the agricultural food production in developing countries and the mediterranean region suffers severely from the infestation of the parasitic weeds striga and orobanche sp.1 , 2 seeds of these parasitic weeds can germinate only when a chemical stimulant exuded by the roots of host plants , such as maize , sorghum and millet come into contact or are in close proximity . this process leads to the development of a radicle from the seeds which then attaches itself to the root of the host plant through haustorium formation , thus enabling the germinated seed to extract nutrients , water and salts from the host plant with the consequence that its growth and production of a crop is severely affected.3 yield losses up to 90  % have been reported.2 the chemical stimulants that were found to be responsible for triggering the germination of striga and orobanche seeds are the naturally occurring germination stimulants , collectively termed strigolactones ( sls ) . the first sl , namely , strigol 1 was isolated as early as 1966 from the root exudate of cotton plants.[4a ] its detailed structure was established about 20 years later.4 currently , a series of about 20 natural sls have been isolated and characterized,5 , 6 , 7 which are subdivided in two families , namely , one having the bc/2 stereochemistry as in ( + ) strigol ( 1 ) and the other one as in ( )orobanchol ( 2 ) ( figure 1 ) . the control of parasitic weeds is extremely difficult due to the biological complexity of these weeds when coupled to their hosts , and hitherto no general method is available.5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 an exciting and appealing option is that of suicidal germination approach , which involves applying an exogenous sl to the soil in absence of a host resulting in the germination of the seeds , but due to lack of nutrients the germinated seeds will die . natural sls can not be used for this approach as they have a too complex structure for a multigram synthesis.10 hence simpler sl analogues with an appreciable bioactivity are needed for this purpose . early examples of such sl analogues are the gr compounds , e.g. gr24 ( figure 1).5 , 6 , 11 for a rational design of sl analogues a structureactivity relationship study provides valuable insight . systematic simplification of sls revealed that the bioactiphore resides in the cd part of the molecule ( figure 2).6 , 7 , 12 in this model there is a considerable structural freedom in the apart of the molecule . model for designing sl analogues with germination activity . using this model several new sl analogues with a high germination activity were designed , synthesized and subjected to bioevaluation . typical examples are nijmegen1 ( 4),6 , 7 , 13 ketone derived analogue 5 
 6 , 7 , 14 and ketoenolderived sl analogue 6 
 6 , 7 , 15 ( figure 3 ) . some representative sl analogues with germinating activity . a successful suicidal germination was reported in 1976,16 but this approach for weed control was abandoned , because of lack of funds and also because of the presumed instability of sl analogue under field conditions.17 , 18 , 19 about 30 years later the method was successfully used in tobacco infested by orobanche.7 , 20 some of the new sl analogues , e.g 5 and 6 , were evaluated in pot experiments and shown to be potential suicidal germinating agents.21 hence , suicidal germination is a realistic option and there is a need for identifying optimal germinating agents to be applied in an effective combat of parasitic weeds.20 
