cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
San Francisco Municipal Railway

San Francisco Municipal Railway (or MUNI) is the public transit agency that runs buses, cable car, and subway service in the city of San Francisco, California. MUNI runs diesel and trolleybuses that run throughout San Francisco, three Cable Car lines that run through the Financial District and Chinatown (with service to Fisherman's Wharf) and the Market Street surface, seven light rail lines that run below Market Street and two Historic Streetcar lines.

Muni operates 365 days a year and connecting with other transportation services, such as Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) and Caltrain commuter trains, along with AC Transit, Golden Gate Transit and SamTrans buses, and ferries from Golden Gate Ferries and San Francisco Bay .Ferry.

Services

Bus 
Muni operates 44 local bus routes; 2 are operated during weekday peak hours. A number of routes have different terminals during evenings and/or weekends. Some routes also operate short turn route service during peak hours to deal with crowding on buses.

Rapid lines have an R following their route number. Muni operates five Rapid bus routes. The Rapid routes largely follow the route of the local buses but have less stops on the corridor.

Express lines have an X, AX, or BX following their route number. Muni operates 12 Express bus routes. Most of the express routes run on highways and on one-way traffic. These express routes also operate during peak hours.

Muni operates 14 Owl routes. Owl routes are operated during midnight. Some local daytime routes are shortened during Owl service. And some Owl routes also cover big or small parts of daytime bus routes.

Muni Metro 

Muni operates 7 light rail lines and has its own subway tunnel underneath Market Street. These routes are named with a letter while buses are named with a number.

Heritage streetcars

Muni operates 2 Historic Streetcar lines, these routes are operated by streetcars and are mostly treated as tourist attractions by tourists.

Cable Cars 

 Muni operates 3 Cable Car lines, these routes are based out of the Cable Car barn at Mason & Washington streets.

References

Other websites

NextBus for Muni, a GPS system that predicts vehicle arrival times.
Market Street Railway

 
Companies based in San Francisco
1912 establishments in California
Dokkyo University

Dokkyo University is a university in Soka city of Saitama Prefecture, Japan.  This university is well known for its Foreign Language Department.

Colleges and universities in Japan
Helmut Schmidt

Helmut Heinrich Waldemar Schmidt (23 December 1918 – 10 November 2015) was a German politician. He was Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany from 1974 to 1982.

Helmut Schmidt was born in Hamburg in 1918. He finished school in 1937 with the Abitur. Afterwards he had to join the working service and later the army. At the end of World War II, he was a First Lieutenant. He became a prisoner of war in 1945.

After he was set free, he started to study macro economy. He finished his studies in 1949. Then he started to work for the administration of Hamburg.

Schmidt joined into the Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1949. In 1953, he became a member of the Bundestag first time. From 1961 to 1965, he was Senator in the state government of Hamburg.

From 1969 to 1972, he was Minister of Defence of West Germany. From 1972 to 1974 he was Minister of Finance.

After Willy Brandt gave up his job as Bundeskanzler, Helmut Schmidt was elected as new chancellor.

In July 2013, it was discovered that Schmidt bought 38,000 cigarettes due to a fear of them being banned in Europe.

Schmidt died in Hamburg on 10 November 2015 from complications of surgery he had to cure a blood clot in his left left. He was 96 years old.

References

Other websites

 Biography at the German Historic Museum (German)
 Chancellor Site (German) 
 Helmut Schmidt University (English)
 Talks:
 Die Selbstbehauptung Europas im neuen Jahrhundert (German, 2000)
 Kröten und Paragrafenwahn (German, 2006)
 Schmidt's talk on the occasion of China's Prime Minister Wen Jiabao visiting Hamburg (English, 2006)
 Interview on nuclear strategy in Europe  for the WGBH series, War and Peace in the Nuclear Age
 Booknotes interview with Schmidt on Men and Powers, 15 April 1990. 
Men and Powers: A Political Retrospective on Google Books.

1918 births
2015 deaths
Chancellors of Germany
Deaths from surgical complications
Former members of the German Bundestag
German military personnel of World War II
Government ministers of Germany
Politicians from Hamburg
Politicians of the Social Democratic Party of Germany
Armenians

The Armenians are an ethnic group from the Caucasus. Their country is Armenia. The Armenian culture is very old. Armenia reached its peak in 69 BC  during the reign of king Tigranes the Great. Armenia was also the first christian nation because of this, many Armenians are Christians.

Background 
In the Assyrian period, the Armenian people of Nairi formed the kingdom of Ararat (well known in Assyrian as Urartu). One of the earliest record of Armenians is from a text which says Armani, Արման (most common Armenian name Arman, the older variant of Armen, Արմեն) together with Ibla, as land conquered by Naram-Sin (2300 BC) identified with an Akkadian colony in the Diarbekr region. To this day the Assyrians speak about Armenians by saying Armani. Another record is by Thutmose III of Egypt, says the people of Ermenen in 1446 BC, and says in their land "heaven rests upon its four pillars". (Thutmose was the first Pharaoh to cross the Euphrates to reach the Armenian Highlands). To this day Kurds and Turks refer to Armenians by Ermeni.

