cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Liu Xia (poet)

Liu Xia (; born 1 April 1961, Beijing, China) is a painter, poet, and photographer who resides in Beijing, China. She was married to 2010 Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo.

Biography
Liu used to be a civil servant in the Beijing tax bureau. She met her husband Liu Xiaobo while part of the Beijing literary scene in the 1980s. She married Liu Xiaobo while he was in prison in a Chinese labor re-education camp between the years of 1996 and 1999.

Ms. Liu prefers to lead the solitary life of an intellectual. However, she has been forced to act for her husband in public because of he is often in prison for his activism. She has been described as her husband's "most important link to the outside world." She also personally experiences pressures from the Chinese authorities for publicly voicing opinions because she is the wife of one of China's most prominent human rights advocates. Since his arrest,  the government watches her constantly. She speaks out on issues of human rights both for herself and  for her husband. Although she may not want always want to, she has continued to speak publicly all during their marriage and while her husband has been in prison Despite the pressures, she attempts to keep her life normal.

Liu Xiaobo's was sent to prison for 11 years after he helped write the political manifesto 2008 called Charter 08. Liu Xia begged her husband to not participate in writing the document. At first, he did as she asked. But later, he  spent much of his time  writing and re-writing the document which took three years. He later got more than 300 prominent workers, Chinese Communist Party members, and intellectuals, to sign the charter. 10,000 people added their names to a charter support list on the Internet.

After it was announced that her husband had won the Nobel Peace Prize, Liu Xia said that “For all these years, Liu Xiaobo has persevered in telling the truth about China and because of this, for the fourth time, he has lost his personal freedom." She also said that she would visit him in jail and "give him a big hug".  After visiting him, however, she was placed under house arrest and her mobile phone number was canceled. Liu Xiaobo died on 13 July 2017 from liver cancer complications.

Related pages
List of Chinese painters
Liu Xiaobo

References 

1961 births
Living people
Chinese poets
Chinese painters
Photographers
Jilin University

Jilin University (; often abbreviated JLU or 吉大) is a national university. China's Ministry of Education controls the university directly.

References

Other websites

Jilin University  (English)
 Jilin University Official Application Online Site

Colleges and universities in the People's Republic of China
1946 establishments in Asia
20th-century establishments in China
Down to the Countryside Movement

The Down to the Countryside Movement was a government plan in China in the late 1960s and early 1970s.  During the Cultural Revolution, anti-bourgeois thinking was very common. Mao Zedong said that richer youth from the cities would be sent to mountains or farming villages so they could learn from the workers and farmers there.

Many fresh high school graduates were forced out of the cities. They had to stay in far away areas of China. They became known as the Rusticated Youth of China Many of them lost the chance to go university. Some call them China's "lost generation." Famous authors who have written about their experiences during the movement include Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo, Jiang Rong and Zhang Chengzhi, both of whom went to Inner Mongolia.

Bibliography

History of the People's Republic of China
Hu Jintao

Hu Jintao (born 21 December 1942) is a Chinese politician who was the paramount leader of China and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 2002 to 2012. Hu Jintao also served as the President of the People's Republic of China from 2003 to 2013 and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission from 2004 to 2012.

Hu was born in Taizhou, Jiangsu. Hu left office of General Secretary on 15 November 2012 and the office was taken by Xi Jinping.

Hu Jintao was educated as a hydraulic engineer from Tsinghua University in 1965. According to official biographies, he has a photographic memory. Politically, he is moderate and careful. He spent most of his previous career in Tibet and the poorer provinces, and was therefore unknown to Western analysts until he unexpectedly became the General Secretary (paramount leader). Even as a general secretary, he was quite private - and so has never given an interview.

References

1942 births
Living people
General Secretaries of the Communist Party of China
Presidents of the People's Republic of China
Qincheng Prison

Qincheng Prison () is a maximum-security prison in the Changping District northwest of Beijing in the People's Republic of China. The prison was built in 1958 with aid from the Soviet Union and it is the only prison belonging to the Ministry of Public Security. 

The majority of people in prison here are political prisoners. Some of them were participants in the Chinese democracy movement and Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. Famous inmates include Jiang Qing, Bao Tong, Dai Qing, as well as Tibetans such as Choekyi Gyaltsen, the 10th Panchen Lama, and Phuntsok Wangyal. Other inmates included many communist cadres who were criticized during the Cultural Revolution, such as Bo Yibo, Peng Zhen, Israel Epstein, Sidney Rittenberg and David Crook. 2010 Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo was also imprisoned here.

The prison is at the eastern foothill of Yanshan, facing the North China Plain in the east, north and south.  The plain is where Qincheng Farm (秦城农场) is, which is part of the prison.

Bibliography
 MacFarquhar, Roderick, and Michael Schoenhals, Mao's Last Revolution. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006, pp. 342–345, 416, 442, 435.
 Yao Lun, "Qincheng jianyu de laiyou" (Origins of Qincheng Prison), in Sun Mingshan, ed., Lishi shunjian (Moments in History) vol. 2, Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe, 2001, pp. 51–58.

Prisons
Suicide pact

A suicide pact is a plan of two or more people to kill themselves. People who agree on such a plan may kill themselves together, or they may just plan to do it on a certain schedule together. When studying suicide, suicide pacts are an important concept. Suicide pacts have occurred through history.

