cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Persian calendar

The Iranian calendar  also known as Persian calendar or the Jalāli Calendar is a solar calendar. It is currently used in Iran and Afghanistan. It is observation-based, rather than rule-based. Each year starts on the vernal equinox as precisely determined by astronomical observations from Tehran (or the 52.5°E meridian, which also defines IRST) and Kabul. This makes it more accurate than the Gregorian Calendar.

The current Iranian Calendar year is 1400AP (AP = Anno Persico/Anno Persarum = Persian year).

Other websites 
 An online Persian/Gregorian date convertor, Persian calendar for mobile (j2me) 

Calendars
Hexagon

A hexagon is a polygon with 6 sides and 6 corners (vertices). Like regular triangles and squares, hexagons fit together without gaps, which are known as tesselations. They therefore are often used for tiling floors. They are also quite common in nature. The honeycombs in beehives are hexagons, for example.

Hexagons: in nature and by humankind

Related pages
 Polygon
 Triangle
 Square
 Pentagon
 Heptagon
 Octagon

Other websites 
 Definition and properties of a hexagon With interactive animation
 Cassini Images Bizarre Hexagon on Saturn 
 Saturn's Strange Hexagon
 A hexagonal feature around Saturn's North Pole
 "Bizarre Hexagon Spotted on Saturn" - from Space.com (27 March 2007)

6
West Edmonton Mall

The West Edmonton Mall (WEM) is the second-largest shopping centre in North America. It is in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. It is one of the main tourist attractions in Alberta. The mall is also the fourth largest in the world. WEM first opened on September 15, 1981.

Attractions 

In addition to the over 500 shops in the West Edmonton Mall, there are many other things which people go to the mall for. 

Galaxyland: The worlds largest indoor Amusement park. The park has 24 rides. These rides include a triple loop rollercoaster.
World Waterpark: world's largest indoor waterpark. The park includes the worlds largest indoor wavepool. The wavepool can create waves up to 5–6 feet in height. It also has ten water slides. Its tallest water slide is 83 feet high.
Deep Sea Adventure: An indoor salt water lake with performing sea lions. The lake also has a structure built to look like Christopher Columbus' Santa María.

The mall also has an Ice skating rink, miniature golf course, casino, skate park, hotel, petting zoo, three movie theaters and many other things to see.

Other websites 

Official site 
A map of the mall 
The list of shops in the mall 
Hours of Operation 

Malls
Alberta
Ahmad Khatami

Ayatollah Sayyid Ahmad Khatami () is a member of the Iranian Assembly of Experts.

Although his name resembles that of Mohammad Khatami, the reformist former president of Iran, the two men are not related.  In fact, they have opposite points of view on many issues, such as democracy and velayate faqih in Iran.

Other websites

Ahmad Khatami
The Republicans in the U.S. Are in a Crisis; Sanctions on Iran Will Harm the West More than Iran
Iran warns France: US rope decaying 

Muslims
Iranian people
Religious leaders
1960 births
Living people
Tendon

A tendon (or sinew) is a tough band of tissue that connects muscle to bone. It is built to withstand tension. Tendons are similar to ligaments except that ligaments join one bone to another. Tendons and muscles work together. They can only create a pulling force.

Anatomy 
The beginning of a tendon is where it connects to a muscle. Collagen fibers from the inside of the muscle are the same as those of the tendon. A tendon inserts into bone at an enthesis. At this point, the collagen fibers are changed into bone tissue. Tendons can not create any pulling force of their own. The tendons transfer the movement of muscles. They can create an elastic force if stretched. Tendons are part of the human body often connected to joints.

Skeletal system
Coffee substitute

Coffee substitutes are products that try to taste like coffee. The idea for using them is to have a drink that tastes like coffee, but has no caffeine in it. The main reasons for making coffee substitutes are medical, economic and barbaric. In World War II, acorns were used to make coffee, however it tasted foul. It was also hard to get. In the American Civil War there was a similar story -

"For the stimulating property to which both tea and coffee owe their chief value, there is unfortunately no substitute; the best we can do is to dilute the little stocks which still remain, and cheat the palate, if we cannot deceive the nerves." The Southern Banner, 1865

Ingredients
Grain coffee and other substitutes can be made by roasting or decocting various organic substances.

Some ingredients used include: almond, acorn, asparagus, barley and malt, beech nut, beetroot, carrot, chicory root, corn, cotton seed, dandelion root, fig, boiled-down molasses, okra seed, pea, persimmon seed, potato peel, rye, sassafras nut, sweet potato.

Chicory has been sold commercially on a large scale since around 1970, and it has become a mainstream product. It was widely used during the American Civil War on both sides.

Postum is an instant type beverage used in place of coffee. It reached the height of its popularity during World War II. For popular usage on the sitcom Seinfeld George says to Jerry he does not know why postum is not a more popular beverage.

Related pages
 Coffee

References

Coffee
Kuzcham Dherai

Kuzcham Dherai (also sometimes called Dherai, Dehrai or Derai) is a town in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. It is located on the bank of the river Swat and a couple of miles away from Swat Saidu Sharif airport. The population of Dherai is about 10,000 people.