Historically, the name Armenian has come to internationally designate this group of people from the most common Armenian names: Arman, Արման (Armenians use Arman, the older variant of Armen, Արմեն), Armen, and Armin'e (female name). Armenians call themselves Hay (Հայ, pronounced Hye; plural: Հայեր, Hayer). The word has traditionally been linked to the name of the legendary founder of the Armenian nation, Haik, which is also a popular Armenian name.

Some scholars believe, for example, that the earliest mention of the Armenians is in the Akkadian inscriptions dating to the 28th-27th centuries BC, in which the Armenians are referred to as the sons of Haya, after the regional god of the Armenian Highlands.

Related pages
List of Armenian scientists

References

Other websites 
 Armenia and Armenians 
 Famous Armenians
 "PanArmenian E-Library" website`s e-books about Armenians
 History of Armenia
Jan Kerouac

Jan-Michelle Kerouac (born February 16, 1952 - died June 7, 1996) was the daughter of writer Jack Kerouac, by his second wife Joan Haverty. A writer herself, Jan's books included Baby Driver and Trainsong. She also appeared in some documentary programs about her father, giving her side of his life story.

Death
On June 5, 1996, Kerouac died in Albuquerque, New Mexico a day after her spleen was removed. She had suffered kidney failure five years earlier and was on dialysis. She is buried in Nashua, New Hampshire, next to her father's parents.

References

Other websites
Jan Kerouac Obituary
New York Times story

1952 births
1996 deaths
Writers from New York
Forchheim

Forchheim (; East Franconian: Forchham) is a German town in Upper Franconia. Next bigger cities are Nürnberg, Bamberg, Fürth, Erlangen and Coburg. There live is about 32.000 people.

It is 465 meters high and has an area of 44,46 km².

Photo gallery

References

Other websites 
 www.forchheim.de (official Webpage in German)

Towns in Bavaria
Forchheim (district)
César Cui

César Cui (born Vilnius, 18 January 1835; died 26 March 1918) was a Russian composer. He is the least known of the five Russian composers who were nicknamed the “Moguchaya Kuchka” (“Mighty Handful”), a group which included Mily Balakirev, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Modest Mussorgsky and Alexander Borodin. Cui’s father came from France and his mother from Lithuania. 

Like most Russian composers in the 19th century he was an amateur composer. His main job was as an expert on military fortifications. He became a professor in this subject and wrote important textbooks about military defences. He became a general.

Cui liked his friends from the Moguchaya Kuchka, but was often very critical of music by other Russian composers such as Tchaikovsky and Rachmaninoff. This may have been because he was jealous of their success. He did not find orchestration easy and Balakirev helped him a lot with the orchestration of some of his compositions. He was best when writing songs and short piano pieces. He liked to write music that sounded Far Eastern in character. Cellists like to play a short piece he wrote called “Orientale”.

Russian composers
Romantic composers
1835 births
1918 deaths
People from Vilnius
Alexander Borodin

Alexander Porfir'yevich Borodin (born St. Petersburg October 12th 1833; died St. Petersburg February 27 1887) was a Russian composer. Like many Russian composers of the 19th century he was an amateur musician. His main job was Professor of Chemistry at the University of St Petersburg. He had to compose in his spare time. When he was ill he had more leisure to write music. He used to tell his friends: “Please do not say: ‘I hope you are well’, please say: ‘I hope you are ill’”.  Borodin’s most famous opera is called Prince Igor. He wrote many fine songs, chamber music and orchestral music, including two symphonies. The Nocturne from his String quartet no 2 is especially well-known.
In his music, Borodin showed Russian power and the heoric characters. His main means of expression was melody.
When he was young he learned French, Swedish and English, but later Italian.

Borodin died of a heart attack.

1833 births
1887 deaths
Cardiovascular disease deaths in Russia
Russian chemists
Deaths from myocardial infarction
People from Saint Petersburg
Romantic composers
Russian composers
Rust

Rust is a type of corrosion. It happens to iron and its alloys when it is exposed to air or water for a long time. Rust slowly decomposes iron into other chemicals, because of a reaction with the oxygen molecules. Both air and water are needed for rust. Almost all metals corrode but they can be protected by covering with paint, a coating of oil or grease or even plastic.  Sacrificial protection or industrial galvanizing can also work.  Alloys (mixes of metals) such as stainless steel, rust more slowly than pure iron.  When iron rusts, it becomes red or brown, and the metal eventually decays.

Rust appears on metal if it is left outside in the damp air. For example, rust occurs mostly in cracks of alloys or metals.  Rain water can enter the cracks and stay in the cracks, and cause the metal to corrode.  Eventually it becomes rust.  Iron is not strong after it rusts.

Some metals, such as aluminium, titanium, and stainless steel form a very thin coating of tough corrosion on the metal. The metal cannot continue corroding because the coating isolates the rest of the metal from the source of oxygen. This is why aluminium keeps its shine. It also makes aluminium seem very unreactive, even though it can react with water. Rusting iron makes iron oxides that are not tough, so air and water continue to get in and the iron continues to rust.

Some types of basidiomycete fungi can be mistaken for rust because they are similar to rust in color and texture and sometimes are on metals.

