Document: 404 U.S. 202 92 S.Ct. 418 30 L.Ed.2d 383 VICTORY CARRIERS, INC., et al., Petitioners,v.Bill LAW. No. 70—54. Argued Oct. 18—19, 1971. Decided Dec. 13, Rehearing Denied Jan. 24, 1972. See 1064, 731. Syllabus State law and not federal maritime held to govern suit by respondent longshoreman who was injured alleged defect in his stevedore employer's pierbased forklift truck which operating on the dock transfer cargo a point alongside vessel where it be hoisted aboard ship's own gear. Seas Shipping Co. v. Sieracki, 328 85, 66 872, 90 L.Ed. 1099, Gutierrez Waterman S.S. Corp., 373 206, 83 1185, 10 297, distinguished. Pp. 204—216, 432 F.2d 376, reversed. W. Boyd Reeves, Mobile, Ala., for petitioners. Ross Diamond, Jr., respondent. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion of Court. 1 The question presented here is whether state or governs pier while driving moving that would ultimately loaded ship. 2 facts are undisputed. When accident happened, Bill Law, employed Gulf Stevedore Corp. Alabama, with destined Sagamore Hill, owned petitioner Victory Carriers, Inc., tied up at pier. Law had picked load transferring subsequently under direction employer. As returned toward pickup point, overhead protection rack came loose fell him. He brought an action District Court against ship claiming unseaworthiness negligence caused injuries. His claim invoked both diversity jurisdiction 28 U.S.C. § 1332 its admiralty 1333. filed third-party complaint indemnity event liable Law. became critical issue.1 On cross motions summary judgment, gave judgment petitioners ground engaged loading doctrine did extend Appeals Relying 1099 (1946), 297 (1963), fundamental time Hill since he so engaged, should entitled prove allegations trial. We granted certiorari now reverse Appeals. 3 Article III, 2, cl. 1, Constitution United States extends judicial power 'to all Cases Jurisdiction.' Congress has implemented provision 1333 provides district courts shall 'have original jurisdiction, exclusive States, * (a)ny civil case saving suitors cases other remedies they otherwise entitled.' Under saving-to-suitors clause 1333, plaintiff assert claims Court, as well itself, cf. Pope & Talbot, Inc. Hawn, 346 406, 410—411, 74 202, 205—206, 98 143 (1953), but either section gear unseaworthy rooted law, Alabama. Id., 409, S.Ct., 204—205. Whether governed this turn depends within conferred jurisdictional statutes. More precisely, threshold issue accidents suffered allegedly defective equipment operated hold controlling precedents, does accident. Nor, absence congressional guidance, we inclined depart from prior reach pier-side stevedore's pier-based equipment. 4 historic view been tort determined locality only those torts occurring navigable waters States. Maritime contracts differently viewed, Story remarked long ago: 5 'In regard I have always understood, exclusively dependent upon Act. not, never (I believe) deliberately claimed any over torts, except such is, committed high seas, ebb flow tide.' Thomas Lane, 23 Fed.Cas. pp. 957, 960, 13,902 (C.C.Me. 1813). constantly reiterated.2 6 'The general contract matters nature transaction locality, frequently asserted court must treated settled.' Grant Smith-Porter Ship Rohde, 257 469, 476, 42 157, 158, 321 (1922). 7 thought '(e)very species tort, however occurring, board if seas *.' Atlantic Transport Imbrovek, 234 52, 60, 34 733, 734, 58 1208 (1914). But, land were historically construed Court.3 Piers docks consistently deemed extensions land;4 injuries inflicted them compensable law. Plymouth, Wall. 20, 36, 18 125 (1866); Ex parte Phenix Insurance Co., 118 610, 618—619, 25, 28—29, 274 (1886); Johnson Chicago Pacific Elevator 119 388, 397, 254, 258, 447 Cleveland Terminal Valley R. 208 316, 320, 414, 415, 52 508 (1908). gangplank served rough dividing line between regimes. 