cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Julián Padrón

Julián Padrón (September 8, 1910 - August 2, 1954) was a Venezuelan writer. He wrote for books, newspapers and magazines.

Story about Julián Padrón 
Julián Padrón was born on  September 8, 1910. He was from San Antonio, a small town from Monagas, Venezuela. When he was a little boy, he went to private schools in Cumaná. After Padrón went to a secondary school called Andrés Bello in Caracas. In 1929 Julián Padrón got a degree of secondary education in Philosophy.

In 1935 Padrón got 2 degrees: 
 A degree of Lawyer
 A degree of Doctor in Political Science (a person who has knowledge about the science of government). 

Padrón got the first degree at the Supreme Court, a place where judges work. The Supreme Court is in the Federal District. He got the second degree at the Central University of Venezuela, a place of learning. In 1944 Padrón got, at that university, a degree to be a Diplomat and a Consul (a Diplomat and a Consul are persons who are the representatives of a country in other countries). 

In 1929 Julián Padrón wrote for the magazine Elite. In 1935 Julián Padrón, Arturo Uslar Pietri, Pedro Sotillo and Bruno Plá made the magazine El Ingenioso Hidalgo for a short time. In 1936 Padrón made and wrote for the newspaper Unidad Nacional. From 1945 to 1947 he wrote for the newspaper El Universal. He wrote for other newspapers and magazines.

Julián Padrón had these jobs: 

 He was the leader of the Asociación de Escritores Venezolanos, an organisation that is the representative of writers from Venezuela. Padrón was the leader of this organisation in 1937 and in 1940.
 He created and was the manager of the Asociación de Escritores Venezolanos’ Magazines. 
 He had the direction of a committee of the Athenaeum (an organisation that does works about writings) of Caracas in 1940. 
 He had the direction of the magazine Shell from 1952 to 1954.

Julián Padrón died in Caracas on August 2, 1954.

Writings 
Julián Padrón did this group of writings:

Novels (books of long stories)
 La Guaricha (1934)
 Madrugada (1939)
 Clamor Campesino (1945)
 Primavera Nocturna (1950)
 Este Mundo Desolado (1954)
Short Stories
 Candelas de verano (1937)
Dramatical Comedy
 Fogata (1938)
Short Comic Play
 Parásitas Negras (1939) 

In 1940 Padrón and Arturo Uslar Pietri did Antología del Cuento Moderno Venezolano. It was a book that was an anthology (a group of writings) by people from Venezuela. In 1945 Padrón did other book in the anthology Cuentistas Modernos.

Source 
This book has a short biography (story) about Julián Padrón:
 Padrón, Julián (1984): La Guaricha. Ediciones Amon C.A., Caracas. (Biblioteca de Temas y Autores Monaguenses; Colección Guácharo; Reediciones y Biografías). 

1910 births
1954 deaths
Venezuelan writers
Peter Ham

Peter William Ham (27 April 1947 – 24 April 1975) was a Welsh singer, songwriter and guitarist, best known as the prominent songwriter and singer of the 1970s group Badfinger.

Ham was born in Swansea, South Wales. He formed a local rock group called The Panthers in 1961. This group became The Iveys in 1965. The band was relocated to London by The Mojos manager, Bill Collins, in 1966, and they continued to perform for three years throughout the United Kingdom. Ham especially took to songwriting and Ray Davies of The Kinks took initial interest in producing his group. In 1968, The Iveys came to the attention of Mal Evans (The Beatles personal assistant) and were eventually signed to the Beatles' Apple label after approval from all four Beatles, who were most impressed by dozens of demos recorded at home, mostly by Pete.

The Iveys changed their name to Badfinger with the single release of "Come And Get It," a song written by Paul McCartney, which became a worldwide Top Ten hit. Ham's hard work paid off eventually as his song "No Matter What" became another worldwide Top Ten hit record in late 1970 . He followed up writing two more huge hits released in 1972, "Day After Day" and "Baby Blue" But the peak came with his co-written song "Without You" - a worldwide No. 1 hit as covered by Harry Nilsson in 1972. The song has since become one of the all-time ballad standards as covered by hundreds of singers including Mariah Carey and Clay Aiken. Ham was also used as a musician on Beatles solo records such as the "All Things Must Pass" LP by George Harrison and the single "It Don't Come Easy" by Ringo Starr.

References

Other websites
 Pete Ham's Official website

Musicians who committed suicide
People from Swansea
Suicides by hanging in the United Kingdom
The Beatles
Welsh rock musicians
Welsh singer-songwriters
1947 births
1975 deaths
Egalitarianism

Egalitarianism is the belief that people should be equal to one another. The word is named for the French word égal, meaning equal or level.

There are many possible kinds of egalitarianism. For example, legal egalitarianism is the belief that groups of people should be equal in law even if they are of different race or religion. Gender egalitarianism is the idea that men and women are equally important, even though they are different.

