Document: 336 U.S. 77 69 S.Ct. 448 93 L.Ed. 513 KOVACSv.COOPER, Judge. No. 9. Submitted Oct. 11, 1948. Decided Jan. 31, 1949. Rehearing Denied Feb. 28, See 921, 638. Appeal from the Court of Errors and Appeals State New jersey. Mr. George Pellettieri, Trenton, N.J., for appellant. Louis Josephson, appellee. Justice REED announced judgment an opinion in which The CHIEF JUSTICE BURTON join. 1 This appeal involves validity a provision Ordinance 430 City Jersey. It reads as follows: 2 '4. That it shall be unlawful any person, firm or corporation, either principal, agent employee, to play, use operate advertising purposes, other purpose whatsoever, on upon public streets, alleys thoroughfares device known sound truck, loud speaker amplifier, radio phonograph with instrument calliope kind character emits therefrom raucous noises is attached vehicle operated standing said streets places aforementioned.' 3 appellant was found guilty violating this ordinance by appellee, police judge Trenton. His conviction upheld Jersey Supreme Court, Kovacs v. Cooper, 135 N.J.L. 64, 50 A.2d 451, affirmed without majority equally divided court. dissents are printed. 584, 52 806. 4 We took jurisdiction1 consider challenge made constitutionality section its face applied ground that § Fourteenth Amendment United States Constitution violated because contravention rights freedom speech, assemblage communicate information opinions others. also challenged violative Due Process Clause so obscure, vague, indefinite impossible reasonably accurate interpretation. No question raised sufficiency complaint. 5 At trial Trenton court, city patrolman testified while his post he heard truck broadcasting music. Upon going direction sound, located street near municipal building. As approached music stopped man's voice truck. admitted mechanism spoke into amplifier. record court does not show but suggests using apparatus comment labor dispute then progress 6 contention obscure unenforceable merits only passing reference. objection centers around words 'loud raucous.' While these abstract words, they have through daily acquired content conveys interested person sufficiently concept what forbidden. Last term, after thorough consideration problem vagueness legislation affecting liberty invalidated under York statute, Penal Law, McK.Consol.Laws, c. 40, 1141, construed punish distribution magazines 'principally up criminal news stories deeds bloodshed, lust, massed become vehicles inciting violent depraved crimes against person.' Winters York, 333 507, 518, 68 665, 671. thus we statute vague honest distributor tales war horrors could know whether statute. at page 520, 672. But case pointed out prosecutions might brought statutes punishing 'obscene, lewd, lascivious, filthy, indecent disgusting' magazines. 511, 668. said, 671: 7 'The impossibility defining precise line between permissible uncertainty caused describing well understood long law obscene, disgusting—and unconstitutional leaves uncertain prohibited conduct—massing incide crim—has resulted three argument Court.' 8 used quoted above 668, examples standards prosecution. There said: 9 'To say state may such carries no implication circulation objecti nable printed matter, assuming protected principles First Amendment, apt describe publications. * Neither states nor Congress prevented requirement specificity carrying their duty eliminating evils which, judgment, publications give rise.' 10 think comply requirements definiteness clarity, set above. 11 scope protection afforded right citizen play express views matters considers interest himself others amplification devices mounted vehicles, must considered. Freedom assembly all comprehended claimed free speech. They will treated opinion. 12 trucks peripatetic stationary advertising, religious exercises discussion issues controversies has forth numerous ordinances. avowed obvious ordinances prohibit minimize sounds since some citizens find noise objectionable degree interference business social activities engaged quiet would like enjoy.2 A satisfactory adjustment conflicting interests difficult those who desire broadcast can hardly acquiesce modulate pitch rise deem restriction sparsely localities hours work before sleep—say p.m.—sufficient exercise privilege. Municipalities seeking actively solution. National Institute Municipal Law Officers, Report 123, Unrestrained throughout municipality amplifying intolerable. Absolute prohibition within limits amplification, even though regulated place, time volume, undesirable probably unreasonable normal activities. 