cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Terrorism

Terrorism is the use of fear and acts of violence in order to intimidate societies, governments or against an ideology. Many different types of social or political organizations might use terrorism to try to achieve their goals. People who do the terrorism are called Terrorists. The foundation of modern terrorism is the work of Sergey Nechayev, a Russian radical who developed strategies for carrying out terrorism. It also include politics.

It is difficult to explain terrorism. Terrorism has no official criminal law definition at the international level. Common definitions of terrorism refer to the violent acts which are intended to create fear (terror). They may be done for a religious, political, or ideological goal, and uses illegal violence. Some definitions now include acts of unlawful violence and war. The use of similar tactics by criminal gangs is not usually called terrorism. The same actions may be called terrorism when done by a politically motivated group.

There are over 10000 definitions of "terrorism". In some cases, the same group may be described as "freedom fighters" by its supporters and "terrorists" by its opponents. The term 'terrorism' is often used by states to criticize political opponents.

One form of terrorism is the use of violence against noncombatants for the purpose of gaining publicity for a group, cause, or individual.

According to Memorial Institute for Prevention of Terrorism, terrorists killed 20,498 people in 2006. The major effect of terrorism comes from the fear which generates.

Counter-terrorism

Counter-terrorism is broad in scope. Specific types of counter-terrorism include:
 Preemptive or reactive military action.
 Fortification and other technical means.
 Increased intelligence and surveillance activities.
 Preemptive humanitarian activities.
 More permissive interrogation and detention policies for the suspected terrorists.

Related pages
 Aircraft hijacking
 List of terrorist incidents
 Suicide attack

References

Other websites

 Video of the ship MV Francop in the Israeli port of Ashdod: behind the bags of flour are boxes of heavy weapons and ammunition to be directed to Hezbollah.

 
Political philosophy
Andorra

Andorra (), officially the Principality of Andorra, is a landlocked sovereign country located in the eastern Pyrenees Mountains of Southern Europe and bordered by Spain and France. There are about 84,000 people living in the country. The capital is Andorra la Vella. It is ruled by a Spanish Bishop and the French President. Andorra's government is a parliamentary democracy.

Andorra is a rich country mostly because of tourism.  There are about 10.2 million visitors each year.

The official language is Catalan, although Spanish, Portuguese, and French are also used.

It is not a member of the European Union. The euro is the money used.

History
It is said that Charles the Great (Charlemagne) gave the Andorran people their country in return for fighting against the Moors.

Before 1095, Andorra did not have any type of military protection.  The Lord of Caboet and the Bishop of Urgell decided to rule Andorra together.  In 1607 Henry IV of France said the head of the French state and the Bishop of Urgell would be co-princes of Andorra.

Andorra declared war on Imperial Germany during World War I.  It did not do any fighting.  They stayed against Germany until 1957 because they were not in the Treaty of Versailles.

Andorra doesn't have an Army. France and Spain help to defend Andorra.  The country has a police force of 295.

Parishes
Andorra has seven parishes:
 Andorra la Vella
 Canillo
 Encamp
 Escaldes-Engordany
 La Massana
 Ordino
 Sant Julià de Lòria

Geography
Andorra is in the Pyrenees mountain range.  The highest mountain is Coma Pedrosa.

Cities
The largest cities in Andorra are:

For other locations in Andorra, see List of cities in Andorra.

Religion
The population of Andorra is mostly (90%) Roman Catholic. Their patron saint is Our Lady of Meritxell.

Education
Children between the ages of 6 and 16 must have full-time education. Education up to secondary level is paid by the government.

The University of Andorra (UdA) is the state public university.  It is the only university in Andorra.

Related pages
Andorra at the Olympics
List of rivers of Andorra

References

Other websites
 
 

 
Current monarchies
Richter scale

The Richter scale is a scale of numbers used to tell the power (or magnitude) of earthquakes. Charles Richter developed the Richter Scale in 1935. His scale worked like a seismogram, measured by a particular type of seismometer at a distance of 100 kilometers (62 mi) from the earthquake. 

Earthquakes 4.5 or higher on the Richter scale can be measured all over the world. An earthquake a size that scores 3.0 is ten times the amplitude of one that scores 2.0. The energy that is released increases by a factor of about 32.

Every increase of 1 on the Richter scale corresponds to an increase in amplitude by a factor of 10 so therefore, it is a logarithmic scale.

(Adapted from U.S. Geological Survey documents)

The earthquake with the biggest recorded magnitude was the Great Chilean Earthquake. It had a magnitude of 9.5 on the Richter scale and occurred in 1960. Around 6,000 people died because of the earthquake. No earthquake has ever hit 10+ on the Richter Scale.

More examples

Related pages
 Mercalli intensity scale

References

Other websites 
 Simplified description of the Richter scale

Earthquakes
Phases of the Moon

The phases of the Moon are the different ways the Moon looks from Earth over about a month.

