cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Concussion

Concussion is an injury to the brain caused by being hit on the head, as often happens in motor vehicle collisions, fights or contact sports such as football. It is the most common form of traumatic brain injury. Related terms include mild brain injury, mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI), mild head injury (MHI),  and minor head trauma. Patients with severe concussion are occasionally monitored in hospital. The main reason for this is the risk of bleeding in the brain, which can be life-threatening. 

Common symptoms of concussion include: headache, dizziness, fatigue, problems with vision, confusion and loss of consciousness. A person with a mild concussion may have nothing more than a headache or brief confusion. In more severe cases, symptoms tend to last longer, and may include loss of consciousness. Other associated symptoms are: worsening headache, inability to wake, dilation of the eyes, vomiting, nausea, loss of coordination and weakness of extremities. 

Symptoms may last less than a week in minor cases, but recovery from more severe concussions can take up to 4 weeks. The most common causes of concussions are accidents; in some cases, wearing a helmet can help prevent major damage.

Concussion and Aphasia 
One often underreported symptom of concussion is aphasia.  Aphasia is the loss of ability to produce or understand speech; it is caused by brain damage.  Most of the important areas for speech and language are located in the left hemisphere. As such, patients who have concussions due to injury on the left side of the head could be more at risk for these symptoms. 

The most common kinds of aphasia associated with traumatic brain injury are amnestic aphasia and verbal paraphasia.  Amnesic aphasia, also known as anomia, is an issue with word finding where patients struggle to find words for objects that they once knew.  There is no impairment of comprehension associated with anomia. This can be especially challenging for students trying to return to school and professionals returning to work.  The second kind of aphasia associated with concussion is verbal paraphasia, the substitution of one word for another.  Typically, the substituted word will have a similar meaning as the word it replaces; e.g. substituting sock with shoe. 

As with most concussion symptoms, aphasia symptoms correlated with concussion typically get progressively better, as evidenced by a study done by Inger Vibeke Thomsen. Of the concussion patients studied that showed aphasia symptoms, only one patient had long term aphasia.  The others showed almost full recovery.  

The National Aphasia Association recognizes that concussions can cause aphasia.  In serious concussions, aphasia is a documented symptom and can be temporary or permanent.  This is correlated to injury of brain regions that are important for language production. However, traumatic brain injuries usually effect multiple areas of the brain, so other symptoms will also be present. The damage causing aphasia will usually be on the left side of the brain.

References

Brain
Mercury-in-glass thermometer

The mercury-in-glass thermometer was invented by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit in Amsterdam (1714). It is a bulb containing Mercury attached to a glass tube of narrow diameter. The volume of mercury in the tube is much less than the volume in the bulb. The volume of mercury changes slightly with temperature. The small change in volume drives the narrow mercury column up the tube. The space above the mercury may be filled with nitrogen or it may be at less than atmospheric pressure, a partial vacuum.  

Mercury cannot be used to measure temperatures lower than -39˚C (as mercury freezes at that point) or temperature higher than 356.7˚C (the boiling point of mercury). Mercury has been replaced largely by alcohol for use in thermometers. Ethanol is cheaper and safer than mercury and can be used as low as -80˚C. However, ethanol boils at 78°C (172.4°F), which means its upper limit is much lower than mercury thermometers.

Medical equipment
Measuring tools
Thermometers
Beaufort scale

The Beaufort scale is a scale for measuring wind speeds. It is based on observation rather than accurate measurement. It is the most widely used system to measure wind speed today. The scale was developed in 1805 by Francis Beaufort, an officer of the Royal Navy and first officially used by HMS Beagle.

There are twelve levels, plus 0 for "no wind". From 1946 to 1970, there were also beaufort levels 13 to 17. All of them were labelled as Hurricane. Because they were only used in special cases, they are no longer in use internationally. China, and Taiwan still use them, because they often have typhoons. 

The wave heights given are for waves on the open ocean, not near the shore.

The Douglas Sea Scale and Douglas Wind Scale are similar, but they separate the sea from the wind.

The scale

Images

Other websites 
 UK Meteorological Office: The Beaufort Scale
 Investigating Clouds   a lesson plan from the National Science Digital Library that uses the Beaufort Scale.
 Radio interview with Scott Huler.
 OceanWeather.com gives current graphics for wind, waves and temperature
 Open Source Textbook at Oceanworld.tamu.edu  [broken link] cites the original definition formula in chapter 4  
 Howtoon Poster   showing effects on land/sea effects at each step.

Winds
The Wheel of Time

The Wheel of Time is a long running fantasy series of novels written by American author Robert Jordan. The first in the series, The Eye of the World was published in 1990,  and the last, A Memory of Light, was published in 2009. Jordan died while he was writing the last book, so it was finished by Brandon Sanderson. A Memory of Light was split into three parts as the book length was too long.

Books 
 The Eye of the World
 The Great Hunt
 The Dragon Reborn
 The Shadow Rising
 The Fires of Heaven
 Lord of Chaos
 A Crown of Swords
 The Path of Daggers
 Winter's Heart
 Crossroads of Twilight
 Knife of Dreams
Gathering Storm (The first part of A Memory of Light)
Towers of Midnight (The second part of A Memory of Light)
A Memory of Light (The last part of A Memory of Light)

References 

Fantasy books
Series of books
Robert Jordan

Robert Jordan (October 17, 1948 – September 16, 2007) was the pen or writing name of the American fantasy author James Oliver Rigney Jr. He was most famous for writing the long, epic fanasy series The Wheel of Time. He died from amyloidosis before he was able to finish the series. The last volume A Memory of Light was split into three and was completed by fellow American fantasy writer Brandon Sanderson.

