cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Catfish

Catfish are an order of teleost fish, the Siluriformes. There are about 40 families in the order.

They are called catfish because their barbels look like the whiskers of a cat. They are very diverse. The heaviest is the Mekong giant catfish, up to  350 kg (770 lb). The longest is the wels catfish, up to 4 m (13 ft). There are also detrivores in the group. There are some tiny parasitic catfish called candiru. Some catfish are grown for food, in fish farms. Some catfish can be kept in aquaria.

Special lifestyles 
Most catfish do not harm people, but some of them can cause problems. It is said that the candiru can enter the human urethra, where they stay as parasites. In normal life they are parasites on fish gills.

The Malapteruridae are a family of electric catfish. Several species of the family can produce an electric shock of up to 350 volts using electroplaques of an electric organ.

References
Adam's apple

The Adam's apple is a feature of the human neck. The medical name in English for it is the laryngeal prominence. This lump is formed by the angle of the thyroid cartilage (a type of soft bone) around the larynx (part of the throat which holds the vocal chords).

The Adam's apple can usually be seen better in adult men than in women, girls, or boys. The Adam's apple is only part of the thyroid cartilage around the larynx. A large Adam's apple is commonly seen as a male secondary sex characteristic, although not all males have it and quite a few women have one too.

History of the name
It is called "Adam's apple" as a reference to the forbidden fruit, which according to a traditional Jewish belief, got stuck in Adam's throat. Different languages use the same term, for instance Adamsappel (Dutch), pomme d'Adam (French) and Adamsapfel (German). Until the 19th century, the medical term was also generally Pomum Adami. When the Basle Nomina Anatomica was introduced in 1895, it became Prominentia laryngea.

References 

Neck
Forbidden fruit

The words forbidden fruit stand as a metaphor (an image). The metaphor comes from the book of Genesis in the Bible. There Adam and Eve are thrown out of Paradise because they eat from the tree of knowledge.

The fruit has commonly been represented as an apple due to wordplay of the Latin word for apple, malus, which can mean both "evil" and "apple". The Bible does not specify a fruit, but locates it as being at the very center of The Garden of Eden. In Judaism the fruit is believed to be either a grape, a fig, a citron or wheat. Most scholars say that the type of fruit is not forbidden, it was just the fruits of that particular tree that were. 

In general, the term can also refer to something illegal or immoral to do. It might also be dangerous. Many times this is about sex outside of marriage.

Related pages
Adam's apple

References

Old Testament
Metaphors
Real Sociedad

Real Sociedad de Fútbol is a Spanish football team.  The team is in Donostia-San Sebastián in the Spanish province of Guipuzcoa. It was created in 1909. In the 2006/07 season, the team was in La Liga. After 40 years in this division, in the season 2007/08 Real Sociedad plays in Segunda División. The colors of the team are blue and white.

Name 
 1909-1931 Real Sociedad
 1931-1939 Donostia F.C.
 1939-present Real Sociedad

Anoeta 
Anoeta Stadium is the stadium of Real Sociedad. Anoeta has a capacity of 32 000. Anoeta Stadium was opened in 1993.

Title 
 Spain
 La Liga (2): 1981 and 1982
 Copa del Rey (2): 1909 and 1987
 Supercup (1): 1982
Europe
 Real Sociedad has not won any trophies in Europe.

League position

Former position 

Spanish football clubs
Richard Mentor Johnson

Richard Mentor Johnson (October 17, 1780 – November 19, 1850) was the ninth vice president of the United States, serving with President Martin Van Buren. A resident of Kentucky, Johnson served as a U.S. representative and senator from Kentucky, and in the Kentucky House of Representatives.

Johnson started his career as a lawyer representing many people for free. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1806. During the War of 1812, Johnson led troops against the British.

Johnson later served in the Senate before being chosen as vice president. Johnson was elected by the Senate and not through the normal election because he did not have enough electors to win. This happened because Johnson lived with a slave named Julia Chinn, had two children with her, and treated her like his wife.

Johnson was not chosen to run with Van Buren in 1840. Johnson served in the Kentucky House of Representatives again as well as ran for a Senate seat again. In 1850 he was elected to the United States House of Representatives again but died two weeks into his term on November 19, 1850.

1780 births
1850 deaths
United States representatives from Kentucky
United States senators from Kentucky
Allemande

An allemande () is a dance that was popular in Baroque music of the 17th and early 18th centuries.  The word comes from the French word for "German".

Composers of the Baroque period often wrote a group of dances called a suite.  There was usually an allemande, a courante, a sarabande and a gigue, in that order. Sometimes there were one or two other dances as well.  Sometimes a suite started with a prelude (an introductory movement) before the allemande.

The allemande was played at a moderate speed - not very fast, nor very slow.  There were usually 4 beats in a bar (4/4 time) but also sometimes in 2/2 time, and it started with an anacrusis (an upbeat, i.e. one, or possibly a small group of notes which were not on the first beat of a bar).

Ballroom dances
Musical forms
Illegal drug trade

The illegal drug trade or drug trafficking is a global black market and includes the growing, making, distribution, and sale of illegal drugs. While some drugs are legal to possess and sell, in most areas laws do not allow the trade of some drugs.

Those drugs often include heroin, cocaine, marijuana or others. Drug traffickers may punished with time in prison for several years. In some countries, the crime carries the death penalty.

Punishment 
Several countries use the death penalty to punish people for drug trafficking.

