cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Piston

In general, a piston is a lubricated sliding shaft that fits tightly inside the opening of a cylinder. Its purpose is to change the volume enclosed by the cylinder, to exert a force on a fluid inside the cylinder, to cover and uncover ports, or some combination of these.  A rubber seal is sometimes used to keep the lubricate within the shaft. Due to the constant motion of the machine this seal wears quickly and should be replaced with every servicing. If the seal should break during usage there can be disastrous long lasting consequences for the machine.

Creating force
There are two ways that a piston engine can transform combustion into motive power. These are two-stroke and four-stroke.

A single cylinder two-stroke engine produces power every crankshaft revolution, while a single cylinder four-stroke engine produces power once every two revolutions. Older designs of small two-stroke engines produced more pollution than four stroke engines. However, modern two-stroke designs, like the Vespa ET2 Injection use fuel-injection and are as clean as four-strokes. Large diesel two-stroke engines, as used in ships and locomotives, have always used fuel injection and produce low emissions. One of the biggest internal combustion engines in the world, the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C is a two-stroke; it is bigger than most two-story houses, has pistons nearly 1 metre in diameter and is one of the most efficient mobile engines in existence. In theory, a four stroke engine has to be larger than a two stroke engine to produce an equivalent amount of power. Two stroke engines are becoming less common in developed countries these days, mainly due to manufacturer reluctance to invest in reducing two-stroke emissions. Traditionally, two stroke engines were reputed to need more maintenance. Even though the simplest two stroke engines have fewer moving parts, they could wear out faster than four stroke engines. However fuel-injected two-strokes achieve better engine lubrication, and cooling and reliability should improve considerably.

External combustion engine
A steam engine is another type of piston engine. In most steam engines, the pistons are double acting: steam is alternately admitted to either end of the cylinder, so that every piston stroke produces power.

Gallery

Related pages

 Wankel engine (an internal combustion engine with a rotary 'piston')

Auto parts
Pinyin

Pinyin is the Mandarin word for "spelling", writing letters showing the sound of a word in place of a Chinese character. Today, it almost always has the sense of Hanyu Pinyin, the way of writing Mandarin sounds which has been used by the People's Republic of China from the 1950s. Other countries like the United States and Taiwan used other ways of spelling Chinese (such as the Wade-Giles way) for a long time, but in the late 20th century started to use Hanyu Pinyin as well. It is the standard of China as well as the United Nations. It is the most common romanization system for Chinese.

Pinyin uses Roman letters in a special way for certain Chinese sounds. For example, the pinyin letter C is pronounced as /ts/ as in the English word "cats" or the Japanese word "tsunami", and does not sound at all like /k/ or /s/ by itself. Pinyin uses special marks to show the four Chinese tones, which are very important to using Mandarin clearly.

Consonants 
b p m f w

d t n l

g k ng h

j q x y

z c s

Vowels 
a e i o u ü

Basic combinations of vowel and consonant 
ai ei ao ou

an en ang eng ong

Tones 
There are five kinds of tone in Pinyin:

ā, á, ǎ, à, a

Syllable-dividing mark (geyin fuhao) 
Geyin fuhao is used after the syllables starting with vowels "a, o, e", for example: pi'ao.

Orthography 
We should divide Pinyin text by words and write syllables connectedly, such as "I am a foreigner" should be written as "Wo shi waiguoren" in Pinyin.

Pinyin reading matters 

Pinyin reading matters from Wikibooks

Pinyin reading matters from Wikimedia

Other websites 
New Edition Hanyu Pinyin Syllable Table￼￼
 Rules for Hanyu Pinyin
 Convert Chinese to Pinyin
 Little Pinyin App 1.0 online 

Chinese language
Susianna Kentikian

Susianna "Susi" Kentikian (born September 11, 1987) is a woman boxer from Germany.  She was born in Yerevan, Armenian SSR, but she left the country together with her family when she was five years old, because of the Nagorno-Karabakh War. Kentikian has lived in Hamburg since 1996 and has signed a contract with the Hamburg boxing promoter Spotlight Boxing. Kentikian is the current world champion with the boxing organizations WBA and WIBF in the flyweight weight class.

Other websites 
 Kentikian.de, official homepage 
 Susianna Kentikian , Spotlight Boxing homepage
 Professional boxing record for Susianna Kentikian from Boxrec.com
 Susianna Kentikian Biography  at WomenBoxing.com

1987 births
Living people
Armenian boxers
Qajar dynasty

The Qajar dynasty (,  - or دودمان قاجار - Qâjâr) was a ruling Azerbaijani dynasty of Iran from 1781 to 1925.

Soltan Ahmad Shah Qajar (1909-1925) was the last ruling Shah.  Among many other members of the Qajar family are
Mohammad Mosaddegh 19 May 1882 – 5 March 1967), the Prime Minister who nationalised Iran's oil industry
Aga Khan III, Ismaili leader
Aga Khan IV, Ismaili leader

History of Iran
History of Azerbaijan
Azerbaijani dynasties
Royal dynasties
1781 establishments
1925 disestablishments
18th-century establishments in Iran
1920s disestablishments in Asia
1780s establishments in Asia
Zenwalk Linux

Zenwalk (formerly Minislack), or Zenwalk Linux, is a Linux distribution started by Jean-Philippe Guillemin. It was at first based on Slackware. Since its creation, the distribution has become very different from Slackware while still still being able to use its binary packages. Zenwalk aims to be a Linux distribution with many uses by focusing on Internet applications, multimedia and programming tools.

