cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Idiot

Idiot is a word used to describe someone who is not very smart.

Modern usage 
Today "idiot" is often used to show that someone has done something which was not very clever:
 "You idiot, look at what you just did!" (using the word as a noun)
 "I think that idea is perfectly idiotic." (using the word as an adjective)
 Eg: the man who created the search system to give me the opposite of everything i search, want a picture of a apple here is a picture or two man digging a hole with someone far off in the background eating a old apple

In literature and folklore 

The word "fool" is similar to "idiot", but it is not as strong. In the history of drama a "fool" was a jester: someone who made people laugh. Kings often had jesters in real life. A court jester had the job of making the king feel happy when he was sad. Jesters often pretended to be stupid, but were actually very clever. There are jesters and fools in a lot of Shakespeare’s plays.

The word simple can also be similar to "idiot". Someone who is simple is a person who is not very clever or "streetwise". They are naïve and can easily be made to believe things because they are kind and expect everyone else to be kind as well. Such people are often called simpletons. 

Idiots or simpletons are commonly used in literature. In German literature (and in Wagner’s opera), Parsifal is described as "perfect fool" because he does not understand the evil ways of the world and is therefore completely good. That is why he can break the magic spell cast by Klingsor. The idiot often appears in Russian literature. Because the idiot is so simple he (it is always a male) is often able to express the truth which other people cannot see. Dostoevsky wrote a novel called The Idiot. It is about a man who is simple and trusting. At the end of the opera Boris Godunov by Mussorgsky the crowd of poor people gather round the simpleton who is the last person to sing in the whole opera. His moans express the fact that Russia will continue to be ruled by cruel dictators and the people will remain poor.

In humorous parlance 
The word "idiot" refers to a genetically incompetent human who is mentally inert on exposure to others - may have dampened senses and mental acuity when applied to any relatively simple task from long periods spent in a dark cave: the idiot's "natural habitat". Idiots tend to be ignorant of any metal and physical deficiency within themselves, simply because they do not want to believe it exists (even though it does, and they are aware of it). Mental deficiencies of others however, are overtly proclaimed by the idiots in order for them to separate themselves from habitual human tendencies, though they succumb to them more than they intend. They make no effort to rectify these though, as they view themselves in the best possible light. 

Pejoratives
Psychology
Intelligence
Kosovo

Kosovo (/ˈkɒsəvoʊ, ˈkoʊ-/; Albanian: Kosova or Kosovë, pronounced [kɔˈsɔva] or [kɔˈsɔvə]; Serbian Cyrillic: Косово, pronounced [kôsoʋo]), officially the Republic of Kosovo (Albanian: Republika e Kosovës;  / Republika Kosovo), is a partially-recognised state and disputed territory in Southeastern Europe. On 17 February 2008, Kosovo unilaterally declared its independence from Serbia. It has since gained diplomatic recognition as a sovereign state by 95 UN member states.

Geography 
Geographically defined in an area of 10,887 km2 (4,203 sq mi), Kosovo is landlocked in the center of the Balkans and bordered by the uncontested territory of Serbia to the north and east, North Macedonia to the southeast, Albania to the southwest and Montenegro to the west. It possesses remarkable varied and diverse landscapes for its size by climate along with geology and hydrology. Most of central Kosovo is dominated by the vast plains and fields of Metohija and Kosovo. The rugged Prokletije and Šar Mountains rise in the southwest and southeast, respectively.

Demographics 

The official results of the censuses in Kosovo about ethnic groups and nationality from after World War II to 1991 are below. The numbers of Albanians in the 1991 census were only guesses based on censuses in the past. Most Albanians did not do the 1991 census. Today, Kosovo is mainly Albanian.

Divisions 
Kosovo is divided into 7 districts. These districts include 38 municipalities:

Related pages 
 Prishtina
 European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo
 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence

References 

 History of Kosovo and Metohija
 The Rastko Project 
 Coordination Center of SCG and the Republic of Serbia for Kosovo 
 Eastern Orthodox Resource Centre
 Hugo Roth, Kosovo Origins: an historian's comprehensive overview

Bibliography 
 Dušan T. Bataković, The Kosovo Chronicles, Plato Books, Belgrade 1992.
 R. Petrović, M. Blagojević, The Migration of the Serbs and Montenegrins from Kosovo and Metohija, SASA, Belgrade 1992,
 Dušan T. Bataković, Kosovo. La spirale de la haine, L'Age d'Homme,  Lausanne 1998.
 Kosovo-Kosova. Confrontation or Coexistence, Nijmegen: University of Nijmegen & Political Cultural Centre 042 1996.
 Kosovo. Avoiding Another Balkan War,Thanos Veremis & Evangelos Kofos, (eds.), Athens:Eliamep & University of Athens, 1998.
 Kosovo. Contending Voices on Balkan Interventions, William Joseph Buckley, ed.,William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan &  Cambridge U. K 2000
 
 Jean-Arnault Dérens,  Kosovo. Année zéro, préface de Marek Antoni Nowick,i Paris: Paris-Méditerranée, 2004.

Other websites
 

 
Autonomous areas
Lip

The lips are a body part around the mouth. There is a (usually larger) lower lip, and a smaller upper lip. They help us to eat, touch and speak.