 Afghanistan
 Bangladesh
 Brunei
 China
 Egypt
 Indonesia
 Iran
 Iraq
 Kuwait
 Laos
 Malaysia
 Oman
 Pakistan
 Saudi Arabia
 Singapore
 Somalia
 Sri Lanka
 Taiwan
 Thailand
 Vietnam
 United Arab Emirates
 Zimbabwe

Related pages 
Smuggling
Money laundering
Drug cartel
Rum-running

Other websites
News, information, laws and photos of illegal drugs, narcotics and drug trafficking
United Nations - Drug Programme  	 
Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia  (English and French) 
United Nations World Drug Report  	
Illicit drug issues by country, by the CIA 

Organized crime
Illegal drugs
Mortadella di Bologna

Mortadella di Bologna is an Italian kind of sausage. It is made of ground pork meat. Salt, pepper, sugar as well as small cubes of pork fat are added. It is then made into big sausages. It is then cooked in special ovens at 90°C (194° Fahrenheit). Some kinds of Mortadella have other spices in them. 

As a Protected Geographical Status food, Mortadella di Bologna must come from the Bologna province.

Outside Italy 
Mortadella is also produced and consumed in other countries. It is very popular in Spain, and Portugal. 

Many Italians emigrated to South America in  the early 20th cenury. For this reason, Mortadella is also very popular in Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, Ecuador, Chile, Colombia, Uruguay and Venezuela. In these countries it is spelled ''mortadela'', and its recipe is quite similar to the traditional Italian, with additional pepper grains.

Sausage
Italian food
Chilean food
Courante

A courante () is a dance that was popular in Baroque music in the 17th and early 18th centuries.  The word comes from the French word for to "run".

The courante was a fast, running dance with 3 beats in a bar (the time signature was often 3/2, although sometimes it was 3/4).  During the 17th century the French courante started to become slower than the Italian corrente, and it often had more counterpoint (imitating parts).  However, this was not a strict rule, and the courantes that Bach wrote were both Italian and French in style, and sometimes he called them "courante" and sometimes "corrente".

Composers of the Baroque period often composed a group of several dances.  This was called a suite.  There was usually an allemande, then the courante was the second dance, followed by a sarabande and a gigue and sometimes one or two other dances or as well.

Ballroom dances
Musical forms
Sarabande

A sarabande (spelt sarabanda in Italian), is a dance that was popular in Baroque music in the 17th and early 18th centuries.

Composers of the Baroque period often composed a group of several dances.  This was called a suite.  There was usually an Allemande, a Courante, a Sarabande and a Gigue, in that order, and sometimes two Bourrées as well.

The sarabande was a slow, stately dance with 3 beats in a bar (3/4 time or Simple Triple). There was always a small stress (Tenuto) on the second beat of the bar. The note on the first beat would often be played quite short so that the second beat would feel heavy. Like the other dance movements in the suite, the Sarabande was in Binary form.

The sarabande seems to have come from Central America where it was known as "zarabanda".  Although it was mainly used in the Baroque Period, composers in the 20th Century such as Debussy, Satie, Howells and Britten sometimes wrote Sarabandes.

Perhaps the most famous Sarabande is one written by an unknown composer. The piece is called La folie espagnole. Many Baroque composers such as Monteverdi and Corelli and even some modern ones used this well-known tune.

Movies 
The sarabande has been used a lot in movies, including one by Ingmar Bergman called Saraband (2003). It uses the sarabande from the 5th suite for solo cello by Bach.

Ballroom dances
Musical forms
Gigue

The gigue or giga is a lively baroque dance.  "Gigue" (pronounce "jeeg") is the French word, and "giga" (pronounce "jee-ga") is the Italian word.  The English word is "jig" and in England this refers to a folk dance.

The gigue was one of the movements in a series of dance movements called suites written by Baroque composers. The Baroque suite normally had an Allemande, a Courante, a Sarabande and a Gigue to finish with.  Sometimes there were one or two other movements as well.

The gigue usually has a compound metre such as 6/8, 6/4, 9/8 or 12/16.   They often have a contrapuntal texture and each phrase is usually four bars long.  Like all the dances in the Baroque suite, the gigue is in binary form.  The second half will usually start with the main tune in inversion (upside down).

Dances
Musical forms
Canobbio

Canobbio is a municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland

It is not to be confused with Cannobio in nearby Italy.

References

Other websites 
 http://www.canobbio.ch 

Municipalities of Ticino
Capriasca

Capriasca is a municipality of the district of Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

History 
Capriasca was created on 15 October 2001 by a merger of the former municipalities of Cagiallo, Lopagno, Roveredo, Sala Capriasca, Tesserete and Vaglio. On 20 April 2008 the former municipalities of Bidogno, Corticiasca and Lugaggia joined together and became the municipality of Capriasca.

References

Other websites 
 Official website 

Municipalities of Ticino
Carabbia

Carabbia was a municipality, in the city of Lugano and in the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

Other websites

 Official website  

Former municipalities of Ticino
Carabietta

Carabietta is a former municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 1 April 2012, it was incorporated into the municipality of Collina d'Oro.

References 

Former municipalities of Ticino
Capolago

Capolago was a municipality of the district Mendrisio in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 5 April 2009 the former municipalities of Arzo, Capolago, Genestrerio, Mendrisio, Rancate and Tremona merged into the municipality of Mendrisio.

