cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Narcolepsy

Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder. It happens when the nervous system does not work properly. People with narcolepsy tend to fall asleep during the daytime, even if they do not want to. Very often, they do not sleep well at night, and during the day they fall asleep uncontrollably.  There are two different forms. The classical (more common) form is the one with muscle failure (called cataplexy). There is also a less common form without cataplexy.

Narcolepsy affects the way the nerves work. It is not a mental illness, or caused by psychological problems. It is estimated that between 25 and 50 people, per 100,000 suffer from narcolepsy. Very few cases are reported.

The first description was given in 1877. Jean-Baptiste Gélineau, a military doctor, first used the name narcolepsy in 1880.

In certain countries, people diagnosed with narcolepsy may not drive a car.

Symptoms 
Things that people with narcolepsy may experience:
 Excessive Daytime Sleepiness: Being very tired during the day even after a full night of sleep. This is the most common symptom of narcolepsy.
 Cataplexy: Suddenly having a muscle fail them. This can range from a slight weakness, and problems speaking clearly, to completely collapsing.
 Sleep paralysis: When waking up, people are paralysed  (unable to move) for a certain time. The paralysis eventually goes away.
 Hallucinations, while falling asleep or waking up.
Automatic behaviour: People continue doing things while they are asleep. Later on they do not remember.

Hallucinations, sleep paralysis, and automatic behaviour can also occur in people who are not narcoleptics. This usually happens when people are very tired, and have not slept for a long time.

Causes 
Some scientists think that narcolepsy is caused by a lack of hypocretin. Hypocretin is a chemical in the brain which wakes people up and regulates sleep. However, It is not yet known for sure what causes it. Quite a few sufferers also have another family member with the disease. This may point to the fact that some of the things that cause the disease may be passed from the parents to the children through genes.

Treatments 
There are certain drugs that can treat the effects of narcolepsy. They can not treat the cause, since it is unknown. In general those drugs are special kinds of stimulants. General stimulants, like coffee, usually do not help. Some strategies for treatment do not rely on drugs:
Adapting the behaviour to avoid situations that trigger daytime sleep; this is generally known as Coping. It also involves changing the daytime rhythm to accommodate the sleeping phases
Sleep hygiene

References

Other websites 
 Narcolepsy Fact Sheet: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
 Narcolepsy Network
 http://www.narcolepsy.org.uk/index_html 
 Read about Narcolepsy in the Sleeptionary
 What is Narcolepsy 
 Narcolepsy: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment 
 Harvard Division of Sleep Medicine Module on Narcolepsy

Neurology
Sleep disorders
Homicide

Homicide is when one person kills (causes the death of) another person. Homicide is sometimes a crime and sometimes not. If the killer wanted to cause death, it can be a crime called murder. If the killer did not want to cause death, but had no care for their own behavior, it can be a crime called manslaughter. Fighting to keep oneself safe from harm is called self-defense. If a person needed to kill for self-defense, it is usually not a crime. If a person killed in self-defense when they did not need to kill, it may be a crime.

References

Crime
Amazon (company)

Amazon.com, Inc., known as Amazon (), is an American online business and cloud computing company. It was founded on July 5, 1994 by Jeff Bezos. It is based in Seattle, Washington. It is the largest Internet-based store in the world by total sales and market capitalization. Amazon.com started as an online bookstore. When it got bigger, it started selling DVDs, Blu-rays, CDs, video downloads/streaming, MP3s, audiobooks, software, video games, electronics, apparel, furniture, food, toys, and jewelry. It also makes consumer electronics like Kindle e-readers, Fire tablets, Fire TV, and Echo. It is the world's largest provider of cloud computing services.  Amazon also sells products like USB cables using the name AmazonBasics.

Amazon has separate retail websites for the United States,  Argentina,  Brazil, United Kingdom, France, Ireland,  Canada, Colombia,  Germany,  Australia, Italia,  Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Japan,  Poland,  Mexico,  Sweden, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, and Republic of India. Amazon also offers international shipping to some countries for some of its products. In 2016, Dutch, Polish, and Tamil languages versions of the German Amazon website were launched.

Subsidiaries 
Amazon owns over 40 smaller companies, including Zappos, Shopbop, Diapers.com, Kiva Systems (now Amazon Robotics), Audible, Goodreads, Teachstreet and IMDb.

Other reading

References

Other websites 

 
 

All articles with unsourced statements
1994 establishments in Washington (state)
Websites
Alpha Centauri

Alpha Centauri is the brightest star in the southern Centaurus constellation. It is the fourth brightest star in the night sky, with a magnitude of -0.01. It is visible in the Southern Hemisphere, and is too far south for most of the Northern Hemisphere to see.

Alpha Centauri is a binary star system of two stars A & B. The distance between them is quite close. To the naked eye, the stars are too close for the eye to be able to see them as separate. Their orbit is about the distance of the giant planets from our Sun.

There is a third star, Proxima Centauri (or Alpha Centauri C). This is usually considered separately, but in fact it is also gravitationally connected to the other two. It is actually slightly closer to us, with a very much larger orbit around A and B.

System 

Viewed as a triple star system, Alpha Centauri is the closest to our own, being 4.2-4.4 light years (ly) away. It consists of two main stars, Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B (which form a binary star together) at a distance of 4.36 ly, and a dimmer red dwarf named Proxima Centauri at a distance of 4.22 ly. Both of the two main stars are rather similar to the Sun. The larger star, Alpha Centauri A, is the most similar to the Sun, but a little larger and brighter.