Lips also show emotions.

There are diseases that can affect the lips, for example herpes simplex. Someone can get this disease by kissing or having oral sex.

Basic English 850 words
Allergy

An allergy  is something which triggers an allergic reaction. This is the immune system defending the body against attack by bacteria and viruses. 

Sometimes the system goes wrong, and is triggered by some quite normal food, or flares up when the family pet comes into the room. This is what the ordinary person calls an 'allergy'.

Allergic reactions 
When people come in contact with something they are allergic to, there can be many different reactions. These reactions include itchy eyes,  drippy or stuffy noses, swollen faces, hives, sneezing, and coughing. If it is a food allergy, the person may get an upset stomach. 

Sometimes a person's oesophagus, or throat, may swell up so much that the person can no longer breathe. This is called anaphylaxis. When this happens, a doctor must give the person a medicine called epinephrine to make the swelling go down. Some people with allergies to very common things, like bee stings or fish, carry this medicine with them so it can be used quickly in an emergency. The device they use to inject the medicine is called an epinephrine autoinjector.

Common allergies 
Some common food allergies are:
 Nuts, especially peanuts
 Fish or shellfish
 Dairy products
 Eggs
 Soy products
 Wheat
 Fruits (kiwis and bananas)

Some common environmental allergies are:
 Latex
 Pollen
 Ragweed
 Mold
 Furry pets
 Bee or wasp stings
 Dust mites
 Tobacco smoke
 Pollution

References 

 

Physiology
Alfred Dreyfus

Alfred Dreyfus (1859 - 1935) was a French officer of Jewish descent.

He was wrongly accused of treason against the French military. This scandal was known as the Dreyfus affair.

He was imprisoned on Devil's Island in French Guiana.

His highest rank was lieutenant colonel.

Dreyfus was born in Mulhouse and died in Paris.

References 

1859 births
1935 deaths
Colonels
French Jews
French military people
French military personnel of World War I
French prisoners
Jewish military people
People from Grand Est
Adam Elliot

Adam Elliot (born January 2, 1972) is an Australian animator. He is from Melbourne, Australia. His short movie called Harvey Krumpet won the 2003 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film. He uses claymation and has won five Australian Film Institute Awards because of his work.

Early life
Elliot was brought up on a prawn farm run by his father who had once been a circus clown, and his mother who had been a hairdresser. The family later moved to Melbourne, where Elliot made money selling hand painted T-shirts at local markets. After finishing school he went to the Victorian College of the Arts to study animation.

Other websites
 Adam Elliot's website

References

1972 births
Living people
Animators
Australian filmmakers
Academy Award winners
People from Melbourne
Group home

A group home is a private house that serves as a home for people who are not in the same family but have a common characteristic. In the United States, this would mean a home for people who need social assistance or who are not able to live alone or without proper care for safety reasons.  Before the 1970s, these people lived in psychiatric hospitals, homes for the poor and orphanages.

People who live in a group home may be recovering drug addicts, developmentally disabled, abused or neglected youths, and/or young people with a criminal record. A group home is different from a halfway house because it is not restricted to recovering addicts or convicted criminals, and also because the people who live there usually have to help maintain the household by doing chores or helping to manage a budget. In most countries, people can still vote and attend university while in a group home.

There are typically from 3 to 16 residents, as well as a resident manager or service staff. Residents may have their own room or share rooms, and share facilities such as laundry, bathroom, kitchen and common living areas.  The opening of group homes is occasionally fought against by neighbours who fear that it will lead to a rise in crime and/or a drop in property values.

A group home can also refer to family homes in which children and youth of the foster care system are placed until foster families are found for them.

References

Disability
Anfield

Anfield is a football stadium in Liverpool, England. The Football team Liverpool FC plays there. The stadium has just seen an expansion of the Main Stand increasing the capacity to 54,167.

Anfield is famous for the sign that is in the players' tunnel, which reads: "This is Anfield". One of their most famous rivals are Manchester United as well as  Everton FC. Liverpool v Everton is known as the Merseyside Derby. Anfield used to be owned by Everton F.C and Everton created Liverpool to use the stadium. They have won  6 European cups.

Related pages
 Liverpool F.C.

References

Other websites 

Football stadiums in England
Liverpool, Merseyside
Symmetry

Reflectional Symmetry is a property of certain geometrical objects that appears the same when mirrored or reflected along an axis. This axis has to cross the shape through the middle of that object dividing into equal halves. 

In rotational symmetry, the object is identical when it is rotated by a certain amount. 

The precise notions of symmetry have various measures and operational definitions. For example, symmetry may be observed
with respect to the passage of time;
as a spatial relationship;
through transformations such as rotation;
through other kinds of transformations; 
as an aspect of scientific models, language, music and even knowledge itself.

Asymmetry 
Asymmetry is the absence of symmetry. It is best defined like that because symmetry is relatively rare, and all other objects are asymmetric.

References

Further reading 

Geometry
Mount Ruapehu

Mount Ruapehu is an active volcano on North Island, New Zealand. It is located in Taupo, New Zealand. It last erupted in September 2007.

History
In 1948, an airplane crashed into the volcano. All the people in the airplane died.