  the model shown in figure 2 was further detailed by varying the substituents at the position 3 and 4 of the dring.22 replacing the hydrogen at c2 of the dring with a methyl group was not investigated at that time as it was considered not to be relevant . however , now there is new information available about the mode of action of sls , namely that the enzymatic detachment of the dring plays a key role in the molecular cascade leading to germination ( figure 4).23 the question now arises whether a methyl at the c2 position , indicated by an arrow in figure 4 , will affect this process . this paper addresses this problem and deals with the preparation of some sl analogues having a methyl group at c2 of the dring and their bioevaluation . gr 24 and nijmegen1 were taken as the target molecule for the introduction of a methyl group at c2 of the dring . the preparation of abcpart of gr24 ( 7 ) and sheehan aldehyde 10 was conveniently accomplished using literature procedures.24 , 25 for the coupling of the dring , the general strategy26 was followed , as outlined in scheme 1 . the required hydroxy and chlorobutenolides 9 and 12 were prepared as shown in scheme 2 , 27 by condensation of pyruvic acid and with acetone and butenone , respectively . the scaffold 7 upon treatment with chlorobutenolides 9a and 9b gave the dring modified sl analogues 8a and 8b , respectively . in a similar manner , scaffold 10 was converted into analogues 11a and 11b in moderate yields which were not optimized in this stage . the geometry of the enolic double bond in these analogues could not be deduced unambiguously from the nmr spectra . therefore , an xray diffraction analysis was performed for analogue 11b ( figure 5 ) . there is only one mention28 of a compound having a methyl group at c2 of the dring , namely the compound 8b . it was prepared in a different manner , namely from a hydroxybutenolide obtained by reaction of methyllithium with 2,3dimethylmaleic anhydride29 followed by treatment with thionyl chloride30 and subsequent coupling28 with the enolate derived from the abc scaffold 7 . an observation of great practical importance is that the coupling of the an enolate with a chlorobutenolide proceeds in most cases highly satisfactory , in contrast to the coupling with the corresponding bromo butenolide which often is problematic . for instance , for the synthesis of sl analogue 5 derived from tetralone the coupling with bromobutenolide could not be realized , whereas with the chlorobutenolide the product formation took place smoothly . in actual practice we now convert the bromide into the chloride by treatment with lithium chloride in dimethylformamide in order to ensure a successful coupling reaction . the newly prepared sl analogues were bioassayed using seeds of s. hermonthica and o. cernua . the results are summarized in bar diagrams shown in figure 6 and figure 7 ( see also the supporting information ) . the biodata reveal that the biological potency of the newly synthesized sl analogues with a dring substituted at c2 is comparable to , or somewhat lower than , that of natural isomers of gr24 ( 3 ) and nijmegen 1 ( 4 ) . therefore , this study suggests that structural changes in the dring moiety of gr 24 and nijmegen1 can be used as an alternative strategy to procure these materials in a rather economical manner , because the synthesis of hydroxybutenolide modified at c2 ( 9a and 9b ) can be obtained from very cheap starting materials , namely pyruvic acid , acetone or 2butanone using simple and short reaction pathways . bar diagram representation of percentages of the germinated seeds of s. hermonthica after exposure to various concentrations of compounds 8a , 8b , 11a , 11b and gr 24 ( 3 ) as a positive control . bar diagram representation of percentages of the germinated seeds of o. cernua after exposure to various concentrations of compounds 