Related pages
 Iron(III) oxide
 Hematite
 Corrosion

Metals
350s



Significant people
Constantius II, Roman Emperor 
Magnentius, Roman usurper 
Julian, Roman Emperor
980s



Events
 983 pagan West Slavs revolt, temporarily ending attempts at conversion and forcing abandonment of German sees and monasteries east of the Elbe
 Kievan Rus' accepts Eastern Orthodox Christianity
Suhl

Suhl is a town in Thuringia, Germany. Its population in 2003 was 43,610.

According to a local joke, "Suhl is so close to the edge of the world you can see Zella-Mehlis".

References 

Urban Districts of Thuringia
Eisenach

Eisenach is a German city in the west of Thuringia. Next bigger Cities are Erfurt and Kassel. Its population is about 43,000.

References 

Urban Districts of Thuringia
GameFAQs

GameFAQs is a website with help and information for video games. It was started in November 1995 by Jeff "CJayC" Veasey. It has an active message board community.

Sources

Other websites 
GameFAQs

Video game websites
Werner Heisenberg

Werner Karl Heisenberg (5 December 1901  1 February 1976) was a German physicist. He won the  Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of quantum mechanics. He discovered the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which shows there is a limit on how well position and velocity of a particle can be measured.

Early life
Heisenberg was born in Wuerzburg, Germany, the son of a professor of Byzantine history. He went to university to study physics in Munich. Arnold Sommerfeld was one of his teachers. 

Heisenberg was a very good student and needed only three years to finish his studies. He then wrote a doctoral thesis about movements in the flows of liquids ("Über Stabilität und Turbulenz von Flüssigkeitsströmen"—"On the stability and turbulence of liquid streams"). In 1924 he became assistant to Max Born at the University of Göttingen. In June 1925 he was recovering from hay fever on the island Helgoland, and while working alone made the decisive breakthrough to Quantum mechanics. Back in Göttingen, together with Max Born and Pascual Jordan, they wrote the basic paper which founded Quantum 

mechanics. 

In 1926/ 1927 Heisenberg worked with Niels Bohr at the University of Copenhagen. In February 1927, while Bohr was on extended skiing holidays, he invented the uncertainty principle and published the paper “Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik”—“On the Visualizable Contents of the Quantum-theoretical Kinematics and Mechanics”.

At the age of 26 Heisenberg became professor of theoretical physics at the University of Leipzig.

He was awarded the Nobel Prize when he was 31 years old.

In 1937 he married Elisabeth Schumacher. They had seven children, one of their sons is well known as a neurobiologist and geneticist, Martin Heisenberg.

War and later 
During the Second World War, from 1939 to 1945 Werner Heisenberg was drafted to work on the German Uranium Project . This was aiming at a nuclear reactor, and did not result in any nuclear weapons, possibly because Heisenberg did not want it to. Some historians assume that there was a race between the minute German Uranium project and the huge American Manhattan project. Hans A. Bethe, the director of the theory division of the Manhattan project at Los Alamos, said this was not true. Edward Teller, the father of the American hydrogen bomb, said that Heisenberg sabotaged the German project.

After the war, he was held as a prisoner at Farm Hall in England from May 1945 to January, 1946, where the British and Americans kept ten German nuclear scientists.

Later he worked in elementary particle physics, mainly in West Germany and he helped the foundation of the European Laboratory for Elementary Particle Physics CERN in Geneva, Switzerland. In April 1957, he signed a declaration , together with 17 German physicists, that they would never participate in the construction of nuclear weapons. In 1958, his Max-Planck-Institut für Physik was transferred from Göttingen to München.

He died in Munich Germany, in 1976 at the age of 74.

1901 births
1976 deaths
German academics
German Nobel Prize winners
People from Würzburg
German theoretical physicists
Islamophobia

Islamophobia is the dislike, fear, pre judgment, hostility or hate against Muslims (people following the religion Islam) or the religion itself. 

Sometimes people use it to attack the ideological positions taken by Muslims, but more often than not they state the religion itself as the actual problem.

Muslim women are more likely to experience islamophobia in their lifetime compared to Muslim men, especially if they are wearing some kind of face veil.

Examples of islamophobia in the world

During the Bosnian War in the 1990's, Serbian Orthodox Christians committed a genocide against Bosniak Muslims, with a strong motive of islamophobia.

In France it is since 2013 illegal for Muslim women to wear veils (burqas and niqabs) that cover their faces publicly.

Related pages
 Racism - the idea that one race is better than most or all of the others
 Antisemitism - the hatred of Jews

References

 
Psychology
Discrimination
Ludwig Erhard

Ludwig Wilhelm Erhard (4 February 1897 in Fürth - 5 May 1977 in Bonn) was a German politician.

Life 
Erhard was born as the son of a salesman. After his middle school exam, he started training to become a salesman himself. He was wounded as soldier in World War I. After World War I, he started to study micro economy at a college in Nuremberg.

After that, he studied economy on the University of Frankfurt am Main. In 1925 he finished his doctoral thesis. Afterwards, he worked in his father's company. After the Great Depression, the company went bankrupt.
From 1928 to 1942, he worked as science assistant, but he could not get a promotion because he did not want to become a member of a Nazi organisation. From 1942 to 1945, he was the head of the institute for industrial research.

Until 1949, he worked for the CDU, but joined still in 1963.
From 1945 to 1946, he worked for the provisional government of Bavaria, afterwards he was an economic organisation official for the British-American administration in West Germany.

