cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Christian Democratic Union of Germany

The Christian Democratic Union of Germany or Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands (CDU) is one of the two main right of centre political parties in Germany. It describes itself as a Christian democratic, liberal and conservative party of the centre.

In November 2005 the Federal leader of the CDU Angela Merkel became the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany; she left office in December 2021.

History 
The CDU was founded after World War II. The first German Chancellor was Konrad Adenauer, a member of the CDU. He ruled from 1949-1963. During the Government of Helmut Kohl (1982-1998), Germany was reunited.

The CDU was the Government Party for most of the younger German history, only from 1969-1982 and from 1998-2005 there have been Chancellors from different parties.

Members 
The CDU has more than 400,000 members. It has 255 of 631 Members of Parliament in the German Parliament (Deutscher Bundestag) and 34 of 99 Members of European Parliament of Germany.

 
Christian democratic parties
Conservative parties
Income

Income is the money that someone gets for business activities. For individuals income usually means their wages or salary before any tax and other deductions have been made by their employer. Overall it is the amount you earn after all outstanding deductions have been made. Gross income is the income from all sources including wages or salary.

For business, there is a difference between the USA, where it most often means the amount of money that a company earns after paying for all its costs, and the world outside the U.S., where the term is usually profit or earnings.

Related pages
 Household income in the United States

Other websites 
Markets & Stocks: Investor Research Center - Earnings Warnings
 http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/ 
CBSalary — Careerbuilder's Free Salary Calculator
US Corporate Earnings Calendar
Theory of computation

The theory of computation is a branch of mathematics. Generally it is seen as belonging to computer science. The field of study of this subject is to see if a certain problem can be solved by a computer. If this is the case, then the question is to know if it can be solved in an efficient way. 

There are two major branches in it. The first is computability theory. It looks to see if a certain problem can be solved by a computer. Since this is a theoretical field of study, no real computers are used. They are replaced by a system called the Turing machine.

Once it is known if such a solution exists, computer scientists want to know if it can be found, and perhaps how it can be improved. This field of study is covered by the complexity theory. That theory has developed concepts to compare different methods of solving a problem to one another. Such methods are usually called algorithms. This is similar to comparing cooking recipes and seeing which of two recipes is easier to do.

Fields of mathematics
Computer science
Jermaine Jackson

Jermaine La Jaune Jackson (December 11, 1954) is an American singer, recording artist, dancer and bass guitarist. He is a former member of The Jackson 5 group, brother  of Janet Jackson & brother of late American pop star Michael Jackson. In 1980 he was nominated for a Grammy Award. He was a housemate in Celebrity Big Brother UK 2007. In September 2009, he planned a memorial fan based concert for Michael in historic part of Vienna, Austria but not many big stars registered so the event was canceled. He hopes more top stars will show up for July 2, 2010 worldwide tribute in Europe.

Personal life
On December 15, 1973, Jackson married Hazel Joy Gordy.

Jermaine always sternly defended his brother Michael without exception; in life and in death he officially represented Michael on behalf of Jackson family & friends. 

Jackson has eight children. They are Jermaine Jr., Autumn, Dawn, Jeremy, Jaimy, Joudynn, Jaffar and Jermajesty. 

On February 22, 2013 his second name was changed to Jacksun for "artistic reasons".

Jermaine Jackson was a Jehovah's Witness.

References

Other websites 

Jermaine Jackson French Page : Complete Motown-era discography
VH1 Profile 
Interview with Jackson regarding his conversion to Islam

1954 births
Living people
African American musicians
American guitarists
Jackson family
American Muslims
American R&B singers
American soul musicians
Celebrity Big Brother contestants
Musicians from Indiana
People from Gary, Indiana
Singers from Indiana
Wilhelm Hauff

Wilhelm Hauff (29 November 1802 – 18 November 1827) was a German poet and novelist.

Some of his works are very popular in German speaking countries to this day, such as Der kleine Muck, Kalif Storch and Die Geschichte von dem Gespensterschiff — all set in the Orient and Der Zwerg Nase, Das kalte Herz and Das Wirtshaus im Spessart, the three are set in Germany.

Other websites 
 Collection of links with commentary (German) 
 Sound samples to download
 Many fairy tales (Märchen) available (German) 
 

Poems
 Steh ich in finstrer Mitternacht
 Reiters Morgenlied

Links to Hauff's Work by Projekt Gutenberg-DE
 Overview of Hauff with many of his texts online (German)

German poets
1802 births
1827 deaths
Deaths from typhoid fever
German Protestants
German children's writers
German novelists
German writers
People from Stuttgart
Algebraic structure

In mathematics an algebraic structure is a set with one, two or more binary operations on  it. 