As the Moon orbits around the Earth, the half of the Moon that faces the Sun will be lit up. The different shapes of the lit portion of the Moon that can be seen from Earth are known as phases of the Moon. Each phase repeats itself every 29.5 days.

The same half of the Moon always faces the Earth, because of tidal locking. So the phases will always occur over the same half of the Moon's surface.

A phase is an angle of the moon to the earth so it appears differently every day.

Phases 

The moon goes through 8 major phases.
 A new moon is when the moon cannot be seen because we are looking at the unlit half of the Moon. The new moon phase occurs when the Moon is directly between the Earth and Sun. A solar eclipse can only happen at new moon.

 A waxing crescent moon is when the Moon looks like a crescent and the crescent increases ("waxes") in size from one day to the next. This phase is usually only seen in the west.
 The first quarter moon (or a half moon) is when half of the lit portion of the Moon is visible after the waxing crescent phase. It comes a week after new moon. 
 A waxing gibbous moon occurs when more than half of the lit portion of the Moon can be seen and the shape increases ("waxes") in size from one day to the next. The waxing gibbous phase occurs between the first quarter and full moon phases. 
 A full moon is when we can see the entire lit portion of the Moon. The full moon phase occurs when the Moon is on the opposite side of the Earth from the Sun, called opposition. A lunar eclipse can only happen at full moon.
 A waning gibbous moon occurs when more than half of the lit portion of the Moon can be seen and the shape decreases ("wanes") in size from one day to the next. The waning gibbous phase occurs between the full moon and third quarter phases. 
 The last quarter moon (or a half moon) is when half of the lit portion of the Moon is visible after the waning gibbous phase.
 A waning crescent moon is when the Moon looks like a crescent and the crescent decreases ("wanes") in size from one day to the next.

"Blue moon" 
 A second full moon in one calendar month is usually called a "blue moon" and this occurs approximately every 3 years. The idiom "Once in a blue moon" refers to something that does not happen often (like a blue moon).

Super Pink Moon 
A supermoon or Super Pink Moon takes place when moon's orbit is at its closest to the Earth. Supermoon take place each year between March and May. As Moon is exceptionally close to Earth; full Moon appears up to 7% larger and 15% brighter than a typical full moon. Traditionally any full moon that occurred in April was called a pink moon because it marked the blooming of Moss pink a wildflower.

Related pages
 Extraterrestrial sky
 Phases of the Earth
Super Pink Moon

References

Moon
Sphere

A sphere is a shape in space that is like the surface of a ball. Usually, the words ball and sphere mean the same thing. But in mathematics, a sphere is the surface of a ball, which is given by all the points in three dimensional space that are located at a fixed distance from the center. The distance from the center is called the radius of the sphere. When the sphere is filled in with all the points inside, it is called a ball.

Common things that have the shape of a sphere are basketballs, superballs, and playground balls. The Earth and the Sun are nearly spherical, meaning sphere-shaped. 

A sphere is the three-dimensional analog of a circle.

Calculating the surface area, circumference, diameter, radius and volume of a sphere

Surface area 

Using the circumference: 

Using the diameter: 

Using the radius: 

Using the volume:

Circumference 

Using the surface area: 

Using the diameter: 

Using the radius: 

Using the volume:

Diameter 

Using the surface area: 

Using the circumference: 

Using the radius: 

Using the volume:

Radius 

Using the surface area:   or 

Using the circumference: 

Using the diameter: 

Using the volume:       (more simple but less precise)

Volume 

Using the surface area: 

Using the circumference: 

Using the diameter: 

Using the radius:

Equation of a sphere 

In Cartesian coordinates, the equation for a sphere with a center at (, , ) is as follows:

where  is the radius of the sphere.

Three-dimensional shapes
Flag of the United States

The flag of the United States of America is a national flag. It has 7 red stripes and 6 white stripes. These 13 stripes represent the original thirteen colonies. The flag also has a blue canton, a rectangle in the top left corner. There are 50 stars which represent the 50 states of America.

When a new state joins the United States a new flag is made with an extra star. The new flag is first flown on the 4th of July,  Independence Day.

The last states to join the United States were Alaska and Hawaii in 1959. Alaska joined on 3 January 1959, so the new flag with 49 stars was used from 4 July 1959. Hawaii joined on 21 August 1959 so the flag with 50 stars that is used today was not flown until 4 July 1960. This 50 star design was created by Robert G. Heft for a school project. 

The colors in the flag are red, white and blue. The colors have no special meaning in the flag, but in the coat of arms white stands for purity and innocence, red for bravery and strength and blue for watchfulness, perseverance and justice. 

The flag is also often called the Stars and Stripes, the Star-Spangled Banner, or Old Glory. The national anthem of the United States is a reference to the flag.

