Document: 531 U.S. 457121 S.Ct. 903149 L.Ed.2d 1 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.WHITMAN, ADMINISTRATOR OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, et al.v.AMERICAN TRUCKING ASSOCIATIONS, INC., al. No. 99-1257. SUPREME COURT THE UNITED STATES Argued November 7, 2000 Decided February 27, 20011 Syllabus Section 109(a) Clean Air Act (CAA) requires Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Administrator promulgate national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) for each pollutant which "air criteria" have been issued under 108. Pursuant 109(d)(1), 1997 revised ozone and particulate matter NAAQS. Respondents 99-1257, private parties several (hereinafter respondents), challenged NAAQS on grounds. The District Columbia Circuit found that, Administrator's interpretation, 109(b)(1)-which instructs EPA set "the attainment maintenance ... requisite protect public health" with "an adequate margin safety"-delegated legislative power contravention Federal Constitution, it remanded EPA. Appeals also declined depart from its rule not consider implementation costs setting And held although certain provisions contained Part D, Subpart 2, Title I CAA did prevent revising standard designating areas as "nonattainment areas," those provisions, rather than more general 1, constrained new court rejected EPA's argument lacked jurisdiction reach question because there had no "final" action. Held: 1. 109(b) does permit Because often expressly grants authority costs, a provision will inferred ambiguous provisions. Union Elec. Co. v. EPA, 427 246, 257, n. 5. since 109(b)(1) engine drives nearly all CAA, textual commitment must clear; Congress alter regulatory scheme's fundamental details vague terms ancillary see MCI Telecommunications Corp. American Telephone & Telegraph Co., 512 218, 231. Respondents' arguments founder upon this principle. It implausible 109(b)(1)'s modest words "adequate margin" "requisite" give determine whether should moderate standards. Cf. ibid. cost factor both so indirectly related health full potential canceling conclusions drawn direct effects would mentioned 108 109 meant considered. Other do require data, bearing taken into account text context clear, canon construing texts avoid serious constitutional problems applicable. See, e.g., Miller French, 530 327, 341. Pp. 4-11. 2. delegate When conferring decisionmaking agencies, lay down an intelligible principle person body authorized act directed conform. J. W. Hampton, Jr., 276 394, 409. An agency cannot cure unlawful delegation by adopting discretion limiting construction statute. limits imposes strikingly similar ones approved in, Touby 500 160, scope allows well within outer Court's nondelegation precedents, see, Panama Refining Ryan, 293 388. Statutes need provide determinate criterion saying how much regulated harm too delegating power. 11-15. 3. issue 307 CAA. policy constitutes final action marked consummation process, Bennett Spear, 520 154. decision ripe review. purely one statutory interpretation benefit further factual development, Ohio Forestry Assn., Inc. Sierra Club, 523 726, 733; review interfere administrative development; hardship respondent developing state plans satisfies CAA's special judicial-review permitting preenforcement review, id., at 737. was fairly included challenges were Appeals, agree 16-20. 4. unlawful. Under Chevron A. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 837, if statute resolves 2 applies NAAQS, ends matter; but ambiguous, defer reasonable interpretation. Here, concerning interaction between render 2's carefully designed restrictions nugatory once has promulgated. principal distinction subparts eliminates allowed construe way completely nullifies textually applicable limit discretion. In addition, obviously written govern some time future, nothing prevented aborting subpart day after enacted. left develop nonattainment insofar they apply 20-25. 175 F.3d 1027 195 4, affirmed part, reversed remanded. NOTES: Together 99-1426, Trucking Associations, Whitman, Agency, al., certiorari same court. ON WRITS CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR DISTRICT COLUMBIA CIRCUIT Scalia, J., delivered Court, Parts IV unanimous, II joined Rehnquist, Stevens, O'Connor, Kennedy, Souter, Thomas, Ginsburg, JJ., III Breyer, JJ. filed concurring opinion. part judgment, joined. judgment. Opinion Justice Scalia Court. These cases present following questions: (1) Whether delegates (EPA). (2) 109(b)(1). (3) D 42 U.S.C. 7501-7515, respect implementing (4) If so, permissible. 