The basic algebraic structures with one binary operation are the following:
Magma (mathematics)
 A set with a binary operation.
Semigroup
 A set with an operation which is associative
Monoid
 A semigroup with an identity element
Group
 A monoid where each element has a corresponding inverse element
Commutative group
 A group with a commutative operation

The basic algebraic structures with two binary operations are the following:
Ring
 A set with two operations, often called addition and multiplication. The set with the operation of addition forms a commutative group, and with the operation of multiplication it forms a semigroup (many people define a ring so that the set with multiplication is actually a monoid). Addition and multiplication in a ring satisfy the distributive property
Commutative ring
 A ring whose multiplication is commutative
Field
 A commutative ring where the set with multiplication is a group.

Examples are

The whole numbers (natural numbers together with zero) with addition (or multiplication) is a monoid, but is not a group

The integers with addition is a commutative group, but with multiplication is just a monoid

The integers with addition and multiplication is a commutative ring, but not a field

The rational numbers, the real numbers and the complex numbers with the ordinary addition and ordinary multiplication are fields.

Related pages 
Abstract algebra

Algebra
Stefan Zweig

Stefan Zweig (; November 28, 1881 – February 22, 1942) was an Austrian writer of Jewish descent. He was born in Vienna. He volunteered to be a soldier in the First World War, and got the post as a military commentator. This made him an enemy of war. The Nazis gained power in Germany in 1933, and their influence could be felt in Austria as well. 1934, Stefan Zweig emigrated, first to London, then to South America. That way he lost much of his audience. He committed suicide (together with his second wife) by barbiturate overdose in Petropolis, Rio de Janeiro in 1942.

He has written many books and poems. One of his best-known works is called 'Schachnovelle (The Royal Game, in English. In it, he describes a Chess player, that is forced to play against himself (while imprisoned). He explores the theme of madness. This book inspired the movie Geri's Game, made by Pixar in 1997.

Further reading 
 Elizabeth Allday, Stefan Zweig: A Critical Biography, J. Philip O'Hara, Inc., Chicago, 1972
 
 Alberto Dines, Morte no Paraíso, a Tragédia de Stefan Zweig, Editora Nova Fronteira 1981, (rev. ed.) Editora Rocco 2004
 Alberto Dines, Tod im Paradies. Die Tragödie des Stefan Zweig, Edition Büchergilde, 2006
 Randolph J. Klawiter, Stefan Zweig. An International Bibliography, Ariadne Press, Riverside, 1991
 Donald A. Prater, European of Yesterday: A Biography of Stefan Zweig, Holes and Meier Publ., (rev. ed.) 2003
 George Prochnik, The Impossible Exile: Stefan Zweig at the End of the World, Random House, 2014, 
 Marion Sonnenfeld (editor), The World of Yesterday's Humanist Today. Proceedings of the Stafan Zweig Symposium, texts by Alberto Dines, Randolph J. Klawiter, Leo Spitzer and Harry Zohn, State University of New York Press, 1983
 Friderike Zweig, Stefan Zweig, Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1946 (An account of his life by his first wife)
 Martin Mauthner, German Writers in French Exile, 1933-1940, Vallentine Mitchell, London 2007,

Other websites 

 Zweig Music Collection at the British Library
 Stefan Zweig Collection at the Daniel A. Reed Library, State University of New York at Fredonia, Fredonia, NY 
 Stefan Zweig Centre Salzburg
 Beware of Pity, review by Joan Acocella in The New York Review of Books, July 13, 2006
 Stefan Zweig at Project Gutenberg
 Zweig's foreword to The World of Yesterday

1881 births
1942 deaths
Austrian Jews
Drug-related suicides
Jewish writers
Jews who committed suicide
Refugees from Nazism
Writers from Vienna
Leeward Islands (Society Islands)

The Leeward Islands are part of the Society Islands in French Polynesia. 

Islands of French Polynesia
Binary operation

In mathematics, a binary operation, often denoted *, on a set is a way of combining a pair of elements in that set that results in another element of the set. For example, if we take a pair of natural numbers and let the operation * be addition, then their sum is also a natural number, and is the result of applying this particular binary operation. Another example of an operation on the natural numbers is multiplication. For instance, take the natural numbers 2 and 3. When multiplied together they give 6, another natural number.

Others: The sum between matrices. The composition of functions. The union and the intersection of sets are also two different binary operations on the set of all sets, or on subsets in a power set.

References 

Mathematics
Civil service

A civil servant or public servant is an employee who works in the civilian career public sector for a government department or agency. Many consider the study of civil service to be a part of the field of public administration. Who is a civil servant and who is not is different in different countries.

Workers in non-departmental public bodies, (called Quangos in some countries) may also be called civil servants in context with statistics. All people that may be called civil servants together form a nation's Civil Service or Public Service.