History
It is believed that Alexander the Great once passed through this area.

Towns in Pakistan
Class

Class could mean:

Social class refers to the differences between groups in societies or cultures, and is a basic idea in economics, sociology and other social sciences
Class (education), a group of students in a course or lesson
 class, a lesson, in education
 class, short for a classroom

Class (biology), a rank used in taxonomy
Class (philosophy), distinguishes between classes and types
Class (set theory), in mathematics
Travel class

Media, entertainment and sport 
Character class in role-playing games and other genres
Class (film), a romantic comedy released in 1983
Class: A Guide Through the American Status System, a book by Paul Fussell
The Class, a CBS sitcom which began in fall 2006
Class, known as one-design in sailing, where boats built the same way race against each other

Technology 
Appliance classes, in making electric appliances
Class (emission), a type of radio emission
Ship class, in a navy, a set of vessels that are built the same way

Computer science 
Class (programming), related to object-oriented programming
Class (file format), a Java file format
Class (warez), a warez group that stopped being used
Class attribute, a part of many HTML and XHTML elements, such as span and div, often to help apply styles

Railroads 
Class (locomotive), a railroad locomotive design as assigned by the railroad
The classification of United States railroads by income:
Class I railroad
Class II railroad
Class III railroad

Other 
Classes of United States Senators
CLASS, Community Leaders At Service of Society, a non-profit organization in Silicon Valley, California.
 "Class", British slang word meaning "great" or "fabulous".
Church (disambiguation)

Church could mean:

Religion
Church, a building used for religious services, usually referring specifically to those for Christian worship.
Christian Church, the worldwide body of Christians.
Christian church, the body of people who share a faith or denomination within a community.
Religious denomination, an organization of churches sharing the same faith.

Places
 Church, Lancashire, a city in England

People
 Albert T. Church (born 1947), a Vice-Admiral in the United States Navy
 Alonzo Church (1905–1995), a logician, (famous for the Church-Turing thesis and lambda calculus)
 Benjamin Church (1734–1776), the first Surgeon General of the Continental Army and grandson of Captain Benjamin Church
 Captain Benjamin Church (1639–1718), a colonial officer during King Philip's War
 Bill Church, an American musician
 Brad Church
 Charlotte Church (born 1986), British soprano singer and talk show host
 Doug Church, a video-game designer
 Ellen Church
Forrester Church (born 1948), an  American minister, son of Senator Frank Church
 Francis Pharcellus Church (1839–1906), an American writer (famous for the editorial Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus)
Frank Church (1924–1984), a four-term U.S. Senator from Idaho
 Frederic Edwin Church (1826–1900)), a landscape painter
 George W. Church, Sr., founder of Church's Chicken, a chain of franchised fried chicken restaurants
 John A. Church, an expert on sea-level and its changes
 Judith Church (born 1953), a politician in the United Kingdom
 Louis K. Church
 Mary Church Terrell (1863–1954), an American writer and civil-rights activist
 Mike Church (born 1962), a Southern US radio commentator often considered a shock jock
 Richard Church (general) (1784–1873), a British military officer and general in the Greek army
 Richard William Church (1825–1890), an English divine, nephew of the general
 Richard Church (poet) (1893–1972), an English poet and man of letters
 Robert Reed Church (1839–1912), the first African-American millionaire
 Ryan Church (born 1978), an American baseball player
 Thomas Dolliver Church (1902–1978), an American landscape architect
 Thomas Haden Church (born 1961), an American actor in television and movies
 Thomas Langton Church (1870–1950), a Canadian politician
 Walter G. Church, Sr., member of the North Carolina General Assembly
 William Church (circa 1778 - 1863), American inventor who patented a typesetting machine in 1822

Music
The Church, an Australian rock band
Church, weekly meetings of the Hells Angels motorcycle club
"The Church", a song by Hawkwind from their 1982 album Church of Hawkwind
"Church", a song by Outkast from their 2003 album Speakerboxxx/The Love Below
"Church", a song by Galactic from their 1998 album Coolin' Off
Chvrches, an electropop trio from Glasgow, Scotland

Fiction
Church (Red vs. Blue), a fictional character
Church, the family cat in Stephen King's novel Pet Sematary
The Church, set up by The Order in Silent Hill
Religious denomination

A religious denomination (also simply denomination) is a subgroup within a religion that has a common name, tradition, and identity.

The term is often used for several Christian denominations including Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholicism, and the many sorts of Protestantism like Baptist, Methodist, Episcopalian and Pentecostal.

It is also used for the four branches of Judaism (Orthodox, Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist), and for the main branches of Islam (Sunnism and Shi'ism, Quranism, Ibadism, Sufism, Muwahhidism).

In Hinduism the major deity or philosophical belief functions as the identifier of a denomination and typically each has distinct cultural and religious practices. The major denominations include Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smartism, and Halumatha.

Related pages
 Sect
 Cult
 Religion
 Christian denomination
 Full communion
 Schism (religion)

References
Christendom

Christendom or the Christian world, in the widest sense, means Christianity as a territorial phenomenon. That means: those countries where most people are Christians and because of that are part of Christendom.

