cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
1916 Summer Olympics

The 1916 Summer Olympics , officially known as the Games of the VI Olympiad, were not held.

The games were planned for Berlin in Germany.

In 1912, workers began building the sports facilities for the games. The Deutsches Stadion ("German Stadium") began in 1912.  In June 1913, the stadium was officially opened with 60,000 people at the ceremonies.

The games were cancelled because of World War I.

Related pages
1940 Summer Olympics
1940 Winter Olympics
1944 Summer Olympics
1944 Winter Olympics

References

Other websites 

  Vignettes of 1916 at Olympic-museum.de

Olympics
1910s in Germany
20th century in Berlin
Cancelled Olympic Games
Olympic Games in Germany
Sport in Berlin
Summer Olympic Games
Morphology (linguistics)

Morphology is part of linguistics. It looks at the way words are put together using small pieces called morphemes.  A morpheme is the smallest part of a word that has meaning.  Different languages have different morphemes and have different rules for how morphemes are combined.

Free and bound morphemes 
Words are the smallest pieces of a sentence. Some words only have one morpheme. For example the English words thank, dog, and slow are all words made up of only one morpheme. A morpheme that can stand alone as a word is called a free morpheme.

Words can also be made up of more than one morpheme.  English speakers know that one can add the plural(more than one) morpheme, -s, to the end of dog, and create the word dogs.  The new word combines the meanings of the two morphemes, so the meaning of the new word, dogs is more than one dog.  Dog is a free morpheme, but the plural morpheme -s is not. It must attach to a word (no native English speaker would use -s as a stand alone word).  Morphemes which must be attached to a word are called bound morphemes.  Morphemes attached to the front of a word are called prefixes. Those attached to the end are called suffixes. Some morphemes can attach in the middle of a word and are called infixes. (example?)

Inflectional and derivational morphemes 
There are two types of bound morphemes: derivational and inflectional. Inflectional morphemes give a listener or reader information about how the word is used in a sentence.  English does not have a lot of inflectional morphemes. An example of an inflectional morpheme in English is the -ed suffix for verbs.  This morpheme at the end of a verb lets the speaker know that the action happened in the past.  Another example is the -s suffix for nouns to show that there is more than one of the noun.

Derivational morphemes change the part of speech or somehow change the basic meaning of the word they attach to.  Most bound morphemes in English are derivational.

Examples 
English Word: "unthankful"

Morphemes:

English Word: "songwriter"

Morphemes:

English Word: "modernized"

Morphemes:

Sources

References 

Grammar
Syntax

In linguistics, syntax is the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences. 

The term syntax can also be used to refer to these rules themselves, as in “the syntax of a language”. Modern research in syntax attempts to describe languages in terms of such rules, and, for many practitioners, to find general rules that apply to all languages.

Related pages
 Phrase
 Grammar

Syntactic terms 

 Adjective
 Adverb
 Article
 Clause
 Comparative

 Infinitive
 Noun
 Phrase
 Phrasal verb
 Plural

 Preposition
 Pronoun
 Superlative
 Verb
 Tense
 Word order

Notes

References

Other websites 
 The syntax of natural language (Beatrice Santorini & Anthony Kroch, University of Pennsylvania)
 Learn Programming Language Syntax
 Various syntactic constructs used in computer programming languages

Grammar
1912 Summer Olympics

The 1912 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the V Olympiad, were held in Stockholm, Sweden.  

The games were thought to be a success.  For the first time, athletes in the Games came from all five continents symbolised in the Olympic rings.

Participating nations 
A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the Stockholm games. They were:

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 Stockholm 1912 at Olympic.org

Olympics
1910s in Europe
20th century in Sweden
Summer Olympic 1912
Summer Olympics in Europe
Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich Ivanov

Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich Ivanov (21 August 1929 – 7 October 2017) was a Soviet/Russian historical linguist. His main topic of study is Indo-European languages.

Works 
He is best known for his glottalic theory of how consonants are spoken in Indo-European languages and for placing point of origin for these languages in the area of the Armenian Highlands and Lake Urmia. He was born in Moscow.

Vyacheslav Ivanov's father was Vsevolod Ivanov, one of the most famous Soviet writers. His mother was an actress. She worked in the theatre of Vsevolod Meyerhold. His childhood was filled by disease and war, which he spent in Tashkent.

Ivanov died in Moscow on 7 October 2017 at the age of 88.

References

More readings
 Vyacheslav V. Ivanov and Thomas Gamkrelidze, The Early History of Indo-­European Languages, Scientific American, vol. 262, N3, 110­-116, March, 1990.
 Gamkrelidze, Tamaz V.; Vjacheslav V. Ivanov (1995). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans. Mouton de Gruyter. .

Russian linguists
1929 births
2017 deaths
Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze

Tamaz (Thomas) V. Gamkrelidze (Georgian თამაზ გამყრელიძე) (October 23, 1929 – February 10, 2021) was a Georgian linguist, orientalist and public benefactor, Academician (beginning in 1974) and President (2005–2013) of the Georgian Academy of Sciences (GAS), Doctor of Sciences (1963), Professor (1964).

Gamkrelidze was born in Kutaisi. His brother Revaz Gamkrelidze, was also an academician and a famous mathematician.

Gamkrelidze died at the age of 91.