3 * added, 84 Stat. 1679, amended, 7409(a), 108, 7408. Once promulgated, (and criteria based) "at five-year intervals" make "such revisions appropriate." 7409(d)(1). arose when, July 18, 1997, (PM) ozone. See Particulate Matter, 62 Fed. Reg. 38652 (codified 40 CFR 50.7 (1999)); Ozone, 38856 50.9, 50.10 (1999)). co-respondents 99-1257-which include, addition companies, Michigan, Ohio, West Virginia-challenged Circuit, pursuant 7607(b)(1). 4 accepted others. agreed 99-1257 respondents respondents) delegated Art. I, interpreted "intelligible principle" guide agency's exercise authority. Assns., 1027, 1034 (1999). thought, however, could perhaps unconstitutional restrictive 109(b)(1), instead declaring section agency. Id., 1038. (On point, Judge Tatel dissented, finding written. 1057.) On second addressed, unanimously respondents' Lead Industries 647 F.2d 1130, 1148 (CADC 1980), initial standard. 5 7511-7511f, tied existing revise method standard, F.3d, 1050, country 7407(d)(1), reference it, 1047-1048. petition rehearing, panel adhered position these points, 1999). denied suggestion rehearing en banc, five judges dissenting. 13. 6 petitioned first, third, fourth questions described first paragraph conditionally cross-petitioned question. We granted petitions, 529 1129 (2000); 1202 (2000), scheduled tandem. now consolidated purposes decision. 7 supra, 1148, "economic considerations [may] play promulgation 109" cases, holding, 1040-1041, done many occasions. Lung Assn. 134 388, 389 (1998); NRDC Administrator, 902 962, 973 (1990), vacated grounds, 921 326 1991); Petroleum Institute Costle, 665 1176, 1185 (1981). argue decisions incorrect. disagree; step assessing what confers, we address III, infra. 8 primary safety." 7409(b)(1). Were hundreds pages briefing submitted issue, thought clear language, scholar noted, "is absolute." Currie, Pollution: Law Analysis 4-15 "based on" information about technical "criteria" documents compiled 108(a)(2), 7408(a)(2), identify maximum airborne concentration can tolerate, decrease "adequate" safety, level. Nowhere achieving such calculation. 9 Against most natural readings, lengthy, spirited, ultimately unsuccessful attack. They begin object focus, "public health." term appeared federal clean legislation-in 14, 1955 (1955 Act), 69 322, expressed "recognition dangers pollution-its ordinary meaning "[t]he community." Webster's New International Dictionary 2005 (2d ed. 1950). argue, added Amendments 1970 (1970 1676, use term's secondary meaning: ways means conserving members community, preventive medicine, organized care sick, etc." Ibid. Words given content, their surroundings, FDA Brown Williamson Tobacco Corp., 120, 132-133 Jones 527 373, (1999), definition makes sense. instruct level "requisite protect" art science dealing protection improvement community Third 1836 therefore revert term: public. 10 Even factors pollution affect health. particular, economic very stringent might produce losses sufficient offset gains achieved cleaning air-for example, closing whole industries thereby impoverishing workers consumers dependent industries. That unquestionably true, aware it. Thus, commissioned Quality 1967 (1967 Act) "a detailed estimate carrying out Act; comprehensive study program affected units government; impact Nation's industries, communities, contributing sources pollution." 81 505. Congress, armed results study, Cost Air, S. Doc. 91-40 (1969) (publishing study), only anticipated compliance injure health, provided precise exigency. 110(f)(1) permitted waive deadline stationary if, inter alia, control measures simply unavailable continued operation essential welfare." 1683 (emphasis added). explicitly required 111(b)(1)(B), commanded "standards performance" emissions specified 111(a)(1) "reflec[t] degree emission limitation achievable through application best system reduction (taking reduction) determines adequately demonstrated." 202(a)(2) prescribed automobiles take effect "after period finds necessary development technology, giving appropriate consideration period." 1690. 202(b)(5)(C) (similar interim standards); 211(c)(2) fuel additives); 231(b) aircraft standards). Subsequent amendments directing, explicit performing various duties. 7545(k)(1) (reformulate gasoline "require greatest taking reductions"); 7547(a)(3) (emission nonroad vehicles "giving cost" refused find implicit sections authorization elsewhere, often, granted. (1976). General Motors 496 530, 538, 541 (1990) (refusing infer deadlines enforcement limitations imposed elsewhere). 