The Wheel of Time
The Wheel of Time is an epic fantasy series that centers around Rand al'Thor, a young man destined to be the Dragon Reborn, the savior figure of the story. The Dragon Reborn is prophesied to lead the forces of the Light (the forces of good) to fight the Dark One (the main antagonist) at the Last Battle.

List of books in the series
The Eye of the World, (1990) 
The Great Hunt, (1990) 
The Dragon Reborn, (1991) 
The Shadow Rising, (1992) 
The Fires of Heaven, (1993) 
Lord of Chaos, (1994) 
A Crown of Swords, (1996) 
The Path of Daggers, (1998) 
Winter's Heart, (2000) 
Crossroads of Twilight, (2003) 
New Spring, prequel to the series, (2004) 
Knife of Dreams, (2005) 
The Gathering Storm, the first part of A Memory of Light, (2009) 
Towers of Midnight, the second part of A Memory of Light, (To be released in 2010)
A Memory of Light, the last part of A Memory of Light, (To be written)

References

Other websites
Dragonmount - A fansite that hosts Robert Jordan's blog.
Brandon Sanderson's blog - Brandon Sanderson is the author selected to finish the series.
The Wheel of Time Wiki

1948 births
2007 deaths
Deaths from amyloidosis
Disease-related deaths in South Carolina
Pen names
People from Charleston, South Carolina
Writers from South Carolina
Brian Burke

Brian Thomas Burke (born 25 February 1947) was the 23rd Premier of Western Australia from 25 February 1983 to 25 February 1988. He was from the Labor Party. He worked as a journalist before becoming a politician. As Premier he was popular at first but later on his government was involved in a number of private companies that failed. He resigned to become an ambassador. During the 1990s he was convicted of committing crimes while he was Premier and spent time in prison.

References

1947 births
Living people
Burke, Brian
People from Perth, Western Australia
Australian Labor Party politicians
Australian journalists
Ray O'Connor

Raymond James O'Connor (6 March 1926 - 25 February 2013) was the 22nd Premier of Western Australia from 25 January 1982 until 25 February 1983. He was from the Liberal Party. He became Premier when Charles Court resigned. Later he was convicted of fraud and spent time in prison.

References
 

1926 births
2013 deaths
Australian criminals
Fraudsters
Liberal Party of Australia politicians
People from Perth, Western Australia
Premiers of Western Australia
Charles Court

Sir Charles Walter Michael Court (29 September 1911 – 22 December 2007) was the 21st Premier of Western Australia from 8 April 1974 to 25 January 1982. He was from the Liberal Party. He became a politician in 1953. His son, Richard, was also a Premier.

References
 

1911 births
Court, Charles
People from Sussex
Liberal Party of Australia politicians
Chang'an

Chang'an was the capital of ancient China of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. Chang'an literally means "Perpetual Peace" in Classical Chinese. During the Xin Dynasty, the city was renamed "Constant Peace"; yet after its fall in the year 23 AD, the old name was restored. During the Ming Dynasty, the name was changed to its present name Xi'an, meaning "Western Peace".

History 

The imperial city of Chang'an during the Han Dynasty was in northwest of today's Xi'an. During the Tang Dynasty, the area to be known as Chang'an included the area inside the Ming Xi'an fortification, plus some small areas to its east and west, and a major part of its southern suburbs. The Tang Chang'an was 8 times the size of the Ming Xi'an. During this time Chang'an was one of the largest and most populous cities in the world. Around 750 A.D. Chang'an was called a "million people's city" in Chinese records, while modern estimates put it at around 800,000–1,000,000 within city walls.

In 710, the grid of Japan's capital city at Heijō-kyō was planned to mirror the grid of Chang'an.  In 794, the plan of the new capital at Heian-kyō also mirrored the Chang'an design.

References

References 
 Benn, Charles (2002). China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .
 Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. .
 Ma, Dezhi. "Sui Daxing Tang Chang’an Cheng Yizhi" ("Archeological Site of Sui's Daxing and Tang's Chang'an". Encyclopedia of China (Archeology Edition), 1st ed.
 Wang, Chongshu. "Han Chang’an Cheng Yizhi" ("Archeological Site of Han's Chang'an"). Encyclopedia of China (Archeology Edition), 1st ed.

Further reading 

Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman (1999). Chinese Imperial City Planning. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2000). Sui-Tang Chang’an: A Study in the Urban History of Medieval China. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Center for Chinese Studies.

Other websites
Introduction of Xi'an/Chang'an  by the University of Washington

History of China
Cities in China
John Tonkin

John Trezise Tonkin (2 February 1902 – 20 October 1995) was the 20th Premier of Western Australia from 3 March 1971 to 8 April 1974. He was from the Labor Party.