This word may be used when talking about philosophy in many slightly different ways. We can best understand the different kinds of egalitarianism by asking, "Who is equal to whom?" and "How are they equal?"

Related pages
Social equality
Social justice

Philosophical movements and positions
English Wikipedia

The English Wikipedia is the English language edition of the Wikipedia online encyclopedia. English is the first language in which Wikipedia was written. It was started on 15 January 2001. It is the largest encyclopedia in the world, and the largest version of Wikipedia since April 2019. It has more than 6,085,700 articles as of May 2020. In October 2015, the total volume of the compressed texts of the English Wikipedia's articles added up to 11.5 gigabytes.

The Simple English Wikipedia is a variation in which most of the articles use only basic English vocabulary (simplewiki).  There is also the Old English (Ænglisc/Anglo-Saxon) Wikipedia (angwiki). It has a newsletter called The Signpost.

Wikipedias in other languages have imitated some of its technical and organizational features.

As the English Wikipedia is very popular, there can be many people editing the wiki in one minute. This made the Special:RecentChanges less effective for understanding changes. Instead, editors can select and watch for changes in particular articles, using the "watchlist" feature of MediaWiki. Some also use special software to detect and fix vandalism.

Some people think that the English Language Wikipedia shows bias and unfairness. Editors of reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned Wikipedia's utility and status as an encyclopedia. An example of bias is that around 90% of Wikipedia editors are male. Other people think that Wikipedia is more useful than other encyclopedias because it is large and can be updated quickly.

In 2012, the logo of the English Wikipedia like most Wikipedias was slightly changed. However, some Wikipedias, like the Simple English Wikipedia, still kept the old logo.

Related pages
 Wikipedia administrators
 Simple English Wikipedia

References

Other websites

 The English Wikipedia main page
 English Wikipedia mobile
 English Wikipedia Statistics Page

Wikipedias
Websites established in 2001
Jurisdiction

In law, jurisdiction is the authority given to a judge to take decisions in matters concerning the law. The word comes from the Latin jus, juris meaning "law" and dicere meaning "to speak": and literally means: telling the law. Jurisdiction may be legally restricted to a certain period of time called a statute of limitations.

It also includes the authority a of formally constituted legal body or a political leader to deal with legal matters and, by implication, to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility. Jurisdiction relies on public International Law, conflict of laws, constitutional law and the powers of the executive and legislative branches of government to give resources to best serve the needs of its society.

Other websites 
LII Law about... Jurisdiction
 Supreme Court Decision on Guantánamo Bay jurisdiction
Jurisdiction As Property  on franchise jurisdiction

Law
Thermoplastic

A thermoplastic is a material, usually a plastic polymer, which becomes more soft when heated and hard when cooled. Thermoplastic materials can be cooled and heated several times without any change in their chemical or mechanical properties. When thermoplastics are heated to their melting point, they melt to a liquid. They freeze to a glassy state when cooled below their glass transition temperature. 

Thermoplastic materials have many features. Some products made from thermoplastic materials are used for electronic applications. They protect against electrostatic discharge and radio frequency interference. Thermoplastics are one of the main two types of plastics.

Thermoplastic can be moulded into any shape. Thermoplastics differ from thermosetting polymers. Thermosets form irreversible chemical bonds during the curing process.

Main types of thermoplastics 
PET (polyethylene terephthalate) :- Light, rigid or semi-rigid, naturally transparent or colorless, PET is an excellent moisture and gas barrier and is resistant to impacts. It is one of the most easily recyclable plastics and is used to produce bottles, bags and synthetic fibers for clothing.

HDPE (high-density polyethylene) :- HDPE is translucent, strong and easy to process, resistant to impacts and non-toxic. It is used to make bottles, tanks, bins and containers for transport.

LDPE (low-density polyethylene) :-  LDPE can be translucent or transparent. Suitable for contact with food, it is the lightest and most heat-sensitive plastic. It is used for packaging, bags, sacks, cable coatings, containers, pipes and toys. 

PVC (polyvinyl chloride) :- PVC is a very versatile plastic, resistant to wear and tear, chemical and atmospheric agents and fire. It is used in the paper industry and for packaging, food containers, credit cards, furnishings, clothing and toys.

PP (polypropylene) :- Transparent, light and strong, this material can be used as both a plastic and a fiber. Easily colored, it does not absorb water. It is used to make textile fibers, couplings, containers for transport, furniture, carpets, ropes and food containers.

PS (polystyrene or styrofoam) :- One of the most important thermoplastic materials, it is transparent, hard and inflammable, very bright and inert against many corrosive agents. It can be given shiny or opaque colors. Polystyrene is commonly used to replace glass, aluminum and wood because it is cheaper. It can also be used in packaging materials (including for foods), containers, boxes, lamps, disposable objects, cups and toys.

References

Related pages 
 Plastic
Pete Doherty

Peter Doherty (born 12 March 1979) is an English musician. He was born in Hexham, Northumberland. He is in the popular rock band The Libertines. He is also in a band called Babyshambles.

