the establishment of the state of israel problematizes a single definition of jewishness ; the state was founded on secular socialist principles , relies on religious jewish law , and was built by waves of diverse jewish immigrants from europe , north africa , and the middle east , with varying levels of jewish religious practice . maintaining a steady stream of jewish immigrants is crucial to israeli state - building , facilitating the integration of world jewry , and fulfilling the state 's mission as homeland and refuge for all jews . but , the  authenticity of jewish immigrants for israeli state - building  has been judged ( often simultaneously ) in both religious and bioethnic terms. the population registry law 57251965 requires residents to enter both their le'oum ( nationality or ethnic group ) and religion in the registry . a recent israeli supreme court case affirmed an earlier precedent and distinguished le'oum or nationality , from secular citizenship . israeli under the nationality rubric on their identity documents , to reflect their citizenship and belonging to the israeli state , rather than immigration of jews in israel is governed by israel 's law of return 57101950 , which provides :  every jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh [ jewish immigrant].  [ i]n conjunction with the citizenship law ,  it enables every jew to become a citizen of the state , almost automatically. for the first twenty years , the law did not define who was a jew , and thus who had the right to immigrate . in 1970 , the law was amended to include a definition of jew :  for the purposes of this law , means a person who was born of a jewish mother or has become converted to judaism and who is not a member of another religion. the 1970 amendment also expanded citizenship rights to family members of eligible jews : the rights of a jew under this law  as well as the rights of an oleh under any other enactment , are also vested in a child and a grandchild of a jew , the spouse of a jew , the spouse of a child of a jew and the spouse of a grandchild of a jew , except for a person who has been a jew and has voluntarily changed his religion . the amendment adopted the religious definition of a jew  someone with a jewish mother or someone who has converted to judaism . however , the amendment extended citizenship rights to those who are referred to as  seed of israelanyone either born to a non - jewish mother and a jewish father , or having at least one jewish grandparent. thus , the law grants citizenship rights both to those who are religiously jewish but would not have jewish biological links , such as jews who converted , as well as those who do not have religious or biological connections to jewishness , such as spouses of jews . the 1970 amendment was a response to a controversial israeli supreme court case , shalit v. minister of the interior , which permitted children of a jewish father and non - jewish mother to register as part of the jewish le'oum or ethnic group in the population registry . [ t]he amended law  overruled  the shalit case by adopting the religious law test of defining who is considered jewish , but the law saved the spirit of the shalit decision by granting non - jewish family members the right to immigrate under the law of return . since the law was amended , and especially in the wake of the fall of the soviet union in the 1990s , jews from the fsu have arrived to israel en masse . many had assimilated and secularized in the fsu and intermarried with non - jewish russians . thus , although many russian immigrants are jewish by descent , and are entitled to citizenship , their jewishness is questioned by the ministry of interior , and they are often required to show additional proof . these individuals face even more skepticism by rabbinic authorities , as many are not considered jews under orthodox jewish law . the discrepancy between eligibility for israeli citizenship and classification as part of the jewish nation creates challenges for israeli citizens who are not considered religiously jewish . israel is governed by a dual legal system , where both civil and religious courts have jurisdiction over various areas of the law . the laws governing personal status , such as marriage and divorce , are part of the exclusive jurisdiction of the religious courts . only jews who are halakhically ( under religious jewish law ) jewish are eligible to marry in the religious courts , belong to synagogues , or be buried in jewish cemeteries ; there is no civil marriage in israel . one of the main functions of the rabbinic courts is to provide judicial rulings on whether a person is jewish . the number of immigrants who are eligible to immigrate under the law of return , but are not religiously jewish is quite staggering . demographer sergio della pergola suggested that by a religious definition there are roughly 14 million jews around the world , but over 23 million people eligible for citizenship under the law of return . eligible for immigration and citizenship but ineligible to legally marry and participate as full members of society . the move to mandate genetic tests of jewishness as a requirement for immigration threatens to increase this divide because it can not grant jewish status recognized by the rabbis . the prime minister 's office attempted to distinguish the purpose of the dna test as a secular immigration regulation rather than a marker of religious identity . we 're talking about a test to determine a family bond that entitles [ the child to ] aliyah. the prime minister 's office thus emphasized the line between secular citizenship and religious belonging in the jewish nation . while racial divisions are classically ideological , high - tech science has entered the arena , and has further complexified the borders of jewish identity and ethnicity . molecular genetic tests can now be used to measure individuals whole genomes , and scientific research has begun to describe the genetic basis for a common ancestry of the whole of the jewish population . there are three key ways in which jewishness has moved to the molecular