cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
List of current heads of state and government

This page lists the national rulers in the world. They are heads of state and heads of government.

In some cases they are de facto leaders not occupying either of those positions or prime ministers who are not heads of government. 195 states (193 UN members + Vatican City + Taiwan) are the basic list.

Also there are leaders of 10 other national entities (quasi and unrecognized states, and of 7 in exile and/or alternative governments (only in exile governments that exercised power or succeeded governments that exercised power).

For local rulers, for example rulers of dependencies and of the main administrative divisions, such as autonomous regions, insular or peninsular regions, successors of historical regions or regions with strong identity, regions in the news, etc.) see List of the main local rulers.

Member and observer states of the United Nations

Other states
The following states control their territory and are recognised by at least one UN member state.

The following states control their territory, but are not recognised by any UN member states.

Other governments
These alternative governments are recognized as legitimate by at least one UN member.

Other entities

Notes

Heads of government

National rulers
Notre Dame

Notre Dame in French is the name give to a number of religious buildings, consecrated to the Virgin Mary. it was burned in the 2019 Notre Dame fire

Churches and cathedrals in France
Notre Dame de Paris, probably the most famous
Bayeux Cathedral, called Notre-Dame de Bayeux
Notre-Dame de Chartres
Notre-Dame de la Garde in Marseille
Notre-Dame de Reims
Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp
Strasbourg Cathedral, called Notre-Dame de Strasbourg

Other
University of Notre Dame in the U.S. state of Indiana
Notre Dame College, Dhaka in Bangladesh 
Notre Dame de Paris, the original French title of a novel by Victor Hugo published in 1831. In English, this novel is commonly called The Hunchback of Notre Dame.
Contact lens

A contact lens is a type of lens that are put directly onto the eye in order to help people see better. They are a different option instead of glasses. They have to be prescribed by an eye doctor. Some contact lenses can be used many times, while other types are disposable products used only once and then thrown away.

Other websites 

 Consumer Guide to Contact Lenses (Articles)
 Consumer Guide to Contact Lenses  (Articles)
 Contact Lens Wearing Guide
 British Contact Lens Association 
 Contact Lens History 

Optometry
Chara (singer)

Chara (born as  Miwa Watabiki, on January 13, 1968) is a Japanese singer, songwriter, musician and actress. She began performing in 1991. "Swallowtail Butterfly - あいのうた" is one of her popular songs.

Early life
Chara grew up in Kawaguchi, Saitama. She started learning the piano from age four, and starting composing songs in elementary school.

References

Other websites 
 Official Site - CharaWeb

1968 births
Living people
Japanese singers
Japanese movie actors
Japanese songwriters
J-pop
People from Saitama Prefecture
Notre-Dame de Reims

Notre Dame de Reims is a cathedral in Reims. It was built in the 13th century. It is not as old as Notre-Dame de Paris or Notre-Dame de Chartres. The building process started in 1211. Most of the works were done in 1275. It was built before the Cathedrals of Strasbourg, Amiens and Beauvais, which are also called Notre Dame.

The cathedral is one of the best examples of Gothic architecture. It has been a World Heritage Site since 1991. In 2006, about 1.5 million people visited it.

The Kings of France were crowned in this cathedral. The last coronation ceremony was that of Charles X of France in 1825.

References 

Roman Catholic Cathedrals
Cathedrals in France
Reims
Bayeux Cathedral

Bayeux Cathedral, also called the Cathedral of Our Lady of Bayeux (), is a cathedral. It is in Bayeux, in Normandy. The current cathedral was consecrated on July 14, 1077. It is part of a larger complex, a bishop's palace. It was built as a replacement for an earlier church which dated from the Merovingian era. It was here that Harold Godwinson swore an oath that later led to the Norman Conquest.

Other websites
Les Amis de Cathedrale de Bayeux

Gallery

References

Roman Catholic Cathedrals
Cathedrals in France
Normandy
1131



Events 
 May 9 — Tintern Abbey is founded.
 Ramon Berenguer IV becomes Count of Barcelona.
 Alberich becomes Archdeacon of Reims.
 Fulk of Anjou and Melisende become King and Queen of Jerusalem.
 Construction begins on the Beisi Pagoda in China (completed in 1162).

Births 
 King Valdemar I of Denmark (d. 1182)

Deaths 
 March 1 — King Stephen II of Hungary (b. 1101)
 April 30 — Saint Adjutor
 August 21 — King Baldwin II of Jerusalem
 December 4 — Omar Khayyám, Persian poet, astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher (b. 1048)
 Alger of Liège, French monk at Cluny (b. 1055)
 Bohemund II of Antioch (b. 1108)
 Gaston IV of Béarn
 Joscelin I, Count of Edessa
 Peter the Hermit, French priest and crusader
 Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona (b. 1082)

1131
1107

Year 1107 (MCVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events 
 William Warelwast becomes Bishop of Exeter. 
 Emperor Toba ascends the throne of Japan.
 Chinese money printed in 3 colours to stymie counterfeiting.
 Alexander I inherits the Scottish crown with the death of Edgar of Scotland.
 The highly cultivated emperor of China, Emperor Huizong of Song, writes his Treatise on Tea.