In 1949, he became Minister of Economics under Konrad Adenauer.
From 1957-1963, he was Vice Chancellor.
After Adenauer resigned in 1963, Erhard became the new chancellor.
In 1966, Kurt Georg Kiesinger succeeded him.

Erhard died in 1977, aged 80.

1897 births
1977 deaths
Chancellors of Germany
Former members of the German Bundestag
Government ministers of Germany
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Politicians from Bavaria
Politicians of the Christian Democratic Union of Germany
Vice Chancellors of Germany
Kurt Georg Kiesinger

Kurt Georg Kiesinger (6 April 1904 in Ebingen, now Baden-Württemberg - 9 March 1988 in Tübingen-Bebenhausen) was a German politician.

Kiesinger was born in Southern Germany. He studied history and philosophy in Tübingen and later law in Berlin.

He joined the Nazi party in 1933, and worked in the government. After the war he was held in a prison camp in Ludwigshafen. He was released when notes on his personnel file showed that he had not helped the anti-Jewish actions in his department, and had tried to stop them.

In 1946, he started a political career in the CDU. From 1958 to 1966, he was Minister President of Baden-Württemberg, from 1967 to 1971 Chair of the CDU.

From 1966 to 1969, he was chancellor of West Germany.

1904 births
1988 deaths
Chancellors of Germany
Civil servants
Former members of the German Bundestag
German lawyers
Ministers-President of Baden-Württemberg
Nazis
Politicians from Baden-Württemberg
Politicians of the Christian Democratic Union of Germany
Brian Johnson

Brian Johnson (born 5 October 1947 in Dunston, Gateshead, England) is an English singer and songwriter. He is best known as the singer for Australian hard rock band AC/DC.

Biography 
Johnson's father, Allan, was in the British Army's light infantry. His mother, Esther, came from Italy. Johnson has two children from his first marriage. That marriage ended in divorce just before he joined AC/DC in 1980.

Before AC/DC 
Johnson was in the Newcastle glam-rock band Geordie in 1972. The band split up in 1978 but Johnson put it back together in 1980. Just after a record contract had been signed, Johnson was asked to audition for AC/DC.

Joining AC/DC 
Johnson joined AC/DC in 1980, after the death of the band's former lead singer Bon Scott. He was the band's first choice. A fan in Cleveland, Ohio had sent a Geordie album to AC/DC after Bon Scott's death. The fan had asked them to consider Johnson. Years earlier, Bon Scott had also praised Johnson's singing and performance style.

Johnson co-wrote all of AC/DC's songs with the Young brothers for ten years.

Other websites 
 AC/DC profile page by Albert Music 
 AC/DC profile page by Atlantic Records 
 AC/DC profile page by Epic Records 
 AC/DC Fan Page 

Johnson, Brian
Johnson, Brian
AC/DC
1947 births
Living people
Pomerania

Pomerania (Pommern in German, Pomorze in Polish) is a region on the Baltic Sea. It is now part of two countries, Germany and Poland.

Prehistoric tribes 

20,000 years ago the territory of present-day Pomerania was covered with ice, which did not start to recede until the late period of the Old Stone Age or Paleolithic some 10,000 years BC, when the Scandinavian glacier receded to the north. Various archaeological cultures developed in the Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.

Since around 500BC and before 500 AD Pomerania was dominated by East Germanic tribes including several tribes of Goths, who according to archeological evidence and their own tradition have come from Scandinavia. Goths and Rugians are recorded by Roman historians in the areas of Pomerania in 98 AD. The Veneti, non-Germanic tribe, which later assimilated with Slavs, are recorded by Ptolemy and Pliny the Elder around Vistula in first century AD. By the 7th century Slavic tribes (Wends) such as the Pomeranians settled the area.

Conquest and rule 
Pomerania was first conquered by the Polish duke Mieszko I in the second half of the 10th century. Pagan uprisings in 1005 and 1038 resulted in independence for Western Pomerania and Pomerelia, respectively. Regained by Poland in 1116/1121, the Polish could not hold the Pomeranian duchy longer than 1135, whereas Pomerelia after the 1138 partition of Poland among the sons of Boleslaus Wrymouth became a part of the Polish seniorat, which was declared fief of the Holy Roman Empire in 1156. 

The Western part, the Duchy of Pomerania, was declared part of the Holy Roman Empire (1181). After a brief period of Danish rule (1168/1186-1227), it remained part of Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation until 1806. 

1000 years of history of the areas between Elbe, the Oder and Vistula

References 

Geography of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Geography of Poland
Regions of Germany
900s



Events

 Accession of Sergius III.
 Destruction of Chang'an, the capital of Tang Dynasty and the largest city in the ancient world.
 Founding of the Royal Mint in England.
 Capture of Thessalonica by Saracens.
Natural language processing

Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a field in Artificial Intelligence, and is also related to linguistics. On a high level, the goal of NLP is to program computers to automatically understand human languages, and also to automatically write/speak in human languages. We say "Natural Language" to mean human language, and to indicate that we are not talking about computer (programming) languages.

Computer science
Würzburg

Würzburg (; Main-Franconian: ) is a city in the German state of Bavaria. It has about 124,000 inhabitants and a university.

Würzburg is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop.