References

Volcanoes of Oceania
Mountains of New Zealand
Klang

Klang (also known as Kelang) is the royal capital of Selangor, Malaysia. A popular harbour called Port Klang is located there. It is one of the busiest ports in the world.

History
 1867 - 1874 Klang War
 1880 - 1889 Klang became the capital of Selangor.
 1945 - Klang Town Authority formed.
 1954 - Klang Town Council formed (27.5 km²)
 1971 - Klang District Council formed, including areas surrounding Kapar and Meru towns.
 1974 - 1977 - Capital of Selangor when Kuala Lumpur became a Federal Territory and before Shah Alam was made the capital of Selangor.
 1977 - Klang Municipal Council formed (60.9 km²)

Weather
In Klang, it rains all year round. The monthly rainfall is slightly higher here in April and November. It might be because of the monsoon season.

The average temperature in Klang is around 25°C to 36°C (77°F to 96.8°F). There is no distinct seasonal difference in temperature in the town. Klang is hot and humid throughout the year.

Districts
There are two districts in Klang, Klang North and Klang South. Both are divided by a river called the Klang River.

Famous Local Food
Klang is famous for its Bak Kut Teh, a herbal soup which contains pork. Klang is also famous for its Rojak Klang. 

Another popular delicacy here is the "Cendol Klang". The stall was opened in 1972.

Other websites 
 Klang Municipal Council website
 ODP's Klang category 
 Klang travel guide at Wikivoyage
 Klang Community eSpace Forum
   Port Klang Free Trade Zone
  Klang North Port

Cities in Malaysia
Anchorage

Anchorage is where a ship lies at anchor.

It can also mean:
 Anchorage, Alaska
 Anchorage, Kentucky
Monty Python and the Holy Grail

Monty Python and the Holy Grail is the second movie made by Monty Python. It was made in 1974 and was very successful. It is still very popular. It was also made into a musical called Spamalot.

Story
This is a comedy about King Arthur's search for the Holy Grail. He gathers a group of knights around him. They do not ride horses - instead, they clap coconut halves together, to make the sound of a horse galloping. They search for the grail, but keep on getting distracted by peasants (poor farmers) who want to talk about politics, or French knights insulting them.

The movie was made in Scotland.

1970s adventure movies
1974 comedy movies
Arthurian movies
British adventure movies
British comedy movies
Columbia Pictures movies
Cult movies
English-language movies
Monty Python
Fantasy comedy movies
Yen

The Japanese yen or en is the currency used in Japan. It is usually written with the romanised symbol ¥, but in Japanese it is written with the kanji 円. The coins are very light and range from ¥1 up to ¥500. The highest paper note value is ¥10000. The Japanese currency is the third most traded currency in the world.

Currency of Asia
Japan
West Forsyth High School

West Forsyth High School is a high school in North Carolina. It has 1611 students. It is the third largest school in Forsyth County and the 53rd largest school in North Carolina. Its principal is Kurt Telford. It is under the Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools' district.

Buildings and structures in North Carolina
Schools in the United States
Appletalk

Appletalk is a suite of protocols for computer networking. It allowed Apple Macintosh computers to connect one another. It also allowed a computer to use a printer connected to the network. Apple has switched from Appletalk to TCP/IP.

Computer protocols
Computer networking
Apple Inc.
Western States 100

The Western States 100 is a 100 mile race that is held each July in California's Sierra Nevada Mountains.  It is the oldest regularly run ultramarathons. It is considered by some to be the most difficult.  Some of the best runners ever to compete in the Western States 100 race are Scott Jurek and Tim Twietmeyer.

Running
Sports in California
July events
Scott Jurek

Scott Jurek (b. October 26, 1973) is an famous runner who lives in Seattle, California.  He is perhaps best known for running the difficult Western States 100 Mile Race seven years in a row.  He has also won the Badwater Ultramarathon the past two years.

1973 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Minnesota
American track and field athletes
Badwater Ultramarathon

The Badwater Ultramarathon is a race run from the lowest point in North America to the trail head of Mt. Whitney.  It is 135 miles in very high heat.

Running
Wisdom

Wisdom is knowing things that help a person to live sensibly and make good decisions. Wisdom is defined differently by many cultures. Some say that wisdom is something a person learns as they grow older. Other cultures expect people to complete certain rituals in order to get wisdom.

If someone has wisdom, they are called wise. Most cultures from the past have had special people who were supposed to be wise. People asked them for advice when they had problems because they knew things that ordinary people did not know or could not know. They were often called "sages".

There are many stories in Western culture in which the owl is supposed to be a wise bird.

Knowledge
King Philip's War

King Philip's War (Metacom's War) was a war between Native Americans and English colonists. King Philip's War was fought between 1675 and 1676 in the area of the United States that is now New England.

When the Pilgrims left England, they came to live in Massachusetts near the Indians. As more Puritans arrived, they needed more land and they took it.  Metacom, or "King Philip" as he was called in English was the leader of one of the Wampanoag Pokanoket tribes.  His father had made a treaty with the English.