References 
 Bodde, D.  Chinese Ideas in the West
 Brownlow, Louis, Charles E. Merriam, and Luther Gulick, Report of the President's Committee on Administrative Management. (1937) U.S. Government Printing Office. 
 P. N. Mathur. The Civil Service of India, 1731-1894: a study of the history, evolution and demand for reform (1977)
 Kevin Theakston. The Civil Service Since 1945 (Institute of Contemporary British History, 1995)
 Ari Hoogenboom. Outlawing the Spoils: A History of the Civil Service Reform Movement, 1865-1883. (1961)
 Schiesl, Martin. The Politics of Efficiency: Municipal Administration and Reform in America, 1880-1920. (1977)
 Van Riper, Paul. History of the United States Civil Service (1958). 
 White, Leonard D., Introduction to the Study of Public Administration. (1955)
 Leonard D. White, Charles H. Bland, Walter R. Sharp, and Fritz Morstein Marx; Civil Service Abroad, Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany (1935) online

Social sciences
Employee

An employee is a term for workers and managers working for a company, organization or community.  These people are the staff of the organization.  In general, any person hired by an employer to do a particular job in exchange for payment is an employee, but there are different kinds of employees.  In some countries, employers are required by law to do certain things, like obey minimum wage laws, provide a safe workplace, and sometimes pay a tax.  Employers also have to give their official employees benefits, like paying for health insurance.  Because of this, some employers like to hire independent contractors to do work instead of regular employees.  In the United States, a worker is an employee if their employer gets to tell them what do do, how to do it, and when to do it in a material way and an independent contractor if they get to make their own decisions about how to do what the employer wants.

The relationship between employer and employee is different from that between the firm and a customer or client.

An employee usually has to provide a resume and have an interview before being offered a job.

Independent contractors

Some employers like to hire independent contractors, or workers who are technically running their own businesses, because they do not have to follow all of the same laws.  For example, in the United States, an employer has to some of the employee's social security taxes and the employee pays the rest. A self-employed person pays for all of his or her own social security taxes.

For example, if a company hires a plumber every time they need a leak or pipe fixed in their building, that plumber is an independent contractor.  If a company hires a plumber to be part of their company, then that plumber is an employee.  They must pay the employee plumber whether there are leaks to fix or not.  They must obey any minimum wage laws that the country has.  They must provide other things.  But the employer gets to tell the employee plumber what to do and how to do it much more than an independent contractor plumber.  They can make the employee plumber follow a dress code, while the independent plumber gets to wear what he or she wants.  They can make the employee plumber come in or leave on a set schedule like other employees.  The independent contractor plumber gets to decide when to come to work, usually by making an appointment with the employer.

Some companies like to hire independent contractors and then tell them exactly what to do and when to do it, like regular employees.  They can get in trouble for this.  In the United States, the Internal Revenue Service can sue companies that lie about whether their employees really are independent contractors.

Other websites 
NBER, Science and Engineering Workforce Project
UK gov Local Business Link

References

Employment
Social sciences
Employer

An employer is a person or institution that hires employees.  Employers offer wages or a salary to the workers in exchange for the worker's work or labor.

One speaks of wages if the employee is paid by the hour and of salary if he is paid a set rate per pay period. Wages are paid for all hours worked, including overtime, but a salary is typically not paid more for more hours worked than the minimum.

Employers include everything from individuals hiring a babysitter to governments and businesses which may hire many thousands of employees.  In most western societies governments are the largest single employers, but most of the work force is employed in small and medium businesses in the private sector.

Other websites 

NBER, Science and Engineering Workforce Project
UK gov Local Business Link

Employment
Social sciences
Public sector

The public sector is the part of economic and administrative life that deals with the delivery of goods and services by civil service and for the government, whether national, regional or local/municipal. Examples of public sector activity range from delivering social welfare, administering infrastructure and urban planning and organising national defences.

References 
Social sciences
Economics
Administration

Administration may refer to:

Business
 Administration of business, the management of a business
 Management, the act of directing people towards achieving a goal
 Academic administration, a branch of a place of learning (e.g., a school) that maintains and supervises how it works
 Central Administration, the highest administrative department of an organisation

Government
The executive branch of government under a specific head of government
Public administration, the act of administering public policy as determined by a government

Other 
 Drug administration, giving someone medication
 Military administration, the techniques and systems used in the management of the armed forces

Related pages
 Administrator
Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children

Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children is a computer animated movie. It was released in 2005 by Square Enix.

Story
The movie is set two years after Final Fantasy VII . A mysterious illness has spread against humanity, Cloud Strife and the children are infected. He does not tell anyone he is infected. The villains included Kadaj, Loz, and Yazoo, are trying to find the "Cells of JENOVA". The Cells are a lifeform which fell to the planet hundreds of years ago and tried to destroy it.

Other websites 
Official Advent Children English site
Official Advent Children Japanese site

Advent Children.net - news, information, profiles, images, fan submissions and more 
The Making of Advent Children with interview translations and images

Final Fantasy
2005 movies
2005 animated movies
2005 computer-animated movies
2000s fantasy movies
2000s science fiction movies
Mithril

Mithril is a fictional metal from J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth universe. 