Births 
 June 12 — Emperor Gaozong of Song of China (d. 1187)
 Henry II of Austria (d. 1177)

Deaths 
 January 8 — King Edgar of Scotland (b. 1074)
 August 9 — Emperor Horikawa of Japan (b. 1079)
 Robert Fitzhamon, Lord of Gloucester
 Kilij Arslan I, Sultan of Rüm
 Roger Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk
 Cheng Yi, Song Dynasty Chinese Neo-Confucian philosopher (b. 1033)
 Mi Fu, Chinese poet, painter, and calligrapher (born 1051)
1086



Events 
 The Domesday Book is completed in England.
 Emperor Shirakawa of Japan starts his cloistered rule.
 The Imam Ali Mosque is rebuilt by the Seljuk Malik Shah I after being destroyed by fire.
 May 24 — Pope Victor III succeeds Pope Gregory VII as the 158th pope, though he does not accept election until May 9, 1087.
 October 23 – Battle of az-Zallaqah: Alfonso VI of León and Castile is defeated by the Almoravids, who had been called into Spain by Abbad III of Sevilla.

Deaths 
 May 21 — Richilde, Countess of Mons and Hainaut
 May 21 — Wang Anshi, Chinese statesman, economist and poet (b. 1021)
 July 17 — King Canute IV of Denmark (b. 1043)
 September 25 — William VIII, Duke of Aquitaine (b. 1025)
 Sima Guang, Chinese historian and statesman (b. 1019)
1039



Events 
 June 4 — Henry III becomes King of Germany. 
 The Abbey of Bec is founded.
 Bretislav I of Bohemia invades Poland.

Deaths 
 10 March — Eudes of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony
 June 4 — Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor
 Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig, Prince of Gwynedd
 Unsuri, Persian poet
1030

1030 (MXXX) was a common year when the Julian calendar was used. It was the thirtieth year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century.

Events

Europe 
 July 29 — Battle of Stiklestad (Norway): Olav Haraldsson loses to the people he ruled and is killed in the fight. The people he lost to were called "pagan" because they were not Christian. Later on, Olav is made a saint and is called the patron saint of Norway and Rex perpetuum Norvegiae ('the eternal king of Norway', or 'King of Norway forever').
 The city of Kaunas in Lithuania is founded.
 The city of Tartu in Estonia is founded. 
 Thalwil, Switzerland, is talked about for the first time
 Henry I of France fights against his father Robert.

Asia 
 The Song Dynasty Chinese historian and scholar Ouyang Xiu earned his jinshi degree at the age of 22 by passing the highest level tests in the country. This was his third time to take the test. This degree let him work for the government as a scholar-official.
 Byzantine Emperor Romanus III attacks Syria.
 Masud begins to rule the Ghaznavid Empire after the death of his father Mahmud.

Births 
 July 26 — Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Saint Stanislaw (died 1079)
 Baldwin VI, Count of Flanders (died 1070)
 Roger I de Montgomery, Norman nobleman, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury (died 1093)
 Vsevolod I of Kiev (died 1093)

Deaths 
 April 30 — Mahmud of Ghazni
 July 19 — Adalberon, bishop of Laon
 July 29 — King Olaf II of Norway (born 995)
 September 30 — William V, Duke of Aquitaine (born 969)

References
1448



Events of 1448 
January 5/ 6 – Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden dies with no designated heir, leaving all three kingdoms with vacant thrones. Brothers Bengt Jönsson Oxenstierna and Nils Jönsson Oxenstierna are selected to serve as co-regents of Sweden.
June 20 – The Regency period of Sweden ends with the election of Karl Knutsson Bonde as King Charles VIII of Sweden.
June 28 – Charles VIII of Sweden is publicly hailed as king at Mora Stones.
September 28 – Christian of Oldenburg, betrothed to Queen Dowager Dorothea of Brandenburg, becomes King Christian I of Denmark.
October 17 – Battle of Kosovo – Hungarian forces under John Hunyadi are defeated by the Turks due to the treachery of Prince Dan of Wallachia and George Brankovic of Serbia.
Queens' College, Cambridge founded by Margaret of Anjou.
Vatican Library founded by Pope Nicholas V.
Vlad III the Impaler becomes reigning Prince of Wallachia for two months before being deposed by Vladislav II.
After a long episode of drought, flood, locust infestation, and famine in Ming Dynasty China since the year 1434, these natural afflicitions finally wane and agriculture and commerce return to a state of normalcy.