People have used the term Christendom for the medieval and Renaissance understanding of the Christian world as one single Body of Christ with Christ as the head.  With the rise of Modernity and the Reformation during the early 16th century the understanding changed to a modern idea of a tolerant and diverse society that consists of many different communities.

Related pages
 Caliphate (an Islamic analog to the Medieval political concept)
 Muslim World and Ummah

References

Other websites
Catholic Encyclopedia: Christendom

Christian terminology
Christianity of the Middle Ages
Creed (disambiguation)

A creed is a statement of belief, usually religious.

Creed may also refer to:

Religion 
 Apostles' Creed, an early statement of Christian belief
 Nicene Creed, the most widespread or ecumenical Christian statement of faith
 Athanasian Creed, a statement of Christian Trinitarian doctrine
 Chalcedonian Creed, adopted at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 in Asia Minor
 Social Creed (Methodist), a social creed of the American Methodist Episcopal Church
 Masai Creed, a creed composed in about 1960 by Western Christian missionaries for the Masai people of East Africa
 A New Creed, an affirmation of faith used widely in the worship services of the United Church of Canada
 Islamic Creed, see Shahada or Aqidah

Government 
 American's Creed, a forerunner to the Pledge of Allegiance
 United States Postal Service creed (unofficial)

Military
 Rifleman's Creed, also known as "the Creed of the United States Marine," though unofficial
 Ranger Creed, official creed of the US Army Rangers
 U.S. Soldier's Creed, a set of values and morals that all U.S. Army personnel are encouraged to live by

People 
 Creed Bratton, American singer and actor
 Frederick G. Creed, Canadian inventor, founder of Creed & Company
 Helios Creed, American musician, guitarist of Chrome
 Linda Creed, Philadelphia songwriter
 Percy Redfern Creed
 Martin Creed, British artist
 Michael Creed, Irish politician
 Creed Taylor, American record producer

Fictional
 Creed Bratton (The Office character), a character from the U.S. television series, The Office
 Graydon Creed, a character in Marvel Comics
 Ursarkar E. Creed, a character from Warhammer 40,000 universe
 Apollo Creed, a boxer
 Creed Diskenth, the antagonist in anime and manga series Black Cat (manga)

Other 
 Assassin's Creed, a video game

Companies
 Creed (perfume), a perfume manufacturer
 Creed & Company, a British telecommunications company

Literature
 Creed, a poem by Steve Turner (writer)
 Creed (comics), a Lightning Comics series

Music
 Creed (band), a post-grunge rock band
 Creed, one of the most popular songs from Christian rock group, Petra on their album, Beyond Belief

Places
 Creed, Cornwall, a village in Cornwall, England
 Creede, Colorado

Related pages
 Credo, a musical setting of the Nicene Creed
Shahada

The Shahadah (, ) is the first pillar of Islam. The saying is "Lā ʾIlāha ʾIllā Allah, Muḥammadun Rasūl Allah", meaning "There is no deity but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God". The Shia and Quraniyoon sects may have slight differences in their shahada.

Quranist
The Quranist sources comes from verse 3:18 of the Quran. It  states: "God bears witness that there is no other god besides Him, and so do the angels and those who possess knowledge."

Sunni
 Arabic text:

 English rendering:
 I bear witness that there is no god but Allah
 And I bear witness that Muhammad is the messenger of God

Shia
In addition to the first two testimonies, Shia Muslims may also recite the third testimony of:

 Arabic text:

 English rendering:
 And I bear witness that Ali is the vicegerent of God

A single honest recitation of the shahadah in Arabic is all that is required for a person to become a Muslim according to most traditional schools of Islam.

References

Other websites 
 LivingHalal.com Islamic audio glossary
 AbdurRahman.org
 Audio
 Basic Form
 Longer Form

Arabic words and phrases
Islam
Purgatory

According to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, Purgatory is the "final purification of the elect": "All who die in God's grace and friendship, but still imperfectly purified, are indeed assured of their eternal salvation; but after death they undergo purification, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven." 

“In Purgatory there are different levels; the lowest is close to hell and the highest gradually draws near to Heaven. It is not All Souls Day, but, Christmas, that the greatest number of souls leave Purgatory.

There are in Purgatory, souls who pray ardently to God, but for whom no relative or friend prays on earth. God makes them benefit from the prayers of other people.

It happens that God permits them to manifest themselves in different way, close to their relatives on earth, in order to remind men of the existence of Purgatory and to solicit their prayers to come close to God who is just, but good.