Evolution of the United State's flag 
Since 1818, a star for each new state has been added to the flag on the Fourth of July immediately following each state's admission. In years in which multiple states have been admitted, the number of stars on the flag has jumped correspondingly. The greatest example so far was in 1890, when five states were admitted within the span of a single year (North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington in November 1889 and Idaho on 3 July 1890). This change has typically been the only change made with each revision of the flag since 1777, with the exception of changes in 1795 and 1818, which increased the number of stripes to 15 and then returned it to 13, respectively.

As the exact pattern of stars was not specified prior to 1912, and the exact colors not specified prior to 1934, many of the historical U.S. national flags (shown below) have had varied designs.

Design 
 13 horizontal red and white stripes, representing the original 13 states.
 50 white stars on a blue rectangle in the top-left, representing the current 50 U.S. states.

References 

 
United States, Flag of
Symbols of the United States
America

America may refer to:

 A short-form name for the United States of America.
 North America, a continent consisting of the United States, Canada and Mexico.
 Central America, the southernmost part of North America. Includes Costa Rica and Panama.
 South America, a continent that includes of many countries including Brazil and Argentina.
 Americas, the combination of North America, South America, and nearby islands.

Related pages
American (word)
Drink

A drink or beverage is a liquid that an organism can take into their body, by using their mouth. Typical drinks for humans include water, tea, milk, coffee, juice, soft drinks and alcoholic drinks. 

All drinks are mainly water. All life needs water to live. If a living organism don't get enough water, they will dehydrate, and likely die. Plants take in water through their roots, which are underground. Most land animals get water by drinking.

Basic English 850 words
Drinks
Physiology
Yahoo!

Yahoo! is a web portal and an internet content and service provider. It is known for its many products and services, such as their search engine, e-mail, instant messaging, and video, but also contents their products in news, weather forecasting, money and other information. Yahoo! makes money from advertisements in their services. A Yahoo account can also be created by a Google account. Yahoo is launched on October 8, 1997.

History and growth

Early history (1994–1999) 
In January 1994, Jerry Yang and David Filo were Electrical Engineering graduate students at Stanford University. In April 1994, "Jerry and David's Guide to the World Wide Web" was renamed "Yahoo!", for which the official  is "Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle". Filo and Yang said they selected the name because they liked the word's general meaning, which comes from Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift: "rude,  and ". Its URL was akebono.stanford.edu/yahoo. Yang describes their selection of the name as "We thought it fit well with what we were doing. It was irreverent. It was reflective of the Wild West nature of the Internet. A lot of people found it easy to remember, and besides, it's exactly what me and Jerry are. A couple of yahoos."

Related pages
 Google
 MSN
 Ask.com

References

Other websites 
Yahoo! official website
Everything Yahoo!

Websites
Mecca

Mecca or Makkah (called Mecca in older texts, officially: Makkah al-Mukarramah; ) is a city in Saudi Arabia. As of the 2004 census, 1,294,169 people lived there. The city is  inland from Jeddah, in the narrow sandy Valley of Abraham. It is  above sea level. It is  from the Red Sea. 

Mecca is the holiest city in the Islamic world. Every year, millions of Muslims take a pilgrimage to Mecca, called the Hajj. They follow in the footsteps of Muhammad. All Muslims who are able to perform the Hajj are expected to do so at least once in their life. The Kaaba and Masjid al-Haram, are the holiest mosques in Islam. Mecca is closed to non-Muslims except for some journalists reporting on the Hajj.

History 
The Kaaba, the small cubical building which Muslims pray towards is believed to have been built by Ibrahim and has been a religious center ever since. Muslims believed that God commanded Ibrahim to send his second wife Hajar and her son Ismail there. They found the Zamzam Well which led to people settling nearby, and thus Makkah was born. When Ismail was big enough, he helped his father to build the Kaaba. The Kaaba is the place towards which Muslims turn in prayer. This is known as the Qibla .

References

Other websites 
Direction to Makkah
The Emirate of Makkah
Inside Mecca DVD  National Geographic documentary about Makkah
Arabian Peninsula

thumb|right | 250px | The Arabian Peninsula

The Arabian Peninsula is a peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia. It lies east of Ethiopia and northern Somalia; south of Israel, the Palestinian territories, and Jordan; and southwest of Iran. The waters around it are: on the southwest the Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba; on the southeast the Arabian Sea; and on the northeast the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf.

It includes the countries of:
Kuwait
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia which covers most of the peninsula
United Arab Emirates
Yemen

The majority of the population of the peninsula live in Saudi Arabia and Yemen. Northern Arabia has oil wells. Climate change and the scarcity of water is said to have affected this area.

A prominent feature of the peninsula is desert. In the southwest there are mountain ranges which may get more rain than the rest of the peninsula.

