Document: 435 U.S. 191 98 S.Ct. 1011 55 L.Ed.2d 209 Mark David OLIPHANT and Daniel B. Belgarde, Petitioners,v.The SUQUAMISH INDIAN TRIBE et al. No. 76-5729. Argued Jan. 9, 1978. Decided March 6, 1978.* Syllabus by the Court Indian tribal courts do not have inherent criminal jurisdiction to try punish non-Indians, hence may assume such unless specifically authorized so Congress. Pp. 195-212. (a) From earliest treaties with tribes, it was assumed that few of which maintained any semblance a formal court system, did absent congressional statute or treaty provision effect, at least one held exist. 196-201. (b) Congress' actions during 19th century reflected body's belief tribes over non-Indians. 201-206. (c) The presumption, commonly shared Congress, Executive Branch, lower federal courts, no power carries considerable weight. P. 206. (d) By submitting overriding sovereignty United States, necessarily yield non-Indians except in manner acceptable fact seems be recognized Treaty Point Elliott, signed Suquamish Tribe. 206-211. 544 F.2d 1007 (Oliphant judgment), Belgarde judgment, reversed. Philip Malone, Poulsbo, Wash., for petitioners. Slade Gorton, Atty. Gen., Olympia, State Washington, as amicus curiae, special leave Court. Barry D. Ernstoff, Seattle, respondents. H. Bartow Farr, III, Mr. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion 1 Two hundred years ago, area bordering Puget Sound consisted large number politically autonomous villages, each occupied from dozen 100 Indians. These loosely related villages were aggregated into series which, Suquamish, has become focal point this litigation. 1855 12 Stat. 927, Tribe relinquished all rights might had lands Washington agreed settle on 7,276-acre reservation near Port Madison, Wash. Located across city Madison Reservation is checkerboard community land, allotted lands, property fee simple various roads public highways Kitsap County.1 2 Indians are governed government 1973 adopted Law Order Code. Code, covers variety offenses theft rape, purports extend Tribe's both non-Indians.2 Proceedings Provisional Pursuant Civil Rights Act 1968, 82 77, 25 U.S.C. § 1302, defendants entitled many due process protections accorded state proceedings.3 However, guarantees identical. Non-Indians, example, excluded juries.4 3 Both petitioners non-Indian residents Reservation. Petitioner Oliphant arrested authorities Suquamish's annual Chief Seattle Days celebration charged assaulting officer resisting arrest. After arraignment before court, released his own recognizance. after an alleged high-speed race along only ended when collided police vehicle. posted bail released. Six days later he arraigned under Code "recklessly endangering another person" injuring property. Tribal proceedings against been stayed pending decision case. 4 applied writ habeas corpus States District Western Washington. Petitioners argued does In separate proceedings, disagreed petitioners' argument denied petitions. On August 24, 1976, Appeals Ninth Circuit affirmed denial case petitioner Oliphant. v. Schlie, 1007. Belgarde's appeal still Appeals.5 We granted certiorari, 431 964, 97 2919, 53 1059, decide whether they not. 5 * Respondents contend their exercise stems affirmative authorization provision.6 Instead, respondents urge flows automatically "Tribe's retained powers Reservation." Seizing language our opinions describing "quasi-sovereign entities," see, e. g., Morton Mancari, 417 535, 554, 94 2474, 2484, 41 290 (1974), "though conquered dependent, retain those states neither inconsistent status nor expressly terminated Congress." According Appeals, anyone committing offense "sine qua non" powers. 6 stand alone today its assumption Of 127 systems currently 33 purport non-Indians.7 Twelve other enacted ordinances would permit Like these claim authority basis but reason national sovereignty. 7 effort however, relatively new phenomenon. And where made past, Until middle century, system. Offenses usually handled social religious pressure judicial processes; emphasis restitution rather than punishment. 1834 Commissioner Affairs described then systems: "With exception two three who within past attempted establish some laws regulations among themselves, without laws, chiefs much restraint." H.R.Rep. 474, 23d Cong., 1st Sess., 91 (1834). 