cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Autotroph

An autotroph (from Greek autos = self and trophe = nutrition) is an organism that makes organic compounds from simple molecules.

Uses 
Autotrophs are needed in every food chain in all ecosystems. They take energy from the environment (sun light or inorganic sources) and use it to make other organic molecules that are used to carry out various biological functions such as cell growth or repairing broken tissue.

Types 
Plants and other organisms that carry out photosynthesis are phototrophs (or photoautotrophs). Bacteria that use inorganic compounds like hydrogen sulfide, phosphorus or iron are called chemoautotrophs. Other organisms, called heterotrophs, eat autotrophs. 

There are some species that need organic compounds as a source of food, but are able to use light as a source of energy. These are not autotrophic, but heterotrophic. A mixotroph is a (micro)organism that can use a mix of different sources of energy and carbon. 

Ecology
Botany
Air France

Air France is one of the largest airlines in the world. It is based in France. It is owned by Air France-KLM. Before it merged with KLM, it employed 71,654 people. Its headquarters are at Charles de Gaulle International Airport near Paris.

History 
The airline can be traced back to 1933, when four other French airlines were combined to create Air France.  Air France hired its first flight attendants in 1946.  The airline started flying between Paris and New York City on July 1, 1946. In 1957, the airline bought its first jet aircraft.  Air France was one of 4 airlines that flew the Concorde.  It used it from 1976 until 2003. In 1988, the airline became the first to fly the Airbus A320.  In 2003, KLM Royal Dutch Airlines and Air France announced they were going to be combining. The combination ended in 2004.  As of 2016, Air France is going through many financial problems.

Fleets

Gallery

References 

1930s establishments in France
1933 establishments
Airlines of France
Air Dolomiti

Air Dolomiti L.A.R.E. S.p.A is a regional airline from Verona in Italy. It is named after a section of the Alps known as The Dolomites. It is part of Lufthansa Regional connecting medium-size Italian airports to other European cities through Munich and Frankfurt am Main airports. The airline employs 550 people.

Airlines of Europe
Transport companies of Italy
Verona
Rocky Marciano

Rocco Francis Marchegiano, better known as Rocky Marciano (September 1, 1923 – August 31, 1969), was an American boxer. Marciano was the World Heavyweight Boxing Champion from 9/23/1952 until 11/30/1956. He had the shortest reach of any heavyweight champion at only 68 inches (173 cm). He was also short for a champion, standing 5'11" (180.3 cm). Marciano is the only heavyweight champion in professional boxing history who never lost or drew (tied) in a professional match. He won 43 fights by a way of knockout or technical knockout, an 87.76% knockout rate.

Early life 
His parents were Italian immigrants.

Professional career 
Before becoming a professional fighter, Marciano had an amateur record of 11-3. Marciano's first professional fight was in March 1947. He won the championship from Jersey Joe Walcott on September 23, 1952.

Marciano was named fighter of the year by Ring Magazine three times. His three championship fights between 1952-54 were named fights of the year by that magazine. Marciano's last title fight was against Archie Moore on September 21, 1955. Marciano was knocked down in the fight, but he got up and knocked out Moore in the 9th round. Marciano announced his retirement in a press conference on April 27, 1956.

Retirement 
Marciano considered a comeback in 1959 when Ingemar Johansson won the heavyweight championship from Floyd Patterson on June 26, 1959. However, Floyd Patterson's contract demanded a rematch with Ingemar within one year. After a period in training and thinking about a comeback, Marciano decided against it and never seriously considered a comeback again.

Death 
In 1969, on the eve of his 46th birthday, Marciano was a passenger in a small private plane, a Cessna 172, headed to Des Moines, Iowa. It was at night and bad weather set in. The pilot tried to land the plane on a small airfield outside Newton, Iowa, but the plane hit a tree two miles short of the runway. The passengers died almost instantly. He is entombed in a crypt at Forest Lawn Memorial Cemetery in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. His widow, who died exactly five years after him at the age of 46, is entombed next to him.

References

Other websites 
 Redemption: The Life and Death of Rocky Marciano
 Rocky Marciano Biography
 Official Record 
 Official Website 
 
 Greatest Knock out ever, according to espn poll
 Rocky Marciano's greatest fights

1923 births
1969 deaths
American boxers
Aviation deaths in the United States
Sportspeople from Massachusetts
Exponentiation by squaring

Exponentiating by squaring is an algorithm. It is used for quickly working out large integer powers of a number. It is also known as the square-and-multiply algorithm or binary exponentiation. It uses the binary expansion of the exponent. It is of quite general use, for example in modular arithmetic. 

The algorithm is believed to have first been documented in the Sanskrit book Chandah-sûtra, about 200 BC.

Squaring algorithm

The following recursive algorithm computes xn for a positive integer n where n > 0:

This algorithm is much faster than the ordinary method to compute such a value. Multiplying x by itself, n operations are needed to calculate x n. With the method shown above, only log2(n) operations are needed. 

Algorithms
Coprime

In mathematics, two integers (a and b) are co-prime (or relatively prime) if they share no common factors. This is sometimes written as . In other words, there is no number, other than 1, that divides both a and b evenly. In which case, the greatest common divisor (GCD, or highest common factor) of these numbers is 1.