realm , with genes being defined as jewish : population genetics ; genetic testing for both disease and jewish identity ; and human ova and sperm donation , as in the field of assisted conception . in these different conceptual arenas , jewish genes and inheritance are defined in different ways , opening up a wider space of ambiguity around jewish identity and definition . with population genetics or tracing jewish history through dna , these types of studies attempt to trace jewish history through genetics , and elucidate a common historical origin of the jewish people in the biblical land of israel . here , jewishness is determined by genomic analysis as  statistical probabilities that dna haplotypes will be more prevalent within identified groups . but the presence of a certain haplotype within an individual is not a guarantee that the individual is jewish or not . moreover , the historical claims that are entangled with these scientific studies are heavily debated . the cohanim modal haplotype ( cmh ) , the jewish genetic marker that has received the most attention , was first publicized in the journal nature in a study that identified six differences in the dna sequence of male jews that identified as cohens or cohanim ( jewish priests ) . some scientists think that the cohanim signature could represent the inheritance of over 100 generations from the founder of the patrilineal genetic line . the signature is traced to a date over 3000 years ago , in accordance with the oral tradition that the cohens maintain a line of patrilineal descent from aaron , the first jewish priest . in the second domain of jewish genetics , inheritable diseases common in jewish groups , dna mutations can be read to indicate a higher likelihood of developing a specific disease . consequently , there has been a move to test individuals for genetic markers of disease before they form partnerships and have children together . the third sphere of jewish genetics is in assisted conception , which resonates with the jewish tradition and its emphasis on fruitful reproduction . accordingly , kahn found that the orthodox jewish community has been receptive to the use of technologies to assist with fertility and has developed approaches to reconcile the genetic realities with jewish law . many rabbis will permit married couples to use non - jewish genetic donor material when no other measures exist to solve infertility challenges , and since jewishness is halakhically passed from mother to child , non - jewish sperm can create a jewish child if the mother is jewish . however , the inheritance of jewishness is problematized when a surrogate mother carries a baby . this begs the question of whether a baby who has genetically jewish parents , i.e. who donate the egg and sperm , but who is carried by a non - jewish surrogate , will be deemed jewish . in a recent case with those facts , a rabbi opined that the baby technically had three parents , and because the surrogate was not jewish , the child was not jewish . although most rabbis believe that the mother is determined by gestation and birth , some  recognize both the genetic and birth mothers as having maternal status. a minority believe that if jewish parents contribute genetic material  the child 's status should follow that of the genetic / intended social mother. the dna tests described by the prime minister 's office and brought to light by yakerson 's case suggest a policy decision to enshrine jewishness at the level of dna , render  jewish genes legally legible by the state , and make dna signatures a basis for basic rights and citizenship . in practical terms , for example , non - jewish donor sperm and ova can be used in assisted conception clinics to produce babies that are legally jewish in the eyes of the state , though only if the gestating womb is jewish . dna markers that could be read as jewish on an individual level , however , need not be identified in these individuals . conversely , a child could have jewish genetic material , but without a jewish mother would not be considered jewish . these varying possibilities point to the ambiguity or outright contradictions across the field of jewish genetics and the rabbinical sphere . in fact , the religious orthodox community has had a mixed response to the increase in genetic technology among jewish definition and reproduction . in general , they have embraced the genetic tests , and have relied on them to ensure safe and healthy reproduction . however , when it comes to genetics as a means of testing jewishness , many rabbis remain skeptical . dangerous eugenic overtones. alternatively , genetic tests offer the possibility to legitimize those whose jewishness is often questioned . for example , an eastern european woman in israel sought rabbinic permission to marry .  to bolster her claim for a marriage license , [ she ]  had her dna analyzed. the dna test  tipped the balance in her favor and the  rabbi granted her a marriage license as a bona fide jew. further , underserved jewish communities in israel , whose jewishness is questioned , could benefit from proof of authentic jewishness . for example , the lemba people of southern africa not only claim descent from a tribe of israel with descent passed from father to son , and maintain some jewish traditions such as a kosher diet , but [ t]he cmh appears in the lemba with a frequency similar to that in the general jewish population ( in just under one out of every ten men). this adds support to their demands to be treated as equals . although arguably claims for equality should stand on their own , and not depend on proof of jewish lineage , the marginalized groups of the beta israel of ethiopia , the kuki - chin - mizo from northeast india , or the lemba , could all likely benefit from scientifically certifiable jewishness to support their campaigns toward equal rights . regardless of the indexical power or validity of these genetic tests , when they are recognized by the state , the reality of jewishness as a measurable biological category can implicate access to basic rights and citizenship in israel . kahn