8a , 8b , 11a , 11b and gr 24 ( 3 ) as a positive control . the newly prepared sl analogues were bioassayed using seeds of s. hermonthica and o. cernua . the results are summarized in bar diagrams shown in figure 6 and figure 7 ( see also the supporting information ) . the biodata reveal that the biological potency of the newly synthesized sl analogues with a dring substituted at c2 is comparable to , or somewhat lower than , that of natural isomers of gr24 ( 3 ) and nijmegen 1 ( 4 ) . therefore , this study suggests that structural changes in the dring moiety of gr 24 and nijmegen1 can be used as an alternative strategy to procure these materials in a rather economical manner , because the synthesis of hydroxybutenolide modified at c2 ( 9a and 9b ) can be obtained from very cheap starting materials , namely pyruvic acid , acetone or 2butanone using simple and short reaction pathways . bar diagram representation of percentages of the germinated seeds of s. hermonthica after exposure to various concentrations of compounds 8a , 8b , 11a , 11b and gr 24 ( 3 ) as a positive control . bar diagram representation of percentages of the germinated seeds of o. cernua after exposure to various concentrations of compounds 8a , 8b , 11a , 11b and gr 24 ( 3 ) as a positive control . the sl analogues having either the gr 24 or nijmegen1 basic skeleton and modified drings were readily obtainable by coupling with the appropriate chlorobutenolides modified at c2 . the biological data reveal that the bioactivity is hardly affected by the methyl substituents at c2 . the coupling protocols with the butenolides shown in scheme 2 can be added to the arsenal of methods for preparing a large variety of sl analogues . it should be noted that the new sl analogues 8a , 8b , 11a and 11b having a methyl group at c2 of the dring , are racemates . . detailed conclusion on the influence of the c2methyl group in the dring on the germination stimulating activity can only be drawn when the respective enantiopure single diastereomers and enantiomers of these analogues are tested . however , for the purpose of obtaining simple and cheap suicidal germination stimulants for use in the field , the procurement of these compounds as racemates is satisfactory . the results of the bioassays are relevant for the understanding of the mode of action of sls.23 hnmr spectra were recorded on a bruker ac 100 spectrometer ( 100 mhz ) , ac 300 ( 300 mhz ) , and a bruker am400 ( 400 mhz ) , respectively , using me4si ( tms ) as the internal standard . cnmr spectra were recorded on a bruker ac 300 ( operating at 75 mhz ) and am 400 ( operating at 100 mhz ) spectrometers with cdcl3 (  = 77.0 ppm ) , [ d6]acetone ( 29.206 and 206 ppm ) as standards . elemental analyses were conducted on a carlo  erba instruments chnso ea 1108 elemental analyzer . mass spectra were recorded using a double focussing vg 7070e mass spectrometer in the mode indicated , or a varian saturn 2 gc ms iontrap system . gc  ms separations were carried out on a fusedsilica capillary column ( db5 , 30 m    0.25 mm ) and helium was used as the carrier gas . packard hp 5890 gas chromatograph using a capillary column ( 25 m ) hp1 with nitrogen ( 2 ml / min , 0.5 atm ) as the carrier gas . thinlayer chromatography ( tlc ) was carried out on merck precoated silica gel 60 f254 plates ( 0.25 mm ) using the eluents indicated . spots were visualized using a uv lamp , or with a potassium dichromate spray ( prepared from 7.5 g of k2cr2o7 in 250 ml of h2o containing 12.5 ml 1 m h2so4 ) followed by heating at 140 c . column chromatography was performed on silica gel ( kieselgel , merck ) using eluents indicated . the compounds 9a and 9b were prepared by previously described procedures.27 , 28 
 