Note that a suicide pact is different from mass suicide. In a mass suicide, many people commit suicide for the same reason. In a suicide pact, it might be that one person is suicidal because of romance, and the other is suicidal because of a disease, but they both wish to die. 

Suicide
Mass suicide

In a mass suicide a group of people kill themselves for the same reason. Very often, all the people involved kill themselves together, at more or less the same time. The reason for the mass suicide often inolves religious views. Suicide bombings and Kamikaze missions are military or paramliitary forms of mass suicide.

Related pages
 Cult suicide

Suicide
Goldie Goldthorpe

Bill "Goldie" Goldthorpe (born June 20, 1953 in Hornepayne, Ontario) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey left winger who played for 16 minor league teams between 1973 to 1984, playing exhibition games with the Toronto Maple Leafs and Pittsburgh Penguins. Goldthorpe grew up in Thunder Bay, Ontario, is widely regarded as one of the most infamous hockey enforcers to have ever played the game, a man once dubbed the "wildest, meanest, most unpredictable player in hockey", earning an amazing 1,132 penalty minutes in 194 professional games. He was the inspiration for the character Ogie Ogilthorpe in the 1977 movie Slap Shot. On January 1, 2008 during the 1st intermission of the NHL's Winter Classic outdoor game in Buffalo, NBC showed a 1 minute and 15 second piece on the movie Slapshot and the Ogilthorpe, Bill Goldthorpe connection to Bob Costas. Costas once did radio play-by-play for the Syracuse Blazers (NAHL) in 1973-74, a team that Bill Goldthorpe played on. Goldthorpe is currently a foreman at a construction company in Canada, having held that position in San Diego for several years.

References

Other websites 
 

1953 births
Canadian ice hockey left wingers
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
People from Thunder Bay
World Hockey Association players
American Hockey League players
International Hockey League (1945–2001) players
Alex Gray

Alexander Haim Gray (June 21, 1899 – April 10, 1986) was a Canadian ice hockey right winger for the New York Rangers and the Toronto Maple Leafs from 1927 to 1933.

Early life
Although born in Glasgow, Scotland, Alex Gray grew up in Thunder Bay, Ontario. He played for five years with the Port Arthur Ports of the TBSHL. According to Legends of Hockey, "he topped the league in goal scoring three times and was its most penalized player twice."

Playing career
In 1928 Gray signed with the New York Rangers of the NHL. Wearing jersey number 2, he played on a line with Paul Thompson and Murray Murdoch. He helped the Rangers win the Stanley Cup that spring.

After his rookie season in New York he was involved in a big trade with the Toronto Maple Leafs, He was traded along with Lorne Chabot for Melville "Butch" Keeling and John Ross Roach.

He played a total of 13 games for the Maple Leafs in the 1928–29 season (7 regular season games and 4 playoff games). After 1 season in Toronto he was sent to the minors where he spent the remainder of his career.

Awards and achievements
1928  Stanley Cup Championship  (NYR)

References

Other websites

Alex Gray's New York Rangers Biography 

1899 births
1986 deaths
Canadian ice hockey right wingers
Ice hockey people from Ontario
New York Rangers players
People from Thunder Bay
Scottish ice hockey players
Sportspeople from Glasgow
Stanley Cup champions
Toronto Maple Leafs players
Gordie Clark

Gordon Corson Clark (born May 31, 1952 in Glasgow, Scotland) is a retired ice hockey right winger. He played in the National Hockey League for the Boston Bruins and in the WHA for the Cincinnati Stingers.

Other websites

1952 births
Boston Bruins players
Living people
Scottish ice hockey players
Sportspeople from Glasgow
World Hockey Association players
American Hockey League players
Round Maple

Round Maple is a hamlet in the civil parish of Edwardstone, in the Babergh district of Suffolk, East of England. Round Maple is 1.2 miles northeast of Edwardstone village, 6 miles east-northeast of Sudbury and 54.9 miles northeast of London. Its postcode district is CO10.

Round Maple Mild 
Round Maple gives its name to Round Maple Mild ale. The ale is made at Mill Green. It has 3.3% alcohol. It also has a little bit of maple syrup. Round Maple Mild is a dark ale.

Listed buildings 
Round Maple has 4 Grade II Listed buildings (important buildings). All are timber-framed and plastered. The buildings include Little Thatch and Hathaway Cottage, Quicks Farmhouse, Seasons, and The Flushing.

Maps 
Round Maple is on the Great Britain A-Z Road Atlas (1C, 54). It is on the Philip's Navigator Britain (D4, 164). Round Maple's OS grid reference is TL953436, its latitude is 52.056308 and its longitude is 0.847251.

Notes 
 A hamlet is a place without a church, see The Free Dictionary and Getamap Ordnance Survey which doesn't show a church and http://www.millgreenbrewery.co.uk/round-maple-mild.html and http://www.zoopla.co.uk/for-sale/details/20643412 which says Round Maple is a hamlet.
 See the Listed buildings references

References

Other websites 
 TL9543 Geograph

Hamlets in Suffolk
Settlements in Babergh
Sandy Fitzpatrick

Alexander Stewart "Sandy" Fitzpatrick (born December 22, 1944 in Paisley, Scotland) is a retired professional ice hockey player. He played in the in the National Hockey League for the New York Rangers and Minnesota North Stars.

References 

1944 births
Living people
Minnesota North Stars players
New York Rangers players
Scottish ice hockey players
Ice hockey centres
Red hair

People with red hair are referred to as redheads. Natural redheads often have very light colored skin. They often also have freckles.