Births 
November 4 – King Alphonso II of Naples (died 1495)
date unknown
Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia (died 1478)
Nicholas I, Duke of Lorraine (died 1473)

Deaths 
January 6 – Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (born 1418)
September 23 – Adolph I, Duke of Cleves (born 1373)
October 31 – John VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (born 1390)
date unknown – Zhu Quan, Prince of Ning, Chinese general (born 1391)
1449



Events of 1449 
January 6 – Constantine XI is crowned Byzantine Emperor, at Mistra. He was the last in a line of rulers that can be traced to the founding of Rome.
April 7 – The last Antipope, Felix V abdicates.
April 19 – Pope Nicholas V elected by the Council of Basel
April 25 – The Council of Basel dissolves itself.
August 13 – Brandenburg Margrave Albrecht Achilles takes the Lichtenau fortress from Nuremberg in the First Margrave War.
September 8 – Battle of Tumu Fortress – the Oirat Mongols defeat the  Ming Dynasty army and capture the Zhengtong Emperor of China; the latter is officially deposed while his brother ascends as the Jingtai Emperor the next year in 1450.
 October 29 – French recapture Rouen from the English

Births 
January 1 – Lorenzo de' Medici, Italian statesman (died 1492)
October 21 – George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV of England and Richard III of England (died 1478)
date unknown – Domenico Ghirlandaio, Italian artist (died 1494)
probable – Ilham Ghali khan of Kazan Khanate, (died 1490)

Deaths 
May 20 – Infante Pedro, Duke of Coimbra (born 1392)
October 27 – Ulugh Beg, Timurid ruler and astronomer (born 1394)
date unknown
Anne Beauchamp, 15th Countess of Warwick (born 1443)
Alexander of Islay, Earl of Ross, Lord of the Isles
1277



Events 
 Burma's Pagan empire begins to disintegrate after being defeated by Kublai Khan at the Battle of Ngasaunggyan, at Yunnan near the Chinese border.
 Some 50,000 leaders and citizens of the Southern Song Dynasty of China become the first recorded inhabitants of Macau, as they seek refuge from the invading Mongol Empire. They also stayed for a short period in Kowloon. Some hundred years later the place where they stayed became Sung Wong Toi.
 Mamluk sultan Baibars invades Anatolia and captures the emirates which once composed the Sultanate of Rüm.
 Llywelyn ap Gruffyd is subdued by King Edward I of England in the First Welsh War.
 St George's cross is first used as the flag of England.
 The philosophical doctrine Averroism is banned from Paris at a condemnation at the University of Paris.
 In Japan, a 20 kilometer stone wall defending the coast of Hakata Bay in Fukuoka is completed; it is built in response to the attempted invasion by the Mongol Empire in 1274.
 November 25 – Pope Nicholas III succeeds Pope John XXI as the 188th pope.
 Third Mongol Golden Horde raid against Lithuania.

Births 
 Sempad of Armenia (died c. 1310)
 Isabella of Mar, first wife of Robert Bruce (approximate date; died 1296)

Deaths 
 May 1 – Stefan Uros I of Serbia
 May 20 – Pope John XXI (born 1215)
 July 1 – Baibars, Mameluk sultan of Egypt (born 1223)
 October 27 – Walter de Merton, Lord Chancellor of England and founder of Merton College, Oxford
 Folke Johansson Ängel, Archbishop of Uppsala
1269



Events

Europe 
 June 19 – King Louis IX of France orders all Jews found in public without an identifying yellow badge to be fined ten livres of silver.
 Pélerin de Maricourt first describes magnetic poles and remarks on the nonexistence of isolated magnetic poles.
 King Otakar II of Bohemia inherits Carinthia and part of Carniola, making him the most powerful prince within the Holy Roman Empire; the empire lacking an emperor during the ongoing great interregnum, Otakar II was one of the most powerful men in Europe.
 The construction of Blair Castle in Scotland is begun by John Comyn.

Africa 
 The Almohad dynasty of caliphs (not universally accepted) that once ruled most of North Africa and Al-Andalus (Moorish Spain) is extinguished when Idris II is murdered in the dynasty's last remaining possession, Marrakesh.
 The Berber Marinid completes the conquest of Morocco, replacing the Almohad dynasty which it defeated in Marrakesh.

Asia 
 The Eastern Orthodox Patriarchy of Antioch returns to Antioch after a 171-year exile, during which it had been replaced by the Latin Patriarch of Antioch.