 3{(e)1[(2,4dimethyl5oxo2,5dihydro2furanyl)oxy]methylidene}3,3a,4,8btetrahydro2hindeno[1,2b]furan2one ( 8a ) : a stirred solution of the tricyclic lactone 7 ( 562 . 2 mg , 3.23 mmol ) in ethyl formate ( 20 ml ) was treated with small pieces of metallic sodium ( 81.7 mg , 3.55 mmol ) whilst being maintained under a stream of nitrogen . after 1.5 h the mixture was concentrated in vacuo and anhydrous dmf ( 10 ml ) was added to the residue . then the dmf solution was cooled ( 0 c ) and treated dropwise with a solution of the chlorobutenolide 9a ( 710.0 mg , 4.85 mmol ) in anhydrous dmf ( 5 ml ) . the mixture was allowed to reach room temperature and then set aside for 24 h. the mixture was concentrated in vacuo , the residue was treated with water ( 50 ml ) and ethyl acetate ( 30 ml ) , the separated aqueous layer was extracted with ethyl acetate ( 2   20 ml ) , the combined organic layers were washed with water , dried ( mgso4 ) and then concentrated in vacuo . the resultant crude material was purified by column chromatography ( hexane / ethyl acetate , 1:1 , v / v ) to give a mixture of unchanged compounds 7 and 9a ( 125.8 mg ) and the desired compound 8a ( 514.8 mg , 51  % ) , m.p . 200202 c ; h nmr ( cdcl3 , 400 mhz ) :  = 7.517.27 ( m , 4 h , arh + = cho ) , 6.88 ( s , 1 h , ch= ) , 5.96 ( d , j = 7.9 hz , 1 h , h8b ) , 3.963.91 ( m , 1 h , h3a ) , 3.45 ( dd , j 
 4,3a , trans = 9.3 , 
 j = 16.9 hz , 1 h , h4 ) , 3.18 ( dd , j 
 4,3a , cis = 3.1 , 
 j = 16.9 hz , 1 h , h4 ) , 2.02 ( s , 3 h , ch3 ) , 1.82 ( s , 3 h , ch3 ) ppm . c nmr ( cdcl3 , 100 mhz ) :  = 171.4 , 169.7 , 147.6 , 144.9 , 142.6 , 138.8 , 134.9 , 130.0 , 127.4 , 126.4 , 125.2 , 113.1 , 106.3 , 85.8 , 38.8 , 37.3 , 23.8 , 10.6 ppm . intensity ( % ) ] : 313 ( [ m + 1 ] , 0.4 ) ; 312 ( [ m ] , 0.4 ) ; 202 ( [ m + 1  111 ] , [ c12h9o3 ] , 39.6 ) ; 111 ( [ m  201 ] , [ c6h7o2 ] , 100 ) . it should be noted that the product obtained consists of a mixture of two racemic diastereoisomers . 3{(e)1[(2,3,4trimethyl5oxo2,5dihydro2furanyl)oxy]methylidene}3,3a,4,8btetrahydro2hindeno[1,2b]furan2one ( 8b ) : a stirred solution of tricyclic lactone 7 ( 417.0 mg , 2.40 mmol ) in ethyl formate ( 20 ml ) , while maintained under nitrogen , was treated with small pieces of metallic sodium ( 60.6 mg , 2.64 mmol ) and then set aside for 2 h. the mixture was concentrated in vacuo and anhydrous dmf ( 10 ml ) added to the residue . the thus obtained solution was cooled ( 40 c ) and treated dropwise with a solution of chlorobutenolide 9b ( 512.1 mg , 3.12 mmol ) in anhydrous dmf ( 5 ml ) . the mixture was then processed in the manner described above to afford a mixture of unchanged compounds 7 and 9b ( 66.4 mg ) and the desired compound 8b ( 377.4 mg , 48  % ) after column chromatography ( hexane / ethyl acetate , 1:1 , v / v ) , m.p . 213217 c ; h nmr ( cdcl3 , 400 mhz ) :  = 7.507.16 ( m , 4 h , arh + = cho ) , 5.96 ( d , j = 7.9 hz , 1 h , h8b ) , 3.953.92 ( m , 1 h , h3a ) , 3.42 ( dd , j 
 4,3a , trans = 9.3 , 
 j = 16.9 hz , 1 h , h4 ) , 3.20 ( dd , j 
 4,3a , cis = 3.1 , 
 j = 16.9 hz , 1 h , h4 ) , 1.98 ( s , 3 h , ch3 ) , 1.90 ( s , 3 h , ch3 ) , 1.59 ( s , 3 h , ch3 ) ppm . c nmr ( cdcl3 , 100 mhz ) :  = 171.3 , 169.8 , 155.3 , 147.4 , 142.6 , 138.8 , 130.0 , 127.9 , 126.4 , 125.2 , 113.3 , 107.5 , 85.8 , 38.8 , 37.3 , 22.5 , 10.6 , 8.7 ppm . intensity ( % ) ] : 349 ( [ m + na ] , 23.0 ) , 327 ( [ m + 1 ] , 62.5 ) ; 203 ( [ m  123 ] , 38.1 ) ; 201 ( [ m125 ] , [ c12h9o3 ] , 4.9 ) ; 125 ( [ m  201 ] , [ c7h9o2 ] , 100 ) . c19h18o5 ( 326.35 ) : calcd . methyl ( z)3[(2,4dimethyl5oxo2,5dihydro2furanyl)oxy]2(1,3dioxo1h2isoindolyl)2propenoate ( 11a ) ( 2menijmegen1 ) : a stirred and cooled ( 60 c ) solution of sheehan aldehyde 10 ( 400.0 mg , 1.62 mmol ) in anhydrous dmf ( 10 ml ) , while maintained under nitrogen , was treated with potassium tertbutoxide ( 199.7 mg , 1.78 mmol ) , followed by a solution of chlorobutenolide 9a ( 261.0 mg , 1.78 mmol ) in anhydrous dmf ( 5 ml ) . the mixture was allowed to attain room temperature and set aside for 24 h , and processed in the same manner as described above to afford compound 11a ( 286.7 mg , 50  % ) after column chromatography ( hexane / ethyl acetate , 1:1 , v / v ) , m.p . 182184 c ; h nmr ( cdcl3 , 300 mhz ) :  = 7.907.70 ( m , 4 h , arh + = cho ) , 6.93 ( s , 1 h , ch= ) , 3.76 ( s , 3 h , och3 ) , 2.00 ( s , 3 h , ch3 ) , 1.73 ( s , 3 h , ch3 ) ppm . c nmr ( cdcl3 , 100 mhz ) :  = 169.9 , 166.1 , 163.3 , 150.5 , 145.8 , 134.2 , 133.7 , 132.2 , 123.8 , 106.6 , 106.3 , 52.3 , 23.5 , 10.5 ppm . intensity ( % ) ] : 375 ( [ m + nh4 
 ] , 39.3 ) . intensity ( % ) ] : 247 ( [ m + 1  111 ] , [ c12h8no5 ] , 97.3 ) ; 246 ( [ m  111 ] , [ c12h7no5 ] , 14.6 ) ; 111 ( [ m  246 ] , [ c6h7o2 ] , 100 ) . c18h15no7 ( 357.32 ) : calcd . c 60.51 , h 4.23 , n 3.92 ; found c 60.47 , h 4.21 , n 3.93 . methyl ( z)2(1,3dioxo2,3dihydro1h2isoindolyl)3[(2,3,4trimethyl5oxo2,5dihydro2furanyl)oxy]2propenoate ( 11b ) ( 2,3me2nijmegen1 ) : a stirred and cooled ( 40 c ) solution of sheehan aldehyde 10 ( 716.9 mg , 2.90 mmol ) in anhydrous dmf ( 10 ml ) , while maintained under nitrogen , was treated with potassium tertbutoxide ( 358.2 mg , 3.20 mmol ) , followed by a solution of chlorobutenolide 9b ( 261.0 mg , 1.78 mmol ) in anhydrous dmf ( 8 ml ) . the mixture was allowed to attain room temperature , set aside for 72 h , and processed as described above to afford the desired compound 11b ( 360.2 mg , 34  % ) after column chromatography ( hexane / ethyl acetate , 1:1 , v / v ) , m.p . 175176 c ; h nmr ( cdcl3 , 400 mhz ) :  = 7.917.60 ( m , 4 h , arh + = cho ) , 3.75 ( s , 3 h , och3 ) , 1.97 ( s , 3 h , ch3 ) , 1.89 ( s , 3 h , ch3 ) , 1.67 ( s , 3 h , ch3 ) ppm . c nmr ( cdcl3 , 100 mhz ) :  = 170.2 , 166.1 , 163.3 , 156.9 , 150.2 , 134.2 , 132.2 , 126.8 , 123.8 , 107.7 , 105.9 , 52.3 , 22.2 , 10.5 , 8.6 ppm . ms / fab [ m / z , rel . intensity ( % ) ] : 394 ( [ m + na ] , 61.6 ) , 372 ( [ m + 1 ] , 60.3 ) , 371 ( [ m ] , 13.2 ) , 246 ( [ m  125 ] , [ c12h8no5 ] , 17.1 ) ; 125 ( [ m246 ] , [ c7h9o2 ] , 100 ) . c 61.45 , h 4.61 , n 3.77 ; found c 61.17 , h 4.47 , n 3.71 . xray diffraction analysis of compound 7 : crystals of 11b suitable for xray diffraction studies were obtained by slow cooling of the solvent ( isopropyl ether ) .
strigolactones ( sls ) are important new plant hormones that receive much attention in current plant science . 
 sls are produced by many plants and are exuded by the root system . 
 sls are , amongst others , germination stimulants for seed of parasitic weeds . naturally occurring sls invariably contain three annelated rings , the abcscaffold , connected to a butenolide ( the dring ) via an enol ether unit . 
 the synthesis of natural sls requires many steps , therefore there is a continuous search for sl analogues with a simpler structure but with retention of bioactivity . in this study 
 modified dring variants are investigated , especially analogues having a methyl group at c2 instead of a hydrogen . for these analogues 
 the abcscaffolds of gr24 and nijmegen1 were used . 
 the coupling reaction proceeds profoundly better with chlorobutenolides than with the corresponding bromides . 
 bioassays reveal that the introduction an extra methyl at c2 does not influence the germination activity , which is relevant for gaining insight in the mode of action of sls .