cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Clarence Thomas

Clarence Thomas (born June 23, 1948) is a Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Thomas has been a Justice since 1991. He is the only African-American currently on the court. He is also the second African American to ever serve on the court. The only other African American was Thurgood Marshall. During his confirmation process, Professor Anita Hill accused Thomas of sexual harassment. Regardless, Thomas was confirmed in October 1991.

Early life 
Clarence Thomas was born in Pin Point, Georgia.  His father left his family when he was only two years old. He did not meet his son Clarence again until Clarence was nine years old. This left his mother, Leola Anderson, to take care of the family.

Clarence and his brother were sent to live with his mother's parents in Savannah, Georgia. His grandfather wanted him to become a priest. Thomas was sent to St. John Vianney Minor Seminary, an all-white boarding school near Savannah. In 1968 he transferred to the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts. He gave up all ideas of becoming a priest after the death of Martin Luther King Jr.. Thomas then obtained a law degree at Yale University.

Career 
After Yale he returned to Missouri and worked for State Attorney General, John Danforth. in 1977 Danforth was elected to the U.S. Senate. Thomas became a corporate lawyer for the Monsanto Company. Two years later he became Danforth's legislative aide in Washington, D.C.. President Ronald Reagan offered Thomas a job as the assistant secretary for civil rights in the U.S. Department of Education. He then became the chairman of the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Thomas was appointed to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in 1990 by President George H. W. Bush. In 1991, Thurgood Marshall retired from the Supreme Court. Bush nominated Thomas to replace him.

Supreme Court 
He had a hard time getting approved so that he could become a Supreme Court justice. This was partly because one of his former employees, Anita Hill, claimed that he sexually harassed her. Thomas said that was not true. The Senate confirmed his nomination by a vote of 52-48. All Republicans, except Bob Packwood of Oregon and James Jeffords of Vermont, voted for confirmation.

References

1948 births
Living people
African-American people
American Roman Catholics
Politicians from Georgia (U.S. state)
United States Supreme Court justices
Lawyers from Georgia (U.S. state)
US Republican Party politicians
Stephen Breyer

Stephen Gerald Breyer (; born August 15, 1938) is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He was appointed by President Bill Clinton in 1994. Breyer is generally associated with the more liberal side of the Court.

In January 2022, Breyer announced that he would be retiring from the Supreme Court at the end of the term.

Background
Breyer is of Jewish descent. He has been an Associate Justice since 1994.  Breyer generally favors a liberal interpretation of the law; he is pro-choice and pro-civil liberties. Breyer had the second-longest tenure as the most junior justice on the bench.  Breyer is also the only justice to appear on a quiz show (Wait Wait Don't Tell Me). Before being a judge, he was a professor at Harvard Law School and a judge on the First Circuit Court of Appeals. Breyer is an Eagle Scout.

References

1938 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Oxford
US Democratic Party politicians
Harvard University alumni
Jewish American academics
Jewish judges
Politicians from San Francisco
Stanford University alumni
United States Supreme Court justices
Educators from San Francisco
Ruth Bader Ginsburg

Ruth Joan Bader Ginsburg (March 15, 1933 – September 18, 2020) was an American jurist. She was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1993 until her death. She was nominated by President Bill Clinton. She was known as a feminist icon and was nicknamed "The Notorious R.B.G.".

Ginsburg died on September 18, 2020 in Washington, D.C.

Supreme Court
Ginsburg was appointed by President Bill Clinton and took the oath of office on August 10, 1993. She was the second female justice (after Sandra Day O'Connor) and the first Jewish female justice. Ginsburg was considered a member of the more liberal side of the Supreme Court.

Ginsburg wrote notable majority opinions, including United States v. Virginia, Olmstead v. L.C., and Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc.

She was known as "The Notorious R.B.G.", in reference to the rapper known as "The Notorious B.I.G.".

When John Paul Stevens retired in 2010, Ginsburg became the oldest justice on the court at age 77.

Health
Ginsburg had surgery for colon cancer in 1999 and for pancreatic cancer in 2009. On November 8, 2018, she was hospitalized after fracturing three ribs in a fall.

On August 24, 2019, it was revealed that Ginsburg underwent radiation treatment for pancreatic cancer over the summer. In July 2020, she announced that she had liver cancer.

On September 18, 2020, Ginsburg died from problems caused by metastatic pancreatic cancer in Washington, D.C. at the age of 87.

References

Other websites
 Issue positions and quotes at OnTheIssues
Voices on Antisemitism: Interview with Ruth Bader Ginsburg from the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum
 Ruth Bader Ginsburg, video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America
 
 Supreme Court Associate Justice Nomination Hearings on Ruth Bader Ginsburg in July 1993 United States Government Publishing Office
 Membership at the Council on Foreign Relations

1933 births
2020 deaths
American Jews
American judges
Columbia University alumni
Cornell University alumni
US Democratic Party politicians
Harvard University alumni
Jewish judges
Politicians from New York City
United States Supreme Court justices
Women judges
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
Cancer deaths in Washington, D.C.
Lawyers from New York City
John Roberts

John Glover Roberts, Jr. (born January 27, 1955) is the seventeenth and current Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Appointed by President George W. Bush, Roberts is generally considered a member of the more conservative wing of the court. However since the retirement of Justice Anthony Kennedy, he has been seen as the moderate and tie-breaker in some major Supreme Court cases during the Presidency of Donald Trump.