Purgatory in art and culture 

Perhaps the best-known instance of purgatory in the arts is Dante's Purgatorio, the second book of his Divine Comedy. Likewise, the Ghost in William Shakespeare's Hamlet may also presuppose a belief in purgatory,

Related pages
 The Divine Comedy
 Hades
 Heaven
 Hell

Footnotes

Sources 
 Akin, James. How to explain Purgatory to Protestants
  Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity  (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999)
 Catechism of the Catholic Church, available online 
  Catechism of St. Philaret (Drozdov) of Moscow
 Catholic Encyclopedia of 1914, Purgatory
 Clendenin, Daniel B.  (ed.). Eastern Orthodox Theology  (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995)
 Demetry, Constas H. Catechism of the Eastern Orthodox Church
 Dragani, Anthony. From East to West: Purgatory
 O' Collins, Gerald and Mario Farrugia. Catholicism: the story of Catholic Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003)

Other websites 

 CatholicBridge.com, Purgatory  — Ecumenical article by David MacDonald concerning Evangelical and Catholic belief
 Catholic Answers, Purgatory  — Catholic apologetic article
 NewAdvent.org, Purgatory — 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article
 philvaz.com/apologetics — Readings from the Church Fathers and other sources on Purgatory, by Phil Porvaznik
 EWTN.com library, Heaven, Hell and Purgatory according to Pope John Paul II  — Article from the newspaper of the Holy See, L'Osservatore Romano, July-August 1999
 JewishEncyclopedia.com, Purgatory — Article by Kaufmann Kohler in the online Jewish Encyclopedia 
 New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Purgatory — Article by C. A. Beckwith in the 19th century Protestant encyclopedia (ed. Philip Schaff)
 Purgatory account in the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica.
 I Believe in Purgatory... — excerpt from C. S. Lewis's Letters To Malcolm: Chiefly on Prayer, chapter 20 
 Frequently Asked Questions  at Holy Souls Online
 Purgatory and praying for the dead on Catholic Apologetic
 "Prisoner of the King: Thoughts on the Catholic Doctrine of Purgatory", H. J. Coleridge, 1889. retrieved 24 May 2007

Roman Catholicism
Afterlife
William Blake

William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827) was an English poet, visionary, painter, and printmaker. He was born and died in London.

During his lifetime he was not very well known. Today Blake's work is thought to be important in the history of both poetry and the visual arts. Blake's first collection of poems, Poetical Sketches, was printed around 1783. His most famous poem "And did those feet in ancient time" was, over 100 years later, put to music by Hubert Parry. The hymn is called "Jerusalem".

Blake was voted 38th in a poll of the 100 Greatest Britons organised by the BBC in 2002.

Books about Blake

References

Other websites 

 Recent Discovery of the Location of William Blake's Grave. 
 The William Blake Archive, a multi-media archive, sponsored by the Library of Congress
 
 Blake250: 2007 London festival celebrating 250 years of William Blake's influence 
 Paintings of William Blake 
 William Blake Society 
 Friends of William Blake 
 Blake Society
 Making facsimiles of Blake's prints
 William Blake at the British Library
Profiles
 Profile at the Academy of American Poets
 Profile at the Poetry Foundation
  William Blake profile, video on BBC Poetry Season and BBC etching gallery
 Tate William Blake learning resource
 Profile at Jacob Boehme Online
Archives
 The William Blake Archive – A Comprehensive Academic Archive of Blake's works with scans from multiple collections
 Single Institution Holdings:
 The G.E. Bentley: William Blake Collection Special Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
 The G.E. Bentley: William Blake Collection Digital Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
 William Blake collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin
 Links to articles, manuscripts and films relating to William Blake. From the British Library's Discovering Literature website.
 William Blake Digital Material From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress
Digital editions and research
 
 
 
 Settings of William Blake's poetry in the Choral Public Domain Library
 William Blake's America and Europe at Auckland Libraries

1757 births
1827 deaths
Artists from London
British abolitionists
British esotericists
Christian mystics
Christian theologians
English activists
English painters
English poets
English Protestants
English theologians
Printmakers
Writers from London
Institution

An institution is a social structure in which people cooperate and which influences the behavior of people and the way they live.

An institution has a purpose. Institutions are permanent, which means that they do not end when one person is gone. An institution has rules and can enforce rules of human behavior. The word "institution" can be used in two ways. It can mean a very broad idea, or a very "specific" (narrow) one. For example: 
 Government is an institution in the broad sense. Westminster Parliament is an institution in the specific sense. 
 Education is an institution in the broad sense. Harvard University is an institution in the specific sense.

Institutions, in the broad sense, are found in every society. The way that each institution works is different in different cultures. Some important institutions are: 
 Marriage- This is how society protects itself by controlling the way people live together, have children and care for them. 
 Education- A society controls how young ones are prepared to be useful adult members of society. 
 Kinship- Society controls how people who are related, or not related, should act to each other. This includes inheritance. 
 Religion- Societies have ways in which people's religious beliefs are celebrated.
 Law- Societies decide what is right and wrong, and what punishments there are for doing wrong. 
 Trade- Societies have ways of controlling the way food and other goods pass from one person to another. 
 Defence- Societies set up institutions to protect themselves against attack.

Some societies have many institutions in the "specific" sense. These societies have an organised government, schools, hospitals, churches, clubs, armies, markets, courts and places for entertainment. Some societies have very few of these things, but this does not mean that there are no "institutions". The way in which the people relate to each other may have just as many "controls" as in a society with schools, markets and a government. An example of a society that has lots of "specific" institutions is Western Europe. 
 
Historians look at institutions to find differences between eras or periods. They sometimes judge political and military events by the effect that they had on institutions.