As an example, 6 and 35 are coprime, because the factors of 6, 2 and 3, do not divide 35 evenly. On the other hand, 6 and 27 are not coprime, because 3 divides both 6 and 27. Another example is 4 and 5:
4 = 2*2*1; 
5 = 5*1 (Prime). The only common factor is 1, so they are coprime.

On the other hand, 10 and 5:
10 = 5*2 
5 = 5*1 (Prime). The common factors are 5 and 1, so they are not coprime.

Prime numbers are always coprime to each other.

 Any two consecutive integers are always coprime.
 Sum of any two coprime numbers is always coprime to their product.
 1 is trivially coprime with all numbers.
 if out of two numbers, any one number is a prime number while the other number is not a multiple of first one, then both are coprime.
 This is not applicable to negative numbers

Related pages 

 Chinese remainder theorem
 Euler's totient function
 Euler's totient theorem

References 

Mathematics
Euler's totient function

In number theory, the totient of a positive integer n is the number of positive integers smaller than n which are coprime to n (they share no factors except 1). It is often written as .

For example, , because there are four numbers (1, 3, 5 and 7) which do not share any factors with 8.
The function  used here is the totient function, usually called the Euler totient or Euler's totient, after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler, who studied it.
The totient function is also called Euler's phi function or simply the phi function, since the Greek letter Phi () is so commonly used for it. The cototient of n is defined as .

The totient function is important mainly because it gives the size of the multiplicative group of integers modulo n. More precisely,  is the order of the group of units of the ring . This fact, together with Lagrange's theorem, provides a proof for Euler's theorem. 

A common use of the totient function is in the RSA algorithm. The RSA algorithm is a popular method of encryption used worldwide.

For any prime number, p, .

Related pages 

 Euler's totient theorem

References 
  

Number theory
Mathematical theorems
Hollywood, Florida

Hollywood is a city in Broward County in Florida in the United States.  In 2005 there were 145,629 people living in Hollywood, based on United States Census Bureau figures. Joseph W. Young, Jr. first came to south Florida in 1920 from the state of Washington. He had also lived in California and liked what he had seen of Hollywood, California and the burgeoning movie industry in that state. He dreamed of creating a motion picture industry on the east coast, and founded Hollywood, Florida in 1920.

Young originally named his town "Hollywood by the Sea".

Young's own Mediterranean styled mansion was built in 1921 and still stands at 1055 Hollywood Boulevard, the main thoroughfare from downtown Hollywood to Hollywood Beach. The mansion is on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.

Geography 
Hollywood is located on the coastal plain along the Atlantic Ocean in the south-eastern part of the United States, also of Florida. It is bordered by Pembroke Pines, Fort Lauderdale and Hialeah.

Climate 
In Hollywood, the summers are long, hot, oppressive, wet, and mostly cloudy and the winters are short, comfortable, humid, windy, and mostly clear. Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from 61 °F to 89 °F and is rarely below 48 °F or above 92 °F.

References

Other websites 

 City of Hollywood official website
 Hollywood Historical Society
Hollywood-Specific Alcohol Use Stats

Cities in Florida
Magnetic stripe card

A Magnetic stripe card is a plastic card which has a magnetic stripe on it. Different kinds of information can be stored on the magnetic stripe. Such stripes are usually made of small particles of iron (or another metal). Information is stored by changing the magnetism of the particles, as with magnetic tape
Today such cards are widely used for:
 Banking (debit or credit cards)
 Tickets issued for transportation or in parking lots.
 Keys in hotels and other buildings
 Systems to track working hours in companies
There are different ways in which the data is stored on the card. But all of them are read in much the same way, by "swiping" (sliding the card through a slot) on a machine called a reader. These readers can be separate from or built into other machines such as a payment terminal in a cash register or point of sale system.

Similar cards, which can also do calculations themselves, are called smart cards.

Details 
The standard ISO 7811 specifies the format in which information is stored on these cards. A magnetic stripe holds about 1024 bits of information, which is arranged in three tracks. The first track holds 76 alphanumeric characters, encoded in 7 bit per character. The two other tracks  hold 37 and 104 numeric characters, encoded with 5 bits per character. The first two tracks can only be read, the third track can also be written to. 

Cards that are used for banking used to store the PIN as a hash value on the magnetic stripe. Today, the ATM calculates the hash value, and transmits it to the server of the bank, which does the comparison. Storing the PIN in the ATM is no longer allowed.

In many payment cards around the world, magnetic stripes are being replaced with a more secure technology called EMV. Most of these cards, though, still have magnetic stripes to be used in places which do not yet work with EMV.

References

Other websites
 Magnetic Stripe Formats
 A Brief History of Reprogrammable Card Technology (2012)   

Identification documents
Magnetism
Authentication methods
Sápmi

Sápmi (as its name is in Northern Sami languge), in English commonly known as Lapland (), is the most northern part of Fennoscandia. Fennoscandia is a peninsula in northern Europe.

The area of Lapland is shared between four countries: Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. In Norway, as far south ased Hedmark county, there are areas with many Sami people.