The English began to fear the power of the natives.  The two sides accused each other of violating the treaty and preparing for war.  John Wussausmon was Christian convert and a trader.  He told the English that Philip was preparing an alliance to attack them.  When he was found dead, the English executed three Indians for his murder, and people on both sides became more angry.  Philip brought together a large force of Indians and attacked the Puritan settlements.  The resulting war was large.  The Indians lost and thousands of them died but not before the whole countryside suffered much loss.  Many towns burned and every inhabitant was enveloped some way in the conflict. When King Philip was killed by a native, his head was cut off by Benjamin Church to be brought back to Plymouth.  500 Indians were also taken prisoner and made slaves.

17th century in the Thirteen Colonies
History of Native Americans
Wars
1675
1676
Lip balm

Lip balm is a product which is put on lips so they will not dry when a person is outdoors in the sun and wind. Lip balm is usually made from petrolatum. Some types of lip balm also include sunscreen to protect the lips from sunburn. Lip balm comes in tubes and small pots with screw-on lids. Lip balm is often used during the winter, because the cold winter winds can dry out a person's lips so that they are cracked and hurting (this is called having "chapped" lips).

Care
Coprophagia

Coprophagia is the eating of faeces. Many animals eat faeces, either their own or that of other animal groups. It is particularly common in dogs and puppies of about six months old, but little is known why; lack of stimulus and variety in the lifestyle or diet have been cited as potential reasons.

Adding pineapple to their food is  a well recognized solution for many dogs. Humans do it only on rare occasions and it is looked down upon in society.  Eating one's feces can also spread disease.

References 

Health
Zoology
Municipality

A municipality is a word used for a city, a town or a village, or a small group of them. It has a clearly defined territory, and all the people living on that territory share one common local government.

In most countries, a municipality is the smallest administrative subdivision to have its own democratically elected representative leadership. A municipality is usually governed by a mayor and a city or municipal council. The municipality can be created as a municipal corporation.

In some countries, municipalities are referred to as "communes" (for example, French commune, Italian comune or Swedish kommun).
Problem

A problem is a situation preventing something from being achieved. The word comes from a Greek word meaning an "obstacle" (something that is in your way). Someone who has a problem must find a way of solving it. The means of solving a problem is called a "solution".

Examples 
"John has locked his car keys inside his car so that he cannot get at them. John has a problem".

Entertainment examples 
Some problems are made up for fun. These are like puzzles. Some of them can be solved with logic, others can be solved by trial and error or by a heuristic.

Mathematical examples 
Here is an example of a mathematical problem:
"John is three times as old as Mary. In three years time he will be twice as old as Mary.  How old are John and Mary?" The answer to this problem is that John is 9 and Mary is 3.

Children often like to give one another problems that can be solved by "lateral thinking". This means using the imagination rather than strict logic. Here is an example:

"Peter, Ruth, Samuel and Jessica live in the same house. Peter and Ruth went out. When they returned they found Jessica lying dead, surrounded by glass. They were sure Samuel had done it. Why did they not call the police?" The answer is: Samuel was the cat and Jessica was a goldfish.

A well-known example of a problem that cannot be solved is that of squaring the circle – how to get a square that has the same area as a given circle, using geometry.

Sources on problem solving 
These are classic works on problem-solving:
Duncker, Karl 1945. On problem solving. APA Psychological Monographs 58.
Gordon, William J.J. 1961. Synectics: the development of creative capacity. New York: Harper.
Polya, George 1945. How to solve it: a new aspect of mathematical method. Princeton University Press.
Wertheimer, Max 1959. Productive thinking. New York: Harper. New and expanded edition was 1945.
Simon, Herbert A. & Newell, Alan 1972. Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Most of these deal with well-formulated problems. There are also a number of books on the psychology of thinking, which is obviously a large part of problem-solving:
Bolton, Neil 1972. The psychology of thinking. London: Methuen. 
Wason P.C. & Johnson-Laird P.N. 1972. Psychology of reasoning: structure & content. London: Batsford. 
Novick L.R. & Bassok M. 2005. Problem solving. In K.J. Holyoak & R.G. Morrison (eds) Cambridge handbook of thinking and reasoning. Chapter 14, pp. 321–349.  Cambridge University Press.

Related pages 
Monty Hall problem – a problem about goats and a car in a game show, using probability.

References 

Logic
Mathematics
Disability
Order

Order has many meanings (like a dictionary):

Religious
 Holy orders are the rites or sacraments in which priests are ordained
 Religious order, a group of people that live together, and share some ideals

Honors
 Order (decoration), an award or medal

Legal and military
 Court order, made by a judge
 Executive order, issued by the executive branch of government
 General order, a published directive from a commander
 Standing order, a general order of unset duration, and similar ongoing rules in a parliament
 Direct order

In scientific classification
 Order (biology), a rank between class and family, or a taxon at that rank
 Social order, a concept used in sociology, history and other social sciences
 Order (chemistry), a concept of chemical kinetics

In mathematics
 Order (group theory), the cardinality of a group
 Order theory, a branch of mathematics that studies many different kinds of binary relations called orders
 Order (ring theory), a kind of an algebraic structure
 Orders of approximation, Big O notation
 Order of magnitude, a class of scale or magnitude of any amount
 Order, or degree of a polynomial

In computer science
 Canonical order, the order of elements that follows a certain rules or specifications

In telecommunications
 Modulation order, the number of different symbols that can be sent using a given modulation