Examples of redheads 
Amy Adams
Andrew Jackson
Antonio Vivaldi
Axl Rose
Benedict Cumberbatch
Boris Becker
Christopher Columbus
Calvin Coolidge
Chuck Norris
Cleopatra
Conan O'Brien
Seth Green
David Bowie
David Caruso
D.H. Lawrence
Dwight Eisenhower
Elizabeth I
Emma Stone
George Bernard Shaw
George Washington 
Geri Halliwell
Gillian Anderson
James Joyce
Jessica Chastain
Julia Gillard
J.K. Rowling
Judas Iscariot
Julianne Moore
Karen Gillan 
Lindsay Lohan
Marcia Cross
Margaret Thatcher
Mark McGwire
Mark Twain
Martin Van Buren
Marilyn Monroe
Mary Magdalene
Neil Kinnock
Nell Gwyn
Nicole Kidman
Paul Scholes
Prince Harry
Rameses II 
Reba McEntire
Redd Foxx
Robin Cook
Ron Howard
Rupert Grint
Sheamus
Sarah Ferguson
Susan Sarandon
Swoosie Kurtz
Sylvia Plath
Thomas Jefferson
Topher Grace
Ulysses S. Grant
Vincent Van Gogh
Vladimir Lenin 
William II of England
Willie Nelson
Winston Churchill

Hair
Adasaurus

Adasaurus is a Dromaeosaur theropod dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous. It lived in what is now Central Asia. It was a small carnivore, with a large, sickle-shaped claw on the second toe of each hind foot. An adult was probably about 6.2 feet (2 meters) long.

Two specimens of Adasaurus have been found, both from the Gobi Desert of southern Mongolia. One is an incomplete skeleton with partial skull, including the vertebral column except the back of the tail, all three bones of the pelvis, the shoulder girdle and the hindlimbs. The second specimen includes the back end of another skeleton, including the hindlimbs. Both specimens are in the collection of the Mongolian Geological Institute in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.

The age of the strata, like most of Mongolia's later Cretaceous sediments, is not known for certain. It is thought to be somewhere between 74 and 65 million years ago. Other dinosaurs found in this formation include Tarbosaurus, Anserimimus, and Saurolophus.

References 

Dromaeosauridae
Cretaceous dinosaurs
French ban on face covering

On 14 September 2010, the Senate of France (fr) passed a law that forbids the wearing of clothing that covers the face of a person in public, so that the person cannot be identified. The law talks about clothing that covers the face, so it includes burqas and niqabs, but does not include the chador. 

The main arguments for the ban are that people wearing such types of clothing cannot be identified by police forces, and that such veils are not compatible with the values of France as a state. In addition, there was a discussion about women's rights. President Nicolas Sarkozy said that a reason for the ban is to protect women from being forced to cover their faces.

The bill which was introduced, was protested by some women as a violation of women's rights. But many people in France supported the bill, and it was passed in the Senate and the National Assembly of the French Parliament, and it became law.

References

Politics of France
Islamic dress
Legislation
Islamophobia
John Flamsteed

John Flamsteed FRS (19 August 1646 – 31 December 1719) was an English astronomer. He was the first Astronomer Royal, appointed in 1675.

Flamsteed calculated the solar eclipses of 1666 and 1668.

He was responsible for several of the earliest recorded sightings of the planet Uranus, which he mistook for a star and catalogued as '34 Tauri'. The first of these was in December 1690, which remains the earliest known sighting of Uranus by an astronomer.

Star catalogue and atlas 
Flamsteed is also remembered for his conflicts with Isaac Newton, the President of the Royal Society at the time. Flamsteed was refusing to publish work commissioned by the king, so in 1712 Newton and Edmond Halley published a preliminary version of Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica. They did so without crediting the author.

Some years later, Flamsteed managed to buy many copies of the book, and publicly burnt them in front of the Royal Observatory. However, the numerical star designations in this book are still used and are known as Flamsteed designations.

In 1725 Flamsteed's own version of Historia Coelestis Britannica was published posthumously, edited by his wife Margaret. This contained Flamsteed's observations, and included a catalogue of 2,935 stars to much greater accuracy than any previous work. This was considered the first significant contribution of the Greenwich Observatory. In 1729 his wife published his Atlas Coelestis, assisted by Joseph Crosthwait and Abraham Sharp, who were responsible for the technical side.

Further reading 

The correspondence of John Flamsteed, the first Astronomer Royal. 1995-2002. Compiled and edited by Eric G. Forbes, Lesley Murdin and Frances Willmoth. Bristol: Institute of Physics.  (v1);  (v2) ;  (v3)
The Gresham lectures of John Flamsteed. 1975. edited and introduced by Eric G. Forbes. London: Mansell. 
Newton's tyranny: the suppressed scientific discoveries of Stephen Gray and John Flamsteed. 2001. David H. Clark & Stephen H.P. Clark. Freeman. 

1646 births
1719 deaths
English astronomers
Sugar cookie

A sugar cookie is a cookie made from sugar, flour, butter, eggs, vanilla, and baking powder or baking soda.

Sugar cookies can be iced with a variety of icings and are normally decorated.

References 

Cookies
Collective names of groups of like elements

There are areas on the periodic table where elements have similar properties. Such areas include Groups, especially columns. 