Mithril is the strongest metal known in Middle-earth. It looks similar to silver. It does not weigh much, and it is easy to make into things. Mithril is very rare and precious. It was only found in Khazad-dûm (Moria), where it was mined by the Dwarves, and (perhaps) in Númenor. 

The name "mithril" comes from the Sindarin words mith, meaning "grey", and ril meaning "glitter". In Quenya, its name is mistarille. Mithril was also called "true-silver" or "Moria-silver". 

The most well known object made of mithril is probably the mail shirt of Bilbo and Frodo Baggins.

Influence on other fiction 
Mithril is now often used in other fictional works, usually as a strong and magical metal. It other fictional works, mithril it is also sometimes written differently, for example as mythril or mithral.

Middle-earth
Shaw and Crompton

Shaw and Crompton is a town in the North West of England. It is to the north-east of Manchester. Shaw and Crompton was part of Lancashire until the 1970s, but is now part of Greater Manchester. Shaw and Crompton is near to Oldham.

Shaw and Crompton grew during the Industrial Revolution because of its large cotton factories which sent fabric across the world.

Other websites 
Crompton  articles at Gen UKI
Crompton: from the Normans to the Tudors  A comprehensive historical reference site.

Towns in Greater Manchester
Greater Manchester

Greater Manchester is a county in North West England. It has 2.7 million people living there. It was created on 1 April 1974. Its cities are Manchester and Salford and its large towns are Oldham, Bury, Rochdale, Ashton-Under-Lyne, Stockport, Wigan and Bolton. It also has smaller towns and villages, for example, Shaw and Crompton.

 
Ceremonial counties of England
1974 establishments in England
Gill (unit)

The gill (pronounced like the girl's name Jill) is a unit for measuring volume. It is equal to a quarter of a pint. People do not use it much now .

Old units of measurement
Units of volume
Ampere

The ampere or amp (Symbol: A) is the standard unit of electric current. An electric current of one amp is one coulomb per second. The amp is named after André-Marie Ampère who studied electromagnetism.

The ampere is defined so the elementary charge e is 1.602 176 634 × 10−19 C or A•s.

References

Other websites 
 The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
 A short history of the SI units in electricity 

SI units
Newton (unit)

The newton (symbol: N) is the SI unit of force. It is named after Sir Isaac Newton because of his work on classical mechanics. A newton is how much force is required to make a mass of one kilogram accelerate at a rate of one metre per second squared. 

 1 N is the force of Earth's gravity on a mass of about 102 g.
 On the Earth's surface, a mass of 1 kg pushes on its support with an average force of 9.8 N.
 1 Newton is equal to the amount of force required to accelerate an object (with a mass of one kilogram) at a rate of 1 meter per second, per second. 
 The US Customary Unit of force is the pound (symbol: lbf). 1 pound is equal to 4.44822 newtons.  

In 1946, Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM) set the unit of force in the MKS system of units to be the amount needed to accelerate 1 kilogram of mass at the rate of 1 metre per second each second.  In 1948, the CGPM adopted the name "newton" for this force.  The MKS system then became the blueprint for today's SI International System of Units.  That made the newton the standard unit of force.

This SI unit is named after Isaac Newton. As with every International System of Units (SI) unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case (N). However, when an SI unit is spelled out in English, it should always begin with a lower case letter (newton)—except in a situation where any word in that position would be capitalized, such as at the beginning of a sentence or in material using title case. Note that "degree Celsius" conforms to this rule because the "d" is lowercase.— Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2.

Newton's second law of motion states that F = m•a, where F is the force applied, m is the mass of the object receiving the force, and a is the acceleration of the object. The newton is therefore:[2]

SI units
Corporation

A corporation is a union of natural persons that has its own legal status. This status is independent from the persons involved. 

Because it is recognized by governments as a separate entity, the corporation must file tax returns and pay taxes and conform to state and federal law. This separation of persons and corporation gives it special powers. A corporation's status and capacity is determined by the law of the place of incorporation.

Investors and entrepreneurs often form joint stock companies. Therefore, the term corporation often means such business corporations. Corporations may also be formed for local government (municipal corporation), political, religious, and charitable purposes (not-for-profit corporation), or government programs (government-owned corporation).  Condominiums are a common kind of non-profit corporation.

In common speech, the word "corporation" refers usually to limited responsibility corporation. That is a business firm where each of the partners invest a sum of money in as the capital of the corporation. They receive shares for the sum they have invested. If the company becomes bankrupt, the business partners are responsible for only the name value of their shares of the company's debts. The partners do not use their personal money to pay for the debt.

Related pages 
 Joint stock company

Other websites 
Corporation Origins of corporations, their history, legal definition and current issues.
US Corporate Law at Wikibooks

Companies
Natural person

In jurisprudence, a natural person is a real human being in contrast to an artificial person, meaning an organization that the law treats for some purposes as if it were a person distinct from its members or owner.

For example, the right to vote is given to natural persons only. That is the case for most of the human rights. Therefore, obviously a corporation cannot hold public office, but it can file a lawsuit.

