cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Madrigal

A madrigal is a special kind of song for a small group of people to sing. Madrigals were popular in the 16th and 17th centuries. This was the end of the Renaissance music and beginning of the Baroque periods. They started in Italy and became very popular for a short time in England as well as in France. The words of madrigals are always about secular (non-religious) things, e.g. about love.

When Italian composers started writing madrigals the kinds of songs they knew were the frottola, the motet and the French chanson (song). The first madrigals were for 2 or 3 voices, but later many madrigals were written for 4 or 5 voices. These voices might be single voices (one person to each part) or several people. Sometimes the lines would also be played by an instrument, but the madrigal is usually sung unaccompanied.

The madrigal was the most important secular form of music of its time. In Italy it was very popular between about 1550 and 1630. In England the madrigal period was about 1588 to 1620. 

In 1533 a book called Primo libro di Madrigali (First Book of Madrigals) was collected and published by Philippe Verdelot in Venice. It made madrigals very popular. Jacob Arcadelt published several volumes of madrigals which were very important for their development. In 1588 in England Nicholas Yonge published a collected called Musica Transalpina (Music from over the Alps). These were Italian madrigals with translated texts. The madrigal suddenly became extremely popular in England and remained so until after 1620 when it gradually became less important.

People liked madrigals because they were fun. Whenever possible the composer made the music sound like the word being sung. A word like “smile” would have quick music, “sigh” would have a note followed by a short rest, as if the singer were sighing, “rise so high” would be sung to music which rose very high. This kind of thing was called “word-painting”. It can be found in religious music as well, but the way it was used in madrigals was new and exciting. Very often there would be a verse and a refrain which was often just sung to words such as “fa la la la la”. The songs were often about shepherds and shepherdesses falling in love.

The  most important composers of madrigals in Italy were Giovanni da Palestrina, Luca Marenzio, Jacques Arcadelt, Adrian Willaert, Cipriano de Rore, Carlo Gesualdo, Giaches de Wert and Claudio Monteverdi. In England they were William Byrd, Thomas Morley, John Wilbye, Thomas Weelkes, John Dowland, Orlando Gibbons and Thomas Tomkins. About the franco-flemish , Orlando di Lasso, Josquin des Prez . About the spanish, Tomás Luis de Victoria, Mateo Flecha.

Performance of madrigals 

In the Renaissance, madrigals were performed either as entertainment at important feasts, or for relaxed enjoyment by groups of amateurs in their homes, as madrigals were a secular style of song.

Nowadays, madrigals are often sung by high school or college madrigal choirs often as an after-dinner entertainment. Sometimes the singers wear Renaissance costumes.

Musical forms
Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld

The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld was one of the Ernestine duchies. Ernest, who became elector of Saxony in 1464, divided his territory between his sons, andover the years more and more small duchies existed.

Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld was reformed on 29 July 1735, although Coburg and Saalfeld had had the same ruler since 1699. As only men could be the rulers of the duchies, Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld ceased to exist in 1825, when the last male descendant of the dukes of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg died. The various dukes reorganised their territories. Saalfeld went the dukes of Saxe-Meiningen, Altenburg went to the Duke of Saxe-Hildburgausen, who gave Hildburghausen to the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen. Gotha and Coburg were combined into the new duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.

Dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld 

House of Wettin
States of the Confederation of the Rhine
States of the German Confederation
States of the Holy Roman Empire
Thuringia
Sonora

Sonora is a Mexican state, in the northwestern Mexico region. Sonora borders the states of Chihuahua to the east, Sinaloa to the south, and Baja California to the northwest. To the north Sonora accounts for a long stretch of the U.S.-Mexico border adjacent to the U.S. states of Arizona and  New Mexico; to the west it borders the Gulf of California (Sea of Cortez).

Description 
There are various explanations as to the origin of the word Sonora. Here, we will tell you some of the most widely accepted versions. One of these says that when the Spaniards arrived in the lands occupied by the Opata people, they built a chapel and painted an image of the Virgin on a buffalo skin. Over time, when the Opatas began to worship the Virgin, they used to call her Senora instead of the Spanish word Señora (Our Lady). Finally, it would seem that this word became Sonora as we know it today. 

Another version has it that Sonora is derived from the Opata word, sonotl which means corn leaf. A legend speaks of an indigenous group that lived near the village of Huépac, and who used corn leaves to cover the walls and roofs of their huts. Yet another version insists that the word comes from the name of a tribe that lived on the banks of the Sonora River; these people were known as the Sonora Indians. This river crosses a large part of the state. It is also useful to understand that, just as Mexico has its national emblems, so the state of Sonora has its own coat-of-arms. 

 
States of Mexico
Monsoon

A monsoon is a seasonal wind which lasts for several months. The word was first used in English for the seasonal rains in the Indian subcontinent. These rains blow in from the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea in the southwest bringing heavy rainfall to the area.

Monsoons also occur in other regions such as in North America, Sub-Saharan Africa, Brazil and East Asia.

Monsoons happen because of a simple fact: land heats up faster than water. The temperature difference between the land and sea can be as much as 20°C – land temperatures in India can be hotter than 45°C, while the surrounding water in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea remains in the low 20s. The heat absorbed by the land warms the air above it. The hot air rises, and cooler ocean air rushes inland to replace it. As it moves, it carries moisture with it, releasing it over land as the summer monsoon (also known as southwest monsoon). 

