Document: 501 U.S. 429 111 S.Ct. 2382 115 L.Ed.2d 389 FLORIDA, Petitioner,v.Terrance BOSTICK. No. 89-1717. Argued Feb. 26, 1991. Decided June 20, Syllabus As part of a drug interdiction effort, Broward County Sheriff's Department officers routinely board buses at scheduled stops and ask passengers for permission to search their luggage. Two boarded respondent Bostick's bus and, without articulable suspicion, questioned him requested his consent luggage drugs, advising right refuse. He gave permission, the officers, after finding cocaine, arrested Bostick on trafficking charges. His motion suppress cocaine ground that it had been seized in violation Fourth Amendment was denied by trial court. The Florida Court Appeal affirmed, but certified question State Supreme Court. That court, reasoning reasonable passenger would not have felt free leave avoid questioning police, adopted per se rule sheriff's practice "working buses" is unconstitutional. Held: 1. erred adopting every encounter seizure. appropriate test whether, taking into account all circumstances surrounding encounter, feel decline officers' requests or otherwise terminate encounter. Pp. 433-437. (a) A consensual does trigger scrutiny. See Terry v. Ohio, 392 1, 19, n. 16, 88 1868, 1879, 20 889. Even when no basis suspecting particular individual, they may generally individual questions, Rodriguez, 469 5-6, 105 308, 310-311, 83 165, examine identification, INS Delgado, 466 210, 216, 104 1758, 1762-1763, 80 247, request luggage, Royer, 460 491, 501, 103 1319, 1326, 75 229, provided do convey message compliance with required. Thus, there doubt if this same taken place before terminal, be 434-435. (b) took one relevant factor determining whether coercive nature. state court focusing "free leave" language Michigan Chesternut, 486 567, 573, 108 1975, 1979, 100 565, rather than principle those words were intended capture. This inquiry an accurate measure encounter's effect person seated about depart, has desire leave, even police present. more case analytically indistinguishable from supra. There, seizure occurred agents visited factories random, stationing some exits while others workers, because, though workers being questioned, agents' conduct them reason believe detained answered truthfully refused answer. Such refusal, alone, furnish minimal level objective justification needed detention Id., 216-217, 1762-1763. 435-437. 2. remanded courts evaluate under correct legal standard. made express findings fact, rested its decision single fact—that bus—rather totality circumstances. Rejected, however, argument he must because freely containing since "reasonable person" presumes innocent person. 437-440. 554 So.2d 1153 (Fla.1989), reversed remanded. O'CONNOR, J., delivered opinion Court, which REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, JJ., joined. MARSHALL, filed dissenting opinion, BLACKMUN STEVENS, Joan Fowler, West Palm Beach, petitioner. Solicitor General Kenneth W. Starr, Washington, D.C., United States as amicus curiae, support petitioner special Donald B. Ayer, respondent. Justice O'CONNOR 1 We held permits approach individuals random airport lobbies other public places questions so long understand she could refuse cooperate. requires us determine applies encounters take bus. 2 * Drug efforts led use surveillance airports, train stations, depots. Law enforcement stationed such locations individuals, either randomly suspect vague way engaged criminal activity, potentially incriminating questions. program. 3 In case, two discovered searched suitcase belonging Terrance Bostick. underlying facts are dispute, whose we review here, stated explicitly factual premise decision: 4 " 'Two complete badges, insignia holding recognizable zipper pouch, pistol, bound Miami Atlanta during stopover Fort Lauderdale. Eyeing passengers, admittedly picked out defendant asked inspect ticket identification. ticket, Atlanta, matched defendant's identification both immediately returned unremarkable. However, persisted explained presence narcotics lookout illegal drugs. pursuit aim, then Needless say, conflict evidence consented second bag contraband found informed consent. any resolved favor state, fact decided judge.' 1153, 1154-1155 (1989), quoting 510 321, 322 (Fla.App.1987) (Letts, part). 