Document: 487 U.S. 500 108 S.Ct. 2510 101 L.Ed.2d 442 Delbert BOYLE, Personal Representative of the Heirs and Estate David A. Boyle, Deceased, Petitioner,v.UNITED TECHNOLOGIES CORPORATION. No. 86-492. Argued Oct. 13, 1987. Reargued April 27, 1988. Decided June Syllabus a United States Marine helicopter copilot, drowned when his crashed off Virginia coast. Petitioner, personal representative heirs estate brought this diversity action in Federal District Court against Sikorsky Division respondent corporation (Sikorsky), alleging, inter alia, under tort law, that had defectively designed helicopter's copilot emergency escape-hatch system. The jury returned general verdict for petitioner, court denied Sikorsky's motion judgment notwithstanding verdict. Appeals reversed remanded with directions be entered Sikorsky. It found that, as matter federal could not held liable allegedly defective design because satisfied requirements "military contractor defense." Held: 1. There is no merit to petitioner's contention absence legislation specifically immunizing Government contractors, law cannot shield contractors from liability defects military equipment. In few areas involving "uniquely interests," state pre-empted replaced, where necessary, by content prescribed (absent explicit statutory directive) courts. procurement equipment an area uniquely interest. A dispute such present one, even though between private parties, implicates interests area. Once it determined interest implicated, will displaced only "significant conflict" exists identifiable policy or operation application would frustrate specific objectives legislation. Here, state-imposed duty care asserted basis contractor's precisely contrary imposed contract. But situation, unreasonable say there always search limiting principle identify significant conflict present, relied on rationale Feres v. States, 340 135, 71 153, 95 L.Ed. 152. This produces results are some respects too broad narrow. However, discretionary function exception Tort Claims Act does demonstrate potential for, suggest outlines of, State threaten Government. sum, which imposes (a) approved reasonably precise specifications; (b) conformed those (c) supplier warned about dangers use known but States. Pp. 504-513. 2. Also without since defense formulated differed instructions given jury, Seventh Amendment guarantee trial requires remand new theory. If evidence presented first suffice, support properly defense, at once, trial. unclear Appeals' opinion, however, whether was fact deciding reasonable could, have petitioner facts presented, rather assessing its own been established. latter error, established conditions question jury. case clarification point. 513-514. 792 F.2d 413 (CA4 1986), vacated remanded. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. BRENNAN, filed dissenting MARSHALL BLACKMUN, joined, post, p. ---. STEVENS, Louis Stanton Franecke, San Francisco, Cal., petitioner. Philip Lacovara, Washington, D.C., respondent. Donald B. Ayer, Sacramento, U.S., amicus curiae special leave Court. Justice SCALIA 1 us decide providing can injury caused defect. 2 * On 1983, killed CH-53D he flying coast Beach, Virginia, during training exercise. Although Boyle survived impact crash, unable escape drowned. Boyle's father, here, Technologies Corporation built 3 At trial, two theories were submitted First, alleged repaired device called servo automatic flight control system, malfunctioned crash. Second, copilot's system: hatch opened out instead (and therefore ineffective submerged craft water pressure), access handle obstructed other favor awarded him $725,000. 4 1986). found, failed meet burden demonstrating repair work performed Sikorsky, opposed done Navy, responsible malfunction Id., 415-416. also because, defense," recognized same day Tozer LTV Corp., 403 F.2d, 414-415. 