For example, all of the first column elements (alkali metals) are light, very soft, react with water rapidly, make hydroxides that are strong bases, and react with the halogens to make colorless ionic compounds. 

The second column elements (alkaline earth metals) are a little heavier, a little harder, react with water a little less rapidly, made hydroxides that are strong bases, and react with the halogens to make colorless ionic compounds.

The other categories are: transition metals, pnictogens, chalcogens, halogens, and noble gases. There are also inner transition metals that are divided into lanthanides and actinides.

Chemical nomenclature
Flamsteed designation

Flamsteed designations are for stars that are similar to Bayer designations. However, they use numbers instead of Greek letters. Flamsteed designation contained 2554 stars.

The numbers are usually assigned in the order of increasing right ascension within each constellation. However, because of the effects of precession, they are now slightly out of order in some parts. This method first appeared in  John Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica, a book that was published by Edmond Halley and Isaac Newton together in 1712.

References

Astronomical catalogues
Inner transition metal

Inner transition metals (ITM) are chemical elements on the periodic table. They are normally shown in two rows below all the other elements. They include elements 57-71, or lanthanides, and 89-103, or actinides. The lanthanides are very similar, and the actinides are all radioactive. 

ITMs have three incomplete outermost nucelus shells and are all metals. In some cases they are quite malleable and ductile. Many lanthanides such as Lutetium are used in the lighting industry. Actinides don't occur in nature (except for thorium and uranium), and are highly unstable. 
These elements belong to f-block and are known as the anti-penultimate shell.
Its general configuration is (n-2)f^0-14(n-1)d^0-2np^6ns^2 where n= 6-7.

                    

Chemical elements
Periodic table
Molar mass

Molar mass is the mass of a substance that has 6.022 × 1023 atoms (Avogadro's number). The mass number of an element is equal to the molar mass of the element . The molar mass of a chemical compound is the mass when the compound has 6.022 × 1023 molecules. Molar mass of Chlorine is 35.45 due to consideration of avg molar mass by including mass of its all isotopes.

It can be found by adding the molar masses of all of its elements. Sodium hydroxide's (NaOH) molar mass can be found by adding the molar mass of sodium, oxygen, and hydrogen, which would be 39.997 g/mo

Periodic table
Absolute hot

Absolute hot is the hottest temperature that matter can reach. It is measured at 1.41678571 × 1032 kelvins, 2,556 x 10^28 degrees fahrenheit or 1,420 x 10^30 degrees celsius. It is the opposite of absolute zero (which is -273.15°C on the celsius scale, −459.67 degrees on the fahrenheit scale or 0K on the kelvin scale). When something reaches this temperature, normal physics completely changes. It is the highest possible temperature that matter can ever attain.

Physics
Temperature

fi:Absoluuttinen kuumuus
D-block

The D-block is a group of elements on the periodic table. They include the transition metals. The Group 12 elements are normally called post-transition metals because they are different from the transition metals. The Group 12 elements are still in the d-block though. The d-block can hold up to ten (10) electrons at most.

Periodic table
Group 12 element

A group 12 element is a group in the periodic table of chemical elements. It includes zinc, cadmium, mercury, and copernicium. Copernicium is not stable so its properties are not clear. They all have low melting and boiling points. Mercury is even a liquid. Zinc is the least electronegative and most reactive of the Group 12 elements.

Periodic table
Period 4 element

A period 4 element is an element in the fourth period (row) of the periodic table. It begins at potassium and ends at krypton. Period 4 has 18 elements.

Period 4 elements have electrons in the first four electron shells. All period 4 elements have one or more electrons in the fourth electron shell (valence electrons). When atomic number increases by one, another electron is added. Two electrons join the 4s orbital, ten electrons join the 3d orbital, and six electrons join the 4p orbitals.

Periodic table
Kilogram per cubic metre

A kilogram per cubic meter is a measurement of density. It is defined as the amount of kilograms that one cubic meter of a substance has in it.

Units of measurement
Smokey Harris

Thomas Wilfred "Smokey, Fred" Harris (born October 11, 1890 in Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada – June 4, 1974) was a Canadian professional ice hockey forward.

Harris began playing professional ice hockey with the Vancouver Millionaires in 1911.  After spending some time with the Millionaires he moved on to play for the Seattle Metropolitans and Portland Rosebuds. Eventually he would find his way to the other side of the country to play for the Boston Bruins in the National Hockey League where he scored the first goal in the teams history.

Other websites

1890 births
1974 deaths
Boston Bruins players
Canadian ice hockey forwards
Ice hockey people from Ontario
People from Thunder Bay
Kilojoule per mole

A kilojoule per mole is a way of measuring the amount of heat needed for something. It is the number of kilojoules needed to make the reaction in one mole of substance.

Physics
Units of measurement
Enthalpy of fusion

Enthalpy of fusion is the measure of the energy needed to change a substance from a solid to a liquid. Extra energy is needed, more than what is obvious by the temperature scale. For example, ice at 0°C needs to absorb heat before it converts (changes) to water at 0°C. The temperature does not change, but energy is absorbed to change from solid to liquid.

Related pages 
 Enthalpy of vaporization

Physics
Picometer

A picometer is a measurement. It is one millionth of a billionth of a meter. It is also one trillionth of a millimeter. This is very small. Many atoms are larger than this.
1×10−12 m(1000,000,000,000)

Units of length
1 E-10 m

To help compare different orders of magnitude this page lists lengths between 10−10 m and 10−9 m (100 pm and 1 nm).