Related pages 

 History of Arabia

References

Other websites 

Arabia British Foreign Office, 1920

Peninsulas
Arabia
Gondwana
Prime minister

A prime minister manages the politics of a country and is the head of government. With countries that have kings and queens (known as monarchs), they are very important because they are in charge of most of the politics (they are "head of the government"). In countries with a president, they might be in charge of most of the politics (as in the Republic of Ireland), or they may be in day-to day charge but taking orders from the president as in France. 

Countries with a Prime Minister:
 Antigua and Barbuda (with Monarch)
 Australia (with Monarch)
 Azerbaijan (with President)
 Barbados (with President)
 Belgium (with Monarch)
 Canada (with Monarch)
 Denmark (with Monarch)
Ethiopia (with President)
 France (with President)
 India (with President)
 Ireland (with President)
 Israel (with President)
 Italy (with President)
 Japan (with Emperor)
 Malaysia (with Monarch)
 Mauritius (with President)
 Netherlands (with Monarch)
 New Zealand (with Monarch)
 Pakistan (with President)
 Romania (with President
 Singapore (with President)
 Thailand (with Monarch)
 Trinidad and Tobago (with President)
 Turkey (with President)
 Ukraine (with President)
 United Arab Emirates (with Monarch and President)
 United Kingdom (with Monarch)

References 

 
Government occupations
Monarch

A monarch is the ruler of a monarchy. Monarchs usually get their power by inheritance – from one of their parents. When a ruler dies their child, or nearest relative, takes over. A male monarch is usually called a king or emperor. A female monarch is usually called a queen or empress.

Monarchs were very common in history until the 20th century. Most European countries had monarchs in past centuries, but no longer have them. Some countries that still have monarchs have other leaders that actually have the power. Most monarchies are hereditary monarchies. Some countries elect their monarch instead of using inheritance, like the Holy Roman Empire and Malaysia. Some republics, such as the Dutch Republic or North Korea, had or have a hereditary ruler but do not call him a "monarch".

Monarchs can also have monarchs of lower honour below them, e.g. an empire could include several kingdoms, and a kingdom had several duchies or principalities, nations would rarely include all titles, usually going from duchy to kingdom instead of duchy to principality to kingdom.  Prince/princess means 'ruler of a principality' and/or 'son of a king/queen'. Some other languages have separate words for them.

Monarchs by rank

Related pages 
Divine right of kings

References

Other websites
Uncle

An uncle is a name used in an extended family. An uncle is either a brother of one of someone's parents. That person is the uncle's nephew (male) or niece (female). An uncle's child is a cousin. A granduncle (also written as great-uncle or grand-uncle) is the brother of a grandparent. In some cultures an uncle is considered a close family member. Based on the old Chinese saying "the oldest son in the family is the father of the family" an uncle is often the head of a family. In many cultures no single word (such as uncle) describes both their parents' brothers. Instead there are words to describe a person's kinship to their mother's brother or a person's kinship to their father's brother. An uncle can also be someone not related by blood or marriage as in a term of endearment or respect. In this use uncle can also be part of a nickname such as Uncle Sam.

Avunculus
During the Middle Ages in western Europe, a maternal uncle played a particular role in the family. A young man was often closer to his maternal uncle (from  or "little grandfather") than to his own father. Tacitus noted the Franks had very strong ties between a maternal uncle and his nephew. In Roman family relationships the avunculus had a responsibility to defend his nephews as well as his nieces. The maternal uncle relationship was an extension of the Roman kin system's strong brother-sister relationship.

Variation of terms
A maternal or paternal relative is one who is related through their mother or father, respectively. For example a maternal uncle is a the subject's mother's brother.An in-law is a relationship that is not by blood, but instead by marriage. The in-law shares the in-law relationships of the spouses relatives. For example a uncle in-law could be the husband of the subject's Aunt.

 Uncle: the brother of someone's parent. The child of subject's an Aunt or Uncle's is the subject's cousin. 
 Half-uncle: the parent's half-brother.
 Double half-uncle: a person who is a half sibling of both of the subjects parents.
 Granduncle /  great-uncle: the grandparent's brother.
 Great-granduncle / Great-great-uncle: the great-grandparent's full brother.
 Uncle-in-law: the aunt's husband or the spouse's uncle.
 Co-uncle-in-law: the spouse's aunt's husband.

Related pages
 Nephew and niece

References

Family
Information

The word "information" is used in many different ways. Originally, it comes from a word that meant to give a form to something. Information  is something that people can learn, know about, or understand. For example, a newspaper contains information about the world. This article contains information about "Information".

Information in computer science 
People who use computers often use the words information and data in the same way. There are special fields of study called "information science", "information technology" (IT), and data science.

In the 1970s and 1980s, some people gave a new, specific meaning to "information". At that time, the first computer databases were built. In computer science, data often means a kind of information that has not been checked. That means data has not been changed or fixed, and you may not be able to trust it. With the new meaning, information means data that has been checked and passed tests for what it must be. A person can trust that "information" is correct.

