Document: 456 U.S. 512 102 S.Ct. 1912 72 L.Ed.2d 299 NORTH HAVEN BOARD OF EDUCATION, et al., Petitioners,v.Terrel H. BELL, Secretary, Department of Education, al. No. 80-986. Argued Dec. 9, 1981. Decided May 17, 1982. Syllabus Section 901(a) Title IX the Education Amendments 1972 provides that "no person," on basis sex, shall "be excluded from participation in, be denied benefits of, or subjected to discrimination under any education program activity receiving Federal financial assistance." 902 authorizes each agency awarding federal assistance promulgate regulations ensuring aid recipients adhere § 901(a), and as a sanction for noncompliance termination funds limited particular program, part thereof, in which such has been found. Pursuant 902, Health, Welfare (HEW), interpreting "person" encompass employees well students, issued (Subpart E) prohibiting federally funded programs discriminating sex with respect employment. Petitioners, public school boards, when threatened enforcement proceedings alleged violations board employees, brought separate suits challenging HEW's authority issue Subpart E ground was not intended apply employment practices, seeking declaratory injunctive relief. The District Court case granted board's motion summary judgment. In consolidated appeal, Appeals reversed, holding prohibit were consistent 902. Held : 1. Employment comes within IX's prohibition. Pp. 520-535. (a) While does expressly include its scope exclude them, broad directive person" may discriminated against gender, face, includes students. 520-522. (b) legislative history corroborates conclusion come Pp.523-530. (c) postenactment additional evidence Congress' desire ban financed programs. 530-535. 2. are valid. 535-540. An agency's both terminate is subject program-specific limitation §§ inconsistent this restriction. 535-539. But whether petitioners' permissible question must answered by first instance. 539-540. 629 F.2d 773 (2nd Cir.), affirmed remanded. 1 Susan K. Krell, Hartford, Conn., petitioner North Haven Bd. Ed. 2 Paul E. Knag, Stamford, Trumbull 3 Sol. Gen. Rex Lee, Washington, D. C., respondents. 4 Beverly J. Hodgson, Bridgeport, respondent Linda Potz. 5 Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. 6 At here validity promulgated pursuant 1972, Pub.L.92-318, 86 Stat. 373, amended, 20 U.S.C. 1681 seq. These gender 7 * proscribes activities assistance. Patterned after VI Civil Rights Act 1964, Pub.L.88-352, 78 252, 42 2000d (1976 ed. Supp.IV), IX, contains two core provisions. "program-specific" prohibition discrimination: 8 "No person United States shall, . ." 1681(a). 9 Nine statutory exceptions 901(a)'s coverage follow. See 901(a)(1)-(9).1 10 second provision relates enforcement. 1682, mandate. ultimate denial future grants.2 Like 901, program-specific: 11 "[S]uch refusal political entity, other recipient whom finding [of noncompliance] made, effect so found ."3 12 1975, (HEW) invoked governing operation programs.4 extend, example, policies involving admissions, textbooks, athletics. 34 CFR pt. 106 (1980).5 Interpreting term HEW included among series entitled "Subpart E," deals ranging job classifications pregnancy leave. 106.51-106.61 (1980). E's general introductory section provides: 13 employment, recruitment, consideration, selection therefor, full-time part-time, operated receives 106.51(a)(1).6 II 14 Petitioners Connecticut boards regulations. contend meant reach practices educational institutions. 15 A. case. Board (North Haven) therefore discrimination. Since 1975-1976 year, devoted between 46.8% 66.9% salaries employees; practice expected continue.7 16 January 1978, Elaine Dove, tenured teacher system, filed complaint HEW, alleging had violated refusing rehire her one-year maternity response complaint, began investigate sought information concerning hiring, leaves absence, seniority, tenure. Asserting lacked regulate refused comply request. 