100 pm — 1 ångström
100 pm — covalent radius of sulfur atom
120 pm — van der Waals radius of a neutral hydrogen atom
126 pm — covalent radius of ruthenium atom
135 pm — covalent radius of technetium atom
153 pm — covalent radius of silver atom
154 pm — mode length of (C-C) covalent bond
155 pm — covalent radius of zirconium atom
175 pm — covalent radius of thulium atom
200 pm — highest resolution of a typical electron microscope
225 pm — covalent radius of caesium atom
340 pm — thickness of single layer graphene
356.68 pm — width of diamond cell (unit cell)
403 pm — width of lithium fluoride cell
500 pm — width of α helix protein
560 pm — width of sodium chloride cell
700 pm — width of glucose molecule
780 pm — mean width of quartz cell
820 pm — mean width of ice cell
900 pm — mean width of coesite cell
900 pm — width of sucrose molecule

Notes

Orders of magnitude
Covalent radius

The covalent radius is the radius of an atom that is measured when that atom is in a covalent bond. It is normally measured in picometers. It is normally found by X-ray diffraction. 

Chemical bonding
Van der Waals radius

The Van der Waals radius is the radius of an atom that is seen as a hard sphere. It is named after someone who realized that atoms were not points, but actual objects. It can be found by the critical point and the physical properties of a gas. It also can be found by a molecular crystal. 

Chemistry
Chemical bonding
Physics
Diamagnetism

Diamagnetism is a type of magnetism. They very weakly repel magnets. Most substances are diamagnetic. It was discovered in 1778 when someone saw that bismuth and antimony repelled a magnet. Diamagnetic things can be levitated. A frog was levitated in a very strong magnet. Water can be repelled by a magnet because it is diamagnetic. It is too weak to be noticed normally, though.

Magnetism
Young's modulus

Young's modulus is the measure of how much force is needed to stretch or compress a substance. Its most basic form is stress/strain. Stress is the measure of the force applied to a certain area. Strain is the amount by which the substance is deformed.

Physics
Shear modulus

Shear modulus is a measure of the amount of force that will shear or twist an object. It is normally the letter G. It is the measure of the force needed to shear an object that is attached to a solid object. It can also measure the amount of force needed to twist an object.

Physics
Bulk modulus

The bulk modulus (letter K) is a measure of the resistance of a substance to compression on all sides. Gases are easily compressed, while solids and liquid are only compressed with difficulty. It is measured by a measuring instrument when another object is placed under pressure. Its unit is psi.

Physics
Poisson's ratio

Poisson's ratio (letter v) is a measure of the contraction that happens when an object is stretched. It is named after Siméon Denis Poisson. This contraction is perpendicular to the stretching force. It can also expand as the object is compressed in a perpendicular direction.

For example, if a block is being stretched as shown in the image to the right, the equation for the poisson's ratio will be: 

Poisson's ratio ranges from 0.0-0.5 for common materials, though for materials with certain structures, can be as low as -1. A material with a Poisson's ratio close to 0 (like cork) can be stretched a lot in the axial direction without changing much at all in the transverse, where as pulling on a material with a high Poisson's ratio (like rubber) will cause it to become much more narrow. A material with a negative Poisson's ratio will expand in all directions as it is stretched.

Physics
Brinell scale

The Brinell scale is a measure of hardness in materials.  It is measured by making a dent in the material and seeing how deep the dent goes with a known amount of force. It is similar to the Mohs' hardness scale, which scratches the material. It is used to test the hardness of metals. Normally, a steel ball is pressed into an object and the dent made is measured.

References
.

Tests
Physics
CAS registry number

A CAS registry number is a unique number given to every chemical substance by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS). It is also called  CASRN or CAS number. CAS registry number is also given to organic, inorganic compounds, minerals, isotopes, alloys. They are numbers ending with a check digit. They do not contain any structure information of the chemical.

It now identifies more than 164 million organic and inorganic substances. 68 million protein and DNA sequences are identified also. It is updated with around 15,000 new substances everyday.

References

Numbering schemes
Numbers
Jeff Heerema

Jeff Heerema (; born January 17, 1980 in Thunder Bay, Ontario) is a Canadian professional ice hockey winger. He was drafted in the first round, 11th overall, by the Carolina Hurricanes in the 1998 NHL Entry Draft.

Career statistics

References

Other websites

1980 births
Canadian ice hockey right wingers
Carolina Hurricanes players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
People from Thunder Bay
St. Louis Blues players
American Hockey League players
International Hockey League (1945–2001) players
Ontario Hockey League players
Danny Gruen

Daniel Patrick Gruen (born June 26, 1952 in Thunder Bay, Ontario) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey player. His career included 49 games in the National Hockey League and 181 games in the World Hockey Association, during which he played with the Colorado Rockies, Detroit Red Wings, Michigan Stags, Winnipeg Jets, Cleveland Crusaders, Calgary Cowboys, and Minnesota Fighting Saints.

References 

1952 births
Canadian ice hockey left wingers
Colorado Rockies (NHL) players
Detroit Red Wings players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
People from Thunder Bay
World Hockey Association players
American Hockey League players
International Hockey League (1945–2001) players
Central Professional Hockey League players
Mike Hordy

Michael Hordy (born October 10, 1956 in Thunder Bay, Ontario) is a retired Canadian professional ice hockey player. During his career he played eleven games in the National Hockey League for the New York Islanders.