Some of the main works of Tamaz Gamkrelidze 
 The Akkado-Hittite syllabary and the problem of the origin of the Hittite script, "Archiv Orientalni" (vol. 29). 1960
 Anatolian languages and the problem of Indo-European migration to Asia Minor, Studies in General and Oriental Linguistics. Tokyo, 1970
 Alphabetic writing and the old Georgian script. New York, Caravan Books, 1994
 with V. Vs. Ivanov: "Indo-European language and Indoeuropeans" (vols. I-II). Berlin / New York, 1994-1995

Related pages
 Glottalic theory
List of Asian scientists by country

References

Other websites 
 Home Page of Tamaz Gamkrelidze
 Georgian Academy of Sciences (GAS)
 Tbilisi State University

1929 births
2021 deaths
Scientists from Georgia (country)
Georgian alphabet

The Georgian alphabet is used to write in the Georgian language and other Kartvelian languages. The alphabet is called Khutsuri, first said around in the 11th century. 

Greek and Aramaic influences have been shown, but some Georgian scholars like Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze have said that they were freely invented in imitation of the Greek model rather than directly based upon earlier forms of the Aramaic alphabet even though the Georgian phonological inventory is very different from Greek.

Other websites 
 Georgian Website / Portal with info on Georgian culture and language 
 Direct transliteration Latin ↔ Georgian
 Georgian fonts, compliant with Unicode 4.0, also available for MAC OS 9 or X

Georgia (country)
Alphabets
Cytosine

Cytosine is one of the 5 main nucleobases used in storing and transporting genetic information within a cell in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. 

In DNA and RNA, cytosine is paired with guanine. However, it is unstable, and can change into uracil (spontaneous deamination). This can lead to a point mutation if not repaired by the DNA repair enzymes such as uracil glycosylase, which cleaves a uracil in DNA.

Cytosine is the centre of modern genetic research into epigenetics. Methyl groups added to cytosine change the action of genes during lifetime. These changes are not inherited.

References

Other websites
Computational Chemistry Wiki 
 

Molecular biology
Organic compounds
1908 Summer Olympics

The 1908 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the IV Olympiad, were held in London, United Kingdom.

The Olympics were originally scheduled to be held in Rome; however, Mount Vesuvius erupted on 7 April 1906. The natural disaster caused a financial strain on the Italian government. Then the venue was changed to London. The costs of the games were covered by donations.

Participating nations 
A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the London games. They were:

  Argentina
  Australasia
  Austria
  Belgium
  Bohemia
  Canada
  Denmark
  Finland
  France
  German Empire
  Great Britain

  Greece
  Hungary
  Italy
  Netherlands
  Norway
  Russian Empire
  Union of South Africa
  Sweden
  Switzerland
  Ottoman Empire
  United States

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 London 1908 at Olympic.org

Olympics
1900s in the United Kingdom
Sport in London
Summer Olympics in Europe
Guanine

Guanine is one of the five main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.

The others are adenine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil. With the formula C5H5N5O, guanine is a derivative of purine.

Basic principles 
Guanine, along with adenine and cytosine, is present in both DNA and RNA, whereas thymine is usually seen only in DNA and uracil only in RNA.

References 
 Miyakawa, S., Murasawa, K., Kobayashi, K., Sawaoka, AB. "Abiotic synthesis of guanine with high-temperature plasma." Orig Life Evol Biosph. 30(6): 557-66, Dec. 2000.
 Horton, H.R., Moran, L.A., Ochs, R.S., Rawn, J.D., Scrimgeour, K.G. "Principles of Biochemistry." Prentice Hall (New Jersey). 3rd Edition, 2002.
 Lister, J.H. "Part II Purines." The Chemistry of Heterocyclic Compounds. Wiley-Interscience (New York). 1971.

Other websites 
 Computational Chemistry Wiki 
 Good Guanine reference

Biochemistry
Glottalic theory

The glottalic theory is that Proto-Indo-European had ejective stops instead of voiced stops and so it had p’ t’ k’, not b d g, as the traditional version of the Proto-Indo-European sound system.

The glottalic theory was made in the United States by Paul Hopper and in the Soviet Union by Thomas V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav V. Ivanov. The earliest theory was made by the Danish linguist Holger Pedersen that did not have glottalized sounds.

Earlier linguists, such as André Martinet and Morris Swadesh, saw the potential of replacing glottalic sounds for the supposed plain voiced stops of Proto-Indo-European. The idea stayed hypothetical until more evidence for it was published in 1973 by Hopper in the journal Glossa and by Gamkrelidze and Ivanov in the journal Phonetica.

Sources
Paul J. Hopper, "Glottalized and murmured occlusives in Indo-European." Glossa 7:2:1973, 141-166.
 Thomas V. Gamkrelidze and Vjacheslav V. Ivanov, Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans, translated by Johanna Nichols, 2 volumes. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1995. 
 Robert S.P. Beekes, Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. John Benjamins, 1995.
 Anthony Fox, Linguistic Reconstruction. Oxford, 1995.

Pronunciation
Urheimat

Urheimat (German: ur- original, ancient; Heimat home, homeland) is a linguistic term meaning the original homeland of the speakers of a proto-language. Since many peoples tend to wander and spread, there is no exact Urheimat, but there is an Indo-European Urheimat different from the Germanic or Romance Urheimat. Recent studies say the original home of Indo-Europeans was near the Armenian Highlands.

Specific hypotheses:
Kurgan hypothesis
Anatolian hypothesis
Armenian hypothesis
Out of India theory

References
.
.

