Document: 405 U.S. 330 92 S.Ct. 995 31 L.Ed.2d 274 Winfield DUNN, Governor of the State Tennessee, et al., Appellants,v.James F. BLUMSTEIN. No. 70—13. Argued Nov. 16, 1971. Decided March 21, 1972. Syllabus Tennessee closes its registration books 30 days before an election, but requires residence in for one year and county three months as prerequisites to vote. Appellee challenged constitutionality durational requirements, a three-judge District Court held them unconstitutional on grounds that they impermissibly interfered with right vote created 'suspect' classification penalizing some residents because recent interstate movement. asserts requirements are needed insure purity ballot box have knowledgeable voters. Held: The violative Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment, not necessary further compelling state interest. Pp. 335—336. (a) Since deny citizens vote, 'the must determine whether exclusions promote interest.' Kramer v. Union Free School 15, 395 621, 627, 89 1886, 1890, 23 583 (emphasis added). 336—337. (b) Absent interest, may burden travel by those bona fide who recently traveled from jurisdiction another. 338—342. (c) A period appears be ample complete whatever administrative tasks prevent fraud box. 345—349. (d) there adequate means ascertaining individualized basis, conclusively presume nonresidence failure satisfy waiting-period laws. 349 354. (e) has established sufficient relationship between interest informed electorate fixed requirements. 354—360. Affirmed. Robert H. Roberts, Nashville, Tenn., appellants. James Blumstein, pro se. Mr. Justice MARSHALL delivered opinion Court. 1 Various public officials (hereinafter Tennessee) appeal decision federal court holding Tennessee's voting violate United States Constitution. issue arises class action declaratory injunctive relief brought appellee Blumstein. Blumstein moved June 12, 1970, begin employment assistant professor law at Vanderbilt University Nashville. With eye toward upcoming August November elections, he attempted register July 1, 1970. registrar refused him, ground authorizes only persons who, time next will been months. 2 After exhausting remedies, this challenging these constitutional grounds.1 court, convened pursuant 28 U.S.C. §§ 2281, 2284, concluded were (1) (2) movement.2 Ellington, 337 F.Supp. 323 (MD Tenn.1970). We noted probable jurisdiction, 401 934, 91 920, 213 (1971). For reasons follow, we affirm below.3 3 * subject lawsuit is requirement. does challenge power restrict residents. Nor ever disputed was resident when register.4 But insists that, addition being resident, would-be voter county. It additional requirement challenges. 4 Durational laws penalize place another establish new during qualifying period. Such divide into two classes, old residents, discriminate against latter extent totally denying opportunity vote.5 question presented Amendment permits way among citizens. 5 To decide violates Clause, look, essence, things: character question; individual interests affected classification; governmental asserted support classification. Cf. Williams Rhodes, 393 23, 30, 5, 10, 21 24 (1968). In considering under evolved more than test, depending upon or involved.6 First, then, what standard review appropriate. present case, look benefit withheld (the vote) basis (recent travel) conclude show substantial reason imposing 6 completely bar all meeting standards. By such deprive "a fundamental political right, . preservative rights." Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 562, 84 1362, 1381, 12 L.Ed. 506 (1964). There no need repeat now labors undertaken earlier cases analyze explain detail judicial role reviewing statutes selectively distribute franchise. after decision, made clear citizen constitutionally protected participate elections equal other jurisdiction. See, e.g., Evans Cornman, 398 419, 421—422, 426, 90 1752, 1754—1755, 1756, 26 370 (1970); 626—628, 1889—1890, (1969); Cipriano City Houma, 701, 706, 1897, 1900, 647 Harper Virginia Board Elections, 383 663, 667, 86 1079, 1081, 16 169 (1966); Carrington Rash, 380 89, 93—94, 85 775, 778, 779, 13 675 (1965); supra. This 'equal vote,' supra, U.S., S.Ct., 1756 absolute; impose qualifications, regulate access franchise ways. 91, 777, Oregon Mitchell, 400 112, 144, 260, 274, 27 272 (opinion Douglas, J.), 241, (separate Brennan, White, Marshall, JJ.), 294, Stewart, J., concurring dissenting, whom Burger, C.J., Blackmun, joined). But, general matter, 'before (to can restricted, purpose restriction assertedly overriding served it meet close scrutiny.' 422, 1755; see Bullock Carter, 134, 143, 849, 855—856, 92. 7 urges case controlled Drueding Devlin, 125, 807, 792 (1965). upholding Maryland's tested protection applied ordinary regulations: reasonably related permissible 234 721, 724—725 (Md.1964). summarily affirmed per curiam without argument. if certainly exacting test required any statute 'place(s) condition exercise vote.' 856. development culminated 15. canvassed strict distributing franchise, 626—630, 1889—1891, noting inter alia 'constitute foundation our representative society.' grants denies others, Id., 1890 added); 704, 1899; Phoenix Kolodziejski, 399 204, 205, 209, 1990, 1992, 1994, 523 (1970). 670, 1083. apply here.7 B 8 appropriate reason, never considered Drueding: classify travel, persons, gone Thus, directly impinges second personal travel. 9 '(F)reedom throughout long recognized basic Constitution.' Guest, 745, 758, 1170, 1178, 239 (1966). See Passenger Cases (Smith Turner), How. 283, 492, 702 (1849) (Taney, C.J.); Crandall Nevada, Wall. 35, 43—44, 18 744 (1868); Paul Virginia, 168, 180, 19 357 (1869); Edwards California, 314 160, 62 164, 119 (1941); Kent Dulles, 116, 126, 78 1113, 1118, 1204 (1958); Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 629—631, 634, 1322, 1328—1330, 1331, 22 600 237, 321 285—286, 345 (Stewart, And freedom includes 'freedom enter abide Union,' id., 285, 345. Obviously, single out exercised travelers directly. where pertinent imposed one-year waiting migrants receiving welfare benefits. Although specifically did could used eligibility, 638 n. 1333, since 'any which serves unless shown unconstitutional.' 1331. compelling-state-interest also adopted separate concurrence Stewart. Preceded line recognizing repeatedly reaffirmed face attempts disregard it, Wyman Bowens, 397 49, 813, 25 38 (1970), Lopez, 404 1055, 736, 743 (1972), articulates control case. 10 distinguish urging vice objective deter travel.' Brief Appellants 13. view, 'some evidence indicate deterrence infringement ..' Ibid. seeks avoid command arguing neither seek nor actually do argues abridged here relevant sense. 11 view represents misunderstanding law.8 irrelevant disenfranchisement denial potent deterrent rest finding deterred 'right travel' always relied presence actual deterrence.9 explicitly stated would triggered 1331 1333.10 While frank legislative migration poor, speculating '(a)n indigent desires migrate doubtless hesitate knows risk' loss benefits, 629, 1328, majority found dispute 'evidence few recipients fact (from moving) requirements.' 650, 1340 (Warren, dissenting); 671—672, 1351 (Harlan, dissenting). Indeed, none litigants had themselves deterred. Only last Term, 'operates their ., (it) withstand scrutiny showing protect 238, 321, JJ.) Of course, true different Travel permitted, price; prohibited. merely penalized, while absolutely denied. differencess purposes. implicitly realized explicit elsewhere: 'It penalty guaranteed 'Constitutional rights little value indirectly denied,' Harman Forssenius, 528, 540, 1177, 1185, 14 50 (1965).11 Garrity New Jersey, 385 493, 87 616, 17 562 (1967), cited therein; Spevack Klein, 511, 515, 625, 628, 574 (1967). 'unconditional right,' whose conditioned. 