embroil lengthy undo, minimize, damage wrought created. supra; Hays Louisiana, 839 1188 (WD La.1993), vacated, --- 114 2731, ----. 65 repugnant nation strives color-blind Constitution. equality war Negro, Caucasian, C Jew, D Catholic, on." Wright Rockefeller, 376 52, 84 603, 611, (1964) (Douglas, Despite Douglas' warning sounded ago, rapidly progressing towards indistinguishable divided registers allocated 63-66, 609-610. jurisprudence, requiring rolls basis, resorted expedient capture populations existence "appropriate" "safe seats." 66 distinction implementation concept, immaterial.14 premises safe behind same: voice view. "system, whatever called, divisive community, emphasizing differences irrelevant." 611. Douglas correctly sponsorship representation: "When religious State, antagonisms relate religion issues generated; communities seek best partisan." 67, better exacerbate tensions consciously constructed 67 drive deepen divisions destroying build bridges coalitions. "Black-preferred" districts"; white-preferred districts." Neither needs draw other's constituency win day. described trend cases: "We bent polarizing subdivisions arrangement unnecessary, unwise, official responsive wishes citizens; similarly, unwise citizens." specially). 68 description suggests, instituted affirmatively function. manipulated representatives" whose real constituencies defined, populate representative's" function, represent interest." 2828 (recognizing "classify race" threaten undermine signaling particular whole"). 69 surprisingly, arguments Johnson De Grandy, 2647, (1994), show. Florida Dade responded already numbers. Solicitor General, evaluated, area occurred, statewide basis. General's elsewhere meet possibly controlled own. After reasoned, legislators represent, Hispanics, O.T.1993, 92-519, argument shows, careful observers is: slightly allocating 70 achieved seem bad enough, recognize approach splintering mark wield rework relying touchstone, arbitrarily addressing district. 49-50, 2766. priori, constrained. conducting elections choice—and reconsider future. influenced adversary process: us, focused attacking alternative. 71 penchant become cf. called adherence Already, advocates criticized strategy creating urged adoption mechanisms—for cumulative voting15 using transferable votes16—that produce division Cf., 14-15, 94-101; Howard 1660; Karlan, Maps Misreadings: Role Geographic Compactness Racial Harv.Civ.Rights-Civ.Lib.L.Rev. 173, 174-175, 231-236 (1989) Karlan); Taebel, Engstrom, Cole, Alternative Electoral Systems Remedies Dilution, Hamline J. Public Law Policy (1990); Reconciling Right 1810, 1857-1865 72 radical departures familiar. unwanted people purposely laws. places instituting remedy establishing elaborate votes.17 recognized, Davis Bandemer, 109, 159, 2797, 2824, 85 ("Districting represents middle ground winner-take-all parties"); 160, 2824 accepting district-based judgment"). Rather, citizenry drafting constitutions. Like concerning models presumably override comes conflict 73 unvarnished truth fall favor thinking. surprised encourage "revive imagination," 1137, "innovative nontraditional remedies" Karlan 221, limits imagination" place restraints choices, too, suspicion put dispersed principle, non-district-based effecting efficient straightforward achieving tacit objective: allocation court, abandoned opted instead county-wide violation. Maryland recently divides race, "[c]umulative likely polarization interests," "will voters, way votes, 'district' themselves," thereby avoiding involvement electorate. Cane Worcester 847 369, 373 (Md.1994). 1135-1136 (proposing benefits voting); 236 ordered 75 making above jurisprudence awry.18 mighty Platonic guardians county, city, village, town America. centralized politburo life dictate provinces "correct" democratic "best" truly "representative" proportions or, bodies. cautious determinations. 76 interpret take bounded customs benchmarks. rightly themselves selected Ante, today past touchstones appeal standards, chosen, obscure sweeping passing 77 full assigns presently politic, conclusion: reexamination required. 