He receives a lot of media coverage for his drug and legal problems and the relationship he had with fashion supermodel Kate Moss. Doherty has been convicted of many crimes.  Some of the crimes are drug offences, car theft, and driving with a suspended licence.  He has served prison sentences for drug possession and burglary.

References 

British burglars
British people convicted of drug offences
English rock musicians
English singer-songwriters
People from Northumberland
1979 births
Living people
Natural disaster

A natural disaster is a major event caused by the natural processes of the Earth, consisting of floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis and other geologic processes. A natural disaster causes loss of life or property damage, and leaves some economic damage afterwards costing millions. 

And often human activities also make causes of natural disasters, such as climate change and deforestation.

It is the damage to humans and their property which counts most. Therefore, one can say: "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability". If a strong earthquake happens in uninhabited areas, it is usually not seen as a disaster or a loss.

An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area without vulnerable population. In a vulnerable area, however, such as Nepal during the 2015 earthquake, an earthquake can have disastrous consequences and leave lasting damage, which can require years to repair.

Volcanoes 
A volcanic eruption occurs when hot materials from the Earth's interior are thrown out of a volcano. Lava, rocks, dust, and gas compounds are some of the ejected materials.

Eruptions can come from side branches or from the top of the volcano. Some eruptions are terrible explosions that throw out huge amounts of rock and volcanic ash and kill many people. Some are quiet outflows of hot lava. Several more complex types of volcanic eruptions have been described by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type of eruption has been seen. Some volcanoes may show only one type of eruption during a period of activity, while others may show a range of types in a series.

References

Other websites 

 http://www.gdacs.org
 http://www.swemorph.com/pdf/multi.pdf
 http://www.undp.org/bcpr/
Ibanez

Ibanez is company that makes guitars. The company is from Nagoya, Aichi, Japan. The company was started by Hoshino Gakki.  The company is very big and sells many guitars to musicians.

Other websites 
Ibanez
Ibanez guitars and bass museum - Ibanez instruments database, resources, user reviews, pictures
History of Hoshino Gakki Co., Ltd. 
Ibanez Register - Gallery of past and present Ibanez guitars and basses.

Guitars
Companies of Japan
Americium

Americium is a chemical element. It is a radioactive metal. It has the chemical symbol Am. It has the atomic number 95. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the actinides. Americium is a transuranic element (Transuranic means after uranium. All the elements used after uranium are man-made). It is a radioactive element that does not exist in nature. Americium has to be made. It has a silver color. Americium is made by bombarding a plutonium target with neutrons.

It was the fourth transuranic element to be discovered. It was named for America, like Francium was named for France.

The longest half life of any type of americium is 7370 years.

Uses 
Americium is used in most smoke detectors. The level of radioactivity is not enough to cause cancer, so it is safe to for the people in an area where smoke detectors with americium are in use.

Actinides
Chemical elements
Trash

Trash could mean:

 Waste, unwanted or undesired material left over after the completion of a process
 A dustbin where such material is stored
 Bagasse, the leftover waste of sugarcane after extraction of the juice
 A slur describing a negative attitude toward a person or group of people, as in white trash
 Trash (computing), in computing, a user interface metaphor that serves as a holding place for files to be deleted, used in KDE, Mac OS X and others

In entertainment
 Trash (computer game), a computer game developed by Inhuman Games
 Trash (movie) or Andy Warhol's Trash, a 1970 movie by Paul Morrisey
 Trash (poet), a UK poet, famous for cutting-edge performance and comedy poetry, also thought to be the first poet to write techno and orchestral poetry
 Trash (Manga), a comedy/drama manga by Sanami Matoh
 "Trash" (Firefly), the 11th episode of the TV series Firefly

In music
 White Trash (band) or Trash, a music group who recorded on The Beatles' Apple Records label
 Trash (band), a German punk band
 A song from the album Issues, by nu-metal act KoRn
 Trash (The Stalin), a 1981 The Stalin album
 Trash (album), a 1989 Alice Cooper album
 "Trash" (Suede song), a single by Suede from the album Coming Up

TRASH refers to:
 Testing Recall About Strange Happenings, a quizbowl format devoted to pop culture and sports questions
Harm

Harm is physical or psychological or emotional damage or injury to a person, animal or other legal entity. 

It is generally believed that humans, in addition to other sentient animal species, possess an aversion to causing harm to others.

Many religions consider any harm to another person a sin.

Psychology
Liquid crystal display

A liquid crystal display is a special thin flat panel that can let light go through it, or can block the light. (Unlike an LED it does not produce its own light). The panel is made up of several blocks, and each block can be in any shape.  Each block is filled with liquid crystals that can be made clear or solid, by changing the electric current to that block.  Liquid crystal displays are often abbreviated LCDs. 