Although science fiction has long fantasized about the possibility of sentient robots (e.g. androids) living among humans (such as Robin Williams Bicentennial Man), no court has yet dealt with the question of whether such a being would be considered a natural person.

Other websites

 Natural Person

Law
Orascom

Orascom is an Egyptian company that offers mobile telephone services in many countries.

Affiliates
Orascom operates these companies:

Mobinil  in Egypt
Djezzy in Algeria
Iraqna  in Iraq
Mobilink in Pakistan
Banglalink in Bangladesh
Telecel Zimbabwe in Zimbabwe

History 
In 1997, Orascom Telecom Holding (OTH) was established as a separate entity to consolidate the telecommunications and technology interests of the Orascom group of companies established in 1976. Founded in 1998 as part of the Orascom company, it became the largest cellular operator in the Middle East in only five years.

In 2010, Russian Vimpelcom acquired Orascom Telecom as well as Wind Telecomunicazioni from Weather Investments of the Egyptian entrepreneur Naguib Sawiris and merged the two companies to form Global Telecom Holding based in Cairo. Excluded from this transaction were the activities in North Korea (Koryolink) and Egypt, which were transferred to Orascom Telecom Media and Technology Holding, which remained majority-owned by Naguib Sawiris. The Italian activities of Wind Telecomunicazioni report directly to the parent company Vimpelcom and are not part of Global Telecom Holding.

Orascom Telecom Holding has been renamed to Global Telecom Holding in 2013. On 1 July 2019 Gerbrand Nijman (since June 2015 GTH's group CFO) has succeeded Vincenzo Nesci (retired) as GTH's CEO.

Other websites 
Orascom

References 

Technology companies
Egypt
Legal entity

A legal entity is a legal construct through which the law allows a group of natural persons to act as if they were a single person for certain purposes.  The most common purposes are lawsuits, property ownership, and contracts.

A legal entity is not always something else than the natural persons of which it is composed as one can see with a company or corporation.

Some examples of legal entities include:
 companies
 cooperatives (co-ops)
 corporations
 municipalities
 natural persons
 political parties
 sovereigns
 states
 temples, in some legal systems, have separate legal personality
 trade unions
 ship or vessel

Limitations
There are limitations to the legal recognition of artificial persons.  Legal entities cannot marry, they cannot vote or hold public office, and in most jurisdictions there are certain positions which they cannot occupy.  The extent to which a legal entity can commit a crime varies from country to country.  Certain countries prohibit a legal entity from holding human rights; other countries permit artificial persons to enjoy certain protections from the state that are traditionally described as human rights.

examples of legal entities are 
- sole traders
-partnerships
- trusts
- private and public company

Recently, in India, a company despite being artificial person has got court stay, from High Court Jaipur Bench against an employee seeking justice in labour court.

Related pages
 Company

Footnotes

Law
Possession

Possession usually means to have some sort of ownership over something else. A person may be in possession of some property, which is legal ownership, under property law.

There are some other related uses of the term. When English explorer, Captain James Cook, claimed the country of Australia as a British country, he took "possession" of the land. The spot where he made his claim on 22 August 1770, a small island in the Torres Strait, is now called Possession Island.

In some beliefs, to be possessed is to be under the control of devils, demons, or evil spirits. These people may do evil or terrible things because of their possession.

References

Law
Religious behavior and experience
Officer of arms

An officer of arms is someone who is chosen by a sovereign or state to do some important jobs relating to:
 heraldry and coats of arms
 arranging and conducting ceremonies of state
 keeping and interpreting heraldic and genealogical records.

In Scotland the officers of arms maintain the old job of a herald - passing on royal messages. Three days after parliament is dissolved in London the royal proclamation is read out at the Mercat Cross in Edinburgh. They wait three days because this is how long it used to take to get from London to Edinburgh by horse.

Politics
Oral tradition

An oral tradition or oral culture is a way of transmitting history, literature or law from one generation to the next, without a writing system, by voice. People tell stories. Often the stories are made into poems and songs to make remembering easy. For example, the Homeric poetry of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined oral literature and oral history. Eventually they were written down.

Related pages 
Narrative poetry
Oral law

Other websites 
 The Center for Studies in Oral Tradition
 The Milman Parry Collection of Oral Literature Online 
 Oral Tradition Journal
929



Events 
January 16 - Emir Abd-ar-rahman III of Cordoba creates the Caliphate of Cordoba and assumes power
Pope Stephen VII succeeds Pope Leo VI

Deaths 
Pope John X
Al-Batani, Arab astronomer
Houston Steward Chamberlain

Houston Steward Chamberlain (September 9, 1855 – January 9, 1927) was a writer of books. He wrote many popular scientific books, about Richard Wagner, Immanuel Kant, and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe amongst others. He was born in Portsmouth, but later emigrated to Germany. In later life he became a German citizen. He was acquainted with Hitler and died in Bayreuth. He is known for his Antisemitism. His best-known book, The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century is seen as a standard antisemitic work of the early 20th century.