Aims 
The Zenwalk Project aims to create a Linux operating system that can be used on old and slow computers through the use of the latest software available for a stable release, optimization for a specific processor architecture to increase execution speed, and introduces a very powerful package management system with dependency resolution.

Project versions 
There are four main versions of Zenwalk:

Zenwalk (full version ~ 420 MB iso download) is a distribution aimed at mainstream desktop use.  Designed to be a stand-alone operating system, it installs to the hard drive by way of a ncurses-based installer.  It includes all of the officially released software packages that are deemed most useful for their tasks.  This collection may change with every release.

Zenwalk Core (~ 230 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk system built with customization in mind.  Released with no X Window System binaries, its aim is to allow a skilled user to build a system fit for his or her needs.  The project's lead developer is Emmanuel Bailleul.

ZenLive (~ 476 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk system built on a Live CD design.  ZenLive follows the progress made by the full Zenwalk system closely, thus mirroring the version number, and attempts to stay true to the original distribution's goals.  In addition, it includes all of the necessary libraries and applications to develop and compile software, a particularly rare feature in Live CD distributions.  Project members include Pierrick Le Brun, creator, Mauricio Tricoli, project lead, and Michael Verret, artwork.

Zenserver (~ 263 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk Core-derived system specifically designed for servers.  The main goals are to create a secure, reliable, easy to use, easy to configure, expandable and dependable server operating system, in the best Zenwalk tradition. The distribution development team is led by Teran McKinney.

Distributions based on Zenwalk 
There are currently four Zenwalk-based distributions:
SaxenOS, a distribution built primarily to support older hardware (SaxenOS 2008 is not as lightweight anymore as the former versions)
Arudius, a Linux Live CD distribution for information assurance with tools for penetration testing and vulnerability analysis
Zencafe , a distribution designed  for Internet cafes
Zeee Zenwalk for the ASUS Eee PC

Related pages
List of Linux distributions
Arudius
Slackware

References

Other websites 
Official site

Zenwalk 4.8 Review at Tech Source from Bohol

Linux distributions
Thermodynamic equilibrium

In thermodynamics, a thermodynamic system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium when it is in thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, radiative equilibrium, and chemical equilibrium. The local state of a system at thermodynamic equilibrium is determined by the values of its intensive parameters, as pressure, temperature, etc.  Specifically, thermodynamic equilibrium is characterized by the minimum of a thermodynamic potential.

Other websites 
Please search      Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium     for better understanding

Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic potential

In thermodynamics, thermodynamic potentials are parameters associated with a thermodynamic system and have the dimensions of energy. They are called "potentials" because in a sense, they describe the amount of potential energy in a thermodynamic system when it is subjected to certain constraints. The different potentials correspond to different constraints to which the system may be subjected. The four most common thermodynamic potentials are:

where T = temperature, S = entropy, p = pressure, V = volume. The Helmholtz free energy is often denoted by the symbol F, but the use of A is preferred by IUPAC (See Alberty, 2001).  is the number of particles of type i in the system. For the sake of completeness, the set of all  are also included as natural variables, although they are sometimes ignored.

Description and interpretation 

Thermodynamic potentials are very useful when calculating the equilibrium results of a chemical reaction, or when measuring the properties of materials in a chemical reaction. The chemical reactions usually take place under some simple constraints such as constant pressure and temperature, or constant entropy and volume, and when this is true, there is a corresponding thermodynamic potential which comes into play. Just as in mechanics, the system will tend towards lower values of potential and at equilibrium, under these constraints, the potential will take on an unchanging minimum value. The thermodynamic potentials can also be used to estimate the total amount of energy available from a thermodynamic system under the appropriate constraint.

References

Other websites
Thermodynamic Potentials - Georgia State University
Chemical Potential Energy: The 'Characteristic' vs the Concentration-Dependent Kind

Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic state

A thermodynamic state is the macroscopic condition of a thermodynamic system as described by its particular thermodynamic parameters. The state of any thermodynamic system can be described by a set of thermodynamic parameters, such as temperature, pressure, density, composition,  independently of its surroundings or history.

The parameters required to specify the state depend on the characteristics of the system. There is an optimal ensemble of parameters that uniquely specify the state, and all other parameters can be derived from these.  The state postulate says that the state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.

Related pages
 Thermodynamic system
 Thermodynamics

References 
 Black W. & Hartley, J. (1996). Thermodynamics, 3rd Ed. (textbook). New York: Harper Collins.
 Cengel, Yunus, A. (2002). Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach, 4th Ed. (textbook). New York: McGraw Hill.
 Perrot, Pierre. (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics (dictionary). New York: Oxford University Press.

Thermodynamics
Thermal physics

Thermal physics is the combined study of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and kinetic theory.  This umbrella-subject is typically designed for physics students and functions to provide a general introduction to each of three core heat-related subjects.  Other authors, however, define thermal physics loosely as a summation of only thermodynamics and statistical mechanics.