Liquid crystal displays are often used in battery-powered devices, such as digital watches, because they use very little electricity.  They are also used for flat screen TV's.  Many LCDs work well by themselves when there is other light around (like in a lit room, or outside in daylight).  For smartphones, computer monitor, TV's and some other purposes, a back-light is built into the product. This is  an LED or Cold Cathode Fluorescent Light (CCFL).

Construction 

The LCD uses technology called electro-optical modulation. This means it uses electricity to change how much light passes through it.

Each pixel (block) of an LCD is made of a thin layer of molecules between two electrodes and two polarizing filters. The electrodes provide electric power to the liquid crystal layer, and don't block the light.  Light travels with 'polarity' or direction, and a polarizing filter only lets light with one kind of polarity to go through it, like trying to slide a ruler through a narrow opening.  Only when the ruler is lined up right, will it fit.  These two filters are perpendicular to one another, so the narrow openings are in different directions. This means that without the liquid crystals between them, they would block all light from passing through – whatever light gets through the first filter will not fit through the second filter.
The layer of liquid crystals between the two filters can 'twist' the light so that the polarity changes.  This means the light can then pass through both filters, and the pixel appears clear.  When giving an electric current to the liquid crystals, the molecules will untwist and will not change the light. The filters then block the light and the pixel appears dark. 

When a large number of pixels are needed in a display, it becomes difficult to have enough wires and electrodes to control each pixel and still have a clean display. Instead, the display is multiplexed. In a multiplexed display, electrodes on one side of the display are grouped and wired together (usually in columns). On the other side, the electrodes are also grouped (typically in rows), with each group getting a voltage sink. By turning on one row and one column, each pixel can be controlled one at a time.

References

Other websites 
 Buying an LCD monitor... Things to know  – Some additional useful tips about LCD monitors
 How do LCDs Work? – Engineers & physics students answer how LCDs work
 Liquid crystals are distributed by Merck Group (DE), and Yangcheng Smiling (CN).

Display technology
Television technology
Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the act of copying another person's ideas, words or writing and pretending that they are one's own work. It can involve violating copyright laws. College students who are caught plagiarizing can be expelled from school. It can permanently damage a student's reputation. Writers who plagiarize commit serious legal and ethical violations.

Types of plagiarism 
 Direct Plagiarism – copying and pasting someone else's work, or making minor changes to someone else's work to pass it off as their own.
 Self-Plagiarism – Happens when a student submits all or part of their own previous work without getting permission from all involved professors.
 Mosaic Plagiarism – Or "patch writing," is when parts of other works are copied without using quotation marks. It can also be when a student keeps the same structure and meaning of an original passage and only uses synonyms.
 Accidental Plagiarism – This can happen when a student does not cite their sources. It can also happen when a student paraphrases information without giving attribution (credit to the original author or authors).
 Mash-up – Two or more data sources that have been turned into one. They may be graphics, texts, songs, and video from various media.

Legal issues 
Many cases of plagiarism, especially in schools, can lead to internal punishment. Certain people have been punished in a legal court for plagiarism, mostly due to copyright claims. Court cases include:

 Sheldon v. Metro-Goldwyn Pictures Corp. (1936) 
 Nichols v. Universal Pictures Corp. (1930)
 Steinberg v. Columbia Pictures (1987)

Any work created in the USA after 1st. Mar 1989 is automatically protected by copyright, even if there is no copyright notice attached to the work. The defendant could sue for any copying of this kind of intellectual property.

Avoiding plagiarism 
It is usually not enough to know what plagiarism is, students must also know how to avoid plagiarism. Writers are as responsible for intentional plagiarism as they are for accidental plagiarism. It is important to cite sources while doing research. Putting this off until later can cause some sources to be forgotten or incorrectly cited. 

When using a source, make sure the content is in the same context as the paper. Try to avoid using biased sources. Always take the time to find the correct information about a source. For example, some web pages may be part of a larger website. While a web page article may seem fair and balanced, it can be affected by the overall bias or reputation of the publisher. Using something out of context can also lead to charges of plagiarism. Taking the time to properly cite all sources in a paper or work is paying respect to the original ideas of others.  This is all part of doing good work.

Related pages 
 Copyright
 Copyright infringement
 Academic dishonesty
 Fair use
 Wikipedia:Citing sources (Wikipedia guideline)
 Ghostwriter
Pastiche

References

Other websites 
 Avoiding Plagiarism: Writing With Integrity; YouTube
 What is plagiarism and how to avoid it: YouTube
  Avoiding plagiarism: Purdue University

Education
Literature
Plagiarism
Copyright infringement
Water content

Water content means the amount of water present in a porous substance, such as soil. This term is used in hydrogeology, soil science and soil mechanics. In saturated groundwater aquifers, all available spaces are filled with water. Above a capillary fringe, pore spaces have air in them too.

Gaps between soil particles are called pore spaces or voids. These voids contain various amounts of either water or air. Soil moisture content can be expressed in different basis:
Gravimetric: the mass of water/mass of solid material
Volumetric: the volume of soil/total porosity

The amount of void space within a soil depends on the distribution of particle sizes, and is quantified by soil porosity.