Sources 

 Berger, P. L. and T. Luckmann (1966), The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Anchor Books, Garden City, NY.
 Greif, Avner (2006), Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade , Cambridge University Press.
 North, D. (1990), Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
 Schotter, A. (1981), The Economic Theory of Social Institutions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Related pages 
 State
 Establishment

Other websites 
 International Society for New Institutional Economics
 Institutional reform

References 

Social sciences
Race (biology)

In biology, races are distinct populations within the same species with relatively small morphological and genetic differences. 

The populations are ecological races if they arise from adaptation to different local habitats or geographic races when they are geographically isolated. 

If sufficiently different, two or more races may be described as subspecies, which is an official biological taxonomy unit below 'species'. 

If not, they are called races, which means that a formal rank should not be given to the group, or taxonomists are unsure whether or not a formal rank should be given. 

According to Ernst Mayr, "a subspecies is a geographic race that is sufficiently different taxonomically to be worthy of a separate name"

Example
The key lime is a shrub that grows to a size of about 5 metres in height. It has many thorns. It produces a fruit that is yellow when it is ripe. This fruit is preferred by bartenders to mix cocktails. They prefer this lime, rather than the Persian lime. 

The lime plant originally came from southeast Asia, where it is native. It was taken to the Middle East, and Crusaders took it to Europe and North Africa. Spanish explorers took it to the West Indies and the Florida Keys. In 1926, a hurricane destroyed most of the commercially-grown limes in the region. The Persian lime was reintroduced then.

Some of the original shrubs grew wild in the Florida Keys.  It became clear that the originally introduced shrubs (now known as Mexican limes) had modified their fruits. These were darker green than the original Persian limes, they also had a thicker skin.

More detail 
In biological taxonomy, race is an informal rank below the level of subspecies. It may be used as a higher rank than "strain". There are various definitions. Races may be genetically distinct populations in the same species, or they may be defined in other ways, e.g. geographically, or physiologically. Genetic isolation between races is not complete (some interbreeding takes place between the groups).
However, the genetic differences are not (yet) enough to put the groups into separate species. The term race is recognized by some, but is not governed by any of the formal codes of biological classification.

Human beings 

In former times, scientists often divided human beings into races. For example, they called people with a dark skin  "Negroid" or "black race". But, human gene sequences are very similar compared to many other animals. This is one reason why modern biology says that there is only one human race.

References 

Taxonomy
Phenotype

The phenotype of an organism is the whole set of characters (or traits) of that organism.

It does not mean just 'what you can see on the surface'. Rather, it means anything which can be made visible by suitable means. For example, blood groups are definitely a part of the phenotype. However, they are not visible just by looking at a person.

In biology, the phenotype is distinguished from the genotype. This was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's heredity and what that heredity produces. The distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann, who distinguished between germ plasm (gametes or their stem cells) and somatic cells (the body).

The phenotype is important because it is exposed to natural selection:
"From Darwin to the present day most evolutionists have considered the individual organism to be the principal object of selection. Actually, it is the phenotype which is the part of the individual that is “visible” to selection". Ernst Mayr 

Phenotypes are determined mainly by genes and are influenced by environmental factors. So, knowing the genome of an organism does not give an exact prediction of its phenotype.

Traits vary greatly in how much they owe to heredity (nature vs nurture). The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often been conceptualized by the following relationship:

genotype + environment → phenotype

Extensions 
The term 'phenotype' must include characteristics that can be made visible by some technical procedure (such as blood types). Another extension adds behaviour to the phenotype since behaviours are also affected by both genotypic and environmental factors.

The idea of the extended phenotype has been developed by Richard Dawkins to mean all the effects a gene has on the outside world that may influence its chances of being inherited. These can be effects on the organism carrying the trait, the environment, or other organisms. For instance, a beaver dam might be considered a phenotype of beaver genes, the same way beavers' powerful incisor teeth are phenotype expressions of their genes. Dawkins also cites the effect of an organism on the behaviour of another organism (such as the devoted nurturing of a cuckoo by a parent clearly of a different species) as an example of the extended phenotype.

Related pages 
Nature versus nurture

References

Classical genetics
Developmental biology

he:גן (ביולוגיה)#מושגים בסיסיים
Key lime

The Key lime is a citrus fruit. Its Latin name is  Citrus aurantiifolia (often, less correctly: C. aurantifolia), or Citrus x aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle. It is also known as the Mexican lime, West Indian lime or Bartender's lime. It is a shrub that grows to about 5m in height. 

Its fruit is 2.5-5 cm in diameter (1-2 in). The fruit is yellow when ripe but usually it is picked green. It is smaller, seedier, has a higher acidity, a stronger aroma, and a thinner rind than that of the more common Persian lime. It is valued for its unique flavor compared to other lime.  The Key lime usually has a more tart and bitter flavor. It is perhaps most distinguished as an ingredient in the Key lime pie. 