The next closest star is Barnard's Star.

Related pages 
 Nature timeline

Notes 

Binary stars
Red dwarfs
TGV

The TGV (Train à Grande Vitesse, French for "high-speed train"), is a category of high speed trains. They are used in France. They are also used for some travel between France and England, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Italy and Spain. The trains normally travel at speeds between 270 km/h and 320 km/h. They are the fastest normal trains in the world, their average travel speed is at 279,4 km/h.

In 2007, a special TGV set the speed record for rail vehicles, reaching 574,8 km/h.

Inside France, there are the following high speed lines
 Paris to Lyon, later to Valence, Avignon and Marseille.
 Paris to Tours and Le Mans. Also used to run trains to Poitiers and Bordeaux.
 Paris to Lille, later Brussels (known as Thalys) and Calais, Dover, London (known as Eurostar).
 Paris to Strasbourg, sometimes to Frankfurt am Main, Basel and Zürich. The first part of this line has been built. The high-speed track ends at a station, about half-way between Nancy and Metz. Strasbourg is currently reachable from Paris is about two and a half hours, Basel takes 3.20, and Zürich about 4.30. The extension of the line to Strasbourg has been started,

Lines to Spain and Italy are being planned. A High speed line to Germany is being built.

The building of the network has made travel times much shorter. Paris to Marseille (750 km) can now be done in 3 hours. Two thirds of the traffic volume is done by the TGV, only one third is done by airplanes.

TGVs for other uses 
Since the beginning of the high-speed rail network, the French Poste uses TGVs to transport mail, mostly  between Paris, Mâcon and Cavaillon.But the train was retired in 2015. These use the high-speed lines (LGV Sud-Est) during the night.

In the north of France, the high-speed lines are also used to run regional trains over longer distances. There are currently train  from Lille to Dunkerque. This takes half an hour.  Other lines run to Calais, in forty minutes, or to Boulogne-sur-Mer in 55. In 2007, a line to Arras was opened, which is also very successful. Unfortunately, there are some problems with this approach. First, only high-speed lines can be used that are not saturated, because these trains run slower than regular TGVs. Secondly, using a TGV line costs more to the client, they have to pay extra. This makes these services more expensive.

References 

Transport in France
Rapid transit systems
High-speed trains
Caregiver

A caregiver, or carer, is someone who has the job of caring for people. They usually care for people who are unable to care for themselves, for example, children, disabled people, or the elderly. When a caregiver is assigned to look after a baby or a child they are sometimes called a babysitter.

Related pages
Parent
Infant attachment

Social sciences
Personal service occupations
Binoculars

Binoculars are a kind of tool that lets people see far-away things more clearly, using a technology called optics. They are made of a pair of matched telescopes that are held in front of the user's eyes. 

The two telescopes of the pair have lenses that focus light and magnify the image. This is called magnification. When someone looks through the binoculars at a far-away object, it looks much closer. 

Early binoculars had two Galilean telescopes without prisms. Some modern ones work that way but most have prisms inside, which fold the light path to shorten the length of the tubes. That is why a binocular is shorter than standard telescopes of similar power.

Binoculars were invented in the 17th century. They allow a telescope user to use both eyes.  The Royal Navy used single telescopes, but now all ships have heavy binoculars.  Heavy ones can be mounted on swivels to scan the horizon.  Binoculars are also standard issue in all armies.  Night vision binoculars use photocathode electronics to intensify the image.

Binoculars are also used for theatre (opera glasses), birdwatching  amateur astronomy and watching scenery.

Features 

These features are present in some or all binoculars:
Focussing is usually by turning knobs.
Large binoculars have independent focussing for each 'telescope' (each side).
Eye relief: Eye relief is the distance from the rear eyepiece lens to the exit pupil or eye point. It is the distance the observer must position his or her eye behind the eyepiece in order to see the image. The longer the focal length of the eyepiece, the greater the eye relief. Binoculars may have eye relief ranging from a few millimeters to 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) or more. Eye relief can be particularly important for eyeglass wearers. 
Range finding. Many binoculars have range finding reticle (scale) superimposed on the view. This scale allows the distance to the object to be estimated if the object height is known. 
Image stabilisation. On top-range models, by electronics.
Optical coatings
Anti-reflective: not just relections off the front lens, but every lens and prism. Anti-reflective coatings reduce light lost at every optical surface through reflection at each surface. Reducing reflection via anti-reflective coatings also reduces the amount of "lost" light bouncing around inside the binocular which can making the image appear hazy (low contrast).  
Metallic mirror coating for its prisms.

 Warships used very large binocular naval rangefinders (up to 15 metres separation of the two objective lenses, weight 10 tons) for ranging gun targets 25 km away in World War II.  Late-20th century technology made this application redundant (radar; laser sights; guided missiles &c).

 Modern military binoculars have filters that block laser weapons used against them. Some are equipped for night vision.

Optics
Tools
Odd number

An odd number is an integer when divided by two, either leaves a remainder or the result is a fraction. One is the first odd positive number but it does not leave a remainder 1. Some examples of odd numbers are 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11.
 
An integer that is not an odd number is an even number.
If an even number is divided by two, the result is another integer.
On the other hand, an odd number, when divided by two, will result in a fraction. 

Since odd numbers are integers, negative numbers can be odd.

Related pages 

 Even number 

Numbers
1344



Events 
 English king Edward III creates three new gold coins, the florin. leopard, and helm. Unfortunately the amount of gold in the coins is different from their worth of six shillings, three shillings, one shilling, and sixpence. Because of this, they had to be taken back and many were melted down by August.