Overview
Thermal physics, generally speaking, is the study of the statistical nature of physical systems from an energetic perspective.  Starting with the basics of heat and temperature, thermal physics analyzes the first law of thermodynamics and second law of thermodynamics from the statistical perspective, in terms of the number of microstates corresponding to a given macrostate.  In addition, the concept of entropy is studied via quantum theory.

A central topic in thermal physics is the canonical probability distribution.  The electromagnetic nature of photons and phonons are studied which show that the oscillations of electromagnetic fields and of crystal lattices have much in common.  Waves form a basis for both, provided one incorporates quantum theory.

Other topics studied in thermal physics include: chemical potential, the quantum nature of an ideal gas, i.e. in terms of fermions and bosons, Bose-Einstein condensation, Gibbs free energy, Helmholtz free energy, chemical equilibrium, phase equilibrium, the equipartition theorem, entropy at absolute zero, and transport processes as mean free path, viscosity, and conduction.

Thermodynamic instruments

There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic meter is any device which measures any parameter of a thermodynamic system. In some cases, the thermodynamic parameter is actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. For example, the zeroth law states that if two bodies are in thermodynamic equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermodynamic equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An idealized thermometer is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure.

A thermodynamic reservoir is a system which is so large that it does not appreciably alter its state parameters when brought into contact with the test system.

It is important that these two types of instruments are distinct. A meter does not perform its task accurately if it behaves like a reservoir of the state variable it is trying to measure. If, for example, a thermometer, were to act as a temperature reservoir it would alter the temperature of the system being measured, and the reading would be incorrect. Ideal meters have no effect on the state variables of the system they are measuring.

Related pages
Thermodynamics

Sources

Other websites
Thermal Physics Links on the Web

Thermodynamics
Statistical mechanics

Statistical mechanics is the application of probability theory, which includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force.

It provides a framework for relating the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic or bulk properties of materials that can be observed in everyday life, therefore explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics and mechanics (classical and quantum) at the microscopic level.  In particular, it can be used to calculate the thermodynamic properties of bulk materials from the spectroscopic data of individual molecules.

This ability to make macroscopic predictions based on microscopic properties is the main asset of statistical mechanics over thermodynamics. Both theories are governed by the second law of thermodynamics through the medium of entropy. However, entropy in thermodynamics can only be known empirically, whereas in statistical mechanics, it is a function of the distribution of the system on its micro-states.

References

Other websites 
 Philosophy of Statistical Mechanics article by Lawrence Sklar for the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Mechanics
Thermodynamics
Kinetic theory

Kinetic theory or kinetic theory of gases attempts to explain overall properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion. The theory basically states that pressure is not caused by molecules pushing each other away, like earlier scientists thought. Instead, pressure is caused by the molecules colliding with each other and their container. Kinetic theory is also known as kinetic-molecular theory or collision theory.

There are three main components to kinetic theory:

 No energy is gained or lost when molecules collide
 The molecules in a gas take up a negligible (able to be ignored) amount of space in relation to the container they occupy
 The molecules are in constant, linear motion.

References 

The Mathematical Theory of Non-uniform Gases : An Account of the Kinetic Theory of Viscosity, Thermal Conduction and Diffusion in Gases, Sydney Chapman, T. G. Cowling
The main postulate of this theory are--
1.The particles attract each other with a force. This force is called      cohesive force if the particles are of same kind and adhesive force when particles are of different kinds.
2. All matter is composed of small particles called molecules. (Atoms or ions as the situation demands).
3. The particles are in a state of unending motion (continuous motion) and as such have kinetic energy.
4. with the supply of heat energy (thermal energy) to matter, the kinetic energy of a particle increase, i.e., they start moving more vigorously. Reverse happens if the matter is cooled.i.e., heat energy is taken out of it.
5. The force of attraction between the particles decreases, if the distance between them increases and vice versa.

Last updated Sat,16 May 2020
9:00 pm
By Rachit Vishwakarma
..................................

Other websites 
 Early Theories of Gases
 Thermodynamics - a chapter from an online textbook
 Temperature and Pressure of an Ideal Gas: The Equation of State on Project PHYSNET.
 Introduction  to the kinetic molecular theory of gases, from The Upper Canada District School Board
 Java animation  illustrating the kinetic theory from University of Arkansas
 Flowchart linking together kinetic theory concepts, from HyperPhysics
 Interactive Java Applets  allowing high school students to experiment and discover how various factors affect rates of chemical reactions.

Thermodynamics
Frik

Frik was an Armenian poet who lived in the 13th and 14th centuries, at the time of Mongolian control over Armenia.

Armenian poets
13th-century births
14th-century deaths
Yeghishe Charents

Yeghishe Charents (born Yeghishe Soghomonian, ) (13 March 1897, Kars - 29 November 1937, Yerevan) was an Armenian poet killed in Stalin's purges.

From 1904 to 1912 Yeghishe Soghomonian he was at school in Kars. Amid the upheavals of the First World War and the Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire, he volunteered in 1915 for the Caucasian Front. In 1917-1918 he was in Karin Erzurum during the bitter fighting. Some of his experiences would later appear in his poetry.