The hot air over the land tends to rise, creating an area of low pressure. This creates a steady wind blowing toward the land, bringing the moist near-surface air over the oceans with it. Rainfall is increased by the moist ocean air being lifted upwards by mountains, as with the Tibetan Plateau, and by surface heating.

References 

Severe weather
Winds
Baja California (state)

Baja California is a Mexican state in the northern section of the Baja California Peninsula. It borders the state Baja California Sur to the south, and Sonora to the east. It also borders the U.S. state of California to the north. It means "Lower California".

Baja California is both the furthest north and furthest west state in Mexico.

 
States of Mexico
Verizon Ladies First Tour

Verizon Ladies First Tour is a 2004 joint concert tour by American R&B/soul singers Beyoncé and Alicia Keys and American rapper Missy Elliott.

Tour dates

2004 in the United States
Alicia Keys
Beyoncé concert tours
Dangerously in Love World Tour

The Dangerously In Love World Tour was singer Beyoncé's first solo concert tour, intended to showcase songs from her debut solo album, Dangerously in Love.

The show 

The stage was simple and featured a large LED screen in the back that moved up and down throughout the entire show and displayed video images of Beyoncé and her dancers, as well as some images from her music videos and some prerecorded images with special effects. 

The set list included not only Dangerously in Love material, but also contained a special segment of her show dedicated to her erstwhile group Destiny's Child. This concert also featured songs from Beyoncé's 2003 film The Fighting Temptations ("Fever" and "Summertime"). A highlight for many fans was her performance of "Dangerously in Love 2".

Setlist 

"Baby Boy"
"Naughty Girl"  Costume Change
"Fever"  Costume Change
"Hip Hop Star"
"Yes"
"Work It Out"  Costume Change
"Gift from Virgo" 
"Be with You"
"Speechless"
"DC Medley": "Bug a Boo"/"No, No, No Part 2"/"Bootylicious"/"Jumpin' Jumpin'"/"Say My Name"/"Independent Women Part I"/"'03 Bonnie & Clyde"/"Survivor"
"Me, Myself and I"
"Summertime"  Costume Change
"Dangerously in Love 2"  Costume Change
"Crazy in love"

Tour dates 

Beyoncé concert tours
2003 in Europe
2000s in Manchester
21st century in London
History of Dublin
History of Amsterdam
November events
Déjà Vu (song)

Déjà Vu is a funk song written by Beyoncé Knowles, Rodney Jerkins, Delisha Thomas, Makeba, Keli Nicole Price, and Shawn "Jay-Z" Carter for Knowles' second solo album, B'Day (2006). It features rapper Jay-Z and production by Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins, utilizing the bass, hi-hat, and the 808 instruments and sound system, reminiscent of many popular Rich Harrison productions. Released as the album's lead single in the third quarter of 2006, "Déjà Vu" reached number one in Brazil, China, Poland, and the United Kingdom. While the song failed to match the success of 2003's "Crazy in Love", it entered the top ten on the majority of the charts it appeared on. It also was nominated for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration and Best R&B Song at the 2007 Grammy Awards.

Charts

References

Beyoncé songs
Jay-Z songs
2006 songs
If (Beyoncé song)

If is an R&B ballad by Beyoncé Knowles. The song is her final single from her second album B'Day: Deluxe Edition. The song was most likely chosen due to the fact that originally it was not available in the U.S. as it was an international track, but due to the Des'ree law suit, the U.S. version of the album with the track "Still In Love (Kissing You)" was replaced by a version with "If". A CD single of the song was created for her official fan club and is available for purchase from their online store.

References

2007 songs
2000s ballads
R&B songs
Beyoncé songs
Number 1's

#1's is a compilation album released by R&B group Destiny's Child. It was released on October 25, 2005 charting at #1 on the Billboard album chart, and at #6 on the UK album chart. It is the best selling greatest-hits album by a female group. Despite the album's title, only 5 of the singles went to the #1 spot on the Billboard Hot 100, and one single, ("Check On It") was sung solely by Beyonce with an additional rap from Slim Thug.

Track listing 
 Stand Up for Love (2005 World Children's Day Anthem)
 Independent Women Part I
 Survivor
 Soldier (feat. T.I. & Lil Wayne)
 Check on It (Beyoncé feat. Slim Thug)
 Jumpin' Jumpin'
 Lose My Breath
 Say My Name
 Emotion
 Bug A Boo
 Bootylicious
 Bills, Bills, Bills
 Girl
 No, No, No|No, No, No Part 2 (feat. Wyclef Jean)
 Cater 2 U
 Feel The Same Way I Do

Bonus Tracks 
 "Brown Eyes" (Int. bonus track)
 "So Good" (Japan bonus track)
 "Nasty Girl" (Japan bonus track)

Charts 

Destiny's Child albums
Beyoncé albums
2005 albums
Compilation albums
Ciara

Ciara Princess Harris (born October 25, 1985) professionally known as Ciara, is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, dancer, and actress.