The original people of Lapland are the Sami people. The Sami people are also called Lapps. They are now a minority there.

The weather of Lapland is cold. Summer is short. There are big hills with no trees on top of them. Reindeer live in Lapland. You can see northern lights in the sky.

Related pages 
 Finnish Lapland
 Swedish Lapland

References
Mind map

A mind map is a drawing used to show words, ideas, tasks or other things. Everything is written around a word or idea in the middle. This word or idea is the main topic of the mind map, and the things linked to it are related to the main idea. It is used to store and order ideas, and is very useful for study, ordering things, solving problems, and making choices.

Other websites 

Mindmapping for offices, Website 

Diagrams
Learning

fi:Käsitekartta
Dia

Dia is open source software that is used to make diagrams. It lets people draw many different types of technical drawings, for example flow charts and circuit diagrams. Technical diagrams are needed when doing work in subjects such as electronics and resistant materials. A flow chart can also be used to show how to plan out how to solve a problem, for example, how to bake a cake.

Other websites 
Dia Project Homepage
Free Software Magazine 
Addictive Tips

Free software
Talent

A talent (or gift, or aptitude) is the skill that someone has to do something very well that people usually like and that is difficult. Someone who has talent is called talented. Talented people may have more than one talent. Talent is sometimes learned, but in some cases is natural born. People often value talents that are entertaining, beautiful, or impressive for a different reason like Music, dancing, acting or sports.

Even if someone has talent they may still have to work very hard if they want to hone it well. Some people become quite good at something even if they do not have much talent, but only if they are willing to work very hard at the skill for a period of time.

The word talent used to mean a weight and a piece of money in Assyria, Greece and Rome. This is the sense in which it is used in the Bible in the parable of the five talents (Matthew, xxv, 14-30).

Other page 
 Gifted education
 Mensa

Psychology
Giftedness
Human skills
Cathay Pacific

Cathay Pacific Limited is an airline based in Hong Kong. It transports passengers and cargo to over 120 cities world-wide. Its main base and hub is at Hong Kong International Airport. It is one of the six airlines in the world to get a five star rating from Skytrax. It won "Airline of the Year" award from Skytrax in 2003, 2005 and 2009. Its sister airline is Dragonair which serves destinations in mainland China and Asia.

Transport in Hong Kong
Airlines of Asia
Talent (measurement)

A talent (Latin: talentum, from Ancient Greek:  "scale, balance") is an ancient unit of mass. It corresponded generally to the mass of water in the volume of an amphora, i.e. a one-foot cube.

The Babylonians and Sumerians had a system in which there were 60 shekels in a mina and 60 minas in a talent (in Ancient Greece one talent was 26 kg of silver). The Roman talent consisted of 100 libra (pounds) which were smaller in magnitude than the mina.

When used as a measure of money, it refers to a talent-weight of gold or of silver. The gold talent is reported as weighing roughly the same as a person, and so perhaps 50 kg (>110 lb avoirdupois). Some authorities say that the talent typically weighed about 33 kg (>72 lb) varying from 20 to 40 kg. In June, 2018, the international price of gold was about US $41,155.69 per kilogram. One gram costs about $38. At this price, a talent (33 kg) would be worth about $1,400,116.57. Similarly, in February 2016, the price of silver was about $15 per troy ounce or about 50 cents per gram, so a 33 kg silver talent would be worth about $16,500. Thus when we read that King Auletes of Egypt paid Gaius Julius Caesar the sum of 6,000 talents of gold to grant him the status of a "Friend and Ally of the Roman People," this amount would be worth about $8,400,000,000 USD today! These estimates are only rough values, because they are based on modern estimates.The value of silver in comparison to gold drastically changed. This is because of the output of the Spanish silver mines in the New World. In ancient times the same amount of silver was often worth more than gold. The estimates do not account for the less technical mining ability of the time, nor that there were still native deposits available. Later in Roman history, during the medieval Byzantine period, the emperor Basil II was said to have stockpiled the legendary amount of 200,000 talents of gold which, in modern terms, would be worth approximately $280,023,314,760 USD. At any rate, he did save enough money that the Byzantine government was able to remit all taxes paid during the final two years of his reign.

Another way to calculate the modern equivalent to a talent is from its use in estimating military pay. During the Peloponnesian war in Ancient Greece, a talent was the amount of silver needed to pay the crew of a trireme for one month. Hellenistic mercenaries were commonly paid one drachma for every day of service, which was a good salary in the post-Alexander (III) days. 6,000 drachma made a talent.

The talent as a unit of coinage is mentioned in the New Testament in Jesus' parable of the talents. One talent was an incredible amount of money.

Old units of measurement
Units of mass
Phototroph

Phototrophs (photo = light, troph = nutrition) or photoautotrophs are organisms which carry out photosynthesis. 

With their plastids and the help of energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are converted into sugar by photosynthesis. Sugar is then converted into other organic molecules which can be used in cellular functions. Such a function might be, for example, respiration. 