Before joining the Supreme Court on September 29, 2005, Roberts was a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit for two years.

Roberts has been portrayed as a consistent advocate for conservative principles by analysts such as Jeffrey Toobin.

Roberts was first nominated by President George W. Bush to replace Sandra Day O'Connor as an Associate Justice, but Chief Justice William Rehnquist died before Roberts's confirmation so Bush nominated Roberts to replace Rehnquist instead. Roberts was confirmed by the full United States Senate on September 29 by a margin of 78–22.

References 

United States Supreme Court justices
Chief Justices of the United States
American Roman Catholics

Politicians from Buffalo, New York
1955 births
Living people
Lawyers from New York
Eva Braun

Eva Anna Paula Braun (6 February 1912 – 30 April 1945) was the longtime girlfriend of Adolf Hitler. She met him in Munich when she was 17 years old. They married the day before they committed suicide (killed themselves), Braun killed herself by using cyanide. Hitler used cyanide and at the same time shot himself. When she was married, she was known as Eva Anna Paula Hitler. She was born in Munich, Germany and died in Berlin, Germany at the age of 33. Her body was burned as well as Adolf Hitler.

1912 births
1945 deaths
German Roman Catholics
Hitler family
People from Munich
Suicides by poison
Suicides in Germany
Computer recycling

Computer recycling means taking things from old computers and using them in new computer things. The phrase is also used to mean that computers need to be thrown away in a special way, as they often have things that are bad for the environment or dangerous inside them that can cause problems if they are thrown away like usual waste (garbage).

Secure Recycling 
Sometimes people are worried that the information inside a computer will be stolen when the computer is thrown away. For example, if you have a product design on an old computer, somebody might copy your design. Big companies have a lot of computers, with a lot of private information on them. They will often pay other companies to remove all the information from a computer before it is thrown away. This usually involves physically destroying the drive. It is possible to non-destructively erase the data on a hard drive by overwriting the entire drive with random numbers. With this method, only the data is destroyed, not the drive itself. This allows the drive to be reused.

Computer science
Nagasaki

is the capital city of Nagasaki Prefecture in Japan.

Nagasaki was founded by the Portuguese in the late 16th century and unfounded by the United States of America in the mid 20th century

It has been recognized as a core city since 1997.

History

Nagasaki was founded by the Portuguese in the late 16th century. During the Edo period, Nagasaki was the only port in which trade with other countries was permitted because of the national isolation policy (sakoku).

In the 1870s, Nagasaki became the capital city of the prefecture which evolved from the former province.

Nagasaki was unfounded by the United States on August 9,1945  because she was the second of two Japanese cities which were destroyed with an atomic bomb near the end of the Second World War.

Related pages
 Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
 Hashima

References

Other websites 

 Nagasaki official website; 長崎市
 VISIT NAGASAKI Official Tourism Website for Nagasaki City
Akilattirattu Ammanai

Akilathirattu Ammanai (; from akilam (world) + thirattu (collection) + ammanai (ballad)), also called Thiru Edu (venerable book), is the main religious book of the Southern Indian Ayyavazhi, officially a branch of Hinduism. The title is shortened as Akilam. This is the largest Ammanai work.

History
According to the book, Hari Gopalan Citar wrote this book on the twenty-seventh day of the Tamil month of Karthikai (November/December) in the year 1016 ME (1841 CE). The author says that God woke him up during his sleep and ordered him to take the first words from what he said. Akilathirattu was recorded on palm leaves. Then in 1939 it was given printed form.

According to the author, the book is the story of God coming in this age, the Kali Yukam or Iron Age, to rule the world by transforming it into that of Dharma Yukam. This story of faith has woven together the historical facts about Ayya Vaikundar and his activities, with mixing of episodes from the Hindu Puranas (mythologies) and Itihasas (epics). It is presented as if Vishnu is telling the whole story to his consort Lakshmi.

Though the Citar Hari Gopalan wrote the book Akilam, as per him, he did not know any thing about the contents of the book. He woke up in the morning as usual and he did not know what he had written the day before.

As soon as Ayya Vaikundar attained Vaikundam, the tied-up palm leaf text, which was until then not opened. It was there the regulations of Ayyavazhi contains. As per the instructions found there in Akilam, Ayyavazhi was preached by the Citars far and wide.

Ayyavazhi
Religious texts
Human sexuality

Human sexuality is the ability of people to have sexual experiences and feelings. This involves biological, erotic, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual feelings and behaviors. The most common form of human sexuality is heterosexuality, but homosexuality, bisexuality and asexuality exist too. An abnormal form of sexuality is called a paraphilia, while a normal one is called a normophilia.

References

Other page
LGBT
Pornography
Zirconium

Zirconium is a chemical elemental metal. It is a greyish-white in color. It is atomic number 40 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Zr. And it is in the family of four (4). Zirconium alloys are used as cladding for nuclear fuel rods.