C. aurantiifolia is a shrubby tree, that grows to 5 m (16 ft), with many thorns. Dwarf varieties are popular with home growers and can be grown indoors in winter in colder climates. The trunk rarely grows straight, with many branches that often originate quite far down on the trunk. The leaves are ovate 2.5–9 cm (1–3.5 in) long. They resemble orange leaves (the scientific name aurantiifolia refers to the leaves' resemblance). The flowers are 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter. They are yellowish white with a light purple tinge on the margins. Flowers and fruit appear throughout the year but are most abundant from May to September  .

C. aurantiifolia originally came from  Southeast Asia.  It was introduced through the Middle East to North Africa and Europe during the Crusades. Spanish explorers then took it to the West Indies (at some point including the Florida Keys) contemporaneously with Columbus, then tropical and sub-tropical North America including Mexico, Florida, and later California .  The English name "lime" was derived from the Persian name لیمو Limu in this course.  "Key" would seem to have been added some time after the Persian lime cultivar became more important commercially in the United States. This was after the hurricane of 1926. The hurricane destroyed most U.S. C. aurantiifolia plants.  Some plants growing in the wild in the Keys survived the hurricane.  Since the North American Free Trade Agreement came into effect, many Key limes are grown in Mexico and Central America. They are also grown in Texas and California.

Footnotes
  Alphabetical List of Plant Families with Insecticidal and Fungicidal Properties
  Citrus aurantiifolia Swingle
  Citrus aurantiifolia Swingle

Other websites 
 Link to main Wikipedia article on Key_lime
 Link to Fruits: Limes on tonytantillo.com (may not work)

Citrus
Persian lime

Persian Lime (Citrus x latifolia), also known as Tahiti lime or Bearss lime is a kind of citrus fruit. It is the primary citrus fruit grown commercially in the U.S. It is sold simply as a "lime". The fruit is about 6 cm in diameter. Very often, it has slightly nippled ends. It is usually sold quite green, although it yellows as it reaches full ripeness. It is larger, thicker-skinned, and less aromatic than the key lime. The key lime is grown more often worldwide. The Persian lime is bigger than the key lime, and has fewer seeds. The plant is also hardier, and has no thorns on the bushes. The fruit also has a longer shelf life. 

Persian limes are less acidic than key limes and do not have the bitterness that lends to the key lime's unique flavour. Persian limes are sold primarily in six sizes, known as 110's, 150's, 175's, 200's, 230's and 250's. They are grown primarily in Florida in the U.S. The Persian lime became more important when key lime orchards were wiped out by a hurricane in 1926. Persian lime orchards themselves were devastated by Hurricane Andrew in 1992. Large numbers of Persian limes are grown, processed and exported every year primarily from Martínez de la Torre, Veracruz, Mexico, to the American, European and Asian markets. U.S. Persian lime imports from Mexico are handled mostly through McAllen, Texas.

References 
 Tahiti lime botany, agriculture, and history
 history and use of limes 
 history and varieties of limes 
 Key limes and others

Citrus

ss
Kaffir lime

The Kaffir lime (Citrus hystrix DC., Rutaceae), also known as kieffer lime, makrut or magrood, is a citrus fruit native to Indonesia. It is widely grown worldwide as a garden shrub. It is usually grown it for its fruit, the lime. The leaves are used for cooking. Vegetable oil obtained from the leaves is used to make perfumes.

The plant
The plant is a  very thorny bush with aromatic leaves. The oil obtained from the rind of the fruit can be used as an insecticide. The plant is well suited to being grown in a container. The green fruits are different from other limes because of their bumpy and rough exterior. They are also quite small, about 4 centimetres across. The leaves are shaped like an hourglass. The leaves and the leaf-shaped stem are widely used in the cuisine of Cambodia, Thailand and Laos.

Citrus x hystrix leaves are also popular in Cambodia but less so in Vietnam. Malay, Burmese and Indonesian (especially Balinese and Javanese; see also Indonesian bay leaf) cuisines use them sporadically with chicken and fish.

The leaves can be used fresh or dried and can be stored frozen.

Although the most common product of the Citrus x hystrix tree is its leaves (which give a sharp Lime/neroli flavour to Cambodian base paste known as Krueng, Thai dishes such as tom yum and Indonesian food such as sayur assam - literally sour vegetables), the juice and rind of the small, dark-green gnarled fruit (known as jeruk obat - literally medicine citrus) are used in traditional Indonesian medicine.

The zest is widely used in Creole cuisine and to impart flavour to "arranged" rums on Réunion and Madagascar.

Other names
Other names for Citrus x hystrix:
 Burma: shauk-nu, shauk-waing
 Cambodia: krauch soeuch
 China: fatt-fung-kam
 Malaysia: limau purut
 Indonesia: jeruk purut, jeruk sambal
 Philippines: swangi
 Sri Lanka: kahpiri dehi, odu dehi, kudala-dehi
 Thailand: makrut, som makrut

Terminology
The Oxford Companion to Food () recommends that the name kaffir lime should be avoided in favour of makrut lime because Kaffir is an offensive term in certain cultures and also has no clear reason for being attached to this plant. However kaffir lime appears to be much more common.