He was born in Boulder City in 1902. Educated in local schools Tonkin became a teacher in rural Western Australia. An active member of the Labor Party, he was Prime Minister John Curtin's campaign manager for the 1943 election. He was elected to the Western Australian parliament for the seat of North East Fremantle (1933–1950), and for the seat of Melville (1950–1977). He was a Cabinet Minister (1943–1947), Deputy Premier (1953–1959), Leader of the Opposition (1967–1971 and 1974–1976), and Premier (1971–1974). He retired from parliament in 1977 and died in 1995.

References

1902 births
1995 deaths
Tonkin, John
Australian Labor Party politicians
Australian educators
David Brand

Sir David Brand (1 August 1912 – 15 April 1979) was the 19th Premier of Western Australia from 2 April 1959 to 3 March 1971. He was from the Liberal Party.

References
 

1912 births
1979 deaths
Brand, David
Liberal Party of Australia politicians
Albert Hawke

Albert ("Bert") Redvers George Hawke (3 December 1900 – 14 February 1986) was the 18th Premier of Western Australia from 23 February 1953 to 2 April 1959. He was from the Labor Party. His nephew, Bob, became Prime Minister of Australia in the 1980s.

References
 

1900 births
1989 deaths
Hawke, Albert
Politicians from South Australia
Australian Labor Party politicians
Ross McLarty

Sir Duncan Ross McLarty (17 March 1891 – 22 December 1962) was the 17th Premier of Western Australia from 1 April 1947 to 23 February 1953. He was from the Liberal Party.

References
 

1891 births
1962 deaths
McLarty, Ross
Liberal Party of Australia politicians
Frank Wise

Frank Joseph Scott Wise (30 May 1897 – 29 June 1986) was the 16th Premier of Western Australia from 31 July 1945 to 1 April 1947. He was from the Labor Party.

Wise was born in Queensland and after finishing high school he became a tropical fruit farmer. He joined the Queensland Department of Agriculture, and later moved to Western Australia to work with the WA Department of Agriculture. He brought banana plants from Queensland to grow in the Gascoyne region around Carnarvon. He was elected to the Western Australian parliament in 1933 and became the Minister for Agriculture in 1936.

He became Premier of Western Australia after John Willcock resigned in 1945. His government was defeated in the 1947 election. He then became Leader of the Opposition for four years. He resigned from parliament in 1951 to become the Administrator of the Northern Territory.

References
 

1897 births
1986 deaths
Administrators of the Northern Territory
Wise, Frank
Politicians from Queensland
Australian Labor Party politicians
Kevin Moore (rugby league)

Kevin Moore (born 30 November 1965, in St Johns Lakemba, New South Wales, Australia) is a rugby league coach and former player. He was the head coach for the Bulldogs in the NRL from 2009 to 2011. As a player, he played as a scrum-half.

References

Other websites 
Bulldogs profile 

1965 births
Living people
Australian rugby league players
Sportspeople from Sydney
Coaches
Roman Čechmánek

Roman Čechmánek  (born March 2, 1971 in Gottwaldov (now called Zlín), Czechoslovakia) is a Czech professional ice hockey goaltender.

International play
His only Olympic appearance was for the Czech Republic in the 1998 Winter Olympics. Backing-up star goaltender Dominik Hašek, Čechmánek's team won the gold medal after defeating Russia in the gold medal deciding match, despite not playing a single game. Czech Republic won in a tight 1–0 game.

His other debuts were in the 2004 and 2007 IHWC also playing for the Czech Republic team.

International statistics

Honours
Played in National Hockey League All-Star Game — 2001.
Named to National Hockey League All-Star Second Team — 2000–01.
William M. Jennings Trophy (shared with Martin Brodeur and teammate Robert Esche) — 2002–03

Other websites
 

1971 births
Living people
Los Angeles Kings players
Philadelphia Flyers players
American Hockey League players
Swedish Hockey League players
Czech ice hockey goaltenders
Spinning jenny

The spinning jenny is a multi-spool spinning wheel. It was invented around 1764 by James Hargreaves (c. 1720 – 22 April 1778) in Stanhill, near Blackburn, Lancashire in the northwest of England. The device dramatically reduced the amount of work needed to produce yarn. A single worker could work eight or more spools at once.

The spinning jenny was a huge success due to the fact that it could hold more than one ball of yarn, therefore making more clothing materials in a shorter amount of time while reducing the overall cost.

Thomas Highs (1718–1803) also claimed patents on the spinning jenny, and on other machines for cloth production.

Related pages
 Industrial Revolution

References

Other websites
 Essay  from http://www.cottontown.org on Hargreaves and the spinning jenny.
 Essay from http://www.cottonttimes.co.uk  on Highs and the spinning jenny.
 Source for alternate name of spinning ginny 

Machines
Tools
Roman Turek

Roman Turek (born May 21, 1970 in Strakonice, Czechoslovakia — now the Czech Republic) is a professional ice hockey goaltender, who played for the Dallas Stars, St. Louis Blues, and Calgary Flames in a 9-year National Hockey League career. Currently he is playing in the Czech Extraliga for HC České Budějovice.