In about 1000 BC there was a Celtic settlement in that place. In 698 AD Würzburg became Christianised. The first mention was in 704 AD. In 742 Würzburg became the seat of a bishop. From 1168 the bishops of Würzburg had the title Herzog (Duke), given by the emperor.

In 1402 Würzburg got a university. It later closed and then reopened in 1582. In 1631 Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden conquered Würzburg in the 30-year war. In 1803 the Duchy of Würzburg became part of Bavaria, in 1938 the city had more than 100,000 inhabitants for the first time. In 1945 the city was nearly completely destroyed.

Its football team is Würzburger Kickers.

Gallery

References

Other websites
Rear Window

Rear Window is a 1954 American mystery thriller movie directed by Alfred Hitchcock. The movie was based on a story, It Had To Be Murder, by Cornell Woolrich and turned into a movie script by John Michael Hayes. The movie was nominated for four Academy Awards. It stars James Stewart, Grace Kelly, Wendell Corey, Thelma Ritter and Raymond Burr.

Plot 
The movie tells the story of a photographer (played by James Stewart) who has a broken leg. He spends his days sitting in his Greenwich Village apartment watching his neighbors through their windows. One day, after he thinks he sees a murder, his girlfriend (played by Grace Kelly) helps him to investigate.

References

Other websites 

1954 movies
1950s mystery movies
1950s thriller movies
American mystery movies
American thriller movies
English-language movies
Movies directed by Alfred Hitchcock
Movies set in Manhattan
United States National Film Registry movies
Conscientious objector

A conscientious objector (CO) is a person who decides not to be a combatant in military forces.

There are many reasons for this decision such as nonviolent or religious beliefs, ethical and moral beliefs to not kill human beings or pacifism.

Countries treat COs in various ways. They have also been treated differently throughout history. COs have been arrested or had to pay a fine. Some countries punished them by killing them. After World War II, many Western countries created alternative non-military services (civil service) as alternative form for pacifists. Often there were commissions to decide if someone really did not want to do armed service because of his beliefs or because of fear of war.

European Court of Human Rights has judged the denial of COs is violation of freedom of religion and thought in 2013, as well European Union recognized the right of conscientious objector as one of fundamental rights.

Other websites 
Alternative Service in the Second World War: Conscientious Objectors in Canada 1939-1945.  
Conscientious objectors in a volunteer army (Chicago Tribune article by Anthony DeBartolo) 
The National Registry for Conscientious Objection 
Conscience - the peace tax campaign 
"Thoughts for Young Men ..." a one-page leaflet 
Manifesto against conscription and the military system , with online signature, official website
International Conscientious Objectors' Day (War Resisters' International)
"Making a Choice: Conscientious Objection or Refusing to Register" (Resisters.info)
The European Bureau for Conscientious Objection
GI Rights Hotline
The Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors (US)
 Mennonite Central Committee's listing of resources for CO's (US) 
Christadelphian Position And Experience Of Conscientious Objection

Politics

War
Rule of law

Rule of law is a legal maxim that suggests that no one is above the law and governmental decisions must be made only by applying known legal and moral principles. The Rule of Law limits the powers of Government by judicial defense of laws and the Constitution which is based on recognized basic legal values, established in international law. The Rule of Law is meant to prevent dictatorship and to protect the rights of the people.

The Rule of Law is especially important as an influence on the economic development in developing and transitional countries. Constitutional economics is the study of  government spending, which, in many transitional and developing countries, is completely controlled by the executive. The standards of constitutional economics can be used during annual budget process. The availability of an effective court system, to be used by the civil society in courts in situations of unfair governmental distribution of national money is a key element for the success of the rule-of-law in developing countries.

To date, the term “rule of law” has been used primarily in the English-speaking countries.  The originally German doctrine of Rechtsstaat is similar, and has been translated into other languages of continental Europe as État de droit (Fr.), Estado de derecho (Sp.), Stato di diritto (It.), and Правовое государство (Ru.).  Rechsstaat can be translated into English as “legal state” or "constitutional state".  

Rule of law is also a main purpose of Council of Europe for solidarity and international peace.

Related pages 
 Constitution
 Constitutionalism
 Constitutional economics
 International human rights law
 Political economy
 Vienna Declaration 
 Council of Europe

References

Other websites 
 What is the Rule of Law?  University of Iowa Center for International Finance and Development
 Centre for Public Law  has an audio and written analysis of the Rule of Law by Lord Bingham of Cornhill (the senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary of the United Kingdom supreme court)

Law

la:Regnum legis
Paramount Pictures

Paramount Pictures is a production and distribution company. It is the oldest movie studio in the United States. It has been in existence since 1912. Paramount is owned by media conglomerate ViacomCBS. Paramount is one of the Big Five movie studios.

History 
Paramount Pictures Inc. can trace its beginnings to the creation in May, 1912 of the Famous Players Film Company. Organized in 1914 by a Utah theater owner, W. W. Hodkinson, Paramount Pictures was the first successful nationwide distributor. Until this time, movies were sold on a statewide or regional basis. This was inefficient and costly to producers.

In 1916, Adolph Zukor created a three-way merger of his Famous Players Film Company, Jesse L. Lasky's Lasky Feature Play Company, and Paramount. The new company was called Famous Players-Lasky and grew quickly. Lasky ran the production side. Hiram Abrams was in charge of distribution and Zukor handled the business side of the company.