17 When then notified it considering administrative proceedings, action Connecticut. judgment exceeded conferred an injunction attempting district's those parties cross-motions judgment, April 24, 1979, Haven's motion. App. Pet. Cert. 51A. Agreeing court invalidated permanently enjoined interfering because 18 B. (Trumbull) likewise support Government requirements appropriate implementing October 1977, investigating Potz, former guidance counselor district. Potz assignments, working conditions, failure renew contract. September warned corrective action, including respondent's reinstatement, taken. 19 suit Connecticut, contending invalid On decision Haven, Trumbull's 1979. 76A.8 subsequently amended request, relief similar ordered Id., at 77A, 91A-92A. C. appeal. cases Second Circuit reversed. v. Hufstedler, Finding language 901 inconclusive, examined concluded also read directing only "any F.2d, 785 (emphasis added). held, circumscribe require "to specify prior covered regulations." Ibid. Because exercised either Trumbull, declined decide could do these cases. remanded determine petitioners and, if so, what remedies appropriate. 21 courts have unauthorized IX,9 we certiorari resolve conflict. 450 909, 101 1345, 67 332 (1981). III 22 Our starting point determining is, course, language. Greyhound Corp. Mt. Hood Stages, Inc., 437 322, 330, 98 2370, 2375, 57 239 (1978). appears, Under provision, like "persons," "excluded in," "denied of," "subjected under" support. 23 Employees who directly participate benefit grants, loans, contracts clearly fall protective categories described 901(a). Islesboro School Comm. Califano, 593 424, 426 (CA1), cert. denied, 444 972, 100 467, 62 387 (1979). addition, female employee works she paid lower salary work, given less opportunity promotion, forced work more adverse conditions than male colleagues. Dougherty Cty. System Harris, 622 735, 737-738 (CA5 1980), pending sub nom. Bell System, 80-1023. 24 There no doubt "if give [Title IX] origins dictate, accord sweep language." Price, 383 787, 801, 1152, 1160, 267 (1966); see Griffin Breckenridge, 403 88, 97, 91 1790, 1795, 29 338 (1971); Daniel Paul, 395 298, 307-308, 89 1697, 1702, 318 (1969); Jones Alfred Mayer Co., 392 409, 437, 88 2186, 2202, 1189 (1968); Piedmont & Northern R. Co. ICC, 286 299, 311-312, 52 541, 545, 76 L.Ed. 1115 (1932). neither nor impliedly excludes reach, should interpret covering protecting "persons" unless considerations counsel contrary. After all, Congress easily substituted "student" "beneficiary" word wished restrict 901(a).10 25 however, nine set forth 901(a)(1)-(9). n. 1, supra. exceptions, argue, directed thus indicate similarly applies concerned solely students student activities: them exempt entire class institutions—religious military schools—and student-related schools. 901(a)(3), (4). Moreover, argument rests inference means compelled; fact, absence specific exclusion list tends Appeals' protection "person[s]" extend Andrus Glover Construction 446 608, 616-617, 1905, 1910, 64 548 (1980).11 26 Although seems favor inclusion nevertheless, scope, turn Act's somehow limit expansive 901.12 B 27 early 1970's, several attempts made enact legislation banning women field education. unsuccessful, efforts prohibitions discriminatory practices.13 28 provisions ultimately enacted introduced Senate Senator Bayh during debate 1972. addition threatening noncompliance, amendment extending VII Equal Pay Summarizing his proposal, divided into parts first, forerunner extensions Act: "Amendment 874 broad, but basically closes loopholes existing relating resulting [T]he heart funds. would cover crucial aspects admissions procedures, scholarships, faculty exceptions. Enforcement powers fund provisions—and safeguards—parallel title 1964 Act. Other important equal opportunities institutions, Work executive, professional women." 118 Cong.Rec. 5803 (1972) 30 Senator's description "heart" amendment, indicates it, provisions, aimed employment.14 31 Similarly, prepared statement summarizing discussed 32 "Central my sections 1001-1005, 33 "This portion covers all areas where abuse mentioned—employment administrators, scholarship aid, access institution vocational classes, forth." 