Births 
 Meinhard III, Count of Tyrol
 Parameswara, Malay Srivijayan prince (died 1424)

Deaths 
 Constantine IV of Armenia
 Gersonides, French rabbi and mathematician (born 1288)
 Jaghmini, Persian physician
 Simone Martini, Sienese painter (born 1284)
 William Montacute, 1st Earl of Salisbury (born 1301)
Tent

A tent is a movable, lightweight shelter which uses thin fabric to protect people from wind, rain and from the cold. The fabric walls of a tent are supported by wood or metal poles and thin ropes (called "guy lines"), and the tent or the ropes are usually attached to the ground with plastic or metal pointed stakes.

Uses 
Tents are usually used as shelter during camping, hiking, and other outdoor recreational activities. Large tents are also used to provide temporary shelter for events such as outdoor weddings or circuses. Tents are also used to provide temporary sleeping quarters for military personnel or homeless, or for people who have been displaced by a disaster (such as refugees).

Accommodations
camping
Alaska plaice

Alaska plaice (Pleuronectes quadrituberculatus) are salt water fish that live in the north Pacific Ocean. Like most flatfish, they live on the bottom of the continental shelf, up to 600 metres deep. Their geographical range is from the Gulf of Alaska in the east, to the Chukchi Sea in the north, to the Sea of Japan in the west. Alaska plaice feed mostly on polychaetes, but also eat amphipods and echiurans.

Most commercial fisheries do not want to catch Alaska plaice; but many are caught by trawlers trying to catch other bottom fish. So many Alaska plaice get caught anyway that, for example, the 2005 total allowable catch in the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands management area (BSAI) was reached before the end of May of that year.

Alaska plaice can live for up to 30 years, and grow to 60 centimetres (24 inches) long, but most that get caught are only seven or eight years old, and about 30 cm (12 in).

Related pages
American plaice
European Plaice

References
1998 Marine Fisheries Review article
Bulletin announcing reaching the total allowable catch of Alaska plaice for 2005 (National Marine Fisheries Service)

Flatfish
Sleep paralysis

When people are dreaming, their muscles do not move, even if in their dream they are moving. This is a natural process which prevents that people actually perform the movements they do in their sleep. In general, people are not aware of this inability to move, as it usually stops as soon as they wake up. People suffering from sleep paralysis wake up and find that they are unable to move. This is because the paralysis has not stopped. Usually it lasts for only a few minutes, and people have said they feel a "presence" or "ghost" during it.

Possible causes 
Little is known about the physiology of sleep paralysis. However, some have suggested that it may be linked to post-synaptic (neurons sending signals to other neurons) inhibition (restraint) of nerves in the pons (back) region of the brain. In particular, low levels of melatonin may stop the depolarization current in the nerves, which stops stimulation of the muscles.

Hallucinations of ghosts, demons and Out of Body Experiences during sleep paralysis may be caused by a part of the brain called the parietal lobe (top-middle part of the brain), and by neurons known as mirror neurons.

Studies suggest that many people get sleep paralysis at least once in their lives. People who have narcolepsy often get it much more. Many people try to induce sleep paralysis, to have an Out of Body Experience. 

Some report that various factors make paralysis and hallucinations happen more. These include:
 Sleeping on your back
 Irregular sleeping schedules; naps, sleeping in, sleep deprivation
 Increased stress
 Sudden changes of lifestyle or environment
 A lucid dream just before it
 Medium to long-term imagining of involuntary movements with your eyes closed before sleep.

Treatment 
There are few treatments available for sleep paralysis. One treatment is called Meditation-Relaxation Therapy. The treatment includes four steps: (1) one should close one's eyes and remind oneself that the experience is not dangerous in any way and common around the world; (2) and that since it is not dangerous one should not be afraid as that will only make the experience worse. (3) One should then focus very strongly on a positive thought or mental image (meditate); (4) and also relax ones muscles and avoid movement.

References

Other websites
The Guardian - The waking nightmare of sleep paralysis
On the Neuroscience of Sleep Paralysis 

Symptoms
Melissa Joan Hart

Melissa Joan Catherine Hart (born April 18, 1976) is an American actress. She was born and raised in Long Island, New York.

She played the title roles in the television series Clarissa Explains It All and Sabrina, the Teenage Witch. In 1999 she played the lead role in the movie Drive Me Crazy. From 2010-2015, she starred as Mel Burke in the ABC Family show Melissa & Joey.

Personal life 
Since July 19, 2003, Hart has been married to musician Mark Wilkerson (born 1976). They have three sons together: Mason Walter Wilkerson (born January 11, 2006), Braydon Hart Wilkerson (born March 12, 2008) and Tucker McFadden Wilkerson (born September 18, 2012).

Other websites 
Melissa Joan Hart at the Internet Movie Database (IMDb)
Melissa Joan Hart News and Video 

Actors from New York
American child actors
American movie actors
American television actors
American television directors
American television producers
American voice actors
Entertainers from New York
1976 births
Living people
Colleen Fitzpatrick

Colleen Ann Fitzpatrick (born July 20, 1972 in Old Bridge, New Jersey) is an American singer and actor. Her stage name is Vitamin C. Before she started her solo career, she was the lead singer of the band Eve's Plum.