Soil moisture is more generally considered within the context of hydrology, where it represents the immediate store of infiltrating rainfall, before it either evapotranspires or contributes to groundwater recharge.

Related pages
 Humidity

Content
Soil
Darkness

Darkness is when there no light. In practice, out in the open air, there almost always is some light, however slight. The darkness of the night sky is estimated by a nine-point scale known as the Bortle scale.

Darkness is made by blocking light from the sun or some other source of light, which makes shadow. At night the Earth blocks the sun, and casts a shadow over one entire side of the world. There is heat radiation even in the dark. 

In mythology, darkness is often connected with evil. Many people are uncomfortable or afraid when in the dark, especially children.

In religion, darkness is considered as beginning of the world, before the light appeared.  At the same time, the darkness was "the second to last plague" (Exodus 10:21).

Darkness in art 
Many artists used and still use darkness to fill the void spaces on the canvas. Also it used for chiaroscuro. To create darkness, all colored paints are mixed. Every color absorbs light frequencies.  

Light
Carmelo Anthony

Carmelo Kyam Anthony (born May 29, 1984 in Brooklyn, New York) is an American professional basketball small forward. He is currently a free agent. Anthony also played for the Denver Nuggets and the New York Knicks from 2003-2011 to 2017 and the Houston Rockets from 2018 to 2019.

References

Other websites

 Carmelo Anthony's Official website

1984 births
Living people
African-American basketball players
American Olympic gold medalists
Denver Nuggets players
New York Knicks players
Sportspeople from New York City
American basketball players
Dallas Mavericks

The Dallas Mavericks are an American basketball team from Dallas, Texas. They play in the National Basketball Association (NBA). They were founded in 1980. They play their home games at the American Airlines Center. Their owner is Mark Cuban. Though they have had good teams for most of the 2000s, they only made the NBA Finals once in 2006, where they lost to the Miami Heat 4-2. Dallas Mavericks players include Dirk Nowitzki, Jason Kidd, Jason Terry, Shawn Marion, Caron Butler, and Peja Stojakovic. They won their first NBA Championship in 2011 when they beat the Miami Heat in a 4-2 series in a rematch from 2006.

References

Other websites

National Basketball Association teams
Mavericks
1980 establishments in the United States
1980s establishments in Texas
Harthacanute

Harthacanute (Canute the Hardy, sometimes Hardicanute, Hardecanute; Danish: Hardeknud) (1018 – 8 June 1042) was King of Denmark from 1035 to 1042 and England from 1040 to 1042. He was the only son of Canute the Great and Emma of Normandy.

He followed his father as King of Denmark in 1035, becoming Canute III. Fighting with Magnus I of Norway stopped him from sailing to England to take up his throne. His older, illegitimate half-brother, Harold Harefoot, became regent of England.

Harold took the English crown for himself in 1037. After Harthacanute had settled the situation in Scandinavia he prepared an invasion of England to take over his kingdom. Harold died, and Harthacanute was able to take back his throne peacefully.

Harthacanute was a harsh and unpopular ruler. To pay for his ships, he greatly increased the rate of taxation. In 1041, the people of Worcester killed two of Harthacanute's men who had been collecting the tax. Harthacanute burned the city. The story of Lady Godiva riding naked through the streets of Coventry to persuade the local earl to lower taxes, may come from the reign of Harthacanute. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says of him: "He never accomplished anything kingly for as long as he ruled".

In 1041, Harthacanute asked his half-brother Edward the Confessor (his mother Emma's son by Ethelred the Unready) back from exile in Normandy to become a member of his household, and probably made Edward his heir. Harthacanute was unmarried and had no children. On 8 June 1042, he died at Lambeth— he "died as he stood at his drink, and he suddenly fell to the earth". He was buried at Winchester Cathedral, Hampshire. Edward became the new king.

References 

1018 births
1042 deaths
Canute III
People buried in Winchester Cathedral
Harold Harefoot

Harold Harefoot, also Harold I, (c. 1015 – 17 March 1040) was King of England from 1035 to 1040. He was justthe son of Canute the Great, King of England, Denmark, Norway, and some of Sweden, by his wife Aelgifu of Northampton. There was skepticism about his being Canute's son.

Upon Canute's death (12 November 1035), Harold's younger half-brother Harthacanute, the son of Canute and his queen, Emma of Normandy, was legitimate heir to the thrones of both the Danes and the English. He was unable to travel to his coronation, because his Danish kingdom was under threat of invasion by King Magnus of Norway and King Anund Jacob of Sweden. Therefore, he was installed temporarily as regent though Godwin the Earl of Wessex and the Queen was against it.

Harold died at Oxford on 17 March  1040, just as Harthacanute was preparing an invasion force of Danes, and was buried at the abbey of Westminster.