Yeghishe Charents (Soghomonian), one of the nation's favourite poets - a famous philanderer who apparently sought the USSR Kremlin's favours - produced a now famous poem called "The Message". Its praise of Uncle Joe might grind the average set of teeth down to the gum; it included the following: "A new light shone on the world... It is only this sunlight/Which for centuries will stay alive." And more of the same.

Undiscovered by the USSR Kremlin's censors for many months, however, Charents (1897 - 1937) had used the first letter of each line to frame a quite different "message", which read: "O Armenian people, your only salvation is in the power of your unity." Whoops! Like the distant Mount Ararat, it was a brave, hopeless symbol, as doomed as it was impressive. Yeghishe Charents was "disappeared" by the NKVD (KGB) in 1937 after being denounced by the architect Alexsandr Tamanyan - now hard at work building Yerevan's new Stalinist opera house - the moment Yeghishe Charents' schoolboy prank was spotted. Then Alexsandr Tamanyan fell from the roof of his still unfinished opera house, and even today Armenians - with their Arab-like desire to believe in "заговор" the plot - ask the obvious questions.

Works
"Three songs to the sad and pale girl", poems (1914)
"Blue-eyed Homeland", poem (1915)
"Soma", poem (1918) Yerevan
"Charents-Name", poem (1922)
"Uncle Lenin", poem (1924)
"Country of Nayiri" (Yerkir Nayiri) (1926)
"Epical Sunrise", poems (1930)
"Book of the Way", poems (1934)

Film
 1987: Charents - Known and Unknown Sides (Yeghishe Charents)Armenfilm,35mm, script by Levon Mkrtchyan, narration by Sos Sargsyan, director Levon Mkrtchyan

Related pages
 Armenian Genocide

1987 births
1937 deaths
Armenian poets
Kars

Kars (, ) is a city in northeast Turkey and is the capital of the Kars Province, before at the head of a sanjak in the Turkish vilayet of Erzurum. Population: 8,672 (1878); 20,891 (1897); 54,000 (1970); 142,145 (1990);  130,361 (2000).

History 
The early history of Kars is little known, beyond that it had its own dynasty of Armenian rulers and was the capital of a region known as Vanand. At some point in the 9th century (at least by 888) it became part of the territory of the Armenian Bagratids. From 928 to 961 Kars became the capital of their kingdom. It was during this period that the Cathedral, later known as the Church of the Apostles, was built.

References 

Cities in Turkey
Kars Province

Kars is a province of Turkey. It is in the northeastern part of the country. It shares part of its border with the Republic of Armenia. 

From 1878 until 1917 most of the present-day Turkish province of Kars was part of the Russian oblast of Kars. 

In 1919 and 1920 the province came under the control of the Democratic Republic of Armenia as the Vanand province (with the city of Kars as its capital). Its territory was ceded to Turkey by the Soviet Union in the Treaty of Kars.

Districts 
Kars province is divided into 8 districts (ilçe), each named after the administrative center of the district:
Akyaka
Arpaçay
Digor
Kağızman
Kars
Sarıkamış
Selim
Susuz

There are 383 villages in Kars.

Other websites 
 Pictures of the capital of this province and of nearby Ani

Provinces of Turkey
Manny Gamburyan

Manvel Gamburyan (was born in 1981) is a mixed martial artist with a history in judo. Manvel was chosen as a participant on the reality show The Ultimate Fighter 5. He fights on Jens Pulver's team. Manny defeated Noah Thomas in the preliminary round.

Life 
In May, 1991, Manvel's family relocated from Armenia to United States.  Shortly after his arrival, Manvel began training in judo at Gokor Chivichyan's Hayastan MMA Academy and quickly became one of the top judokas in the country, winning junior nationals less than two years later.  He went on to win junior nationals eight times, the junior Olympics once, and was a member of the 2000 judo junior world team.

Other websites 
Manny Gamburyan at ArmeniaPedia

Armenian sportspeople
Living people
1981 births
Martial artists
The Mickey Mouse Club

The Mickey Mouse Club was an American variety television series that began in 1955, ran intermittently, and left the air in 1996. It was directed by Walt Disney Productions.

Over the years, the series featured many stellar teenage performers including Annette Funicello, Britney Spears, and Justin Timberlake. The original series ran newsreels, cartoons, talent segments, and Disney produced serials such as The Hardy Boys with Tommy Kirk and Tim Considine.

Mickey Mouse Club was hosted by Jimmie Dodd, a songwriter and the Head Mouseketeer. He provided leadership both on and off screen. In addition to his other contributions, he often provided short segments encouraging young viewers to make the right moral choices. These little sermons became known as "Doddisms".

Related pages
 Mickey Mouse Clubhouse

References

Television series by Disney
Children's television series
English-language television programs
Fanta

Fanta is an orange soda drink. It was created in Germany in 1940. Fanta was created during World War II in Nazi Germany by the German Coca Cola (GmbH) bottling company. Because of the war, there was no shipping between Nazi Germany and the United States. Therefore, the German bottling plant could no longer get Coca-Cola syrup. The manager of the plant, Max Keith, needed to do something to keep the plant going. He came up with a fruit-flavored drink made from whatever he could find. Using apple fiber leftover from lollipops and whey, from cheesemakers, Fanta was created and became quite popular. The original German Fanta had a yellow color and tasted different from today's Fanta Orange; the flavor would change during the war, depending on what ingredients could be found.