13 had recently us Lockport, prohibiting whereby cast attract attention annoyance radius sounds. contained exception: 14 'Section 3. Exception.—Public dissemination, loudspeakers, items concern athletic deemed violation provided same done permission obtained Chief Police.' 15 held 'unconstitutional face,' Saia 334 558, 1148, 1149 established 'previous restraint' speech 'no prescribed exercise' discretion Police. When undertake censorship practices permitting exercise, forbids enforcement.3 case, pages 560, 561, 1149, 1150: 16 placed uncontrolled He stands athwart channels communication obstruction removed lengthy appeal. more effective previous restraint imagine.' 17 character. contains nothing comparable case. authority granted 'to prevent disturbing noises,' N.J.Stat.Ann., tit. 40:48—1(8), nuisances municipality's power control. extends beyond health, morals safety, comprehends duty, constitutional limitations, protect well-being tranquility community.4 acts things thought bring evil harm people. 18 In necessarily very amplification.5 66, 452: 19 relevant provisions apply (1) (2) containing nature amplifier emitting (3) city.' If means amplifiers emit, language ordinance, noises' barred regulation. accept view.6 So did Statement Jurisdiction brief.7 Although decide itself federal questions presented decided,8 court's conclusion ordinance.9 determination applies noises. Courts inclined adopt reasonable interpretation removes farthest possible infirmity. Cox Hampshire, 312 569, 575, 576, 61 762, 765, 85 1049, 133 A.L.R. 1396; cf. C.I.O., 335 106, 120, 1349, 1356. need determine regulatory prohibitory. All enactments prohibitory far restrictions concerned, merely regulatory. Sound utilized parks open spaces off streets. appellant's depend narrow issue regulation.10 there real abridgment 20 Of course, fundamental Bill Rights absolute. recognized field stating place controlled.'11 decades ago delivered Holmes, Schenck States, 249 47, 52, 39 247, 249, 63 470, that: 21 most stringent man falsely shouting fire theatre causing panic. injunction uttering effect force.' 22 Hecklers expelled assemblies worship disturbed anxious preach doctrine atheism. speak one's mind often empty privilege protecting hand guardians order. 23 enforcing broad gives dissemination ideas, forbidding pamphlets handbills summoning householders doors receive distributor's writings, home owner intrusion appropriate sign 'that unwilling disturbed.' never intimated visitor insert foot door insist hearing. Martin Struthers, 319 141, 143, 148, 862, 863, 865, 87 1313. do Struthers requires expand interdiction include obtaining audience broadcaster's ideas way listener passer-by offered pamphlet cannot take it.12 practically helpless escape privacy speakers except municipality. 24 exchange paper. mean legislative bar broadcasts interest, amplified ways municipalities. On cities than 125,000 people, distractions dangerous traffic useful information, residential desirable dwellers likewise mercy advocates particular religious, political persuasions. believe compel allow mechanical 25 guaranteed every reach minds willing listeners opportunity win attention. phase involved here. abridges freedom. extravagant extension due process forbid talking tone. Surely violate our people's 'concept ordered liberty' require intervention action own local government. Cf. Palko Connecticut, 302 319, 325, 58 149, 152, 82 288. Opportunity gain public's ears objectionab y assured unlimited address gatherings streets.13 preferred position14 society cherishes legislators insensible claims comfort convenience. To enforce disregard harsh arbitrary itself. people easily cheaply reached trucks, perhaps borrowed cost zealous supporter, enough call charged welfare nuisance when easy publicity open. Section bars manner human voice, newspapers, pamphlets, dodgers. homes houses distracting equipped justifies ordinance. 26 Affirmed. 27 MURPHY dissents. 28 FRANKFURTER, concurring. 29 Wise accommodation order always been, ever be, indispensable democratic society. Insofar commits making demands vigilant judicial self-restraint. single decision closely unsupported confirmation time, check living striking wise balance new cases come here adjudication. dispose assumption decided day, rightly decided, me start unreality. I am unaware circumstances differentiate ruled Saia, further reflection served r inforce dissenting expressed Id., 562, 1150. light them conclude authorizing deal chosen aural aggressions implicit trucks. 