78 2(a) vote" color, membership clear, far; permitted Properly 2(a), language. Connecticut Nat. Bank Germain, 503 1146, 1149, 391 plain category actions. qualification[s]," "prerequisite[s] "standard[s], practice[s], procedure[s]" items list clearly conditions They cover, condition 80 Taken isolation, last grouping terms—"standard, procedure"—may precise. meanings, however—for technical significance Act—they normally understood include Common indicates comfortably treat isolation; mistake so. Savings Assn. Timbers Inwood Forest Associates, Ltd., 484 365, 371, 108 626, 630, 98 740 (1988). Reading context strongly referring voting. body; usually "practice" "procedure" 81 precedents, stretched meaning. concluded, "procedure," "practice," 1083, vote—that registering, casting 46-51, 2764-2767. Undoubtedly, ibid. respect, treated Just another, type restricting available. well? mechanism. ordinarily independent functioning representation. Interfering appear involve intrusion sovereignty. distinctions practices" not, closely "voting," rooted 2(a). look confines excludes reach, line "practices" 83 return reexamine regulated reveal deal limitations above. included sort catch-all provision. phrased eye possibility evasion.19 Nevertheless, round list, sensible long-established maxim understand appended enumeration items. ejusdem generis belonging class list. Cleveland 329 14, 18, 13, 15, L.Ed. (1946). ("voting qualification[s]" voting") procedure, however denominated, regulates ballot—that erect describing attention regulating interaction individual process—on hurdles cross "prerequisites" "qualifications." naturally similarly interfere citizen's entire process—a begins includes counted—is infra, Simply efficacy restriction imposed, expanded logical implied statute. Cleveland, ("Under confined enlarge it"). focuses voter. speaks singular citizen" Giving expansive distort individual, right. 150-151, 2819-2820 heart contention collectively exert right, finds grounding 86 protected guidance meaning "denial protection protecting "right vote," meant incorporate encompasses "influence" "vote" "voting" 14(c)(1) measures "registration" "other action law totals cast." 1973l (c)(1). 87 states term "include[s] effective," added), seized indication 566, word plucked context, listed above: satisfying prerequisites, final tally cast. steps effective. exclusive, nature concerned, fairly 590, 7, 844, (Harlan, 88 Act's prohibition yields consistent virtually identical Amendment. Amendment protect secured itself; certainly, appears broader decided, "dilution." Voinovich Quilter, 1158, 500 142, 1364, (1976) violative Amendment).20 reenactment 1982 endorsement contained practices. Lorillard Pons, 434 575, 580-581, 866, 869-871, (1978). "settled interpretation" Pierce Underwood, 487 552, 2541, 2551, 101 amended retain appeared procedure[s]."21 settled Allen's 90 1980 plurality construed flatly inconsistent Emphasizing tracked prohibiting "deny abridge Bolden "intended itself." 61, 1496. plurality's claims; protections 'register hindrance.' 65, 1498. remained 1982. Rogers Lodge, 458 613, 619, 6, 102 3272, 3276, 1012 (1982). covering retention dilution.22 Finally, shown, turns command abstract "diluted" lightly address outside normal bounds competence, procedure[s]," reaches "those [relate to] either qualifications conducted." 591, 845 (including times takes registrars), locations polling places, polls open, paper ballots opposed machines, deny reduce weight outcome election. 93 nowhere uses "vote dilution" goal "weight." 2(b) result. relied supplied amendments 43-46, 2762-2764. weak foundation 94 incorporated 2(b), "results" violations replace, purposes, "intent" prohibits "resul[t] abridgement" incorporates exact test" White Regester, 412 2332, 314 (1973), Bolden. directs "based circumstances," "hav[ing] choice." 1973(b). White, 766, 2339; Whitcomb Chavis, 403 124, 149, 1858, 1872, 363 (1971). 