Other websites 
Linguistics and Ideology in the Study of Language by E. F. K. Koerner, University of Ottawa On linguistics and the  search for the original Indo-European homeland

Indo-European
Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups
Anatolian hypothesis

The Anatolian hypothesis of Proto-Indo-European origin is that the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language lived in Anatolia during the Neolithic era. When the Neolithic Revolution took place in the seventh and sixth millennia BC, the speakers spread over Europe. Those who advocate this hypothesis think that the Indo-European languages originated in Anatolia.  They believe that the Proto-Indo-Europeans then migrated north to the location north of the Caucasus Mountains. There is an another hypothesis, called the Kurgan hypothesis. The people who support it say the Indo-European languages came from the Caucasus. One of the best-known advocates of the Anatolian hypothesis is Colin Renfrew.

Related pages
Indo-Hittite
Armenian hypothesis
Neolithic Europe
Neolithic revolution
Kurgan hypothesis

Other websites 
Russell D. Gray and Quentin D. Atkinson, Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin, Nature 426 (27 November 2003) 435-439 

Indo-European
Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups
Rafael Ishkhanyan

Rafayel Avetisi Ishkhanyan (, 9 March 1922 – 6 February 1995) was an Armenian philologist and historian. He was a professor of the Yerevan State University.

Biography 
In 1939, Ishkhanyan entered the department of Armenian language and literature of Yerevan State University. He fought in World War II. After the war, he continued his studies and graduated from Yerevan University in 1949.

His works are generally dedicated to the earliest history of the Armenian people, to the comparative linguistic analysis of ancient languages, and to printing. He is one of the authors of Armenian Soviet encyclopedia.

He was a Deputy to the Supreme Soviet Armenia in 1990-1996.

Publications
Ishkhanyan claims that Armenians "were the aborigines of the Armenian plateau who have been living there continuously since the fourth millennium B.C.E at the latest". Similar claims were promoted in nationalist novels such as those of Sero Khanzatian, published in the 1970s.

Books 
Errord Uzhi Batsarman Orenke: Hodvatsner, Azat khosk,  (5-8079-0250-5)
Girke Khorhrdayin Hayastanum: Matenagitakan Tsank, Hayastani azgayin grapalat,  (99930-50-03-2)
Mer Inknutyan Glkhavor Nshane: (Grakanagitakan Hetazotutyunner), Nairi,  (5-550-00429-1)
Patkerazard Patmutyun Hayots, Book 1, 1989, Arevik,  (5-8077-0057-0)
Rafael Ishkhanian, Hayeri tzagume yev hnaguin patmutiune (The Origins and Most Ancient. History of the Armenians) (Beirut: Altapress 1984))
Questions of origin and earliest history of Armenian people, Yerevan 1988
On the Origin and Earliest History of the Armenian People
Ksiazka Ormianska W Latach 1512 - 1920, Ossolineum

References

Other websites 
Books of Ishkhanyan

1922 births
1996 deaths
Armenian historians
Cross-country race

A Cross-country race is any running race that takes place on different types of terrain. Different levels of competition include middle school , high school , collegiate men  and , women 5km (3.1 mi) and , amateur, and professional.

The scoring in these events gives one point to the winner, two points to the person who finished second, and so on. In an invitational or meet where teams of runners count up the points of their top five finishers. This is their score. The team with the lowest score wins. If there is a tie, the team with the fastest sixth man wins.

Times in races depend on the terrain, weather, and the other runners. This means that two athletes competing in different places in the world who are running the same time might not be at the same ability level.

Related pages
Long distance race

Other websites

 U. S. Cross-Country Championships 
 2008 USATF Competition Rules / Article IV Rules of Competition / Section VIII Cross Country 

Running
Long distance race

A long distance race is any running event on the track that is longer than 3000m. This includes such events as the 3000m run, the 3000m steeplechase, the 3200m run, the two mile run,  the three mile run, 5000m run, five mile run, six mile run, and 10000m run, and so on.

The original marathon race, created in 1896, paid tribute to the legendary run completed by Greek messenger Pheidippides in 490 BC. Pheidippides gives word of the Greek victory over Persia at the Battle of Marathon to the people of Athens.  That’s when, according to legend, Pheidippides (530-490 BC) ran 26 miles from Marathon to Athens to deliver news of a military victory against the Persians in the Battle of Marathon.

Related pages
 Sprint
 Middle distance race
 Walking race
 Hurdle race
 Relay
 Steeplechase (athletics)
 Cross-country race
 Marathon

Running
Warsaw Convention

distinguish the Warsaw Pact, which was a defence treaty between Eastern European nations

The Warsaw Convention is an international convention which regulates  for international carriage of persons, luggage or goods performed by aircraft for reward.

It was signed in 1929 in Warsaw, it was amended in 1955 at The Hague and in 1975 in Montreal.

In particular, the Warsaw Convention has the following rules:
carriers issue passenger tickets;
carriers issue baggage checks for checked luggage;
there is a limitation period of 2 years within which a claim must be brought (Article 29); and
a carrier's liability is at least:
 250,000 Francs or 16,600 Special Drawing Rights (SDR) for personal injury;
 17 SDR per kilogram for checked luggage and cargo,
 5,000 Francs or 332 SDR for the hand luggage of a traveller.

On April 1, 2007, the exchange rate was 1.00 SDR = 1.135 EUR or
1.00 SDR = 1.51 USD.

The Montreal Convention, signed in 1999, will replace the Warsaw Convention system, once Montreal has been ratified by all states.

Footnotes

Other websites 

 .
Beginner's guide to the Warsaw Convention 

Aviation
1929 in Europe
20th century in Poland
1955
1950s in the Netherlands
1975
1970s in Canada
20th century in Montreal
1920s treaties
1950s treaties
1970s treaties

pl:Prawo transportowe#Pierwsze konwencje
Coroner (band)

Coroner was a thrash metal band from Switzerland. The band was formed in 1985.  The band is with Noise record label. The band's most successful albums are No More Color, Mental Vortex and Grin.