Related pages
Zircon

Chemical elements
Yttrium

Yttrium is a chemical elemental metal. It is atomic number 39 on the periodic table. It is silvery-white and tends to form crystals. In chunk form, it is unreactive in air, but powdered yttrium may burn at 400 degrees Celsius. It has several uses, which include lasers, TV's, and metallurgy.

Chemical elements
Windows 98

Windows 98 is an operating system for computers. Released on June 25, 1998 by Microsoft, it is the successor of Windows 95. It came before Windows Me. Support for Windows 98 ended on July 11, 2006.

Windows 98 was seen by many as a small upgrade to Windows 95, rather than a rebuilt version of Windows. The biggest changes were:
 Internet Explorer (a web browser) was made part of the GUI (what the user sees) and the file manager. This had already happened in the last versions of Windows 95 that were released. This is called 'web integration'.
Larger disk partitions (separations) were allowed.
New tools were added to help make the computer run the way a user wants it to. System Configuration Utility is a tool that lets users turn off programs they do not need to use the computer. Disk Cleanup let users delete old files the computer made.
Some add-ons that were made for Windows 95 were included with Windows 98, such as the changes to the shell from Microsoft Plus! for Windows 95.

Because Microsoft made Internet Explorer such an important part of Windows 98, the company was taken to court by the United States government. This was because they felt it was unfair to other companies who made web browsers.

It is not supported anymore, but many people still use it on older computers that will not run Windows XP or later versions of Windows.

Press demonstration
Before the release of Windows 98, there was a press demonstration at Comdex in April 1998. Microsoft CEO Bill Gates was highlighting the operating system's ease of use and enhanced support for Plug and Play (PnP). When presentation assistant Chris Capossela plugged a scanner in and attempted to install it, Windows 98 displayed a Blue Screen of Death. Gates remarked after applause and cheering from the audience, "That must be why we're not shipping Windows 98 yet." Video footage of this event became a popular Internet phenomenon.

Second Edition 
Windows 98 Second Edition (SE)  was released in 1999. This was an official upgrade to Windows 98 which allowed people to use more types of computer hardware, like monitors and printers, and also let more than one machine on a network use the same Internet connection.

References

Other websites
Windows 98 Homepage. Microsoft. Retrieved on April 22, 2006.
HPC:Factor Windows 98 / 98SE Patches & Updates Guide
A discussion board at MSFN  containing links to unofficial upgrades and patches for this system.
Windows 98 System Requirements
GUIdebook: Windows 98 Gallery - A website dedicated to preserving and showcasing Graphical User Interfaces
Windows 98/98SE UpgradePack - Accumulative patch for recent Windows 98 updates 
BBC News: BBC News: Microsoft shuts down Windows 98
PC World: The shut down of Windows 98 is a cause for concern 
Daylight Saving Time (DST) Fix  
Windows 98 Generic USB Mass Storage Device Drivers - enables Windows98 to support most modern USB flash drives.

Microsoft operating systems
Waste

Waste (or wastes) are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance that is discarded after primary use or is worthless, defective, and of no use.

It may be no longer useful as it has served its purpose, and at the end of the process have no further use, and is generally discarded.  It is unwanted material that people have thrown away.  It is often also called trash, garbage, rubbish, or junk. It can be solid, liquid, or gas, or it can be waste heat. There are many different kinds of waste. Garbage is the waste we produce daily in our homes, including old or unwanted food, chemical substances, paper, broken furniture, used containers, and other things.

When waste is a liquid or gas, it can be called an emission. This is usually pollution. Sanitation is the proper handling of human waste.

Waste can also be something abstract (something that you cannot touch), for example, "a waste of time" or "wasted opportunities". When people use the words waste or wasted in this way, they are saying (directly or indirectly) that something has been used badly (using too much of it or using it incorrectly).

Waste management 
People have thrown away waste in heaps for thousands of years.  In modern homes and businesses, garbage is normally placed in waste containers of some sort.  It is then moved to the street, where it can be collected and taken to a place designed to hold, destroy, or recycle garbage.  Some waste materials, such as paper, wood, glass, metals, and plastic containers, can be recycled (reused).  Materials that cannot be recycled are either burned (incinerated) or heaped into landfills.

Plant matter, such as fruit and vegetable scraps, is biodegradable. It can usually be heaped into a compost, where it will decompose relatively quickly. This kind of waste is often called "wet" or "green" waste.

Very often, waste is not collected in containers. It may instead be thrown onto the ground or dumped somewhere. This is called littering.

Related pages
 Toxic waste

Other websites

A description about the different sources of waste including classification of waste.

 
Basic English 850 words
Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu () is a state in India. The capital of this state is Chennai. Other large cities in Tamil Nadu include Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Salem, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Thanjavur and Thoothukudi. Tamil is the language spoken in Tamil Nadu. It is surrounded by the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Indian Ocean to the south. A small part of Tamil Nadu borders the Arabian Sea to the west. It borders the Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. The Tamilians are very proud of their language and heritage. In traditional Indian geography, it is part of the the South Indian zone.

The current chief minister of the state is M. K. Stalin. He is the leader of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), a political party. The leader of the opposition is Edappadi K. Palaniswami. He belongs to the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIDMK), another political party. These two Dravidian parties have been in power alternately in Tamil Nadu since 1967.