Career statistics

Regular season

Post-season

Awards
1996 World Championships All-Star Team
1996 World Championships Best Goaltender
1999 William M. Jennings Trophy
2000 William M. Jennings Trophy

International play 
 1994 Played for Czech Republic at 1994 Winter Olympics
 1994 Played for Czech Republic at World Championships
 1996 Won gold medal for Czech Republic at World Championships
 1996 Played for Czech Republic at World Cup of Hockey

Other websites 

Statistics from NHL.com

References 

1970 births
Calgary Flames players
Czech ice hockey goaltenders
Czechoslovak ice hockey players
Dallas Stars players
Living people
St. Louis Blues players
Stanley Cup champions
Power loom

The term power loom, corresponds to a mechanized loom powered by a driveshaft. The first power loom was designed in 1784 by Edmund Cartwright and first built in 1785, later to be perfected by William Horrocks. It allowed textile making to be done far faster than if a human had done the same work. By 1850, over 250,000 of Cartwright's designs were used in England. James Henry Northrop invented the automatic "weft replenishment" loom. It revolutionized the weaving industry. Some 700,000 "Northrop" automatic looms were sold worldwide.

Originally, power looms used a shuttle to throw the weft across, but in the early part of the 20th century the faster and more efficient shuttleless loom came into use. Today, advances in technology have produced a variety of looms designed to maximize production for specific types of material. The most common of these are air-jet looms and water-jet looms. Computer-driven looms are now also available to individual home weavers. 

Tools
Machines
Weaving

ja:織機#力織機
Paris Métro

The Paris Métro or Métropolitain () is a rapid transit system in Paris, France.  The network is mostly underground. It has 19 lines, which together are 225.1 km (139.9 mi) long. There are 304 stations. 17 of these lines are owned by RATP and 2 by Paris Airport. 

The Paris Métro is a symbol of the city. Notable is its Art Nouveau architecture at the older entrances. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe, after Moscow. It carries 4.16 million passengers a day, and an annual total of 1.52 billion (2015). 

The first line opened on 19 July 1900, during the 1900 World's Fair (Exposition Universelle). The system expanded quickly and the core was complete by the 1920s. Extensions into suburbs were built in the 1930s. The network reached saturation after World War II. The Métro introduced newer trains to allow higher traffic, but further improvements have been limited by the design of the network and in particular the short distances between stations. Besides the Métro, Downtown Paris and its urban area are served by a number of other transit systems.

References

Other websites 

 RATP English version. Contains routes, schedules, journey times, etc...
 Comprehensive map of the Paris Metro network

Rapid transit systems
Paris
Transport in France
1900 establishments in France
Heroes (TV series)

Heroes is an American television show on the network NBC in the US, BBC 2 in the UK and various other stations worldwide. It is about a group of people who have superpowers. It was shown from 2006-2010.

Main characters
 Peter Petrelli
 Emma Coolidge
 Claire Bennet
 Sylar
 Samuel Sullivan
 Hiro and Ando

Other websites 

2006 American television series debuts
2010 American television series endings
2000s American drama television series
2000s science fiction television series
2010s American drama television series
2010s science fiction television series
American science fiction television series
American time travel television series
NBC network shows
English-language television programs
Eddie Su'a

Eddie Su'a (born 13 January 1983) is an Australian former rugby league player. He played for the Cronulla Sharks in the NRL in 2007. He played as a prop.

Other websites 
 Eddie Su'a stats at Rugby League Project

1983 births
Living people
Australian rugby league players
Sportspeople from Sydney
String (music)

A string in music is a string made of steel, nylon, or gut which vibrates on string instruments, such as the guitar, harp, piano, or violin. They are usually under tension to help them vibrate.

Other websites 
The vibrations of strings with both ends fixed 
Historical types of string 
String Tension - technical information on string tension, with tension calculator

String instrument construction
Peter Sellers

Richard Henry "Peter" Sellers,  , (8 September 1925 – 24 July 1980) was an English  comedian and actor best known for his three roles in Dr. Strangelove, as "Inspector Clouseau" in The Pink Panther movies, and as Clare Quilty in the original 1962 screen version of Lolita.

References

Other websites

1925 births
1980 deaths
Actors from Hampshire
British radio actors
Comedians from Hampshire
Deaths from myocardial infarction
English movie actors
English television actors
People from Portsmouth
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
NUbuntu

nUbuntu or Network Ubuntu is a project to take the existing Ubuntu operating system and remaster it as a Live CD and Full Install with tools needed for penetration testing servers and networks. The main idea is to keep Ubuntu's ease of use and mix it with popular penetration testing tools. Besides usage for network and server testing, nUbuntu will be made to be a desktop distribution for advanced Linux users.

Contents 
nUbuntu uses the light window manager Fluxbox. 

It includes some of the most used security programs for Linux, such as Wireshark, nmap, dSniff, and Ettercap.

History 
 2005-12-18 - nUbuntu Project is born, developers release Testing 1
 2006-01-16 - nUbuntu Live developers release Stable 1
 2006-06-26 - nUbuntu Live developers release version 6.06
 2006-10-16 - nUbuntu featured in Hacker Japan, a Japanese hacker magazine
 2007-12-31 - nUbuntu developer TomB retires from project, Brendan Almonte takes over
 2008-07-16 - nUbuntu Live developers release version 8.04 Alpha

Releases 
Below is a list of previous and current releases.

Other websites 
Darknet 10 Best Security Live CD Distros for pen-test, forensics, and recovery
SecurityDistro screenshots of nUbuntu 
SecurityDistro's nUbuntu section 
SecurityDistro's nUbuntu forum page

Live CD
Linux distributions
Ubuntu (operating system) derivatives

de:Liste von Linux-Distributionen#Ubuntu-Derivate
Prussian blue

Prussian blue, also known as Berlin blue, is a dark blue colour that is artificially made.