Music career 
In 2004, Ciara released her debut studio album Goodies, which produced three hit singles: "Goodies," "1, 2 Step," and "Oh." The album was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and earned her four nominations at the 48th Grammy Awards. She released her second studio album, Ciara: The Evolution, in 2006 which spawned the hit singles "Get Up," "Promise," and "Like a Boy." The album reached number one in the US and was certified platinum. Her third studio album Fantasy Ride, released in 2009, was considerably less successful than Ciara's first two albums. However, it produced the worldwide top-ten hit "Love Sex Magic"  featuring Justin Timberlake, which earned her a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. The following year, Ciara released her fourth studio album Basic Instinct, which was met with low sales and continued a downward trend in her commercial success. In 2011, she signed a new record deal with Epic Records, and  she released her  fifth studio album, Jackie, which is preceded by the lead single, "Sorry” in 2015. In 2019, she released her sixth studio album, Beauty Marks, which is preceded by the hit lead singles, "Level Up", “Thinkin  Bout You” and the album titled song “Beauty Marks “.

Personal life
On Ciara's 28th birthday, Future asked her if she would marry him. They became engaged but was the engagement was called off later that year. January 14, 2014 Ciara said on The View that she was pregnant with Future's child. In June 2016, she married Seattle Seahawks  NFL star quarterback Russell Wilson. They had their  first child, Sienna Princess Wilson, on April 29, 2017.

Discography

 Goodies (2004)
 Ciara: The Evolution (2006)
 Fantasy Ride (2009)
 Basic Instinct (2010)
 Ciara (2013)
 Jackie (2015)
 Beauty Marks (2019)

Tours
Headlining
 2006: The Evolution Tour
 2007: Screamfest '07 (with T.I.)
 2009: Jay-Z & Ciara Live (with Jay-Z)
 2010: Basic Instanct Tour
 2015: Jackie Tour
 2019: ''Beauty Marks Tour

Supporting act
 2005: Harajuku Lovers Tour 2005
 2007: Good Girl Gone Bad Tour
 2009: The Circus Starring Britney Spears
 2010: Summerbeatz

References

 
1985 births
Living people
Actors from Austin, Texas
African American actors
African-American singers
American dancers
American movie actors
American record producers
Grammy Award winners
Singer-songwriters from Texas
Mykolaiv

Mykolaiv (, also referred to as or Mykolayiv, Nikolaev, or Nikolayev; ) is a major city in southern Ukraine. 

The city is located 65 kilometers from the Black Sea along the estuary of the Southern Buh river (where it meets the Inhul River) at around . Population 514,000 (as of 2001 Ukrainian Census).

Administrative status 

It is the administrative center of the Mykolaiv Oblast (province), as well as of both the Mykolaivsky and Zhovtnevy raions (districts) within the oblast. However, Mykolaiv is a city of oblast subordinance, thus being subject directly to the oblast authorities rather to the raion administration housed in the city itself.

History 

The town was founded in 1789 by the Russian Governor General of  Novorossiya Knyaz Potemkin initially as a shipyard called simply a New Shipyard on the Ingul river. Knyaz Potemkin signed an order to construct a shipyard on August 27, 1789, which is considered to be a city birth date. The shipyard was to serve for the repair of the Russian Navy ships in the Russo-Turkish war. Later Potemkin ordered the shipyard to be named Nikolaev to commemorate the date of fall of Ochakov to the Russian troops under his command on December 6, 1788, close to the day of Saint Nicholas (Nikolay) December 19, in the Russian Orthodox Church. 

The history of the city has always been closely connected to the ship building.

The only  Russian Navy aircraft carrier currently in commission, Admiral Flota Sovetskogo Soyuza Kuznetsov, was built in Mykolaiv.

Economy 

Today Mykolaiv is a major ship building center of Ukraine (as, earlier, of the whole Soviet Union) and an important riverport. The city has 3 major shipyards some of which are capable of building large navy ships.  Other important industries are mechanical engineering, power engineering, metallurgy and cosmetics.

Other websites 

 Website
 Wikimapia - Satellite map of Mykolaiv at Wikimapia

Cities in Ukraine
1789 establishments
Establishments in Ukraine
1780s establishments in Europe
Faisal Mosque

The Faisal Mosque is a mosque in Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan. It is the National mosque of Pakistan, and one of the largest mosques in the Islamic world. It is named after King Faisal of Saudi Arabia. It was the biggest mosque for over six years between 1986 and 1993).

Gallery

References

Other websites 

 Click here to see a highly detailed 3D Model of Faisal Masjid in Google Earth.
 Faisal Mosque - ArchNet Digital Library 
 Faisal Mosque - World is Round 

Buildings and structures in Islamabad
Mosques in Asia
National symbols of Pakistan
Religion in Pakistan
1986 establishments in Asia
20th-century establishments in Pakistan
Song cycle

A song cycle in classical music is a group of songs that belong together.  Although each song may be sung separately, the composer really imagined that they would be performed together as one work.  Sometimes they tell a story, but sometimes they just belong together because they are about the same idea (e.g. the sadness that can be caused by love).  They are often for solo voice and piano accompaniment, but they can also be without accompaniment, or with several instruments or even a whole orchestra. The words of a cycle are often by the same poet, but this is not always the case.

Song cycles started to become popular with composers in the Romantic period. Although there were examples of song cycles written before that, it was the German composers of the 19th century who are most often thought of as writers of song cycles. Their songs are called "Lieder".