8 In defense boundary twice rejected efforts apply workmen's compensation statutes shipboard workers longshoremen.5 Accepting these decisions, passed Longshoremen's Harbor Workers' Compensation Act6 1927, providing system longshoremen anticipating dockside remain umbrella systems. Nacirema Operating Johnson, 396 212, 217—219, 347, 351—352, 24 371 (1969); South Coal Dock Bassett, 309 251, 256—257, 60 544, 547—548, 84 732 (1940). relative roles nevertheless remained somewhat confused seaward side pier.7 But shoreward, absent legislation, fast. refused permit recovery even gear, through collision otherwise, damage persons ashore bridges, docks, shore-based property. supra; Troy, 321, 416, 512 (1908); Martin West, 222 191, 32 42, 56 159 (1911). 9 dissatisfied decisions Admiralty Extension Act 1948 specifically overrule circumvent cases.8 enacted provided '(t)he include injury, person property, water, notwithstanding injury done consummated land.' 62 Stat. 496, 46 740. statute survived constitutional attack lower courts9 applied without Gutierrez, supra, provide containers being unloaded located waters. No sustained application kind occurred case. Industrial Comm'n Nordenholt 259 263, 473, 933 (1922), overruled. There, when slipped stacking bags cement local It argued, however, may recover course unloading process, also sue service call into extent there waters.10 And clearly present face reached involved. decision turned, 'function' performing but, rather, fact appurtenance ship, containers, 'injury, water' approved merely because process 'loading' 'unloading.'11 U.S., 223, 354, decided serveral years after makes quite clear: 11 'There much said uniform treatment construing amend effect result, still outside Act.' 12 Rodrigue Aetna Casualty Surety 395 352, 360, 89 1835, 1839—1840, 360 (1969). 13 juncture disturb existing precedents shoreward further than approved. dealing intersection stands, traditionally like one. To afford cause thus intrude area heretofore reserved raise difficult questions concerning displaced preempted, furnish opportunity circumventing circumstances, proceed caution statutory provisions courts. declared Healy Ratta, 292 270, 54 700, 703, 78 1248 (1934), states, Constitution, determination controversies their courts, restricted conformity judiciary sections *. Due rightful independence governments, actuate requires scrupulously confine precise limits (a federal) defined.' Romero Int'l 358 379—380, 408, 79 468, 483—484, 498—499, 368 (Brennan, J., dissenting concurring) (1959). 14 That legally distinguished similar services neither recent development nor particularly paradoxical. honeycombed differing seamen longshoremen, off ship,12 affirmance equalize recognized available ashore, not.13 part, differential stems geographical historical personal covered, most substantive water generally These two bodies do overlap interpenetrate some situations, amphibious longshoreman's occupation creates frequent taxonomic problems. case, typical elements attenuated: part usual stored board, him no way attached control crew, occur gangplank. Affirmance below host new problems standards limitations applicability land.14 At least explicit authorization, boundaries 15 Without necessarily disagreeing proposition hazards make especially deserving remedy dispensing proof fault,15 contrained note already laws depend proving derelictions Recovery here; equities position shipowner exercises whatsoever use dock. What amount recovery, shipowner, illustrates, shipowner's liability shifted, attendant costs, indemnity. Ryan Stevedoring Pan-Atlantic 350 124, 76 232, 100 133 (1956). State's arrangements compensating industrial effectively circumvented. 