Births 
 Philip of Artois
 Huang Gongwang, Chinese painter (died 1354)
 Vedantadesika, Hindu poet and philosopher

Deaths 
 John de Balliol, father of John Balliol, King of Scotland
 Svarn, King of Galicia
1266



Events

Europe 
 February 26 – In the Battle of Benevento, an army led by Charles, Count of Anjou, defeats a combined German and Sicilian force led by King Manfred of Sicily. Manfred is killed in the battle and Pope Clement IV invests Charles as king of Sicily and Naples.
 July – Mary de Ferrers ordered to surrender land and Liverpool Castle to Edmund, second son of Henry III.
 October – In England, the Second Barons' War winds down as supporters of the slain rebel leader Simon de Montfort make an offer of peace to the king in the Dictum of Kenilworth; after slight modifications to the peace settlement, it is agreed to the following year.
 The war between Scotland and Norway ends as King Alexander III of Scotland and King Magnus VI of Norway agree to the Treaty of Perth, which cedes the Western Isles and Isle of Man to Scotland in exchange for a large monetary payment.
 In France, the gold écu and silver grosh coins are minted for the first time.

Asia 
 Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, brother and uncle of Marco Polo reach Kublai Khan's capital Khanbaliq (now Beijing) in China, setting the stage for Marco's famous expedition starting five years later. Kublai Khan sends the Polos back with a message requesting the pope dispatch western scholars to teach in the Mongol Empire; however, this request is largely ignored.
 The Mamluk sultan Baibars expands his domain, capturing the city of Byblos (in present-day Lebanon) and the important castle of Toron from crusader states, and defeating the Armenians at Cilicia.

Births 
 Hethum II of Armenia (died 1307)
 Beatrice Portinari, Dante Alighieri's beloved and guide through Heaven in The Divine Comedy (died 1290)

Deaths 
 February 26 – King Manfred of Sicily
 October 21 – Birger jarl, Swedish regent and founder of Stockholm (born about 1210)
 Berke, khan of the Golden Horde
 Hugh Bigod, Justiciar of England
 Ariq Boke, regent of the Mongol Empire
 Eudes of Burgundy, Count of Nevers (born 1230)
 John of Ibelin, jurist of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (born 1215)
 Duke Świętopełk II of Pomerania
 Marie de Saint-Clair, grand master of the Priory of Sion
 May 7 — Farid-ud-din Ganj Shakar
Coelurosauria

Coelurosauria is the clade containing all theropod dinosaurs more closely related to birds than to carnosaurs.

This is a varied group that includes tyrannosaurs, ornithomimosaurs, compsognathids and maniraptors; Maniraptora includes birds, the only descendents of coelurosaurs alive today.

All Paraves discovered so far have been coelurosaurs. It is probable that all coelurosaurs were feathered.

Some diagnostic characteristics of coelurosaurs include elongated arms and well-developed hinge-like ankles (possible rotation of the ankle is reduced, which is helpful during locomotion). These features may be lost or modified by later coelurosaurs (birds, for example).

An increase in the proportion of the brain occupied by the cerebrum seems to have occurred in the Coelurosauria and "continued throughout the evolution of maniraptorans and early birds".

Fossil history
A few fossil traces of the Coelurosauria date back as far as the Upper Triassic. A possible, but not confirmed, example would be the archosaur Protoavis. What has been found between then and the start of the late Jurassic is fragmentary.

Many nearly complete fossil coelurosaurians are known from the late Jurassic. Archaeopteryx is known from Solnhofen limestone at 155-150 million years ago (mya). Ornitholestes, the troodontid WDC DML 110, Coelurus fragilis and Tanycolagreus topwilsoni are all known from the Morrison Formation in Wyoming at about 150 mya. Epidendrosaurus and Pedopenna are known from the Daohugou Beds in China, whose age is still being debated, but may be about 160 Ma or 145 mya.

The wide range of fossils in the late Jurassic and morphological evidence suggests that coelurosaurian differentiation was virtually complete before the end of the Jurassic.

In the early Cretaceous, a superb range of coelurosaurian fossils (including avians) are known from the Yixian Formation in Liaoning. All known theropod dinosaurs from the Yixian Formation are coelurosaurs. Many of the coelurosaurian lineages survived to the end of the Cretaceous period (about 65 Ma) and fossils of some lineages, such as the Tyrannosauroidea, are best known from the late Cretaceous. Most coelurosaur groups became extinct in the K/T extinction event. Only the Neornithes (modern birds) survived, and continued to diversify into the numerous forms found today.

There is consensus among paleontologists that birds are the descendants of coelurosaurs. Birds are classified by most paleontologists as belonging to the subgroup Maniraptora.

Related pages
 Origin of birds

References
Maniraptora

Maniraptors ("hand snatchers") is a clade of coelurosaurian dinosaurs starting in the Jurassic period.

Many paleontologists believe birds evolved from them some 150 or so million years ago. Hence, according to phylogenetic taxonomy, birds are by definition maniraptors, and the other maniraptors are their closest relatives. It is now known, from the Jehol biota, that many or all of this clade had feathers. They are often called dinobirds.

The most primitive (basal) member of the group may be Ornitholestes, and the most advanced (derived) of the non-bird maniraptors is Velociraptor and Deinonychus.