Back in America, the Coca-Cola Company—led by Robert Woodruff—did not discourage this. The company sponsored the 1936 Berlin Olympics, which Woodruff attended, and made banners featuring the Coca-Cola logo alongside the swastika. Keith used a 10th anniversary party for Coca-Cola GmbH to order a mass Sieg-Heil (Nazi salute) in honor of the dictator’s 50th birthday. He declared that this was “to commemorate our deepest admiration for our Fuhrer.”

The name 'Fanta' came during an employee contest to name the new beverage. Keith told them to let their Fantasie (German for imagination) run wild. On hearing that, salesman Joe Knipp thought of the name Fanta.

After the war, Fanta was brought to the United States by Coca-Cola, and in 1960 they bought the trademark. Fanta Orange is the most popular Fanta flavor. It is available in 180 countries. In terms of volume, Brazil is the largest consumer of Fanta in the world. Fanta is more popular in Europe and South America than in the United States.

There are over 90 different flavors worldwide. Most of them are only available by region in some countries. For example, in Romania (and some other countries), there is "Fanta Shokata" based on the traditional Romanian drink "Socată". This drink is made from Elderflower. In Switzerland and the Netherlands the local fruit, blackcurrant is used to make Fanta as well. Some identical flavors have different names in different markets. “The classic orange”, for example, was renamed "Fanta Funky Orange" in 2003 for the Nordic countries and Belgium, while other countries have kept the older "Fanta Orange" brand name. As of the year 2005, the Fanta brand has been connected with the word Bambaacha (or Bamboocha), which is often seen in the Fanta commercials. TaB diet Cola was originally produced by the Fanta division of Coca-Cola.  It was available in different non-cola flavors as well. Later in 2005, Fanta branched out into new Fanta Zero (diet versions) varieties in Great Britain and in other countries as well.

References 

Soft drinks
Agavaceae

Agavaceae is a family of plants. Many of these plants grow in dry, hot climates. Some grow in the desert. Well-known plants of this family are the agave, yucca, and Joshua tree.  The family includes about 550-600 species in around 18 genera. It is widespread in the tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world.

It is not quite clear how large the family really is. There are genera which some biologists leave out of the family. This includes for example Cordyline and Dracaena, which are sometimes separated off into a separate family, Dracaenaceae. Recent research has tended to incorporate these into a larger family Ruscaceae, though.  Nolina, Beaucarnea, and Dasylirion are sometimes recognized as Nolinaceae or placed in Ruscaceae. Conversely, data from molecular systematics now suggest that Agavaceae should be broadened to include a number of genera previously classified elsewhere. Among them  are Chlorogalum, Camassia and the family Anthericaceae. This would enlarge the family with anything up to 22 genera.  The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group's APG II classification places Agavaceae, along with a number of other families (including Ruscaceae) in an expanded family Asparagaceae.  However, APG II allows the alternative of keeping some of these families, including Agavaceae, separate. In this case, it recommends expanding the family to include the genera currently classified in Anemarrhenaceae, Anthericaceae (with Anthericum and Paradisea), Behniaceae and Herreriaceae. Most references have retained Agavaceae (in varying circumscriptions) as a family distinct from Asparagaceae. Hesperocallis, sometimes placed in its own family, Hesperocallideaceae, has recently been shown to be closely related and its inclusion in Agavaceae has been recommended (Pires et al. 2004).

Some species are succulent. In general, Agavaceae leaves occur as rosettes at the end of a woody stem, which may range from extremely short to tree-like heights, as in the Joshua tree.  The leaves are parallel-veined, and usually appear long and pointed, often with a hardened spine on the end, and sometimes with additional spines along the margins.

Agave species are used to make pulque and mezcal, while others are valued for their fibres.  They are quite popular for xeriscaping, many types having showy flowers.

References

Other websites 
 Agavaceae in Flora of North America.
 Agavaceae  in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval.

 
Plant families
Succulent plant

Succulent plants are plants that have adapted to very dry climates. They have adapted in such a way that they can store water, either in their leaves, stems or roots. 

Often, they look different than plants that do not do this. Their leaves may look more fleshy.  Almost all cacti are succulents. Not all succulents are cacti. Other plant families with this property are the Agavaceae (Agave family), Azioaceae and Crassulaceae. Other well-known succulents are the Aloe and the bottle tree.

References 

Types of plants
Lu Xun (Three Kingdoms)

Lu Xun (183-254) was a general in Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period in ancient China.

He showed his skills by helping defeat Guan Yu with the Wei army. Sun Quan saw his potential and promoted him to main strategist in the Wu army after the death of Lu Meng. He showed his talents  at Yiling where his tactics and fire attack lead Wu to victory. He soon developed a name for himself when at Hefei castle his tactics crushed Wei and Cao Pi leaving only Shu and Liu Bei's son Liu Chan alive, who retreated and Wu gained full control of the land.