References

Other websites 
 
 Capolago on the City of Mendrisio's website
 

Former municipalities of Ticino
Carona, Switzerland

Carona is a former municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 14 April 2013 the former municipalities of Bogno, Cadro, Carona, Certara, Cimadera, Valcolla and Sonvico merged into the city of Lugano.

References 

Former municipalities of Ticino
Caslano

Caslano is a municipality of the district Lugano in the Swiss canton of Ticino. It is near to the Italian border.

References

Other websites 
Caslano

Municipalities of Ticino
Altentreptow

Altentreptow () is a town in the Mecklenburgische Seenplatte Rural District, in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany.  Altentreptow is the chief town of the Treptower Tollensewinkel amt

It is on the river Tollense,  north of Neubrandenburg and  south of Greifswald.

Name 
The town was called Trybethowe in 1175. From 1191 it was being called Trebutowe, and Tributowe in 1245. The name Treptow was being used is 1254. In 1295 the Latin Antiquum Treptow was used. This means Old Treptow, or in 

Until 1939 the city's name was Treptow an der Tollense (Treptow on the Tollense).

Fires 
The town was burned down several time in the 1500s. Later, during the Thirty Years War the Holy Roman Empire's army was forced to leave the town by the Swedish Army. Later Prussian troops returned, threw the Swedes out, and looted (robbed) the town.

The modern town 
By the 18th century wars had made the town very poor. The city wall was taken down to get new land for growing food.

1869 a new city hall was built and there were cloth weavers and spinning mills as well as farmers in the city.

Later a new mill, but this was burned down ´in 1999. A railway line connected the town with Neubrandenburg and Stralsund, and a school, a bank, a hospital and a post office were opened.

1888 a dairy cooperative was started, and they opened new building in 1995.

Electricity arrived in the city in 1916. This encouraged more people to move to the city and build.

The official name of the city was Treptow an der Tollense until 26 January 1939.

A big residential area arose with 1049 flats was built between 1960 and 1985. In the middle of the 1960s the old primary school was changed to a home for old people and a zoo was opened in 1972.

Altentreptow was the capital of the Landkreis (administrative district) Altentreptow from 1952 to 1994.

After the German reunification the old town centre was rebuilt. A modern hospital was opened with 108 beds in 2001.

Twin town 
  Meldorf

Culture and sights 
 This newly repaired historical old town with the Little Tollense River, the market place and the town gates. The half-timbered houses at Oberbaustraße 26 were built in 1663 and 1823.
 The St. Petri church was built in the 14th and 15th centuries
 Two gates from the old town wall still exist. The Brandenburg Gate and the Demminer Gate were built in 1450.
 The Fritz Reuter House. (The writer Fritz Reuter lived and worked in the town from 1850 to 1856). 
 The fountain on the market. Water sprays in all directions
 The city hall of 1869 in the neo-Gothic style.
 The meadow landscape along the Tollense.
 The cloister mountain steeped in history with facilities for culture, leisure time, sports and relaxation.

References 

Treptower Tollensewinkel Amt
Cavagnago

Cavagnago is a former municipality of the district of Leventina in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 1 April 2012 the former municipalities of Anzonico, Calpiogna, Campello, Cavagnago, Chironico, Mairengo and Osco merged to form the municipality of Faido.

References 

Former municipalities of Ticino
Caviano

Caviano is a former municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 25 April 2010 the former municipalities of Caviano, Contone, Gerra Gambarogno, Indemini, Magadino, Piazzogna, San Nazzaro, Sant'Abbondio and Vira Gambarogno merged to form the new municipality of Gambarogno.

References 

Former municipalities of Ticino
Cavigliano

Cavigliano is a former municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 14 April 2013 the former municipalities of Cavigliano, Tegna and Verscio merged to form the new municipality of Terre di Pedemonte.

References 

Former municipalities of Ticino
2013 disestablishments in Switzerland
Cerentino

Cerentino is a municipality of the district Vallemaggia in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 
 Official website 

Municipalities of Ticino
Certara

Certara is a former municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 14 April 2013 the former municipalities of Bogno, Cadro, Carona, Certara, Cimadera, Valcolla and Sonvico merged into the city of Lugano.

References

Other websites 

Former municipalities of Ticino
Cevio

Cevio is the capital of the district Vallemaggia in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 22 October 2006, Cevio became bigger when it came together with the villages of Bignasco and Cavergno. Both were municipalities of Ticino before this coming together.

Geography 
Cevio can be found about 23 kilometers northwest of the city of Locarno in the upper Vallemaggia. Most of the area of the municipality, about 64 percent, is covered with trees. About 25 percent of the area has mountains.  Only 5 percent of the langer is used for farming.

History 
Cevio has been the main town of the district for a long time. In 1858, the municipality of Linescio broke off from it.

In the fall of 2006, the villages of Cavergno and Bignasco were put into the municipality, even though Bignasco did not want to do so.

Languages 
The inhabitants of Cevio speak using a language that is different from the Italian.

References

Other websites 
 Official website 

Municipalities of Ticino
Bignasco

Bignasco is a village in the district of Vallemaggia, in the canton of Ticino, Switzerland. Bignasco is not a free municipality anymore after merging with another village to become Cevio.

Former municipalities of Ticino
Villages in Ticino
Cavergno

Cavergno is a village in the district of Vallemaggia, in the canton of Ticino, Switzerland. Cavergno is not a free municipality anymore after merging with the village Bignasco to form the municipality Cevio.