5 particularly worth noting. First, specifically advised appears disputed point, but, noted explicitly, evidentiary State's favor. Second, time did threaten gun. indicated officer carried pouch pistol—the equivalent carrying gun holster suggest ever removed pointed Bostick, used threatening manner. dissent's characterization "gun-wielding inquisitor[s]," post, 448, colorful, lacks fact. 6 charged cocaine. moved grounds rights. findings. subsequently entered plea guilty, reserved appeal denial suppress. 7 District considered issue sufficiently important So.2d, 322. reasoned situation police. 1154. It rephrased make setting dispositive case. ruled categorically 'an impermissible result[s] mount reasons doing so, thereby obtaining passengers' luggage.' Ibid. thus unconstitutional.** result Florida, elsewhere, persons most places, seek search, see id., 1156; engage behavior 1157. granted certiorari, 498 ----, 241, 112 201 (1990), Court's consistent our jurisprudence. II 8 sole presented type described above necessarily constitutes "seizure" within meaning Amendment. concedes, accept purposes decision, lacked suspicion required justify that, place, drugs suppressed tainted fruit. 9 Our cases clear occur simply approaches asks few So "to disregard go business," California Hodari D., 499 1547, 1551, 113 690 (1991), will scrutiny unless loses precisely point 889 (1968): "Obviously, personal intercourse between policemen citizens involves 'seizures' persons. Only officer, means physical force show authority, restrained liberty citizen conclude 'seizure' occurred." 10 Since Terry, repeatedly mere constitute 229 (1983) (plurality opinion), example, "law violate merely approaching street another asking willing answer putting listen, offering prosecution voluntary answers questions." 497, S.Ct., 1324; 523, 3, 1338 (REHNQUIST, dissenting). 11 There lobby rise dealt similar airports "the sort encounter[s] implicat[e] interest." 165 (1984). 1762, 247 (1984); supra, U.S., 310-311; individual's 1762; 1326 opinion); Mendenhall, 446 544, 557-558, 1870, 1878-1879, 64 497 (1980); her opinion)—as 12 insists different cramped confines much intimidating setting, argues, tower over little room move around. claims find 565 (1988), cases, indicating occurs leave." maintains nowhere Also, depart. Had disembarked, risked stranded losing whatever baggage locked away compartment. 13 persuasive, prohibiting boarding interdiction. erred, When attempt who walking down through lobby, makes sense inquire continue walking. But degree 14 Here, mean him. movements "confined" sense, natural bus; says nothing coercive. 15 respect, dispositive. At INS' visiting employees aliens. Several stand near building's exits, walked factory workers. acknowledged worksite, activity: "Ordinarily, people work freedom meaningfully restricted, actions law officials, workers' obligations employers." 218, 1763. concluded building should given "no truthful put answer." 16 present Delgado. Like movement restricted independent i.e., Accordingly, analysis relies inapplicable. situation, formulation follows logically prior breaks new ground. said crucial "have communicated ignore business." 569, 1977. also 1551. Where takes factor, only one. And, correctly observes, officer's fearing prosecution. Brief Amicus Curiae 25. consistently refusal cooperate, more, 1762-1763; 498, 1324 Brown Texas, 443 47, 52-53, 99 2637, 2641-2642, 61 357 (1979). 17 occurred. up bus, bags. explained, luggage—so recited indicate guns 18 Nevertheless, refrain deciding remand reject, knows contains cannot prevail presupposes 519, 4, 1335, (BLACKMUN, dissenting) ("The [respondent] knew likely turn course irrelevant; potential intrusiveness judged viewpoint [his] position"). Accord 574, 1980 ("This 'reasonable person' standard . ensures scope protection vary mind approached"). 19 dissent characterizes "intimidating authority," 447 (emphasis added), demand "voluntary" cooperation. incorrect. Clearly, passenger's cooperate authorizes first warrant cooperation voluntary. "Consent" product official intimidation harassment all. Citizens forfeit constitutional rights coerced comply prefer chose permit attempts characterize applying lesser travel forms transportation. This, too, erroneous characterization. case—whether encounter—applies equally trains, planes, city streets. mode differential treatment searches 21 reserves strongest criticism proposition can whom novel; endorsed number times. Delgado just examples. today's decisions Unless advocates overruling long, unbroken line dating back years, well taken. 