The great composer Franz Schubert wrote about 600 songs. These include two long song cycles: Winterreise (Winter’s Journey) and Die schöne Müllerin (The beautiful miller’s daughter).  Each of these song cycles is long enough for a whole concert. Robert Schumann wrote song cycles including two which he simply called Liederkreise (Song Cycles), and his well-known Dichterliebe (Poet’s Love) and Frauenliebe und -Leben (Women’s Love and Life).  Brahms wrote Vier ernste Gesänge (Four Serious Songs), and Gustav Mahler, who became very interested in folk song, wrote several song cycles with orchestra accompaniment, including Das Lied von der Erde (The Song of the Earth).

French composers who wrote song cycles include Jules Massenet, Gabriel Fauré and Claude Debussy.  Russian composers include Modest Mussorgsky and Dmitri Shostakovich, and English and American composers in the 20th century include Michael Tippett, Benjamin Britten and Aaron Copland as well as the South American Alberto Ginastera, Juan María Solare and Heitor Villa-Lobos.

Related pages
Lied

Song forms
Quetta

Quetta () is the capital and largest city of Balochistan province in Pakistan. It is famous for its climate and buildings. It is to the north of Balochistan, 133 kilometers away from Spin Buldak, Afghanistan.

In 1935, a powerful earthquake hit Quetta. The earthquake was felt between 2:30 am to 3:40 am. It resulted in the collapse of buildings, that is why there is no historical building in Quetta.

History 
Quetta is also spelled Kuwatah which is a variation of Kot, a Pashto word meaning "fortress".

Quetta was captured by Mehmood Ghaznavi in the 11th century. The Khans of Kalat ruled Quetta until 1556 when the Persians conquered the city, only to have it retaken by Mughal Emperor Akbar in 1595. Despite all this, the Khans of Kalat were successful in restoring their rule in the region by the 18th century.

The predominantly Muslim population supported the Muslim League and the Pakistan Movement. On joining Pakistan, Quetta was made the capital city of the newly created province of Balochistan.

Geography 
Quetta lies close to the borders of Afghanistan. Traders and invaders have passed through Quetta since pre-historic times. Quetta is 1,645 meters above the sea level. It is near the Hazarganji-Chitan National Park.

It has a cold and windy in winter moderate summers.

References

Other websites
 Quetta, Google Maps

Capital cities in Pakistan
Cities in Pakistan
Gilgit

Gilgit () is the capital and largest city of Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. About 216.000 people live there.

Hill Stations in Pakistan
Capital cities in Pakistan
Frottola

The frottola (plural: frottole) was the most popular kind of secular (non-religious) song in Italy during the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

Frottole were quite simple and fun.  They were often sung by small groups of singers.  They were not contrapuntal, but they had a tune in the top part while the other singers sang chords to accompany the tune.  Sometimes they might have been sung by a solo voice with a lute accompaniment.

The most famous composer of frottole was Bartolomeo Tromboncino.  The great composer Josquin also composed frottole, although that is not what he called them.  For example, there is a well-known one called El Grillo ( The Cricket) in which the singers try to sound like the chirping of a cricket in the grass.

About the year 1530 the frottola developed into the madrigal.

Song forms
Bartolomeo Tromboncino

Bartolomeo Tromboncino (born Verona around 1470; died in or near Venice in 1535 or later) was an Italian composer.  He lived in the Renaissance period.  He is famous as a composer of songs called frottole.  He is also remembered because he murdered his wife.

We know very little about his life.  He probably grew up in Mantua.  In a letter he says that he came from Verona. Until around 1500 he lived and worked in Mantua, but sometimes he went to other towns when he was in trouble. In 1499 he found his wife with another man, so he murdered her.  He may also have murdered the other man.  We cannot be sure about this.
He does not seem to have been punished.  This may be because a rich lady called Isabella d'Este liked him.

From 1502 Tromboncino was employed by a rich lady called Lucrezia Borgia.  She is remembered today because she was a very bad woman.  He  wrote music for the court and for her wedding to Alfonso d'Este. Sometime before 1521 he moved to Venice, where he probably spent the rest of his life.

His frottole are very lively and full of fun.  He played the trombone.  This is how he got his name.  He also wrote some serious sacred music.

1470s births
16th-century deaths
Italian composers
Renaissance composers
People from Verona
De jure

De jure is an expression from the Latin words meaning "in law".

It is often used in contrast to de facto (which means "in fact", or "in practice") when talking about law, governance, or technique. When talking about law, "de jure" is used to describe what the law says, and "de facto" is used to describe what actually happens.

Examples 

  This means that legally the territory of Abkhazia is a part of the country of Georgia, but that it is in effect independent.

The de jure name of Bill Clinton is William Jefferson Clinton.  This is his name according to official records.  His de facto name is Bill Clinton because this is what he is usually called.

References 

Latin phrases
Legal terms

fr:Liste de locutions latines#D
Boy George

George Alan O'Dowd, better known as Boy George (born 14 June 1961 in Bexley, Kent) is a rock singer-songwriter and Club DJ. He grew up in a large, working-class Irish family. The family which originally came form Thurles, in Co. Tipperary, Ireland.

O'Dowd was a part of the British new romantic movement which emerged in the late 1970s and was popularised in the early 1980s. He and Marilyn (born Peter Robinson) were regulars at 'The Blitz' a very popular nightclub in London.  It was run by Steve Strange of the musical group Visage.  The Blitz was a starting place for many early 1980s pop stars such as Spandau Ballet. The new romantics based their image on the coolness of David Bowie and high fashion. They liked the music of Bowie, Kraftwerk, Marc Bolan and post punk New Wave.