Other uses
 The opposite of chaos, disorder (in the sense of randomness), or entropy
 Collating order, sequence for text, such as alphabetical
 Order (business), an instruction from a customer to buy
 Order (exchange), customer's instruction to a stock broker
 Order (information processing), a measure of the number of objects or sub-systems in a system
 Order (organization), an organization of people united by a common fraternal bond or social aim.
 Architectonic orders
 Way of categorizing Electronic filters by steepness
 Way of categorizing the size of lighthouse Fresnel lenses
 "The Order"
 Order (food), a customer's choice of food at a restaurant or for delivery

Basic English 850 words
Friedrichshafen

Friedrichshafen is a city in Germany. It is at the north shore of the Lake of Constance. It is the second largest city at the lakeside, after Konstanz. About 58.000 people live there. The city is famous for having one of the first Zeppelins.

References

Other websites 
 

Cities in Baden-Württemberg
Zeppelin

For the English rock group, see Led Zeppelin.

A Zeppelin is a type of airship. It is a dirigible, which means it is rigid airship, but can be directed. It was developed by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, in the early 20th century. The name Zeppelin is now used as a common name for all airships. Zeppelins were used in the First World War. In the Second World War the Nazis largely used them for propaganda purposes.

One of the most well-known Zeppelins was the LZ 129 Hindenburg, which caught fire on May 6, 1937, during a landing after a non-stop trip from Germany to New Jersey in the United States.  Another, the LZ 130 Graf Zeppelin was still in use after this disaster although some modifications had to be made after the disaster.  After the Second World War and the fall of the Nazis in Germany, Zeppelins were not used anymore. Plans exist to use Zeppelins to lift heavy weights. Sometimes, they are also used as tourist attractions, or for advertising.

World War I
Airships
666

666 was a year in the western calendar, as counted Anno Domini.

Events 
Wighard became Archbishop of Canterbury.
Chertsey Abbey was built in England.
Barking Abbey was built in England.

References
Nanga Parbat

Nanga Parbat, located in Gilgit-Baltistan, is the ninth highest mountain in the world. It is 8,126 metres (26,660 ft) above sea level. It is in Gilgit Baltistan, between Chilas and Astore. Nanga Parbat means "Naked Mountain". In 1953, an Austrian German named Hermann Buhl was the first to climb it.

Nanga Parbat is in the west of the Himalayas, and is the most western of the mountains higher than eight thousand meters. It lies just south of the Indus River, in the Astore District of the Northern Areas in the region of Kashmir. Not far to the north is the western end of the Karakoram mountains.

Nanga Parbat is the highest peak in the Nanga Parbat Range. The range covers an area of  in length and  in width. In the east it joins the Pir Panjal Range.

The steep incline of its peak that rises above the ground far below makes Nanga Parbat a difficult and dangerous climb. Many deaths in the mid and early 20th century gave it the nickname of "killer mountain".

References

Other websites 

A mountain list ranked by local relief and steepness showing Nanga Parbat as the steepest 
Pictures from a winter expedition in 2013

Himalayas
Mountains of Pakistan
Gilgit-Baltistan
Respiration

Respiration is the process in which nutrients are converted into useful energy in a cell. During respiration, energy is released in a form that can be used by cells. All living things respire. Both plant and animal cells use the process of respiration to release energy from glucose.

There are two types of respiration. One is aerobic respiration and the other is anaerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen. Here, oxygen is utilized to break down food (glucose) to release high amounts of energy. Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen. During respiration in yeast and bacteria, oxygen is not involved in the oxidation of food. Food (glucose) is broken down into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide this is called anaerobic respiration. 

 Animals obtain carbohydrates, such as starch and sugars, by eating them. Some heat is released by these chemical reactions in cells, and it is this we experience as body heat.
 Plants make their own carbohydrates during photosynthesis. They get carbon dioxide from the environment and their energy from the sun.

Some use oxygen to break down glucose completely into CO2 (Carbon dioxide) and H2O (Water).

Related pages 
See these (in this order) for an outline of the biochemistry of aerobic respiration:
Cellular respiration 
Glycolysis
Link reaction
Krebs cycle
Electron transport chain

Metabolism
Cellular respiration
410s



Events 
Sack of Rome by the Visigoths under Alaric
Britain lost from the Roman Empire
Roman Republic

The Roman Republic was a phase in history of the Ancient Roman civilization. According to legend, the city of Rome was founded by Romulus in . It was a kingdom until 510 BC, when the last King, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was overthrown. This began the Roman Republic. 

The Roman Republic was a civilization ahead of its time and very advanced. The Roman people elected Consuls, who ruled for about a year. Many of the ideas of the Roman Republic are still used today.

The Republic got most of its wealth from trading and taxation.  The Republic had few enemies but it was constantly on war with the Gauls, who were conquered by Caesar later.  The Punic Wars against Carthage were fought all over the Mediterranean coasts, mainly because of Sicily and trade disputes.  The third enemy being the Germanic tribes or simply barbarians (uncivilized people).

The Republic suffered many disasters including Spartacus (the leader of a slave revolt) Spartacus defeated one consul's army before being captured, the Republic suffered at the hands of Hannibal, who after crossing the Alps defeated the Roman Army at Cannae and many other battles which saw Rome with a great fear of being destroyed by Hannibal.