Coelurosaurs
IEEE 802.1X

IEEE 802.1 is the name for a number of high-level protocols  for computer networks. In this context, IEEE 802.1X helps secure such a network. It defines methods to authenticate devices and to authorise the access to certain resources. A dedicated server checks information received from a "supplicant". Depending on the result of the check, access to the given resource is granted or denied.

Other websites
 IEEE page on 802.1X 
 IEEE standard can be retrieved at no charge through the GetIEEE802 program:  
 Using 802.1x port authentication to control who can connect to your network 
 Configure RADIUS for secure 802.1x wireless LAN
 How to self-sign a RADIUS server for secure 802.1x PEAP or EAP-TTLS authentication
 Configuring  FreeRADIUS for 802.1x
 WIRE1x  
 Deployment of IEEE 802.1X for Wired Networks Using Microsoft Windows
 Steve Riley's article on the 802.1x vulnerabilities

Computers
Software Development Kit

A software development kit (SDK or "devkit") is usually a set of development tools that allows a software developer to create applications for a certain software package, software framework, hardware platform, computer system, video game console, operating system, or similar platform. 

SDKs vary greatly between a simple application programming interface to hardware used to simulate a system.

Computers
Tagged Image File Format

Tagged Image File Format (also known as TIFF) is a container format for storing images, including photographs and line art. It is now under the control of Adobe. Originally created by the company Aldus for use with what was then called "desktop publishing," TIFF is a popular format for color and black and white images. The TIFF format is widely supported by image-manipulation applications, by publishing and page layout applications, by scanning, faxing, word processing, optical character recognition and other applications.  Adobe Systems, which acquired Aldus, now holds the copyright to the TIFF specification. TIFF has not had a major update since 1992, though several Aldus/Adobe technical notes have been published with minor extensions to the format, and several specifications, including TIFF/EP, have been based on the TIFF 6.0 specification.

References

Other websites 
 Adobe TIFF Resources page : Adobe links to the specification and main TIFF resources
 LibTIFF Home Page : Widely used library used for reading and writing TIFF files as well as TIFF file processing command line tools
 TIFF File Format FAQ and TIFF Tag Reference: Everything you always wanted to know about the TIFF File Format but were afraid to ask
 The BigTIFF File Format Proposal: Breaking the 4 gigabyte boundary
 TIFF description at Digital Preservation (The Library of Congress)
 TIFF Revision 4.0: Specification for revision 4.0, in HTML (warning: for historical purposes only, the TIFF 6.0 spec contains the full 4.0 revision)
 TIFF Revision 5.0: Specification for revision 5.0, in HTML (warning: for historical purposes only, the TIFF 6.0 spec contains the full 5.0 revision)
 TIFF Revision 6.0 : Specification for revision 6.0, in PDF (warning: there is an outdated and flawed section (jpeg compression), corrected in supplements, and there are additions to this PDF too – for the full specification, see link to Adobe TIFF Resources)
 TIFF Central  More TIFF links and information.

Computer graphics
Adobe Inc.
Ounce

The ounce (abbreviated: oz, the old Italian word onza, now spelled oncia) is a unit of mass or of weight in a number of different systems, including various systems of mass that form part of the imperial and United States customary systems. Its size can vary from system to system. The most commonly used ounces used today are the international avoirdupois ounce of about 28.35 grams, and the international troy ounce of about 31.1 grams.

Related pages 
 Fluid ounce

Other websites 
 Dictionary of Units: Ounce 

Imperial units
Units of mass
Units of volume
Camino

Camino was a free, open source web browser, that was designed for the Mac OS X operating system.  It was developed by the Camino Project, a community organization. It was based on Mozilla's Gecko rendering engine.

Version history

Web browsers
Mozilla
Pixels per inch

Pixels per inch (PPI) or pixel density is a measurement of the resolution of a computer display, related to the size of the display in inches and the total number of pixels in the horizontal and vertical directions. This measurement is often referred to as dots per inch, though that measurement more accurately refers to the resolution of a computer printer. PPI may also be used to describe the resolution of an image scanner or digital camera; in this context, it is synonymous with samples per inch.

Other websites
 All About Photo Printing - The Differences between DPI and PPI

Display technology

cs:PPI
Safari (web browser)

Safari is a web browser developed by Apple Inc. which can be downloaded free of charge.  It also comes with a Mac computer.  It is based on the WebKit engine, which is a fork of KDE's KHTML engine.

History 
Apple Inc. replaced the previous default web browser, Internet Explorer, with their Safari many years ago. Steve Jobs, the founder of Apple, said that it would be released in Jan 2003. Since then, 15 types of Safari have been made. The newest one was made in Sep 2021 for iOS, iPadOS, and macOS.