5 Petitioner sought review challenging decision three levels: contends justification shielding argues alternative if should exist, formulation inappropriate. Finally, erred remanding determination elements met case. We granted certiorari, 479 1029, 107 872, 93 827 (1986). II 6 Petitioner's broadest defects, judicial recognition defense. disagree. most fields activity, sure, has refused find pre-emption either clear prescription, see, e.g., Jones Rath Packing Co., 430 519, 525, 97 1305, 1309, 51 604 (1977); Rice Santa Fe Elevator 331 218, 230, 67 1146, 1152, 91 1447 (1947), direct Florida Lime & Avocado Growers, Inc. Paul, 373 132, 142-143, 83 1210, 1217-1218, 10 248 (1963); Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 67, 61 399, 404, 85 581 (1941). we areas, Texas Industries, Radcliff Materials, Inc., 451 630, 640, 2061, 2067, 68 (1981), so committed Constitution laws courts—so-called "federal common law." See, Kimbell Foods, 440 715, 726-729, 99 1448, 1457-1459, 59 711 (1979); Banco Nacional Sabbatino, 376 398, 426-427, 84 923, 939-940, 11 804 (1964); Howard Lyons, 360 593, 597, 79 1331, 1333, 1454 (1959); Clearfield Trust Co. 318 363, 366-367, 63 573, 574-575, 87 838 (1943); D'Oench, Duhme FDIC, 315 447, 457-458, 62 676, 679-680, 86 956 (1942). 7 borders upon involve interests." obligations rights contracts governed exclusively law. Little Lake Misere Land 412 580, 592-594, 2389, 2396-2397, 37 187 (1973); Priebe Sons, 332 407, 411, 123, 125, 92 32 (1947); National Metropolitan Bank 323 454, 456, 65 354, 355, 89 383 (1945); Trust, supra. obligation contract, third persons. That may styled one tort, arises performance contract—and traditionally regarded sufficiently related contract until 1962 generally allow defect suits purchaser privity seller. See General Bronze Corp. Kostopulos, 203 Va. 66, 69-70, 122 S.E.2d 548, 551 (1961); see Code § 8.2-318 (1965) (eliminating requirement). 8 Another peculiarly concern, warranting displacement civil officials actions taken course their duty. many contexts scope controlled Westfall Erwin, 484 292, 295, ---, 98 619 (1988); supra, S.Ct., 1333; Barr Matteo, 564, 569-574, 1335, 1338-1341, 1434 (1959) (plurality opinion); id., 577, 1342 (Black, concurring); Yaselli Goff, 12 396 (CA2 1926), aff'd, 275 503, 48 155, 72 395 (1927) (per curiam ); Spalding Vilas, 161 483, 16 631, 40 780 (1896); Bradley Fisher, 13 Wall. 335, 20 646 (1872). involves independent performing than official employee, obviously implicated getting Government's done.1 9 think reasons considering these closely federal" apply well liabilities arising contracts. come close holding much. Yearsley W.A. Ross Construction 309 18, 60 413, 554 (1940), rejected attempt landowner hold construction erosion acres constructing dikes said "if [the] authority carry project validly conferred, is, what within constitutional power Congress, part executing will." 20-21, 414. justifying surely much contracts; distinction. Moreover, plain one—even parties. true "litigation purely parties touch duties States," America Nat. Sav. Assn. Parnell, 352 29, 33, 77 119, 121, (1956), govern. Thus, example, Miree DeKalb County, 433 25, 30, 2490, 2494, 53 557 (1977), involved certain sue third-party beneficiaries agreement municipality Aviation Administration, "the operations connection FAA grants . [not] burdened" allowing determine sue, "any outcome [dispute] before '[was] far speculative, remote possibility justify transactions essentially local concern.' " 32-33, 2495, quoting 33-34, 121; Wallis Pan American Petro- leum 384 63, 69, 1301, 1304, 369 (1966).2 here. imposition directly affect terms contracts: decline manufacture specified Government, raise price. Either way, affected. not, end inquiry. merely establishes sufficient, condition law.3 Displacement occur where, variously described, [operation] law," Wallis, 68, "frustrate objectives" legislation, 728, 1458. need sharp must exist ordinary Congress legislates "in field occupied." 1152. Or put point differently, unique concern changes otherwise produce into can.4 be. cases, example uniform rule, entire body applicable conflicts replaced rules. 574-575 (rights respect commercial paper rule). others, more narrow, particular superseded. 