The end of the Republic is still a matter of dispute; different scholars will give different dates for it. Usually, the dates of the start of the First Triumvirate or the Second Triumvirate are given. (The Triumvirates were groups of three men who had much power)

The end of the Republic is often said to be when Gaius Julius Caesar was appointed as dictator (single ruler) by the Roman Senate. This happened after a series of civil wars that lasted from about 49 BC to the year 44 BC.

Some people say the Republic ended with the naval Battle of Actium between Marcus Antonius and Octavian. They both had been in the Second Triumvirate. It was fought on 2 September 31 BC. Octavian won. Later on, he was proclaimed Roman Emperor. The end date could also be when Octavian was given the title of the first Augustus by the Senate. This was on 16 January 27 BC.

These are modern views though. In the view of the early emperors, the Res Publica (Republic, literally "Thing of the People") still existed. It was simply "under their protection". They promised that some day that the Republic would restored to its original form. This never happened, and so scholars divide the Roman Empire and the Roman Republic as two different, distinct periods of the history of Rome.

References

 
509 BC establishments
Former countries in Europe
Former republics
First Triumvirate

The First Triumvirate is the name most historians give to the political alliance between Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey). They made it in 60 BC to give each other power. Each person helped the others to be more powerful. 

Caesar was able to gain money from Crassus to finance his public works campaign. He also gained military power from Pompey's loyal legions. Crassus, who was much envied and hated for his wealth and the means he used to attain it, was also able to gain popularity from Pompey as well as Caesar who had a loyal following in the plebeian class. Pompey was grateful to Caesar for his support against slander in the senate. Caesar's speeches in the senate were in favor of giving the newly conquered land to Pompey's returned legions. Pompey and Crassus ended their old grudge that dated back to the Third Servile War because they realised the advantages they allowed each other. To cement the Triumvirate, Crassus told Caesar's numerous debt holders that he would pay Caesar's loans if Caesar defaulted. Pompey married Caesar's only child, Julia. The Triumvirate lasted until Crassus' death in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.

Caesar and Pompey started fighting. Caesar won at the Battle of Pharsalus. Caesar became dictator in the year 44 BC.

Related pages
Second Triumvirate

Ancient Rome
Rio Grande do Sul

Rio Grande do Sul is a Brazilian state. It is in Southern Brazil. It has common borders with Uruguay to the south, and Argentina to the west. It has a very high standard of living. Its capital city is Porto Alegre. About 10 million people live in the state. The surface area of Rio Grande do Sul is about 282,000 square kilometres.

References

 
States of Brazil
990

990 is a year in the 10th century.

Events 
 January 1 – Kievan Rus' adopts the Julian calendar.
 Construction of the Al-Hakim Mosque begins in Cairo.
 The Pax Ecclesiae, an edict by the church in southern France attempting to outlaw acts of war against non-combatants and the clergy, is promulgated.

Births 
 Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor (approximate)
 Edmund II of England, (approximate)
 Mieszko II of Poland, king of Poland from 1025 to 1031, duke from 1032 to 1034.
 Yorimichi, regent to the Japanese emperor from 1017 to 1020 and from 1020 to 1068.
Johannes Skotus, Bishop of Mecklenburg (approximate)

Deaths 
 Kaneie, regent to the Japanese emperor from 986 to 990.
 Al-Uqlidisi, Middle-East mathematician.
 Dunash ben Labrat
Bixente Lizarazu

Bixente Lizarazu (born 9 December 1969) is a former French football player. He is one of the most successful football players in the world. He won the FIFA World Cup in 1998 and the European Football Championship in 2000. He has also won the UEFA Champions League (2001) and was champion of the Bundesliga (both with Bayern Munich) five times in a six-year period (1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005).

Lizarazu was born in Saint-Jean-de Luz, a small village in Basque region of France, in 1969. His first club was Eglantins Hendaje (1977-1989). He then went to Girondins Bordeaux (1989-1996). After playing for Bordeaux, he played for the Spanish club Athletic Bilbao (1996-1997) before he went to Bayern Munich (1997-2005). For a six months, he played for Olympique Marseille (2004). He ended his career in 2005.

Club career statistics

|-
|1988/89||rowspan="8"|Girondins Bordeaux||rowspan="8"|Division 1||16||0
|-
|1989/90||38||2
|-
|1990/91||35||2
|-
|1991/92||33||0
|-
|1992/93||35||4
|-
|1993/94||32||9
|-
|1994/95||32||2
|-
|1995/96||23||3

|-
|1996/97||Athletic Bilbao||La Liga||16||0

|-
|1997/98||rowspan="7"|Bayern Munich||rowspan="7"|Bundesliga||11||0
|-
|1998/99||18||2
|-
|1999/00||22||1
|-
|2000/01||15||0
|-
|2001/02||25||1
|-
|2002/03||26||3
|-
|2003/04||26||1

|-
|2004/05||Olympique Marseille||Ligue 1||14||0

|-
|2004/05||rowspan="2"|Bayern Munich||rowspan="2"|Bundesliga||13||0
|-
|2005/06||18||0
258||22
16||0
174||8
448||30
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1992||1||0
|-
|1993||6||0
|-
|1994||5||0
|-
|1995||5||1
|-
|1996||9||0
|-
|1997||4||0
|-
|1998||13||1
|-
|1999||6||0
|-
|2000||12||0
|-
|2001||10||0
|-
|2002||7||0
|-
|2003||12||0
|-
|2004||7||0
|-
!Total||97||2
|}

References

1969 births
Living people
French footballers
Adenosine triphosphate

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a chemical. All living things make ATP to store energy and to move it to the cells that need it. An ATP molecule is like an oil barrel that stores and transports fuel. Cells get all of their energy from ATP. They break ATP molecules apart to use the stored energy. The harder a cell works, the more ATP it needs.