Music

Albums 
 More (2001)
 Vitamin C (1999)

Singles 
 "Last Nite" (2003)
 "As Long As You're Loving Me" (2000)
 "The Itch" (2000)
 "Graduation (Friends Forever)" (2000)
 "Me, Myself, & I" (1999)
 "Smile" (1999)

Movies 
 Happy Is Not Hard to Be (2005)
 My X-Girlfriend's Wedding Reception (2001)
 Rock Star (2001)
 Scary Movie 2 (2001) (voice only)
 Get Over It (2001)
 Dracula 2000 (2000)
 Da Hip Hop Witch (2000)
 ''The Haven (2000)
 Liar Liar (1997)
 St. Patrick's Day (1997)
 High School High (1996)
 Just Cause (1995)
 Higher Learning (1995)
 Crinoline Head (1995)
 The Mambo Kings (1992)
 The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear (1991)
 Hairspray'' (1988)

Other websites 
 

1969 births
Living people
Singers from New Jersey
American movie actors
Actors from New Jersey
Opel

Opel, full name Adam Opel AG, is an automobile maker from Germany, founded in 1862. Since 1929, Opel is the German brand of the American automaker General Motors. Opel has about 35,000 workers. The company headquarters are in Rüsselsheim, Germany. Other German plants are in Eisenach and Kaiserslautern. In Great Britain, Opel cars are called Vauxhall. Opel would later engineer cars for GMDAT, and still engineers them for GM Korea. From 2007 to 2009 three Opel models (the Antara, the Astra and the Vectra) were sold in the United States under the Saturn marque. Upon the discontinuation of Saturn Buick became responsible for importing the Opel models. The only Buick cars to not be Opels are the Enclave CUV and the full sized LaCrosse sedan. In March 2017, Opel and its parent brand Vauxhall were brought by PSA, the company who owns Peugeot and Citroen.

Car models 
Passenger cars:
Adam | Antara | Ampera | Astra | Cascada | Corsa | Insignia | Karl | Meriva | Mokka | Zafira Tourer

Commercial cars:
Combo | Vivaro | Movano

Concept cars:
Antara GTC | Astra OPC X-Treme | Eco Speedster | Flextreme | Flextreme GT/E | Frogster | GTC Concept | Insignia Concept | Monza Concept | RAK e | Snowtrekker | Trixx

Historic cars:
Agila | Admiral | Ascona | Blitz | Calibra | Commodore | Diplomat | Frontera | GT | Kadett | Kapitän | Manta | Monterey | Monza | Olympia | Omega | Rekord | Senator | Signum | Sintra | Speedster | Tigra | Vectra

Other websites 
 Opel's Corporate Website

1862 establishments
1860s establishments in Germany
General Motors
Automobile companies of Germany
Hesse
JAG

JAG (the American military acronym for Judge Advocate General) is an American legal, crime drama television show created by Donald P. Bellisario. It was on air between 1995 and 2005. The series is about the JAG officers Harmon "Harm" Rabb, Jr. (David James Elliott) and Sarah "Mac" MacKenzie (Catherine Bell) in Washington, D.C. In 2003, the series spawned the spin-off NCIS, which had the spin-offs called NCIS: Los Angeles and NCIS: New Orleans.

Actors 
 David James Elliott as Capt. Harmon Harm Rabb Jr.
 John M. Jackson as Rear Admiral (upper half) A. J. Chegwidden (1996–2004)
 Tracey Needham as Lieutenant. j.G. (junior Grade) Meg Austin (1995–1996)
 Catherine Bell as Lt. Colonel Sarah Mac MacKenzie (1997–2005)
 Patrick Labyorteaux as Lt. Commander. Bud Roberts Jr. (1997–2005)
 Karri Turner as Lieutenant Harriet Sims (1997–2005)
 Steven Culp as Clayton Webb
 Sibel Galindez as Lieutenant Elizabeth 'Skates' Hawkes

Other websites 

 

1995 American television series debuts
2005 American television series endings
2000s American television series
American drama television series

Television series set in Washington, D.C.
English-language television programs
Burn

Burning is the process of combustion, a reaction between a substance (the fuel) and a gas (the oxidizer).

Burn, burning or burned can mean:
 Burn (injury), injury to the skin caused by heat, electricity, chemicals, or radiation
 Burn (stream), in Scotland and north-eastern England, a type of stream which is smaller than a river
 Burn (computer game), a first-person shooter computer game released in 2007
 Burn, a village in North Yorkshire, England
 Burn and Burn Sugar Free, energy drinks by Coca-Cola
 Burn in, to exercise components (such as electronics) before putting them into service
 Burning, a self-sustaining thermonuclear (nuclear fusion) reaction
 Burning, the recording process for various technologies based on compact discs or DVDs
 Burning-in, a manipulation during photographic enlargement to darken selected areas of the final print
 Burned (image), an image with highlights or shadows considerably outside the medium's gamut
 Execution by burning, an execution by fire, usually by being burnt to death on a pyre
 Indian burn, common school prank also called a Chinese burn
 Burn notice, an official statement issued between intelligence agencies stating that an individual or a group is or has become unreliable.