8 It therefore surprising find specific discussion problem us volumes Reports. But lie entirely dormant centuries. A systems. apparently effect. For 1830 T eaty Choctaw Tribe, most sophisticated structures, guaranteed "the persons limits." Despite broad terms governmental guarantee, Choctaws conclusion "express wish Congress grant right punishing white man shall come nation, infringe regulations."8 Art. 4, 333 (emphasis added). Such request respondents' Faced attempts offenders early 1800's Attorneys General also concluded authority. See Op.Atty.Gen. 693 (1834); 174 (1855). Attorney 1834, inter alia, provisions recognizing territory assigned nation dependence States. 9 At previously considered jurisdiction.9 Ex parte Kenyon, 14 Fed.Cas. page 353, 7,720 (W.D.Ark.1878), Judge Isaac C. Parker, Arkansas constantly exposed legal relationships between non-Indians,10 give "jurisdiction person offender, offender must Indian." Id., 355. Parker reaffirmed recently 1970 Solicitor Department Interior. Criminal Jurisdiction Tribes 77 I.D. 113.11 10 While concerned almost beginning problems law enforcement reservations, initially address itself reasons stated, there little assertions because absence concern providing effective protection "from violences lawless part frontier inhabitants." Seventh Annual Address President George Messages Papers Presidents, 1789-1897, pp. 181, 185 (J. Richardson, ed., 1897). Without protection, felt "all exertions Government prevent destructive retaliations will prove fruitless present agreeable prospects illusory." Ibid. Beginning Trade Intercourse 1790, 137, therefore, "would punishable [the] district . if committed citizen inhabitant thereof." 1817, went step further extended enclave country; "any offence another." 383, now codified, amended, 18 1152. 11 first directly faced prospect trying Territory bill,12 proposed create beyond western-directed destination settlers; confederation expected ultimately Union. bill created political governing powers, careful officials citizens traveling through area.13 quite practical: "Officers, service required reside country stipulations, placed subject To merely travelling same extended. want fixed competent tribunals justice, time continue country, absolutely requires peace sides should extended." 13 contrasts markedly total failure frequently bordered settlements. contrast suggests view Branch This unspoken evident century. 1854, amended proscribe prosecution already tried court. 3, 270, No similar provision, parallel logic barring retrial Similarly, Major Crimes 1885, commit certain specified major offenses. Mar. 23 385, 1153. If contend, free even well given exclusive members tribe exact offenses.14 15 1891, inactions regulating reservations demonstrated intent reserve courts. re Mayfield, 141 107, 115-116, 939, 941, 35 L.Ed. 635 (1891), noted policy allow inhabitants "such self-government thought consistent safety population contact, encourage them far possible raising themselves standard civilization." "general object" statutes nations controversies Indians, member party proceeding, parties either side." never forbade impose penalties we make express implicit nearly ago consistently believed necessary result repeated legislative actions. 16 1960 Senate Report, body confirmed depend Federal intruders.15 considering prohibit unauthorized entry upon land purpose hunting fishing, Report noted: 17 "The confronting sizable provides trespassers comparable gives exemplified title 18, section 1863 [trespass forest lands]. owners owners. private club keep nonmembers off game issue fee. One comes permission prosecuted trespasser enjoys immunity. enforcible only; 19 "Non-Indians cannot trespass charges. Further, can invoked trespassers. 20 21 committee believes legislation meritorious. individual exist others, fills gap property." S.Rep. 1686, 86th 2d 2-3 (1960) II 22 conclusive us, presumption Cf. Draper 164 240, 245-247, 108-109, 419 (1896); Morris Hitchcock, 194 384, 391-393, 24 712, 715, 48 1030 (1904); Warren Trading Post Co. Arizona Tax Comm'n, 380 685, 690, 85 1242, 1245, 165 (1965); DeCoteau County Court, 420 425, 444-445, 95 1082, 1092-1093, 43 300 (1965). "Indian law" draws principally drawn executed passed instruments, actual text form backdrop intricate web judicially law, interpreted isolation read light common notions day assumptions drafted them. 927 (1855), appear silent addition historical perspective casts substantial doubt existence jurisdiction.16 Article, "acknowledge States." As Marshall explained Worcester Georgia, Pet. 515, 551-552, 483 (1832), acknowledgment mere abstract recognition States' were, situation, dependent [the States] injurious intrusions country." 