Ecology
Botany
File system

A File system (or filesystem) is a way of storing all data on a data storage device. The data is usually organized in computer files in directories. Below the file system there is usually a physical device where the files are stored.  This might be a hard disk, USB flash drive, compact disc, or DVD. The file system might also talk to a remote server over a network where the file is stored. The file system might also only use RAM to store the files. 

The underlying storage mechanism usually has no concept of a file. A hard disk knows of disk blocks, which are numbered in a certain way. These disk blocks contain binary data (usually: large numbers). 

The file system does the translation between the large numbers, and the view the users see, that is that of files, organized in a certain way.

More recently, concepts from databases have been used to develop file systems. That way, there are two different kinds of data:
Data that holds the files
Data that is used to describe what state the files are in. This is called metadata.
It then becomes possible to always keep the file system in a consistent state. With databases, this is known as ACID. That way, an operation on a file is either done, or it is not done. There are however, no states in between. The file being written to the filesystem is no longer visible. This is usually done using transactions. But with filesystems, it is called journaling.

software
Systems
David II of Scotland

David II (5 March 1324 – 22 February 1371) King of Scots, son of King Robert the Bruce by his second wife, Elizabeth de Burgh (d. 1327), was born at Dunfermline Palace, Fife.

He was married on 17 July 1328, aged only four, to Joan of the Tower (d. 1362), daughter of Edward II of England and Isabella of France. Joan was only seven years old.

At the age of five, David became King of Scotland after the death of his father on 7 June 1329. He was crowned at Scone in November 1331. 

Edward Balliol, with support from Edward III of England fought against David, so that he could become king. He defeated David at the Battle of Dupplin on 12 August 1332. Balliol was crowned king, and in July 1333, the nine year old David and his queen were sent to France for their safety. In June 1341 he came back and began to rule. In 1346 he invaded England, but was defeated and taken prisoner at the Battle of Neville's Cross on 17 October 1346, and remained in England for eleven years, living mainly in London and at Odiham in Hampshire. In October 1357 he was allowed to go back to Scotland for a payment of 100,000 marks. The money was never paid completely. 
In 1371 David died in Edinburgh Castle.

References

 Andrew of Wyntoun, The orygynale cronykil of Scotland, edited by D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872–1879)
 John of Fordun, Chronica gentis Scotorum, edited by W. F. Skene (Edinburgh, 1871–1872)
 J. H. Burton, History of Scotland, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1905)
 Andrew Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1900)

Further reading
 Michael Brown, The Wars of Scotland, 1214–1371. The New Edinburgh History of Scotland, volume 4. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2004.
 Ranald Nicholson, Scotland. The Later Middle Ages. Edinburgh: Mercat Press, 1975.
 Michael Penman, David II, 1329–71: The Bruce Dynasty in Scotland. East Linton: Tuckwell Press, 2003.

1324 births
1371 deaths
Kings and Queens of Scotland
Aurora

An aurora, also called polar light, northern light or southern light, is a natural light display in the sky. They are usually seen in the high latitudes (Arctic and Antarctic) regions. Auroras are produced when the Earth's magnetosphere is disturbed by the solar wind.

 

An aurora around the North Pole is called the Aurora borealis or 'northern lights'. Around the South Pole it is the Aurora australis or 'dawn of the south' or 'southern lights'. It can be seen from long distances, stretching in the sky many hundreds of miles.

Auroras can happen at any time, however they can only be seen at night because their light is not as strong as the light of day. Faint stars can even be seen through the aurora.

Many legends are associated with the aurora in all countries where this phenomenon regularly occurs.

How it happens 
An aurora occurs when the Sun sends off small particles into space. These particles are mainly electrons, with charge and energy, which means they contribute to electricity. Earth has a protective shield of energy around it. This is called the "magnetic field" and forms an elongated sphere around the Earth called the "magnetosphere". The Earth’s magnetic field keeps off most of the solar wind. 

At high-latitude areas (polar areas), the magnetic field is vertical. It does not keep off particles of the solar wind which can come from the magnetosphere and hit the particles of the air (Earth's atmosphere). When they hit, the atmosphere is heated and excited and the excess energy gets away, a phenomenon which we see as moving lights in the sky above 100 km altitude typically. An aurora can be especially bright following a solar flare and coronal mass ejection (CME), when the charged particles rip through the electromagnetic field because of their power.

On other planets 

Auroral phenomena have been observed on other planets that have a magnetic field, such as Jupiter, and Saturn. It is believed to be a widespread phenomenon in the Solar System and beyond.

References 

Earth sciences
Meteorology
Nordic countries

Nordic countries are a group of countries in Northern Europe. These countries include Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Sweden, Norway, and the territories of Svalbard, the Aland Islands and the Faroe Islands. Though often confused as such, Scandinavia is not equivalent to the Nordic countries. Scandinavia is a peninsula while the Nordic countries are recognized states. Sweden and Norway (and a small part of Finland) rest on the Scandinavian peninsula. Scandinavia and Finland together belong to a larger peninsula, Fennoscandia.  Finns speak a non-Germanic language.

Nordic countries have similar state, law and culture. Historically, Nordic countries have maintained close connections. Nordic countries are primarily socialist democracies. Nordic countries have some political co-operation, such as the Nordic council. Cooperation with a larger group, the European Union, makes the Nordic cooperation even smaller.