595, 2398 (even assuming govern land acquisitions, issue not); 1333 (state defamation official, privilege governs statements made official's duties). Miree, suit seeking impose person contracting Rather, contractual itself plaintiff (as beneficiary) enforce. Between case, easy conceive intermediate identical assumed any assumed. If, purchase installation air conditioning-unit, specifying cooling capacity manner construction, imposing manufacturer units include safety feature anything promised neither contrary. comply both state-prescribed care. No suggests context. opposite extreme Miree. Here (specifically, equip helicopters sort mechanism claims necessary) (the deliver shown specifications). Even officer orders, model number, quantity stock happen equipped hatches opening outward, impossible feature. scarcely saying individual who orders number manufacturer's negligence got ordered. 14 situations arise, Appeals, lead here relied, identified source doctrine, (FTCA) cover injuries Armed Services personnel service. 152 (1950). Military Fourth Circuit reasoned, increased cost added price "[s]uch pass-through costs defeat purpose immunity accidents conferred government itself." Tozer, 408. Other courts upholding embraced similar reasoning. Bynum FMC 770 556, 565-566 (CA5 1985); Tillett J.I. Case 756 591, 596-597 (CA7 McKay Rockwell Int'l 704 444, 449 (CA9 1983), cert. denied, 464 1043, 104 711, 175 (1984). do adopt analysis seems problem, logically Too broad, prohibit whenever prevent then purchased (in our above), standard covered. Since prohibits all service-related rests manufacturer—making inexplicable criteria (which discuss presently) adopted. hand, reliance (or produce) another doctrine covers injuries, civilians, invoked prevent, civilian's fighter planes, based theory, claiming harm needlessly high levels noise produced jet engines. Yet character engines planes regulated civilians members Services. 15 provision demonstrates context procurement. FTCA, authorized damages recovered negligent wrongful conduct employees, extent place occurred. 28 U.S.C. 1346(b). excepted consent suit, "[a]ny claim exercise failure perform agency employee discretion abused." 2680(a). 17 selection appropriate used Forces assuredly meaning provision. often engineering balancing technical, military, social considerations, including trade-off greater combat effectiveness. And further view permitting "second-guessing" judgments, Varig Airlines, 467 797, 814, 2755, 2765, 81 660 (1984), through effect avoided FTCA exemption. financial judgments ultimately passed through, substantially totally, itself, predictably prices cover, insure against, contingent Government-ordered designs. To differently: makes little sense insulate necessary production. holds circumstances displaced.5 18 agree adopted Ninth Circuit, 451. Liability imposed, pursuant (1) (2) (3) assure "discretionary function" frustrated—i.e., they considered officer, itself. absence, create incentive withhold knowledge risks, conveying might disrupt withholding liability. lest effort protect functions perversely impede them cutting information highly relevant decision. 19 urged Eleventh Shaw Grumman Aerospace 778 736, 746 (1985), pending, 85-1529. preclude did participate, participated minimally, equipment; timely risks notified designs it, although forewarned, clearly proceed dangerous design. While represent perfectly rule embodied selected reflect developed addition, seem sound penalize, thus deter, active participation process, placing risk unless identifies defects. III raises arguments regarding required claims) object expressed fashion St. Praprotnik, 485 112, 118-120, 915, 918, (1988) joined JJ.); Ebker Tan Jay Int'l, Ltd., 739 812, 825-826, n. 1984) (Friendly, J.); C. Wright Miller, Practice Procedure 2537, pp. 599-600 (1971). 21 somewhat latter, asserts occurred, establish critical language "[b]ecause incur hatch." 415. doubtful conducting factual evaluation suggests, language, find, principles announced inapplicable, shall stand, seek us, nor grant, sufficiency-of-the-evidence determination. now undertake proper sufficiency 22 Accordingly, 23 So whom BLACKMUN join, dissenting. 24 Lieutenant died copiloting spun plunged ocean. assume, purposes Lt. trapped negligently hatch. assume competent engineer discovered cured inexplicably escaped respondent's notice. Had death trap firm, family compensated tragic unnecessary death. tells today, difference: Respondent immune long obtained approval "reasonably specifications"—perhaps rubber stamp noticed cared expertise discover them. 25 "bore legitimacy having people's elected representatives," bound implement will, approved. Johnson, 481 681, 703, 2063, 2076, 648 (1987) (dissenting J.). remained silent—and conspicuously so, resisted sustained campaign legislate defense.1 Court—unelected unaccountable people—has unabashedly stepped breach denying compensation assures time injustice Court's making. 