It is one of the first pigments made synthetically.  It was accidentally found in 1704 by two chemists in Berlin.

The dark blue uniforms of the Prussian army were dyed this colour.

Colour 

A colour can be shown by hex triplet is a six-digit, three-byte hexadecimal number used in HTML, CSS, and other computing applications. The hex triplet to represent Prussian blue is 003153.

When using the RGB color model where red, green, and blue light are added together, Prussian blue has the RGB code of 0, 49, 83

Use as a medicine 
Prussian blue is a medicine that is sometimes given by doctors to help remove certain radioactive materials from people’s bodies.  It has been used this way since the 1960s.

Potential use in computer storage 
Prussian blue is a chemical compound. One of the chemical elements in this compound is iron.  

Researchers have experimented replacing some of the iron atoms in Prussian blue with cobalt. When the Prussian blue compound is lit with a red light at -150 C, the compound shifts from being non-magnetic (off) to magnetic (on). The magnetic shift does not change back except if deliberately reversed (or undone) with heat.

This magnetism is due to the transfer of an electron from the cobalt to the iron, with light providing the energy, while the electron moves back when heat is applied, the researchers said.

This magnetic property means the compound can be used in computer storage. Because the compound can be turned "on" and "off" in a controlled way, it can remember binary information. Binary information is used for computer storage.

This way of using the compound is still being developed.

It is also used as a machinists dye to check wear patterns.

Tones of Prussian blue color comparison chart

Related pages
 Indigo
 List of colors
 Navy blue

References
London Assembly

The London Assembly is an elected body and part of the Greater London Authority that verifies the activities of the Mayor of London. It has the power, with a two-thirds majority, to amend the Mayor's annual budget. The Assembly was established in 2000 and is headquartered at City Hall on the south side of the River Thames. The Assembly is also able to investigate other issues of importance to Londoners, publish its findings and recommendations, and make proposals to the Mayor.

The assembly is elected using proportional representation voting. 

Local government in London
2000 establishments in England
Somali language

Somali () is a Cushitic language. It is spoken by ethnic Somalis in Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Yemen and Kenya, as well as by the Somali diaspora around the world -- an estimated total population of between 10 and 16 million speakers.

The writing system of the Somali language has been Latin alphabet since 1960.

Cushitic languages
Languages of Ethiopia
Somalia
Gravy

Gravy is an English sauce made often from the juices that run naturally from meat or vegetables during cooking. It is a smooth, non-chunky liquid. Ready-made cubes and powders can be used as a substitute for natural meat or vegetable extracts. Canned gravies are also available.  Gravy is commonly served with roasts, meatloaf, rice, and potato dishes. It it is very popular because it is used on mashed potatoes sometimes.

References 

Sauces
Falmouth Academy

Falmouth Academy (also known as FA) is a private preparatory school for students from grades 7-12 in Falmouth, Massachusetts on Cape Cod.

Other websites 
 Official website

Schools in Massachusetts
Breastfeeding

Breastfeeding is when a mother feeds her babies milk from her breasts. The baby puts its mouth on to their mother's nipple and sucks the milk out of the breast's mammary gland. Breast milk is healthier for the baby than baby formula or cow's milk. Not all women can safely feed their baby. If a woman has AIDS, tuberculosis or takes illegal drugs, then the milk is not good for the baby. There are many reasons to breastfeed. Babies that breastfeed have a reduced risk for several diseases. In addition, it makes for cheaper feeding and health care. In both developing and developed countries, breastfeeding without giving the baby any other drinks leads to fewer deaths from diarrhoea.

References 

Babies
Milk
Breasts
Satyajit Ray

Satyajit Ray () (2 May 1921–23 April 1992) was a Bengali Indian movie director. Many people consider him as one of the greatest film-makers of 20th century movie business.
He was born in the city of Kolkata. His Bengali family was prominent in arts and letters. Ray studied at Presidency College and at the Visva-Bharati University. He started his career as a commercial artist. Ray was interested in filmmaking by meeting French filmmaker Jean Renoir and seeing the Italian movie Bicycle Thieves during a visit to London.

Ray directed thirty-seven movies. These include feature movies, documentaries and shorts. Ray's first movie, Pather Panchali, won eleven international prizes, including Best Human Document at Cannes Film Festival. This movie along with Aparajito and Apur Sansar form the Apu trilogy. Ray did scripting, casting, scoring, cinematography, art direction, editing and designed his own credit titles and publicity material. He was a fiction writer, publisher, illustrator, graphic designer and movie critic. Ray won an Academy Award in 1992.

References 

1921 births
1992 deaths
Indian movie directors
Academy Award Honorary Award winners
Illustrators
Petrarch

Francesco Petrarca  (20 July 1304 – 19 July 1374), known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar, poet, and one of the earliest Renaissance humanists. 

Petrarch is often called the "father of humanism". Based on Petrarch's works, and to a lesser extent those of Dante Alighieri and Giovanni Boccaccio, Pietro Bembo in the 16th century created the model for the modern Italian language. Petrarch is credited with developing the sonnet with his Canzoniere to a level of perfection that would be unsurpassed to this day and spreading its use to other European languages. His sonnets were admired and imitated throughout Europe during the Renaissance and became a model for lyrical poetry. Petrarch was also known for being one of the first people to call the Middle Ages the Dark Ages, although the negative myth as we know it today is largely the legacy of romantic literature.