555. acknowledging probability arrest intruders came Other jurisdiction. Thus "agree[s] shelter conceal deliver up trial." Read conjunction 1152, extends implies promptly him themselves.17 probably sufficient remove otherwise examination earlier precedents satisfies that, ignoring policy, delegation elements "quasi-sovereign" ceding announcing Government. Cherokee Nation 1, 15, (1831). tribes' limited restrictions enactments. prohibited exercising "inconsistent status." F.2d, 1009 "a Rogers, How. 567, 571, 1105 (1846). "hold occupy reservations] assent authority." 572. Upon incorporation thereby territorial constrained conflict interests "[T]heir complete sovereignty, independent nations, [are] diminished." Johnson M'Intosh, Wheat. 543, 574, 681 (1823). 26 limitations stem supra, "power dis ose soil will, whomsoever pleased," inherently lost observed since "completely dominion attempt [by foreign nations] acquire connexion them, invasion territory, act hostility." Pet., 17-18. 27 Nor intrinsic restricted transfer external reach dealing concurrence summarized nature flowing follows: "[T]he amount exclusion competitors [to markets; limitation amounts every limits themselves." Fletcher Peck, Cranch 87, 147, 162 (1810) Protection boundaries is, course, central sovereign nation. formation Union adoption Bill Rights, manifested equally great solicitude protected unwarranted personal liberty. criminally important manifestation restrict principle obvious characterized "want [and] justice." less today, though present-day embody dramatic advances antecedents. 28 Crow Dog, 109 556, 396, (1883), inverse here—whether, prior passage Act, offended fellow land. concluding exclusively tribe, found particular guidance "nature circumstances case." seeking 29 "law, inference only, aliens strangers; separated tradition, seeks restraints unknown code .; judges others tries peers, customs people, different race, according imperfect conception ." S.Ct., 406. 30 considerations, here speak strongly validity contention although fully subordinated procedure. 31 noted, Trad Country. doing so, basic attach cases. Under theory, affirmatively legislated contrary. belie forfeiture full return 32 summary, position ignores "Indians geographical people control There exists domain two. cities, counties, organized bodies functions, subordination these." Kagama, 118 375, 379, 1109, 1111, 228 (1886). 34 recognize increasingly resemble respects counterparts. acknowledge procedural dangers accompanied decades disappeared. Finally, unaware prevalence crime today's forcefully argue ability non-Indians.18 considerations weigh deciding finally They relevance principles lead conclude judgments below Reversed. 36 BRENNAN took consideration 37 MARSHALL, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, dissenting. 38 I agree preserve order sine non originally possessed." 1007, (CA9 1976). withdrawal statute, am enjoy aspect reservation. Accordingly, dissent. Together al., certiorari judgment (see Court's Rule 23(5)). findings "[The] consists approximately 7276 acres 63% thereof owned absolute remainder 37% Indian-owned trust consisting mostly unimproved acreage reside. Residing estimated 2928 living 976 dwelling units. lives 50 Within numerous schools, utilities facilities ownership interest." App. 75. unlike consent homesteading unallotted "surplus" pursuant 348 §§ 1195-1197. primarily sale allotments Secretary Congressional allowed sales heirship, fell "incompetents," surrendered lieu selections. landholdings lifting restrictions, factor enabled sell allotments. 349, 392. Notices prominent places entrances informing onto deemed implied f Talton Mayes, 163 376 986, 196 (1896), Constitution apply governments. 1968 trial jury six persons," 1302(10), explicitly excluding being tried. 