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Medina

Medina (; ,  , "the radiant city"; or ,  (), "the city"), also transliterated as Madīnah, is a city in the Hejaz, and the capital of the Al Madinah Region of Saudi Arabia. The city contains al-Masjid al-Nabawi ("the Prophet's Mosque"), which is the burial place of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and is the second-holiest city in Islam after Mecca.

Medina was Muhammad's destination after his Hijrah from Mecca, and became the capital of a rapidly increasing Muslim Empire, first under Muhammad's leadership, and then under the first four Rashidun caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. It served as the power base of Islam in its first century where the early Muslim community developed. Medina is home to the three oldest mosques, namely the Quba Mosque, al-Masjid an-Nabawi, and Masjid al-Qiblatayn ("the mosque of the two qiblas"). Muslims believe that the chronologically final surahs of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad in Medina, and are called Medinan surahs in contrast to the earlier Meccan surahs.

Similar to Mecca, non-Muslims are forbidden from entering the sacred core of Medina or the center of the city.

Overview 
Medina currently has a population of  more than 1,300,000 people (2006). The city was originally known as Yathrib, but later its name was changed to Madīnat al-Nabī (مدينة ﺍﻟﻨﺒﻲ  "city of the prophet") or Al Madīnah al Munawwarah ("the enlightened city" or "the radiant city"). The short form Madīnah simply means "city". Madina is the second holiest city of Islam, after Mecca (Makkah).

Medina's religious significance in Islam 
Medina is very important to Muslims. This is because the Prophet Muhammad is buried in a mosque known as 'Masjid-e-Nabawi' or 'The Mosque of The Prophet'. The Mosque was built on a site next to Muhammad's home. Muslims believe  that Prophets must be buried at the very same place that they die. Accordingly, Muhammad was buried in his house. The tomb later became part of the mosque when it was expanded by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I. The first mosque of Islam is also in Medina. It is known as Masjid Quba, (the Quba Mosque).

Like Mecca, the city of Medina only permits Muslims to enter. The haram (area closed to non-Muslims) of Medina is much smaller than that of Mecca, though.  Many facilities on the outskirts of Medina are open to non-Muslims. In Mecca the area closed to non-Muslims extends well beyond the limits of the built-up area. Both cities' numerous mosques are the destination for large numbers of Muslims on their annual pilgrimage. Hundreds of thousands of Muslims come to Medina each year to visit the 'Tomb of Prophet' and to worship at mosques in a unified celebration. Muslims believe that praying once in the Mosque of the Prophet is equal to praying at least 1000 times in any other mosque.

References

Other websites 

 Beautiful Masajids Of Madina Munawara, Details And Pictures  

 Satellite map of Medina - Google
 Pictures of Medina Munawwara 

 

hu:Medina
Doctrine

Doctrine (Latin: doctrina) is a code of beliefs or "a body of teachings".

Doctrine often means several religious dogmas that a church teaches. 
But it can also mean a principle of law, in the common law traditions, established through a history of past decisions, such as the doctrine of self-defense, or the principle of fair use.

In matters of foreign policy, a doctrine, also known as dogma, is group of fundamental rules for a nation's foreign policy. Examples include the Monroe Doctrine, the Stimson Doctrine, the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, the Nixon Doctrine, the Brezhnev Doctrine, the Kirkpatrick doctrine, and the Bush Doctrine.

Religious usage 

Examples of religious doctrines include:
 Christian Trinity and Virgin birth of Jesus
 Roman Catholic transubstantiation and immaculate conception
 Pentecostal Jesus-Only doctrine
 Calvinist predestination
 Methodist Prevenient Grace

One department of the Roman Curia is called the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.

Military usage 

The term also applies to the concept of an established procedure to a complex operation in warfare. The typical example is tactical doctrine in which a standard set of maneuvers, kinds of troops and weapons are employed as a default approach to a kind of attack.

Examples of military doctrines include:
 Blitzkrieg of World War II
 Hit-and-run tactics
 Shock and Awe
 Guerre de course
 Mahanian of late 19th up to mid-20th Century

Christian genres
Politics
Christian theology
Citric acid

Citric acid is a weak organic acid. It can be found in citrus fruits ( like oranges). It is used by organisms for Krebs cycle. It acts like a preservative when added to food. It is also used to add a sour (acidic) taste to foods and soft drinks. In the European Union it is known as E 330, as a food additive.

Carl Wilhelm Scheele was the first who could extract citric acid from lemons, in 1782. The substance was probably known to alchemists, perhaps with a different name. The Arabian alchemist Geber is said to have discovered citric acid in the 9th century. Citric Acid contains 6 Carbon atoms, 8 Hydrogen atoms and 7 Oxygen atoms. Its chemical formula is C6H8O7.

Main uses 
 As a water softener
 It is often used in detergents, to avoid the smell of acid, esp. Acetic acid
 As a preserving agent
 Citric acid and its salts prevent blood clotting. Blood donations are kept liquid using citric acid.

References

Other websites 
 Citric acid analysis - free spreadsheet for titration of acids and pH calculation

Acids
Citrus
Geber

Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (; ; died between 806 and 816), is the name for the writer of a great number of writings in Arabic. The writings together have the name Jabirian corpus. The most important subjects of these writings are: alchemy, cosmology, numerology, astrology, medicine, magic, mysticism, and philosophy.