16 Perhaps inadequate benefits, poorly positioned conclude reason give special employees forklifts employers perhaps equally hazardous circumstances left mercies Claims best legislative forum, here. 17 This true extending require equivalent extension sitting admiralty. might prefer hand, denying intolerable, ample Arts. III enact suitable solution.16 Reversed. 19 DOUGLAS, whom BRENNAN concurs, dissenting. 20 involved appliance beans spilled belonging Here phase operation; causing belonged company. 21 properly concluded work therefore gives pragmatic, realistic meaning concept avoids narrow, grudging, hypertechnical definition. 22 Loading activity involves Longshoremen shipside shoreside move back forth deck times individual worker using appliances moment later appliances. change character. For example, although mally unloading, specific assignments varied. days assigned drive others, day shuttled various points during process. Respondent subject risks ship; humanitarian policy allow receive protections usually afforded class. Equipment need belong though belongs stevedore. Alaska Petterson, 347 396, 601, 798,1 strenuous dissent Burton, joined Frankfurter Jackson. unloading.2 allowed block used followed Rogers Lines, 984, 849, 1120, same three Justices adhere our Petterson affirm APPENDIX TO OPINION OF DISSENTING 25 Court's rather reflected principle vessels abnormally dangerous ought placed initially shipowners higher prices customers shipping industry.1 International Haverty, 272 50, 47 19, 71 157 (1926); well-known explication advanced 93—96, 876—878, seamen, ship: 26 'That founded limited seem indicated stress uniformly place relation, character scope, marine places men perform it. These, together helplessness ward perils harshness forcing shoulder alone resulting disability loss, justify putting burden, far measurable money, owner regardless fault. Those avoidable result negligence. beyond position, distribute loss community receives bear cost. 27 'All considerations birth shaped absolute dictate free nullify parcelling out operations intermediary whose sole business take portions devices strip protection. themselves arise incident service, pursuant done. brunt cast dependents same, inevitable, pay comes directly indirectly another arranges latter ordinarily right discover remove peril doubtful, therefore, owes employees, respect hazards, ordinary duty safe work, unless obvious them. If obligation exists rests Moreover, ability industry lessened furnished another. Historically performed until members crew. Florez Scotia, D.C., 35 F. 916; Gilbert Knapp, 37 209, 210; Seguranca, 908, 909. seeks advantages more modern divisions labor minimize worker's hazard protection.' Although subsequent holdings sustaining alternatively grounded mechanical rules, language instead broader explicated Sieracki. Reed Yaka, 410, 414—415, 1349, 1353, 448 holding deprived Act, 44 1424, 33 901 seq., happened stevedore-employer, relied expressed Sieracki: 29 '(W)e pointed several Sieracki since, seaworthiness cannot shifted about, limited, escaped rooted, contracts, work. (Emphasis added.) Similarly, 'humanitarian policy' mechanical, albeit historical, tests starting Waldron Moore-McCormack 386 724, 728, 87 1410, 1412, 482 (1967): 'When extended seamen's 1099—either pier, 798, independent pro hac vice, 448—we noted 'the unseaworthiness, losses alone, broad range seaworthiness,' id., 413, 1352, prevent delegating, shifting, escaping others work.' 31 A straightforward sieracki instant warrant proved trial, unseaworthiness. laden hosited Hill. drove along dock, disengaged crashed head. correctly protected principle. circuits made conclusions analogous conditions. Huff Matson Navigation 338 205 (CA9 1964); Spann Lauritzen, 344 204 (CA3 1965); see Chagois Lykes Bros. 388 (CA5 1970). By ignoring completely underlying reasoning focusing narrow each them, majority short shrift distributing users industry. emphasis alignment factual elements: (a) (rather seaman), (b) deck), (c) supplied stevedoring contractor shipowner). Thus finds inapposite first second conditions,2 presumably 798 (1954), concerned last conditions.3 mere controversy composed adequate excepting circumstance scope offers reasons exception. First, seems argue (1969), intend acknowledged Congress' cease shoreline. 