Nordic countries have long, cold winters with warm days in the summer, but only a small part of Northern Norway and approximately half of Iceland is arctic, although Iceland lies below the Arctic Circle except for one small island.

References
Aurora (mythology)

The phenomena that can be seen in the atmosphere is at Aurora

Aurora was the ancient Roman equivalent of Eos. Eos was the ancient Greek goddess of the dawn. Aurora is the Latin word for dawn.

Aurora renews herself every morning at dawn and flies across the sky. She announces the morning's arrival. She has a brother and a sister. Her brother is the sun, and her sister is the moon. She also has many husbands and four sons, one for each cardinal direction: North, East, South, and West.

Aurora is comparable to Eos in Greek mythology and to Ushas in Hindu mythology.

One of her lovers was Tithonus. Aurora asked Zeus to grant immortality to Tithonus. However, she failed to ask him for eternal youth. As a result, Tithonus ended up aging eternally. 

In Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (i.i) Montague says of his lovesick son Romeo
But all so soon as the all-cheering sunShould in the farthest east begin to draw
The shady curtains from Aurora's bed,Away from the light steals home my heavy son...In the poem "Tithonus" by Lord Alfred Tennyson, Aurora is described as folllows:Once more the old mysterious glimmer steals
From thy pure brows, and from thy shoulders pure,
And bosom beating with a heart renewed.
Thy cheek begins to redden through the gloom,Thy sweet eyes brighten slowly close to mine,
Ere yet they blind the stars, and the wild teamWhich love thee, yearning for thy yoke, arise,
And shake the darkness from their loosened manes,And beat the twilight into flakes of fire.''

The asteroid 94 Aurora was named after her.

Other websites 
 Aurora in Encyclopædia Mythica 

Roman gods and goddesses
Väinämöinen

Väinämöinen is an important person in Finnish mythology. He was a wise man and he knew magic. He was a hero and had many adventures.

Väinämöinen was also a god. As such, he was worshipped.

Magic of Väinämöinen was in his songs. When he sings hills shake and water moves. He sings his enemy, Joukahainen, to sink in swamp.

Väinämöinen was bornt before Earth. He was floating in the sea. He was born a grown man. Her mother, Ilmatar got pregnant by the water and wind and carried her son for 30 years. A bird (Sotka) made a nest on Ilmatar´s knee and when the bird hatched her eggs (six of them made of iron, one pure gold), it burned Ilmatar´s knee and finally Ilmatar moved her knee and all the eggs flew into the sky and on the earth and were broken. From those pieces the Earth and sky, the stars, The sun and the moon were born.

Finnish mythology
Phosphate

A phosphate is a salt of phosphoric acid. Phosphates are important in biochemistry.
Phosphates have the formula PO43- and a molar mass of 94.973 g/mol. An example of a phosphate is sodium phosphate. Three different types of phosphates are known.  They are orthophosphate, PO43-; metaphosphate, PO32-; and pyrophosphate, P2O73-. They have a combining power of 3.

Structure 
Phosphates are made of one phosphorus atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms. 
Many phosphates do not dissolve in water.

Sources

Phosphorus compounds
Karelia

Karelia is an area in eastern Fennoscandia. It is to the east from where Finnish people live. There are many opinions about what places exactly belong to Karelia.

Most of Karelia belongs to Russia today. Small parts of Karelia belong to Finland. On the Russian side of Karelia is the Republic of Karelia. On the Finnish side are the provinces of North Karelia and South Karelia.

The original people of Karelia are Karelians. Karelian people speak Karelian, a Finnic language very close to Finnish. Karelians knew many old poems. Many poems of the Finnish book Kalevala are from the Karelians. Today in the Republic of Karelia, Karelians are a minority and Russians are a majority. Some people fear Karelian culture and language will die out.

Most of Karelia was part of Finland until the Soviet Union took it in the Winter War. East Karelia was not. To make peace after World War II, Finland had to give most of Karelia to the Soviet Union. After peace, many people from the Soviet Union went to live in Karelia.

History of Russia
History of Finland
Kalevala

Kalevala is the Finnish national epic. This means it is a book that is very important to Finnish people.

Kalevala has many stories and folklores in it. The stories of Kalevala are poems that are very old. Long ago, people sang these poems. The poems have a unique metre that is not known outside Finnic languages. There are many themes in these stories from different times in the past. The oldest themes are from the stone age. Many of the poems are collected from Karelia and areas nearby.

Heroes have adventures in these stories. The most important heroes are Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen, Lemminkäinen and Kullervo. The enemies of heroes are Louhi and Joukahainen. Many stories in Kalevala are about two countries fighting each other. These countries are the land of Kalevala and land of Pohjola. The Land of Kalevala is the land of Heroes. Pohjola is the land of enemies. Pohjola is an evil and cold place somewhere far north.

Elias Lönnrot was a man who collected these poems and made a book of them. Kalevala has been translated into many languages. There is also an English Kalevala.