O'Dowd gained fame with his group Culture Club during the 1980s. His music is often called blue-eyed soul. He was heavily influenced by Rhythm and Blues and reggae. Early recordings with Culture Club showed that O'Dowd's vocals had an emotional quality which was like American soul music of the 1960s and 1970s. His later solo work has also touched on glam rock influences and was particularly influenced by David Bowie and Iggy Pop.

O'Dowd is also known for his flamboyant and androgynous appearance during the 1980s and early 1990s.

On 11 May 2009, Boy George was released from prison at HMP Edmunds Hill in Newmarket, Suffolk.  He was four months into a fifteen-month sentence for the assault and false imprisonment of a male escort, in his East London flat. He was tagged and placed on a curfew for the rest of the sentence.

Boy George told the BBC on 27 January 2011 that there will be a 30th anniversary Culture Club reunion tour sometime later in the year.  He also said they would be releasing a new album in 2012.  Culture Club did play two live concerts, in Dubai and Sydney, but did not have a tour.

In 2018, George, along with Culture Club, released an album called Life. They did an accompanying tour, called the Life Tour. ￼

Harper Collins published his first autobiography, Take It Like a Man, in 1995, written with Spencer Bright. It was a bestseller in the UK. In 2005, Century published Straight, his second autobiographical book. This one was written with author Paul Gorman.

References

1961 births
Living people
British autobiographers
British people convicted of assault
English LGBT people
Gay men
LGBT singers
Musicians from Kent
New wave musicians
Singers from London
Valdivia

Valdivia is a city, commune and municipality in southern Chile. Valdivia is the capital of Los Ríos Region (Spanish for Region of the Rivers), one of Chile's 16 regions. Valdivia is most known for being the city most affected by the Great Chilean Earthquake.

Images

References

Other websites

Cities in Chile
Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam International Airport

The Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam International Airport (short name: SSR Airport) is the biggest airport in Mauritius.
Before, it was known as Plaisance Airport.

Location 
The SSR Airport is near the city Mahebourg in Mauritius. It is also the only big airport in this country. 

Mauritius
Airports in Africa
Pervez Musharraf

General (retired) Syed Pervez  Musharraf () (born 11 August 1943) is a Pakistani politician and retired Four-star general of the Pakistan Army, who was a former military dictator and the tenth President of Pakistan from 20 June 2001 to 18 August 2008, when he tendered his resignation to avoid Impeachment. Previously, he was Chief Executive of Pakistan as well as former Chief of Army Staff of the Pakistan Army and he took over power in Pakistan in 1999, by one day removing the then elected government of Nawaz Sharif. 

He has charged with multiple murders in April 2013 and was given bail in October 2013. Then he was arrested again. In 2019, Musharraf was sentenced to death in absentia over his treason charges.

Syed Pervez Musharraf was born on 11 August 1943 in Delhi, British India (present-day India) during the British Raj. Musharraf was raised in Karachi and Istanbul. He studied Mathematics at Forman Christian College in Lahore and was also Educated at the Royal College of Defence Studies in the United Kingdom. Musharraf entered the Pakistan Military Academy in 1961 and was Commissioned to the Pakistan Army in 1964, playing an active Role in the Afghan civil war. Musharraf saw action during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 as a second Lieutenant. By the 1980s, he was commanding an Artillery brigade. In the 1990s, Musharraf was promoted to Major general and assigned an Infantry division, and later commanded the Special Services Group. Soon after, he also served as Deputy military secretary and Director general of military operations.

Musharraf rose to national Prominence when he was promoted to a Four-star general by Prime minister, Nawaz Sharif in 1998, making Musharraf the head of the Armed forces. He led the Kargil infiltration that almost brought India and Pakistan to a full-fledged War in 1999.

References 

1943 births
Living people
Generals
Pakistani military people
People from Delhi
Pakistani Muslims
Presidents of Pakistan
Bas-relief

Bas-relief is a type of relief (sculpture) that has less depth to the faces and figures than they actually have, when measured proportionately (to scale).  This technique keeps the natural shapes of the figures and allows the work to be seen from many angles without twisting the figures themselves. 

There is a continuation of the bas-relief technique into the next category, altorilievo, or high relief. High relief makes deeper images than bas-relief. Instead of shallow backgrounds that are a few inches (cm) deep at most, they can be up to several feet (a few meters) deep in altorilievo. 

Some of the best examples of bas-relief are the Assyrian Lion Hunt Reliefs, which are housed at the British Museum. The attention to detail and appearance of the lions moving make them stand out, especially for the time period they were made in.

Images
These images are made to be seen in 3D with the use of colored glasses and might not appear correctly without them.

Related pages
Relief

Other websites

http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02341a.htm

References 


Sculpture
Dogfights

Dogfights is a TV show on The History Channel. It uses computer animation to show dogfights from wars and talks with the pilots.

2006 television series debuts
English-language television programs
Dogfight

A dogfight is a close air fight between fighter planes. It often involves turning, climbing, and swirling.

Dogfights started during World War I when the fighter planes did not have many weapons.