References

Other websites 
 Harold Harefoot At Find A Grave

1010s births
1040 deaths
English Interregnum

The English Interregnum was the period of parliamentary and military rule in the land occupied by modern-day England and Wales after the English Civil War. It began with the execution of Charles I in 1649 and ended when Charles II became king, after Oliver Cromwell died in 1660.

This era in English history can be divided into four periods.
 The first period of the Commonwealth of England from 1649 until 1653
 The Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell from 1653 to 1658
 The Protectorate under Richard Cromwell from 1658 to 1659
 The second period of the Commonwealth of England from 1659 until 1660

Life during the Interregnum
Oliver Cromwell was a Puritan and during the Interregnum, he imposed a very strict form of Christianity upon the country.  Although a main cause of the English Civil War was oppression under Charles I, England during the Interregnum became oppressive in its own fashion. Cromwell granted religious freedom otherwise previously unknown in England, but other forms of expression were suddenly limited (for instance, theatre, which had thrived under the Stuart kings and Elizabeth I, was banned).  Cromwell also made certain that his own personal vision of Christianity was enforced upon the masses. Many of Cromwell's actions were called "harsh, unwise, and tyrannical" by some commentators.  

His son and successor, Richard Cromwell gave up his position as Lord Protector with little hesitation, resigning or "abdicating" after a demand by the Rump Parliament. This was the beginning of a short period of restoration of the Commonwealth of England.

Related pages
Richard Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell
Commonwealth of England
The Protectorate

History of the British Isles
The Restoration

The Restoration was an time in the history of the British Isles that started in 1660. In 1660 the House of Stuart was restored to power after the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The Restoration came after The Protectorate, when Oliver Cromwell and his son Richard Cromwell had led the government. The kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland started to have a monarchy again. "The Restoration" means both the events at the start of Charles II's reign and the period of time after they happened.

Charles II came back to England after his exile and he became king of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Before this, the British Isles's monarchy had stopped after Charles I's execution. The three kingdoms became a republic, without a monarchy: the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland.

Literature and culture of the Restoration period can also have the name "Restoration". (For example, Restoration drama is the theatre and plays of the Restoration period.)

Other websites 
 http://www.debretts.co.uk/royal_connections/sovereigns_england_17_century.html 
 Review of 'Revolution and Counter-Revolution in England, Ireland and Scotland 1658-60', by Brian Manning 
 Chapter V. The Stewart Restoration  By Sir Charles Harding Firth

History of the British Isles
Declaration of independence

A declaration of independence is a proclamation of the independence of an aspiring state or states. Such states are usually formed from part or all of the territory of another nation or failed nation, or are breakaway territories from within the parent state.

Declarations of independence are typically made without the consent of the parent state, and hence are sometimes called unilateral declarations of independence (UDI), particularly by those who question the validity of the declarations.

Declarations of independence
Declaration of war

A declaration of war is a formal declaration issued by a national government indicating that a state of war exists between that nation, and one or more others.

Declarations of war have been used in diplomacy since the Renaissance, when the first formal declarations of war were issued.

In an effort to force nations to resolve issues without warfare, the United Nations Charter attempted to commit member nations to using warfare only under limited circumstances, such as to defend when attacked. Wars continued to begin and end, but powerful states no longer declared them.

Other websites
 Declarations of war during World War II

War
Cyrillic alphabet

The Cyrillic alphabet () is a native Slavic alphabet. It is now used to write Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Rusyn, Bulgarian, Macedonian and for most South Slavic languages. It was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire in the 10th century. The Soviet Union made many non-Slavic languages in the Caucasus, Siberia, Central Asia and in northern Russia to be written in Cyrillic.

History 
Old Church Slavonic was the original language of the Slavic people, and it was used for Russian Orthodox Church. In the 9th century, two monks, St. Cyril and St. Methodius, were missionaries in Eastern Europe. When they preached to the Slavic peoples, they invented the Glagolitic alphabet, an early form of Cyrillic. 

During the 18th century, Nikolay Karamzin added Э, Й and Ё.

In 1708, Peter the Great added lowercase forms to the letters.

In 1991, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan decided to drop the Cyrillic script and to adopt the Latin script.

Related pages 
 Roman alphabet

References 

 
Alphabets
Nymph (biology)

For the spirit, see nymph

In zoology, a nymph is the young stage of some kinds of invertebrates, especially insects.

Insects grow by metamorphosis. In incomplete metamorphosis, an insect egg hatches, and a small nymph comes out. The nymph usually looks just like the adult insect but is much smaller. Nymphs do not become pupae before becoming adults. They just grow larger. They moult through various stages called instars.

Some insects have nymphs that are aquatic, which means they live in water. These nymphs look very different from the adults. Dragonflies have nymphs that live in water, such as in lakes and rivers. Nymphs that live in water are sometimes called naiads.

The other way insects grow is by complete metamorphosis. This way has no nymphs. The adult form is prepared in the pupa, and comes out perfect.

Some insects that are nymphs when they are young are grasshoppers, cockroaches, true bugs and dragonflies.