5807 35 observe discussion appears heading "A. Prohibition Sex Discrimination Federally Funded Programs," while summarized "B. Education-Related Discrimination." willing ascribe significance headings. portions narrowly focused discrimination, headings reflect difference. Especially light explicit reference amendment's negate Bayh's intent protected amendment.15 36 final piece colloquy Pell, chairman Subcommittee floor manager bill. Pell's inquiry about large became (b), stated: 37 "As knows, dealing three different types here. We admission institution, available services studies once admitted, member whatever. 38 "In area permit exceptions." 5812 added).16 39 statements one legislator controlling, see, e.g., Chrysler Brown, 441 281, 311, 99 1705, 1722, 60 208 (1979), remarks, sponsor enacted, authoritative guide statute's construction. See, FEA Algonquin SNG, 548, 564, 96 2295, 2304, 49 (1976) (such "deserv[e] accorded substantial weight ."); NLRB Fruit Packers, 377 58, 66, 84 1063, 1068, 129 (1964); Schwegmann Bros. Calvert Distillers Corp., 341 384, 394-395, 71 745, 750-751, 95 1035 (1951). And, originated committee report discusses provisions; statements—which same day passed, some rather spontaneous remarks—are indications congressional regarding 40 House even sparse. H.R. 7248, 92d Cong., 1st Sess. (1971), Higher 1971, contained, X, identical corresponding enacted. 1004 604 VI, 2000d-3, provided nothing X authorized "by department except primary objective provide employment." limitation. 117 39248-39263 (1971).17 41 versions submitted Conference Committee, deleted. Reports simply explained: "[T]he employer, agency, labor organization recedes." S.Conf.Rep.No.92-798, p. 221 (1972); H.R.Conf.Rep.No.92-1085, (1972). 43 Expressly conscious choice, therefore, omission suggests 44 dissent contend, deleted order avoid inconsistency: Act,18 obviously conflicted Regulations: Hearings before Postsecondary Committee Labor, 94th Sess., 409 (1975) (1975 Hearings) (remarks Rep. O'Hara) (arguing "cut paste job," using "a Xerox" "got through drafting error"). As observed, altered wording make clear applied 90119 noted necessitated apparent inconsistency. Instead, stating "[t]he recedes," suggest version prevailed substantive reasons. Gulf Oil Copp Paving 419 186, 199-200, 392, 400-401, 378 (1974) (deletion "militates result enact"); U.S., 391-392, S.Ct., 749. Identical language—"The recedes" "The changes conference. pp. 221-222 18437 (letters printed record Report, imply prohibited 901). 45 insist additionally contained 1004, unnecessary 901. Pointing out patterned viewed diminishing Act; rather, agreed explicit. 46 This focus VI—urged adopted dissent—is misplaced. It intention IX. Cannon University Chicago, 677, 710-711, 1946, 1964-1965, 560 meaning applicability useful guides construing extent contrary interpretation. clarified VI,20 601 alone considered adequate coverage. If assume counterparts 604. For although statutes objective, fail differences them. Lorillard Pons, 434 575, 584-585, 866, 872, 55 47 our view, reading verifies IX.21 C 48 confirms Following passage published Congressional Record That distinguishes practices: "Title specifically (except employment). exemption assisted programs." 24684, (first emphasis original; 50 120 39992 Sen. Bayh). 51 Then, June 1974, proposed Fed.Reg. 22228 (1974). Included E, containing During comment period, nearly 10,000 formal responses submitted, reputedly most ever received proposals. Salomone, Discrimination: A Wrong Search Remedy, J.Law 433, 436 suggested practices. 1975 479 (statement Peter Holmes, Director Office Rights). 4, regulations, 24128 (1975), required 431(d)(1) General Provisions Act, Pub.L.93-380, 567, 1232(d)(1), review. "laying before" designed afford examine regulation "inconsistent derives .," disapprove concurrent resolution. disapproval resolution days, become effective. 53 Resolutions Houses Congress. resolutions, did mention acted upon.22 House, Labor held six days hearings "consistent law enacting law." O'Hara). One witness expressed opposition much have. 406-408 Janet L. Kuhn); Kuhn, 65 Geo.L.J., 49. testified, "as mandated, call equality teachers personnel, pay promotions." 169.23 And Secretary Weinberger stated he way you can find assistance, they 478. id., 140 Jean Simmons, President, Federation Organizations Professional Women); 154-155 Carr); 164 Mink); 329 Dr. Bernice Sandler, Director, Project Status Women, Association American Colleges). 