643, concurring) 292, 348 prohibitions right.12 force person wishes change residences choose Jackson, 390 570, 582—583, 88 1209, 1216 1217, 20 138 way.13 C 15 sum, measured test: demonstrate 'necessary (first emphasis 1889. Thus phrased, sound like mathematical formula. legal 'tests' precision formulas. key words emphasize matter degree: heavy justification State, closely scrutinized light very pursuing important cannot unnecessarily activity. Statutes affecting drawn 'precision,' NAACP Button, 371 415, 438, 83 328, 340, (1963); Robel, 389 258, 265, 424, 508 'tailored' serve legitimate objectives. 631, 1329. other, reasonable ways achieve goals lesser activity, greater interference. If acts all, 'less drastic means.' Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 488, 81 247, 252, 231 (1960). II turn, sufficiently again difference past approvingly require voters subdivision. E.g., 1754; 1888; 777; Pope Williams, 193 573, 48 817 (1904).14 An appropriately defined uniformly preserve conception community, therefore scrutiny.15 representing qualification separately stringent standard. 636, 1332. worth outset Congress has, somewhat context, addressed interests. § 202 Voting Rights Act 1965, added Amendments outlawed presidential vice-presidential prohibited closing elections. 42 1973aa—1. doing so, specific restrictive practices 'not bear conduct elections.' 1973aa 1(a)(6). upheld portion deal congressional, state, local State's arguably different; and, addition, function Congress' findings. However, congressional forms Federal useful background discussion follows. tenders 'two purposes' requirements: '(1) INSURE PURITY OF BALLOT BOX—Protection through colonization inability identify offering '(2) KNOWLEDGEABLE VOTER—Afford surety fact, become member community such, common matters pertaining government is, therefore, likely his intelligently.' citing Am.Jur., 56, p. 217. consider each turn. A. Preservation 'purity box' formidable-sounding impurities feared, variously called 'dual voting' 'colonization,' involve nonresidents, either singly groups. main concern nonresidents temporarily invade county, falsely swear eligible voting, allow candidate win fraud. Surely prevention goal. impossible Preventing fraud, evil justifies lawmaking, keeping voting. definition, bars newly arrived along nonresidents. sweeping contention particularly unconvincing total statutory scheme regulating once fraudulent evasion standards, today most States,16 system registration. Tenn. Code Ann. 2—301 seq. (1955 Supp. 1970); Weaver, 122 198, S.W. 465 (1909). Given system, record devoid qualifications determined registers until election. 2—304. His qualifications—including residence—are then oath. 2—309. indication routinely goes behind voter's oath qualifications. false swearing obstacle intent existence burdensome corrupt fraudulently registering As relies oath-swearing adds nothing simple effort stop nonresident committing election quickly effectively requisite simply resident. becomes effective tell truth Moreover, makes enforcement sworn, play protecting give prepare close, anyone claims 30-day enough verify claim residence, relevance position up lengthy increase amount carry investigation sworn Even imposed, practice, preelection gave confirm fides demonstrated periods necessary. At outset, faced defend lengths. how both 'necessary' fulfill objective. itself three-month obviously justified same purpose.17 Beyond job detecting registered relatively one. hardly prohibiting newcomers even dual cross-check lists registrants former jurisdictions. Comment, Residence Requirements Presidential 37 U.Chi.L.Rev. 359, 34, 374 cf. 637, 1333. Objective information tendered law—places dwelling, occupation, car registration, driver's license, property owned, etc.18—is easy doublecheck, especially modern communications. concedes '(i)t might well achieved shorter duration 10. Fixing acceptable surely degree. note fraud—and year, months, too much. judgment context elections.19 And, us, almost lawmakers well. below concluded, cutoff point 'reflects Legislature thirty effect measures necessary, particular confronting them, voting.' F.Supp., 330. 