Finnish mythology
Plant pathology

Plant pathology, or phytopathology, is the study of plant diseases. Like animals, plants can get infected and damaged by viruses, bacteria and fungi.

It includes not only the harm done by pathogens (infectious organisms), but also harm done by environmental conditions.

Organisms which cause infectious disease include fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, plant viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants.

Not included are ectoparasites like insects, mites, vertebrate, or other pests that affect plant health by eating plant tissues. Plant pathology involves the study of pathogen identification, disease cycles, economic impact, plant disease epidemiology, plant disease resistance, how plant diseases affect humans and animals, and how to manage plant diseases.

Plant pathology is of fundamental importance to agriculture.

References 

Plants
List of U.S. states by traditional abbreviation

This is a list of traditional abbreviations for U.S. states and territories These abbreviations (short names) were used in mailing addresses before the introduction of two-letter U.S. postal abbreviations. The traditional abbreviations are still commonly used in other ways besides mailing addresses. For example, they can be used in writing after a city (like in "Miami, Fla."). In 1987
 the Secretary of Commerce switched to the two-letter State Alpha Code for state abbreviations.

States

Territories

References 
 The Riverside Publishing Company. (1984). Webster's II New Riverside University Dictionary.    
 Chicago Manual of Style and AP Style Manual state abbreviations
 FIPS State Codes of the US and Outlying Areas

Traditional abbreviation, List of U.S. states by
Saprophyte

A saprophyte or saprotroph is an organism which gets its energy from dead and decaying organic matter. This may be decaying pieces of plants or animals. This means that saprophytes are heterotrophs. They are consumers in the food chain. 

This is the typical life-style of fungi. Some fungi are parasites on living organisms, but most are saprophytes. Many bacteria and protozoa are also saprophytes. Most dead organic matter is eventually broken down and used by bacteria and fungi. Slime moulds are also saprophytes, as well as consuming bacteria. Examples of saprophytes are cheese mold, and yeast. The term "saprophyte" refers specifically to fungal and bacterial saprotrophs; animal saprotrophs are known as saprozoites.

Other terms, such as 'saprotroph' or 'saprobe' may be used instead of saprophyte. Strictly speaking, -phyte means 'plant'. The problem is that no embryophytes (land plants) are true saprotrophs, and bacteria and fungi are no longer considered plants. Nevertheless, saprophyte is such a well-known term that most writers continue to use it.

Myco-heterotrophy 
A heterotroph is a general term for an organism that needs organic material to get its carbon for growth and development. Many plants which lack chlorophyll need fungi to break down organic material for them. Traditionally, they were called saprophytes. Now the process is given a new name: myco-heterotrophy. 

Biology
Pharaoh Hound

The Pharaoh Hound is a breed of dog. Pharaoh Hounds always have a bright orange colour coat. They may have a small white spot on the front of their body. They need lots of physical exercise, and they are fast runners and can jump high. They need little brushing because their fur is very short. In the past, people used them to hunt rabbits. Now people keep them as pets.

Dog breeds
Lviv

Lviv () is the capital city of Lviv Oblast in Ukraine. 860,000 people live in Lviv. 88% of the people living there are Ukrainian, 8% are Russian, and 1% are Polish. An extra 200,000 people commute to Lviv every day for work.

During the city's history, it was ruled by many countries. When part of Poland it was called Lwów (pronounced and sometimes spelled Lvov). In German, it was known as Lemberg, that was part of the Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empires and again under Nazi German occupation. From 1350 until 1772 it belonged to the Kingdom of Poland and from 1918 to 1939 to the Republic of Poland.

References 

Cities in Ukraine
1240s establishments in Europe
Establishments in Ukraine
Lviv Oblast
Ghost light

Ghost lights are lights in the air that are not well understood by scientists. There are few reports of ghost light sightings. Ghost lights can be close to ground or in the sky. Ghost lights close to ground are commonly called "will o' the wisp" while ghost lights in the sky are often called UFOs. There are very different kinds of ghost lights: some resemble balls of light, others look like flame, and some look like a bright cloud. Many ghost lights move.

Different cultures have understood ghost lights differently. People believed that they are dragons, spirits or ghosts. Today some believe they are spaceships. There are many theories about what ghost lights are. Some people say they are methane gas that comes from ground and burns in the air. Others say they are electric things like ball lightning. The fact that some animals and fungus glows may explain some ghost lights.

Examples

These are examples of known ghost lights at different places:

 Australia
 Min Min lights
Finland
Paasselkä devil
 Norway
 Hessdalen light
 Canada
 Baie Chaleur Fireship
 St. Louis Light
 Sweden
 Martebo lights
 Thailand
 Mekong lights (Nekha lights)
 United States
 Arkansas
 Crossett Light
 Gurdon Light
 North Carolina
 Brown Mountain Lights
 Maco light
 Georgia
 Surrency Spooklight
 Indiana
 Moody's Light
 Michigan Upper Peninsula
 The Paulding Light
 Missouri
 Hornet ghost light
 Ozark Spooklight
 Oklahoma
 Spooklight (same as Hornet ghost light, at the Oklahoma-Missouri line)
 Texas
 Bragg Road ghost light ( Light of Saratoga )
 Marfa lights
 Utah
 Skinwalker Ranch
 Virginia
 Cohoke light

Folklore
Sheave (mechanical)

A sheave (pronounced "shiv") is a wheel or roller with a groove along its edge for holding a belt, rope or cable.  When hung between two supports with a belt, rope or cable, one or more sheaves make up a pulley.  The words sheave and pulley are sometimes used interchangeably.