11 Accordingly, prevail challenge, show provides 7401-7515, one. held, scheme provisions-it not, say, hide elephants mouseholes. 231 (1994); 159-160. 12 Their claim leave room pad concerns. Just "highly unlikely determination industry entirely, even substantially, rate-regulated discretion-and achieve subtle device permission 'modify' rate-filing requirements," 231, Accord Christensen Harris County, 576, 590, (2000) (Scalia, judgment) ("The implausibility Congress's leaving highly significant unaddressed thus 'delegating' resolution administering agency) assuredly considered determining ambiguity" deleted)).1 13 defect inheres next two arguments: while judgment [the] developed based solely criteria; themselves, include "effects welfare expected presence air," necessarily limited effects. concede premises, still conclude unenumerated applying implementation. surely Yet describe detail pollutants calculated effect, say word costs. 14 finally, number data generated. 108(b)(1), "issue States," simultaneously documents, "information techniques, shall relating installation operation." 7408(b)(l). 109(d)(2)(C)(iv) Scientific Advisory Committee "advise adverse welfare, social, economic, energy result strategies maintenance" NAAQS.2 7409(d)(2)(C)(iv). sense unless so. enable assist role implementers assigns responsibility deciding reductions sources. 7407(a), 7410 (giving duty plans). impossible perform task intelligently without considering abatement technologies efficient, economically feasible-which why said important forum claims technological infeasibility formulating plan," U.S., 266. 15 legislation has, beginning, agencies transmit including States. Act, 2(b), 322; 1963, amending 3(a), (b) 77 394; 103(a)-(d), 104, 107(c), 486-488. chose carry forward research choosing implement perfectly sensible, standards.3 16 requiring construed here. No severe doubt, courts choose reasonably available interpretations text. 341 Pennsylvania Dept. Corrections Yeskey, 524 206, 212 (1998). 109(b), historical appreciation importance whole, unambiguously bars NAAQS-setting us EPA.4 affirm point. 17 "ambient [documents 108] allowing "[The] EPA," said, "lack[ed] drawing lines. failed intelligibly much." 1034. hence (but itself) violated doctrine. disagree. 18 Article Constitution vests "[a]ll Powers herein States." permits powers, Loving 517 748, 771 (1996); 776-777 judgment), repeatedly when confers "lay [act] conform." 409 (1928). never suggested Both Fahey Mallonee, 332 245, 252-253 (1947), Lichter 334 742, 783 (1948), mention regulations course discussions, subsequent incorporated version statute, ibid., customary practices area, implicitly reflected regulations. 250. idea unconstitutionally standardless declining seems internally contradictory. choice portion exercise-that prescription omitted-would itself forbidden courts, voluntary self-denial answer. 19 Solicitor minimum "[f]or discrete published reflect latest scientific knowledge, establish uniform air." Tr. Oral Arg. p. Requisite, turn, "mean[s] sufficient, necessary." 7. 160 (1991), Attorney designate drug controlled substance criminal doing " 'necessary imminent hazard safety.' 163. resemble Occupational Safety Health 'set assures, extent feasible, basis evidence, employee suffer impairment health' "-which upheld Industrial Dept., AFL-CIO Institute, 448 607, 646 (1980), then-Justice who alone case doctrine, 671 (opinion like here, Textile Mfrs. Donovan, 452 490, 545 (1981) (Rehnquist, dissenting). 20 fact our precedents. history lacking statutes, literally guidance discretion, conferred regulate entire economy stimulating assuring "fair competition." 388 (1935); L. Schechter Poultry 295 495 (1935). have, hand, validity 11(b)(2) Public Utility Holding Company 1935, 49 821, gave Securities Exchange Commission modify structure holding company systems ensure "unduly unnecessarily complicate[d]" "unfairly inequitably distribute voting among security holders." Power Light SEC, 329 90, 104 (1946). wartime conferral fix prices commodities 'will generally fair equitable effectuate [in respects conflicting] th[e] Act.' Yakus 321 414, 420, 423-426 (1944). statutes authorizing regulation interest." National Broadcasting 319 190, 225-226 (1943) (FCC's airwaves); York Central 287 12, 24-25 (1932) (ICC's approve railroad consolidations). short, "almost felt qualified second-guess regarding permissible executing law." Mistretta 488 361, 416 (1989) 21 dissenting); 373 (majority opinion). 