30 prompt make additional observations. My brother speaks position speech,' though, sure, finds it. phrase uncritically crept recent Court. mischievous phrase, if thought, subtly imply, touching infected presumptive invalidity. first history adjudication doctrinaire attitude disregarded admonition observed exercising Court's reviewing over legislation, constitution expounding,' McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 407, 579. radiates avowing Clarity candor matters, avoid gliding unwittingly error, trace 'preferred position.' following chronological account evolution talk about position' where thread derivation plain indicated. 31 1. Herndon Lowry, 301 242, 258, 57 732, 739, 81 1066: abridge exception rather rule penalizing utterances defined justification apprehension danger organized Legislature unfettered. limitation individual relation safety state.' 32 2. Carolene Products Co., 304 144, 151 note 4, 778, 783, 1234, margin.1 footnote seems announcing doctrine, purport announce doctrine; incidentally, concurrence rephrased expanded supra, elsewhere. certainly assert presumption invalidity related liberties Amendment. stirred inquiry 'narrower operation constitutionality' regarding therefore subjected exacting scrutiny'. 33 cited Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 95, 60 736, 741, 84 1093, proceeds: 'Mere preference one another combating substantive evils, therefore, prove inadequate foundation rest regulations aimed diminish necessary maintenance institutions. imperative that, abridged, courts should 'weigh circumstances' 'appraise substantiality reasons advanced' support regulations. Schneider *.' 34 again American Federation Labor Swing, 321, 568, 855, together cases, statement 'right discussion' 'is guarded jealous eye.' 35 last passage Thomas Collins, 323 516, 530, 65 315, 322, 89 430, below. 36 Jersey, 308 147, 161, 146, 151, 155: 'In (freedom press) asserted, astute examine legislation. Mere preferences beliefs respecting convenience regulation directed personal activities, insufficient justify diminishes vital And so, arise, delicate task falls weigh appraise advanced enjoyment rights.' 37 (4) Bridges California, 314 252, 262, 263, 62 190, 193, 194, 86 192, 159 1346: 'Moreover, likelihood, however great result alone press. substantial', Brandeis, J., concurring Whitney 274 (357) 374, 47 (641) 647, 71 1095; 'serious,' 376, 648, 1095. expression 'legislative beliefs' transform minor inconvenience sufficient weight warrant curtailment expression. *. 38 'What finally emerges 'clear present danger' working principle extremely serious imminence high punished.' formulation 'clear-and-present-danger' test endorsed Pennekamp Florida, 328 331, 334, 66 1029, 1030, 90 1295. 40 (5) number Jehovah's Witnesses refer freedoms specified apparently dissent Stone Jones Opelika, 316 600, 608 1231, 1240, 1244, 1691, 141 514. reappears Murdock Pennsylvania, 105, 115, 870, 876, 1292, 146 81; Prince Massachusetts, 321 158, 164, 64 438, 441, 88 645; Follett Town McCormick, 573, 717, 718, 938, 152 317; Marsh 326 501, 509, 276, 280, 265; 41 (6) West Virginia Board Education Barnette, 624, 639, 1178, 1186, 1628, 147 674: collides First, much definite involved. Much clause disappears specific prohibitions standard. regulate, example, utility include, impose legislature 'rational basis' adopting. press, assembly, infringed slender grounds. susceptible grave immediate lawfully protect.' 42 (7) 430: 'For attempt restrict justified clear threatened doubtfully remotely, danger. rational connection remedy curbed, contexts attack grounds, suffice. These firmer foundation. Accordingly, whatever occasion restrain orderly persuasion, danger, actual impending. Only gravest abuses, endangering paramount interests, limitation.' strongest dealing aspect utterance. four members Jackson, separate opinion, referred Rutledge agreed fell 'the category practicing vocation solicitor.' 548, 430. 43 short, claim presumptively touches insofar latter's 'liberty' specifically commen ed 44 Behind notion sought formula speech' lies determining enactment relating also, illuminated history. now governing derive essentially Holmes. 