Tools
Unidentified flying object

A UFO (Unidentified Flying Object) is any object flying in the sky which cannot be identified by the person who sees it. Sometimes the object is investigated. If people can still not figure out what the object is after an investigation, it is called a UFO. If they figure out what the object is, it can no longer be called a UFO because it has been identified.

Even though UFOs can be anything, people often use the word UFO when they are talking about alien spacecraft. Flying saucer is another word that is often used to describe an unidentified flying object.

Identified flying objects (IFOs) 
Studies estimate that 50-90% of all reported UFO sightings are identified later. Usually 10-20% are never identified. Studies also show that very few UFO sightings are hoaxes (people trying to trick other people). Most UFOs are actually natural or man-made objects that looked strange.

80-90% of IFOs are identified as one of three different things: 
 astronomical causes (for example: planets, stars, or meteors)
 aircraft
 balloons (including weather balloons)

10-20% of IFOs are other causes (such as birds, clouds, , searchlights, etc.)

References 
 Allan Hendry, The UFO Handbook: A Guide to Investigating, Evaluating, and Reporting UFO Sightings, 1979, Doubleday & Co.,

Other websites 
 Wikinews - UFO Archive
 CIA educational summary on UFO  (working link or what? Maybe it should be used this link  instead?)
 NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts
 BBC article on Mexican Air-force videotape
 NASA UFO Hacker Video Interview 
 Popularmechanics Article - When UFOs Arrive: February 2004 Cover Story 

 
Pseudoscience
Second War of Scottish Independence

The Second War of Scottish Independence began in 1333 when Edward III of England did not accept the 1328 Treaty of Northampton any more, under which England recognised the legitimacy of the dynasty established by Robert Bruce.  Edward was determined to support the claim of Edward Balliol, the son of the former king, John Balliol, over David II, Bruce's son and heir.  Balliol had ruled in Scotland for a short time in the autumn of 1332, but was thrown out of the country later in the year.  The war itself lasted until 1357, when David II was released from English captivity.  English involvement in Scotland was also one of the factors that lead to the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War with France in 1337.

Related pages
Wars of Scottish Independence
First War of Scottish Independence

References
PRIMARY

 Anonimalle Chronicle, 1333-81, ed. V. H. Galbraith, 1927.
 Bower, Walter, Scotichronicon, ed. D. E. R. Watt, 1987-96.
 Brut, or the Chronicles of England, ed. F. W. D. Brie, 1906.
 Capgrave, John, The Book of the Illustrious Henries, ed. F. Hingeston, 1858.
 Calendar of Documents Relating to Scotland, ed. J. Bain, 1857.
 Fordun, John, Chronicles of the Scottish Nation, ed. W. F. Skene, 1872.
 Gray, Thomas, Scalicronica, ed. H. Maxwell, 1913.
 The Lanercost Chronicle, ed. H. Maxwell, 1913.
 Wyntoun, Andrew, The Original Chronicle of Scotland, ed. F. J. Amours, 1907.

SECONDARY

 Balfour-Melville, E. W. M, Edward III and David II, 1954.
 Campbell, T., England, Scotland and the Hundred Years War, in Europe in the Late Middle Ages, ed. J. Hale et al., 1970.
 Duncan, A. A. M., Honi soit qui mal y pense: David II and Edward III, in the Scottish Historical Review, vol. 67, 1988.
 Nicholson, R., Edward III and the Scots, 1965.
 Nicholson, R., Scotland: the Later Middle Ages, 1974.
 Brown, C.K., "The Second Scottish War of Independence", 2001
 Paterson, R. C., Edward Balliol, in Military History, April 2003.
 Reid, R. C., Edward de Balliol, in Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Antiquarian and Natural History Society, vol. 35 1956-7.    

Wars of independence
History of the British Isles
Wars involving England
U.S. postal abbreviations

This is a list of postal code abbreviations used by the United States Postal Service. They are used to help the postal service process mail.  In other contexts, such as newspaper articles, the traditional abbreviations for the states are used.

States 

In alphabetical order by postal abbreviation (not by state):

Elainen.

Other codes

Federal districts

Territories

Freely associated states

Armed Forces

Codes that are no longer used

References

United States Postal Service
Booing

Booing means shouting "BOO!" If people shout "boo" after a performance (for example, a concert, play or opera) they are showing that they did not like it. It is the opposite of applause (clapping to show that the performance was good).

Booing and hissing used to be very common, especially at the opera. In the early days of opera (from the 17th to the early 19th century) opera audiences often behaved badly. They went to the opera to chat with their friends, to cheer their favorite singers and to boo the singers they did not like, not to listen carefully to the music.