95 test. addressed noted issues. legality 391, initial putting aside moment, incorporation useful challenging restrict accomplish diminution "proper weight" Nothing tied law, occur registration, prove facially neutral mount proof. particularly "totality "have natural equal "opportunity free open opportunity—a chance —to elect, attain representatives, others chooses ultimately successful. apply conclude, embark extended "equitable" influence. dizzying concepts aid task, attribute values Still, Systems, Ethics 375 (1981).23 others. contrary 2(b)'s charter ambitious developing Nation.24 99 "one circumstance" "extent office." Obviously, outcomes relevant (assuming, voting). demonstrating served suppress Better factors figures election, broken down data available, resulted process. ignore altogether. qualified directly dilution—and section. clause subsection unmistakable "nothing establishes population." "an tension" disclaimer 2783 claims, nature, principle. arithmetic ratio. Either attained declaring commands removes norm, intuitive proportionality, contravention Act25—hence "inherent Given explicit field play signal ambit Act.26 see, 833, reenacted subsequent adopting interpretation. Comm'rs Sheffield, 435 110, 134-135, 965, 980-981, 148 (1978); 411 526, 533, 1702, 1706, 472 (1973). requires booth goes "no comply qualification, prerequisite, 1973c procedures "Congress comply." 587, comply. voter's constitutes tension wholesale supply 1980, focusing strictly Amendment, relating 1496, Where dictates narrow section, transplanting 5—an itself—to Act.27 From foregoing, "§ 'vote dilution.' wonder, "[w]e 2." 2784. juxtaposition statements extraordinary, divination "really meant" enact explicitly. source 105 Although nevertheless addresses fixed outcomes. 93, 2788 (stating "linchpin" claims). O.T.1985, 83-1968, 7-19. compatible approaching Court, bald authoritative lies Committee Reports bill," 43, 2762, bypassed proceeded almost exclusively history.28 culled encompassing approximate alternative, norm. 43-51, 2762-2766. 107 Contrary remarkable "legislative first" pursued thought firmly "authoritative source" houses presented President, series partisan purposes objectives collected staffers packaged Report. again presume there." 1149. Ron Pair Enterprises, Inc., 489 235, 241-242, 1026, 290 (1989); Oneale Thornton, Cranch 53, 150 (1810). conspicuously pursue close outlined text, illustrate "a forensic interpretive device," Intervenor Mortier, 597, 621, 2476, 2490, 532 (1991) (SCALIA, selectively intends achieve. documented compromise disclaiming 2-4 (1982); 94-97 (additional Sen. Hatch). author compromise, Senator Dole, coincide "[a]bsolutely not" redress "if access, barriers, indirect, thrown keep someone counted, include." 128 Cong.Rec. 14133 Dole viewed accordance 193-194 Dole). unambiguous interpretation; seems helpful ignored 617, 2490 110 mentioned State's dates demonstrates, yielded noting "all (c)(1), construe went on, instead, enactment altered minor way." Not displayed typical flaws expect—it unequivocal. 590-591, 9, part) inconsistencies history). implicitly surer rooting Remarkably, thanks reliance history, admitted "[t]here [in 2] wished avoid." purportedly "wished do"—that "dilution"—depends solely selective whereas Congress' statement avoid" import imperatives face contradictory commands. key obvious: Were function pieces Acts Congress, situation quagmire creation, arrived attendant pitfalls, abandoning construction. Our errors forsake precedent. discuss below, repudiated. "Stare inexorable command," Payne 808, 828, 2597, 2609, 720 "when badly felt constrained follow precedent." 827, 2609 discussion reasoned; wholly substituted allow. unworkable. mired task—one answers ill-suited resolution. involves, elaboration case-by-case evaluation philosophy. 116 rests condemns: Continued necessitates dissembling promote decisis: preservation actual integrity process." Payne, 2609. endeavored should.29 evaluating create 26. despite command, turned guide, 118 dispensed inevitable consult 766-767, 2339-2340, resurrected Report 28-29 (1982), finally reincorporated 44-45, 2762-2763, praised multi-faceted reality anything condensed "factors" stating "essence" interacts social historical inequality opportunities enjoyed representatives." 2764. "social conditions." mathematics. conditions" "interact" mechanism, assert considerations, ultimate diluted. 120 reality, that: consulted gestalt climate jurisdiction, Take, constituting 34% suffered discrimination past, bears campaigning jurisdiction. 2339-2340. How controls 10-member body? Will not? "factors," singly combination, What 30% 121 boiled weakened cohesiveness" embodied preconditions. mathematically (that satisfies compactness), voting), remaining superfluous. dutifully intoned performing empty ritual applying circumstances" 92-93, (suggesting factors). Gingles—in incarnations names known—are puffery fill impressive verbal impression variety circumstances. serves 123 surprise. disavowed drift toward Stewart, writing observed, amounted "gauzy sociological considerations," "they could, manner, discrete happens, might." 