22 empowered suspend guarantees Government effectively wage "war drugs." 2389, 440, 450-451. If war fought, fight respect suspected having committed crime. By token, forbid practices considers distasteful. proscribes unreasonable seizures; proscribe evaluating agree, 23 adhere order seizure, consider rule. 24 judgment reversed, further proceedings inconsistent opinion. 25 ordered. 26 STEVENS join, dissenting. 27 Nation, told, No disputes job law-enforcement officials devise effective weapons fighting war. effectiveness technique proof constitutionality. general warrant, certainly enforcement. Yet primary aims protect tyranny singled particularized notwithstanding method. Boyd States, 116 616, 625-630, 524, 529-532, 29 L.Ed. 746 (1886); Harris 331 145, 171, 67 1098, 1111, 91 1399 (1947) (Frankfurter, my view, confronted case—the suspicionless sweep intrastate interstate travel—bears indicia coercion unjustified intrusion associated warrant. Because I violates core values Amendment, dissent. 28 "new increasingly common tactic drugs": travel. Lewis, 287 U.S.App.D.C. 306, 921 F.2d 1294, 1295 (1990); Flowers, 912 707, 710 (CA4 1990) (describing Charlotte, North Carolina); Madison, --- ---- (CA 1991) Port Authority terminal New York City); Chandler, 744 F.Supp. 333, 335 (DC ("[I]t become routine subject travelers warrantless interviews sitting aboard stopped short layover Capital"); 1156-1157 (Fla.1989) policy 'working buses' "); ante, 431. Typically technique, group federal intermediate route. Often displaying identify themselves announce purpose intercept traffickers. They proceed requesting produce tickets, explain travels. Never advise speak officers. An "interview" ordinarily culminates U.S.App.D.C., F.2d, 1296; 708-709; ----; These sweeps conducted "dragnet" style. act "articulable suspicion" interviewing.1 proceeding systematically fashion, able tremendously high volume searches. See, e.g., Kerwick, 512 347, 348-349 (single employing 3,000 bags nine-month period). percentage successful interdictions low. (sweep resulted seven arrests). 30 To mildly, these "are inconvenient, intrusive, intimidating." F.Supp., 335. confines, typically placing selected interview exit 336. temporarily destination, position evading questioning. Undoubtedly, holds progress Fields, 909 470, 474 (CA11 1990); cf. Rembert, 694 163, 175 (WDNC 1988) (reporting testimony 'every effort world delay bus' driver until complete). tactic," 1295, burdens experience traveling governmental interference which, now, society proudly unaccustomed. ex rel. Ekstrom 136 Ariz. 6, 663 P.2d 992, 997 (Feldman, concurring) thought American compelled 'show papers' exercising walk streets, drive highways trains repugnant institutions ideals"). 31 aspect lost many lower called upon constitutionality practice. Remarkably, located heart "drug war" adamant condemning technique. it: 32 '[T]he cause evoked images days, flags, man traveled nation's roads railways fear unwarranted interruption, temporary power Government. spectre asked, badge-wielding papers—in raison d'etre—is foreign fair reading Constitution, guarantee human liberties. Hitler's Berlin, nor Stalin's Moscow, white supremacist South Africa. County, ("that permits") check [and] luggage—all name "voluntary cooperation" .' 1158, (quoting order). 33 Columbia spoke words: 34 "It seems incongruous world's history totalitarian states becoming like nation former trappings liberties freedoms." 35 36 "The indiscriminate stopping busses gone too far. approves 'bus stops' allows prosecutions based 'stops,' stripped basic Constitutional protections. action what stood 200 years existence. passing Capital great where absolutely stop them, accost streets cause. 'anything goes' knocks doors citizens' homes seeking 'consent' far away. America." 728 784, 788-789, rev'd, 1294 (1990). 37 Alexander, 755 453 1991); 490, 495-497 (SDNY 1990), (CA2 335-336; Mark, 742 17, 18-19 Alston, 13, Cothran, 729 153, 156-158 Felder, 732 204, 209 1990). 38 then, suspicionless, dragnet-style majority suggests latest perfectly compatible Constitution. disagree. 39 objection manner frames amounts "seizure." agree approached "would encounter." Ante, possibly affirmative question. 