References

Other websites 

 Canzoniere (different edition) and other works
 Petrarch and Laura Multi-lingual site including many translated works (letters, poems, books) in the public domain and biography, pictures, music.  
 Petrarch from the Catholic Encyclopedia.
 Excerpts from his works and letters
 The Petrarchan Grotto
 Francesco Petrarca (Petrarch) (1304-1374)
 
 Poems From The Canzoniere, translated by Tony Kline.
 Petrarch - the poet who lost his head April 6, 2004 article in The Guardian regarding the exhumation of Petrarch's remains.
 Francesco Petrarca at The Online Library of Liberty
 De remediis utriusque fortunae, Cremonae, B. de Misintis ac Caesaris Parmensis, 1492. 

1304 births
1374 deaths
Italian poets
Medieval poets
Language planning

Language planning is the attempt to influence how a language is used. This is usually done to make it possible to use the language for more subjects. Goals, objectives and strategies are made to change the way a language is used. For many languages there are special organisations, that look after the language. Examples of such organisations are the Academie Française for French or the British Council for English.

In general, there are different forms of language planning:

Corpus planning creates new words, expressions or changes old ones to have a new meaning. Corpus planning is involved with creating standards for a language, such as spelling and grammar, or to create dictionaries. Linguistic purity is about avoiding foreign influences to a language because they are seen as bad. It also belongs to corpus planning.
Status planning wants to change the way a language is used. It is about making some languages (or dialects) official languages for a territory. Very often, part of status planning is creating a writing system for a language that was only spoken before.
Acquisition planning is about teaching the language. It looks at ways to make it easier or more attractive to learn a language. Very often, acquisition planning also involves making the language more attractive to learn for speakers of other languages.

For further readings Nahir's work on language planning can be read.

Relating pages 
Language reform
Languages
Johnny Marr

Johnny Marr (born John Martin Maher on 31 October 1963)  is an English guitarist, keyboardist, harmonica player, and singer. Marr was born in Ardwick, Manchester to Irish immigrants. When he was younger, he wanted to be a football player. He rose to fame in the 1980s as the guitarist in The Smiths, where he formed an influential songwriting partnership with Morrissey. In 2013 he was given NME's Godlike Genius award. He released his first solo album, The Messenger, in 2013.

1963 births
Living people
English guitarists
English singer-songwriters
Keyboardists
Musicians from Manchester
The Smiths members
Years of Refusal

Years of Refusal is the ninth solo album by Morrissey, the former lead singer of The Smiths. The album, distributed by Decca, was released on February 16, 2009 in the United Kingdom and on February 17, 2009 in the United States.

References

2009 albums
Indus Waters Treaty

The Indus Waters Treaty is a water-sharing treaty between the Republic Of India and Islamic Republic Of Pakistan. The treaty was signed in Karachi on September 19, 1960 by the then Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and the then President of Pakistan Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan. The World Bank is a signatory as a third party.

Provisions 
The Indus System of Rivers comprises three Western Rivers - the Indus, the Jhelum and Chenab and three Eastern Rivers - the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi; and with minor exceptions, the treaty gives India exclusive use of all of the waters of the Eastern Rivers and their tributaries before the point where the rivers enter Pakistan. Similarly, Pakistan has exclusive use of the Western Rivers. Pakistan also received one-time financial compensation for the loss of water from the Eastern rivers.

The countries agree to exchange data and co-operate in matters related to the treaty. For this purpose, treaty creates the Permanent Indus Commission, with a commissioner who will be appointed by each country.

Foreign relations of Pakistan
Foreign relations of India
John Willcock

John Collings Willcock (9 August 1879 – 7 June 1956) was the 15th Premier of Western Australia from 20 August 1936 to 31 July 1945. He was from the Labor Party.

References
 

1879 births
1956 deaths
Willcock, John
Politicians from New South Wales
Australian Labor Party politicians
Philip Collier

Philip Collier (21 April 1873 – 18 October 1948) was the 14th Premier of Western Australia from 17 April 1924 to 23 April 1930 and then from 24 April 1933 to 19 August 1936. He was from the Labor Party.

References
 

1873 births
1948 deaths
Collier, Philip
Politicians from Victoria (Australia)
Australian Labor Party politicians
James Mitchell

Sir James Mitchell (27 April 1866 – 26 July 1951) was the 13th Premier of Western Australia from  17 May 1919 to 15 April 1924 and again from 24 April 1930 to 24 April 1933. He was from the Nationalist Party. After he was Premier he became the acting Governor of Western Australia until 1948 when he was made the Governor. He retired as Governor one month before he died. The Mitchell Freeway, one of the major roads in Perth (the capital city of Western Australia), is named after him.

References

1866 births
1951 deaths

Mitchell, James
Viceroys in Australia
Nationalist Party of Australia politicians
Folie à Deux (album)

This article is about the studio album, the mental condition is at Folie à deux

Folie à Deux is the fifth studio album by American rock band Fall Out Boy. It was released through Island Records on December 16, 2008 in the United States. The album title is French for "a madness shared by two." The album reached #8 on the US Billboard 200 album chart with 150,000 sales in its first week, making it Fall Out Boy's third top 10 album in a row. The first single was "I Don't Care" which reached #21 on the Billboard Hot 100 songs chart. It is certified gold in the US for shipments of 500,000 copies. It got positive reviews by music critics. It is the final album the band made before taking a break.