75, 22, 1504, Stewart correct putative [imposed factors] bound illusory express informing be," inequitable distribution influence." 124 inception frankly, correctly, labeled 97-99, 2788, 2790-2791 happened intervening Yet framework, (1993), suggesting reconfirms unstated centrality obfuscation characterize rulings entertain pretending renounce decision. assures 2651, 2660-2662. searching ever-nebulously-defined circumstances." 2651. 126 established, 2656, ---, 2658, multifarious facts, individually count dilution? Quite proportionality: "Treating enquiry, lines, apparently [that districts] voting-age numbers, opportunity." 2658. 2658 "dilutive effect," "pertinent features" issue "were substantial population"); 2664 concurring) (the teaching Grandy proportionality—defined relationship population—is dilution"). O'CONNOR's comment equally applicable course today: "[The decision] proportionality— conviction departure suspect becomes." 127 repeatedly declares defense That, abandon openly 2(b). equivocation—proportionality —and assurances ring hollow. decides gives rejecting maximization Consider, rehearsed 40% population. 2659. Assume creates ), continuing seriously contended succeed, combination bringing districts? recognizes "absurd" "effective percent "—that 2660 absurd ridiculous six, five? Or, secure population? 129 tacitly acknowledges, "numerical strength" "equal" effectiveness." deliberately give, hypothetical, leaving unfair. Greater patently lesser, fair remains same. proportionality.30 130 Few pervades incantation conjurer's trick hide animates decisions. started show, euphemistically benign "creation choice" truthfully "racial gerrymandering." call "interacts representatives," 2764, accurately 97, 2790 131 continue. Term, next implications policies grave; damaging credibility judiciary. tension"—indeed, irreconcilable conflict—between warrant overruling When combined unfortunate 132 Stare concern, Patterson McLean Credit Union, 491 164, 172, 2363, 2370, Fogerty Fantasy, 510 1023, 1035, 1023 (1994) (THOMAS, "we mechanically prohibit earlier statutes." Monell York Dept. Social Services, 436 658, 695, 2018, 2038, 611 bind day involves attempts 'is policy,' (quoting Helvering Hallock, 309 106, 119, 444, 451, 604 (1940)), wise policy, right.' Burnet Coronado Oil Gas Co., 285 393, 406, 443, 447, 815 (1932) (Brandeis, dissenting)). subscribe When, direction, engaged methodically carving imperative stop charted 133 mechanisms. Understood prohibitions subdivision's include, argue, 134 foregoing reversing discrimination. 135 GINSBURG join, dissenting. 136 Five (Act), decide, theories, 137 imposition parallels preclear 138 Nearly admonish 'rid[ding] voting,' Chisom, 2368, quoting Katzenbach, 383 301, 315, 803, 812, 769 (1966), 832, (1969). amplifies 'standard, "ha[s] sought Act." Dougherty Ed. 439 32, 37, 368, 269 246, 1044, (1984) "be light prophylactic experience reflects"). 139 Consistent election- voting-related Among city boundaries, Pleasant Grove 479 462, 467, 794, 797, 866 (1987); employees leaves campaign office, Ed., 34, 370; filing procedural Whitley Williams, Hadnott Amos, 394 358, 1101, 1105, 336 (1969); Hampton 470 166, 176-177, 1128, 1134, (1985); 1553. 140 Specifically, "within Act" 131, 1002, (1983), And, recently, decrease offices. 824, 141 flowed Bunton, affected "prohibited officer formerly voters." 570, 834. reverse true: affects (1984). Presley, 829; "on substance power" relation 142 date, dealt "close connection" similarly. 2367, (concluding "anomalous" otherwise). stated: "Section imposing purview." 2362. Houston Lawyers' Gen., 419, 2376, 379 (rejecting "single-member-office" exception 2). 143 endorsed particular.1 Significantly, curtail longstanding submitting preclearance, heels recognition "not entitled considerable deference," 178-179, (1985), reduction body.2 surprising party 144 "all-inclusive" 145 varying rationales, nonetheless 'the scope' combatting discrimination," vote-dilution prescribed (1986). 