In 1927, Famous Players-Lasky took on the name Paramount-Famous Lasky Corporation. Three years later, because of the importance of the Publix theater chain, it was later known as Paramount-Publix Corporation. The company went into bankruptcy in 1933. When the company emerged from bankruptcy, it was known as Paramount Pictures, Inc.

Paramount Pictures had been an early supporter of television. It created stations in 1939 in Los Angeles (later to become KTLA) and Chicago's WBKB.

Paramount's successful run of lightweight pictures in the 1980s and 1990s created hits like Flashdance, the Friday the 13th series; Raiders of the Lost Ark, Beverly Hills Cop and the Star Trek features.

In 1993, entertainment conglomerate Viacom bought Paramount.

Paramount is the last major movie studio located in Hollywood. Other studios such as Warner Bros. and Columbia Pictures moved to other neighborhoods in Los Angeles.

On December 11, 2005, Paramount said it had purchased DreamWorks SKG in a deal worth $1.6 billion. On February 1, 2006, the studio announced that the DreamWorks acquisition was completed.

In March 2010, Paramount started Insurge Pictures, a low-budget label. In 2019, Paramount bought 49 percent of Miramax Films.

List of movies

Film studios

DreamWorks (1996-2010; live-action movies)
Nickelodeon Movies (1998-present)
DreamWorks Animation (2006-2012)
Miramax Films (2019-present)

Other websites 
 Official website
 Paramount Pictures on IMDB.com
 Insurge Pictures

1912 establishments in California
Companies based in Los Angeles
Movie studios
Viacom
Crystal

A crystal is a solid whose atoms (or molecules) are arranged in a repeating pattern. 

Crystals are made from fluids by Crystallization, which is a kind of phase change. Usually the fluid is a liquid, but crystals can form from a gas too. For example, snow is water crystals (ice) formed from air that contains water vapor (evaporated water). Crystallization can be by freezing from a simple fluid or from a solution. Sometimes heat and pressure needs to be applied to a substance for crystals to form. Diamond is a carbon crystal formed under heat and pressure. Crystals are found naturally or can be made artificially.

The surface of crystals often have regions that are flat, called facets. Facets occur naturally as crystals form, because flat layers of atoms are usually the most stable. The atoms in a facet are arranged in a regular pattern, such as the pattern of a chess board or a honeycomb. These facets reflect light to give crystals their shiny or sparky appearance. Artificial facets can be made in any shape by cutting or grinding a crystal, which is how some gemstones for jewelry are made. 

Different substances form different types of crystals. The study of the arrangement of atoms in crystals is crystallography. Well-known substances that form crystals are table salt (whose crystals are cubes), diamond, and quartz.

Related pages
Crystallization
Crystallography
Liquid crystal

Other websites 
 Crystal -Citizendium

Chemistry
Indirect democracy

Indirect democracy, or representative democracy, is when citizens elect representatives to make laws for them. This is what most modern countries have today.

In many representative democracies (USA, Canada, India, etc.) representatives are chosen in elections.  Elections may be won by plurality or majority or some other way.   In theory other methods, such as allotment (selection by a lottery) could be used instead.  Also, representatives sometimes hold the power to select other representatives, presidents, or other officers of government (indirect representation).

Direct democracy is where citizens themselves vote for or against specific proposals or laws. Some city states in Ancient Greece had this system. With the large populations in modern countries it is possible only occasionally to do this. It happens in a plebiscite or referendum.

In a democracy the ultimate power to decide significant electoral system reforms lies with the people. The key question that democrats will tend to ask of any proposed change in electoral law or the voting mechanism is: “Will it actually increase the capacity of the electorate to get rid of unsatisfactory rulers and replace them with others?” Democrats regard that basic capacity as the best protection against bad government and the abuse of power. 

Systems of government which do not permit electors to change the government are not democratic, and usually are dictatorships or one-party states.

References

Other websites 
 Electoral Reform Society

Democracy
Direct democracy

Direct democracy, which is also called pure democracy is a democracy in which the decisions are not taken by representatives. All decisions are voted on by the people.
When a budget or law needs to be passed, then the idea goes to the people. Large governments rarely make decisions this way.

Costs and benefits of direct democracy 
Interest groups would have to change the minds of all people, not just a few representatives. Taxes could not be raised without the permission of the people. The few would not rule the many and the government would not pay representatives salaries. In indirect, or representative democracy, citizens elect representatives to make laws on their behalf. This is what most modern countries have today. 
Direct democracy makes decisions by majority rule. Representative democracy was made with the idea that representatives would be responsible for the majority's interests while protecting minority rights. People like James Madison believed that direct democracy was bad for minority groups.

History 

Classical Athens was a direct democracy. All citizens voted on major decisions of government. Switzerland also has a long history of direct democracy. The Federal government of the United States does not use direct democracy but the individual states sometimes make laws by referendum. Some New England towns govern themselves by a town meeting.

Related pages
Democracy
Representative democracy

References

Anarchism
Democracy
Revolution

A revolution is a very sharp change made to something. The word comes from Latin, and is related to the word revolutio (which means a turn around). 

Revolutions are usually political in their nature. Some people feel unhappy with their lives, some are not happy with whole systems. They might join together, share their ideas, and make something change. Often, revolutions include fighting, and civil unrest. But there are also revolutions that happen without fighting.