Other websites

1956 births
Canadian ice hockey defencemen
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
New York Islanders players
People from Thunder Bay
American Hockey League players
International Hockey League (1945–2001) players
Ontario Hockey League players
Central Professional Hockey League players
Steve Hrymnak

Stefan "Steve" Hrymnak (March 3, 1926 – November 23, 2015) is a retired Canadian professional ice hockey player. His career included playing 18 games in the National Hockey League for the Chicago Black Hawks and Detroit Red Wings.

Other websites

1926 births
Canadian ice hockey defencemen
Chicago Blackhawks players
Detroit Red Wings players
Eastern Hockey League players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
People from Thunder Bay
Board of directors

A board of directors is a group of people. They normally oversee the actions of a corporation or other business. There are laws called  bylaws that the board follows. They organize the business, appoint the CEO, organize budgets and take care of financial matters.

Within a board, directors commonly organize themselves into several committees, such as:  audit committee, compensation committee, and human resource committee.

Usually once a year, the board of directors invite shareholders to a meeting to talk about the company.

Business
Clinical thermometer

A clinical thermometer is a thermometer used to measure human body temperature. Most made in the 20th century are mercury-in-glass thermometers. They are accurate and sensitive, having a narrow place where the mercury level rises very fast. A kink in the tube stops the mercury level from falling on its own.

These thermometers are used in clinics by doctors,  it is a clinical thermometers they are also called a doctor's thermometers or medical thermometers.  Most show both Celsius scale and Fahrenheit temperature scales, and run from 35 degree Celsius to 42 degree Celsius. 

Medical thermometers are cleaned before and after each use, with alcohol.

For centuries medical thermometers were large, and took many minutes to register a temperature.  Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit invented a quicker mercury thermometer in 1714, and the Fahrenheit temperature scale.  In the 1860s smaller, better ones were made, and thus thermometers were more often used.  An ear thermometer was invented in the 1960s, which works quickly and easily.  Digital thermometers became widespread in the late 20th century.

Temperature
Medical equipment
Thermometers
Roar

Roar may refer to :
Roar (utterance), a sound produced by certain animals such as lions, tigers and mammoths.
  Roar, the King's College London student newspaper
Brisbane Roar FC, an Australian football club (formerly Queensland Roar FC)
Roar (movie)  a movie set in Africa and produced by Tippi Hedren
Roar (TV series), a short-lived television drama set in 4th century Ireland 
Roar (UK TV series), a CBBC television series about the animals in a zoo
Rrröööaaarrr, second album of Canadian progressive metal band Voivod
The Roar, a 2008 novel by Emma Clayton
Roar (roller coaster), the name of two wooden roller coasters located at Six Flags America and Six Flags Discovery Kingdom
ROAR Registry of Open Access Repositories indexes open access institutional repositories.

Names
"Roar", a Norwegian form of the name Roger
Roar (dubious Danish king), a dubious legendary king of Denmark
Roar Ljøkelsøy, a Norwegian ski jumper
My Name Is

"My Name is" is a song by Eminem, released in 1999. It is the debut and second single overall from his major-label debut album, The Slim Shady LP.

Producer Dr. Dre wanted to use a sample of Labi Siffre's "I Got The ..." for the rhythm track; as revealed in the sleeve notes of the re-mastered CD of the source album, Remember My Song, Siffre, who is openly gay, stated, "attacking two of the usual scapegoats, women and gays, is lazy writing. If you want to do battle, attack the aggressors not the victims." Eminem made lyric changes and Siffre cleared the sample.

References

1999 songs
Eminem songs
Sugar Act

The Sugar Act (1764) was a tax passed by the British to pay for the Seven Years War, called the French and Indian War in America. 

It taxed sugar and decreased taxes on molasses in British colonies in America and the West Indies. This restricted smuggling. It was also a use of mercantilism. It was one of the first taxes that led to protests in the Thirteen Colonies. The Sugar and Stamp Acts were done away with in 1766.

1764
1760s in the Thirteen Colonies
Taxation
1760s in the Kingdom of Great Britain
Townshend Duties

The Townshend Duties, formally known as the Townshend Acts, was a tax passed by the British. It was named for Charles Townshend, who was the British Prime Minister at the time. He spearheaded the acts, but he died before the detrimental effects were clear. In 1776, he was hanged in effigy, which means a doll was made to represent him and it was hanged in the town square in Boston. It taxed all imported goods. E.g tea, food, anything that was imported. Townshend wanted the duties to make sure the colonists knew that they were under British rule. The acts were resisted in the Thirteen Colonies.

18th century in the United States
Taxation
Tea Act

Tea Act of 1773 was a law made by the Parliament of Great Britain. The law was made to help the East India Company which had massive amounts of tea stored in London which they could not sell. The law would make the company's tea cheaper than other tea which was being smuggled into Britain's North American colonies.  This was supposed to make people buy East India Company tea on which the Townshend duties were paid, thus implicitly agreeing to accept Parliament's right of taxation.

The law gave the Company the right to directly ship its tea to North America and the right to the duty-free export of tea from Britain. The tax imposed by the Townshend Acts and collected in the colonies remained in force. It became law on May 10, 1773.