Information can only be correct and good enough to trust if there are very good and complete ways to check the data (data checking, validation or verification) and decide it is good enough (acceptance process).  A person must know rules were used to check the data or trust the person who checked the data.  If a person cannot tell that this was done, the information still seems to be data for that person, so that person must check the data again, in that general view about data.

The Information Age is a historic period.

Other websites

Theoretical computer science
Airport

An airport is a place where airplanes can land or take off. Most airports in the world have only a long strip of level ground called a runway. Many airports have buildings which are used to hold airplanes and passengers. A building that holds passengers waiting for their planes or luggage is called a terminal. The sections between planes and the terminal are called "gates". Airports also have buildings called hangars to hold planes when they are not used. Some airports have buildings to control the airport, like a control tower which tells planes where to go.

An international airport is a large airport that airplanes can use to fly to and from other countries. A domestic airport is an airport which is usually smaller and only has airplanes coming from different places in the same country. Most international airports have shops and restaurants for airplane passengers to use.

An airport used by the military is often called an air force base or airbase. An aircraft carrier is a floating airbase.

Safety 
Airports are made and operated for safety. Today, people must walk through a metal detector, a machine that can tell if metal goes through it. If it makes a noise, the officers will make that person take off all things on them that are metal. They also have X-ray machines that can look into luggage. If officers find items such as weapons, or anything that can be used to kill people, that item (and the person who has it) are taken away and possibly arrested. As well as this, passengers are not allowed to bring bottles or containers with over 100 ml of liquid onto the plane because they could be turned into bombs. Therefore, all water bottles must be emptied before entering the secured area.

Related pages
 List of airports in Japan

Other websites 
 AirNav.com - complete list of U.S. airports, with detailed airport information
 flightwise.com  - graphical airport finder via Google Maps
 ATCSCC Real-time Airport Status page - shows airport delay times for major U.S. airports (FAA)
 FlightCentral.net - complete list of U.S. airports with detailed airport information and integrated weather
 Department for Transport (United Kingdom)
 History of Aircraft Landing Aids 
 SkyVector.com - Airspace and Airport information on Aeronautical Charts
 Canadian Air Transport Security Authority (CATSA) Official Website
 View airports and weather in Google Maps and Google Earth
 Float Incorporated (developers of floating airports and Pneumatic Stabilized Platform (PSP))
Travel

Travel is the activity of going from one place to another place.  When a person makes the same trip every day to work or school, this type of travelling is usually called "commuting."  Some people travel to other cities as part of their job.  This is called "business travel." When many people travel to a distant place to stay, it is called "human migration". 

Some people travel on their vacation, to visit other towns, cities, or countries.  This is tourism.  These people stay overnight in hotels, hostels, motels, apartments or bed and breakfast.  Some prefer camping.  Through the centuries, modes of travel have changed.  Some people (travel writers) write about travelling in books including autobiographies or journals.

Types of travelling:

 Hiking
 Cruise ship vacations
 Pilgrimage
 Train journeys
 Hitch-hiking
 Driving 
 Flight

Famous travellers 
 Michael Palin
 Marco Polo
Ibn Batuta

Related pages 
 Human migration

Other websites 
 Philosophy Tourism
 See Wikivoyage for more information about travelling.
Travel
CNN

The Cable News Network (CNN) is an American cable news television channel. It was founded in 1980 by Ted Turner. The Cable News Network first aired on television on June 1, 1980. The Cable News Network's first newscast was anchored (hosted) by David Walker and his wife Lois Hart. In its first year CNN hired many political analysts, including Rowland Evans and Robert Novak. On January 1, 1982 CNN launched a 24-hour sister newscast channel with no talk shows or commentary shows called CNN2. CNN broadcasts programs from its headquarters at the CNN Center in Atlanta, or from the Time Warner Center in New York City, or from studios in Washington, D.C., and Los Angeles. CNN is owned by Time Warner, and the U.S. news channel is a part of the Turner Broadcasting System.

Shows
The hosts of its opinion shows are Don Lemon, Chris Cuomo,  Fredricka Whitfield,  Erin Burnett, Brianna Keiler and Brooke Baldwin.

CNN has been criticized by the right-wing Media Research Center for having a left-wing bias.  According to that same Center, it is less to the left than the news divisions of ABC, NBC, and CBS.  It has been criticized by Arabs for having a pro-American bias.

Related pages 
 Don Lemon
 Chris Cuomo
 Larry King
 Michael Smerconish
 Rowland Evans
 Robert Novak
 Ted Turner

References

Other websites 
 CNN.com
Open source

Open source is a software similar to free software, but is more related to business. It is different from other software because the source code is available to everyone. The source code is a set of instructions for the computer, written in a programming language.