Tracks
"Lullabye (hidden pregap track)
"Disloyal Order of Water Buffaloes"
 "I Don't Care" - 3:39
 "She's My Winona"
 "America's Suitehearts"
 "Headfirst Slide Into Cooperstown On A Bad Bet" - 3:55
 "The (Shipped) Gold Standard"
 "(Coffee's for Closers)"
 "What a Catch, Donnie"- 5:01
 "27"
 "Tiffany Blews"
 "w.a.m.s."
 "20 Dollar Nose Bleed"
 "West Coast Smoker"

2008 albums
Fall Out Boy albums
Island Records albums
Rock albums
What a Catch, Donnie

"What A Catch, Donnie" (or for short "What A Catch") is 3rd single released off the album by Fall Out Boy called Folie à Deux. The single was released October 14, 2008.

2008 songs
Fall Out Boy songs
Stade de Suisse

The Stade de Suisse Wankdorf is a football stadium in Bern, Switzerland. It is the home stadium of the Berner Sport Club Young Boys (they are often simply called the "BSC Young Boys"), which is a Swiss football team. The Wankdorf is currently the second biggest football stadium in Switzerland. The stadium has seats for 32,000 people. The field is 105 m x 68 m and has got an artificial turf surface. It was one of the venues for the European Football Championship in 2008.

About the building 
The Stade de Suisse was built in the place where the old Wankdorf Stadium, which was destroyed in 2001, had been. It cost 350 million francs to build the stadium. There are solar panels on the roof. There are many shops in the stadium. The stadium is 2 kilometers away from the city. The stadium was officially opened on July 30, 2005. However, the first game of football was played there on July 16, 2005. In the first game, The BSC Young Boys played against the Olympique Marseille. The BSC Young Boys lost by a score of 2-3. 14,000 people watched the game. The building's official name is "Stade de Suisse, Berne, Wankdorf". Still, most people call it the "Wankdorf". The building has also hosted Hockey games and musical concerts.

European Football Championship 2008 

The Wankdorf was one of the venues for the European Football Championship in 2008 (often called Euro2008). Three games were played here for the tournament. During Euro2008, the real grass inside the stadium was replaced with fake grass, which is called artificial turf. The stadium's operators removed the artificial turf after the championship.

The hot seat 

All the seats are either black or yellow, but there is one red seat in sector A. It is called the "hot seat". The ticket for that seat is often given to former players of Young Boys or famous visitors. The first person who sat in the "hot seat" was the most successful goalkeeper of the BSC Young Boys, Walter Eirich.

References

Other websites 
The official website of the Stade de Suisse  

Buildings and structures in Switzerland
Football stadiums in Europe
Football in Switzerland
Bern
2005 establishments in Europe
2000s establishments in Switzerland
Vatnajökull

Vatnajökull (English: Glacier of Lakes) () is the largest glacier in Iceland. It lies in the south-east of the island, covering more than 8% of the country. 

The average thickness of the ice is 400 m, with a maximum thickness of 1,000 m. Iceland's highest peak, Hvannadalshnúkur (2,110 m), is located at the southern tip of Vatnajökull, near Skaftafell National Park. It is classified as an ice cap glacier.

Vatnajökull has been shrinking for some years now, possibly because of climatic changes and recent volcanic activity. Until 1930 it was growing. 

According to Guinness World Records Vatnajökull is the object of the world's longest sight line, 550 km from Slættaratindur, the highest mountain in the Faroe Islands. GWR state that "owing to the light bending effects of atmospheric refraction, Vatnajökull (2119m), Iceland, can sometimes be seen from the Faroe Islands, 340 miles (550 km) away". This may be based on a claimed sighting by a British sailor in 1939. The validity of this record is analysed/undermined in mathematical and atmospheric detail by J.C. de Ferranti

Other websites

 Photos of Vatnajökull from www.islandsmyndir.is 
 Search engine and map of Iceland 
 Viewfinder Panoramas
 What it's like to explore the ice cap in winter. 

Geography of Iceland
InterCity 225

The InterCity 225 is an electric train operating in the United Kingdom. Its top speed is 225km/h, hence its name. From 2017, some will be replaced by the British Rail Class 800.

References

Rail transport in the United Kingdom
Cobra

Cobra is a  name of a snake and a girl cobra is called 'cobra Kai.' In English it is the common name for various venomous snakes. Most of those species are in the family Elapidae, and most of them can spread their neck ribs to form a flattened, widened hood.

The name "cobra" is short for cobra de capelo or cobra-de-capelo, which is Portuguese for "snake with hood", or "hood-snake".

Cobras usually live in tropical and desert regions of Asia and Africa. When feeling threatened, cobras can tilt back and flatten their heads into their warning posture. The rest of the time their heads are symmetrical and they look much like any other snakes.

Cobra may refer to:
 The genus Naja, the typical or "true" cobras (they raise the front part of the body and flatten their neck in a warning signal when alarmed). They are a group of elapids found in Africa and Asia. They include over 270 species, including Naja nivea, the Cape cobra, a medium-sized, highly venomous cobra which lives in biomes across southern Africa; Cleopatra's "asp" (the Egyptian cobra, Naja haje); and the Asiatic spectacled cobra Naja naja; and the monocled cobra, Naja kaouthia.
 Spitting cobras, a subset of Naja species which squirt venom from their fangs in self-defence.