Booing has recently become less common in Western culture except at sports events because people think it is rude. Audiences today are more likely simply not to clap if they do not like a performance. Slow hand-clapping is also a way of showing sarcastic applause.

Related pages
Applause
Claque

Non-verbal communication
Kyle Busch

Kyle Thomas Busch (born May 2, 1985) is a NASCAR race car driver. Busch races in the Monster Energy Cup, Xfinity Series and the Camping World Truck Series. Kyle's brother, Kurt Busch also races in the Sprint Cup series.

Busch won his 100th NASCAR race on July 17, 2011. He is only the third driver in NASCAR history to do this. The other two drivers are Richard Petty with 200 wins, and David Pearson with 106 wins. With over 50 wins in the Nationwide series, Busch has more wins than any other driver in that series. At the end of the 2015 Sprint Cup Series, Kyle Busch won his first Sprint Cup Series Championship.

As of December 9th 2019 he is the WWE 24/7 Champion after pinning R-Truth.

References

1985 births
Living people
NASCAR drivers
American racecar drivers
Sportspeople from Las Vegas, Nevada
498a

Section 498-A is an offence under the Indian Penal Code, 1860. It was brought into the IPC in 1983 to stop cruelty to married women because of dowry. This often led to their deaths. It makes it a crime to be cruel to your wife or to your relative's wife. The law explains that "cruelty" means anything that is done on purpose, and either causes harm to the woman or makes the woman want to kill herself. It also makes the laws against dowry or payment made by the bride's family to the husband's family stronger. It makes it a crime to harass a woman to try to make her family pay a dowry.

If someone breaks this law he can be put in prison for up to 3 years with fine.

The law is criticized. The critics of the law say it allows a woman to ask the police to arrest her husband without any evidence or investigation, and that women have abused the law in domestic disputes. Others say it gives important support to women who are vulnerable from abusive husbands. The Supreme Court of India expressed its concerns over the misuse of section 498-A and termed it "Legal Terrorism".

These are the some useful Judgement which a use in discharged and final argument in case MyRights is an organization which fights for Justice and provides free legal tips and tutorial. Some Advocates and lawyer are also member of Myrights.

 SC on 498a - preeti gupta vs state of Jharkhand
 SC on 498a - Ruchi Agrawal vs. Amit kumar Agrawal 
 SC on 498a - Geeta Malhotra vs. State of UP
 SC on 498a - Ramesh vs. State of Tamilnadu
 SC on 498a - BS Joshi vs. State of Hariyana

References

Legislation
Sociology
India
Caesar cipher

In cryptography, a Caesar cipher is an ancient form of substitution cipher. It is named in the honor of Roman emperor, Julius Caesar

Method 
To encrypt a message with a Caesar cipher, each letter in the message is changed using a simple rule: shift by three. Each letter is replaced by the letter three letters ahead in the alphabet. A becomes D, B becomes E, and so on. For the last letters, we can think of the alphabet as a circle and "wrap around". W becomes Z, X becomes A, Y becomes B, and Z becomes C. To change a message back, each letter is replaced by the one three before it.

Weakness 
However it is very easy to break a Caesar cipher, even if you change the "key number" to a different number. Using a more modern form of encryption would be better.

Changing by three is the rule that the well known Julius Caesar used, but the same idea works for any number. ROT13 can be seen as a modern version of the Caesar cipher, with the same weaknesses.

The Caesar cipher is a substitution cipher: each letter is replaced by another. No substitution cipher is safe for sensitive information.

References 

Cryptography
SWOT Analysis

SWOT Analysis is a tool to find out the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats that are to be expected in a project or in a business venture or in something similar. It means that the situation (internal and external to the organization or individual) is looked at. It is one of the best tools to conduct the internal and external analysis for any company.

Internal and external factors 
Internal factors may include employment, finance, manufacturing opportunities, and all of the marketing mix's 4Ps.

External factors include macroeconomics, technological change, legislation, and sociocultural changes, as well as changes in the marketplace.

Use 
SWOT analysis can be used in any decision-making situation. SWOT analysis can be used:

 to build organizational or personal strategy;
 for matching and converting;
 allow organizations to achieve their goals;
 as a basis for the analysis of business and environmental factors;
 in marketing — analyzing competitors.

In community organizations 
The SWOT analysis has been used in community work as a tool to identify positive and negative factors within organizations.

Although SWOT analysis is a part of the planning, it will not provide a strategic plan if used by itself, but a SWOT list can becomes a series of recommendations.

Strengths and weaknesses (internal factors within an organization):

Human resources — staff, volunteers, board members, target population;
Physical resources — your location, building, equipment;
Financial — grants, funding agencies, other sources of income;
Activities and processes — programs you run, systems you employ;
Past experiences — building blocks for learning and success, your reputation in the community.

Opportunities and threats (external factors from community or societal forces):

Future trends in your field or the culture;
The economy — local, national, or international;
Funding sources — foundations, donors, legislatures;
Demographics — changes in the age, race, gender, culture of those you serve or in your area;
The physical environment — is your building in a growing part of town? Is the bus company cutting routes?;
Legislation — do new federal requirements make your job harder...or easier?;
Local, national, or international events.

References

Economics
Management
Planning