54 hearings, members resolutions disapproving certain referring H.R.Con.Res. 329, (1975); 121 21687 (1975). Representatives Quie Erlenborn 330 explicitly Unpublished Amendment quoted 783.24 Neither went July 21, 1975. Admittedly, necessarily demonstrate valid intent. (as approximately four months effect), 1232(d)(1). aware Department's interpretation controversy surrounding lends intended. Sibbach Wilson 312 14-16, 61 422, 426-427, 85 (1941); Comment, 1976 B.Y.U.L.Rev., 153-157. relatively insubstantial interest particularly significant since proceeded amend disagreed statute.25 amending seen fit disturb 56 pass bills 45-day review period expired, Helms bill added "[n]othing [§ 901] title." S.2146, 2(1), 23845-23847 No taken McClure sponsored S.2657, 2d (1976), 1976, restricted "educational activity" "curriculum graduation institutions 122 28136 (1976). successfully opposed "would traditional reason enactment IX[,]" "employment 28144. rejected. 28147. developments cannot "the contemporary history, remiss ignored expressions purpose 687, 7, 1952, 7. Where "an construction 'fully attention Congress,' latter alter statute respects, presumably correctly discerned." Rutherford, 442 544, 554, 10, 2470, 2476, 68 quoting Apex Hosiery Leader, 310 469, 489, 982, 989, 1311 (1940). 702-703, 1960; Aerospace 416 267, 275, 94 1757, 1762, 134 (1974); Bergh, 352 40, 46-47, 77 106, 109-110, (1956). subsequent events lend credence IX.26 IV 58 agree Circuit's programs, insufficient nature statute. acknowledged that, "shall found," implied considerably broader. 785-786.27 disagree. 59 funding program-specific. authorizing issuance "Each empowered effectuate issuing rules, orders achievement objectives connection taken." (Emphasis added.) Certainly, makes little sense statute, respondents urge, authorize rules enforce. itself focus: forbids "under program-specificity. failed adopt proposals 30155-30157, 30408 (1971) (Sen. 1971 amendment); 5191, 1001(b) (administration proposal); 1970 690-691 (Dept. Justice's alternative 805 16098); cf. 904 (proscribing blind limitation). contrast, indicated adopted, (observing "prohibit[s] programs," entity 39256 (colloquies Reps. Green Waggoner Steiger). Finally, note 602 virtually modeled, interpreted being Public Instruction Finch, 414 1068 1969). conclude, then, Cf. 690-693, 1954-1955. 63 Examining restriction mind, nevertheless reject contention facially invalid. their import unambiguous, view character. speak terms institution's states purpose: .[,] eliminate (with exceptions) 106.1 (1980) added).28 comments accompanying publication confirm program-specificity.29 recognized continued: "Therefore, thereof administered will ifit [30] ruling holds terminated upon 'are infected environment .' Taylor County, Florida 1078-79 (5th Cir. 1969)." 66 By adopting Fifth program-specific, apparently fashion. So read, conform limitations Whether undertake define "program" opinion. us advanced beyond actually investigation grounds complaining employees' money, allegedly suffered affect program.31 disputed whatsoever, error. Accordingly, affirm remand further ordered. 69 POWELL, THE CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST join, dissenting. 70 seq., prohibits (HEW)1 recipients. 106.51(a)(1). Today, upholds relying language, events. I believe Court's supported dissent.2 begins quotes relevant entirety opening paragraphs meaning, words paraphrases rest, thereby suggesting odds used Thus, according Court, "[s]ection 'no person' students." Ante, 520. provides. part, states: 73 natural enrolled funding. tortures chosen conclude secretaries janitors, (i) activity;3 (ii) activity; (iii) activity. whatever employers sharp contrast quite regulating practices.4 74 noteworthy five Courts consider reached presented initially First 426, followed question. There, 1681(a), beneficiaries monies, i.e., attending engaged special research government." plain buttressed examination exemptions mentioned statute," relate employees.5 next appellate decision, Romeo Community Schools 600 581, 388 Sixth rejected now relied noting: "[A]s written, broad. modified later limits meaning." 