Legislation
Kingdom of Great Britain
Jay Treaty

The Jay Treaty was a treaty between the United States and Britain in the years following the American Revolution. The main American involved in the treaty was John Jay, who was also Chief Justice of the United States. It was passed by the United States Congress in 1795. It allowed for increased trade with Britain in exchange for the British giving up their forts on the Great Lakes.  The Democratic-Republican Party thought that the Jay Treaty was good for the British and bad for the Americans, which led to them burning effigies of Jay.

References

1790s in the United States
18th-century treaties
1795
18th century in the Kingdom of Great Britain
Aegyptosaurus

Aegyptosaurus, meaning "Egypt's Lizard", is a genus of sauropod dinosaur that lived in Africa around 95 million years ago during the Upper Cretaceous period. Like most sauropods, it had a long neck and a small skull. The animal's long tail probably acted as a counterweight to its body mass. Its tail also ended in a whip-like structure that it used to defend itself against predatory dinosaurs such as Carcharodontosaurus and Spinosaurus. 

Aegyptosaurus was a close relative of Argentinosaurus, a much larger dinosaur that lived in South America at about the same time. This suggests a possible land bridge between Africa and South America during the Cretaceous period. 

Aegyptosaurus was discovered and named by a German paleontologist named Ernst Stromer in 1932. Its fossils were found in Egypt, Niger, and in several different locations in the Sahara Desert. All known specimens were discovered before 1939. The fossils were stored together in Munich, but were destroyed when an Allied bombing raid hit the museum in 1944, during World War II.
The type species is Aegyptosaurus baharijensis, named after the Bahariya Formation in Egypt, where the first fossils were found.

Aegyptosaurus was much smaller and more common than its contemporary, Paralititan.

References

Dinosaurs of Africa
Cretaceous dinosaurs
Titanosaurs
Public Security Bureau

In the People's Republic of China, a public security bureau (PSB)  is a kind of government office. These offices acting as a Police stations. Smaller offices are called Police posts. These are similar Japanese Kōban.

PSBs in each province and large city take care of policing law enforcement, public security, and social order. Other duties of such offices include residence registration as well as immigration and travel affairs of foreigners.

People's Republic of China
Solitary confinement

Solitary confinement is a punishment or special form of imprisonment. A prisoner is not allowed contact with anyone, except the prison staff. It may be a kind of psychological torture. It is also used to protect one prisoner from other inmates in the prison.

Solitary confinement has many other names. In American English it is also called the 'hole', 'lockdown', the 'SHU'  (pronounced 'shoe') or the 'pound'. In British English people say 'block' or 'the cooler'.

Use and criticism

People who think solitary confinement is necessary give several reasons. Some prisoners are considered dangerous to other people in the prison. Other prisoners might be able to lead crime groups even from inside jail. Also, solitary confinement can be used to stop prisoners from communicating with others because of possible fears about national security. Finally, it may be used for prisoners who are at high risk of being attacked by other inmates, such as pedophiles, celebrities, or witnesses who are in prison themselves. This form of solitary confinement is sometimes called protective custody.

In the US Federal Prison system, solitary confinement is known as the Special Housing Unit (SHU), . California's prison system also uses the abbreviation SHU, but it stands for Security Housing Units. In other states, it is known as the Special Management Unit (SMU), pronounced .

Opponents of solitary confinement claim that it is cruel and unusual punishment and torture. Taking away social contact, and the sensory input is usually part of solitary confinement and can have a powerful negative effect on a prisoner's mind. This may lead to mental illnesses such as depression and even death since humans are social animals.

Related pages
Prison
Torture

References

Other websites
Sourcebook on solitary confinement

Torture
Imprisonment and detention
Thomas Gainsborough

Thomas Gainsborough (14 May 1727 – 2 August 1788) was an 18th-century English portrait and landscape painter. He was born in Sudbury, Suffolk, England. He was the youngest son of John Gainsborough. When he was 13, he surprised his father by how well he drew with the pencil. Impressed, his father let him go to London to study art in 1740. In the 1740s, Gainsborough married Margaret Burr and began painting portraits more than landscapes. He had two daughters. In 1774, Gainsborough and his family moved to London. In 1780, he painted portraits of King George III. He died of cancer in London on 2 August 1788 at age 61 years.

In painting portraits he sometimes painted with brushes on sticks six feet long. This put him at the same distance from subject and canvas, set at right angles to each other.

Gallery

References

Other websites 
 
Webmuseum Paris: Thomas Gainsborough
Victoria and Albert Museum collection 
 http://www.abcgallery.com/G/gainsborough/gainsborough.html Olga's Gallery
 www.gac.culture.gov.uk/search/Artist.asp?maker_id=112361 
www.Thomas-Gainsborough.org 70 works by Thomas Gainsborough

1727 births
1788 deaths
Cancer deaths in London
English painters
People from Suffolk
Leaellynasaura

Leaellynasaura (meaning "Leaellyn's lizard") was a fast-running, plant-eating dinosaur that lived in Australia during the middle Cretaceous Period, roughly 115-110 million years ago. Australia was within the Antarctic Circle during the Cretaceous period, and it had a very long winter.

Description 
Leaellynasaura is known from two nearly complete skeletons and two skulls. It is described as an ornithopod. Unlike some other ornithischians, the Leaellynasaura did not have any tendons in its tail. The tail is known for being among the longest of its relatives: it was three times longer than the rest of the whole body. It also has more vertebrae in its tail than any other ornithischians except for some hadrosaurs. It also had large eyes to help it look in the dark winter.