26 Worse yet, extend beyond newly breathtakingly sweeping. applies like helicopter, (so I tell) made-to-order gadget after previewing plans—from NASA's Challenger space shuttle Postal Service's old mail cars. invoke anyone injured design, including, children beach. intentionally sacrificed speed efficiency, and, indeed, type typically dangerous; thus, building elevator cable snaps walls collapse. invocable regardless how blatant easily remedied defect, missed specifications however unreasonably dangerous, precise." Ante, 512. 27 my view, lacks Treasury coffers industry. Because legislative places reverse reinstate award. Before Erie R. Tompkins, 304 64, 58 817, 82 1188 (1938), sitting free, controlling statute, rules "general" Swift Tyson, Pet. 1, 865 (1842). renounced prevailing scheme: "Except matters Acts applied State." 78, 822. explained expansive theretofore exercised unconstitutional 'invasion extent, denial independence.' 79, 823 (citation omitted). deeply rooted notions federalism, seriously when, judges displace ordinarily Standard Oil 301, 307, 1604, 1607, 2067 (1947).2 29 pronouncing "[t]here 822, rest notion grant jurisdiction substantive 2396, (1973). As author today's pronounced unanimous just months ago, ' 'we start assumption historic police powers superseded manifest Congress.' Puerto Rico Dept. Consumer Affairs Isla Petroleum 495, 500, 1350, 1353, 582 (citations Just vacuo, text statute assert it," 1355, supersede vacuo idiosyncratic five Justices federal." 30 emphasized "few restricted" instances. Wheeldin Wheeler, 647, 651, 1441, 1444, 605 (1963). "[A]bsent congressional authorization formulate decision, narrow concerned interstate international disputes implicating conflicting relations foreign nations, admiralty cases." 641, (1981) (footnotes "The enactment national doing judiciary, purposefully insulated democratic pressures, people representatives Congress." Milwaukee Illinois, 304, 312-313, 1784, 1790, 114 (1981). (1966); 32, (1977). "should overridden substantial served consistently interests, suffer major damage applied." Yazell, 382 341, 352, 507, 404 (1966). 31 decided (if anything, to, supra ) pretend manufactured "Government defense" fits handful "narrow areas," interests" heretofore 2067. creates category synthesis whose origins predate itself: administering "obligations contracts," ante, 504, regulating "civil duty," 505. simply steadfastly declined relationships collateral employee's employees. ability list 2, 10, inapplicable interest" conclusion "clear substantial" step "major damage." 507. proposition continues contracts" nearly controls party entails procurement, Sons loan, 726, 1457, (1979), conveyance property, Misere, 591-594, instrument issued 366, 574, (1943), assigned 457, 679, Any transaction necessarily "radiate[s] parties." (1956). translate prescribe 33 county contractually obligated Administration (FAA) 'restrict adjacent Airport activities compatible normal airport landing takeoff aircraft.' 2492 breached operating garbage dump airport, attracted swarm birds plane undoubtedly enforce collect violation. assorted way accident. observed considerable magnitude," aircraft travel promoting safety," 31, 2495. Nevertheless, "only litigants here," "will Treasury," 2494 (emphasis added). 34 heavily former property land. Parnell cashed bonds guaranteed stolen owner, bank. States' pay value presentation; Cf. 34, 121. central victim theft recover money paid Parnell. issue, held, [was] [did] States." 