584. "reaches disparate treatment" involve beneficiaries.6 75 acknowledges, must, "does employees." finds strong negative fact "exclude scope." 522. turns unequivocally fairly proscribe Only rarely operative include. To justify show unambiguously intend state.7 elaborate exposition falls far short standard. S. 659, close earlier civil rights legislation; problem identified 1970. Against Women: 16098 Special 91st (1970). though generally barring race, religion, national origin, "with individuals perform connected [educational] institutions." Pub.L. 88-352, VII, 702, 255. 1963 banned wages 206(d)(1), administrative, workers, teachers. 213(a)(1) (1970 ed.) (no longer force). 2000d, barred "race, color, origin," activities. 874, (print amendment), closed loopholes. 1005 Sections 1009-1010 barred, professionals. 1001-1003 created new activities, effectively VI's amendments there need indicates, bar confirmed modeled recipients.8 2000d-3.9 694-701, 1956-1960, passed consistently model. 79 discounts importance proper First, notes "[i]t IX." 529 (citing supra, 1964-1965). begs question, thought disregarding unlike section, 604, beneficiaries, per se. drafted modification adding "sex." end, true, approach strategic, substantive. Supporters feared opened might "gutted" Review Regulations Implement Before Hearings). 80 break link Titles stresses Senate's originally equivalent eliminated Conference. 527-528. argument, nonsubstantive eliminating Representative O'Hara, Chairman Subcommittee, explaining background witness, change eliminate, quietly possible, recently discovered 409. Even without O'Hara's time mistake; bill, version, express analogous regarded mere clarification,10 weak arguing Report's use ritualistic reveals quiet correction obvious error very late stage process. 81 concluding rely primarily single Senator.11 statement, ante, 524 (quoting (1972)), ambiguous. state mentioning Immediately thereafter, paralleled VI. Yet never redress 82 Next, "sections 1001-1005" "[c]entral [his] amendment" "[t]his areas," 525 (1972)). 1001-1005 regardless does.12 uses ellipsis following statement: 83 "Discrimination already unfortunately sex. loophole, sets parallel VI." (in ellipsis, 525). time, departure third 526 responding Pell assumes sentence refers But, "A fair ., immediately preceding above-quoted passage, analysis sections, (admissions services), (employment). extended needed direct answer think strained. oral precise written form 427. 87 Rather supporting accords limited—and contrary, ambiguous.13 above, critical words, discrimination," absent otherwise clear, reliance add omitted gives unequivocal presume however else describe today, unequivocal. sole repeat language: 90 acknowledges lack position look examines length truncated ignores factors highly intent: ambiguity avoided draftsman; experience amount expertise legislating subject; adequately proscribed, for, conduct considered, justification 92 intent, competent draftsman above forth. guided, employment-discrimination addressing problem. Congress, hardly problem, but, two, ambiguous best. 93 comparison procedures. comprehensive antidiscrimination carefully prescribed procedures conciliation EEOC, federal-court limits, specified forms relief, whole victims illegal 2000e Supp.IV). thoughtfully structured extreme remedy, termination, request prove cutoff funds, expense innocent remedy injustice employee. Indeed, reemployment, rectify procedure.14 Compare (Title IX) Supp.IV) VII). Solicitor conceded initiated VII.15 Tr. Oral Arg. 27. delegated administration HEW. EEOC. unlikely duplicate departments government powers, expertise, methods.16 438 F.Supp. 1021 (E.D.Mich.1977), aff'd., 581 (CA6), observed: "These governmental agencies, established agencies enabling investigative machinery necessary compel compliance authority." F.Supp., 1034. General, brief behalf case, self-evident: 97 matters. Its better resolved cases." Brief Respondents 37, 26. sum, unarticulated predicated perceptions am unable share: neglectfully forgetfully intent; proscribing showing duplicative procedural remedial