The first aerial dogfight occurred during the Battle of Cer (15–24 August 1914), when Serbian aviator Miodrag Tomić encountered an Austro-Hungarian plane while performing a reconnaissance mission over Austro-Hungarian positions. The Austro-Hungarian pilot initially waved, and Tomić waved back. The Austro-Hungarian pilot then fired at Tomić with his revolver.  Tomić produced a pistol of his own and fired back. Tomić managed to escape, and within several weeks, all Serbian and Austro-Hungarian planes were fitted with machine-guns.

Modern weapons such as homing missiles did not exist in that time, and planes could only fight each other with machine guns. Since the machine guns were only useful at close range, the planes had to fly very close together to have combat. Pilots had to fly with many maneuvers to try to not be shot, and be able to shoot the enemy planes. This new type of flying was named dogfighting. Fighter planes made just for this type of flying were sometimes called dogfighters. During World War II many had autocannons firing small, explosive artillery shells. They kept farther apart so they would not be destroyed quickly.

In modern air combat, there are many long range weapons that can be used before dogfighting. Homing missiles can be fired much further away from the target than machine guns, and will automatically try to follow the target. These types of weapons make dogfighting less common, but modern planes still have Gatling guns, which are more advanced kinds of machine guns. This is because dogfighting still happens sometimes.

References

Aircraft
Military aviation
M1911 pistol

The M1911 is a .45 ACP caliber pistol originally made by Colt, and is now the most copied pistol design in the world. It was designed in the early 1900s by John Browning and was used in battle by many soldiers in World War I, World War II, The Korean War, and in the Vietnam War. It is semi-automatic and can fire a bullet each time the trigger is pulled. Military versions of the gun can hold seven or eight rounds inside its magazine and one more in the chamber. M1911 style guns are still made today and are for sale.

It was the most used pistol in the United States Military from 1911-1985, when it was replaced by the 9mm caliber Beretta M9, a military version of the Beretta 92. The M1911 was replaced because military leaders liked that the Beretta pistol could hold more bullets. Another reason was because other NATO countries pressured the US to follow a rule that all NATO weapons must use the same ammunition. Even after the Beretta M9 officially replaced the M1911, many US soldiers still use the M1911 in combat. The M1911 is a common pistol design for police and special forces because it is reliable in function, easy to modify by a gunsmith, and effective.  

The "1911" in the name is because the pistol was adopted by the United States Army in the year 1911.  M1911A1 pistols have an 'A1' added because they were changed from the original design in the 1920s in military service.  The pistol was made first by Colt Manufacturing but was produced by many other companies during World War II. Because the M1911 is so popular, several gun companies make their own version of this gun which are still sold today.

Bibliography 
 Colt 1911 & Early prototypes by Gerard Henrotin (H&L Publishing - HLebooks.com 2003)
 The Colt 1911A1 Explained by Gerard Henrotin (H&L Publishing - HLebooks.com 2004)

Pistols
Artaxiad dynasty of Iberia

The Artaxiads (Georgian: არტაშესიანი, Artašesiani), a branch of the dynasty of Armenia that ruled Iberia (ancient Georgia) from c. 90 BC to 30 AD. Little is known about the early years of the Iberian Artaxiad rule. They seem to have been under the influence of their Armenian cousins to whom Iberia had gotten a significant portion of its territory. In 65 BC, their kingdom was attacked by Rome and the dynasty was forced to sign a peace treaty.

History of Georgia (country)
Royal dynasties
Stocking

A stocking is a piece of women's clothing, worn like socks. They are made of stretchy materials. They are often worn instead of  tights or socks.

Stockings that are similar to woman's stockings are also made as parts of sport uniforms.

Clothing
Robe

A robe is a type of clothing. It is loose-fitting and sometimes ties in the front.

Types of robes 
There are different types of robes. These include the following:

 Bathrobe - usually worn at home after taking a bath. They are also sometimes worn at night, or in the morning.
 Graduation robe - A gown traditionally worn at a high school graduation, or college graduation.
 Judge's robe - Part of a judge's clothing. Other jobs may call for robes, such as a barrister.
 Wizard's robe - in fantasy, wizards are usually shown wearing robes.

Clothing
Geri Halliwell

Geraldine Estelle "Geri" Halliwell (born 6 August 1972) is an English pop music singer. She is a former member of pop group the Spice Girls.  She made $30 million during her last two years in the group.

She left the Spice Girls in May 1998 and continued singing as a solo artist. In 2007, she reunited with the Spice Girls to do a world tour.

Nude photos of Halliwell were in a number of magazines in 1992 and 1995 including Playboy and Penthouse.

In 2012, Halliwell was a guest judge at The X Factor auditions in Liverpool. On 26 June she reunited with Spice Girls to promote the brand new musical Viva Forever based on their songs and career. 12 August 2012, she performed with the girls from the group in the closing ceremony of the Olympic Games in London.

Personal and media life
Halliwell's father was half-Swedish, half-English; her mother is Spanish. On 14 May 2006, Halliwell gave birth to her daughter, Bluebell Madonna Halliwell. Sacha Gervasi is said to be the child's father, but this has not been said by Halliwell. Victoria Beckham and Emma Bunton are Bluebell's godmothers. There are rumors that Halliwell is dating Russell Brand. but in May 2015 she married racing driver Christian Horner.