146 prevail challenge, "possess (second supplied).3 widespread agreement, C.J.); J.), "in of" case.4 147 measures, reasonable, commissioner. First, Ga.Laws Dept Community Affairs, Government Information Catalog (Table 1.A: Form Government) (76 commissioners, County). dwindling employing markedly "depart[ure] fairness [the commissioner's] impact." 29, available model workable. identifying difficult. harder. "justify created limitation broadly worded Congress." 2368. "flexible, fact-intensive" 46, calling "court's overall case," mandated 118. Certainly engage plans examining 149 are, challenges. plaintiffs, burden benchmark's reasonableness custom, discourage traditional offices, governors mayors, sheriffs clerks court. tradition positions occupied person, rarely present. Federalist 69, 415 Rossiter 1961) (A. Hamilton) ("[T]he exceptions, vested magistrate"). contrast, plenary legislative, executive, one-member legislature, anomaly. Circuit, permitting offices lieutenant governor, sheriff, probate judge, tax collector. Dillard Crenshaw 831 251 1430, 1432, (1988), (1989).5 Additionally, lingering 28-30. 5% representative. Instead, 20-member here—and preconditions, 49, warranted circumstances.6 151 limitations, manipulation "searching 'past reality.' 770, 2341, proliferation premised eccentric impracticable redistricting. 152 bold legislation, eradicate vestiges participants life. landmark goals remain unfulfilled. blatant discrimination—including poll tests, "white" primaries—have eliminated. subtler, infringing submergence voters—are prevalent. seemingly innocuous well-intentioned impede count. respectfully dissent. 153 154 add observation responsibility 155 calls "[t]he office," simultaneously disclaims "There avoid"—between "inten[t] 2" "creat[ing] Burger, Powell, Tension kind acts constituents divided, sometimes bitterly, give-and-take yield fails reconcile conflicting purposes. 156 Title VII 1964, janus-faced, historically disadvantaged 2000e-2(a), (d), "diminish[ing] management prerogatives," Steelworkers America Weber, 443 193, 207, 2721, 2729, 480 (1979), regard employment 2000e-2(j) (no employer "grant preferential treatment religion, sex, origin"); Transportation Agency, Santa Clara 616, 649, 1442, 1461, 615 "conflicting concerns" built VII: "Congress' root invidious gender, lasting minorities") original) (citation 157 confronted congressionally-crafted compromises kind, easy task" "faithful balance struck." statute's courts' powers, carefully arrive resolution concerns. However undertake mission effectuate can. ("Even serious problems lie ahead ['totality circumstances' Act], justify statute[.]"). 158 Separate join. written proposing henceforth forbid advances ample amend obligation language, supplement history. 160 notes generation early pattern regard, note arose Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, (1960), Tuskegee, Alabama, wrote: 161 opposite respondents, sanction achievement impairment cloaked garb realignment subdivisions." 345, 129. 162 "A worked unconstitutional deprivations petitioners' redefinition allegations made, redrawn Tuskegee incidental inconvenience petitioners; accurate consequent incidentally changed city's act redefining metes bounds, human essay geometry geography despoil colored citizens, theretofore rights." 347, 130.1 passed, coextensive Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 1717, 828 (1966); 60-61, 1495-1496, opinion), unreasonable infer inference, abridgment qualification[s,] prerequisite[s] standard[s], [and] procedure[s]." 163 During 1969 impediments unresolved describes Act," unequivocally reading, 'all effective.' 565-566, 831-832. 164 purported deviation meaning, year later changing operative words. years, adhered (1971); 1975, 165 late seventies, parties advocated Congressional reenactments solid 1969, correct. Sheffield Comm'rs, 132-133, 979-980, (1978), noted: 166 "In 1970, aware affecting plainly construed. Hearings H.R. 4249 Subcommittee House Judiciary, 91st Cong., 1st Sess., 1, 83, 130-131, 133, 147-149, 154-155, 182-184, 402-454 S. 818 Constitutional 2d 48, 195-196, 369-370, 397-398, 426-427, 469 (1970). 167 clearer 1975 extension. ."2 reenacts knowledge interpretation, binding Court. 