References

Other websites 
Coroner at Encyclopaedia Metallum

1980s establishments in Switzerland
1985 establishments in Europe
1996 disestablishments in Europe
2010 establishments in Switzerland
Swiss heavy metal bands
Thrash metal bands
Zürich
Musical groups established in 1985
Musical groups disestablished in 1996
Musical groups established in 2010
Disestablishments in Switzerland
Ritchies

Ritchies is the largest independent supermarket group in the IGA network of Australia. It was started in 1870 by Thomas Ritchie who opened a food store in the tiny country village of Frankston, Victoria.

References

Other websites 
Official Ritchies Web Site

Supermarkets of Australia
Blood Tsunami

Blood Tsunami is a thrash metal band from Oslo, Norway. The band was formed in 2004.

Other websites 
Official website
Blood Tsunami at Encyclopaedia Metallum

Thrash metal bands
Norwegian heavy metal bands
Oslo
Musical groups established in 2004
2004 establishments in Europe
21st-century establishments in Norway
Bates College

Bates College is an American liberal arts college in Lewiston, Maine, in the United States.  Bates College was founded in 1855.  1,800 students attend Bates.  Economics, English, Psychology, Biology, and History are popular majors at Bates College.

References

Other websites
Bates College

Colleges and universities in Maine
Oberlin Group of Libraries
Lewiston, Maine
1855 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Maine
Suffolk University

Suffolk University is an American university in Boston, Massachusetts.  Suffolk was founded in 1906 by Gleason Archer.  The University has three main schools: Suffolk University Law School, Suffolk University College of Arts and Sciences, and Suffolk University's Sawyer Business School.  The University remains best known for its law school. It is featured annually in U.S. News and Annual Report and the Princeton Review.

Other websites 
Suffolk University

Colleges and universities in Massachusetts
1906 establishments in the United States
1900s establishments in Massachusetts
Treaty of Warsaw (1970)

The Treaty of Warsaw () is a treaty between West Germany and the People's Republic of Poland. It was signed on December 7, 1970 and ratified by the German Bundestag on May 17, 1972.

In the treaty, both sides committed themselves to nonviolence and accepted the existing border - the Oder-Neisse line. This was a very sensitive topic at the time as Poland was concerned that one day a German government would lay claim to some of the territory Germany lost after World War II. Poland took over this territory to replace eastern Poland, which the Soviet Union had conquered in 1939. A lot of that land was east of the Curzon Line, and Poland kept it after the Polish-Soviet War (1919-1921).

Chancellor Willy Brandt was heavily criticized by the conservative CDU/CSU opposition, which indeed were in favour of such a claim, accusing him of abandoning German interests. The Oder-Neisse line was reaffirmed by a reunited Germany in the German-Polish Border Treaty, signed on 14 November 1990.

In the FRG at the time this treaty was signed it was not seen as the last word on the border, because article IV stated that previous treaties like the Potsdam Agreement were not superseded by this latest agreement, so the provisions of this treaty could be changed by a final peace treaty between Germany and the Allies of World War II as provided for in the Potsdam Agreement.

References

Other websites
 Text of the treaty (PDF file, )

1970
1970s in Germany
20th century in Poland
Warsaw 1970
Polish-Lithuanian Union

The term "Polish-Lithuanian union" means a development from the personal union between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, allso called the "Republic of the Two Nations", in 1569 and eventually to the creation of a short-lived  state in 1791.

The most important acts in the process of union were:

 1385 - Union of Krewo - a personal union;
 1401 - Union of Vilnius and Radom;
 1413 - Union of Horodło;
 1432 (1432-34) - Union of Grodno;
 1499 - Union of Kraków and Vilnius;
 1501 - Union of Mielnik;
 July 1, 1569 - Union of Lublin - creation of the Republic of the Two Nations;
 May 3, 1791 - Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791:  the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were abolished, and a common state was created in their place.

History of Poland
History of Lithuania
Scordatura

Scordatura in music is a technique in which players of string instruments tune their strings to different notes from a normal tuning. The word “scordatura” is an Italian word which means “mistuning”. It was used for lutes, guitars, viols and instruments of the violin family.

Using a scordatura tuning made the instrument sound different. For example: a string tuned to a slightly higher note will sound louder and brighter because it is tighter. Care has to be taken not to tune it too high otherwise it will break. Scordatura also made it possible to play unusual chords or combinations of notes in string-crossing (when the bow moves quickly from one string to another).

When a composer writes for an instrument using scordatura tuning he shows at the beginning of the music what notes the strings must be tuned to. The music is then written, not as it sounds, but so that the player can read it as if the instrument were being played normally, e.g. if a G string is tuned up to G# and the composer wants a G# he simply writes a G, but it will sound G#.

Scordatura in the Baroque period 
Scordatura tuning was mainly popular in the Baroque period from 1600-1750. Composers such as Heinrich Biber often used it. He composed a group of sonatas for violin and accompaniment called the "Rosary Sonatas". In each sonata the violin is tuned in a different way. In Sonata XI (called Resurrection) he even asks the violinist to make the two middle strings cross over between the bridge and the tailpiece so that the violin is tuned to two Gs and two Ds.