Features 
Safari has several features. Some are specific to certain operating systems or platforms.
Here is a list of some of Safari's features:
Email webpage (macOS only)
Save webpage
Topsites (pages most visited)
Support for HTML5
Development features
Opening webpage with another browser
Changing user agent
Web Inspector
Error console
Disable CSS

Notes

Apple software
Web browsers

mr:ॲपल सफारी#मोबाइल
Netscape Navigator

Netscape Navigator (or just Netscape) was a closed source web browser between 1994 to 1998. In 1999, they made it open source. It was first released in 1994. It was very popular during the 1990s. In 1998, Internet Explorer gained more market share, due to Microsoft bundling Internet Explorer with Windows 98. Netscape Communications Navigator Version 0.9B (Mosaic Netscape Navigator 0.9b) got released in June 13, 1994-present (at dejavu.org/1994win.htm).

Other websites 
 browser.netscape.com 
 dejavu.org

Web browsers
29 Amphitrite

29 Amphitrite is one of the biggest S-type asteroids, probably third in diameter after Eunomia and Juno, although Iris and Herculina are similar in size.

It is probably not a fully solid body, since its density is too low for a solid silicate object and much lower than Eunomia or Juno. Its orbit is less eccentric and inclined than those of its bigger cousins - being indeed the most circular of any asteroid found up to that point - and as a consequence it never becomes as bright as Iris or Hebe, especially as it is much farther from the Sun than those asteroids. It can reach magnitudes of around +8.6 at a favorable opposition, but more usually is around the binocular limit of +9.5.

Amphitrite was found by Albert Marth on March 1, 1854. It was the only asteroid he found. It is named after Amphitrite, a sea goddess in Greek mythology.

A moon is suspected based on the lightcurve data.

References

Other websites 
 Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Ephemeris

Asteroids
31 Euphrosyne

31 Euphrosyne is one of the biggest main belt asteroids, found by James Ferguson on September 1, 1854. It was the first asteroid found from North America. It is named after Euphrosyne, one of the Charites in Greek mythology.

It is the eighth biggest main belt asteroid and contains around 1% of the mass of the entire asteroid belt, but is a very dark body near the belt's farther edge. Because of that, Euphrosyne is never visible with binoculars, having a maximum magnitude at the best possible opposition of around +10.2, which is actually fainter than any of the thirty asteroids previously found.

It has not been studied a lot despite being one of the biggest asteroids. It is a normal C-type asteroid with a primitive surface. Its orbit, however, is quite unusual. It's orbit is similar to that of 2 Pallas in its high inclination and eccentricity. Whereas Pallas and Eris - the only bigger bodies with comparably tilted orbits - have nodes near perihelion and aphelion, Euphrosyne's perihelion lies at the northernmost point of its orbit. During a rare perihelic opposition Euphrosyne is very high in the sky from northern latitudes, but invisible from such countries as New Zealand and Chile.

Its apparently low density suggests that, unlike 10 Hygiea, 704 Interamnia and 52 Europa, Euphrosyne is a loosely-packed rubble pile (an asteroid that has been broken apart by a collision with all the pieces pulled together by gravity). Its rotation period is very common for big asteroids, but nothing is known of its axial tilt.

References 

 Orbital simulation

Asteroids
Chemistry (band)

Chemistry is a Japanese band. This group is made up of two members: Douchin and Kawabata.They were the winners of the Asayan audition (similar to the American Idol series) in 2000 organized by Sony Music Entertainment Japan. It was formed in 2001. The first single is "PIECES OF A DREAM".

Members
 Yoshiyuki Dochin (1978.11.17)
 Kaname Kawabata (1979.1.28)

Discography

Albums

Singles

Videos 
2002-04-10 R.A.W. ~Respect and Wisdom- Chemistry Acoustic Live (in DVD and VHS)
2003-02-14 Chemistry the Videos: 2001-2002 ~What You See is What You Get~ (in DVD and VHS)
2003-09-10 Two as We Stand ~Live and Documentary 2002-2003~ (in DVD and VHS)
2005-01-26 Chemistry in Suntory Hall ~Hibiki~ (in DVD and Universal Media Disc|UMD)
2006-08-09 Chemistry the Videos: 2003-2006 ~We Sing, Therefore We Are~ (in DVD and VHS)
2006-11-22 Chemistry 2006 Tour Fo(u)r (Blu-ray Disc)

References

Other websites
 Chemistry website on Sony Music Online Japan
 Chemistry Official Website
 Chemistry Club 
 Kaname Kawabata Official Website
 Yoshikuni Dohchin Official Website

J-pop bands
R&B bands
Musical groups established in 2001
Japanese pop music groups
Misia (Japanese singer)

MISIA (born July 7, 1978 in Fukuoka, Fukuoka Kyūshū, Japan) is a Japanese singer who is most popular in Japan. One of her most famous songs is called "Everything".She served as an honorary ambassador on the 10th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP10) and the TICAD V (5th Conference on African Development) .