223—224, 353 354. And, obviously, conferring 1948, 740, fact, lie 223 n. primary offered support majority's exception determine adequacy laws, which, holding, will Contractor. supra. While Congress, course, better equipped precison analysis unaware workman's puny awards compared jury evaluations Prosser, Torts 555 (3d ed. 1964). Limited necessary legislatures order offset imposition keeping courts' traditional solicitude trade,4 defer instances approving longshoremen's recoveries argued schemes adequate.5 suggested why deference needed circumstances. event, referring litigant normally appropriate reluctant accept invitation upset established rule. Inasmuch Sieracki-Petterson-Gutierrez appear precedent, referral Finally says that: 'Affirmance Such quickly brushed aside 210, 1188, '(v)arious far-fetched hypotheticals (were) raised, automobile involving officer port, someone's slipping continue leak (defective cargo) Denver.' Said Court: 'We think sufficient needs occasion 740 commits before unloaded, impact felt remote wrongful act.' specter troubling elsewhere deter landward brightline test desirable, then less offended bright drawn around about vessel. Statistical evidence suggests great bulk high-risk occurs adjoining National Academy Sciences—National Research Council, Cargo Transportation Conference, Longshore Safety Survey 75 Comment, Risk Distribution Seaworthiness, Yale L.J. 1174, 1190 (1966). dealt claim; pass defective. 378 Waring Clarke, How, 441, 463—464, 226 (1847); New Jersey Steam Merchants' Bank, How. 344, 394, 465 (1848); Propeller Commerce, Black 574, 579, 107 (1862); 33, Rock Island Bridge, 213, 215, 753 (1867); Belfast, 624, 637, 266 (1869); Easton, 95 68, 72, (1877); Leathers Blessing, 105 626, 630, 1192 (1882); 618, 28, Panama Napier 166 280, 285, 572, 41 1004 (1897); Blackheath, 195 361, 367, 46, 48, 49 236 (1904); 319, 197, 43, (1911); 59—60, (1914); (1922); T. Smith Son Taylor, 276 179, 181, 48 228, 229, 72 520 (1928); O'Donnell Great Lakes Dredge 318 41, 63 488, 491, 596 (1943); 204, (1953); Kermarec Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, 625, 628, 550 (1959); Hess 361 314, 7, 80 341, 345, 305 (1960); 360—361, 214—215, 349—350, (CC Me.1813) (Story, J.); De Lovio Boit, 418, 420, 3,776 Mass.1815) Lake Shore M.S.R. Neil Cochran, 949, 950 7,996 (ND Ohio 1872); Ottawa 906, 907, 10,616 (ED Mich.1872); Holmes Oregon C.R. 75, 77 (Ore.1880); Arkansas, 383, 384 (SD Iowa 1883); P.M. 511, 513 Wis.1888); H. S. Pickands, 239, 240 Mich.1890); Hermann Port Blakely Mill 69 646, 647 Cal.1895); Strabo, 110, 113 (EDNY 1898); Chapman City Grosse Pointe Farms, 385 962, 963 (CA 1967); Scott Eastern Air 399 Phoenix Construction Steamer Poughkeepsie, 212 558, 687, 53 651 1839—1840; Hastings Mann, 340 910 4), cert. denied, 380 963, 85 1106, 153 (1965). employee working waters, sustains there, damages employer, applicable legal principles very different former situation employer (sic) law; latter, rule prescribes liability, applied.' 272—273, 474. 14, 1967) (concurring opinion); Fireman's Fund American Boston Marina, 406 917, 919 1969); Penn Tanker 409 514, 518 1969). admiralty, contract, contract; entirely locality.' Philadelphia, Wilmington Baltimore Philadelphia Havre de Grace Towboat 433 (1860). (maritime) (of courts) solely committed, waters.' 