29 argued satisfied presumed words, create administratively conclusive presumption arrivals properly barred franchise.20 presumption, so argument runs, prevents candidates able induce remain locale order day.21 rejected similar kind presumption. There, difficult moving Texas military service said, convenience avoiding factual determinations blanket exclusion servicemen stationed Texas. conclusive—"incapable overcome proof positive character." 96, 780, Heiner Donnan, 285 312, 324, 52 358, 360, 76 772 (1932). 'conclusive presumption' approach Clause. many ineligible clearly 'more precise tests' available 'to winnow successfully ranks fide,' presumptions impermissible affected. 95, 780. 'States casually individuals remote State.' disposes defense certain creates may, crude way, exclude group. excludes affected, imprecise. 343. general, although course cases. prepared various contexts.22 That easily arrivals. Furthermore, unlikely just collect indicia license. spite things, settled inquiry. 95—96, 779 undisputed himself within definition residence. conclusive, irrelevant, though fully purposes embodied far less impact interests.23 places limit classification, exceeded here. 1332; 542—543, 1186—1187; 780; Skinner Oklahoma ex rel. Williamson, 316 535, 1110, 1655 (1942). 32 Our conclusion least preventing bolstered recognition disposal variety criminal detect feared.24 six sections define offenses example, 2—324 crime 'for name qualified entitled procure legally .'25 penalties, day. 2—1309 Supp.1970). Where remedial supplement argue broadly disabilities evils Now abolishes precondition 1973aa—1, resort devices Especially every live statute, believe goal stopping fraud.26 33 having 'knowledgeable voters' claims. first 'afford community.' confuse already noted, limiting members community. justify questioned, rather longtime 34 branch assure 'has community's) this, presumably, impress viewpoint. precisely sort rejected. men mind, excluded replied: 35 'But they, representation. 'Fencing out' sector population impermissible.' 94, 779. 36 1973aa—1(a)(4). Similarly here, hopes 'common government' impermissible.27 paraphrase said elsewhere, 'All often, lack ('common interest') mean 423, 1755. '(D)ifferences opinion' excluding group 705—706, 1900—1901. '(t)he (Tennesseeans) national outlook retain viewpoint characteristic region come, depriving chance influence electoral home Hall Beals, 396 45, 53—54, 200, (1969) (dissenting opinion).28 Finally, previous argument, apparently asserting about issues. people unaware issues involved criterion 'intelligent' elusive one, susceptible abuse. deciding intelligent 632, 1892; 705, 1900,29 basis. 39 York school-district parents school children owners. claimed nonparents informed' affairs parents, 1891, 'interested' position, concluding 'close classification) demonstrates (it does) accomplish 1892. revealed kept substantially interested allowed vote; given insufficiently articulated 1900. 40 Similarly, founder crudeness device achieving assuring classifications requirments permit regardless knowledge issues—and any. On hand, admittedly new, minimally, often fully, take shortly citizens, appellee, make communications, compaign spending education occur largely month election,30 seriously maintain reside purely lived uninformed These crudely large numbers people. knowledgeability. 41 attempt alleged universally applicable way. Knowledge competence participation process provides type absentee persons.31 provisions leave constituency slighest debates cut off. consistent intelligent, use ballot. ballot, try respect 637—638, know older residents; matters. much crude. They should not, excluded. represent unfairly aware requiring tailored purpose, secretaly impossible. Here, attenuated rights, say III 43 Concluding offered laws, below. 44 45 POWELL REHNQUIST took part consideration 46 BLACKMUN, result. 47 Professor wait Tennessee. He Nashville apartment 19. 