Chemical form 
A molecule of ATP has three parts. A chemical base called adenine is joined to a ribose. This makes adenosine. The adenosine is joined to a line of three phosphate groups, called a triphosphate. It takes a lot of energy to hold the phosphates together. When a cell needs energy, a chemical process frees one of the phosphates from the ATP molecule. It's like taking the lid off the oil barrel. The energy that was holding the phosphate is freed at the same time.

After this, the molecule only has two phosphate groups, so it is called adenosine diphosphate (ADP). ADP molecules and free phosphates are used again to make more ATP. Plants get the components of ATP from sunlight, water, and soil. They make ATP using the process of photosynthesis. Animals get the components of ATP mostly from food. They make ATP using the process of cellular respiration.

Creation and Use
All cell processes that support life use the energy carried by ATP molecules. For example in plants, ATP is made by photosynthesis. However, it also supplies the energy for photosynthesis. In animals, ATP is needed for muscle movement, nerve signals, brain processes, and making new cells.

ATP is made and used and made again, in a cycle. First, ADP joins with a phosphate to make ATP. Energy is used to hold the new molecule together. In other words, when a bond is made, energy is stored. This is an endothermic reaction. Then, when the bond is broken, the energy is freed. This is an exothermic reaction. The cycle of making and breaking ATP only stops when a cell dies.

Cell Functions
ATP is used in other ways for many cellular processes. Here are some examples.

 It is used to make complex molecules such as DNA and RNA.
 It is used to make proteins.
 It is used to move large molecules into cells (endocytosis) and out of cells (exocytosis).

History
 ATP was discovered in 1929 by Karl Lohmann and Jendrassik, and at the same time, by Cyrus Fiske and Yellapragada Subba Rao at Harvard Medical School. 
 In 1941, Fritz Albert Lipmann suggested ATP was the connection between reactions that take energy, and reactions that give energy, in cells.
 ATP was first made in a laboratory by Alexander Todd in 1948.
 The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1997 was given to two groups who researched ATP. Half of the prize was given to Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker for explaining how the enzyme ATP synthase makes ATP. The other half of the prize was given to Jens C. Skou for finding a very important cell enzyme that uses ATP, Na+/K+-ATPase.

References 
Plunkett, John. Karol, Michael (January 11, 2008) "ATP for muscle contraction" </ref>

Cellular respiration
Shrimp

Shrimp refers to small, decapod crustacea. Shrimp are mainly found in three groups: Caridea, Procarididea, and Dendrobranchiata. There are thousands of species, and usually there is a species adapted to any particular habitat. Any small crustacean which resembles a shrimp tends to be called one.

Adult shrimp are filter feeding benthic animals that live close to the bottom. They can live in schools and can swim rapidly backwards. They have a high tolerance to toxins in polluted areas, and may contribute to high toxin levels in their predators. They play important roles in the food chain and are important food sources for larger animals from fish to whales.

Shrimp are related to prawns. In cooking, the criterion is often only the size of the animal (prawns are bigger). Biologically, prawns and shrimp can be told apart by the structure of their gills. In prawns, the gills are branching; in shrimp they are not.

Food 
Many shrimp species are caught to be eaten. Usually, the head and the digestive tract are removed before the shrimp is eaten. The muscular tails of shrimp can be eaten, and they are widely caught and farmed for human consumption.

Commercial shrimp species support an industry worth 50 billion dollars a year. In 2010 the total commercial production of shrimp was nearly 7 million tonnes. Shrimp farming took off during the 1980s, particularly in China, and by 2007 the harvest from shrimp farms exceeded the capture of wild shrimp. There is often pollution damage done to estuaries when they are used for shrimp farming.

References

Related pages 

 Prawn
 Krill

Decapods
Seafood
Martin Amis

Martin Amis (born 25 August 1949) is a Welsh novelist. His best known novels include Money (1984), London Fields (1989), Time's Arrow (1991) and The Information (1995).
 
Affected by several writers including his father Sir Kingsley Amis, Amis's style of writing has affected a generation of writers. His recent work has looked at moral and geopolitical issues, including The Holocaust, Communist Russia, and the September 11, 2001 attacks and Islamism.

Early life 
 
Amis was born in Swansea, South Wales. He was the middle of three children, with an older brother, Philip, and a younger sister, Sally. He went to many different schools in the 1950s and 1960s. The fame of his father's first novel Lucky Jim sent the Amises to Princeton, New Jersey, where his father lectured. Amis's parents, Hilly and Kingsley, divorced when he was twelve.

Amis graduated from Exeter College, Oxford. He graduated with a first-class degree in English. After Oxford, he got a job at The Times Literary Supplement. At age 27, he became literary editor of The New Statesman.