In music
Bands:
 Burn (UK band), a heavy rock band from Loughborough, England
 Burn (U.S. band), a New York hardcore band

Albums:
 Burn (album), a 1974 album by Deep Purple
 Burn, a 1995 album by Sister Machine Gun
 Burn, a 2000 album by Jo Dee Messina
 Burnin, a 1970 album by The Wailers
 Burning, a 1999 EP by house DJ/producer Pépé Bradock
 Burned, a 1995 album by ElectrafixionSongs:'''
 "Burn" (Usher song), a song from Usher's 2004 album Confessions "Burn" (Nine Inch Nails song), a song by Nine Inch Nails found on the Natural Born Killers Soundtrack
 "Burn", a song by Rancid on the album Let's Go "Burn", a song The Cure featured on The Crow Soundtrack "Burn", a song by Shannon Noll on his 2004 album That's What I'm Talking About "Burn", a song by Mushroomhead on their 2006 album Savior Sorrow "Burn", a song by Alkaline Trio on their 2005 album Crimson "Burn", a song by Collective Soul found on their album Home
 "Burn", a song by Three Days Grace on their album Three Days Grace "Burn", a song by Year Of The Rabbit on their EP Hunted "Burn", a song by Against Me! which first appeared on their 2001 EP Crime As Forgiven By "Burn", a song by King Diamond on the 1990 album The Eye "Burn", a song by Michael Angelo Batio on his 2005 album Hands Without Shadows "Burn", a song by Deep Purple on their 1974 album Burn "Burnnn!", a song by Pantera on their 1988 album Power Metal "The Burn", a song by Matchbox Twenty on their 2000 album Mad SeasonIn media
 Burn!, a 1969 film
 Burn, a 1998 film directed by Scott Storm
 Burn, a 2005 novel by James Patrick Kelly
 Burned'', a 2005 novel by Ellen Hopkins
 Burn Notice (TV series), a 2007 television drama

Basic English 850 words
Bronze

Bronze is a metal alloy. Bronze is mostly copper, with some tin added (usually between 5% and 20% tin) to make it stronger. When an alloy is bronze, it means it is made of copper and tin. 

Other bronzes are:
 Aluminum bronze
 Leaded bronze
 Silicon bronze
 Phosphor bronze

Bronze should not be confused with brass which is a different alloy of copper and zinc.

History 
Bronze was the first alloy that was used by humans. The first nation that used bronze was Egypt about 3500 years B.C. This gave the name for the Bronze Age.

Bronze is stronger than copper or tin alone. Bronze lasts longer than copper. Pure copper can be oxidized by air and also by water. When copper is oxidized by air or water, it turns green (the color of "copper oxide"), and falls apart.

When people learned how to make and work iron, the Bronze Age ended, and the Iron Age started. Iron can be made harder than bronze, but is susceptible to corrosion (see rust). Iron also wears away faster than bronze, when different pieces are moving against each other. Iron is very common, and easy to make. For this reason, iron costs less than bronze. This is the reason why iron is now used where bronze used to be used.

Current use 
Bronze is still used to make many parts of machines.  We use bronze when the part must last for a long time around water and air, or must not wear away.  The main things that are made out of it are pump parts, bearings, bells, electrical components, gears, valves, and other things.

Bronze parts are usually cast in a foundry. After they are cast, bronze parts can also be worked in a lathe or milling machine, or drilled. Bronze is not normally worked with a hammer as iron is.

Pictures 

Alloys
Metallurgy
Pound

A pound is:

 Pound (currency): currency in some countries
 Pound (mass): used to measure the mass of something
 Pound sterling: the official money used in the United Kingdom
 Pound, Virginia, a town in the U.S. state of Virginia
Dalton (unit)

The dalton or unified atomic mass unit (abbreviated: amu, u, or Da) is a unit of measurement that is used to measure the mass of atoms. The atomic mass unit is equal to one twelfth of the mass of the carbon-12.

The unified atomic mass unit and the dalton are different names for the same thing. The word 'dalton' is being used more over time. The unit is named after John Dalton, an 18th-century naturalist and teacher.

References

Analytical chemistry
Chemical
Anion

Anions are atoms or radicals (groups of atoms), that have gained electrons. Since they now have more electrons than protons, anions have a negative charge. For example, chloride ions Cl- , bromide Br- , iodide I-.  These are monovalent anions, meaning they have a valency (combining capacity) with only one ion of hydrogen.  Similarly there are bivalent anions, etc.

An ion is an atom (or group of atoms) with an electrical charge. Anions are one of the two types of ions. The other type is called a Cation, having a positive charge. In many crystals the anions are bigger; the little cations fit into the spaces between them.

Anions are termed so because they are attracted towards the anode (the positive electrode).  All anions tend to accept a proton H+ thus they are categorised as base 

Physical chemistry

en:Ion#Anions and cations
ja:イオン#陰イオン
sv:Jon#Anjon
David (Michelangelo)

David is a statue by Michelangelo, begun in 1501 and completed in 1504. It is made of marble and is 17 feet tall. It is a statue of a shepherd, David, whose story is told in the Bible. David fought a battle with a giant soldier called Goliath. He beat Goliath by knocking him down with a small stone from his slingshot. David later became King of Israel.   

Michelangelo has carved the figure naked, in the way that Ancient Roman statues of Classical Gods were often made. He shows David before the fight, just as he is looking at Goliath and planning what to do. 

The statue was paid for by the wool-workers of Florence. To the people of the Republic of Florence, David, the teenage boy who fought a giant, was a symbol of how a small fierce town could battle off powerful invaders. David was a particularly important symbol to the wool-workers as well, because as a boy, he took care of his father’s sheep, and as a king, he was like a shepherd to his people. 

The statue of David is a symbol of the City of Florence, Italy,  and is Michelangelo's most famous work of sculpture.  It is often called The David.