Other websites 
 Rhythmedia Misia Web Official site (in Japanese)
 Rhythmedia  Official site (in Japanese)
 Rhythmedia Tribe  Label Site (in Japanese)
 Wiki.theppn page on Misia 

1978 births
Living people
Singers from Fukuoka Prefecture
Pikaia

Pikaia gracilens is regarded as the earliest known primitive chordate from the Middle Cambrian fossil found near Mount Pika in the Burgess Shale of British Columbia. It was discovered by Charles Walcott in 1911. Walcott classified it as a Polychaete worm.
It was about 40 mm in length and swam above the sea-floor. Pikaia may have filtered particles from the water as it swam along. Only 60 specimens have been found to date.

Fossils
Opabinia

Opabinia is a fossil animal found in Cambrian fossil deposits. Its sole species, Opabinia regalis, is known from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. The discoverer of Opabinia, Charles Doolittle Walcott, named it after a local mountain, Opabin Peak in the Canadian Rockies.
Thirty specimens of Opabinia are known and each ranges in size from 40 to 70 mm. The most intriguing feature of Opabinia are its five eyes found on the dorsal surface of the head. These eyes were used to search for food. Because of its flexible body it is not known whether Opabinia was pelagic or benthic.

References 
 Bergström, J. (1986). Opabinia and Anomalocaris, unique Cambrian arthropods. Lethaia 19, 241–246.
 Bergström, J. (1987). The Cambrian Opabinia and Anomalocaris. Lethaia 20, 187–188.
 Briggs, D. E. G. & Whittington, H. B. (1987). The affinities of the Cambrian animals Anomalocaris and Opabinia. Lethaia 20, 185–186.
 Budd, G. E. (1996). The morphology of Opabinia regalis and the reconstruction of the arthropod stem-group. Lethaia 29, 1–14.
 Whittington, H. B. (1975). The enigmatic animal Opabinia regalis, Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale, British Columbia. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 271, 1–43.
 Zhang, X. & Briggs, D. E. G. (2007). The nature and significance of the appendages of Opabinia from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale. Lethaia 40, 161–173.

Fossils
Cambrian
Invertebrates
Wiwaxia

Wiwaxia corrugata is an extinct species of animal known only from fossils found in Canada's Burgess Shale deposits. 

Wiwaxia somewhat resembles a very small porcupine (about 30 mm in diameter) with its quills pulled out. The body is covered by both spines and scales. The spines are believed to have been used for defence purposes. Wiwaxia probably grazed or scavenged by walking or crawling along the sediment. One hundred and forty specimens are known from the Burgess Shale. Similar scales and spines have turned up in similarly aged sediments from elsewhere around the world suggesting that Wiwaxia was widespread during the Cambrian.

Fossils
Cambrian

The Cambrian is the first geological period of the Palaeozoic era and the Phanerozoic eon. It lasted from 541 million years ago to 485.4 million years ago. Before it came the Ediacaran, and after it the Ordovician.

Biologists have learnt quite a lot about the soft parts of Cambrian animals. This is because places have been found where soft parts of organisms are preserved as well as their more resistant shells. This means our understanding of the Cambrian biota is better than that of some later periods.

Life on Earth changed greatly during the Cambrian period. Before the Cambrian, life was mostly small and simple. Complex organisms (metazoa) evolved during the Proterozoic era. But during the Cambrian period, some organisms used carbonate minerals for shells, so they had hard parts which could become fossils. There were many different kinds of life during the Cambrian period. This increase in the diversity of lifeforms was relatively rapid, and is called the Cambrian explosion. This adaptive radiation produced the first members of the main groups of animals, called phyla.

Almost all of this new life was in the oceans. There was little life on land except a layer of microbes. There were shallow seas near several continents, because a supercontinent called Pannotia had broken into smaller pieces. The seas were warm, and there was no ice at the North and South Pole. Many animals with hard shells appeared for the first time during the beginning of the Cambrian.

Change in the sea floor 
At the start of the Cambrian, the earlier animals (the Ediacaran biota) may have become extinct. It seems these older life forms were affected by new types which burrowed into the sea floor. This changed the conditions of life for the older types. The burrowing must have disturbed the mat of bacteria and algae which covered the sea-floor. About this time we find the first examples of many phyla. There are also some fossil traces on what was land at the time, so perhaps a few Cambrian organisms did leave the water.

Fossils 

Fossils from the Cambrian period sometimes show what the soft parts were like, unlike most fossils where the soft parts disappear. Fossils from the Burgess Shale in Ontario, Canada are examples of fossils with soft parts. Here are some life forms that first appeared in the Cambrian period, with the oldest ones first:
 First Cnidaria, and probable annelids, about 580 million years ago, in the Ediacaran period.
 Small shelly fossils (SSF), including first molluscs and brachiopods, about 537 million years ago.
 First trilobites, about 526 million years ago.
 First echinoderms, about 522 million years ago.
 First crustaceans, about 510 million years ago.