References 

Dinosaurs of Australia
Muttaburrasaurus

Muttaburrasaurus was a plant-eating dinosaur that lived during the early Cretaceous period, about 113-97.5 million years ago. This dinosaur means "Muttaburra (in Queensland, Australia) lizard". Muttaburrasaurus are about 24 feet (7 m) long. They may have lived in herds.

Dinosaurs of Australia
Gulf of Salerno

The Gulf of Salerno is a gulf of the Tyrrhenian Sea in the coast of the province of Salerno in south-western Italy. The northern part of this coast is the Costiera Amalfitana. This includes towns like Amalfi, Maiori, Positano and the city of Salerno itself.

The Gulf of Salerno is separated from the Gulf of Naples (on the north) by the Sorrentine Peninsula, while from the south it is bounded by the Cilento coast.

Gulfs
Geography of Italy
Gigi D'Agostino

Luigino Celestino Di Agostino (born December 17, 1967) is an Italian disk jockey. He was born in Turin, Italy. Di Agostino is better known under his stage name Gigi D'Agostino. He is also known as the Violento Man.

Other websites
Official website

1967 births
Living people
Italian entertainers
People from Turin
DJs
San Bruno, California

San Bruno is a city in San Mateo County, California, United States. The population was 41,114 at the 2010 census.

The city is next to San Francisco International Airport and Golden Gate National Cemetery.

References

Other websites

Cities in California
Settlements in San Mateo County, California
Cities in the San Francisco Bay Area
1914 establishments in the United States
1910s establishments in California
Leavening agent

A leavening agent is a substance used to make a baked good rise. Most people like baked goods that are risen, so leavening agents are popular.

Yeast 

Yeast is a common leavening agent. It is a fungus that converts sugar to ethanol and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide makes the bread rise. This is slower and makes the bread more soft. Most of the ethanol evaporates when the bread is baked. The yeast is also killed when the bread is baked. 

Yeast takes longer time to rise than chemical leavening agents. It can also be killed by heat or salt. Yeast is normally sold in small packages. These have yeast fungi.

Chemical leavening agents
Main articles: Baking powder and baking soda

There are several chemical leavening agents. For acidic foods, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) can be used. It reacts with the acid to make carbon dioxide gas, which makes the bread rise. For non-acidic foods, baking powder is used. Baking powder is a mix of a powdered acid and sodium bicarbonate. They react when dissolved in water to make carbon dioxide gas. Baking powder is more common.

Baking powder and baking soda leavening is better for certain baked goods like muffins or cakes. The bread rises much faster with baking powder or baking soda. It is not affected by many other ingredients. But it does not have the same texture or taste that yeast has.

Baking
Sweet potato pie

Sweet potato pie is a type of pie. It is common in the southern United States. It is similar to pumpkin pie. It is common at Thanksgiving. It is a side dish or dessert.

"The most delicate root that may be eaten," as the sixteenth-century English mariner and slave trader John Hawkins called it, suited European taste. Henry VIII ate his sweet potatoes in heavily spiced and sugared pies, a fashion that survived at least until the 1680s."

It is normally made as a large tart. It doesn't have a top crust. The filling has mashed sweet potatoes, milk, sugar, eggs, and flavoring. The filling can be made light or dense. Occasionally marshmallows are added as a topping.

History 
Creamy vegetable pie recipes date back to Medieval Europe. It was a favorite of Henry VIII of England. He was known to eat a great number of sweet potato pies at a time believing they were an aphrodisiac. Sweet potato pie appears in the southern United States from the early colonial days. Like many sweet potato recipes, sweet potato pie was likely developed by the black slaves from traditional African cuisine. It is a staple of Soul food today. Recipes for sweet potato pie first appeared in printed cookbooks in the 18th century. It was included with savory vegetable dishes. By the 19th century, sweet potato pie was considered a dessert.

References

Other websites 
 Sweet potato vs. pumpkin pie: Your roots might determine your preference

Pies
Desserts
Colonial Clash

The Colonial Clash is an annual American College Football rivalry game played between the University of Massachusetts and the University of New Hampshire. These are traditionally the two best programs in the championship subdivision of college football in New England.

The rivalry adopted the name "Colonial Clash" on August 18, 2010, just two months before becoming the first college football match-up ever at Gillette Stadium. Robert Kraft, owner of Gillette Stadium and its tenants, the New England Patriots and New England Revolution, called it "a fitting name for a border rivalry between schools who represent two of the original colonies." The game is scheduled to be held at the professional venue in both 2010 and 2011.

The two schools have played each other every year since 1952, with UMass holding a 43-26-3 advantage. UNH captured the 2008 game 52-21 while UMass won on homecoming in 2009, 23-17. In 2006, the schools played twice, meeting first on November 4th in Durham, NH (with UMass winning 28-20), then again on December 2nd in Amherst for the NCAA FCS Quarterfinals (UMass winning 24-17). After each regular season meeting, the Billy Knight Trophy is awarded to the MVP of the game.

Since the separation of Division I college football into two separate tiers in 1978, UMass has played for the National Championship three times (1978, 1999, 2006), winning in 1999. While New Hampshire has not yet reached a National Championship game, they were the #1 overall seed in the 2005 FCS playoffs.

References