The Soviet Union was made by the Russian Revolution that killed millions, and later fell apart in a counterrevolution without much fighting. But in the French Revolution (1789), there was much bloodshed. The years right after this Revolution in France are often called the Reign of Terror.

Other events often called "revolutions" include:
 American Revolution  
 Shift from an agrarian society to an industrial one: The Industrial Revolution (1750).
 Shift from fossil fuel combustion to clean energy: The Green Industrial Revolution (Boris Johnson, June 2021, at G7 meeting).
 The shift from an Industrial Society to a Post-Industrial one:
 The Cybernetic Revolution (1960- Present).
 The shift from a Communist Society to a Capitalist one: Perestroika in the former U.S.S.R (1990-2000).
 Neolithic revolution

The opposing idea in politics is called 'gradualism'.

Politics
Speech

For 'speech', meaning a talk, see Public speaking

Speech is when spoken language is used to communicate. Only humans have language. Animals do not have speech, but some can communicate with each other by using sounds and gestures. 

Speech is made by sounds vibrating the vocal folds. Sounds through the voice box is shaped by the jaw, tongue, teeth, palate, lips, and nose.

To make speech a person has to be able to:
choose speech sounds
put them into a sequence 
produce sound in the voice box 
use the lips, tongue, teeth, nose and palate to shape the sounds

Difficulties can happen at any stage of this four-stage process. A speech and language therapist can help work out the stage of the sequence that has difficulties and give therapy.<ref>Bauman-Waengler J. 2000. Articulatory & phonological impairments: a clinical focus'. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.</ref>

Effective speech includes the following elements – fluency, flexibility, accuracy, and comprehensibility.

 Fluency is the ability to communicate an intended message, or affect the listener in the way that is intended by the speaker.  

Flexibility is the ability to adjust the message according to the responses of the listener. It also involves choosing words and expressions which will be understood by the listener(s). Compare with Cross-cultural communication.

 Accuracy is the use of proper grammar in spoken language.

 Comprehensibility is the ability to be understood by others. There are three components of sound which influence one’s comprehensibility: Pronunciation: saying the sounds of words correctly; Intonation: applying proper stress and rhythm while speaking; and Enunciation'': speaking clearly at an appropriate pace and volume.

References 

Language
Palpatine

Darth Sidious (born as Sheev Palpatine and also known as the Emperor) is a fictional character from the Star Wars universe. He is the main villain of the Star Wars movies. His most famous power, seen only once, is force lightning seen in the last episode Return of the Jedi which is forked to spread the damage even further and is blueish purple. 

He is played by Ian McDiarmid. He is seen in Episode V for the first time. Darth Sidious is regarded as the true villain of the Star Wars films because he was the one who caused Anakin Skywalker to join the Dark Side of the Force.

In Episode I, The Phantom Menace, he is a Senator from the planet of Naboo. He is also secretly a Sith Lord, Darth Sidious. Sidious pulls the strings behind the scenes to cause unrest and dispute in the corrupt Galactic Senate, hence the films' title. His apprentice during this time is Darth Maul, who is slain in battle by Obi-Wan Kenobi. At the end of Episode I, he has risen to the office of Supreme Chancellor and begins his rise to power.

In Episode II, Attack of the Clones, Sidious secretly continues to bring the galaxy to civil war. He has a new apprentice, Count Dooku, who leads the Separatist Droid Army and goes by the name 'Darth Tyranus'. Dooku is slain by Anakin Skywalker on a rescue mission to free the Chancellor in Episode III, Revenge of the Sith.

Sidious rose to complete power in Episode III, when he sent Anakin to lead an attack on the Jedi Temple and ordered the Clone Troopers to execute Order 66, killing many Jedi in the process. Sidious battled Yoda in a duel which would decide the fate of the Galaxy. He narrowly defeated Yoda, and was able to form a new order upon the fallen Republic. He created the first Galactic Empire. In the time frame from his creation of the Empire and his death, Sidious was a cold, merciless Emperor. He ruled through fear. His evil was staggering as he dominated the galaxy with his ruthless enforcer, Darth Vader.  

Darth Sidious ruled the galaxy for 23 years, when in the end he was killed by his own apprentice, Darth Vader. He later cloned himself and had a granddaughter named Rey.

Since the initial theatrical run of Return of the Jedi, Sidious has become a widely recognized symbol of evil in popular culture, and since the prequel films, also one of sinister deception and the subversion of democracy.

Fictional characters introduced in 1980
Galactic emperors
Internet memes
Star Wars characters
Heteronym

A Heteronym is a word, or rather several words, with different meanings. However the words are spelt the same way. Usually they are pronounced differently.

Grammar
840s



Events 
 After the death of Louis the Pious, his sons Charles the Bald, Louis the German and Lothair II of Lotharingia fight about the division of the empire until the treaty of Verdun (843).
 Viking raid of Western Francia (France) (845).
 Vikings conquer Frisia, the present Netherlands and the German North Sea coastline.
 Beginning of Arab domination on Taranto, which will last until 880.