The eastern and western tips of the state are defined by the Point Calimere and Mudumalai wildlife sanctuaries while the southernmost tip is Kanniya Kumari (also called Cape Comorin) at the tip of the Indian peninsula. Tamil Nadu is the 11th largest state in India, with an area of 129,996 km2 and over 62 million people. The major river is Kaveri, which meets the needs of agriculture. Other important rivers include south Pennar, Palar, Vaigai, Tamira bharani, Manimuthar, Noyyal and Bhavani. Tamil Nadu, a South Indian state, is famed for its Dravidian-style Hindu temples. The three ancient Tamil empires of Chera, Chola, and Pandya were of ancient origins. In Tamil Nadu, the Neolithic period had its advent around 2500 BCE.

Districts of Tamil Nadu 
 Chennai
 Coimbatore
 Salem
 Sivaganga
 Cuddalore
 Thanjavur
 Dharmapuri
 Nilgiris
 Dindigul
 Theni
 Erode
 Ariyalur
 Pudukkottai
 Tiruppur
 Thoothukudi
 Kanchipuram
 Chengalpattu
 Kallakurichi
 Tiruchirappalli
 Kanyakumari
 Tirunelveli
 Tenkasi
 Karur
 Tiruvallur
 Krishnagiri
 Tiruvannamalai
 Madurai
 Thiruvarur
 Nagapattinam
 Vellore
 Ranipet
 Tirupathur
 Namakkal
 Viluppuram
 Perambalur
 Virudhunagar
 Ramanathapuram

Provincial symbols of Tamil Nadu

References
Duck

Ducks, closely related to swans and geese, are birds in the family Anatidae. The same family, ducks are not a monophyletic group. They are a 'form taxon', since swans and geese (in the same family) are not called ducks.  The main difference is that ducks have shorter necks, and are smaller. 

Other swimming and diving birds, like grebes and loons, are not ducks. A baby duck is called a duckling, and a male duck is called a drake. Most ducks are aquatic birds. They can be found in both saltwater and fresh water. 

Ducks lay eggs once a year and are omnivorous, eating aquatic plants and tiny animals. Dabbling ducks feed on the surface of water or on land, or as deep as they can reach by up-ending without completely submerging. Along the edge of the beak there is a comb-like structure called a pecten. This strains the water squirting from the side of the beak and traps any food. The pecten is also used to preen feathers. Diving ducks dive deep to get their food.

Many ducks are migratory. This means that they spend the summer months in a different place than the winter months. Ducks show a cosmopolitan distribution, they can be found all over the world, except for Antarctica. Some duck species live on the South Georgia and Auckland Islands, which are subantarctic. Many species have established themselves on remote islands, such as Kerguelen or Hawaii. 

Ducks are sometimes kept as pets. They are often kept by groups of people on public ponds for their beauty and calming nature. People commonly feed ducks in ponds stale bread, thinking that the ducks will like to have something to eat. However bread is not healthy for ducks and can kill them.

The popular fictional ducks include Daffy Duck from Looney Tunes and Donald Duck from Disney.

In poultry 

Some ducks are bred and kept by humans. They are not wild ducks.  They are kept to provide food (meat and eggs), or to use their feathers for pillows and other items in the house. Especially in Asia, many people like to eat duck.

Duck meat is high in fat as it helps the bird float in the water.

The eggs from ducks are thought to have a richer taste than chicken eggs.

Related pages
 Waterfowl
The Ugly Duckling

References

Other websites
North by Northwest

North by Northwest is a 1959 movie thriller from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Alfred Hitchcock directed it, and Cary Grant starred in it.

Like other Hitchcock movies, the music for North by Northwest was composed by Bernard Herrmann.

The famous opening sequence was created by Saul Bass.

Other websites 

 
 Classic Movies: North By Northwest 

1959 movies
1950s thriller movies
American thriller movies
American adventure movies
Movies directed by Alfred Hitchcock
MGM movies
Movies composed by Bernard Herrmann
Door

A door is a hard, flat object a person can open and close so that person can go into a room or other place. It is found in houses and other buildings. Doors are also found in cars and cages.

The reasons for a door are:
 for people, animals, and objects to go through; some doors are for emergencies only (emergency exit)
 to keep cold or hot air outside (or inside, such as the door on a refrigerator)
 so that people cannot see or hear what happens on the other side (privacy and stopping noise)
 so that people do not fall out of the car or other vehicle
 so a person can decide who to let in—many doors have a lock

Types of doors 

A revolving door is a group of doors that turn in a circle as a person pushes one. The person can go through, but wind and rain cannot get in.

A blind door is a fake door that is really part of the wall. People use them to make a room look nice.

An up-and-over door is often used in garages. Instead of hinges, it rolls up on rails so that it stays above the opening.

A fire door is a door that does not let fire go through. They are usually made of heavy steel.

A doggie door is a small door for dogs or other small pets. They are usually on the bottom of people-sized doors.
 

Basic English 850 words
Architectural elements
1540s



Events 
 Hernando de Soto is the first European to see the Mississippi River. 
 Ivan IV of Muscovy becomes the first Tsar of Russia. 
 Edward VI succeeds his father Henry VIII as King of England. 
 Wars between Protestants and Catholics in Europe.
 Japan opens up to Europeans.