1855 births
1927 deaths
English writers
German writers
Nazis
Arthur de Gobineau

Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau (July 14, 1816 — October 13, 1882) was a French aristocrat. He was well educated, and wrote many things. He became famous for developing the racialist theory of the Aryan Master race in his book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-1855).

1816 births
1882 deaths
French writers
Opiliones

Harvestmen are eight-legged arachnids. Even though they belong to the arachnid family, harvestmen are not spiders. They are in the order Opiliones or Phalangids.

More than 6,400 species of harvestmen have been discovered, although the real number of extant species may be more than 10,000. Well-preserved fossils have been found in the 400-million year old Rhynie cherts of Scotland. The samples found look surprisingly modern. Apparently, the basic structure of the harvestmen has not changed much since then.

In some places, harvestmen are known by the name "daddy longlegs", but this name is also used for two other unrelated arthropods: the crane fly (Tipulidae) and the cellar spider (Pholcidae).

Many species are omnivores, they eat anything they can find. Most of the time this is small insects, and some plants and fungi. Some are scavengers.

Harvestmen are not dangerous to humans. None of the described species have poison glands. They are not "true" spiders even though they look like spiders in many ways.  For example, harvestmen have no venom or silk glands; spiders have these.

Anatomy 
These arachnids have exceptionally long walking legs, compared to body size, although there are also short-legged species. In harvestmen the two main body sections (the abdomen and cephalothorax) are broadly joined, so that they appear to be one oval structure; they also have no venom or silk glands, unlike true spiders. In more advanced species, the first five abdominal segments are often fused into a dorsal shield called the scutum, which is normally fused with the carapace. In some species, this shield is only present in males. The second pair of legs is longer than the others and works as antennae. This can be hard to see in short-legged species.

The feeding apparatus (Stomotheca) differs from other arachnids as they are able to eat their food in chunks, without needing to liquify it. Most species have a single pair of eyes in the middle of their heads, oriented horizontally. However, there are some eyeless species.

Further reading
 Joel Hallan's Biology Catalog (2005)
 Pinto-da-Rocha R. Machado G. & Giribet G. eds. 2007. Harvestmen – the biology of Opiliones. Harvard University Press 
 Pinto-da-Rocha R. & Kury A.B. 2003. Third species of Guasiniidae (Opiliones, Laniatores) with comments on familial relationships. Journal of Arachnology 31: 394-399. PDF 
 Shultz, Jeffrey W. 1998. Phylogeny of Opiliones (Arachnida): an assessment of the "Cyphopalpatores" concept. Journal of Arachnology 26: 257-272. PDF

Other websites

Harvestman: Order Opiliones Diagnostic photographs and information on North American harvestmen
Harvestman: Order Opiliones Diagnostic photographs and information on European harvestmen
 University of Aberdeen: The Rhynie Chert Harvestmen (fossils)
  National Museum page Classification of Opiliones A synoptic taxonomic arrangement of the order Opiliones, down to family-group level, including some photos of the families

References

Arachnids
Daddy long-legs spider

The Daddy-Long-Legs Spider (Pholcus phalangioides) is a spider of the family Pholcidae. Its legs are about 5 or 6 times the length of its body.  It is often confused with the daddy long-legs, a member of the Opiliones, which are not true (real) spiders. P. phalangioides has the habit of shaking the web violently when disturbed. This is probably to blur the vision of a predator. Because it is often found on the ceilings of rooms, caves or cellars, it is also called cellar spider.  They can easily catch and eat hairy house spiders, mosquitoes, and other insects.  When food is scarce, they will prey on their own kind. Because they originally came from the tropics, these spiders do not seem to be aware of seasonal changes and breed at any time of the year. 

The female holds 20 to 30 eggs in her jaws.  Spiderlings are transparent with short legs and change their skin about 5 or 6 times as they grow.

Females have a body length of about 9mm, males are slightly smaller.

Crossopriza lyoni and Physocyclus globosis are spiders with a very similar appearance.

Trivia 
 This is the only spider species described by Swiss painter and entomologist Johann Kaspar Füssli.
 Some spiders, including P. phalangioides, have the ability to completely suck out a mosquito from the tip of one of its legs, although this may take up to twelve hours.

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 Description and pictures 
 Long description and pictures

Spiders
Crane fly

Crane flies are flies in the family Tipulidae. They are insects. Crane flies look similar to large mosquitoes but, unlike mosquitoes, crane flies do not bite people or animals. Crane flies occasionally eat nectar.

They are also known as daddy longlegs around the world. The term 'daddy-long-legs' is also given to arachnids of the order Opiliones or the family Pholcidae. The larvae of crane flies are known commonly as leatherjackets.

There are about 15,000 different species and 525 genera of crane flies. This means that the Tipulidae (crane flies) are the largest group of flies. Most crane fly species (75%) were found by Charles P. Alexander.