Anyone can see how the source code works and can change it if they want to make it work differently. The opposite of open source is closed source. Closed source software is not available to everyone. Open source has a lot in common with free software but each has its own focus and goals.

Open source and free software have been around for decades. They became more popular with the Linux and BSD software communities.  To protect the code, a special user license is used. The most common kinds of licence are the GPL, BSD and LGPL. Wikipedia uses open source too. The Open Source Movement is led by the Open Source Initiative.

The open source movement became separate from the free software movement in 1998.

Examples

Computing
 GNU Octave
 R
 Scilab

Document creation
 GNU Emacs
 LaTeX
 Beamer
 LibreOffice
 SATySFi
 Vim

Companies making open source software
 Facebook
 Google
 Microsoft

References

Other websites

 Open Source Initiative
 Open Source Download Centre

Software
Free content
Desktop environment

In graphical user interfaces and consoles a desktop environment is a location on a personal computer that helps the user get around on the computer.  The desktop itself is a place in the operating system used for short cuts to computer files and folders on the hard drive. Computer icons (small pictures) are used to represent files/folders. Clicking  these icons will open or start a folder or program. The desktop is the area where the start menu is if the computer has a start menu.

Usually the desktop is the main screen on the computer. If no programs or folders are open, the computer will display the desktop.

The most common desktop environment on personal computers is the one given by Microsoft Windows; another common environment is the one given by Apple Mac OS X. Other mostly-used desktop environments for Unix-like operating systems using the X Window System are KDE, GNOME, Xfce. There are also other desktop environments, including : Aston, EDE, GEM, IRIX Interactive Desktop, Sun's Java Desktop System, Mezzo, Project Looking Glass, ROX Desktop, UDE, Xito, XFast.

Examples of Desktop Environments 

Software
Desktop Environments
OpenOffice

Apache OpenOffice (formerly OpenOffice.org) is a free open source office suite. The free software project was formerly hosted by Sun Microsystems and then Oracle Corporation and is currently hosted by Apache. It is available for many different operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, Linux, OS X, FreeBSD and Solaris; and is meant to be an alternative to Microsoft Office. It supports Microsoft Office file formats as well as its own OpenDocument format.

The ".org" part of the previous name OpenOffice.org is there because OpenOffice is already trademarked. It is often called "OOo" for short.

OpenOffice is based on the older StarOffice software that was created by Sun Microsystems.

Parts 
OpenOffice is a collection of applications that work together closely to provide the features expected from a modern office suite. Many of the parts are designed to be alternatives to those available in Microsoft Office. The parts available include:

Other websites

References 

Office suites
Blindness

Blindness is to not see anything. Some people are called blind, even though they can see a little bit. This is because they cannot see clearly, but only see unfocused shapes or colors. 

In modern countries, few young people are blind. In all the world, blindness is mostly caused by malnutrition and diseases of old people, like cataracts and trachoma. People can become blind because of diseases or accidents, but sometimes people are born blind.

Some people are color blind, which means they can see, but cannot tell certain colors apart. 

When people are blind they use such things as the alphabet in braille and guide dogs to do every day life things. 

Famous blind people have included Louis Braille, the inventor of the braille alphabet, Stevie Wonder, Ray Charles and Helen Keller.

Other websites 

 Book on the history of blindness 
 Royal National Institute for the Blind 
 Scottish Sensory Centre 
 Blind Net
 Guide Dogs for the Blind Association

Disability
Summer

Summer is one of the four seasons. It is the hottest season of the year. In some places, summer is the wettest season (with the most rain), and in other places, it is a dry season. Four seasons are found in areas which are not too hot or too cold. Summer happens to the north and south sides of the Earth at opposite times of the year. In the north part of the world, summer takes place between the months of June and September, and in the south part of the world, it takes place between December and March. This is because when the north part of the Earth points towards the Sun, the south part points away.

Many people in rich countries travel in summer, to seaside resorts, beaches, camps or picnics. In some countries, they celebrate things in the summer as well as enjoying cool drinks. Other countries get snow in the summer just like winter.

Summer is usually known as the hottest season.

  
Seasons
Alberta

Alberta is a province in western Canada. It is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia on the west, Saskatchewan on the east, the US state of Montana on the south and the Northwest Territories to the North. 

Alberta is the fourth largest Canadian province with an area of . Alberta has around 4,067,175 living there, making it the fourth most populous province in Canada. 

The capital of Alberta is Edmonton lying near the middle of Alberta. The city of Calgary, Alberta’s other major centre is located about 300 kilometres to the south of Edmonton.

History 
Canada became a country in 1867. It was much smaller than it is now, and did not include the parts of the country to the west. From 1670 to 1870, parts of Alberta were included in "Rupert's Land," land owned by the Hudson’s Bay Company in support of it’s trading monopoly over a vast area of Canada and parts of the United States. Northern part of Alberta was part of the what was then called "Northwestern Territories." 