Scordatura in the Classical Period 

In the classical period a famous example of scordatura is Mozart’s, "Sinfonia Concertante" for Violin, Viola and Orchestra in which he asks the viola to tune all four strings a semitone higher than usual. This makes it sound louder and brighter so that it matches the brightness of the violin, especially as the violin is playing with normal tuning in the key of E flat, which sounds a soft key (because the key of Eflat hardly uses any “open” strings).

Later examples 

In the late 19th century and 20th century there are examples of composers using scordatura. In his Fourth Symphony Mahler asks the violin soloist (the leader of the orchestra) to play on a violin tuned to Gsharp-D-A-Eflat. The music is describing a poor beggar playing a violin. The violin soloist needs a second instrument for this, so that he can swap quickly back to a normal violin.
 
Saint-Saëns asks the solo violin in Danse Macabre to tune the E string to Eflat to make it sound like the devil.

Zoltán Kodály wrote a sonata in B minor for solo cello, for which the cellist has to tune down the two lower strings to F# and B instead of G and C. This helps to make a very dark, rich sound when playing B minor chords.

Musical performance techniques
2028 Summer Olympics

The 2028 Summer Olympics, which will be officially known as the Games of the XXXIV Olympiad, is a sporting event that will happen from July 21 to August 6 in Los Angeles, California, United States.

Applying to host the games was supposed to begin in 2019. The host city was supposed to be announced in 2021. In July 2017, The International Olympic Committee decided to award 2024 and 2028 Games at the same time. On July 31, 2017, an agreement was announced that Los Angeles would apply to host the 2028 Summer Olympics. The agreement made Paris, France host the 2024 Summer Olympics. On September 13, 2017, the hosts for both Olympic games was announced at the 131st IOC Session in Lima, Peru.

Candidate City
 Los Angeles, California, United States (chosen)

References

2028
Olympics
Summer Olympics in the United States
2020s in California
Etruscan origins

There are three main hypotheses as to the origins of the Etruscan civilization. Autochthonous development in situ out of the Villanovan culture, as claimed by the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus who described the Etruscans as indigenous people who had always lived in Etruria. A migration from the Aegean sea, as claimed by a couple of Greek historians: Herodotus, who described them as a group of immigrants from Lydia in Anatolia, and Hellanicus of Lesbos who claimed that the Tyrrhenians were the Pelasgians originally from Thessaly, Greece The third hypotheses is reported by Livy and Pliny the Elder, the  Etruscans as related to Rhaetian people to the north and other populations living in the Alps.

German linguist Helmut Rix proposed the Tyrsenian language family, with Etruscan related to the Rhaetic language spoken in the Alps north of Etruria, and to the Lemnian language spoken in Lemons. In particular the Lemnian language could have arrived in the Aegean Sea during the Late Bronze Age, when Mycenaean rulers recruited groups of mercenaries from Sicily, Sardinia and various parts of the Italian peninsula.

The latest mtDNA study (2013) suggests that the Etruscans appear to fall very close to a Neolithic population from Central Europe and to other Tuscan populations.

References 

Etruscan civilization
Etruscan language

The Etruscan language was spoken and written by the Etruscans in the ancient area of Etruria (what is now Tuscany, western Umbria and northern Latium) and in parts of Lombardy, Veneto and Emilia-Romagna (where the Gauls took the place of the Etruscans), in Italy.

Inscriptions have been found in northwestern and west-central Italy in the region that still has a name that came from the Etruscans, Tuscany (from Latin tusc "Etruscans") and in Latium, north of Rome, in Umbria west of the Tiber, around Capua in Campania and in the Po Valley to the north of Etruria. That is probably the area in Italy in which the language was once spoken.

Other websites 
 Etruscan News Online, the Newsletter of the American Section of the Institute for Etruscan and Italic Studies.
Etruscan News back issues , Center for Ancient Studies at New York University.
Etruscology at Its Best, the website of Dr. Dieter H. Steinbauer, in English. Covers origins, vocabulary, grammar and place names.
 Viteliu: The Languages of Ancient Italy at web.archive.org.
 The Etruscan Language, the linguistlist.org site. Links to many other Etruscan language sites.

References

Language isolates
Etruscan civilization
Albanian language

The Albanian language () is an Indo-European language. It is spoken mostly in Albania (3,500,000), Kosovo and (500,000) Republic of North Macedonia.

Dialects
Ghegs, Tosks, Arbëresh, Arvanites, Arbanasi

References

Other websites 

 An overview of the Albanian language and culture 
 Albanian language family tree
 List of free online resources for learners 

Indo-European languages
Languages of Europe
Trialeti culture

The Trialeti culture was seen around the 2nd millennium B.C. In the late 3rd millennium B.C. settlements of the Kura-Araxes culture began to be replaced by early Trialeti culture sites. The Trialeti culture was the second culture to appear in the Caucasus, after the Kura-Araxes culture. The Trialeti culture shows close ties with the highly-developed cultures of the ancient world, particularly with the Aegean.

Related pages
Artaxiad dynasty of Iberia
Kura-Araxes culture
Shulaveri-Shomu culture

References 

History of Armenia
History of Georgia (country)
Kura-Araxes culture

The Kura-Araxes culture or the Early trans-Caucasian culture, a people that lived from 3400 BC until about 2000 BC.  The earliest evidence for this culture is found on the Ararat plain; thence it spread to Georgia by 3000 B.C.

The land they lived in are now Armenia, Georgia , Azerbaijan and the Caucasus.