Former municipalities of Ticino
Villages in Ticino
Massa

Massa is a town and "comune" in Tuscany, Italy, in the centre of province of Massa-Carrara. It is in the northern part of the Tuscany region.

Location 
Massa is near the sea, and has a population of approximately 69,000 inhabitants, distributed in five areas.

Tourism 
The Massa area has a high number of touristists, and it's famous for concentration of some 600 industrial and craft activities where are working about 7,000 people. 
Together with the twin town of Carrara, Massa is worldwide known for the extraction and production of marble.

History 
From the 15th to the 19th century, Massa was the capital of the independent Principate (later Duchy) of Massa and Carrara, controlled and ruled by the Malaspina and Cybo-Malaspina families.

In 1829, the city was handed by the Austrian Este family. In 1859, during the unification of Italy process, it joined the Kingdom of Sardinia.

Important monuments 
Massa's attractions include: 
 The Malaspina Castle (15th century)
 The Renaissance Ducal Palace, on the Piazza Aranci
 The Cathedral.

Towns in Tuscany
Capital cities in Italy
Carrara

Carrara is a city in the province of Massa-Carrara (Tuscany, Italy), famous for white or blue-gray marble, and for being a city "symbol" of international anarchism.

History
Carrara was ruled by Pisa in (1235), Lucca in (1322), Genoa in (1329), and Milan in (1343). After Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan died in 1477, Carrara was controlled by Tommaso Campogregoso, lord of Sarzana, and the Malaspina family.

Carrara and Massa made up the Duchy of Massa and Carrara from the 15th to the 19th century.
In 1929, the cities of Carrara, Massa and Montignoso were mixed in a single big city, called Apuania. In 1945 "Apuania", was separated, and the cities, were returned free.

Important monuments
 Cathedral (12th century).
 Ducal Palace (16th century), now the seat of the Fine Arts Academy.

Economy and culture

Carrara marble has been used since the time of Ancient Rome for buildings, like the Pantheon and Trajan's Column in Rome. Many sculptures of the Renaissance, such as Michelangelo's David, were made from Carrara marble.

The city has academies of sculpture and fine arts and a museum of statuaries and antiquities. The local marble is exported around the world.

Famous people born in Carrara
 Pietro Tacca, an important sculptor
 Pietro Tenerani, sculptor born in 1800
 Carlo Finelli, sculptor
 Gianluigi Buffon, goalkeeper of the Juventus team and of the Italian National Football Team
 Pellegrino Rossi, economist and politician
 Emanuele Repetti, geographic
 Domenico Zaccagna, geologist
 Maurizia Cacciatori, volleyball player
 Danese Cattaneo, sculptor and poet
 Arturo Dazzi, sculptor
 Gino Lucetti, anarchist
 Giorgio Chinaglia, football player
 Belgrado Pedrini, partisan and anarchist
 Renato Ricci, an important man in the fascist era
 Goliardo Fiaschi, anarchist

Other websites
 Official website

Cities in Tuscany
298 Baptistina

298 Baptistina is a common Main belt asteroid. It was found by Auguste Charlois on September 9, 1890 in Nice.

Although it has an orbit similar to the Flora family asteroids, it was found to be an unrelated asteroid.

A 2007 US-Czech study decided that 298 Baptistina may be the biggest remnant of a 170 km (110 mile) asteroid that was destroyed about 160 million years ago in an impact with a smaller body, making the Baptistina family of asteroids and that the Baptistina event may have created the eventual impact asteroid believed by many to have caused the K/T extinction event about 65 million years ago. This is the K/T impactor believed to be shown in the geological record. This theory has not, as yet, found general acceptance among the scientific community.

References 

Asteroids
VLC media player

VLC media player (also known as VLC or VideoLAN Client) is a free software media player by the VideoLAN project.

It is a highly portable multimedia player, encoder, and streamer that supports many kinds of audio and video. VLC can repair and play corrupt files, damaged or unfinished.

It is one of the most platform-independent players, available for BeOS, BSD, Linux, Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows, Solaris and Windows CE, and has over 50 million downloads for version 0.8.6.

VLC uses a large number of free decoding and encoding libraries. Many of its codecs are provided by the libavcodec codec library from the FFmpeg project, but it uses mainly its own muxer and demuxers. VLC gained honor as the first player to support playback of encrypted DVDs on Linux by using the libdvdcss DVD library.

History 
VLC was initially the client for the VideoLAN project, and it was originally made by students at the École Centrale de Paris, and was released under the GPL license on the 1 February 2001.  It now has supporters and contributors worldwide.

The icon of VLC is a traffic cones collected by Ecole Centrale's Networking Students' Association.

Design principles 

VLC has a very flexible design, which makes it easier to include modules for new file formats, codecs or streaming methods.  There are more than 300 modules in VLC.  VLC also supports highly personalizable skins through the skins2 interface, Winamp 2 and XMMS skins and can play high definition recordings of D-VHS tapes duplicated to a computer using CapDVHS.exe

Related pages
 List of media players
 Comparison of media players
 List of multimedia (audio/video) codecs

References

Other websites 
 Official Website

Free software
Guitar Hero (video game)

Guitar Hero is a music video game, released on November 8, 2005 for the PlayStation 2. The game uses a guitar-shaped controller that allows players to simulate the playing of rock music. Guitar Hero has earned comparisons to Dance Dance Revolution played with a guitar. Despite a high price for the guitar/game bundle, Guitar Hero was very successful and had several sequels; Guitar Hero II and Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock, as well as other games in the music game genre. The game features artists such as David Bowie, Judas Priest, Sum 41 and Deep Purple

2005 video games
PlayStation 2 games
Guitar Hero
Guitar Hero II

Guitar Hero II is a music video game, released for the PlayStation 2 on November 7, 2006 and the Xbox 360 on April 3, 2007. It is the sequel to Guitar Hero. The game features a guitar-shaped controller that allows players to simulate the playing of rock music. Much like the original game, Guitar Hero II was very successful and helped the Guitar Hero series become a cultural phenomenon. The game features artists such as Aerosmith, Nirvana, Foo Fighters, Rage Against the Machine and Guns N' Roses.