168 "Whatever advanced, background us. re-enacts voices administrative thereof, thereby. Don E. Williams Co. 429 576-577 [97 850, 855, 48] (1977); Albemarle Paper Moody, 422 405, 414 [95 2362, 2370 8, 280] (1975); Hart Sacks, Legal Process: Basic Problems Making 1404 (tent. 1958); Zenith Radio Corp. Hazeltine Research, 401 321, [91 795, 805 77] Girouard 328 69-70 [66 826, 829-830, 1084] instructive. re-enacted it, there, re-enactment showed leading ratified it. 574-577 854-855]." 980-981. 169 1970 intent, Between (1980); Jewish Organizations Williamsburgh, Inc. Carey, 430 144, 996, 229 Richmond 2296, 245 (1980), purpose. expressly Lightfoot's "that motivated Amendment." 62, 1497; 85-86, 1509 (STEVENS, "invidious purpose" 63.3 familiar amendment requirement. 97-205 3, 134; crystal non-access Gomillion.4 170 adopted, overrule character illustrated nine Allen: 171 [393 ]. scope,' 567 [89 832], scrutiny 'any way.' 566 832]. unanimously rejected—as required—the appellee 564 831]. location 476] ibid.; (decided supra ); appointment officials, supra); candidacy, procedures, annexations, Richmon d 358 245] Petersburg 410 962 [93 1441, 698] summarily aff'g 354 1021 (DC 1972); redistricting, 526 472] (1973); 229] (1977). conferred 4(a)." 122-123, 974-975 (footnote 172 followed host (1991); (1986); Port Arthur 459 530, 334 addition, 1978 assumed reject. Clark 646, 2096, 691 (1984); Hathorn Lovorn, 457 255, 2421, 824 Blanding DuBose, 454 715, 576 McDaniel Sanchez, 452 2224, 724 (1981); Berry Doles, 438 190, 2692, 693 (1983). 173 reconsider, discussed reinterpretation well-established arena. Ankenbrandt Richards, 504 2206, 2213, 468 171-172, 2369-2370, Illinois Brick Illinois, 720, 736-737, 2061, 2069-2070, 707 174 minimize hints, differently. sizable precedents. square Sections contain exactly words: anything, wording narrower, adds "with "procedure." supportable grounds, odd devotees "plain language" 175 Throughout argues decisis, progeny "immersed theory." questions, deviate thrice approved. Statutes frequently judgments. Sherman delve deeply economic organization. formulate opportunity. work easier consulting dictionary, legislated invoke modesty 176 authoritatively, repeatedly, quarter century, awareness construction, obey Whether misadventure," inappropriate portions repealed respects. syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 337, 282, 499. district," cohesive, "votes it-in candidate." "[w]henever [covered] administer [previously] effect" "does abridging color. ." typically Equal Protection Clause. Burns Richardson, 73, 1286, (1966). Tyranny Majority Guinier) ("The response, complete total exclusion process"). time, ticket. Wesberry Sanders, 11, 481 (1964). Ga. IV (1777); Mass. II, Arts. (1780); N.H. (1784); N.J. (1776); N.Y. S.C. XIII (1778). Klain, Look Constituencies: Need Recount Reappraisal, Am.Pol.Sci.Rev. 1112-1113 (1955). assessed prefers") Abrams, "Raising Politics Up": Participation N.Y.U.L.Rev. 449, 456, 468-471 (criticizing "electoral focus" conception opportunity"); (arguing candidates"). prompted desire, seize oversimplify nuanced participation, superficial appealing "most easily indicia power." 157, 2823, underpinning conclusions John Stuart Mill reform Great Britain. J.S. Mill, Considerations Representative (1861). Mill's electors 133. portion unjust operated "complete disfranchisement minorities." 132. ourselves acknowledged reevaluation, exclusive reserved 1155, (citing cases). 132, 2810 winning elections"); votes). Levinson, Gerrymandering Brooding Omnipresence Proportional Representation, UCLA 257, 260-261 (1985). traces Whitcomb, 153, 155, 1873, 1875; 1878 unprepared single- multi-member supporters losing them"). League Latin Citizens Midland Independent School Dist., 812 1494, 1507 (Higginbotham, supposed essence republican lose"), vacated rehearing, 546 (CA5 1987) (en banc) (per curiam). widely accepted date demonstration. Tribe, 13-7, 1076, (2d cases] necessity substantive judiciary"); Howard, Dilemma Act—Recognizing Emerging Norm, 1615, 1633, 1635 Howard) "substantive government" "allocating Gretna Gretna, 834 496, 501-502 (emphasizing shown "significant number" candidate, anywhere 49% 67% cohesion), 492 905, 3213, Brennan insofar irrelevant. She maintained, candidate. opinions produced, best, "uncertainty," Overton Austin, 871 529, 538 1989), bivariate regression analysis—that factors—to 539. Clements, 999 850-851 1993), 878, (1994). Lijphart, Proportionality Non-PR Methods: Ethnic Belgium, Cyprus, Lebanon, Zealand, West Germany, Zimbabwe, Laws Their Consequences 113, (B. Grofman Lijphart eds.1986) (describing allocate ethnicity race). scheme, commonly corporations shareholders, Clark, Corporate 9.1.3, 361-366 filled, allows concentrate concentrated mechanics Zimmerman, Federal Wm. Mary 654-657 utilizing "mathematical exactness." 