Making the statue
From about 1464 the members of the Wool Guild wanted to have twelve statues of people from the Old Testament of the Bible carved for the Florence Cathedral.  These statues were to go on the buttresses all around the outside walls, high up near the roof. Two statues had already been made by Donatello and his assistant, Agostino di Duccio.  Duccio was asked to carve a statue of David. He began carving the  statue's feet, chest and a hole between the legs. He stopped making the statue when his master, Donatello, died in 1466.  Antonio Rossellino then worked on the statue for two years.  The block of stone was untouched for 33 years and was left in the cathedral workshop where it was getting damaged by the weather.  Michelangelo began working on David on September 13, 1501.  It was finished on September 8, 1504.

Where the statue was placed

When it was finished, the statue was placed in front of the entrance to the Palazzo Vecchio.  During 1873 it was moved to the Accademia Gallery in Florence to protect it from damage.  The statue currently attracts many visitors to the Accademia Gallery.

Damage to the statue
In 1991, the statue of David was attacked by a person with a hammer. Before the person with the hammer could be stopped, damage was done to the toes of the left foot.

Related pages
The following are other statues by Michelangelo:
Moses
Pieta

Statues
Art by Michelangelo
Moses (Michelangelo)

Moses is a statue that was made by Michelangelo.  It is a statue of Moses from the Bible.  The statue is unusual because Moses has horns on his head.  This was one of Michelangelo's last projects.

Related pages
The following are other statues by Michelangelo:
David
Pieta

Other websites
 http://www.romaviva.com/Santa-Maria-Maggiore/moses.htm  Website with more information on Moses.

Statues
Art by Michelangelo
The Birth of Venus (Botticelli)

The Birth of Venus is a painting by Sandro Botticelli (1445 – May 17, 1510). It is of a Roman goddess who was called Venus. He pictured her standing on a shell because Venus was said to have been born from foam on the sea in Stanze per la giostra, a poem written by Angelo Poliziano. The painting shows Zephyr, god of the winds holding the gentle breeze Aura, blowing her toward the shore where Horae, goddess of the seasons, is awaiting her with a cloak. She is pictured naked to show her innocence and divinity.

Art by Sandro Botticelli
15th-century paintings
Cupid

Cupid, also called Amor (Latin for love), is the god of sexual desire in Roman mythology. He fired golden arrows at people to make them fall in love, and lead arrows to make people fall out of love. He was mainly drawn as a cherub, but he might have looked like a normal teenager. He had large feathery wings which he used to fly around in the sky and mainly shot people with his love arrows by flying above them. He secretly did this. And many people asked him for help.

Related pages
Eros – Greek mythology version of Cupid.

Roman gods and goddesses
The Creation of Adam

The Creation of Adam is part of a painting by Michelangelo which can be seen on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican City. It is of Adam and God touching hands so that God can give the spark of life to Adam.

Art by Michelangelo
Paintings with Christian themes
16th-century paintings
Dvorak Simplified Keyboard

The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard ( ) is an alternative way of putting letters on an English keyboard. Most English keyboards have the keys lined up in a "QWERTY layout." The point of QWERTY was to prevent typewriter keys from sticking, but it is not the most "ergonomic", or comfortable, keyboard to type on. August Dvorak invented the Dvorak keyboard, where letters are arranged based on how often they are used. For instance, the most common letters (like "e") are in the center row of keys, so less hand movement is needed when a person is typing.

Proponents of the Dvorak keyboard feel that with the use of computers rather than typewriters, there is no reason to keep the QWERTY keyboard. Many Dvorak keyboard users think that more people should use the Dvorak keyboard, as it aims to prevent typing injuries (like repetitive strain injury and carpal tunnel syndrome). But most users are used to the QWERTY keyboard, and do not want to switch.

References 

Writing tools
Computer hardware
Data input
Soda

Some chemical compounds containing sodium
 Sodium carbonate, washing soda or soda ash
 Sodium bicarbonate, baking soda 
 Sodium hydroxide, caustic soda
 Sodium oxide, an alkali metal oxide

Also, products made by or containing one of these chemicals:
 Soda glass

Food and drink
 Soda water, a natural potable mineral water with high concentration of sodium bicarbonate, often carbonated
 Soft drink, a sodium bicarbonate beverage; typically carbonated
 Soda cracker, or saltine cracker
 Soda bread, a variety of quick bread
 Ice cream soda, a dessert dish
Gonad

Gonads are the ovaries and testicles. A male usually refers to his testes as "gonads" more than a female would refer to her ovaries as gonads.

Glands
Watercolour

Watercolours (UK), also called watercolor (US) or aquarelle (French), are paintings whose colours are water-based pigments.

Pigments are coloured materials from rocks, plants, or chemicals, that dissolve in water. They are made in the form of cakes or tablets. When water is added, the powdered pigment becomes liquid again. The pigment is applied to white paper or white card by brush or cloth or cotton wool, and allowed to dry. Unlike painting in oil-based pigments (coloured materials dissolved in oil), a watercolour can not be painted over without spoiling the colour, whose purity depends on the white backing below. Therefore, each area of a watercolour painting is painted only once, and looks fresh and original rather than worked over. Watercolour painting is often used in Chinese, Korean, and Japanese paintings. Fingerpainting with watercolours came from China.

Painting
Paints
Hermann Hesse

Hermann Hesse (2 July 1877 – 9 August 1962) was a German-Swiss poet, novelist, and painter. In 1946, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature. His best known works include Steppenwolf, Siddhartha, and The Glass Bead Game (also known as Magister Ludi).