Alberta was made a province of Canada in 1905, at the same time as Saskatchewan.  

The Aboriginal peoples of Canada are referred to as First Nations or by the Name of their Nation. Mixed (European/Aboriginal) People are called Metis.

Weather 
Alberta is very cold in the winter and has a lot of snow during the very cold season. There is a dry part of Alberta in the south.

Work in Alberta  
Alberta has a huge amount of oil (in the Athabasca Oil Sands) and natural gas. 

There are also a lot of farms in Alberta. Farmers grow several different types of crops Farmers mainly grow wheat. There are also a lot of cows on Alberta farms, and Alberta beef is exported.

There is diesel fuel in Alberta.

References

Other websites 

 Government of Alberta website
 
 Provincial Archives of Alberta website
 Travel Alberta
 Alberta Encyclopedia
 CBC Digital Archives—Striking Oil in Alberta
 CBC Digital Archives—Electing Dynasties: Alberta Campaigns 1935 to 2001
 CBC Digital Archives—Alberta @ 100

References  

 
1905 establishments in North America
1900s establishments in Canada
Provinces and territories of Canada
Fire Brigades Union

The Fire Brigades Union (FBU) is the main union for firefighters in the United Kingdom. A union is a group of workers.  They make the group to improve pay and working conditions.  It was founded in 1918 in the London area as the Firemans Trade Union.  It soon grew to cover the entire country.    Today, it has around 50,000 members.

Other websites 
FBU homepage

Organisations based in London
Unions
Firefighting
Wheel

A wheel is a disc or circle-shaped mechanical device.  Its main purpose is to allow things to roll; in other words, the wheel spins, and object on the wheels moves more easily along the ground.  It is a simple machine.  

Most land vehicles roll on wheels.  Wheels are often used in pairs, connected by a rod of wood or metal known as an axle. Many machines have wheels with teeth, known as gears. The principle behind the wheel is that of mechanical advantage.

Wheel and axle 
This is a machine in which the wheel and axle turn together. It is the basis of many machines, not just vehicles. The potter's wheel, the lathe and the windlass are examples.

History 

Most experts believe that  the ancient Mesopotamians invented the wheel about 4000 BC.

People in Asia also discovered it on their own around 3500 BC.  The Inca and Maya had wheels on children's toys around 1500 BC, but they did not use wheels for work.  Africa south of the Sahara desert, Europe, and Australia did not have the wheel until people there met people from Europe.  Early wheels were solid disks; the spoked wheel was invented around 2000 BC. The earliest documentation of a vehicle with wheels is a painting dated between 33503500 BC.

References 

Basic English 850 words
Tools
Physical exercise

The word exercise means:
Things to do to get some practical experience and skill in some activity.
Repeatedly moving the human body to make it stronger or better at doing something. This is called physical exercise.

Basic modes of physical exercises

People do physical exercises as a part of their healthy lifestyle to get stronger and healthier or stay strong and healthy or to improve their body image.  There are three basic modes of physical exercises:

 Flexibility exercises help the human body in general or its part in particular to be able to reach farther and bend better.  
 Aerobic exercises help the body work hard for a long time.  
 Anaerobic exercises, like lifting weights, make the arms and legs stronger.

Exercises can be an important part of physical therapy, weight loss, or sports performance.

Exercise can be fun, but it is important for the exerciser to do what he likes and eat enough calories , so when he exercises he is building up muscles, not just breaking them down for fuel. Carbohydrates are muscle-sparing; and if one does not get enough calories overall, there is the risk of burning muscles up with the fat to make up the deficit.

Exercise benefits
Benefits of exercise for all ages have been known since antiquity. Marcus Cicero, around 65 BC, stated: “It is exercise alone that supports the spirits, and keeps the mind in vigor.”

The CDC recommends that adults should get 150 minutes of physical activity weekly. Regular exercise has been shown to help high blood pressure, obesity, heart disease, diabetes, and depression, among others. Exercise also helps people feel less tired.

Regular exercise can have a profoundly positive impact on depression, anxiety, and ADHD. It also relieves stress, improves memory, helps sleep better, and boosts overall mood. Studies show that exercise can treat mild to moderate depression as effectively as antidepressant medication but without the side-effects, of course.

Types of physical exercises
aerobics
bodybuilding
running
squat
sport
stretching
walking
weight training
yoga

References

Fitness
Plato

Plato was one of the most important classical Greek philosophers. He lived from 427 BC to 348 BC. A wealthy man, he owned at least 50 slaves and created the first university school, called "The Academy". Plato was a student of Socrates (who did not write) and the teacher of Aristotle, who founded another university, known as the Lyceum.  Plato wrote about many ideas in philosophy that are still talked about today. He wrote about ideas of deductive reasoning. One modern philosopher, Alfred North Whitehead, said that all philosophy since Plato has just been comments on his works.