45 philosophy subject arose deep awareness extent sociological conclusions conditioned circumstance. Because Holmes seldom felt opposing economic embodied law. realized civilization considerable displacement error once sway official truth turn yielded beliefs, him search different transient dogma. expression, becomes checked atrophied. Therefore, considering enshrined Clause, attested conditions closed momentum respect lacking shifting arrangements. ready invasion debatable area economics. my et seq. 46 summarizing expresses complicated deceptive formula. admonished slumber prolonged, death.' Collected Legal Papers, 306. Such makes jurisprudence. Some arguments strikingly illustrate how fall jurisprudence oversimplified formulas. argued protects speech: communicate, physical doing; form communication; ergo entitled communication, tongue pen. sterile argumentation treats consisted bloodless categories. various forms modern so-called 'mass communications' raise were implied contemplated Franklin Jefferson Madison. Associated Press 1, 1416, 2013. Movies created problems books, movies been constitutionally regulated. Mutual Film Corporation Industrial Commission, 236 230, 387, 59 552, Ann.Cas. 1916C, 296. Broadcasting produced brood solved Co. 997, 1344. 48 differences natural loudest spellbinders, accorded unaided voice. Nor devise terms allowed operate, all. controlled prescribe noisily expre sed discriminate among inroads peace, supervise safeguarding steadily narrowing opportunities serenity reflection. Without mocking 49 JACKSON, join sustaining sound-amplifying conflicts park safe legitimate market authority. reason infringement arises unless undertakes censor contents broadcasting. not, view, drown 51 agree sustain valid methods 'communication ideas.' moving picture screen, radio, newspaper, handbill, corner orator differing natures, values, abuses dangers. Each, unto itself, BLACK repudiation 1148. Like him, unable anything distinction raucous' tones machine. struck down moderate state's sustained. me, unconditionally bans Lockport relaxed proviso use, areas aside recreation, Police saw objection. Comparison 1949 1948 decision, think, pretty hopelessly confuse authorities do. 53 concur stated 54 BLACK, whom DOUGLAS, RUTLEDGE concur, dissenting. 55 convicted operating noises.' neither emitted charge 'in did, South Stockton Street, City, truck.' reflects shadow evidence raucous,' coming volume 56 After taken review. composed judges, reference charge: simple, unambiguous prohibits defendant complaint.' 69, 453. absolute regard emphasized untouched prosecutor orally w thout aid amplifier.' 452. (Emphasis supplied.) Thus shown offense charged—speaking street. assume, actually machine tried. 'It send accused prison tried convict made.' Cole Arkansas, 196, 201, 514, 517. Furthermore, later judges voted affirm doubt correctness interpretation; indeed wrote One six reverse base fact 'a scintilla wording proof essential. 585, 806, 809. construing requiring noises, initial mistake conceded construction fatal absence convict. five reversal concluded represented 'an guise regulation, outlaw, conditions, systems.' 590, appears interpreting devices. indication view entertained conviction. strains imagination Nevertheless, requisite affirmance part Justices given courts. Affirmance punished charged, offered, convicted, according term Arkansas denied failed 'on determined court.' 202, distinguish today declared face, courts, unqualified Trenton's purpose, noisy be. forbade chief police. keep minister preaching p rk. device, invaded Amendments. amounted baldest form. rested times city, sound. function performed speaking. level devices, distribute literature. denies shelter decisions holding true sustained goes mere prior them. wholly city's unjustifiable breach barriers designed insure Ideas chiefly disseminated masses pictures, systems. least competition groups. basic premise instruments inventive genius being, governmental prohibition. Laws hamper thereby favor competing channels. prohibited, laws overpowering influence owners legally favored communication. favoritism, inevitable today's decision. For upholding statutory surely pictures similarly attacked. many wish disseminate money control publishing plants, radios, studios, chains places. Yet everybody knows vast reaches powerful system guidance comparatively few hand, speaking men divergent centralized entertain limit causes espouse. value preserving publishers magazines, literature, transmission essential thinking fully informed citizenry. importance government elect officials fullest candidates voters hear views. equal criticism limited criticisms pictures. objective widespread assured. favorites, assumes suppose agencies fair vigorously oppose. witho t large scale. Consequently, tip scales today, deprive advantages receipt protect. see another. completely advantageous speakers, same. event obtain etc., buy permit invidious complete blackout cherish reflect