1. instituted 17. litigation begun arrival soil, apartment. primary coming 6. Usually, zeal commendable. professor, however, encountered I assume, knowingly so—the barrier did, suit. quarrel content Court's opinion. concur result, comments, wish described later day taken broader think disposition 49 (1904), Peckham, speaking unanimous included Harlan Holmes, said: 'The herein whether, reference privilege Maryland, legislature provide declaration state. 51 '. legislate elective seem good, conditions stated, being, believe, unassailable, plain impelled enact entirely consideration, them.' 633—634, 575. 53 blithely away, Court, ante, 1000, 7, '(c)arefully read,' sees concerned declare intention. involved. me, really overrules itself, footnote says, rejecting says mere dicta. 54 2. seems come full flower District, 1889, (1969). supporting authority 'See' read Carrington, employed reasonable. Stewart observed, 'unquestioned restrictions availability ballot.' McDonald Election Commissioners, 802, 809, 1404, 1408, 739 (1969), referred necessity rational end' statute's set aside 'only based unrelated pursuit goal.' mention elevated years ago. Whether frowned upon, part, say. 55 3. Clearly, profound steps ends. Except intervention prescribes otherwise, imperative relate measure 1973aa—1(d) assume depart propositions. sure couched absolute terms. 56 4. plan, constitution, ideal. am struck down want something drawing, concedes, 348. pass muster, 75? resolution longer measures, down, leaves, suspect, future. 57 Chief BURGER, dissenting. 58 valid turn century. exposed problems responsible denied others permitted Some lines drawn. 'compelling interest' condemn all. So aware, seemingly insurmountable standard, doubt will, demands perfection. 59 persuade me contrary. imposition residency abridges age penalizes young young, status Constitution protects. Involved Constitution, portions Code. Article IV, part: 'Right vote—Election precincts .—Every twenty-one years, States, twelve wherein offer preceding shall electors President Vice-President General Assembly civil officers district resides; attached suffrage. reside, secure box.' Section 2—201. Tenn.Code (Supp.1970) provides: 'Qualifications voters.—Every (21) (12) (3) assembly reside.' 2—304, 'Persons permanently register—Required prior election.—All existing date application including arrive succeeding following (those register, selecting nominees electio(), chapter provided, re-registration (30) provided statute. changed ward, precinct, marriage ninety (90) precinct registration.' grant preliminary injunction permitting represented election; 'so disruptive constitute example improvidence.' motion cast sealed provisional filed, met invalidity rendered moot, pursue mootness problem posed "capable repetition, yet evading review." Moore Ogilvie, 814, 816, 1493, 1494, Southern Pacific Terminal Co. ICC, 219 498, 279, 310 (1911). unlike 214 books, standing presently written divided lower courts. ranging Burg Canniffe, 315 (Mass.1970); Affeldt Whitcomb, 319 69 (ND Ind.1970); Lester Elections Columbia, 505 (DC Bufford Holton, 843 (ED Va.1970); Hadnott Amos, 320 107 Ala.1970); Kohn Davis, 246 (Vt.1970); Keppel Donovan, 326 (Minn.1970); Andrews Cody, 327 793 (MDNC 1971), Other courts variety. Howe Brown, 862 Ohio Ferguson 1012 Miss.1971); Cocanower Marston, 318 402 (Ariz.1970); Fitzpatrick Commissioners Ill.1970); Piliavin Hoel, 66 (WD Wis.1970); Epps Logan (No. 9137, WD Wash.1970); Fontham McKeithen, 336 153 La.1971). Sirak Brown (Civ. 70—164, SD 1970), Judge convene dismissed complaint. Noting point, intention leaving 323, 324. country & Rich, Residency Voting, Ariz.L.Rev. 477, 478 1947—1970 average approximately 3.3% year. (An 3.2% intrastate year.) Dept. Commerce, Bureau Census, Current Population Reports, Characteristics Series P—20, 210, Jan. 1971, Table pp. 7—8. Compare Oklahoma, (1942), Williamson Lee Optical Co., 483, 75 461, 99 563 (1955); compare McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 222 (1964), (1966), Graham Richardson, 403 365, 1848, 534 (1971), Morey Doud, 354 457, 77 1344, 1485 (1957), Allied Stores Bowers, 358 522, 79 437, 480 (1959). rely (1904). Carefully read, holds violated provision enters 'declaration state.' 