The adult only lives to mate and lay eggs: 10 to 15 days is all. In some species the adult does not eat at all.

Larvae 
Most of the crane fly's life is spent as a larva. Crane fly larvae are called leatherjackets or 'leatherjacket slugs' because of the way they move and eat roots (such as those of grass in lawns) and other vegetation. Some leatherjackets are aquatic.  

Leatherjackets can cause damage to plants. Because of this, crane flies are a pest of lawn grass in some areas. Invasive (European) crane flies (Tipula paludosa) cause extensive damage to turfgrass. 

Larvae of crane flies are divided into segments. They have a distinct head capsule on the front. The segments on the rear portion of the larva (the abdominal segments) often have long fleshy projections (like tentacles). Scientists have never seen the larvae from most crane fly species: less than 2% of the larvae are known.

Appearance

Adult crane flies have very long legs and a long, thin abdomen. It is very easy to accidentally break off their delicate legs when catching crane flies. Their thin legs and  abdomen may help them to escape from birds who try to eat them. Females have larger abdomens in comparison to the males. The female abdomen also ends in a pointed ovipositor that looks a bit like a stinger. Crane flies cannot sting.

The wings are often held out from the body when the crane fly is not moving. When the wings are held out, the large halteres (balancers) can be seen behind the wings. Unlike mosquitoes, crane flies can not fly well. They will sometimes "wobble" when flying.

Crane flies that live in temperate places, such as Tipula species, may grow as big as 60 mm in size. Tropical crane flies may grow to more than 100 mm. The giant crane fly (Holorusia rubiginosa) that lives in the western United States can reach 38 mm (1-3/8 inches). There are also small crane flies, the size of mosquitoes.

References

 Oosterbroek, Pjotr. "Tipulidae" <http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/aocat/tipulidae.html>.

Other websites 
 Family descriptions and images 
 Ohio State University Fact Sheet
 1 Photo 
 Crane Flies of Pennsylvania 
 Crane Fly Tipula sp.

 Crane Fly Tipula dorsimacula
 Catalogue of Craneflies of the World 
 Family Tipulidae - By Pjotr Oosterbroek
  Image Gallery from Diptera.info
 Image Gallery from Bug Guide Extensive

Flies

sv:Harkrankar
Attac (organization)

The Association pour la Taxation des Transactions pour l'Aide aux Citoyens (Association for the Taxation of Financial Transactions for the Aid of Citizens, ATTAC) is an organization that promotes a tax on foreign exchange transactions, the so-called Tobin tax.

Background

At first Attac demanded only the introduction of the so-called Tobin tax on currency speculation. Now it fights for many issues related to globalisation. Therefore, it reports about the decisions of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).  ATTAC attends the meetings of the G8 with the goal of influencing policymakers' decisions.

Though ATTAC criticises the neoliberal ideology dominating economic globalisation, it is not "anti-globalisation".  It supports globalisation policies that they characterise as sustainable and socially just. One of ATTAC's slogans is "The World is not for sale", denouncing the "merchandisation" of society.

Other websites 

 ATTAC homepage
 ATTAC.info
 "Disarming the Markets", editorial by Ignacio Ramonet
 Term Paper about ATTAC

1998 establishments
Political organizations
OECD
Threat

A threat is basically a declaration of intent to inflict punishment or harm or loss on another.  However, in many cases the threat is not believed, or may even be a joke.  Like other communications a threat has a context, and the context decides its meaning.

A child who says "I'll tell my dad" may learn from the reply "I'm so scared!" that the threat is an idle threat: one that is promises harm that cannot or will not actually be inflicted.

To encourage compliance, a threat to do harm may be mixed with an offer to do good, conditional upon what the recipient does. This is sometimes called a throffer.  The threat part may be implied, yet effective. 

Some countries, such as the United States, have a legal concept of true threat. A true threat is a threatening communication which can be prosecuted under the law.

A threat can describe a situation of danger: for example "a terrorist threat". Many countries have a system where the government can adjust its security by having official threat levels.

Related pages 
Nonverbal communication

References 

Human communication
Words
Psychology
Promotion

Promotion means spreading information about an product, service or issue

Promotion as part of marketing means spreading information about a product, product line, brand, or company.
Promotion includes:
 Publicity and public relations
 Advertising

Promotion for marketing includes additionally:
 Personal selling
 Non-personal selling
 Sales promotion
 Tradeshows
 Direct selling
 Product placement
 For example, arranging  that a product is used on a television programme or in a movie so that the viewer can see the brand name or symbol or logo.

Promotion can also happen when a marketing company is providing discounts and coupons to customers to create brand awareness.

References

Communication
Debate

Debate or debating is a method of argument. Disputes and conflicts may be settled by debate. It is a larger form of argument than logical argument, because in a debate, the debaters try to influence the feelings of the audience, in order to persuade them on a topic.