22 true enough acceptable varies according congressionally conferred. 772-773; Mazurie, 419 544, 556-557 (1975). While direction manner define "country elevators," exempt new-stationary-source governing grain elevators, 7411(i), substantial economy. But sweeping schemes demanded, "determinate criterion" "how [of harm] Touby, decree "imminent" imminent, "necessary" enough, even-most relevant here-how "hazardous" hazardous. 165-167. Similarly, recoup "excess profits" paid Government contracts, yet insist specify profit much. 783-786. conclusive "nonthreshold" inflict continuum greater zero, judgments degree. "[A] lawmaking, executive judicial action." 417 dissenting) deleted); 378-379 repeat interpret "requisite"-that is, lower higher necessary-to fits comfortably precedent. 23 reverse remanding reinterpretation supposed remain Appeals-on remand reasons-to dispose preserved challenge 7607(d)(9). 24 issues concern whose levels currently exceed designates "nonattainment," 107(d)(1), 7407(d)(1); Pub. 105-178, 6103, 112 465 (setting timeline designations), exposes them additional over above requirements 110 substantive 7501-7515. 7501-7509a, contains pertain every exists. Subparts 5, 7511-7514a, contain rules tailored specific individual pollutants. 1990, 103, 2423, addresses 7511-7511f. dispute nutshell, (as determined), combination controls areas. 25 urges, vacate policy. 307(b)(1) 7607(b)(1), gives "any nationally taken, Administrator," argues "action," action, reject three contentions. 26 At proposed 1996, "interim policy" 61 65752 (1996), until put form "rulemaking actions." preamble declared represent[s] views and, statements actions, interpretations, bind more, accept current final. However, comments policy, White House Register titled "Memorandum Agency" procedures follow. 38421 (1997). (For analysis assume memorandum EPA.) supplemented explanation procedures, explanatory heading, "Final standard." 38873. "In light received Interim Implementation Policy," announced, "reconsidered interpretation" settled "subpart Act" immediately "apply 8-hour [ozone] standards." Ibid.; 38885 (new implemented "simultaneously [with old standard] 1"). Moreover, "will [also] continue law long area attaining [old] 1-hour reaches longer apply." 38884-38885. 27 little trouble concluding 307. bite phrase "final action" (which bears Administrative Procedure (APA) 704 Harrison PPG Industries, 446 578, 586 (1980)) cover comprehensively FTC Standard Oil Cal., 449 232, 238, (1980). "final," "mark process." 154, 177-178 Only "EPA rendered last matter" question, 586, reviewable. satisfied "decisionmaking process," began 1996 proposal reception comments, concluded agency, "in [these comments]," conjunction corresponding directive House, adopted Since issued, rulemakings reconsider explaining disappointed commenters earlier conclusive. 63 31014, 31018-31019 Though dressed conventional procedural accoutrements finality, own behavior belies 28 "Ripeness 'requir[es] evaluate fitness withholding consideration.' Texas 296, 300-301 (1998) (quoting Abbott Laboratories Gardner, 387 136, 149 (1967)). here "benefit presented." 733 Nor "inappropriately action," issue. Finally, parties: must-on pain forfeiting NAAQS-promptly undertake lengthy expensive (SIP's) attain new, years. 7502. suffice brought APA, characterized 7607(b), specifically "preenforcement" Such "judicial directly, concrete normally APA felt." Lujan Wildlife Federation, 497 871, 891 (1990). meet 29 Beyond this, properly Appeals. argued below trigger supplanted (for ozone) Brief Industry Petitioners Intervenors 97-1441 cases) (CADC), pp. 32-34. responded supplant latter "applies Final 67-68. 30 later reiterated "does fully harmonizes NAAQS." 71. words, arguing despite apparent incompatibility portions harmonized entirely inapplicable-which assignments error. unreasonable contend, does, obligated preferred result, assess reasons reaching result. rule, B 31 Our approach merits parties' familiar 837 (1984). (or two) then "that end matter." 842-843. "silent ambiguous" "reasonable administrator agency." 844. clearly 1048-1050, ambiguous. conclude, beyond contradicts view quite clear. hold AT&T Iowa Utilities Bd., 525 366, 392 32 point answer controls? Two 7502(a)(1)(C) 7502(a)(2)(D), switching stating classification "specifically [for] [Part D]," 1's. Thus incomplete note, language broad 7502(a)(1)(A) (instructing classify 15, 1990"); 7502(a)(2)(A) deadlines). To resolve provision, namely control. 