2006 video games
PlayStation 2 games
Xbox 360 games
Guitar Hero
PeaZip

PeaZip is an open source, cross-platform, portable data compression, file manager and encryption software, available for Microsoft Windows and Linux.

PeaZip created and can open the "Pea" archive format, made by the same corporation of the archiver. Peazip is written in Free Pascal, using Lazarus. Peazip is under  the GNU Lesser General Public License, PeaZip is free software.

Peazip can change look, like opacity, colors, and icons.

Full support formats 
7Z, 7Z-sfx, BZip2/TBZ, GZip/TGZ, LPAQ1/5, PAQ8F/JD/L/O, PEA, QUAD/BALZ/BCM, split (.001), TAR, WIM, XZ, ZIP

Just extract or reading formats
ACE, ARJ, CAB, CHM, COMPOUND files (MSI, DOC, PPT, XLS...), CPIO, DEB, ISO CD/DVD images, Java archives (JAR, EAR, WAR), LZH, NSIS installers, OpenDocument, PET/PUP (Puppy Linux installers), PAK/PK3/PK4, RAR, RPM, WIM, XPI, Z, ZIPX

References

Related pages
 List of file archivers
 Comparison of file archivers

Other websites 
 PeaZip's official website
 Frequently Asked Questions

Software
Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock

Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock is a music video game, released on October 28, 2007. The game, like Guitar Hero II, was made for PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360, but this time it was also released for PlayStation 3, Nintendo Wii, PC and Mac home computers. The game features a guitar-like controller that simulates the playing of rock music. The game has a number of controllers like microphones and keyboards that can be bought.

There are songs in this game by many bands and singers. Some of these include "Anarchy in the U.K." by the Sex Pistols, "Paint it Black" the Rolling Stones, "Even Flow" by Pearl Jam, "Through the Fire and Flames" by DragonForce, "Before I Forget" by Slipknot, "Story of my Life" by Social Distortion, "My Name is Jonas" by Weezer and "The Number of the Beast" by Iron Maiden.

2007 video games
PlayStation 2 games
Xbox 360 games
Wii games
PlayStation 3 games
Guitar Hero
Volcanic Explosivity Index

In volcanology, the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is the way to measure the strength of a volcanic eruption. The Volcanic Explosivity Index measures how large or strong volcanic eruptions are. The index is a scale of 0 to 8. 0 is very small, and 8 is huge and very rare.

The largest eruption in modern times, the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, was a 5 on the index. The Oruanui eruption of the Taupo Volcano in New Zealand was the world’s largest known eruption in the past 70,000 years was an 8. Another eruption of the Taupo volcano happened about 1,800 years ago. It was the most violent eruption in the world in the last 5,000 years. Mt Tambora was a 7 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index. Supervolcanoes have a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 8; and if the definition is expanded, also include volcanoes with a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 7.

Further reading

Other websites 
 VEI glossary entry  from a USGS website
 How to measure the size of a volcanic eruption , from The Guardian
 The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth, a 2004 article from the Bulletin of Volcanology
 List of Large Holocene Eruptions (VEI > 4) from the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program

Volcanology

he:התפרצות געשית#מדד התפרצות געשית
Lockheed U-2

For the band, see U2 (band).

The U-2 (nicknamed the Dragon Lady) is an espionage fixed-wing aircraft made by Lockheed (now Lockheed Martin). It first flew in 1955 and was introduced in 1957. It flies a lot like a glider. It was made during the Cold War, because the United States needed a way to look at the Soviet military from high up. Taiwan also used it to spy on China.

The United States wanted to keep the purpose of the U-2 secret, but on May 1, 1960, Francis Gary Powers was shot down in his U-2 by a Soviet SAM SA-2 missile. In 1962, Powers was released and traded for captured Soviet spy Rudolf Abel. After this, the SR-71 Blackbird started spying on the Soviet Union, which was faster and harder to see on radar.

The U-2 is still in service even though the design is over 50 years old.

U-2 details (U-2 model) 

The U-2S is 62.99 feet (19.20 meters) long, 104.99 feet (32 meters wide), and is 15.75 feet (4.80 meters) tall. It weighs 14,991 pounds (6,800 kilograms) empty, but when full, it weighs 41,006 pounds (18,600 kilograms). It is powered by one General Electric F118-101 engine with 17,000 pounds (7711.2 kilograms) of thrust. It can go 475 miles per hour (764 kilometers per hour), fly 7,000 miles (11,265 kilometers) without refueling, and can fly upwards of 70,000 feet (21,336 meters), possibly as high as 84,974 feet (25,900 meters).

Related pages
Cold War
Espionage

References 

Cold War
Taiwan
United States Air Force aircraft
U-2
Russell Brand

Russell Edward Brand (born 4 June 1975) is an English comedian, actor, radio host author and activist.