Births 
 El Greco, Greek-born artist 
 Mary, Queen of Scots
 Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish writer

Deaths 
 Martin Luther, reformer
 Hernando de Soto, Spanish explorer
 Henry VIII, King of England
 Hernán Cortés, Spanish explorer
 Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin, Mexican Catholic saint
Tsar

Tsar is the title for the supreme ruler of Bulgaria in 913–1422, later usage in 1908–1946, the supreme ruler of Serbia in 1346—1371 and the emperor of Russia from 1546 until 1721. Since 1721 the title of Russian emperors was imperator, but the word tsar remained in common use until the Russian Revolution in 1917.

Tsar is also spelled tzar, czar, and csar. It is the Eastern European word for caesar, and can be translated to emperor. The system of government used during the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire was called Tsarist autocracy, also known as Tsarism.

The last tsar to rule Serbia was Stephen Uroš V.

The last tsar to Rule Russia was Nicholas II.

The last tsar to Rule Bulgaria was Boris III.

Russia
Royalty and nobility
Bulgaria
Russian tsars
1550s



Events 
 Helsinki founded in Finland.
 Rule of Bloody Mary, or Mary I of England from 1553 to 1558.
 São Paulo founded in Brazil. 
 Religious wars continue in Europe.
 Russia breaks peace with Sweden by attacking Finland. 
 The Shaanxi Earthquake, the deadliest earthquake in history.

Births 
 Sarsa Dengel, Emperor of Ethiopia
 King Sebastian of Portugal
 Nurhaci, Chinese founder of the Qing Dynasty

Deaths 
 Tabinshwehti, King of Burma
 Edward VI, King of England 
 Ignatius of Loyola, Spanish founder of the Jesuit priests
1840



Events 
 The Great Natchez Tornado: A massive tornado hits Natchez, Mississippi. Before it was over, 317 people had died and 209 were injured.

Births 
 January 3– Father Damien, priest
 January 18 – Edmund Barton, 1st Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1920)
 May 7 – Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Russian composer
 Kuroda Kiyotaka, Prime Minister of Japan

Deaths 
 May 27 – Niccolò Paganini, Italian violinist and composer
Language isolate

A language isolate is a language that is not known to be related to any other language.

Many languages are related to other languages by coming from an older language, and both are still similar. Languages that are related are language families. Most languages known to belong to a language family. However, some are not known to be related to other languages and are called language isolates.

Some language isolates are Basque, Zuni and Burushaski.

Language isolates
A Streetcar Named Desire (1951 movie)

A Streetcar Named Desire is a 1951 movie. It is based on the 1947 play by Tennessee Williams. The movie stars Marlon Brando and Vivien Leigh.

Other websites 

Plays
1951 drama movies
American drama movies
United States National Film Registry movies
Multilingual movies
Movies directed by Elia Kazan
Tetrahedron

A tetrahedron (triangular pyramid) is a three-dimensional shape. It has four corners. It looks like a pyramid. It has six equally long edges, four corners and four equilateral triangular faces. Every two edges meet on one of those corners forming a sixty-degree angle. All of its sides are triangles.

Formulas for a regular tetrahedron 

A regular tetrahedron is a tetrahedron where all of its edges are the same length. If the length of an edge is a:

References

Platonic solids
Leo Tolstoy

Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy (9 September 1828  20 November 1910) was a Russian novelist and anarchist, famous for writing the books War and Peace and Anna Karenina, and many other works. He was a Christian and believed in non-violence and practiced simple living. His work The Kingdom of God is within you has influenced people like Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King.

Early life
Tolstoy was born at Yasnaya Polyana, the family estate in the region of Tula, Russia and he married Sofia Andreevna Bers.

Death
Tolstoy died in 1910, at the age of 82. He died of pneumonia.

Life and career 
When he was young his parents died, so he and his siblings were brought up by relatives. At the age of 16, he began studying law and oriental languages. Unfortunately, he left University in the middle of his studies and spent much of his time in Moscow and Saint Petersburg. Later on in his life, he joined the Army with his brother after running up some heavy gambling debts. It was at that time that he started writing.

His conversion from a wealthy society author to the non-violent and spiritual anarchist of his later days was notable. It was caused by his experience in the army as well as two trips around Europe in 1857 and 1860–61. Others who followed a similar path were Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin and Peter Kropotkin. During his 1857 visit, Tolstoy saw a public execution in Paris, an experience which marked the rest of his life.

After Anna Karenina, Tolstoy concentrated on Christian themes, and his later novels such as The Death of Ivan Ilyich (1886) and What Is to Be Done? (1886) develop a radical Christian philosophy which led to his excommunication from the Russian Orthodox Church in 1901. 

After shaping both his political and literary development in Europe, he returned to Russia and founded 13 schools for Russia's peasant children.

Related pages 
List of Russian-language novelists
List of Russian novelists

References 

1828 births
1910 deaths
Anarchists
Deaths from pneumonia
Disease-related deaths in Russia
Russian Christians
Russian novelists
Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid

Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid is a 1969 American movie from 20th Century Fox. George Roy Hill directed it, and John Foreman produced it. It stars Paul Newman and Robert Redford as two robbers in Wyoming who go to Bolivia to escape the law.