121 35 contract—a lease Mineral Leasing 1920, 181 et seq. (1982 ed. Supp. IV)—governed entirely 1304. Again, relationship contract: validity arrangements lessee assignments rights, 70, 8, validity, "no threat interest," 36 looms background. too, "touch[es] "direct 2494. best contract.3 governing realm dictate equally aviation, Government-issued paper, lands. higher delivery accordance exposes seller liability, distinguish Each cases discussed reach despite assertion comparable affected contract—whether substance—just "directly" indirectly). Ibid. Third-party county's FAA, though—as focus added), suggests—counties likely pass future negotiations. Similarly, recovered, Parnell's argument hence salability materially affected." Brief Nat'l O.T. 1956, 21, 10-11. each declining traditional 'is 2495-2496, 121-122. B 38 Our affiliates extended subset "officials Government" covered "discretionary" legal authority. 571, 1339, (plurality); (1896). Never intimated justifies it) class nongovernment employees act removed "functioning contractor, Howard, 1334. 39 historical narrowness hardly accidental. exercises authority, provides positive permits confidently presume interference undermines will. contrast, acts independently enactment. presumption furthers congressionally tasks, deliberately restricted contributions effective outweigh perhaps recurring citizens," Doe McMillan, 306, 320, 2018, 2028, 912 Barr, 572-573, 1340, "contravenes basic tenet individuals accountable conduct," Westfall, 583. extension skews balance historically struck. whatever marginal "effective administration policies government," "harm citizens" severe Government-employee observation "there sanctions available deter executive prone unworthy irresponsible manner," 576, 1342; offers deterrence contractor. advance fearless, vigorous, government" current place, less influence industrial giant lone servant, particularly servant significantly profitable, subject vindictive lawsuit. fact, take presumably litigation costs—through, "substantially 511, contractors. More importantly, inhibition actually sets presents "administration role devoted largely technological feasibility satisfying predetermined needs. unlike officials, rarely "consume energies" "would governmental service." 1339. 41 short, essential justifications surprise never far. C 42 W. sole cited slender reed base drastic departure precedent. barred landowners alleging dam eroded violation Takings Clause Fifth Amendment. plaintiffs (since requested, denied) rate cause lay 415 ("[T]he impliedly [the plaintiffs] afforded remedy recovery Claims") unlikely intended anywhere takings context, elsewhere. 43 arose, relevance "was direction Secretary War supervision Chief Engineers 19, Yearsley, 103 589, 591 (CA8 1939) (undisputed allegation implemented "stabilized bank lines set defined charge Government"). words, following, formulating, specifications, here) followed correctly. following minutely in-house analogous still analytically depended actual 22, ("The agent 'the government' ") omitted), plainly 564 1985). New Mexico, 455 720, 735, 102 1373, 1383, 580 (1982). distinguishes read immunize service 44 valiant bridge analytical canyon wishes said, invokes (FTCA), bearing sued (not Government) FTCA). Perhaps why times disavowed exception, coaching Court,4 Government.5 45 Notwithstanding disclaimers, reasoning exception's foreclosing 'second-guessing' decisions. 2764, fears apparently designing, commissioning product wants, purchasing desired wants: contractors," fears, 511. 46 granting premise, means self-evident, cites burdens immunity. However indirect be, legally irrelevant. 2522-2523; South Carolina Baker, 505, 521, 592 (our "completely foreclosed nondiscriminatory entities unconstitutionally functions"). 47 totters unstable ever construct waiver sovereign torts give implied right indemnity them, "[t]he placed [could conceivably be] great burden." Gilman, 347 510, 74 695, 697, 898 (1954). FTCA's retention imply benefit participate acts, position "asserted, passed, position." 