271, 214 349—350; Swanson Marra Bros., 6, 869, 871, 1045 (1946); Minnie Huron 295 647, 648, 55 884, 885, 1631 (1935); 182, 229; 275, 475; E. Benedict, §§ (6th 1940); G. Gilmore C. Black, 6—46, 7—17 (1957); Robinson, Handbook (1939). Knickerbocker Ice Stewart, 253 149, 40 438, 64 834 (1920); Washington Dawson 264 219, 302, 68 646 (1924). attempts sparked earlier Supreme decision, Southern Jensen, 244 205, 524, 61 1086 (1917), unconstitutional York 901—950. Act's coverage deaths 'occurring (including dry dock).' 903(a). confusion traced modifying preserving certain Western Fuel Garcia, 233, 89, 210 (1921); Parker Motor Boat Sales, 314 244, 221, 86 184 (1941); Davis Dept. Labor Industries, 317 249, 225, 246 (1942); Calbeck Travelers 370 114, 82 1196, (1962). All overlapping statefederal Jensen line, however. early upheld theory land, conflict limiting 3(a) 903(a), 'upon waters,' intended cover piers permanently affixed shore: 'Calbeck clear exercise full particular situations. removing uncertainties cry ambit acts.' 220—221, 353. House Report stated 'inequities' ships structures. H.R.Rep.No. 1523, 80th Cong., 2d Sess., (1948). Jones 1007, 688, crew employment. covered crewmen considered ancient maintenance cure itself important land. Longshoremen, Nav. 201 614—616 1953); Bridge Gloria O, F.Supp. 71, 73—74 1951); Fematt Los Angeles, 196 93 Cal. 1961). concluded: '(F)or incurred seaman's protections, immediately onwer. purposes short, seaman doing incurring hazards.' 99, 879 (footnote omitted). 'things hull, decks, machinery, tools furnished, stowage, reasonably fit purpose used.' 1190, (emphasis added). aff'g 478 1953), 1120 rev'g 57 1954), possible cases, water: apparatus (who defined 'master(s) member(s) vessel,' 903(a)(1)), 905. Representatives successfully opposed Nogueira York, Haven Hatford 281 128, 136, 50 303, 305, 754 (1930); Warner Goltra, 293 155, 159—160, 254 preferred suits and/or cure. Weiss Central Railroad 235 309, 311 (CA2 1956), mutually exclusive. Norton 565, 570, 747, 750, 88 931 (1944). election, benefit Federal Employers' Liability 65, 45 51 seq. election. 872. obtain cure, Guiterrez See, e.g., 217—220, 351—352. Fifth Circuit's expansive definition (432 F.2d, 384) delimit. Already, denied warehouseman sued shovel grain railroad car warehouse taken Olvera Michalos, 307 Tex.1968). Summary inside shed; 'squeeze lift' struck unidentified object shed floor steering wheel spin shatter plaintiff's wrist. McNeil A/S Havtor, 326 Pa.1971). attempt define determining shore can produced substantial courts; impossible rationalize. Denying compensation: Forkin Furness Withy 323 638 1963), McKnight N. M. Paterson Sons, 286 250 (CA6 1960), 913, 189, 130 (1961); Henry Mount Evans, 227 408 (Md.1964); Sydnor Villain Fassio e Compania, 850 (Md.1971). Awarding defendant: (CA3), 382 938, 386, 348 (1965); 1970); Reliance presumptive causes recognizes nn. 3, decreases arbitrariness surrounding amorphous definitions 'loading.' prejudice 1956 survey, based 1954 data, frequency rate high-hazard studied. Sciences-National Report, Survey: Occupational Hazards Industry Labor, Bureau Statistics, Statistics 1971, p. comparison work-injury (both severity frequency) handling industries. Cf. Note, 1174 Cf., Genesee Chief Fitzhugh, 443, 457—458, 1058 (1852); Richardson Harmon, 96, 97, 27, 110 375, 385—388, 391, 393—394, 748 (1924); Detroit Trust Barlum, 21, 31, 176 (1934); 5, 871; 40—41, 490—491. Accord: Cir., 204; 388; 205; Thorson Inland 270 432; Ace Tractor Olympic 274. Appendix opinion. one accident-prone professions According 22—23 (1956), industries following rates: Stevedoring..........................92.3 per million man hours worked Logging............................. 74.3 Structural Steel Erection........... 47.5 Saw Planing Mills............... 42.0 General Building.................... 37.0 Assn.; Bureau, Annual Accidents (1954); Strika Netherlands Ministry Traffic, 185 1950). Dixon Cyrus, page 755, 3,930 (Pa.1789). Peterson Chandos, 645, 650 (Or. 1880). (1963); 198

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