The subject or issue of the debate is the question on which the participants debate. An issue or debate always has two sides or positions. Informal debates like discussion are very common, but the quality of a debate improves with knowledge and skill of its participants as debaters.

Deliberative bodies such as parliaments, legislative assemblies, and meetings of all sorts have debates. The winner of a debate may be decided by the audience's vote, by judges, or by both.

Formal debates between candidates for an elected office are common in places where leaders of countries are chosen by the people. The most well-known of these debates are between candidates for the President and Vice President of the United States, and leaders debates between leaders of parties in Parliament in countries like Great Britain and Canada.

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Communication
Public speaking
Central Bank bombing

The Central Bank bombing was one of the deadliest terrorist attacks of the civil war in Sri Lanka between the government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.

The attack happened on January 31, 1996, in Colombo, the capital city of Sri Lanka. A truck with about 440 pounds (200 kg) of high explosives crashed through the main gate of the Central Bank, a seaside building which managed most of the financial business of the country. As gunmen and security guards were shooting, the suicide bomber in the truck detonated the massive bomb, which badly damaged the bank and damaged eight other buildings nearby.

The explosion killed 90 people and injured 1,400 others. Most of these were ordinary citizens or civilians working in the small shops set up near the bank. This bombing was followed by the 1996 Dehiwala train bombing in July that killed 64 people.

Until 2006, the Central Bank bombing was the deadliest LTTE terrorist bombing.

1990s building bombings
1990s crimes in Asia
1990s disasters in Asia
Building bombings in Asia
Car and truck bombings in Asia

January events
Mass murder in 1996
Massacres in Asia
Sri Lankan Civil War
Suicide car and truck bombings
Suicide in the 1990s
Terrorist incidents in the 1990s
Tobin tax

A Tobin tax is a tax on all trade of currency across borders. 

The first idea that it could be useful came from the economist James Tobin. The tax is meant to put a penalty on short-term speculation in currencies. The proposed tax rate would be low, between 0.1% to 0.25%. 

On August 15, 1971, Richard Nixon told that it would no longer be possible to change the US dollar to gold, so ended the Bretton Woods system. Tobin suggested a new system for international currency stability, and proposed that such a system include a charge on foreign-exchange transactions. Professor Tobin later received a Nobel Prize in Economics in 1981.

The idea was nearly forgotten for more than 20 years.  In 1997 Ignacio Ramonet, editor of Le Monde Diplomatique, started the debate around the Tobin tax again with an editorial titled "Disarming the markets". Ramonet proposed to create an association for the introduction of this tax, which was named ATTAC (Association for the Taxation of financial Transactions for the Aid of Citizens). The tax has then become an issue of the antiglobalization movement and a matter of discussion not only behind academic institutions but even in the streets and in parliaments around the world, such as the UK and France.

Tobin tax projects in the world
Since one country acting alone would find it very difficult to introduce this tax, many argue it would be best done by an international institution.  It has been proposed that having the United Nations manage a Tobin tax would solve this problem and would give the U.N. a large source of funding independent from donations by participating states. However, there have been initiatives of national dimension about the tax.

The Tobin tax idea was the subject of much discussion in Europe in the summer of 2001. On June 15, 2004, the Commission of Finance and Budget in the Belgian Federal Parliament approved a bill implementing the Spahn tax (a version of the Tobin tax proposed by Paul-Bernd Spahn). According to the legislation, Belgium will introduce the Tobin tax once all countries of the eurozone introduce a similar law.

Other websites 
 ATTAC
 Disarming the markets, editorial by Ignacio Ramonet, Le Monde Diplomatique 1997
 Tobin Tax Initiative 
 War on Want 
  coverage of the issue in HedgeWorld 
  The Guardian editorializes against the Tobin tax
 Currency Transaction Taxes - analysis from Global Policy Forum
 English version of James Tobin interview on Der Spiegel on Jubilee 2000 web site 
 ATTAC France's view on Tobin's interview (English version) 
 Website offering coverage of Tobin tax initiatives, as well as supportive and critical papers 
 JEEA article by Prof. Hau  

Taxation
Visoko

Visoko  is historic town in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It has 17000 residents. Visoko lies on river Bosna and Fojnica. 

Visoko was capital town of medieval Bosnia in early years of country. From this time, most important objects are old town Visoki on Visočica hill, trade center Podvisoki, Mile - place where the kings were crowned and Moštre where was Bosnian church university. 

In 1463 Ottomans counqered Bosnia. Ajas-beg is founder of modern Visoko. He built mosques, trade shops and other objects.

Other websites 

News from Visoko
VISOKOIN - Nezavisni News Magazin
City of Visoko
Turistic presentation of Visoko 
Neolithic findings in Okolište, Visoko 
Short history of Visoko
Visoko in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th Edition 
Tragovima bosanskog kraljevstva  - Tourist route for medieval Bosnia (English)
Trail of the Bosnian Kingdom  - Cultural Tourism in Visoko

Settlements in Bosnia and Herzegovina