Most so-called, and all "true", species of cobras belong to the family Elapidae

References 

Elapidae
Cape cobra

The Cape cobra (Naja nivea) is a cobra inhabiting the regions of South Africa. It averages 4 feet (120 cm) long but may grow to be 6 feet (180 cm) long. The color varies from location to location, and those from the Kalahari are normally yellow with brown speck uniformly all over the body.

References

Elapidae
Kalahari Desert

The Kalahari Desert is a large arid to semi-arid sandy area in southern Kgalagadi Africa extending 900,000 km² (362,500 sq. mi.), covering much of Botswana and parts of Namibia and South Africa. It has huge tracts of excellent grazing after good rains.

The Kalahari Desert is the southern part of Africa, and the geography is a portion of desert and a plateau. The Kalahari supports some animals and plants because most of it is not a true desert. There are small amounts of rainfall and the summer temperature is very high. The driest areas usually receive  of rain per year, and the wettest just a little over .

The surrounding Kalahari Basin covers over 2.5 million km² extending farther into Botswana, Namibia and South Africa, and encroaching into parts of Angola, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The only permanent river, the Okavango, flows into a delta in the northwest, forming marshes that are rich in wildlife. Ancient dry riverbeds—called omuramba—traverse the Central Northern reaches of the Kalahari and provide standing pools of water during the rainy season. Previously havens for wild animals from elephant to giraffe, and for predators such as lion and cheetah, the riverbeds are now mostly grazing spots, though leopard or cheetah can still be found.

Game reserves 

The Kalahari has a number of game reserves—the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR, the world's second largest protected area), Khutse Game Reserve and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. Animals that live in the region include brown hyenas, lions, meerkats, giraffe, warthogs, jackals and several species of antelope (including the eland, gemsbok, springbok, hartebeest, steenbok, kudu, and duiker), and many species of bird and reptiles. Vegetation in the Kalahari consists mainly of grasses and acacias but there are over 400 identified plant species present (including the wild watermelon or Tsamma melon).

Bushmen 
The Bushmen of the Kalahari were hunter/gatherers. They hunted for meat and gathered the food of the desert to eat. They did not keep animals. They moved from place to place to find food and water. They owned very few things because they had to carry everything themselves. Very few people still live this way anywhere in the world.

Settlements within the Kalahari 
Botswana
 Ghanzi
 Tshane
 Tshabong
 Orapa

Namibia
 Gobabis
 Mariental

South Africa
 Rietfontein
 Noenieput
 Severn

References 

Deserts
Geography of Botswana
Geography of Namibia
Geography of South Africa
Silverstein

Silverstein is a Canadian post-hardcore band formed in Ontario, Canada, in 2000. Their name come from a children-book writer, Shel Silverstein.

First three years 
After the several changes in the band's line up, Billy Hamilton joined the band. He found out about they needed a bass player while online. In the autumn of 2002, the band signed to their record label - Victory Records. They left Victory Records in 2010 and joined Hopeless Records.

Albums
In January 2003, their first (debut) album was released. The title was When Broken Is Easily Fixed.

In 2005, Silverstein performed on the "Never Sleep Again" tour along with fellow emo band Hawthorne Heights. The next year, 2006, they toured on the "Vans Warped" tour. This is an event in the United States taking place in the summertime. The second album, Discovering the Waterfront contains the singles Discovering the Waterfront and Smile in Your Sleep.

Summertime last year, 2007, Silverstein released their third album, Arrivals and Departures. It includes the new single Still Dreaming. On MySpace, a social networking site, they posted a new song called Broken Stars. Singer Shane Told has been trained by a vocal coach named Melissa Cross.

In Spring 2009, Silverstein released their fourth full length album, Shipwreck in the Sand.

In Spring 2011, Silverstein released their fifth album, Rescue.

References 

2000s music groups
Emo bands
Canadian rock bands
Post-hardcore bands
Discovering the Waterfront

Discovering the Waterfront is the second full-length album by the band Silverstein. The album has three singles; "Smile In Your Sleep", "Discovering The Waterfront", and "My Heroine". All of the singles had music videos.

Track listing
All songs written by Shane Told and Neil Boshart, except for where noted.

Personnel
 Band
Shane Told – lead vocals, rhythm and other guitars, keyboards
Neil Boshart – lead guitar
Josh Bradford – rhythm guitar
Billy Hamilton – bass, backing vocals
Paul Koehler – drums, percussion

Charts
 Billboard (North America)

2005 albums
Punk albums
Pakistan State Oil (PSO)

Pakistan State Oil (PSO) is the oil market leader in Pakistan. The well established infrastructure, built at par with international standards, representing 82% of country’s storage, provides PSO an edge over its competitors.

Economy of Pakistan
Mahmud I

Mahmud I (; August 2, 1696 – December 13, 1754) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1730 to 1754. He was the son of Mustafa II (1695–1703). His mother Emetullah Sultan, (born as Evemia) was of Greek ethnic descent. Mahmud I was the older brother of Osman III (1754–57).

Sultans of the Ottoman Empire
1696 births
1754 deaths