697 (footnote overstatement, "a of" FTCA. enacted (when perceived reinforce it. Nor am aware) crucial share law.6 49 Now, enactment, [of] function," died. reason none. [against Government] assault," 2680(h), supports commit assaults. Sheridan 392, 400, 2449, 2453, (1988). while purports divine begins ends sortilege repeal unchanged every remotely accident underlying suit. 50 Far indicative Congress' views wrongful-death provided Death High Seas (DOHSA), Mar. ch. 111, seq., Stat. 537, codified App. 761 ed., IV)—a mere miles Beach. me state-law designer conflict, 'significant conflict,' procurement," provide (at least explicit) Government-contractor defense,7 Cert. Aircraft Division, Kloss, 1987, 87-1633, 3-6 (trial marine bring DOHSA Corps offshore), 486 1008, 1736, 100 200 IV bottom, premised indirectly absorbed compel not. uncontroversial. system encourages actors expected exceeds prevention. working should, avoid (like deaths soldiers employees), result net (let alone excessive burden) gain. 52 inefficient ensuring quality efforts, "[w]hatever merits policy" implement, "its conversion action, creative ours." Oil, 314-315, 1611. all, "Congress, courts, [that] custodian purse. By token [Congress] primary exclusive arbiter fiscal affairs. comprehend, securing treasury losses inflicted. ." 510-512, 697-698. shared assumptions readily enact "A BILL [t]o limitations ensure procure goods services," H.R. 4765, 99th Cong., 2d Sess. (1986); S. 2441, Were legislator, probably vote absolving multibillion dollar enterprises answering mistakes, justified unsupported speculation Treasury. Some colleagues evidently here), legislators, ours cast. 54 respectfully dissent. 55 56 When asked embark lawmaking venture, believe carefully consider they, body, better task hand. instances so-called interstitial inevitably become process.1 doctrine—to answer "questions spoken," (1954)—we decisionmaker trying make 57 novel efficient massive program protection individual—whether welfare context—I feel very defer Congress. message Bush Lucas, 462 367, 2404, 76 (1983);2 majority Schweiker Chilicky, 412, 2460, 370 (1988),3 days ago; distressed majority's today. For supra: advantageous whole host considerations weighed appraised. appropriately write laws, interpret them." 511-513, Brennan's dissent misreads discussion "intimat[e] [of officials] [to] employees" Post, 523. address us. cite shows, incorrect describe "comparable" 521—522. refer possible analyze federal-law reference appear regard being deigning "borro[w]," 594, 2398, (1973), "incorporat[e]" "adopt" 729, 730, 1458, 1459, except exists. nothing gained expanding theoretical practical effect, modest terminology. distinction law's incorporation difference, landmark distinctive factor giving pre-emptive field: "It doubted [alien] registration belong 'to exterior relation nation nations governments.' Consequently regulation aliens intimately blended intertwined responsibilities government. government, superior field, complete scheme therein aliens, states cannot, inconsistently interfere with, curtail complement, additional auxiliary regulations." 66-67, 403-404, (1941) different Act, IV), U.S.C.App. correct. inappropriate order refute (or, matter, construct) inconsistency. (1986) (limitations contractors); (same). 2378, 100th 1st (indemnification 5883, 98th (1984) (same); 1504, 97th 5351, 96th (1979) Not way. causes Constitution, Bivens Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 388, 1999, (1971), Cort Ash, 422 2080, (1975), supplements provide, implicate federalism concerns action. Throughout word "displace" sense. True, tortfeasor, difference. ago "contractual noncontractual tortious character." 305, (1947). "QUESTION: [Would contours exemption Act? "MR. LACOVARA: think, yes. [I]t ought difference submit, Act. your waived That's Now wait. really don't understand that. you preemption wanted perceive that's ill helicopter? Why preempt [Y]our argument, want sure it—does depend correct." Tr. Oral Arg. 33-35 (reargument Apr. 1988). Does AYER: Well, hard answer. no, not." 40-41. course, permitted stranger suggested compelled cf. 1986) (applying case), 86-674; 736 (CA11 1985) (same), 85-1529; Koutsoubos Boeing Vertol, 755 (CA3) 474 821, 106 72, 88 (1985); 444 1983) "I recognize hesitation legislate, interstitially; confined molar molecular motions. common-law judge consideration bit nonsense court. exercising limited master propose introduce en bloc." Southern Pacific Jensen, 244 205, 221, 524, 531, 1086 (1917) (Holmes, dissenting). "[W]e aid convinced public creating it." 390, 2417 (internal quotation "Congressional competence 'balancing efficiency [individuals],' Bush, 389 [103 2417], questionable Forrester White, 219, 223-224 [108 538, 542, 555] (1988)." 425, 2469.

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