576. stands proposition infra, 343—344. dicta inconsistent result reach today, amended, 'denies inherent enjoy free movement across Stat. 316, 1073aa—1(a)(2). (1868), tax commercial carrier $1, minimal declaring unconstitutional, reasoned 'if railroad passenger dollar, him thousand dollars,' 46. Ward 418, 449 (1871), traders substantial, focused discriminatory aspects, anywhere law's effect, any, trade tradesmen's choice Chalker Birmingham N.W.R. 249 527, 366, 367, 63 748 (1919); Fears, 179 270, 128, 186 (1900). Travis Yale Towne Mfg. 252 60, 79—80, 228, 231—232, 64 460 (1920), small exemptions income amounts insufficient employee's Toomer Witsell, 334 385, 68 1156, 1460 (1948), Mullaney Anderson, 342 72 428, 96 458 (1952). Separately concurring, quite apart deter, 'a reflect 643—644, 1336 375, 1854. Harman, qualify paying poll filing certificate 'handicap(ped) exercise' taxes, Twenty-fourth Amendment. 541, 1185. Where, migrant loses license higher requirement, presented. solely newcomer resident; instead, prescribed drive. 343—344, One travels State. cases, Nothing meant validity 167—168 (Wisdom, (1904); Ariz.L.Rev., 499; MacLeod Wilberding, Civil Rights, Geo.Wash.L.Rev. 93, 113 Quite implausibility suggestion task four times Hows, 163 178, S.W.2d 210 (1930); Sparks Sparks, 114 666, 173 (1905). generally Law Revision Commission, Title 2—Election Laws, Tentative Draft October Comment. 22, infra. abolished cutting off limits 'with cognizance possibility difficulty.' 322, JJ.). awareness, beyond 'does 1973aa—1(a)(6). sustaining 'no explanation why registrations provide, frauds.' 239, 322 thought unnecessary shoud technical sense must, State; established. conceptually assumes reliably accurate. unlikely. 346. Another recurrent differential presumes months' stay indefinitely (in 'without removing therefrom,' 182, 211), joined intent, 18, divorce see, Sturdavant Sturdavant, Tenn.App. 273, 189 410 (1944); 150 261 959 (1924); (1905); Denny Sumner County, 134 468, 184 (1916); estate Caldwell Shelton, 221 815 (1948); Hascall Hafford, 355, 65 423 (1901); supra; 18. Blumstein's County Commission treat waivable guide commission action, rebuttable proper intelligently election.' Complaint App. 8. 544—545, 1114—1115 (Stone, concurring). 543, 1186 (filing lieu limited 'numerous enforce requirements'); Schneider 308 147, 60 146, 152, 155 (1939) (fear solicitations requests '(f)rauds denounced punished law'). 2—1614 felony 'is votes so,' aid abet illegality. 2207 (1955) misdemeanor convention .,' 2—2208 offense. 2—202 offense outside ward resides registered. 2—2209 (1965) unlawful 'bring bringing practising final .' below, several increased law, historical (durational) undesirables, immigrants outsiders ideas.' 484 nn. 44, original striking today. revealing observes: extended increases, diminishes, known, judicially accepted, subdivisions states, colleges, universities installations student body personnel over eighteen age, dominate district, municipality located. maximum colonization, domination government, opposed permanent Upon completion schooling, tour, move on, bound expediency continue control.' 16. 1970 Act, 201, 1973aa, denied, comply device, Federal, term 'test device' include, prerequisite ability write, understand, interpret educational achievement 'test(s)' 'device(s)' knowledgeability declared policy 201 Alexander, Financing 1968 106—113 (1971); F.Supp, 77; 498. '(a)ny otherwise municipality, subdivision thereof, business, health, education, absent 2—1602 (Supp.1970). Teen.Code 2—1601 alternative method armed forces detailed 2—1701 Both still technically 'residents' physically present, unusual changed. section provides, 'If 2—304 2—204 (1955).

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