References

Other websites 
The Chronology of the Caucasus During the Early Metal Age: Observations from Central Transcaucasus  - Giorgi L. Kavtaradze
The Beginnings of Metallurgy  - includes extensive discussion of Kura-Araxes metalworking

History of Georgia (country)
History of Armenia
History of Azerbaijan
Biodiesel

Biodiesel is a type of fuel prepared by changing vegetable oil, animal fat, special types of algae and possibly even sewage.  It is considered a type of renewable energy, since it all comes from living plants and animals.  It can be used to power an engine, usually for vehicles, including airplanes.  It replaces diesel that comes from petroleum, a type of fossil fuel.   

Biofuel prepared from biomass is different since it does not start from oil and uses a different chemical process to make the fuel.

Advantages and disadvantages
Biodiesel is much cleaner and has less pollution than diesel fuel made from fossil fuels.  It also acts as a solvent (like soap). In fact, it cleans the engine so much that it might pull out old dirt in the engine and clog up the filters.  After the filters are replaced then it is fine.

In the United States and several other places, new laws say that regular diesel fuel must be low in sulfur.  This gets rid of pollution, especially acid rain, but it also makes the fuel less slippery.  Adding in biodiesel helps keep the fuel slippery and the engine running smoothly. 

Most biodiesel comes from plants.  This means a lot of farmland is used to grow plants for fuel instead of for feeding animals and people.  There are scientists, chemical engineers and agricultural engineers who are studying ways to use algae and saltwater plants to make oil.  This would not take away farmland that is used to grow food.  Also, some biodiesel comes from waste oil and waste animal fat, that would otherwise be thrown away.  NASA is testing biodiesel made from chicken fat to fuel their airplanes. 

All diesel fuel has a problem starting an engine in cold weather, but biodiesel has more of a problem.  This can be solved by mixing biodiesel and regular diesel at the right mixture.  Or by heating the fuel before it is used by the engine.  There might be a heater built into the vehicle for this.

Biodiesel from plants
Most biodiesel is made from oilseed.  Oilseed is any type of seed that has enough oil in it to be useful in making vegetable oil.  

In Brazil, castor beans are the best plants to make biodiesel.
In Germany biodiesel is usually made from rapeseeds.
Soybeans and sunflower seeds are commonly used in the United States.
In Thailand, the raw material will most likely come from palm oil, coconut oil, Jatropha oil, and animal fat.
Jatropha trees also grow in India and Africa.

Some people make their own biodiesel by converting old oil that is used in restaurants to fry foods.  The exhaust smells a bit like french fries.

Biodiesel from algae
Someday algae might be used to make more biodiesel than is made today with vegetable oil.  Algae can be grown in places that food cannot be grown in, so it would not take food away from people.   But right now it is still too expensive, but scientists are looking at ways to make the process better.

References

Biofuels
Nimrod

Nimrod (; ,  an-Namrūd) according to the Bible was the son of Cush, grandson of Ham and a "mighty hunter before the Lord" who built cities at Akkad, Erech (Uruk), and Babel. According to many legends, and as told by the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, he became an evil tyrant who forced all his subjects to bake bricks for the Tower of Babel.

References

Old Testament people
Julie Kavner

Julie Deborah Kavner (born September 7, 1950 in Los Angeles, California) is an Emmy Award-winning American actress and comedienne, best known for playing Brenda Morgenstern on Rhoda in the 1970s, as an actress in several Woody Allen-directed films and playing the voice of Marge Simpson on the animated television show The Simpsons. She also voices Marge's sisters Patty and Selma.

Filmography

Film

Television

Video games
The Simpsons (1991) – Marge Simpson
Storybook Weaver (1994) - Mayzie Bird
The Simpsons Cartoon Studio (1996) – Marge Simpson
Virtual Springfield (1997) – Marge Simpson, Patty and Selma Bouvier
Simpsons Bowling (1999) – Marge Simpson, Patty and Selma Bouvier
The Simpsons Wrestling (2001) – Marge Simpson
The Simpsons: Road Rage (2001) – Marge Simpson
The Simpsons Skateboarding (2002) – Marge Simpson
The Simpsons: Hit & Run (2003) – Marge Simpson, Patty and Selma Bouvier
Storybook Weaver Deluxe (2004) - Mayzie Bird
The Simpsons Game (2007) –– Marge Simpson, Patty and Selma Bouvier
The Simpsons: Tapped Out (2012) – Marge Simpson, Patty and Selma Bouvier

Music video
"Do the Bartman" (1990) – Marge Simpson

Theme park
The Simpsons Ride (2008) – Marge Simpson, Patty and Selma Bouvier

Other websites 
 

1950 births
Living people
American television actors
Actors from Los Angeles
Emmy Award winning actors
Bridge (instrument)

For other meanings, see Bridge (disambiguation).

 
A bridge on a string instrument is something that stands on the body of the instrument and supports the strings.  It sends the vibrations of the strings to the main part of the instrument so that the sound can be heard.

The bridge of an instrument in the violin family (violin, viola, cello and double bass) can be seen very clearly.  It is a piece of hardwood which is shaped like a bridge.  The top is like an arch in shape because the player needs to be able to play on one string at a time.  The feet of the bridge have to be shaped to fit on the front of the instrument (the “belly”) which is curved.  The bridge is not fixed to the instrument: it is only held up because of the tension (tightness) of the strings.  The soundpost, a small wooden column inside the body, is also held up by tension of the strings and the bridge.
The part of the string which vibrates and gives the note is the part between the bridge and the top of the fingerboard (or the part between the bridge and where the player puts his finger).  The other end of the string is fixed to a tailpiece.

On a banjo the bridge works in the same way, but on a guitar the bridge is fixed to the instrument and the strings are fixed to the bridge.