discrimination; (iv) vested enforce concedes lacks qualifications oversee (v) finally gave "remedy" race. dissent, 536, 26, Part III, "are relevant" "ascertaining intent." "plain language" probably unobjectionable. recognizes sustained relies heavily muddled Senate. circumstances, defies say reasonable legislators surely considered. exists "irrelevant," process ascertaining subject. Nor shun common resolving ambiguities.17 901(a)(1) education, graduate higher undergraduate Specific schools begin admitting sexes 901(a)(2); religious schools, 901(a)(3); 901(a)(4); traditionally continually admitted 901(a)(5); social fraternities sororities, voluntary youth service organizations, 901(a)(6); Boys/Girls State/Nation conferences, 901(a)(7); father-son mother-daughter 901(a)(8); scholarships awarded "beauty" pageants 901(a)(9). Funding terminated, until determines achieved means; hearing judge, recommendation judicial review; committees days. 903; 106.71, 100.6-100.11, full: activity, grant, loan, contract insurance guaranty, rule, regulation, effective approved President. Compliance requirement effected (1) grant continue record, hearing, requirement, found, (2) law: Provided, advised persons determined secured means. terminating, continue, imposed head file having jurisdiction over involved full circumstances action. thirty elapsed filing report." 374 original). functions transferred 1979 301(a)(3) Organization 96-88, 678, 3441(a)(3) ed., Supp. IV). many actions reorganization, referred herein appeared (1972), recodified establishment Education. 30802 Agriculture track 15a.51-15a.61 Small Business Administration based 113.3 U.Pa.L.Rev. 417, 418, nn. 773, 774-775 (CA2 1980). petitioner's reply motion, aside cross-motion 13, motions, rejecting Potz' 77A. Four held. Seattle 621 992 (CA9), Dept. Univ., 449 1009, 563, 467 (1980); (1979); Junior College Dist. St. Louis 597 119 (CA8), 424 Grove City 500 253 (WD Pa.1980), appeal pending, Nos. 80-2383, 80-2384 (CA3); Kneeland Bloom Township High Dist., 484 1280 (ND Ill.1980); McCarthy Burkholder, 448 (Kan.1978). Piascik Cleveland Museum Art, 779, 781, Ohio 1976). 735 receive ruled permits least According ease confusion "could ordinary meaning. Post, 551. 901(b) qualify repeats identifying listed 901(a); clearer indication itself. normally great deference interpretation, longstanding, charged administration. 274-275, 1761-1762, Red Lion Broadcasting FCC, 367, 381, 1794, 1801, 371 (1969). changed, split occurred responsible promulgating 27, 1981, Bell, wrote Attorney expressing dissatisfaction belief ultra vires. 1964. Specifically, "only shows nexus complainant beneficiary Letter Terrel William French Smith, reprinted Daily 150, A-5 (Aug. 5, 1981). 100.3(c) response, President him approve suggestion continues defend 26; 18-19. withdrawn 17-18. still effect, Bell's changed moot litigation. Textile Mfrs. Institute, Inc. Donovan, 452 490, 505, 25, 2478, 2488, 185 It, undercut Southeastern Davis, 397, 412, 11, 2361, 980 grew chaired Green. (1970) Much testimony generally, IX: Athletics Are Outside Jurisdiction, Geo.L.J. 49, 59-60 (1976); B.Y.U.L.Rev. 133, 140-141. proposal emerged committee. 16098, "sex" 601; applicable generally; 1957 Commission; application employees. women. characterized race plainly 30155, 30403 30411 McGovern announces "similar introducing own, forbade came vote Senate, nongermane. 30415. His rebut divisions suggest, describing significance. Although, points out, post, comprised detailed summary, A's "federally programs" inadvertent. questions excepted 5813 event, dealt Portions despite Members discussing 1001 Smith 1001, "effective provisions" observed leave salaries." 39255 39260 Erlenborn); 39262 Quie). Despite feeling nonetheless Opportunity 92-261, 103, 2000e(a). " 'Nothing employment.' 783. oversimplify role Some beneficiaries. 