1977, provide serve jurors petition while Circuit. decision. "confirmed" Reorganization 1934, 987, 476, 1302. Neither addresses, let "confirms," "to organize welfare" "adopt appropriate constitution bylaws." With additions relevant here, council vested "by existi g law." tribe's enumerated Constitution. note, version "American Indians," person." modification Act's governments, non-Indians." Summary Constitutional American Subcommittee Committee Judiciary, 89th (1966). change certainly intended "confirm" demonstrates desire civil operating 71 (including Court) established functioning powers; "CFR Courts" Regulations, CFR 11.1 seq. (1977); traditional New Mexico pueblos; conservation Courts offspring Offenses, provided Appropriations 1888, 217, 233. W. Hagan, Police Judges issued 1935, 11.2(a)(1977). history typically injury [tribal] residing towns, punished See, Shawnees, (1786). While, elaborated below, naturally served function developing stage States-Indian relations clarifying jurisdictional tribes. generally "[i]f hereby live hunt on, forfeit America, please." Choctaws, IV, Far representing settling instead means discouraging settlements contravention Annals Cong. 903-904 (1796). Later dropped settlers removed complaint lodged tribe. Sacs Foxes, 84 (1804). relationship developed time, punishment slowly disappeared treaties. Thus, none 1850's proscribed discussed several disappearance coincides partly extension Acts general infra, 198-201. When spell out respective jurisdictions, Utah-Tabeguache Band, 674 (1863). Only ever (other illegal-settler context above). 1778 Delawares, could "proceed infliction punishments other, securing imprisonment, means, till fair impartial juries parties, usages contracting natural justice: mode tryals hereafter wise men assembled, assistance deputies Delaware participation auspices Continental Felix Cohen's Handbook 148 (U.S. Dept. Interior 1941) "attempts condemned end treaty-making period, used discharge custody." sat judge 1875 until 1896. effect normal docket cases arising Arkansas, what called Territory." varied size Parker's tenure; west eastern border Colorado, always included parts Oklahoma. Territory, constant contact members, dealt often preyed views upheld J. Wigmore, Evidence 276, n. (3d ed. 1940). reading indicates critical decisions mentioned evidentiary rulings Parker. Nothing long forgotten disputes detracts uni ersal esteem biographers, judge's funeral, grave filled "[t]he principal chief Pleasant Porter, forward wreath wild flowers grave." Croy, He Hanged Them High 222 (1952). ultimate destiny accord current thinking subject, more changed era next. Kake Village Egan, 369 60, 71-74, 562, 568-570, 573 (1962). slightest was, lights lived, thoroughly acquainted sympathetic familiar Hell Border (1971, Gregory & R. Strickland, eds.). withdrawn 1974 replaced. withdrawal. bill, like treaties, see settled business territory. 35; id., 18. exception, presumably meant discourage settlement reserved use Today, including P rt Reservation, extensive populations. percentage grew direct policies late 20th centuries promoting assimilation culture. comparison reservations. Even drafted, Congressmen too radical shift tabled. Cong.Deb. 4779 resubmitted times revised form, passed. Gittinger, Formation Oklahoma (1939). "shall above offenses, (Emphasis added.) question addressed exclude offender. Sam 385 213, 214 (CA10 1967); Felicia 495 354 (CA8 1974). exclusive. original introduced House amendment Appropriation 1855, creates confusion worded, "and otherwise." Apparently suggestion Congressman Budd, concurrent suff cient, words otherwise" deleted reintroduced. Cong.Rec. 934-935 (1885). accepted Houses, "within crimes mooted practical purposes imposed term months fine $500. Policy Review Commission, citing "[t]here Final Commission 114, 117, 152-154 (1977). Commission's report deny 200 decided branches apparent agreement Vice Chairman Lloyd Meeds, dissent, asserted lack reflects jurisdiction." 587. contemplated, sent instructions Hold Treaties Blackfoot Included copies negotiated Omaha 1043 (1854), Ottoe Missouria 1038 "regarded exhibiting proper advantages Indians" "afford valuable suggestions." Elliott clearly patterned "exemplary" copying verbatim. Omahas Ottoes Missourias ecifically Sometime receipt instructions, prepared draft "[i]njuries whites towards revenged, Laws convicted punished." unexplained reason, negotiating back Affairs. Although returned opposition relinquishment evidence support matter. probable preferred recommended Office used, wherein acknowledged promised "friendly thereof," understood interpreting statutes, " '[d]oubtful expressions resolved favor weak defenseless wards good faith.' McClanahan 411 164, 174, 93 1257, 1263, 129 (1973), Kansas Wall. 737, 760, 667 (1866); Nice, 241 591, 599, 696, 698, 60 1192 (1916). statutory clear face "be surrounding history." 444, 1092, (1975). National Assn., 51-52 (1974); Hearings S. 1400 (reform Laws) Procedures 93d 6469 (1973).

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