Other websites 

 
 Hermann Hesse Page - in German and English, maintained by Professor Gunther Gottschalk
 Hermann Hesse Portal 
 Community of the Journeyer to the Easy  - in German and English
 Concise Biography  - originally published by the Germanic American Institute, by Paul A. Schons
 Article  at 'Books and Writers'

1877 births
1962 deaths
German novelists
German painters
German poets
People from Baden-Württemberg
Swiss poets
Communication protocol

In computing, a communication protocol refers to the set of rules that computers use to communicate with each other.  The protocol defines the signals that the computers will give each other, and other details such as how communication begins and/or ends   . 

Types of Protocol
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), is used for accessing and receiving Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) files on the internet.
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),  is used for transferring e-mail between computers.
 Post Office Protocol version 3 (PoP3) is the most common account type for personal e‑mail. Messages are typically deleted from the server when you check your e‑mail.
 Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is a protocol for e-mail retrieval and storage developed in 1986 at Stanford University as an alternative to POP.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP), is used for showing files to be copied between devices.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), ensures the delivery of information packets across networks.
 Internet Protocol (IP), is responsible for logical addressing called "IP address" to route information between networks.
 In computer networking, Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link (layer 2) protocol used to establish a direct connection between two nodes.
The packets and device protocol(TPADP) makes sure that the other protocols have a back up route.

References

Related pages 
Computer network
Internet protocol suite
OSI model
Application programming interface
Aldi

Aldi is a supermarket in Germany and in most parts of the European Union. Aldi shops are also in Australia and the United States. Most German towns and villages have at least one Aldi shop. There are about 4,100 stores in Germany, and 7,600 worldwide. The name of the shop stands for ALbrecht-DIscount.

The company is a food retailer, but it also sells non-food at times. In the 1990s, Aldi often sold computers that were sought after. Aldi has a reputation for being cheap. It forces its suppliers to sell to them at low prices.

History 
The company was started in 1913 as a family grocery business in Essen. In 1946, brothers Karl Albrecht (1920-2014) and Theo Albrecht (1922-2010) took over the business from their mother. Theo had been held by the US in a prisoner of war camp. They started the idea of discount shops in Germany. They decided to have a limited range of goods and sell them at a discount price. In 1960, the company was split into Aldi Nord (Aldi North) under the control of Theo, and Aldi Süd (Aldi South) under the control of Karl. The brothers became billionaires. In 2009 Karl's wealth was estimated to be €25 billion. Theo was kidnapped in 1971 and held prisoner for 17 days until a seven million mark ransom was paid. The family have avoided publicity and there are few known photographs of them.

Geographic distribution

Australia
Aldi started in Australia in 2001. At the end of 2010 there were 210 Aldi stores in eastern Australia and the company were planning to open 20-30 stores each year. In 2009 the Australian stores made a profit of AU$91.94 million, up 27% on 2008.

References

Other websites 

 Aldi International (with links to all of Aldi's international websites)

1913 establishments in Europe
1910s establishments in Germany
Supermarkets of Germany
Channel Tunnel

The Channel Tunnel (or Chunnel) (French: le tunnel sous la Manche) is a long underwater tunnel between England and France that runs under the English Channel at the Strait of Dover. It is only for trains. Some of the trains in the Channel Tunnel carry freight, including automobiles. Others, like the Eurostar, carry only passengers.

The tunnel, which was once called the Eurotunnel, opened in 1994. It is 50 kilometres (31 miles) long and its deepest point is 75 metres (250 feet) beneath the surface. It connects Folkestone, Kent in the United Kingdom to Calais in northern France. This has reduced travel time between London and Paris to a little over two hours with high-speed trains.

Other websites 
 EuroTunnel.com

Tunnels
Seven Wonders of the Modern World
Buildings and structures in England
Buildings and structures in France
Transport in England
Transport in France
Hauts-de-France
Kent
1994 establishments in Europe
Katowice

Katowice (pronounce:  , also known as Kattowitz in German) is a city in Poland. It is in the south of Poland in the historical region called Silesia on Kłodnica and Rawa river. It received city rights in 1865. Between 1953 and 1956 Katowice had the name Stalinogród - "Stalin City". It was given by the polish communists. There are about 315,123 people living there. The mayor of the city is Marcin Krupa. For a long period of time the city was ruled by Germans, as it was a part of Germany until 1918. There is a little airport called Airport Muchowiec. There are both modern and old buildings in Katowice. It was the center of the coal mining and metallurgy.

Districts

Famous people from Katowice 

 Hans Bellmer, surrealist photographer
 Henryk M. Broder, journalist
 Maria Goeppert-Mayer
 Kurt Goldstein, neurologist
 Richard Herrmann, German footballer
 Jerzy Kukuczka 
 Kazimierz Kutz 
 Franz Leopold Neumann 
 Hans Sachs

Twin towns 
 Cologne (Germany)
 Groningen (Netherlands)
 Miskolc (Hungary)
 Mobile, Alabama (United States)
 Odense (Denmark)
 Ostrava (Czech Republic)
 Saint-Etienne (France)

References

Other websites 

 The Municipal Council of Katowice 
 The Commercial Website of Katowice
 Katowice, Silesia 
 A webcam view of Katowice 
 Hotel in Katowice 
 Tram in Katowice

Cities in Poland
Giorgio Napolitano

Giorgio Napolitano (born in Naples, Italy on June 29, 1925) was the 11th President of the Italian Republic.

He was elected on May 10, 2006 on the fourth ballot, with 543 votes out of 1009 (the required number was 505), but he took office as President only on May 15, 2006, after Carlo Azeglio Ciampi's time was finished. 