110 2484 (1964) Poff); Rights: 7152 Rules, 88th 228 (colloquy Avery McCulloch); 143 Celler); 197-198 (Colloquy 379-380 Poff). thereafter Dirksen-Mansfield substitute bill; merely clarifying 12714, 12720 Humphrey); 53, change, 14219-14220 Holland); U.Pa.L.Rev., 447 ("The onto informal bargaining Democratic Republican leadership providing compromise garner enough votes end ongoing filibuster"). not, charges, "rel[y] 550. Rather, "critical words" history—of statute—to rewrite reach. Laxalt athletic S.Con.Res. 52, 22940 Helms' blanket 46, 17300 voice 17301. explained met executive session decided 23846. stressed similarity 169-171, confirming references Opportunities. one-day resolution, Hearing Concurrent Resolution Regulation) Opportunities (H.R.Con.Res. Hearing), voted recommend Interestingly, O'Hara testified remarks conducted own 408-409, challenge 2-21, 33-34, 38. text, Martin House—one 310, 19209 focusing resolutions. 901(a)(6), sororities organizations 93-568, 3(a), 1862. 41390-41391 Green, Steiger, Perkins, Quie, Ashbrook). review, pertaining 901(a)(7)-(9). 27979-27987 Sens. Fannin, Dole, Thurmond, Bayh, Humphrey, Eagleton). Petitioners' arguments policy judgments: terminating injure numerous weigh, free ignore disagree choice. existence relevant, 711, 1965; 442-446, repeatedly variety remedies, times overlapping, eradicate Electrical Workers Robbins Myers, 429 229, 236-239, 441, 446-448, 427 Johnson Railway Express Agency, 421 454, 459, 1716, 1719, 295 Alexander Gardner-Denver 415 36, 47-49, 1011, 1019-1020, 147 dispute discriminates student. views competence drafters legislation, type procedural, remedial, included, used, 551-555, interesting, sorts take account oft-criticized second-guessing "truncated," 551, soundness broadly worded programs—as long funds—we court's conclusion. (referring "rules, applicability"). policies—which indisputably statute—are phrased "[n]o admission, 106.21(a) nature. 80.3(b)(1) "[a] [discriminate] origin ."). defers INS Stanisic, 62, 72, 1519, 1525, Udall Tallman, 380 16-17, 792, 616 (1965). Here, fluctuated progressed. 46; compare 485 (testimony Weinberger), 737, 44-46. evaluate. 12, "it" "recipient" "education somewhat unclear, plausible, especially approving citation assistance" definition "receives assistance," whereas recipient" not; subordinate clause adds "program activity." 106.51(a) (prohibiting added)). Petitioner percentage 6, 18-20, 21-22, 24. 516, duties follow acts took place reorganization. 4. "lend credence" 535. are, 520-521. Dove participants counselor. Both 2000e-2(a) VII: unlawful employer—"); 206(d)(1) (Equal employer today unconvincing, concludes "absence conclusion" protect 521-522. reasoning. employment-related conclusive proof how affirmatively anomalous VII. bona fide seniority plans, 2000e-2(h). Fifth, Eighth, Ninth Circuits. 119, 121, Eighth "adopted" Islesboro. 992, 993, (1980), decisions, noting position. below, upheld base "language suggests." 777. entered offending reaching sustainable instances, relative amounts woman of" "subject program. 737-738. supports kinds hourly secretaries, administrators Citizens Preserve Overton Park Volpe, 401 402, 29, 814, 821, 136 ("Because [in history] themselves intent"). identical. VI) 1681(a) IX). 2000d-3 "Nothing subchapter construed 10076 Kennedy); 198 Cong. Celler, Floor Manager VI). dependable sources reports committees. explanation Committees. various 545. amendment). argues relevance position, characterizing "inadvertent." 526, 15. confidence statements, selectively concededly note—as judges ranged viewing indicating recognizing debates, Senators skepticism 995; 585 428 devotes considerable inaction Congresses. enact, essentially irrelevant limiting interesting comparable Such 80.7-80.10 Code different, Administrative Procedure 80.9-80.11 EEOC conciliator, settle disputes, desires, de novo proceedings. bring district wrong backpay needless duplication bureaucracy. prefer involvement maintain staff staffs From viewpoint regulators overseeing may, standards time. present event different. text 552. Buckley Valeo, 77, 612, 662, 659 (when ambiguous, "draw 'those common-sense assumptions direction compass' ") (citation omitted); Fairport Meredith, 292 589, 595, 826, 828, 1446 (1934) (the Court); 2A Sands, Sutherland Statutory 456.12, (4th 1973) (legislative bodies presumed act reasonably). Kokoszka Belford, 417 642, 650, 2431, 2436, ("When 'interpreting (or subject) objects ").

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