Jabir's writings have in them the oldest known list of chemical substances. For the first time, the writings gave an explanation of how to produce an inorganic substance (ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair).

Modern scholars doubt the historical existence of Jabir. It is probable that one person did not write all of the writings in the Jabirian corpus. Instead, scholars see Jabir ibn Hayyan as a pseudonym that a group of writers used.

Translations into Latin of some of Jabir's Arabic writings (like the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") came into existence in the Middle Ages. In Latin, Jabir had the name "Geber", a transliteration of "Jabir".

In 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, called pseudo-Geber, started to produce new writings about alchemy under the name Geber. People still read the  in the 17th century. The  was one of the writings that pseudo-Geber produced in the 13th century. It was an influence on early modern chemists like Robert Boyle (1627–1691).

References

Works cited 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Chemists
Muslims
Philosophers
Physicians
Physicists
Pharmacists
Carl Wilhelm Scheele

Carl Wilhelm Scheele (December 9, 1742 - May 21, 1786) a German-Swedish pharmaceutical chemist, born in Stralsund, Western Pomerania, Germany (at the time under Swedish rule), was the discoverer of many chemical substances, most notably discovering oxygen before Joseph Priestley and chlorine before Humphry Davy.

1742 births
1786 deaths
German chemists
People from Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Swedish scientists
Micheline Calmy-Rey

Micheline Calmy-Rey (born 8 July 1945) is a Swiss politician. She was Switzerland's foreign minister as head of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. She was also a member of the Swiss Federal Council from 2003. She was President of the Confederation in 2007 and again in 2011. She resigned her office as member of the Federal Council on 31 December 2011.

Other websites

Official website

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1945 births
Living people
Presidents of the Swiss Confederation
Criss Angel Mindfreak

Criss Angel Mindfreak is an American television program. The program is hosted by illusionist Criss Angel. Angel performs many different types of stunts and illusions on the program such as street magic, levitation, and setting himself on fire. The program was first shown on July 20, 2005. It is shown and distributed by the A&E network.

Other websites 
 Official Criss Angel website
 Official Criss Angel Mindfreak TV Series website at A&E
 Titles & Air Dates Guide of Criss Angel Mindfreak at epguides.com

2005 American television series debuts
2010 American television series endings
2000s American television series
2010s American television series
American reality television series
Magic
English-language television programs
Piano trio

The term “piano trio” can also be used in jazz. This article is about the piano trio in classical music.

A piano trio is a group of three instruments including a piano. Usually it is a piano, a violin and a cello. This combination of instruments has been a very popular form of chamber music from the Classical music period onwards. A piano trio can also mean a piece of music written for a piano trio to play.

Other combinations of piano with two instruments are often called by the featuring wind instrument. For example: Mozart wrote a trio for piano, clarinet and viola which is usually called a “clarinet trio”. Brahms wrote a trio for piano, violin and French horn which is usually called a “horn trio”.

Music for three people to play at one piano is called music for piano six hands.

Famous music for piano trio 

Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote several piano trios for the traditional combination of piano, violin and cello. Beethoven’s last piano trio has the nickname Archduke because it was written for the Archduke Rudolph. Franz Schubert wrote two beautiful piano trios.

In the Romantic period some of the best piano trios were written by Felix Mendelssohn, Antonín Dvořák, César Franck and Pyotr Tchaikovsky.

In the 20th century Maurice Ravel and Dmitri Shostakovich each wrote a famous piano trio.

Famous piano trios 

Alfred Cortot, Jacques Thibaud and Pablo Casals were world famous musicians who played and recorded piano trios in the early 20th century.
During the second half of the 20th century the Beaux Arts Trio were the best known group. Today there are many young musicians who play piano trios, including three Japanese sisters called the Fujita Piano Trio who play a lot of their music all from memory.

Musical groups
Piano
Franz Grillparzer

Franz Grillparzer (born Vienna, 15 January 1791 – died Vienna, 21 January 1872) was an Austrian dramatist and poet. His dramas include three plays (a “trilogy”) called Das Goldene Vliess (The Golden Fleece).

Works 
Two other famous plays are Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen (The Waves of the Sea and of Love) and Der Traum, ein Leben (The Dream, a Life).  Although he said he was not interested in prose his short story Der arme Spielmann (The poor minstrel) is probably the best known of his works and one of the best short stories of the 19th century.  Grillparzer wrote the funeral speech for Beethoven's funeral in 1827.

Legacy

An Austrian pastry is named after him: the Grillparzertorte.

References

Other websites

1791 births
1872 deaths
Austrian poets
Writers from Vienna
Pastry

Pastry is the dough from which some baked products are made. Pastry dough is rolled out thinly and used as a base for baked products. It is made from ingredients such as flour, sugar, milk, butter, shortening, baking powder, and/or eggs. Common pastry dishes include pies, tarts, quiches and pasties.

Pastry is also the name given to various kinds of baked products. Small cakes, tarts and other sweet or savoury baked products are called "pastries." 

Greek food such as Spanakopita are made from pastries.

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References 

Foods