In 2006, he started presenting a radio show, The Russell Brand Show, on BBC Radio 6 Music. In 2007 the show was moved to BBC Radio 2. He was involved in a controversy over a prank phone call with Jonathan Ross in 2008. After this Brand quit his job at the BBC.
He presented Russell Brand's Ponderland in 2007 and 2008. He wrote a book in 2007 about his life, which is called My Booky Wook. In October 2014, he wrote another book called Revolution.

Personal life
Many people notice his unusual fashion sense; his choice of clothing and hairstyle is unique. He has been diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and bipolar disorder. He has had bulimia nervosa and been addicted to crack cocaine, heroin and alcohol. As of March 2013, Brand has not used drugs or alcohol for ten years. From 2006 to 2008, Brand won The Sun's Shagger of the Year award. He has been arrested 12 times. He married Katy Perry in October 2010. He filed for divorce from her in January 2012, which was finalised in July 2012. He dated Jemima Khan from 2013-2014. Russell currently is married to Scottish lifestyle blogger Laura Gallacher, with whom he has a daughter. He lives in Shoreditch, London.

References

Other websites

1975 births
Living people
Actors from Essex
BBC radio presenters
British autobiographers
British columnists
British stand-up comedians
Comedians from Essex
English journalists
English movie actors
English radio personalities
English television actors
English television presenters
Katy Perry
People with bipolar disorder
Television personalities from Essex
Writers from Essex
Cypher

A cipher (or cypher) is an algorithm for performing encryption (coding) or decryption (decoding). It is a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. To encipher or encode is to convert information from plain text into cipher or code. 

In non-technical usage, a 'cipher' often means the same thing as a 'code'; but in cryptography, ciphers are distinguished from codes. One 20th century source gives this explanation: a cipher is "a method in which the basic unit of concealment is the letter. In comparison, a code is a form of concealment in which the basic unit is the word". Late in the century, "codes" in this cryptographic sense became rare. 21st century cryptography mostly encrypts bitstreams.

Codes operated by substituting according to a large codebook which linked a random string of characters or numbers to a word or phrase. For example, "UQJHSE" could be the code for "Proceed to the following coordinates".

A cipher is used to turn the original information ("plaintext") to the encrypted form "ciphertext". The ciphertext message contains all the information of the plaintext message, but cannot be read by human or computer without the proper mechanism to decrypt it.
To encipher or decipher, you need the "key". In encryption, a key specifies the particular transformation of plaintext into ciphertext, or vice versa during decryption.

By type of key used ciphers are divided into:
 symmetric key algorithms (private-key cryptography): the same key is used for encryption and decryption, and
 asymmetric key algorithms (public-key cryptography): two different keys are used for encryption and decryption.

The word cipher in French is cifre and in Medieval Latin cifra, from the Arabic sifr, meaning 'zero'. The first known English use of zero was in 1598.

Related pages 
Code
Encryption
Key (cryptography)
Block cipher
Product cipher
Ciphertext
Ciphertext-only attack

References 

Cryptography
Chief Justice of the United States

The Chief Justice of the United States is the senior judge of the Supreme Court of the United States.

They have no more powers than any of the other judges of the Supreme Court, who are called Associate Justices. The Chief Justice is responsible for organizing the Court's schedules and administration.

By tradition, the Chief Justice administers the oath of office to the President of the United States. The only time this has not happened is when Calvin Coolidge became president.

List of chief justices

Notes
Sturmabteilung

The Sturmabteilung (; often shortened to SA) was a paramilitary group for the German Nazi Party. Their leader was Ernst Röhm. The group was important in helping Adolf Hitler gain power in the 1930s. 

In English, they are often called the Stormtroopers or the Brownshirts, while Sturmabteilung literally translates to " detachment" or "assault section". They wore a brown uniform, similar to the black uniform worn by Mussolini's Blackshirts.

The word Sturmabteilung was used before the founding of the Nazi Party in 1919.  It originally comes from the specialized assault troops used by Germany in World War I using Hutier infiltration tactics.

The SA played a key role in Adolf Hitler's rise to power in the 1930s. In 1934, however, he abolished the organization and sent the Schutzstaffel to arrest and kill their leaders.

Related pages
Night of the Long Knives
Ernst Röhm

Other websites 

The night of long knives 

1919 establishments in Europe
 
1910s establishments in Germany
Green card

Green Card or Permanent Resident Card is an identification card that proves that someone who is not a United States citizen is a permanent resident of the United States. The holder of the card is allowed to live, work and study in the United States on a permanent basis.

Overview 
Most people get Green Cards after being sponsored by a family member, such as a wife or husband, or by an employer that is located in the United States. Other people may become permanent residents through refugee or asylum programs, or similar programs designed to protect their human rights. In some cases, a person may be allowed to file for their own Green Card without a sponsor.

After five years of legal permanent residency within the United States, the holder of the card is eligible to become a U.S. Citizen.

References

Identification documents
United States
Council of Chalcedon

The Council of Chalcedon was an ecumenical council that took place from October 8 to November 1, 451, at Chalcedon (a city of Bithynia in Asia Minor). Chalcedon is today part of the city of Istanbul on the Asian side of the Bosphorus.

Confession of Chalcedon 

The most comprehensive confession of the Person of Christ was made at the Council of Chalcedon in 451:

Result 
For many people, these definitions were too dogmatic; The Oriental Orthodox Churches split from the main church (that would later become the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Church).