183 births
254 deaths
Three Kingdoms generals
List of Jupiter's moons

There are 79 known moons of Jupiter. Jupiter has the second largest number of moons with reasonably stable orbits of any planet in the Solar System. 

The most massive of the moons are the four Galilean moons, which were independently discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei and Simon Marius. They were the first objects found to orbit a body that was neither Earth nor the Sun. The Galilean moons are by far the largest and most massive objects to orbit Jupiter. The other 75 known moons and the rings together make up just 0.003% of the total orbiting mass. The four are Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. They are roughly the same size as Earth's moon, some are a bit bigger, some are smaller.

From the end of the 19th century, dozens of much smaller Jovian moons have been discovered. All these are less than  in diameter, with most barely exceeding . Their orbital shapes range from nearly perfectly circular to highly eccentric and inclined. Many revolve in the direction opposite to Jupiter's spin (retrograde motion). Orbital periods range from seven hours (taking less time than Jupiter does to spin around its axis), to some three thousand times more (almost three Earth years).

List of moons 
This list starts with those that go around Jupiter (orbit) the fastest.  That is, they have the shortest orbital period. Moons highlighted in purple are the "Galilean moons," moons highlighted in dark gray have a retrograde orbit, and moons with the regular white background have a prograde orbit.

Notes

References 

 
Astronomy lists
Moons of Saturn

The planet Saturn has 53 named moons, and another 29 which are still being studied. Many of the moons are very small: 33 are less than  in diameter and thirteen moons are less than . Many of the moons are named after Titans, Giants, or minor Greek or Roman gods. Some of Saturn's moons are very large; the moon Titan is bigger than the planet Mercury.

Confirmed moons 
The moons of Saturn are listed here by orbital period (or semi-major axis), from shortest to longest. Moons massive enough for their surfaces to have collapsed into a spheroid are highlighted in bold, while the irregular moons are listed in red, orange and gray background.

Very recently, there have been 20 new discoveries of moons on saturn that have not yet been named.

Unconfirmed moons
The following objects (observed by Cassini) have not been confirmed as solid bodies. It is not yet clear if these are real satellites or merely persistent clumps within the F Ring.

Hypothetical moons
Two moons were claimed to be discovered by different astronomers but never seen again. Both moons were said to orbit between Titan and Hyperion.
 Chiron which was supposedly sighted by Hermann Goldschmidt in 1861, but never observed by anyone else.
 Themis was allegedly discovered in 1905 by astronomer William Pickering, but never seen again. Nevertheless, it was included in numerous almanacs and astronomy books until the 1960s.

References

Notes

Astronomy lists
List of Uranus' moons

This is a list of the 27 moons of Uranus. They are listed by how long they take to orbit (go around once) Uranus. They are all named after characters created by William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope.

Astronomy lists
King (chess)

The king is the most valuable chess piece in a game of chess. It can move left, right, up, down or diagonally. It can only move one square at a time. When recording chess games, king is shortened to K.

The object of the game is to checkmate (capture the king). If a player's king is attacked by an opponent's piece, it is called check. The player with the attacked king must move so that the king is no longer in check. If the king cannot do this, it is in checkmate, and that side loses the game.

Castling 
With a rook, the king may make a special move called 'castling'. This is when the king moves two squares toward one of its rooks and then the rook is placed on the other side of the king. Castling consists of moving the king two squares on its first rank toward either one of the first rooks, then moving the rook onto the square over which the king crossed. Castling is only allowed when the king nor the castling rook has moved already, when no squares between them are occupied, when the king is not in check, and when the king will not move across or end its movement on a square that puts the king in check.

Check and Checkmate 
If a player's move places the opponent's king under attack, that king is in check, and the player in check is made to stop the attack. There are three possible ways to remove the king from check:
 Moving the king to an adjacent non-threatened square
 Blocking the check with another piece between the king in check and the attacking piece in order to break the line of threat (not possible when the attacking piece is a knight, or when in double check).
 Capturing the attacking piece (not possible in double check, unless the king captures)

If none of these three ways are possible, the player's king has been checkmated and the player with the checkmated king loses the game.

Stalemate 
A stalemate is when the player to move has no legal move, but is not in check.

Advice 
In the opening and middlegame, the king will mostly not play an active role in the development of an attacking or defensive position. Instead, a player will usually castle and find safety on the edge of the board behind pawns. In the endgame, however, the king may comes out of hiding to play an active role as an offensive piece as well as helping in the promotion of their remaining pawns.

References 
  
 
 

King
Work (thermodynamics)

In thermodynamics, work transfer is an energy transfer in which temperature is not considered during energy transfer. Unit is always in Joules. It is also a result of force acting through the distance. W=FxD

History

1824
Work, i.e. "weight lifted through a height", was originally defined in 1824 by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in his famous paper Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire. Specifically, according to Carnot:

1845

In 1845, the English physicist James Joule wrote a paper On the mechanical equivalent of heat for the British Association meeting in Cambridge. In this work, he reported his best-known experiment, in which the work released through the action of a "weight falling through a height" was used to turn a paddle-wheel in an insulated barrel of water.