33 So, classifying standard? does. backbone Table printed 7511(a)(1) reproduced here,5 defines categories prescribes each. funnels table classification, "[e]ach designated classified designation, classified, date expeditiously practicable 1." seems, title 7511(a) reads "Classification dates 1989 suggests 1989, rejected, 7511(b)(1) subsequently slipped nonattainment. interpretive title, "she[d] itself," Carter 255, 267 (internal quotation marks omitted) 212, turn quoting Trainmen Baltimore R. 331 519, 528-529 (1947)). 34 be, argues-and denial pointed out, 11-12-that ill fitted Using averages levels, requires, 7511(a)(1); 44 8202 (1979), inexact averages, App. Also, stricter one, Reply ("the NAAQS"); 38856, 38858 (1997) (8-hour 0.09 ppm 0.08 "generally represent[ed] continuation protection"), gap, fails nonattaining) less approximation codified calculating dates-which count years 1990 (the took force), depending far started-seems 1990. If, year 2000, already expired classification. 35 gaps intended exclusive, permanent enforcing interact regard standards, ambiguity. 132; INS Aguirre-Aguirre, 526 415, 424 defer, given. 36 Whatever accorded implying applicability utterly concluded. former allowed. classifications areas, classifies table. Compare 7502(a)(1) (Table 1). Whereas extend years, grant years' extension. (C) 7511(a)(5). considerable shape programs, large parts law. 7502(c) (d) 7511a. "approach 1-hour" reason (1997); 38873 standards"). few inoperative go edge 37 making abruptly obsolete astonishing time. Some elements SIP's passage Act. 7511a(e)(3) (restrictions "electric utility industrial commercial boiler[s]" "effective 7511a(c)(5)(A) (vehicle monitoring "[b]egi[n] 7511a(g)(1) (emissions milestone applied "6 intervals thereafter"). A plan future enacted abandoned reviewed standard-which knew happen time, staff papers completed late 1989. 58 13008, 13010 (1993); 7409(d)(1) (NAAQS appropriate, least years). 38 now, correct, 7502(a)(2) (Subpart dates) dates). Los Angeles, instance, "would one-hour 49. odds manifest purpose sustained. 39 unlawful, though determined After remand, Appeals' disposition case, 41 summarize holdings unusually complex cases: Constitution. unreasonable. proceedings consistent 43 ordered. None shares prominence overall scheme. Michigan 213 663, 678-679 2000); George E. Warren 159 616, 623-624 1998); 824 1146, 1154-1168 1987) (en banc). contend advice rulemaking record-which, suggest standard-setting process. cite contention, 7607(d)(3), "pertinent findings, recommendations, Review Committee" included. Committee's aspects "adverse effects" pertinent; Committee-generated pertinent beg Likewise, "all comments" placed docket, 7607(d)(4)(B)(i), respond "significant" ones, 7407(d)(6)(B); irrelevant. scarcely 109(b)(2), 7409(b)(2). For opinion, known associated air" added), speculation secretly telling anyone irrelevant inquiry. allegation proved, grounds vacating followed 842-843 (1984); Atlantic Mut. Ins. Commissioner, 382, changing TABLE Primary standardArea class Design value* date**Marginal 0.121 up 0.138 1990Moderate 0.160 1990Serious 0.180 1990Severe 0.280 1990Extreme 1990*The design value measured per million (ppm).**The 45 concurring. 46 majority 109's host directives approved. Ante, 13-15. corrective accord understanding 12. write separately, express my nevertheless genuine problem 109, address. 47 briefed wrangled doctrine barely nod Although 1928 treated requirement congressional (1928), speak principles." Rather, speaks simpler terms: "All vested Congress." Const., am convinced serves cessions believe significance great called anything "legislative." 48 As none examined asked precedents day, willing jurisprudence strayed Founders' separation powers. whom Souter joins, 50 (NAAQS). ante, 11-15, convincingly explains erred effected power." 1033 1999) (per curiam). wholeheartedly endorse reasons, albeit caveat. 51 choices. articulate ultimate frankly acknowledging "legislative" Alternatively, pretend, somehow "legislative Despite opinions supports articulation holding,1 persuaded wiser faithful actually admit power."2 52 proper characterization governmental depend nature power, identity exercising Black's 899 (6th 1990) (defining "legislation" as, "[f]ormulation rule[s] future"); K. Davis Pierce, Treatise 2.3, (3d 1994) ("If conduct everyone major issues, scores routinely promulgating candidly 'legislative rules' "). promulgated product exercises Congress. 