There are even instruments with moveable bridges such as the Japanese koto which has a separate bridge for each string.

String instrument construction
Bridge (disambiguation)

Bridge may mean:
 Bridge (structure), a structure built so that a transportation route can cross above an obstacle.
 The Bridge (documentary movie), a movie about suicides on the Golden Gate Bridge.
 Bridge (dentistry), a fixed prosthesis used to replace missing teeth.
 Bridge (exercise), most commonly the balancing of the body on the head and feet.
 Bridge (graph theory), an edge whose removal disconnects a graph.
 Bridge (grappling), a move intended to dislodge an opponent in top control.
 Bridge (prosody), a point in a line of poetry where a break in a word-unit cannot occur.
 Bridge (ship), the area from which a ship is commanded.
 Main Bridge (Star Trek), the control center of Starfleet vessels in the Star Trek universe.
 Contract bridge, a card game.
 Bridge loan, a short-term loan to cover a gap in time until a new long-term financing is realised.
 Adobe Bridge, a program included with the Adobe Creative Suite to link the other programs together
 Hashiwokakero, meaning "build bridges", a Japanese puzzle.
 "bridge the gap": a phrase meaning to connect different things or ideas
 Bridge cameras combine some of the advantages of large and small cameras 
 Bridge Records, Inc., a record label
In chemistry:
 Bridge (chemical), an unbranched chain of atoms or an atom or a covalent bond connecting two bridgeheads in a polycyclic compound.
 A Salt bridge, in chemistry, is a laboratory device used to connect the oxidation and reduction half-cells of a galvanic cell (electrochemical cell)
 Salt bridge (protein) (or salt bond), in protein chemistry, is the term used to denote chemical bonds between positively and negatively charged side-chains of proteins.
In electronics:
 Bridge rectifier, an electronic circuit for converting alternating current to direct current.
 Wheatstone bridge, an electronic circuit for comparing resistors, capacitors or inductors to high standards of accuracy. 
In music:
 Bridge (instrument), the device that anchors the strings to or holds the strings above the body of a string instrument, such as a violin or guitar.
 Bridge (music), an interlude that connects two parts of song.
In computers:
 Bridge pattern, a computer science design used to separate an abstraction and its actual implementation.
 Network bridge, an electronic device used to connect two computer or telephone network segments.

People 
 Frank Bridge, composer

Places with the name Bridge 
 Bridge, Kent, a place in Kent, England.
 Scotland has many place names in the style of Bridge of Allan.

Related pages
 Bridge the gap
Brazilwood

Brazilwood or Pau-Brasil, sometimes known as Pernambuco wood (Caesalpina echinata) is a Brazilian tree. It has a dense, orange-red wood (which takes a high shine), and it is the most frequently used wood for making bows for string instruments from the violin family.  The wood also gives a red dye called brazilin.

There are several trees in this family which have very similar properties, including the development of red dye. The term "brazilwood" is sometimes used for these other species as well. The tree was exploited for their dye in the 18th century, and is now lost over much of its original range.

When Pedro Álvares Cabral explored Brazil, he named it after the brazilwood that he found there.

References 

Trees
Fabaceae
Chav

Chav (male) and chavette (female) are mainly negative, unkind slang words used in the United Kingdom for a subcultural stereotype of young underclass white people. Chav: "a young working class person who dresses in casual sports clothing or a baseball cap".

They may wear fashion based on American hip-hop such as fake gold jewellery and designer clothing, combined with elements of working class British street fashion. Many are either school age or late teens/early twenties and may come from a family culture of social security claimants ("SS claimants"). The term first appeared in dictionaries in 2005.  They tend to listen to R&B, hip hop, UK garage, grime and reggae and drum & bass music.

"Chav" has started to mean a variety of things. Most chavs do not wear Burberry – this happened mostly in the '90s and early '00s. Chavs are stereotypically narrow-minded and more often than not, below average intelligence. Chavs also tend to use slang language to appear "cooler" and more "edgy".

Chavs may be associated with criminality, including: assault, mugging, robbery, burglary and car crime. Anti-social behaviour orders (Asbos) were introduced to tackle such persistent offending.

“Chavette” is a term used to describe female chavs.

Pop culture
In 2011, Owen Jones published his first book, Chavs: The Demonization of the Working Class. Jones says in it that 'chav' is a word used to make working-class people seem less human. In 2014, The Guardian Suzanne Moore wrote an article calling R&B singer and songwriter Tulisa a chav.

References

British culture
Pejoratives
Slang
Council house

The council house is a form of public housing found in Ireland and the United Kingdom, sometimes called social housing in modern times. Council houses were built and operated by local councils to help the local population. As of 2005, approximately 20% of the country's housing is owned by local councils or by housing associations.  The largest council estate in the country (and one of the largest in the world) is Becontree, Dagenham, with a population of over 100,000. Building started in the 1920s and took nearly 20 years to finish.

The Republic of Ireland has a similar public housing system, Local Authority Accommodation.

References 

Public services in the United Kingdom
Houses
Midnight Madness

Midnight Madness is a 1980 comedy movie from Walt Disney Productions, starring David Naughton. The movie is about a group of college students who participate in an all night puzzle solving race. It is Michael J. Fox's first film role.

The movie did not do well in theaters and many critics did not like it. However, the movie has gained a cult following, and has been the inspiration for many real-life puzzle and alternate reality games.