Discography
 1999: Schizophonic
 2001: Scream If You Wanna Go Faster
 2005: Passion
 2012: Putting On the Bling

Bibliography
1999 – If Only
2002 – Just for the Record
2008 – Ugenia Lavender

Filmography

Awards and nominations

References

Other websites

1972 births
Living people
English pop singers
Musicians from Hertfordshire
People from Watford
Spice Girls
Rush Limbaugh

Rush Hudson Limbaugh III (, ;  January 12, 1951 – February 17, 2021) was an American conservative radio talk show host and writer. He was the host of The Rush Limbaugh show where callers could call in and express their opinions.

Criticisms
Leftist critic Media Matters said some of his views were sexist. The 2015 documentary The Brainwashing Of My Dad discusses how his program could radicalize people into sharing such views.

Works and honors
In the 1990s, Limbaugh's books The Way Things Ought to Be (1992) and See, I Told You So (1993) made The New York Times Best Seller list.  

He was one of the most highly paid people in the US media.

President Donald Trump awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom in February 2020 during the State of the Union Address.

Health and death
He went deaf and received a cochlear implant in 2001.

Limbaugh was diagnosed with advanced lung cancer in January 2020. Nine months later in October, he said that his cancer was terminal. Limbaugh died from problems caused by the disease in Palm Beach, Florida on February 17, 2021, a month after his 70th birthday.

References

Other websites 
 The Rush Limbaugh Show

1951 births
2021 deaths
Actors from Missouri
American conservatives
American journalists
American political activists
American political writers
American radio personalities
American voice actors
Cancer deaths in Florida
Deaths from lung cancer
Writers from Missouri
Deaf people
Second Life

Second Life is the biggest online virtual world. It was launched in 2003 by Linden Lab, a Californian software company founded by Philip Rosedale. It is made up of a large number of regions or islands, which can belong to continents. The users are called residents, and technically they are avatars. The piece of software used to log on to Second Life is called viewer.

Some people use this multi-user virtual environment (MUVE) for entertainment purposes, though it is not a game because it does not have any single goal that players must achieve. Other people use it to work or to study. Anyone is free to do anything they want, as long as they respect the Terms of Service. They are also free to create new things and add them to the virtual world. Players can make a lot of different things, including buildings, clothes, and landscapes. This is why Second Life is considered a platform, too.

Second Life regions are classified as:
 general, which must not have nudity or other sexually explicit content. Institutions such as universities, conference organizers, and real world businesses usually own general regions.
 moderate, which host most of the non-adult activities common in Second Life, such as dance clubs, bars, stores and malls, galleries, music venues, beaches, parks.
 adult, which have sexually explicit or violent content, and where minors are not allowed.

Many things that people can do in Second Life are about real life. For instance, some universities and companies use Second Life for education and training, including Stanford University, Indiana University and University of Western Australia.

Second Life can also be used for foreign language teaching by language educators. English as a foreign language has gained a presence through several schools, such as the British Council. Two popular places where Second Life users meet to practice English are Virtlantis and Cypris Chat. A list of educational projects, which also include some language schools, can be found in the Second Life wiki.

Related pages
Active Worlds
IMVU

References

Other websites 
 Official site

Online games
2003 establishments
Ford Falcon

The Ford Falcon is a big car made by Ford in Australia since 1960. It had seven generations and production of it stopped in October 2016. 

1960s automobiles
1970s automobiles
1980s automobiles
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles
2010s automobiles 
Falcon

pl:Ford Falcon
Hoboken

Hoboken is a southern district of the city of Antwerp, in Flanders (Belgium). There are 34,443 people living there.

Other websites
Official Website

Antwerp
Bottlenose dolphin

A bottlenose dolphin or Atlantic bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) is a kind of dolphin. The name "bottlenose" comes from its snout being shaped like a bottle. It breathes through a hole on top of its head. Its brain is very large, and it is one of the most intelligent animals. Bottlenose dolphins are closely related to porpoises. They are skilled and accurate hunters which eat small fish.  

Bottlenose dolphins are grey, with dark grey near their blowhole (the small hole on the top of their head for breathing). They are light grey on their belly. This is called countershading: it makes them less easy to see. 

When it is grown up, it is about 2 to 4 meters (6.6 to 13.1ft) and about 150 to 650 kilograms (330 1430 pounds). The males are a usually a bit bigger than females. Dolphins which live in warm places are smaller than dolphins that live in cold places.

References

Oceanic dolphins
President of the German Bundesrat

The President of the German Bundesrat () is the speaker or chair of the German Bundesrat, which is the upper house of the German parliament.

Each of the ministers president of the federal Länder (states) acts as the president of the Bundesrat for one year.

The President of the Bundesrat can also act as deputy to the Federal President if the Federal President is out of Germany or not able to act because of illness etc. If the Federal President dies or is removed from office the President of the Bundestag will act as President until a new president is elected, which must be within thirty days.

Election
The President of the Bundesrat is usually elected on the 1 November in one year, and serves until the 31 October of the next year. The Basic Law says, in Article 52.1, that "the Bundesrat elects its President for one year". However, in practice the presidency rotates among all Länder equally, in accordance with a predetermined order. The order changes sometimes, because it depends on each state's population.