53 My normal English usage, Framers Powers" I., just "executive Power" President, II, Those purport either recipient Bowsher Synar, 478 714, 752 (1986) (Stevens, ("Despite statement 'All powers States,' novel acknowledge independent indeed powers"); Chadha, 462 919, 985-986 (1983) (White, ("[L]egislative exercised Executive departments ..."); 2.6, 66 probably mistaken outset interpreting I's Congress' power"). Surely Cabinet agents "Executive" President. Morrison Olson, 487 654, 705-706 (1988) (arguing counsel power" unconstrained President). 54 valid sufficiently principle, inherently join almost everything 165 (1991); Shreveport Grain Elevator 77, 85 (1932); 407 (1928); Field Clark, 143 649, 692 (1892). 372 ("[O]ur driven practical increasingly society job absent ability ..."). 758 (1996) ("[The nondelegation] mean prospective force"); ("Except 1935 enforced frequently announced prohibition 55 56 rest conclusion presumption, presumption flow "textual commitment" "clear." better goals-for allocate resources save lives cleaner environment-regulators regulation's effects, where threaten disproportionate harm. Hence, things being equal, read silences ambiguities permitting, forbidding, type rational regulation. 57 equal. history, along statute's structure, indicates reflects legal compliance. thing, shows "technology forcing." Senator Edmund Muskie, sponsor introduced drafting "to appears technologically feasible," interest persons," "industries time." 116 Cong. Rec. 32901-32902 (1970), Legislative History (Committee Report Senate Works Library Congress), Ser. 93-18, 227 (1974) Leg. Hist.) 59 directly focused feasibility Act's mandates. independently either. explains: 60 concept 1) people early achievement protective technically feasible; 2) growth load deleterious . "Therefore, closed ." Rep. 91-1196, 2-3 Hist. 402-403 Indeed, reviewing "expressly force devices appear infeasible." 257 (1976) "drastic remedy otherwise uncheckable problem." 256. confirms technology-forcing goals paramount today's Conference (1977): Statement Intent; Clarification Select Provisions, 123 27070 (1977) (stating, 1977 "this year's retains strengthens technology forcing Act"); 101-228, (stating 'protects 'adequate safety,' attainment" added)). says impute irrational intent. Technology-forcing hopes prove realistic. persons, opposed insistence 90% auto pollutants, ground excessive cost, saw catalytic converter helped catastrophe feared. 6(a) 1970, 202(b)(1)(A), (B), 1690 7521(b)(1)(A), (B)) (requiring emissions); 240 (statement Sen. Griffin) "force [the automobile] existence" account"); Reitze, Mobile Source Pollution Control, Envtl. Law. 309, 326-327 (discussing converter). 64 objective efforts difficult. speculative, unknown technologies. breed time-consuming potentially unresolvable accuracy estimates. worth delays uncertainties accompany them. event, say. Elec., 256-259. decide. 65 reading, wholly ignore feasibility. points 6-7, regulators concerns select particular used experiencing difficulty reducing seek exemption variance plan. 266 ("[T]he plan"). limits, sets (providing designation nonattainment, severity availability measures"); 7502(a)(2)(C) (permitting 1-year extensions); cf. 7511(a)(1), (5) rigid extensions). change necessary. Given standards' cities, suppliers customers, hear adversely, warranted. Steel Compliance Extension 1981, 95 139 7413(e) (1988 ed.)) (repealed (granting steelmaking facilities). 67 contrary parties, eliminate risk, however slight, great, "hurtling" brink ruin," "deindustrialization." 1037, 1038, 1999); Cross-Petitioners 25. terms, compel elimination risk; flexibility ruinous industry. 68 directs world free risk-an undesirable objective. 642 (1980) (plurality opinion) "safe" "risk-free"). understood context. football equipment entails risk drinking water "unsafe" consumption. counts protecting similarly vary background circumstances, public's tolerance circumstances "decid[ing] risks live." 1165 1987). comparative risks. she promotes safety overall. likely cause prevents contest, possible stemming tropospheric (which, claimed, helps cataracts skin cancer) 1050-1053 (remanding determination). 70 specifies 1680 discretionary 71 then, authorize pollutant's affected, distribution surrounding estimate. Sunstein, Is Unconstitutional?, 98 Mich. Rev. 303, 364 consequences. allow her acceptability small 72 seem extreme fear. all, "protect safety," regulating concludes trivial lead deindustrialization. Preindustrial healthy society; demanding return Stone Age 73 rely heavily alternative flexibility, conclusion. base

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