In this experiment, the friction and agitation of the paddle-wheel on the body of water caused heat to be generated which, in turn, increased the temperature of water.  Both the temperature change ∆T of the water and the height of the fall ∆h of the weight mg were recorded.  Using these values, Joule was able to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat. Joule estimated a mechanical equivalent of heat to be 819 ft•lbf/Btu (4.41 J/cal).  The modern day definitions of heat, work, temperature, and energy all have connection to this experiment.

Overview 
According to the First law of thermodynamics, it is useful to separate changes to the internal energy of a thermodynamic system into two sorts of energy transfers. Work refers to forms of energy transfer which can be accounted for in terms of changes in the macroscopic physical variables of the system, for example energy which goes into expanding the volume of a system against an external pressure, by driving a piston-head out of a cylinder against an external force.  This is in contrast to heat energy, which is carried into or out of the system in the form of transfers in the microscopic thermal motions of particles.

The concept of thermodynamic work is slightly more general than that of mechanical work because it includes other types of energy transfers as well.  The electrical work required to move a charge against an external electrical field can be measured, as can the work required to move heat against a temperature gradient.  Thermodynamic work need not have any mechanical component to be considered such.

Related pages
Thermodynamics
Chemistry

References

Thermodynamics
Internal energy

In thermodynamics, the internal energy of a thermodynamic system, or a body with well-defined boundaries, denoted by U, or sometimes E, is the total of the kinetic energy due to the motion of molecules (translational, rotational, vibrational) and the potential energy associated with the vibrational and electric energy of atoms within molecules or crystals. It includes the energy in all the chemical bonds, and the energy of the free, conduction electrons in metals. 

The internal energy is a thermodynamic potential and for a closed thermodynamic system held at constant entropy, it will be minimized.

One can also calculate the internal energy of electromagnetic or blackbody radiation. It is a state function of a system, an extensive quantity. The SI unit of energy is the joule although other historical, conventional units are still in use, such as the (small and large) calorie for heat. (Calories that are on classic food labels are actually kilo-calories.)

Overview 
Internal energy does not include the translational or rotational kinetic energy of a body as a whole. It also does not include the relativistic mass-energy equivalent E = mc2. It excludes any potential energy a body may have because of its location in external gravitational or electrostatic field, although the potential energy it has in a field due to an induced electric or magnetic dipole moment does count, as does the energy of deformation of solids (stress-strain).

The principle of equipartition of energy in classical statistical mechanics states that each molecular degree of freedom receives 1/2 kT of energy, a result which was modified when quantum mechanics explained certain anomalies; e.g., in the observed specific heats of crystals (when hν > kT). For monatomic helium and other noble gases, the internal energy consists only of the translational kinetic energy of the individual atoms. Monatomic particles, of course, do not (sensibly) rotate or vibrate, and are not electronically excited to higher energies except at very high temperatures.

From the standpoint of statistical mechanics, the internal energy is equal to the ensemble average of the total energy of the system.

References 

 

 

 

Thermodynamics
Mechanics
Energy
Physical law

A physical law, scientific law, or a law of nature is a scientific generalization based on empirical observations of physical behavior.  Empirical laws are typically conclusions based on repeated scientific experiments over many years, and which have become accepted universally within the scientific community.  The production of a summary description of nature in the form of such laws is a fundamental aim of science.

Laws of nature are distinct from the law, either religious or civil, and should not be confused with the concept of natural law. 
Nor should 'physical law' be confused with 'law of physics' - the term 'physical law' usually covers laws in other sciences (e.g. biology) as well.

Origin of laws of nature
Some extremely important laws are simply definitions. For example, the central law of mechanics F = dp/dt (Newton's second "law" of mechanics) is often treated as a mathematical definition of force just like Newton's first law of mechanics (an object that is at rest stays at rest and an object that is in motion stays in motion unless acted by an out side force). Although the concept of force predates Newton's law, there was no mathematical definition of force before Newton.  The principle of least action (or principle of stationary action), Schroedinger equation, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, causality and a few other laws also fall into this category (of mathematical definitions).

Related pages
 Scientific method

References 

 Barrow, John (1991). Theories of Everything: The Quest for Ultimate Explanations. ()
 Davies, Paul (1992). The Mind of God ()
 Feynman, Richard (1965). The Character of Physical Law ()
Hans Wehrli: Metaphysik - Chiralität als Grundprinzip der Physik, 2006, 
Francis Bacon "Novum Organum"

Other websites 
 Baaquie, Belal E., "Laws of Physics  : A Primer". Core Curriculum, National University of Singapore.
 Carroll, John W. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
 Francis, Erik Max, "The laws list". Physics. Alcyone Systems
 Pazameta, Zoran, "The laws of nature ". Committee for the scientific investigation of Claims of the Paranormal CSICOP.

Science
Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney

Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney is a visual novel/adventure game developed and published by Capcom. The game was originally a Japan-only Game Boy Advance title called Gyakuten Saiban. However, the Nintendo DS remake Gyakuten Saiban Yomigaeru Gyakuten was translated and released in 2005 outside of Japan. The DS remake features a bonus case called Rise From The Ashes which was not in the original GBA version.