He was voted mostly by the left-wing coalition led by Prime Minister Romano Prodi, head of the Italian Government. Napolitano was preceded at his job by Carlo Azeglio Ciampi. His nickname is King George.

Napolitano resigned as President of Italy on January 14, 2015 due to his old age.

References

Presidents of Italy
Recipients of the Order pro merito Melitensi
1925 births
Living people
People from Naples
Recipients of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria
Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies (Italy)
Robert Byrd

Robert Carlyle Byrd (November 20, 1917 – June 28, 2010) was a Senator of the state of West Virginia from 1959 until his death in 2010. He is the longest serving Senator in United States History. He was dean of the United States Senate from 2003 to 2010. He was President pro tempore four times. He was elected to the Senate in 1958. He served as majority leader from 1977 to 1981 and again from 1987 to 1989. He was also minority leader from 1981 to 1987. He was a member of the KKK.

Early life
Byrd was born on November 20, 1917 in North Wilkesboro, North Carolina. He was married to Erma James from 1937 until her death in 2006. They had two children.

Political career
Byrd was fourth person in the state (as President pro tempore of the Senate, usually longest serving Senator from majority party) from January 1989 to January 1995, from January 3, 2001 to January 20, 2001 and again from June 2001 to January 2003 and January 2007 until his death in 2010.

After Republicans retook control of the Senate, he became the honorary President "pro tempore emeritus" In 2007, Byrd became President Pro Tempore of the Senate again. Before he was elected to the Senate he served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1953 until 1959 (he is dean of all Congress).

He was a vocal opponent of President George W. Bush's war in Iraq. In January 2006 he was one of the only four (alongside Ben Nelson of Nebraska, Kent Conrad of North Dakota and Ken Salazar of Colorado) democratic Senators, who voted for Samuel Alito.

Death
Byrd died on June 28, 2010 in Falls Church, Virginia from problems caused by heat exhaustion, aged 92.

References

1917 births
2010 deaths
American Baptists
Lawyers from North Carolina
Deaths from natural causes
Deans of the United States Senate
Minority leaders of the United States Senate
Majority leaders of the United States Senate
Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate
1976 United States presidential candidates
United States representatives from West Virginia
United States senators from West Virginia
US Democratic Party politicians
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
Deaths from exhaustion
Artemis

Artemis is the Greek goddess of the Moon, hunting, archery, virginity and midwifery. She is one of the members of the Twelve Olympians who ruled the world on top of Mount Olympus. She is the daughter of Zeus and Leto, older twin sister of Apollo. Her roman equivalent is Diana.  

Artemis is generally depicted as a beautiful huntress wearing a sleeveless tunic and carrying a bow and arrow. She is accompanied by a group of nymphs huntresses. Bow, arrow, quiver and knives serves as her symbols. While deer and stags is her sacred animal.

Ancient Greek myths involving Artemis

Birth

Hera, who was Zeus's wife, discovered that Leto was pregnant and became very angry. She banned Leto from giving birth on any mainland or island known.

Leto found the island of Delos, which floated and so was not an island or mainland, and gave birth there. Hera then locked up the goddess of childbirth, Eilethyia, so she could not give birth to the twins. Then, all the other goddesses convinced her to let her free so she could finally give birth. Leto gave birth to Artemis without any problem. However she was in labor with Apollo for nine days. Artemis helped Leto to give birth to Apollo.

Acteon

A mortal hunter named Acteon stumbled upon Artemis while she was bathing in one of his hunting session with his friends. Artemis discovered him and she was enraged. So she inflicted a punishment upon him for spying on her whilst she was bathing by transforming him into a stag. She sent his own hunting dogs to tear him apart.

Hippolytos 

Hippolytos, a companion and devotee of Artemis, was slain through the machinations of Aphrodite, as punishment for his scorning of love and neglecting her worship. Artemis avenged the death of Hippolytos by killing Aphrodite's favourite lover, Adonis. She later petitioned Asclepius to bring the boy back to life, and spirited him away to her sacred shrine in Aricia.

Related pages
 Artume - Etruscan mythology version of Artemis. 
 Diana - Roman mythology version of Artemis.
 Temple of Artemis

Other websites 

 Theoi Project, Artemis, information on Artemis from original Greek and Roman sources, images from classical art.
 Hymn To Artemis - The Virgin Goddess of the Hunt
 A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890) (eds. G. E. Marindin, William Smith, LLD, William Wayte)

Twelve Olympians
Montagu Island

Montagu Island is the largest island of the South Sandwich Islands.

islands
Styx

Styx is the goddess of the river Styx in Greek mythology, and was the only female river goddess. She was the daughter of Okeanos and Tethys, and with Pallas was also the mother of Zelus, Nike, Kratos, and Bia (and sometimes Eos). During the Titanomachy she sent the children to help Zeus. To reward her for helping the Olympians, Zeus did not throw her in Tartarus, but let her be the guardian of the river Styx. She is the wife of the ferryman, Charon, and the guardian of the river Coctylus, Archeon.

Greek gods and goddesses
Afterlife
Groucho Marx

Julius Henry Marx or Groucho Marx (October 2, 1890 – August 19, 1977), was an American comedian. He was best known for work with his siblings in The Marx Brothers and then later on his own. He was also best known for portraying a fast-talking "wise guy" with bushy eyebrows, glasses, moustache and a cigar.

1890 births
1977 deaths
Actors from New York City
American Jews
American movie actors
Comedians from New York City
Deaths from pneumonia
National Radio Hall of Fame inductees