Insects
Developmental biology
Saab

Saab is a Swedish car and airplane maker, started in Trollhattan, Sweden in 1937. Saab started to make cars in 1947. The automobile part of the business is now owned by Spyker Cars. The aviation and defense parts of Saab are owned by the Wallenberg family.

Models
 Saab 9-3

References

Other websites
YouTube page

Aviation
Military
Automobile companies of Sweden
Michael Owen

Michael Owen (born 14 December 1979) is a retired English professional footballer.

Club career statistics 

Statistics accurate as of match played 19 May 2013

International career statistics 

International goals
Scores and results list England's goal tally first.

References

Other websites

 
 
 
 Profile at ManUtd.com
 Michael Owen's column in The Times
 Photographs and statistics at sporting-heroes.net – England, Liverpool, Real Madrid, Newcastle
 Premier League profile
 

1979 births
Living people
People from Chester
Sportspeople from Cheshire
Association football forwards
English footballers
Premier League players
1998 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2000 players
2002 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2004 players
2006 FIFA World Cup players
English autobiographers
Norman conquest of England

The Norman conquest of England was a military invasion of England by William the Conqueror in 1066.

William was Duke of Normandy, a country on the other side of the English Channel, now a region in France. He invaded England after the death of King Edward the Confessor because he believed he had the most right to be King of England, but King Harold II had himself crowned king instead. King Harold, with his Saxon army, and Duke William fought at the Battle of Hastings on October 14, 1066. King Harold was killed in the battle and his army left. On December 25, 1066 William was crowned the new King of England.

The Norman conquest was an important change in English history. The conquest linked England more closely with Continental Europe, and made Scandinavian influence less important. It created one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe.  The conquest changed the English language and culture, and set the stage for rivalry with France, which would continue (with a few breaks) until the 19th century. 

England has never been successfully invaded since the Norman invasion nearly 1000 years ago.

Related pages
 Spanish Armada
 Jacobitism
 Operation Sea Lion

Other websites 
 Essential Norman Conquest, multimedia resources by Osprey Publishing.
 The Effect of 1066 on the English Language
 Collection of source material on the Norman conquest of England

Wars involving England
Normandy
1066 in England
11th-century conflicts
English Reformation

The English Reformation was part of the Protestant Reformation. Many Christian churches in Europe broke away from  Rome. Each of the countries that went through this process did so in a different way. Earlier the Roman Catholic Church had supreme powers. 

Henry VIII broke ties with the church and became head of the English church. This was done in 1534 in the Acts of Supremacy. It was the beginning of the Church of England. His friend Thomas Cranmer became Henry's Archbishop of Canterbury. For years, the Church of England was almost exactly the same as the Catholic Church, except that it was ruled by the King instead of the Pope. This is different from the Reformation on the European continent, where the reformers wanted big changes right away. 

There were several causes for the English Reformation. One of these was that Henry VIII, who was King of England, wanted to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon. Another reason was because Henry wanted the Church's wealth and power, and got them with the dissolution of the monasteries.  

The Protestant Reformation in Scotland, however, was based more on the teachings of Martin Luther and John Calvin, so it was more like the Reformation in continental Europe. 

History of the British Isles
Protestant Reformation
Gianluigi Buffon

Gianluigi "Gigi" Buffon (born 28 January 1978) is an Italian professional footballer who plays in the goalkeeper position. He is a Goalkeeper for the Serie B team Parma Calcio. He used to play for the Italy national team from 1996 till he retired in 2018. Buffon is recognized by many peoples as one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time, and, by some, as the greatest ever.

Gianluigi Buffon started his career in Parma and won a UEFA Cup in 1999. In 2001, he transferred to the Italian giant Juventus and won the Serie A on consecutive years.

Buffon joined the Italy national team in 1997. In the 2006 FIFA World Cup, he led them to the championship, allowing only two goals in 7 games and keeping 5 clean sheets (no goals allowed), which was a new World Cup record at that time.

Career statistics

Club

International 
Source:

Notes

References 

1978 births
Living people
Italian association football goalkeepers
Checksum

A checksum is a number. It is a kind of redundancy check. There are different ways to calculate it. It serves as a check, that no errors have been made when writing down the number. In its simplest form, the digits are simply added up. This can however not detect errors of swapping digits around. Better ways (algorithms) of calculating a checksum are to use a Hamming code, a cyclic redundancy check or modular arithmetic. One of the uses of checksums is to check that account numbers have been entered correctly. 

Portuguese bank account identifiers are a good example of how checksums work. They have 21 digits. The first 19 digits identify the bank, branch and account number.  The last two digits are "mod 97" checksum digits based on modular arithmetic. A typical Portuguese bank account number is 0002.0123.12345678901.54. The digits have the following meanings:

The digits "0002" represent the bank.
The digits "0123" represent the branch of the bank.
The digits "12345678901" represent the account number
The digits "54" represent the checksum.