Related pages
 Ecumenical council

Other websites 
 Catholic Encyclopedia: Council of Chalcedon
 Catholic Encyclopedia: Robber Council of Ephesus
 Coptic interpretations of the Fourth Ecumenical Council
Council of Ephesus

Chalcedon
451
Chalcedon

For the Ecumenical Council of 451, see Council of Chalcedon.

Chalcedon (Χαλκηδών, sometimes transliterated as Chalkedon) was an ancient maritime town of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, almost directly opposite Byzantium, south of Scutari (modern Üsküdar). Today, in modern Turkish, Chalcedon is called Kadıköy and a district of Istanbul, Turkey.

Greek mythology
Ancient Greece
Bithynia

Bithynia was an old kingdom of a Roman province in the northwest of Asia Minor. It was at the coast of the Black Sea. It was named after the Bithyni, a tribe that moved there from Thrace. It was an important territory for the Roman empire. Bithynia was also the site of early Christian activities in the first and second centuries AD.

References

Further reading 
 Stanley Jonathon Storey, Bithynia: history and administration to the time of Pliny the Younger (Ottawa, National Library of Canada, 1998) 

Byzantine Empire
Kadıköy

Kadıköy is a large district on the Anatolian side of İstanbul, Turkey. It is on the shore of the Sea of Marmara. It faces the historic city centre on the European side of the Bosporus. Kadıköy was known as Chalcedon in ancient history.

Other websites 

 Kadıköy Municipality 

Districts in Istanbul
Bosporus

The Bosporus or Bosphorus is a strait that forms part of the boundary between the European part of Turkey and its Asian part (Anatolia). It connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara. It is about 30 km long, with a maximum width of 3,700 metres at the northern entrance, and a minimum width of 700 metres between Kandilli and Aşiyan; and 750 metres between Anadoluhisarı and Rumelihisarı. The depth varies from 36 to 124 metres in midstream.

The shores of the strait are heavily populated as Istanbul is nearby. Three bridges and one tunnel cross the strait.

References

Other websites 

  High Resolution Pictures of Bosphorus
  Google Maps link to Bosphorus

Geography of Turkey
Straits
Strait

A strait is a narrow channel of water between two land areas. A strait connects two bodies of water. Straits often connect two seas. Many straits are economically and strategically important. Straits may be part of important shipping routes. So, someone who controls a strait can control the shipping. Wars have been fought to control them. Although rivers and canals often connect two large lakes or a lake and a sea, they are not straits. Straits are much larger and wider and do not have water running in a single direction.

Well-known straits 
Well-known straits in the world are:
 Bosporus and the Dardanelles, which connect the Mediterranean and the Black Sea
 Strait of Dover, between England and France, which connects the North Sea with the English Channel
 Strait of Gibraltar, the only natural passage between the World Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea
 Bering Strait between Alaska and Siberia, which connects the Pacific and Arctic Oceans
 Strait of Magellan, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans north of Tierra del Fuego
 Palk strait, between India and Sri Lanka, the location of Ram Sethu and rich in natural resources
 Strait of Hormuz connecting the Persian Gulf and the Oman Sea, through which Persian Gulf petroleum is shipped to the world
 Strait of Malacca, which separates the Malay Peninsula from Sumatra, and connects the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea. (It is one of the highest-volume shipping lanes in the world.)
 Bass Strait, which is between mainland Australia and Tasmania, and connects the Indian Ocean with the Pacific Ocean.
 Torres Strait which is between Australia and New Guinea.
 Cook Strait, between New Zealand's North and South Islands, and connects the Tasman Sea and the South Pacific Ocean.

Related pages

Canal
Channel
Channel

In a general sense channel means connection.

In a more specific sense it may mean:

In context with water:  
 a connection between two bodies of water
 Canal, a manmade water channel
 English Channel, the part of the Atlantic Ocean that separates Great Britain from northern France

In other context:
 Television channel, a television station or its cable/satellite counterpart
 Audio channel, the track or location from where the sound comes
 Channel (marketing), the distribution "channel" for selling and delivering a product or service to a company's customers
 Active Channel, a website type which was introduced by Internet Explorer 4.0 in 1997
 Ion channel, a channel in a plasma membrane which helps certain ions to enter/exit a biological cell

Related pages
Chanel, a Parisian fashion house
Strait of Dover

The Strait of Dover or Dover Strait is the strait at the narrowest part of the English Channel.

The strait is at the east end of the English Channel, where it joins the North Sea. Its width is the shortest distance between France and England. On a clear day, it is possible to see the coastline on the other side and the buildings on the shore without the help of binoculars.

The shortest distance across the strait is from the South Foreland, some 6 km (4 mi) north-east of Dover in the county of Kent, England, to Cap Gris Nez, a cape near Calais in the département of Pas-de-Calais, France. Between these two points – the most popular route for cross-channel swimmers – the distance is just 33 km (20 mi).

Notes

Other websites 
  Channel Navigation Information Service
 Channel Swimming & Piloting Federation 
 Channel Swimming Association
 Depth Chart showing straits and former course of Rhine 

Dover
Bodies of water of Europe
Geography of France
Geography of the United Kingdom
Hauts-de-France
South East England
Kent
SA

SA is an abbreviation. It can stand for different things.