The movie was loosely based on the real story of the two title characters (Butch Cassidy and his friend Harry Longabaugh, also called "Sundance"). But it made the legends of the two more popular.

It won four Academy Awards: for Best Cinematography (shooting work on a movie), Best Original Score, Best Song (Burt Bacharach's "Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head") and Best Original Screenplay (William Goldman). It was also nominated for Best Picture, Best Director (Hill) and Best Sound. Goldman won the BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay.

It was one of the largest-grossing movies of the 1960s (with $102.3 million in the United States). It was number fifty on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list.

At first, Warren Beatty and Steve McQueen (even Marlon Brando) were called upon to play the title roles. When Newman and Redford took their place, the roles were switched, with Newman as Sundance, and Redford as Cassidy. The studio, 20th Century Fox, did not like Redford's role. But the movie's director, Hill, wanted it that way.

As a result, Redford has said that the movie made him a more famous actor.

The Sundance Film Festival is named after Redford's role, as well his Utah ski resort.

References

Other websites 

 Movie 

1969 movies
1969 crime movies
1960s western movies
20th Century Fox movies
BAFTA Award winners
English-language movies
United States National Film Registry movies
American crime movies
American western movies
American buddy movies
Movies set in Wyoming
Multilingual movies
Movies that won the Best Original Song Academy Award
Movies directed by George Roy Hill
1480s



Events 
 War of the Roses in England.
 Bartolomeu Dias of Portugal sails around Africa and on to India.
 Spanish Inquisition begins.

Births 
 Martin Luther, German monk and reformer 
 Raphael, Italian painter and architect 
 Huldrych Zwingli, Swiss religious reformer 
 Catherine of Aragon, queen of Henry VIII of England

Deaths 
 Mehmed II, Ottoman Sultan 
 King Christian I of Denmark and Norway 
 Axayacatl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan
Mehmed II

Mehmed II or Mehmed the conqueror (, Meḥmed-i sānī; Modern , ; 30 March 1432 – 3 May 1481) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire for a short time from 1444 to 1446, and later from 1451 to 1481. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople, bringing an end to the medieval Byzantine Empire.

Related pages
Mehmed the Conqueror
Byzantine Empire
Sultan
Turkey

References

Other websites

Biography page at OttomanOnline 

Sultans of the Ottoman Empire
History of the Middle East
1481 deaths
Umbilicus

The umbilicus (also called navel or bellybutton) is a place on the body of mammals that is left after a baby loses its umbilical cord. The umbilicus of humans is in the middle of the abdomen. It is usually only easy to see on humans, and is a thin line on many other mammals. In humans, they can be split into two different kinds, the kind that goes in (innie) and the kind that goes out (outie). Different people have different navels that can be different in size, shape, and looks, but these differences are not genetic (you do not get them from looks passed down in your family). The hepatic portal vein passes from the umbilical vein to the liver. When a person becomes fat, the fat usually goes around the umbilicus.

It marks the water shed line of the body. The venus blood & lymph do not cross the umbilical plane.

Other websites

Torso
James Cook

Captain James Cook, FRS (27 October 1728 – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator and cartographer. He made three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, mapping many areas and recording several islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He is most notable for the British finding the east coast of Australia, finding the Hawaiian Islands and for making the first maps of Newfoundland and New Zealand.   

During his lifetime, he sailed twice around the world. He crossed the Antarctic Circle and found new islands and landscapes in North America and the South Pacific. During his trips, he spent a lot of time on science experiments, and mapping new areas. He also wrote a lot of books about what he found.

Cook's life 
Cook was born on 27 November 1728 in Marton in Yorkshire in England. He was a son of a Scottish farmer. He was educated at the school in Great Ayton, and at 17 he began work in a shop at Staithes. At 18, Cook became a sailor, and became an apprentice to John Walker of Whitby. Walker's business was transporting coal. Cook learned mathematics and navigation from Walker. He studied as much as he could about navigation and science. He was sent on three expeditions with the ship called Endeavour all over the world.

His goals on these missions were:
 to find the Southern continent (terra australis incognita)
 to make astronomical measures of Venus
 to map new lands
 to take over the land for King George III
 to watch for good places for new military bases
 to find new routes between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean
to establish an observatory in Tahiti

Captain Cook was killed in Hawaii in a dispute about a stolen boat.

Cook's Family 
He had four sons and one daughter. Their names were Elizabeth Cook, Hugh Cook, George Cook, Nathaniel Cook and  Joseph Cook. His father’s name was James Cook. He had 3 sisters and 2 brothers. Their names were Mary Cook, who died at age 4, Margaret Cook, William Cook, Jane Cook and John Cook. 

References

1728 births
1779 deaths
English explorers
English murder victims
Exploration of Australia
Murders by blade weapons
People from Yorkshire
Sailors
Offside rule

The offside rule is one of the oldest football rules, but is still a much discussed rule. This is probably because of the relatively complicated set of provisions provided by the sport's law-making body, the IFAB for deciding if a player in an offside position is actually guilty of an offside offence by becoming involved in active play.  It can also be a difficult decision for the referee or assistant referee to make as they need to watch the ball, the player playing the ball and also the attacker who is seeking to receive the ball at the same time. 