If 000201231234567890154 (the bank account number without the dots) is divided by 97, the answer is 207458809978249 remainder 1. Since the remainder is "1", the bank account identifier is probably correct. If the person writing down the number missed a digit, swapped two digits around or wrote a digit down incorrectly the remainder would not have been "1". If this is the case then the computer should detect an error and give an error message.   

Another place where checksums are used are serial numbers for computer software.

References

Computer science
DisneyToon Studios

DisneyToon Studios was an animation studio created and owned by Walt Disney Animation Studios. Disneytoon Studios closed its doors on June 28, 2018, resulting in a layoff of 75 animators and staff. It worked together with Walt Disney Animation Studios. DisneyToon Studios made a total of 48 movies.

List of movies 
This is a list of 47 movies that were made by DisneyToon Studios.

Theatrical releases to most or all countries are marked with an asterisk (*). Theatrical releases to only some countries are marked with a double asterisk (**).

DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp (1990)*
The Return of Jafar (1994)
A Goofy Movie (1995)* 
Aladdin and the King of Thieves (1996)
Pooh's Grand Adventure: The Search for Christopher Robin (1997)
Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas (1997)
Belle's Magical World (1998)
Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World (1998)
The Lion King II: Simba's Pride (1998)
Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas (1999)
Seasons of Giving (1999)
The Tigger Movie (2000)*
An Extremely Goofy Movie (2000)
The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea (2000)
Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure (2001)
Return to Never Land (2002)*
Cinderella II: Dreams Come True (2002)
The Hunchback of Notre Dame II (2002)
Winnie the Pooh: A Very Merry Pooh Year (2002)
101 Dalmatians II: Patch's London Adventure (2003)
The Jungle Book 2 (2003)*
Piglet's Big Movie (2003)*
Atlantis: Milo's Return (2003)
The Lion King 1½ (2004)
Winnie the Pooh: Springtime with Roo (2004)
Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers (2004)
Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas (2004)
Mulan II (2004)
Pooh's Heffalump Movie (2005)*
Tarzan II (2005)
Lilo & Stitch 2: Stitch Has a Glitch (2005)
Pooh's Heffalump Halloween Movie (2005)
Kronk's New Groove (2005)
Bambi II (2006)**
Brother Bear 2 (2006)
The Fox and the Hound 2 (2006)
Cinderella III: A Twist in Time (2007)
Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams (2007)
The Little Mermaid: Ariel's Beginning (2008)
Tinker Bell (2008) 
Tinker Bell and the Lost Treasure (2009)
Tinker Bell and the Great Fairy Rescue (2010)
Secret of the Wings (2012)**
Planes (2013)
The Pirate Fairy (2014)**
Planes: Fire & Rescue (2014)
Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast (2015)
Woody's Roundup: The Movie (2019)

References

Disney
Viet Cong

The National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF), was a communist army based in South Vietnam that fought against the governments of South Vietnam and the United States during the Vietnam War (1955-75). The group is better known as the Viet Cong (Việt Cộng) or V.C., short for "Vietnamese Communist." American soldiers called the Vietnamese communist forces Charlie (which is the letter "C" in the NATO phonetic alphabet), no matter whether North Vietnamese or Vietcong.

The group was made up of people from both South and North Vietnam. Some were not communists, but the main leaders were. The Vietcong used guerilla warfare, including terrorist bombings, assassinations, and ambushes. The group is best known for the Tet Offensive, an surprise attack on many South Vietnamese cities that began on January 1968 during Tet, or Vietnamese New Year. The group was closely allied with the government of North Vietnam, which conquered the South in 1975.

According to 'Re-thinking Camelot' (Noam Chomsky 1993) the NLF resistance was, in part, the result of terror inflicted upon them by the US backed and guided government of South Vietnam, carried out while the NLF were peacefully awaiting elections promised by the Geneva Accords of 1954.

References

Vietnam War
National liberation movements
Rebel militia groups in Asia
Communism
1954 establishments in Asia
1976 disestablishments in Asia
NATO phonetic alphabet

The NATO phonetic alphabet is a way of using words to replace letters. The first letter of the word is the letter the word stands for. Although it is called a "phonetic alphabet" it is not really used for phonetics like the International Phonetic Alphabet or other phonetic alphabets. It is used to clearly say letters out loud when they might be hard to hear such as over the phone or when people are talking from different countries, or when it is important to be accurate such as in the military and in air travel. There have been many different phonetic alphabets over time. On board ships, flags are used to stand for letters, and each have their own meanings. Different countries also have different phonetic alphabets used in any subject

Alphabet 

This is the phonetic alphabet that is used most often today:

Numbers are also in the phonetic alphabet. The English numbers 0 through 3 and 5 through 8 are written and spoken the same. The number 4 is written the same, but pronounced fower to avoid confusion with the word "for". The number 9 is written the same, but it is pronounced niner to avoid confusion with the German word "Nein" ("No").

Alphabets
Aviation
Military
Flags