If the head of government of a Land changes during the term of the President of the Bundesrat then the presidency passes to the new minister-president for the remainder of its one year duration. This happened in April 1999 when Roland Koch replaced Hans Eichel as minister-president of Hesse. The current order of rotation of the presidency of the Bundesrat is as follows:

  (North Rhine-Westphalia)
  (Bavaria)
 
  (Lower Saxony)
  (Hesse)
  (Saxony)
  (Rhineland-Palatinate)
 
  (Saxony-Anhalt)
  (Thuringia)
 
 
  (Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania)

Related pages
 List of presidents of the German Bundesrat
 German Bundesrat
 Politics of Germany

Other websites
 The Bundesrat - President and Presidium  from Official Bundesrat website
German TV

German TV was a German-speaking television program for viewers in the USA and in Canada.

It was founded as a joint program from ARD and ZDF, which formed 40% each of the broadcast output. The remaining 20% was from Deutsche Welle.

The channel broadcast 24 hours-a-day. The editorial staff and the management of German TV were in the offices of Deutsche Welle TV in Berlin.

German TV sent news and information as well as sport, children's programs, shows and other entertainment programs as well as various films from different areas.

German TV went on the air in April, 2002. It was able to be received in the USA, and in wide parts of Canada and Latin America, by Satellite or Cable TV.

Other websites 
 http://www.german.tv/

German television networks
List of presidents of the German Bundesrat

The President of the German Bundesrat () is the German Bundesrat's chairperson or speaker.

The office rotates among the ministers president of each of the federal Länder annually. The new Bundesratspräsident is elected during October and takes office on 1 November. In 1950 the Ministers President of the Länder agreed to elect the Bundesratspräsident on a rota, so that every state had a chance to preside over the Bundesrat and to show that the Bundesrat represents all of Germany, rather than the most successful political party.

The rota is based on the state's population.

List

Related pages
 President of the German Bundesrat

References

Other websites
 "Präsidenten des Bundesrates seit 1949"  (in German)
 Official Bundesrat website  (English).

Politics of Germany
Germany-related lists
Germany
Maximilien de Robespierre

Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (; 6 May 1758 – 28 July 1794) is one of the best-known leaders of the French Revolution.  He was born in Arras, France and he went to school to become a lawyer and got his degree at law school. He was elected to the Estates General to help make laws for France. He fought against the French Monarchy, the death penalty, and slavery, and for democratic reforms and the people to have more power. He gained a reputation for defending the poor. His friends called him "incorruptible" for sticking to his moral values and killing his enemies. Later  he was elected president of the powerful Jacobin political group.

Robespierre led the committee of public safety during 1793.  Through it, he was able to execute the king. Even though Robespierre got thousands of people executed, Robespierre cared about the working class.

He executed King Louis XVI because he was convicted of treason.  Under the advice of Robespierre, the Committee of Public Safety came to control France. The period that the Committee of Public Safety ruled France is known as “The Reign of Terror” and Maximilien de Robespierre was their leader. In the Thermidorian Reaction Robespierre was caught and executed with 21 of his followers with a guillotine.  The National Convention were the people who overthrew Maximilien de Robespierre.

Early life
Maximilien de Robespierre was born in Arras in the old French province of Artois. His family has been traced back to the 12th century in Picardy; some of his ancestors in the male line worked as notaries in Carvin near Arras from the beginning of the 17th century. It has been suggested that he was of Irish descent, his surname possibly a corruption of "Robert Speirs".

References

Other websites

 
 

1758 births
1794 deaths
French politicians
People of the French Revolution
French deists
Former dictators
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen () is one of the most important papers of the French Revolution.

Contents
This paper explains a list of rights, such as freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and separation of powers. All men have these rights. It also talks about some rights many people have together. This paper was written using some of the ideas of natural rights, these rights are for all men: they are supposed to be valid in all times and places. They are said to be rights of human nature. The last idea of the Declaration was accepted on 26 August 1789, by the National Constituent Assembly (Assemblée nationale constituante). It was a very important first thing to do before the people could write a  constitution. The paper explained these basic rights, not only for French people but for all men without exception, it did not say anything about the rights or role of women. It also did not talk about slavery.  People now think that it was an important step towards international human rights or Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

 "First Article – Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions can be founded only on the common utility."

The ideas written in the declaration are important in French law today. They can be used to fight or change new laws or other government actions. French law is based off of this document.

References

French Revolution
1789 works
The Simpsons Halloween episodes

Treehouse of Horror, or The Simpsons Halloween Specials, is a seasonal special TV episode that is aired in every season (except the first one) where there are three different Halloween-based stories. Most of the time the episodes are about something really scary, unusual, or science-fictional event happening to the family. Since they have nothing to do with the real episodes, they are considered non-canonical (things that do not really happen).

Most of the time the family encounter horrible things like zombies, aliens, monsters, witches, or sometimes each other. Some episodes spoof horror or science-fiction films (most notably, shows from The Twilight Zone).

Related pages
List of The Simpsons Treehouse of Horror episodes

Other websites
Top 10 Treehouse of Horror Segments on IGN.com
Bart Simpson's Treehouse of Horror #13 Comic Preview on ComicsAlliance.com

The Simpsons
Bonerath

Bonerath is a municipality in the Trier-Saarburg district, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. As of 31 December 2018, 232 people lived there.

Other websites 

 Official website 

Municipalities in Rhineland-Palatinate
Trier-Saarburg