Offside is an offence committed by the team which has the ball and is punished with an indirect free kick.
It is a common misconception that the ball must be played forward for an offside offence to be committed. This is incorrect however, as an offside offence is related to the position of the player in relation to the last two opponents, the ball and the opponent's goal line rather than the direction the ball is played. If the player is closer to the opponent's goal line than both the ball and the second-last opponent when it is played by a team mate, she or he is in an offside position. 

But there are some exceptions:
 Players cannot be offside in their own half of the field.
 It is not possible to be offside from a throw-in, corner kick or goal kick.
 If the ball is deliberately played by a member of the opposing team, an attacker cannot be offside.
 A player who is behind the other team's goal line is considered to be on the goal line for the purposes of offside. It is an offence to leave or re-enter the field of play without permission but not if it is part of a natural playing movement.
 If the player is behind the ball when it is played, he or she cannot be offside.
 An attacker who is exactly in line with the 2nd last defender or the ball is not considered to be offside.
 If a player does not become involved in active play, then it is not an offside offence even if that player is in an offside position (the concept of passive offside introduced in 1924). A player can become involved in active play by touching the ball (either directly from a team mate's touch or after it rebounds off the goal frame or an opponent) or interfering with another player's ability to play the ball.

Football (soccer) terminology

cs:Ofsajd#Fotbal
fi:Paitsio
Valentine's Day

Valentine's Day is a celebration that happens on February 14.  It is the day of the year when lovers celebrate their love.  This can be done by giving flowers, chocolates, Valentine's cards or just a nice gift.  Love notes can be given to one another.  These notes that people give out are also called valentines.   Some people pick one person and call them their "Valentine" as a gesture to show love and appreciation.

Symbols of Valentine's Day are heart shapes, roses, and Cupid with his arrows.

Valentine's Day is named for the martyred Christian saint named Valentine. He was a bishop that married forbidden couples.

Since the 14th century, Valentine's pairs are formed in England. English emigrants then took the Valentine's custom to the United States. After  World War II, US soldiers brought this festival to Europe.

Legend 
In the third century A.D., Valentine was the bishop of Terni (Italy). He performed weddings for couples who were not allowed to get married. They may not have been allowed to get married because the parents did not agree with the connection or because the bridegroom was a soldier or a slave, so the marriage was forbidden. Valentine gave the married couple flowers from his garden. That's why flowers play a very important role on Valentine's Day. This did not please the emperor. On February 14, 269 AD, Valentine was beheaded because of his Christian faith.

An expansion of the legend combines the day of death of Valentine with the Roman festival Lupercalia. It was the festival of the great goddess Lupa, which is the feminine word for wolf. She was the Great She-Wolf who nursed the twin babies, Romulus and Remus, who later became the founders of Rome. During the annual ceremony, the temple priestesses (lupae) wrote their names on strips of papyrus. These were picked by young men. After the lottery, the youngsters walked through the city and got the blessings of the citizens. The martyr Valentine became the patron saint of the lovers. Still in the Middle Ages, as in France or in Belgium, people were chosen by the lottery to live a year with each other and people prayed to Saint Valentine to make love potions and charms.

United States and Europe 
In the 19th century, the custom of sending Valentine's Cards became very popular. The cards usually have pictures of hearts or flowers and contain some sort of poem, message, or code. Codes and simple messages give some people the  to show their true feelings to the person they love. Today, some people still use mysterious codes to show their love. People can use newspapers to give a coded message to their loved one, giving other readers a view of the couples' intimacy with one another. Sometimes they will give each other chocolates.

Famous for the popularity of the celebration is the folk song called "Die Vogelhochzeit" ("The Birds' Wedding").

China 

In China, a holiday called Qi Xi is also called "Chinese Valentine's Day", especially by younger people. Qi Xi is traditionally held on the 7th day of the 7th month of the lunar calendar. In recent years, it has become more like Valentine's Day in other countries.

References 

Observances
February events
Canary Islands

The Canary Islands are a group of islands off the coast of Morocco. They are an autonomous community of Spain (they make their own laws). There are seven main islands. The people who live there speak Spanish. The autonomous community has two capital cities, of equal status: Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Like the other islands of Macaronesia, they were created by volcanoes on the bottom of the sea. Those volcanoes slowly rose above the water and became islands. This process lasted many thousands of years.

The islands have a very long and interesting history. When Europeans first came to the Canary Islands, they found people already living there. These people were called the Guanches.  Many of the Guanches were killed in 15th century battles with the Spanish, and the ones who remained adopted the Spanish way of life.  After the Spanish conquest many battles were also fought against pirates.  Most recently Morocco was interested in them. 

After the Spanish conquest many Europeans settled there. Portuguese and Spaniards, and also Belgians and Maltese were among the early settlers. Recently many people from all over Europe, America, India and Africa have also become citizens or permanent residents.

The seven islands are: La Palma, La Gomera, El Hierro, Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, and Fuerteventura. People from La Gomera have a whistle language that children there learn at school. Tenerife has the highest mountain in the Canary Islands and Spain too, the Teide. The Teide is actually a volcano, but it has not been active in more than 300 years. 

The islands are popular with tourists because of their warm climate and nice beaches. The local farmers grow lots of exotic fruits including papayas and bananas.