Countries and territories 
It can refer to Schengen Area
It is the official two letter shorthand for Saudi Arabia.
It is the official state abbreviation for South Australia.
It is used to mean Saline County, Kansas
It is sometimes used to refer to South Africa. The official two letter shorthand for that country is ZA.
It is used to informally refer to South America.

Cities 
It is used to mean San Antonio, Texas
It is used to mean San Andreas, California
It is used to mean St. Albans, Hertfordshire

Organizations 

It is used to mean the Sturmabteilung, during its existence from 1919 to 1945.
It can refer to S.A. (corporation). This is a special type of company.
The Pigeon Detectives

The Pigeon Detectives are an English band who originated from Rothwell in Leeds, they formed in 2002. They have received praise by such well known DJs as Steve Lamacq and Jo Whiley, and performed at the Reading and Leeds Festivals in 2006, where they were "the band most likely to leap to the main stage in 2007” in an issue of the NME.

They supported Dirty Pretty Things whilst they toured in spring 2006. In early November 2006 they supported The Kaiser Chiefs, who are known to be admirers of the band. On 8 July 2007, they played on the Radio 1 NME Stage in front of thousands of people at T in the Park. The performance was televised and shown later that day on BBC3 television channel.

Current members
 Matt Bowman (vocals)
 Oliver Main (lead guitar)
 Ryan Wilson (rhythm guitar)
 Dave Best (bass)
 Jimmi Naylor (drums)

Discography

Singles

References

Other websites
 Official site
 Dance to the Radio record label
 The Pigeon Detectives - Leeds Music Scene
 The band at MySpace
 The Pigeon Detectives live images on shootingmusic
 The band  at Drowned in Sound
 Last.fm playbacks, samples and tunes

English rock bands
English punk bands
Indie rock bands
Hirschaid

Hirschaid is the biggest municipality in the district of Bamberg. About 11,650 people live there. The mayor is Andreas Schlund.

References

Other websites

Bamberg (district)
Julián Marías

Julián Marías Aguilera (June 17, 1914 – December 15, 2005) was a Spanish philosopher. He is the author of History of Philosophy (1941) written in Spanish on the subject of the history of philosophy.  He was a pupil of the Spanish philosopher José Ortega y Gasset.

Spanish philosophers
2005 deaths
1914 births
Spanish writers
Static random-access memory

Static random-access memory (SRAM) is a type of RAM that keeps data that is fed to it without having to be refreshed over and over again. 

Both DRAM and SRAM store information in binary by using very small electronic components. Both are volatile (need electric current flowing to keep the negative and positive charged components stay that way).

One difference is that SRAM are also used for specific applications within the PC, where their good points outweigh their bad points compared to DRAM.

Like other semiconductor chips, SRAM chips are made by photolithography. 

For SRAM, each bit is composed of between four and six transistors, forming a flip-flop to hold information. This complexity is what makes SRAM bigger and more expensive than DRAM. In DRAM each bit has only one transistor plus a capacitor acting like a miniature rechargeable battery).

Good differences
 SRAM does not need to be refreshed.
 Changing Static RAM is faster than DRAM.

Bad differences
 SRAM is more expensive than DRAM. 
 SRAMs take up more space and electricity.

Other websites 
 Uses of SRAM by Intel Corp.

Computer memory
Damnation

In Western Christian belief, damnation to hell is the punishment of God for persons who were sinners.

In Eastern Christian traditions (Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy), as well as some Western traditions, it is seen as a state of separation from God, a state into which all humans are born but against which Christ is the "Mediator" and "Great Physician".

Further reading
The Justice of God in the Damnation of Sinners Jonathan Edwards, Diggory Press,

Related pages
 Afterlife
 Hell

Profanity
Afterlife
Chester Bennington

Chester Charles Bennington (March 20, 1976 – July 20, 2017) was an American singer. He was the lead singer for  Linkin Park.

Biography

Early years
Bennington was born in Phoenix, Arizona, United States. He was interested in music since he was young and he liked mostly Depeche Mode and Stone Temple Pilots. His parents separated in the late 1980s, and was raised by his father. Later he had problems with drugs. Before starting his musical career, he worked at a Burger King restaurant.

Professional music career
At the beginning he was a vocalist in a grunge band called Grey Daze. He left Grey Daze in 1998. After that, the vice president of A&R at Zomba Music in Los Angeles, offered Bennington an audition with Linkin Park. Bennington went to California and joined the band. Their name was “Hybrid Theory”. The other vocalist was Mike Shinoda. After some rejections, Jeff Blue operated to help the band sign with Warner Bros. Records.

In spite of the success in the early 2000s, Bennington has had personal problems outside of the public interest.

Personal life
Bennington had a son in 1996 by Elka Brand and in 2006 adopted her other son who was born in 1997. In 1996 Bennington married Samantha Marie Olit. Their child was born in 2002. The couple divorced in 2005. In 2006, Bennington married Talinda Bentley, a former Playboy model. He had three children with Bentley, a son born in 2006, and twin daughters born in 2011.

Death
Bennington committed suicide by hanging himself on July 20, 2017 at his home in Palos Verdes Estates, California at the age of 41, the day on what would have been Chris Cornell's 53rd birthday who also committed suicide.

References

Other websites
Linkin Park official website

1976 births
2017 deaths
American rock singers
Linkin Park
Musicians who committed suicide
Singers from Phoenix, Arizona
Suicide in 2017
Suicides by hanging in the United States
Suicides in California
Writers from Phoenix, Arizona