Related pages
It's a Mad Mad Mad Mad World
The Last of Sheila
Scavenger Hunt
Million Dollar Mystery
Rat Race

Other websites

 
 
 
 
Fagabeefe: An unofficial fan page devoted to the film 
  Another website about the movie
Roger Ebert's 1980 review 
Comprehensive Synopsis/Review at 3B Theater
DVD review at Digitally Obsessed
Hot Springs, Arkansas's 2006 Midnight Madness 
Midnight Madness Brevard County, Florida

1980 movies
Disney movies
English-language movies
Barvas

Barvas or Barabhas is a village on the Isle of Lewis. It is said to have the biggest percentage of Gaelic speakers in Scotland, (74.7% here speak Gaelic.)

Villages in Scotland
Lewis

Lewis is the northern part of Lewis and Harris, the largest island in the Western Isles (or Outer Hebrides) of Scotland. 

Its biggest town is called Stornoway, which has a population of over 5000. Most people on the island speak Gaelic. On the island, there is a town called Barvas, which is the place which has the biggest percentage of Gaelic speakers (74.7% of the people speak Gaelic).

Related pages 
Callanish stones

Inner and Outer Hebrides
Stornoway

Stornoway is the biggest town in the Outer Hebrides. It is on the Isle of Lewis, and over 5,000 people live there. It has nearby the Stornoway Airport, an old RAF airbase which now acts a link between the island and the Scottish mainland.

Towns in Scotland
Skye

Skye is the largest and most northerly island in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. More than 9000 people live there, and half of the people speak Gaelic. The main settlement is Portree, known for its picturesque harbour.

The island has been occupied since the mesolithic period and has a colourful history. It was rule by the Norse for 400 years, then dominated by Clan MacLeod and Clan Donald. The Highland Clearances of the 19th century caused a decline in the population from over 20,000 to around 9,200 in the early 21st century. The population has risen 4% from the census of 1991. The main industries are tourism, agriculture, fishing and whisky-distilling.

Skye is part of the Highland Council local government area and is now linked to the mainland by a road bridge. The island is renowned for its spectacular scenery, vibrant culture and heritage, and its abundant wildlife, including the Golden Eagle, Red Deer and Atlantic Salmon.

The Clans 
Skye has a rich heritage of ancient monuments from the clans, especially castles. Dunvegan Castle has been the seat of Clan MacLeod since the 13th century. It may have been inhabited by a single family for longer than any other house in Scotland.

The 18th century Armadale Castle, once home of Clan Donald was abandoned as a residence in 1925 but now hosts the Clan Donald Centre. Nearby are the ruins of two more MacDonald strongholds, Knock Castle, and Dunscaith Castle, the legendary home of Queen Scáthach.

Geography 
At 1,656 square kilometres (639 sq mi), Skye is the second-largest island in Scotland after Lewis and Harris.

The Black Cuilin 

The Black Cuillin, low mountains mainly composed of basalt and gabbro, include 12 peaks the Scots call 'Munros'. This is some of the most dramatic and challenging mountain terrain in Scotland. The ascent of Sgùrr a' Ghreadaidh is one of the longest rock climbs in Britain and the Inaccessible Pinnacle is the only peak in Scotland that requires technical climbing skills to reach the summit. A full crossing of the Cuillin ridge may take 15–20 hours to complete.

References 

Inner and Outer Hebrides
2022 Winter Olympics

The 2022 Winter Olympics, formally called the  XXIV Olympic Winter Games, is the 24th Games of the Winter Olympics. It is an international winter sports event that will be held from February 4 to February 20, 2022. The winning bid was announced in the summer of 2015 and Beijing was chosen, and since it hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics, it will be the first city ever to host both the Summer and the Winter Olympics.

Candidate Cities
 Beijing, China (chosen)
 Almaty, Kazakhstan 
 Oslo, Norway

Bids

Asia
  Harbin, China: Li Zhanshu, governor of Heilongjiang, has said that "If we fail again for the 2018 Games, we are determined to win the 2022 Winter Games." Harbin bid for the 2010 Winter Olympics, but did not make the short list. 
 Kazakhstan: Kazakhstan considers to bid for the 2022 games, either in Almaty, the former capital, largest city, and financial centre, or divided between Almaty and Nur-Sultan, the capital.  The Almaty alternative gives higher chance of winning, but the divided alternative is preferred by the government because of lower cost, since more arenas and hotels exist already. Kazakhstan hosted the 2011 Asian Winter Games, which can be seen as preparation for hosting the Winter Olympic Games in 2022. The Asian Winter Games were divided between Astana and Almaty. On November 29, 2011, Almaty was chosen to host the 2017 Winter Universiade.

Europe
  Lviv, Ukraine
  Prahova Valley, Romania -  Romanian Prime Minister Călin Popescu Tăriceanu said on June 14 2007 that the country is thinking about a bid for the Games to be held there.
  Zurich, Switzerland

North America
  Quebec City, Canada
  Salt Lake City, Utah, United States: Salt Lake City considered a bid for either the 2018 Games or the 2022 Games. The city hosted the 2002 Winter Olympics.
  Montreal, Quebec, Canada – Lake Placid, New York, USA: Officials from Quebec and the state of New York have met to talk about the possibility of a bid together. With Vancouver hosting the 2010 Winter Olympics, the earliest that Canada hoped to host the Olympics was 2022. Montreal, Canada hosted the 1976 Summer Games and Lake Placid hosted the 1932 and 1980 Winter Games.

South America
  Santiago, Chile

References

Olympics
Winter Olympics in Asia
2020s in China
2022 in Asia
February 2022 events
Sport in Beijing