640. rank orders win, receive quota methods. Ballots listing Remaining first-choice transferred 640-642. districting, additional "surplus" preference. out-of-hand bizarre concoctions plaintiffs. celebrated, unsuccessful, proposal English parliamentary century. T. Hare, (4th 1873); oddity jurisdictions. Weaver, Semi-Proportional Choosing System 191, 198 eds. 1984); Hyneman Cumulative Ill.L.Rev. (1937). Ill. IV, (1870). outlines policymaking forced competence. 335, 822, (1966) knew extraordinary stratagem contriving kinds perpetuating adverse decrees" suppose try maneuvers future"). 1509, "applies hence totally inapplicable bar"). STEVENS' suggestions, plaintiffs' centered access: diminished way, 341, 127. "maintains constituency, permits Negro suffrage." 589, 843, vote." 437. reenacting preserve fully, modified eliminate 62-63, 1497-1498, replaced results. 97-205, 3; 134. Had protects Banzhaf, Multi-Member Districts—Do Violate "One Man, Vote" Principle, Yale L.J. 1309 "power" statistical probability person's result). 145, 23, 1870, 23. 1973(b) violate 397, prongs quantifiable assumes impair "opportunity" "elect choice," "participate process," latter option. guarantee 11. 2664-2665 (KENNEDY, disclaimer, distorts Otherwise, reduced nullity. "right" proportionate disclaims. utilized proviso directed, invariably description: group. preposterous never, knowledge, expressing "proportionality" violation, 1874 "failure group] population" claim) 84-86, 94, 2783-2785, 2789 5; incorrect impression, error Determining multitude factors, observations bearing interpretations contexts. offering citations misread unqualified Garcia 70, 479, necessary, Reports, sources considered. 76, 483. repeated Jackson's admonition "[r]esort justified [statute] inescapably ambiguous." 483 Schwegmann Bros. Calvert Distillers Corp., 341 384, 395, 745, 751, 1035 (1951) (concurring opinion)). Zuber 396 168, 314, 345 reliability Congressmen during floor debates. 324. JACKSON permissible "inescapably ambiguous," first, ambiguous, second, riddled ambiguity. 2764-2766; claims), effectiveness" districts). her amorphous "access "dispositive." concurring). 765-766, 2399. handed today. unrealistic unlikely consideration. unmanageable task. 2823 1707, (1973) ("After deliberations bills discussed, modification 5"). omitted); 39, 372, (1978) ("Again Judiciary Committees, recommending extension 'broad 5' Matthews [400 (1971) ]"); 176, (1985) construction" 5). 1992 97th 1748 objection 1971 board); 1751 (1971 parish council); 1782 (1980 council members); 1384-1385 afforded "[s]hifts ward elections, slating annexations bodies," deprive choice") (statement Drew Days, III, assistant attorney rights) routinely submitted concede Tr. Oral Arg. 13. prescribes contexts, fragmentation" explains, factual majority. 8. approach, "it dilutive" original). 1569 (CA7 (remand sole-commissioner instructions three- government). susceptible accompanying identified refined Zimmer McKeithen, 485 1297 1973) banc), aff'd, 424 636, 296 nonexclusive known variously Regester-Zimmer "Senate factors," touched otherwise process; provisions, group; areas education, health, hinder 28-29. courthouse, Hall Until prohibited registering 1563. 1984, African-American registrars congregated. respondent managers, white, clerks, white. majority-vote remain, status," "hinders deters running participating "barriers active compounded precinct 219 square-mile area." 3. located all-white civic club. 1566 ballot" interfered unit thereafter before. reasoning substitution 550-551, 823-824, prevented re-election Representatives, 157-59, 1006, J.): Elections[, ] 'nullify [its] .' 569 834]. renewed extension, newly gained danger redistricting predominantly unmistakably cognizant phase Former testified 'has reapportionment,' referred screening nonwhites office" (footnotes refuted 186-187, 1566, dissenters questionable. confirmed stating: "Moreover, procedure' enough 390, 2361, disagreeing "extends representatives. 2369.

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