Life
Plato wrote his books in the form of dialogues with two people or more talking about ideas, and sometimes disagreeing about them. The Laws is Plato's longest dialogue and probably his last.

Socrates is usually the main person in Plato's dialogues. Usually, Socrates talks with people about their ideas, and tries to see if they believe anything that is illogical. Other people in the stories often become angry with Socrates because of this. People who study Plato argue about whether Socrates really said the same things that Plato makes him say, or whether Plato just used Socrates as a character, to make the ideas he was talking about seem more important.

Plato opposed the rhetorics of sophism and insisted on true justice and equality in his work Gorgias, and on immortality of soul in Phaedo.

One of Plato's most famous works is The Republic (in Greek, Politeia, or 'city'). In that work, he describes Socrates's vision of an "ideal" state. The method of questioning in this dialogue, called the Socratic method, is as important as the content. The Republic contains ideas of Socrates: "Socrates said it, Plato wrote it."

Works by Plato 
There are many dialogues that were supposed to be written by Plato. This list includes those he probably did write.

References 

Sources:

Related pages 
Platonic realism
Platonic solid

427 BC births
340s BC deaths
Ancient Greek philosophers
Slavers
Derivative

A derivative is something created from a Primary source, and can mean different things.

 Derivative (linguistics), a word that is made from a more basic word
 Derivative (chemistry), a substance that has similar properties to the original. However, one or more components of the original are replaced
 Derivative (finance), or derivative security
 Derivative (mathematics), a central idea of calculus
Derivative works made from an existing work of art
Nim

Nim is a simple game used for examples in combinatorial game theory. The rules of nim are simple:
 The game begins with some piles of counters.
 Players alternate turns.
 On a turn, a player takes counters from a pile. At least one counter must be taken, but up to 3. All counters must be in the same pile.
 If a player cannot take a counter, that player loses.

There is a simple mathematical strategy to play the game perfectly. If both players play perfectly, the winner is determined by the initial setup.

Other websites 
 Nim Game 

Game theory

cs:Rozšířená forma#NIM
Blue

Blue is one of the colors of the rainbow that people can see. It is one of the seven colors of the rainbow along with red, orange, yellow, green, indigo and violet. Apart from indigo and violet, it has the shortest wavelength of these colors (about 470 nanometers).

Blue is the color of the Earth's sky and sea.  Earth looks blue when seen from outer space by astronauts.

Blue is a color used to show coldness. It is also one of the colors your lips can turn if you are chilly.

Blue is the color of a bluebird. A blue jay is the color blue.

Meaning of blue 
The color blue is sometimes associated with sadness, which may be where the name of the music style The Blues comes from.
Blue is a color of the Jewish religion.
In Western cultures since the 1940s, blue is associated with men/boys, while pink is associated with women/girls. Before the 1940s, it was the other way around, so blue was for women/girls and pink was for men/boys. Nobody knows exactly why it changed.

Comparison of green, teal, blue and ultramarine

Comparison of blue, indigo, violet and purple

Tones of blue color comparison chart

Related pages

 List of colors
 Aqua
 Azure
 Blue-green
 Blue-violet
 Cerulean
 Cyan
 Electric blue
 Indigo
 Navy blue
 Prussian blue
 Teal blue
 Ultramarine

References
Freedom of speech

Freedom of speech is the right to state one's opinions and ideas without being stopped or punished. Sometimes this is also called Freedom of expression. Freedom of speech is thought to also include freedom of the press and Freedom of information. However, new laws are usually needed to allow information to be used easily.
Most people think freedom of speech is necessary for a democratic government. In countries without free speech, people might be afraid to say what they think. Then, the government does not know what the people want. If the government does not know what they want, it cannot respond to their wants. Without free speech, the government does not have to worry as much about doing what the people want. Some people say this is why some governments do not allow free speech: they do not want to be criticised, or they fear there would be revolution if everyone knew everything that was happening in the country.

A well-known liberal thinker, John Stuart Mill, believed that freedom of speech is important because the society that people live in has a right to hear people's ideas. It's not just important because everyone should have a right to express him or herself.

Few countries with "free speech" let everything be said. For example, the United States Supreme Court said that it was against the law to shout "fire" in a crowded theater if there is no fire, because this might cause people to panic. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights also says that it is not okay to cause national, racial or religious hatred. Also, some countries have laws against hate speech. 

As Tocqueville pointed out, people may be hesitant to speak freely not because of fear of government punishment but because of social pressures.  When an individual announces an unpopular opinion, he or she may face the disdain of their community or even be subjected to violent reactions.  While this type of suppression of speech is even more difficult to prevent than government suppression is, there are questions about whether it truly falls within the ambit of freedom of speech, which is typically regarded as a legal right to be exercised against the government, or immunity from governmental action.

References

Human rights
Freedom
Libertarianism