Important people 
 Charles the Bald
 Louis the German
 Lothair I
 Kenneth I of Scotland
 Ragnar Lodbrok
880s



Events 
 885: Vikings lay siege to Paris
 886: Alfred the Great of Wessex captures London

Important people 
 Charles the Fat
 Alfred the Great
 Basil I
1415



Births 
 Han Myung-hoi (died 1487), Korean politician

Deaths
 Jan Hus (born c. 1369), Bohemian religious thinker and reformer
Mulberry

Mulberry (Morus) is a genus of 10–16 species of trees. They are native to warm regions of Asia, Africa and the Americas, with most of the species native to Asia.

Mulberries are fast-growing when young, but soon become slow-growing and rarely grow over 10-15 meters tall. The leaves are simple, often lobed, and ridged. The fruit grows in bunches, 2-3 centimeters long, is red to dark purple in color, edible, and sweet with a good flavor in several species.

The fruit is used in pies, tarts, and wines. The fruit of the black mulberry, native to southwest Asia, and the red mulberry, native to eastern North America, have the strongest flavor. The fruit of the white mulberry, an east Asian species, has a very weak flavor.

Mulberries can be grown from seeds, and this is the best idea as seedling-grown trees are generally healthier. However, they are most often planted from large pieces cut from other mulberry trees, which easily take root.

White mulberry 
Mulberry leaves, particularly those of the white mulberry, Morus alba, are important as food of the silkworm, the cocoon of which is used to make silk. Morus alba is also notable for the rapid release of its pollen, which is launched at over half the speed of sound. "This is the fastest motion yet observed in biology, and approaches the theoretical physical limits for movements in plants".

References 

Trees
Berries
Moraceae
Rapid plant movement
Procaine

Procaine is a analgesic drug. It is used primarily to reduce the pain of getting certain shots, and is also used by dentists. The drug is usually sold under the name Novocaine, or Novacaine.

Procaine was first made in 1905, and was the first man-made pain-killer that could be taken as a shot. It was created by the German scientist Alfred Einhorn (1857-1917) who gave the chemical the name Novacaine, from the Latin word novus (which means new) and caine, as in "cocaine."

Procaine is not often used today because other safer and better working pain-killing drugs now exist. Prior to the discovery of procaine, cocaine was the most commonly used pain-killer. Procaine (like cocaine) has the advantage of reducing bleeding, unlike other pain-killers and without the dangerous qualities of cocaine.

Analgesics
Reforesting

Reforesting is the process of replacing plants in an area where they have been cut down or destroyed. It usually refers to trees, but could include other types of plant life. 

Reforestation is often needed after deforestation, when trees are cut down to make lumber. 

Reforestation also regains back the homes of animals. 

Forests
Proctor Silex

Proctor Silex Co. was created in 1960 with the merger of Proctor Electric and Silex Corporation.  The company made household appliances such as toasters, irons, and coffee makers. In 1990 Proctor Silex merged with Hamilton Beach.

Other websites 
 History of Proctor-Silex, 1788 to 1972 

Companies based in Virginia
1960 establishments in the United States
Home appliance companies
Columbine High School massacre

The Columbine High School massacre was a school shooting and attempted bombing at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado, near Denver, that happened on April 20, 1999. Eighteen-year-old Eric Harris and 17-year-old Dylan Klebold carried out the massacre and were both students at the school. They murdered 12 students and one teacher using guns. Ten of the murders happened in the school's library, where they then killed themselves with their guns. Before the shootings, they had planted two large propane bombs in the school's cafeteria. They could have killed many people in there, but they did not explode. They also planted two car bombs in the school's parking lot, which were supposed to kill first responders and news reporters. They also did not explode. They also carried pipe bombs and molotov cocktails, which they lit and threw. Most of them exploded but nobody was injured or killed by any of the bombs used during the massacre.

It was one of the first well-known massacres at a school in the United States, and the one with the most deaths until the Virginia Tech massacre in 2007.

After the shooting
After the shooting, many people wanted to know why it had happened. Many people thought that Klebold and Harris had done it because they were bullied, and schools in the United States began talking about how to stop bullying. However, it is now thought that Klebold and Harris were bullies themselves. Other people blamed parts of the media, saying that the lyrics of bands and singers like Marilyn Manson and violent video games that the shooters played might have caused it.

In 2002, filmmaker Michael Moore released a documentary movie called Bowling for Columbine that was about why the shooting happened and about the role guns have in American culture. In the movie, Moore interviewed Marilyn Manson.

Memorials

Many impromptu memorials were created after the shooting. Memorials included victims Rachel Scott's car and John Tomlin's truck.

In 2000, youth advocate Melissa Helmbrecht organized a remembrance event in Denver. It featured two surviving students. It was called "A Call to Hope." The library (where most of the shooting happened) was removed and replaced with an atrium. In 2001, a new library, the HOPE memorial library, was built next to the west entrance.

On February 26, 2004, thousands of pieces of evidence from the shooting were shown at the Jeffco fairgrounds in Golden.

References

1999 in the United States
1990s murders in the United States
20th century in Colorado
April events
Attacks on buildings and structures in the 1990s
Columbine High School massacre
Denver, Colorado
Mass murder in the 1990s
Mass shootings in the 1990s
Mass shootings in the United States 
Massacres in the United States
Murder in Colorado
Murder-suicides in the United States
Murders by firearm in the United States
School shootings in the United States
Suicides by firearm in the United States