40 reverses "per rule" against 433, 435-440, suggesting dictum "doubt" 2388. notion wholly majority's imagination. acknowledges, "stated decision." contained details 1154; 431-432. court's drew heavily facts, emphasized conclusion "all circumstances" 1157 added); ibid. ("Here, 'seized' [respondent]" added)). 41 contrary appearances, ignored solely failure expressly incorporate reformulation appeal. 433.2 never explains implausible assumption phrasing trump opinion's careful Certainly, issues intend parties treat irrelevant neglected cram petition certiorari. law, 554-555, 1877-1878, (1980) (opinion Stewart, J.); Maragh, 282 256, 258-259, 894 415, 417-418 (CADC), cert. denied, 214, 174 prevents own appear 42 exhibit elements typical sweep. Greyhound en route brief pick visible display badges wore bright green "raid" jackets bearing Department; pouch. 1154, alone "show authority." 575, 1980, (1988) (display weapon contributes environment); 554, 1877 J.) ("threatening several officers" "display weapon"); 555, (uniformed attire). Once board, respondent, identified began One front respondent's seat, partially blocking narrow aisle pass reach 43 revealed premised break off "interview." Inexplicably, stresses implicit bag. 432, 437-438. exchange completely us. For purports "accept," 433-434, unlawfully initiated questioning, resulting likewise unlawful matter how it. 507-508, 1329-1330, Wong Sun 371 471, 407, 441 (1963). Consequently, deny bag, passenger—without apprised rights—would antecedent 44 Unlike majority, no. Apart trying accommodate options. remained obstinately refusing respond light authority reasonably believed arouse suspicions intensify interrogation. Indeed, carry here frequently admit 156; 205. observation "without more," give seizing passenger, 437, utterly beside unadvised unversed know hold 45 tried escape leaving altogether. squeeze past gun-wielding inquisitor hardly viewed available him.3 lamely protests stipulated shows "point[ed] gu[n] threatened him" weapon. 437 added). recognize obvious choice "display" exerts significant pressure citizen. E.g., 1980; 1877. suggested immediate apprehension shot hand. 46 perceived let moreover, expected resort intrusive knew, bus's departure imminent. street, reaching journey scene repair safe haven unwanted probing officials. vulnerability traveler experiences outside "own familiar territory" surely aggravates quality Schneckloth Bustamonte, 412 93 2041, 2058, 854 (1973). 47 primarily relies, (1984), distinguishable respect. inside "seized" out, believing factory, least did. 218-219, 7, 1763-1764, 7. journey, workplace need abandon belongings venture unfamiliar environs Moreover, entire 1763, considerably less confining environment Finally, 212, 1760. 48 Rather requiring tactics employed blames sensation constraint. concedes "did bus" breaking interrogation 436. confinement, explains, "was bus." "freedom conduct—i.e., bus," 2387, 49 borders sophism trivializes underlie Obviously, person's decision" himself authorize exit. acceptable exploiting expose legitimate social constraints. consciously undertaken travel, cooperating exiting locations. exactly "choice" 50 clearly condemns buses. Withdrawing government's drug-war arsenal combatting instrumentalities trade. remain free, reasonable, wrongdoing.4 Alternatively, confront simple steps, dispel aura pervades encounters. expect requirements render Nation's law-enforcement-free zones. III 51 gloss violence empty admonitions. "If th[e] [war drugs] fought," intones, "those crime." 439. actions, louder words. 52 ** acknowledges reads rule, dismisses "implausible" actually apply "trump" facts. Post, 445. Implausible seem, does. grants quashes denials motions McBride State, 1160 (1989); Mendez 1161 Shaw 555 351 Avery Serpa 1210 Jones 559 1096 offer wrongdoing sufficient "stop" passenger. 20-22, 30-31, 1879-1881, 1884-1885, (1968); 498-499, 1324-1325, opinion). follow, random. confronts candidly admitted race influencing approach. Williams, 1:89CR0135 (ND 1989), p. ("Detective Zaller testified factors initiating focus three young black males included: (1) black. ."), aff'd, 89-4083 (CA6, Oct. [916 714 (table) ] (the "knew couriers, often not, males"), vacated remanded, 500 1572, (1991). inarticulable unspeakable. reformulated, read: "Does luggage?" discussion plain, 431, interview. Insisting help prevent reliance criteria race.

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