audiences unrelated fields. persons without, with, wealth power. least, theory 67 aware 'blare' method abuse certain constitute intolerable nuisance. drawn adequately community absolutely denying community's received avenue trade ideas. reservation sentiment 'unrestrained intolerable.' course ban busy area. restricts during used, mind, infringe none things, instead uses dissent. judgment. RUTLEDGE, 70 accord BLACK. important, however, point (here municipality) emitted. minority majority, including two justices, application. tell, constituted crime. How, hashing thing forbidden, prepared defense, see. How anyone future, loss say. 72 ambiguously inconsistently meaning groups compose it, punishment bare denounces. What foretell, stand division voting future total consistently myself, regulate accommodation, narrowly statutes, concerned protections range existed 1790 saying commerce remains navigation sail travel horses oxen accordance principal modes 1789. vision space mechanics. hold appropriately measures. entirely forbidden altogether. 73 add FRANKFURTER demonstrates opposite draws, namely, guaranties religion occupy repeated Judicial Code 237(a), U.S.C. 344(a), 1257(2), U.S.C.A. 1257(2); Lovell Griffin, 303 444, 666, 949; Orleans Water Works Orleans, 164 471, 518. Ordinances regulating People Phillips, Misc. 263 N.Y.S. 158; Maupin Louisville, 284 Ky. 195, 144 S.W.2d 237; Hamilton Montrose, 109 Colo. 228, 124 P.2d 757. Injunctions dealt playing purposes. Weber Mann, Tex.Civ.App., 492; Stodder Rosen Talking Machine 241 Mass. 245, N.E. 251, 1197; 247 60, 569. Hague 307 496, 954, 83 1423; Cantwell 296, 900, 1213, 128 1352. Chicago, B. & Q.R. Illinois ex rel. Drainage Com'rs, 200 592, 341, 349, 596, 1175; Nebbia 291 502, 525, 505, 510, 78 940, 1469; Queenside Hills Realty Saxl, 80, 82, 850, 851, 1096. cognizant difficulties. Evening Times Printing Publishing Newspaper Guild, N.J.Eq. 71, 78, 199 A. 598. 809: 'Colie, (For reversal.) review reversed exercised subordination general Most assuredly regulation.' 'There raucous, prerequisite finding guilt violation.' necessity locate loudness raucousness. 588, 589, 808, Eastwood, reversal, us, hold, primary aim Ordinance, review, noises', emanating amplifiers, radios phonographs, similar instruments. proper municipality.' 'We represents Perhaps last-quoted paragraph emit wrote: Trenton.' brief appears: 'This attempts validate save thing.' 450, 949. 1148; 574, 669. interfere Chaplinsky 315 766, 1031; Sage Stores Kansas, 32, 36, 9, 10, 25; Hutchinson Ice Cream Iowa, 242 153, 159, compare 160, 28—30, 217, 1917B, 643; Powell 127 678, 682, 683, 992, 994, 1257, 253; Mugler 123 623, 657—663, 273, 294—298, 205. prohibitions, 18, 27, Third, 6, 15, 155 1371; Darby, 100, 113, 116, 456, 458, 609, 132 1430; Kentucky Whip Collar Cent. R. 299 348, 277, 281, 270; Butifield Stranahan, 192 492, 493, 353, 354, 525. 1150; 166, 442, 109, 873, 303, 903, 1352; 357, 371, 373, 641, 646, Reynolds 98 145, 244. 162, 155. 150, 'Municipal authorities, trustees public, communities' available movement property, dedicated. end rightfully impart conduct taking middle crowded street, contrary regulations, maintain stoppage traffic; group distributors cordon across pedestrian pass tendered leaflet; guarantee press enact throwing literature Prohibition activity bears relationship speak, write, print opinion.' 308, 905, 1352: 'When riot, disorder, threat order, appears, obvious. Equally unduly suppress views, other, conserving conditions.' 527, 12, 430; narrower Constitution, ten Amendments, embraced Fourteenth. Stromberg 283 359, 369, 370, 532, 535, 536, 75 1117, 1484; 444 (452), 666 (669), unnecessary processes ordinarily expected repeal scrutiny types vote, Nixon Herndon, 273 446, 759; Condon, 286 73, 484, 76 984, 458; restraints N ar Minnesota (ex Olson), 697, 713, 714, 718—720, 722, 625, 630—633, 1357; Grosjean 297 233, 80 660; supra; interferences organizations, Fiske 380, 655, 1108; 373—378, 647—649, 1066; Gitlow 268 652, 673, (632), 1138; peaceable De Jonge Oregon, 365, 255, 260, 278. 'Nor enquire considerations enter Pierce Society Sisters, 571, 1070, 468, national, Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 1042, 1446; Bartels 404, 628, 1047; Farrington T. Tokushige, 284, 406, racial minorities, supra: prejudice discrete insular minorities special condition, tends seriously curtail relied correspondingly searching inquiry. Compare 428, 579; Carolina Highway Department Barnwell Bros., 177 (184, n. 2), 510 (513), 734, cited.'

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