Characters

Phoenix Wright
Phoenix Wright is the main protagonist of the game. He is a defense attorney who must prove that his falsely-accused clients are not guilty.

Mia Fey 
Mia Fey is Phoenix's boss and mentor. She is killed in the second case. However, her spirit can be channelled by Maya and sometimes she reappears to give Phoenix help or advice.

Maya Fey
Maya is Mia's little sister. She is Phoenix's assistant. She is also a spirit medium and can sometimes channel Mia's spirit.

Miles Edgeworth
Miles Edgeworth is a prosecutor, and Phoenix Wright's rival. He is the prosecutor in every case in the game except for The First Turnabout and Turnabout Goodbyes.

Larry Butz
Larry Butz is Phoenix's client in the first case of the game, where he is accused of murder. He is also a witness in the fourth case.

Winston Payne
Winston Payne is the prosecutor of the first case. He has appeared in every Ace Attorney game except Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney - Dual Destinies. He is normally the prosecutor of the Tutorial cases of each game.

Dick Gumshoe
Dick Gumshoe is a detective who is usually in charge of investigating the cases that Phoenix takes on.

Manfred von Karma
Manfred von Karma is the prosecutor in case 4 of the game, and is Edgeworth's mentor.

Plot
The game features 5 cases.

The First Turnabout
Phoenix defends Larry Butz, who is accused of murdering his girlfriend.

Turnabout Sisters
Phoenix's mentor, Mia Fey, is killed. Phoenix defends her sister, Maya Fey, who is accused of murdering her.

Turnabout Samurai
Will Powers, an actor who potrays the Steel Samurai, is accused of murdering Jack Hammer. Phoenix defends him in court.

Turnabout Goodbyes
A man is killed on a boat at Gourd Lake, and Miles Edgeworth is accused of the murder. Phoenix defends him.

Rise from the Ashes
Lana Skye is accused of the murder of Bruce Goodman. Her sister, Ema Skye, convinces Phoenix Wright to take her case.

Game System
The game is split into 2 segments, Investigation segments and Trial segments.

Investigation 
During Investigation sections Phoenix visits the crime scene, looks for evidence that might be useful in the trial, and talks to witnesses.

Trial
Phoenix has to defend his client, and Cross Examine witness testimonies.

2001 video games
2005 video games
Ace Attorney
Game Boy Advance games
Nintendo DS games
Video game remakes
Windows games
Visual novels

ja:逆転裁判#蘇る逆転
Pipe (material)

A pipe is a tube or hollow cylinder for the transport of fluid. The terms 'pipe' and 'tube' can be used for the same objects. 'Pipe' is generally specified by the internal diameter (ID) whereas 'tube' is usually defined by the outside diameter (OD) but may be specified by any combination of dimensions (OD, ID, wall thickness). 'Tube' is often made to custom sizes and may often have more specific sizes and tolerances than pipe. The terms 'tube' and 'tubing' are more widely used in the USA and 'pipe' elsewhere in the world.

Both "pipe" and "tube" imply a level of rigidity and permanence, whereas a '' is usually portable and flexible.

Uses 
 Domestic water systems
 Pipeline containing high pressure gas or fluid
 Scaffolding
 Structural steel
 As components in mechanical systems such as:
 Rollers in conveyor belts
 Compactors (E.g.: steam rollers)
 Bearing casing
 Casing for concrete pilings used in construction projects
 High temperature or pressure manufacturing processes
 The petroleum industry:
 Oil well casing
 Oil refinery equipment
 The construction of high pressure storage vessels

Related pages
 Pipe (disambiguation page)

References 

Engineering
Cameron Diaz

Cameron Michelle Diaz (born August 30, 1972) is an American retired actress and former fashion model. She was nominated for four Golden Globe Awards in 1999, 2000, 2002 and 2003.

Early life
Cameron Diaz was born in San Diego, California. Her mother, Billie Joann (née Early), is an import-export agent. Her father, Emilio Luis Diaz (1949–2008), worked for the California oil company UNOCAL for more than 20 years as a field gauger. Diaz has an older sister, Chimene. Her father's family were Cubans, and settled in Tampa's Ybor City, later moving to California, where Emilio was born. Her mother has English, German, and Scots-Irish ancestry. Diaz was raised in Long Beach, California.

Filmography

References

Other websites

Actors from San Diego, California
Models from San Diego, California
American movie actors
American television actors
American voice actors

1972 births
Living people
Bacon number

The Bacon number of an actor or actress is the number of degrees of separation (see Six degrees of separation) they have from actor Kevin Bacon, as defined by the game known as Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon. It applies the Erdős number concept to the movie industry. The higher the Bacon number, the farther away from Kevin Bacon the actor is.

For example, Kevin Bacon's Bacon number is 0. If an actor works in a movie with Kevin Bacon, the actor's Bacon number is 1. If an actor works with an actor who worked with Kevin Bacon in a movie, the first actor's Bacon number is 2, and so forth.

Other websites
 The Oracle of Bacon at the University of Virginia computes the Bacon number of any actor or actress from data scraped from Wikipedia (formerly using IMDb data).

References
2. "Modern Family", Daddy Issues (2018)

Entertainment
Games