thus argues that genetic studies must be read within the larger sociopolitical context where the meaning of claiming jewish identity can make a direct impact in terms of access to rights and resources . in light of the ambiguity of the meaning and importance of jewish genes , coupled with the prospect that they may become a criterion for citizenship in israel , it is not yet clear : why genes ? why now ? and why the move to control the borders of the nation in this new genetic way ? the development of jewish genetics can be seen as a golden example of a hybrid fusion of statecraft and technoscience , or what philosopher michel foucault and others describe as the management of populations through  biopolitics , the governance of life itself . the prospect of genetic tests to determine jewishness in israel raises concerns over a reinscription of ethnic essentialisms , entailing a project that could foster a new regime of biopower at the level of an individual 's genes , with potential for governments cataloging the biological citizen at the molecular level . crucially , however , the legitimacy of the diverse manifestations of jewish genetics hinges on its utility as a  regulatory technique in managing israel 's population . similarly , barbara prainsack argues that israel 's permissive laws regarding the use of artificial reproductive technologies can be traced to their utility in tackling israel 's  demographic problem , that is in maintaining a jewish majority . moreover , she finds that israel 's pro - natalist culture rests on a notion of  risk to the population that serves to bolster the state 's mandate to reproduce the nation at the level of individuals . genetic jewishness may thus offer possibilities for a demographic  boost. genetic legitimation might only be meaningful , however , if it is recognized by the rabbis or others in power as a verifiable source of knowledge . in the unlikely eventuality that genetic tests are routinely used to determine rights to citizenship in israel , the foregrounding of jewish genes as the basis of israeli citizenship would be a novel form of governmentality . we would be seeing the management and administration of populations and citizens by their states through ethnic genetics . the yakerson case revealed that the state of israel may rely on genetic tests as proof of jewishness . a genetic definition of jewishness , however , breaks with traditional halakhic law and reconfigures the terms of authentic belonging in the jewish state . although dna testing may offer the possibility of legitimation , for yakerson , genetic testing was used as a barrier to prevent access for someone who meets the expansive definition laid out in the law of return , but still was not  jewish enough. although masha was ultimately denied access to the 10-day birthright trip to israel , her older sister , dina , reportedly immigrated to israel as an oleh in 1990 . in this case , the turn to genetics failed to provide an accurate measure of familial connections . there are several ways to interpret the israeli government 's increasing reliance on genetic testing to determine eligibility for citizenship or other rights . it could be a trend toward more restrictive immigration policies that seek to guard access to state resources . advocates have seen similarly restrictive policies advanced to require jewish verification from those seeking temporary student or work visas . one rabbi , who helps potential immigrants navigate the rabbinic bureaucracy , explained this as xenophobia :  it manifests itself in the way we treat people born jewish who do n't fit the description of what a jew should look like. the tests may also become a means to expand the pool of potential new jewish immigrants who have verifiable ancestral ties . jewish genetic tests could become a way to recognize different and broader articulations of jewish identity and thereby expand the limits of who is deemed to have legitimate connections . the potential move to legally recognize genetic tests for jewishness could equally shift some of the authority away from the rabbis , and toward scientists , who may recognize secular manifestations of jewish identity . although genetic tests for jewishness may have been intended to increase certainty and validate jewish identity , they may provoke more confusion by adding another layer of definitional uncertainty . on the one hand , the existence of jewish dna could verify jewish connections and provide the requisite proof to grant certain individuals access to citizenship and its associated benefits . on the other hand , it is worth paying attention to who might be excluded  those who claim belonging within the jewish community but do not have genetic links to prove this biological connection , as well as those who will be granted limited access via citizenship but who will not be recognized as equal members of the jewish nation . it remains to be seen how this new categorization will bear on notions of belonging and legitimacy within the jewish community . in the area of jewish identity already fraught with definitional ambiguity this attempt to concretize what it means to be a jew in genetic terms adds another layer of contestation and confusion . crucially , the latest efforts to define jewishness in genetic terms have not yielded the certainty that the state seeks over how to determine who is a jew .
the israeli state recently announced that it may begin to use genetic tests to determine whether potential immigrants are jewish or not . 
 this development would demand a rethinking of israeli law on the issue of the definition of jewishness . in this article 
 , we discuss the historical and legal context of secular and religious definitions of jewishness and rights to immigration in the state of israel . 
 we give a brief overview of different ways in which genes have been regarded as jewish , and we discuss the relationship between this new use of genetics and the society with which it is co - produced . in conclusion , 
 we raise several questions about future potential impacts of jewish genetics on israeli law and society .