Early writing 

His first novel The Rachel Papers (1973) won the Somerset Maugham Award. It tells the story of a smart, self-centered teenager (which Amis says he based on himself) and his relationship with his girlfriend in the year before going to university.

Dead Babies (1975) has a typically 1960s plot. It has a house full of characters who abuse various substances. A movie version was made in 2000 which was unsuccessful.

Success (1977) told the story of two foster-brothers, Gregory Riding and Terry Service, and their good and bad luck. 

Other People: A Mystery Story (1981), about a young woman coming out of a coma.

Later career 

Money (subtitled A Suicide Note) is a first-person narrative by John Self. He was an advertising man who wanted to be a movie director. The book follows him as he flies back and forth across the Atlantic looking for success. The book was a huge success and is Amis's most highly regarded work.

London Fields is Amis's longest book. It show the encounters between three main characters in London in 1999, as a climate disaster draws near.

Time's Arrow is about a doctor who helped torture Jews during the Holocaust. It was written in the form of an autobiography. The story is unusual because time runs backwards during the entire novel.

The Experience is mainly about his relationship with his father, Kingsley Amis. He also writes about finding long-lost daughter, Delilah Seale and of how one of his cousins, 21-year-old Lucy Partington, became a victim of suspected serial killer Fred West.

He lives and writes in London and Uruguay and is married to writer Isabel Fonseca, his second wife.

Other websites 
The Martin Amis Web
Martin Amis - Author Page (Guardian Books)
Martin Amis interviewed by Ginny Dougary  (2006)

1949 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Oxford
People educated at Westminster School, London 
People from Swansea
Welsh novelists
Writers from Glamorgan
Xi Shun

Xi Shun (Bao Xishun) (China, born in 1951) is in the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's tallest living man. He is 2.36 meters (7 ft 9 in) tall. The last time he was measured was on January 15 of 2005. On August 7, 2007 Leonid Stadnyk was measuring and was found to be taller than him. In September of 2005 he made his first trip outside of China to London to visit Guinness World Records.

Xi Shun served in the People's Republic of China army but got discharged because of rheumatism. He once saved some dolphins' lives by getting pieces of plastic from their stomachs that veterinarians could not reach.

1951 births
Living people
Chinese people
World record holders
Crab

Crabs are a form of decapods (having eight walking legs and two grasping claws), along with lobsters, crayfish and shrimps. Crabs form an order within the decapods, called the Brachyura. Their short body is covered by a thick exoskeleton.

They are an extremely successful group, found all over the world. They are basically heavily armoured shell-breakers. Most crabs live in sea-water, but there are some who live in fresh water, and some who live on land. The smallest are the size of a pea; the largest (the Japanese spider crab) grows to a leg span of 4 metres. About 7,000 species are known.

Structure and life-style

Body 
Crabs have short tails. A crab's tail and  reduced abdomen is entirely hidden under the thorax. It is folded under its body, and may not be visible at all unless the crab is turned over. Usually they have a very hard exoskeleton. This means they are well protected against predators. Crabs are armed with a single pair of claws. Crabs can be found in all oceans. Some crabs also live in fresh water, or live completely on land.

Pincers 

The pincers (claws) of crabs are their most important weapons. They have at least three functions. The pincers' role in eating is to seize and subdue the prey. If the food is a shellfish (mollusc), then the pincers can exert force to open or break the mollusc's shell. Pincers are also used in fighting between males, and for signalling to other crabs.

Food 
Crabs are omnivores, they eat almost anything they find. Often this is algae, but animal food is essential for its good health and development. They will eat molluscs, other crustaceans, worms, fungi and bacteria.

Crabs as food 
Crabs are prepared and eaten all over the world. Some species are eaten whole, including the shell, such as soft-shell crab; with other species just the claws and/or legs are eaten. In some regions spices improve the culinary experience. In Asia, Masala Crab and Chilli crab are examples of heavily spiced dishes. In Maryland, blue crab is often eaten with Old Bay Seasoning.

For the British dish Cromer crab, the meat is extracted and placed inside the hard shell. One American way to prepare crab meat is by extracting it and adding a flour mix, creating a crab cake. Crabs are also used in bisque, a French soup.

Evolution 
True crabs appear in the fossil record in the Lower Jurassic. They are part of the 'Mesozoic marine revolution', in which a number of sea-floor predators evolved.

Tailpiece 
The closest relatives of the crabs are anomurans, a crustacean group which includes animals such as hermit crabs, king crabs and squat lobsters. They look a lot like crabs and many have the word 'crab' in their name, but are not true crabs. Anomurans can be told apart by the number of legs: crabs have eight legs, along with two claws or pincers, while the last pair of an anomuran's legs is hidden inside the shell, so that only six are visible.

References
Gran Colombia

Gran Colombia was a country formed after New Granada declared independence in 1819. The rebels, led by Simon Bolivar, defeated the Spanish Empire but then fought among themselves. In 1831 Venezuela and Ecuador, being the eastern and southern part of the country, declared independence from Gran Colombia. After that the remaining territory is just called Colombia.  Decades later, Panama also became independent from Colombia.

Sources

1821 establishments
1830s disestablishments