The Canary Islands' main exports include bananas and tobacco.

References

Other websites
 
 

Archipelagos
Edinburgh Airport

Edinburgh Airport (IATA EDI, ICAO: EGPH) is an airport in Scotland. It is one of seven airports in the United Kingdom owned by the company BAA, which also owns Glasgow Airport and Aberdeen Airport in Scotland.
 It is served by many different airlines including Scot Airways, British Airways, EasyJet, BMI, Continental Airlines, Air France, and Lufthansa. The airport has good road links to the city centre with a bus running every 10 minutes from the airport to the centre of Edinburgh, a number of taxis are always available. Just over 9 million people a year use the airport, but there are plans to make the airport bigger in the future.

On 19th October 2011, BAA Limited said that it is going to sell Edinburgh Airport. This was done following a decision by the UK's Competition Commission which said that BAA needs to sell either Glasgow or Edinburgh Airport.

Accidents
In February of 2001 a Shorts 360 crashed shortly after taking off from Edinburgh Airport. Both pilots were killed but there were no passengers on board as it was a mail-carrying flight.

References

Other websites 
Edinburgh Airport official website

Edinburgh
Airports in Scotland
Lufthansa

Lufthansa is the largest airline in Germany, and the second-largest in Europe.  Some of Lufthansa's hubs are Frankfurt am Main and Munich, Germany.  A hub is an airport where people who fly from one city to a second city can transfer or change airplanes.  

Lufthansa buys airplanes from Boeing and Airbus.  Lufthansa has big airplanes for flights to North America, Asia, and Africa.  These flights are called long-haul flights because they are between cities that are far apart from each other.  Lufthansa also has small airplanes for flights in Europe.  These flights are called short-haul flights. 

Lufthansa is a member  of the Star Alliance, which means it is a partner with other airlines like United Airlines and Air Canada.  Members of the Star Alliance cooperate or work together to schedule their flights better so that travelling is easier for passengers or people.  

The name of Lufthansa's frequent flyer program is Miles and More.  People earn points for flights they travel on.  When they have enough points, they can get a free flight.  Lufthansa has "Miles and More" to encourage people to fly with Lufthansa.

Many regional flights are operated Lufthansa Regional with Lufthansa CityLine, Eurowings and Air Dolomiti.

Fleet 

Lufthansa uses these aeroplanes:

Pictures

References

Other websites 

Lufthansa website 

Star Alliance
Airlines of Germany
IATA members
1950s establishments in Germany
Transport in Germany
871



Events 
Somerton becomes the capital of the Kingdom of Wessex.
Alfred the Great succeeds as king of Wessex after Ethelred of Wessex's death.
1084

Year 1084 (MLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events 
 May : Sack of Rome by the Normans of Robert Guiscard.

Births 
 David I of Scotland
Neon

Neon is a chemical element on the periodic table. It is part of the noble gas group and it has an atomic number of 10. It is an odorless and tasteless gas.

History 
The word "neon" comes from the Greek word meaning "new" as it was discovered by William Ramsay and Morris W. Travers in 1898.

Chemistry 
Neon does not react with other elements, so it is found in pairs by itself. There is not much neon in the air, and it is clear, so we do not see it.

It was previously thought that Neon could not bond with any other elements, creating compounds. However, there have been a few compounds that have been made with neon, such as NeAuF and NeBeS.

Uses 
Neon gas is used in gas discharge lamps. When electricity goes through the neon, it lights up red. Due to this quality, it is used in light up signs. Similar signs use other gases to make other colors, but they are also often called "neon signs". Neon is also a term referring to a type of color that is very bright, such as lime green.

Related pages
List of common elements
 Neon lamp

References

Noble gases
Noble gas

The noble gases are a group of elements that are all gases. These elements are all in group 18 of the periodic table. All of them are monoatomic, meaning each molecule is a single atom. They almost never react with other elements. This is because they have a full 8 electrons outer electron shell. There are six noble gases:

 helium
 neon
 argon
 krypton
 xenon
 radon

All of these gases are found in air. They make up around 0.96% of the atmosphere. Noble gas compounds can be formed from noble gases.

When the noble gases are used in cold cathode tubes to produce light, each of them has a different colour. Since Radon is radioactive, it is usually not used for lighting. Here are pictures of what the others look like:

Oganesson (element 118) is probably the next noble gas after Radon because it is the next box down in the same group. However it has a half life of 0.89 ms, after which it decays to Livermorium (Element 116). This means its use is probably limited.

Noble gases were discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay. Rayleigh won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1904 for his work on noble gas. Ramsay won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1904 for his work with noble gas.

References 

 
Periodic table
Polonium

Polonium is a rare radioactive metalloid. It is chemical element 84 on the periodic table and its symbol is Po. It was discovered in 1898 by Marie and Pierre Curie.

Polonium is highly unstable, radioactive and toxic. This makes it difficult to handle. It can be dangerous, even in very small amounts. One gram of Po will self-heat to a temperature of about . It also vaporizes easily.

Polonium has 33 isotopes, and all of them are radioactive. It is a very rare element in nature because of its short half-life. It is a breakdown product of uranium, so it is found in uranium ores. 

Polonium is also very important because it the main element of nuclear bombs.

References 

Chemical elements