It is not always clear which phylum a fossil should be put into. So there are some fossils which are still being discussed, years after they were discovered.

References
Akshobhya

Buddha Akshobhya is one of the five Dhyani buddhas. In Chinese, he is called Ah-Chu-For. In Japanese, he is called Ashuku Nyoral and In Tibetan, he is called Mi Kyu Pa, or Sang Gye.

According to the scripture, Akobhyavyha Sutra, it is written that a monk wished to practice the Dharma and made a vow- not to feel angry or disgust at another being and he will manage anger appropriately. When he succeeded, he became Buddha Akshobya, an immovable one. He was given charge over the eastern paradise Abhirati Pure Land (the land of Joyous). It is believed that those who are reborn in this Pure Land will not be born in lower realms of consciousness and are never to be born again. In the Akshobhya sutra, it is also mentioned that the Buddha Shakyamuni, himself praised the patience of Akshobhya and making his determination a reality.

Akshobya represents Dharma that changes hatred and dislike into wisdom. He is shown touching the earth with his right hand and holding an upright thunderbolt in his left hand. Akshobya's blessings enables us to develop wisdom and understand the true nature of reality.

Akshobhya, meaning unshakeable, is one of many Buddhas found in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. He is described in the Mahayana Sutras of Northern Buddhism and in the Tantra literature. Although a relatively minor figure in the Sutras Akshobhya is of major importance in the Tantras occupying a central role in Vajrayana Buddhism at all levels. He is easily recognized in paintings by having a buddha-like form, blue body colour and the left hand supporting an upright vajra scepter. There are no other Buddhist figures that have this same iconographic appearance. Tantric depictions of Buddhas are commonly shown with jewel ornaments and a crown.

References 

Buddhas
Jambhala

In the Buddhist religion, Jambhala is the wealth-giving form of Avalokiteśvara or Chenrezig, the bodhisattva of compassion. 

Jambhala's blessings are to help others by eliminating poverty, so that they may practice the Dharma. There are five Jambhalas - Yellow Jambhala (overcomes pride), White Jambhala (overcomes attachment), Black Jambala (overcomes resentment), Green Jambhala (overcomes jealousy) and Red Jambhala (overcomes greed). For instance, the White Jambhala is shown sitting on a turquoise dragon and his left hand holds a mongoose that spews out precious jewels.

Buddhist gods and goddesses
Bodhi

Bodhi (Sanskrit) or Enlightenment refers to full awakening where all limitations have been removed from the mind. All positive potential including unlimited compassion, skill and wisdom are said to be realized. The enlightened being is free from samsara.

Buddhist terminology
Combinatorics

Combinatorics is a branch of mathematics. It is concerned with finite or countable infinite sets. Combinatorics is part of discrete mathematics. Combinatorics are about graph theory, or Partitions of sets. According to George Pólya, combinatorics looks at counting the number of possibilities, and about the questions whether certain configurations exist, and how to get to them.

Permutation 

Permutation is concerned with the following problems:
 Determining how many different ways there are to arrange a number of objects.
 Determining how many ways there are to select a number of objects from a larger set.

There are variations in the problems as follows:
 The objects may or may not be distinguishable.
 The order in which the objects are selected may or may not matter.

Examples 

 There are 6 different ways to arrange three distinguishable objects (as shown in the graphic).
 There are three different ways to select one particular orange from a basket with three oranges.
 There is only one possible way to select the apple from a basket that has one orange, one apple and one pear in it.

Mathematics
Enrique Granados

Enrique Granados (born Lérida, Spain, 27 July 1867;  died in the English Channel, 24 March 1916) was a Spanish composer and pianist.  He lived most of his life in Barcelona.  His favourite painter was Goya and his best work, the piano pieces called Goyescas, are inspired by Goya’s paintings.

Life

Early career

Granados started having piano lessons in Barcelona and then went to Paris where he studied privately with Charles de Bériot.  He returned to Barcelona  in 1889 and the following year gave his first piano recital.    He wrote a zarzuela (light opera) called Maria del Carmen.  The king liked it very much and gave him an award.

During the following years he composed a lot and performed with famous musicians such as Jacques Thibaud, Pau Casals and Camille Saint-Saëns.  His piano suite  Goyescas was first performed in Barcelona in 1911 and then in Paris in 1914 where it soon became extremely popular.

Goyescas and the fateful voyage

He was persuaded to make Goyescas into an opera.  The opera was going to be performed at the Paris Opéra but, because of World War I it was performed in New York instead.  Granados was invited to go to New York to watch the first performance of his opera.  He was very frightened of the sea, but eventually was persuaded to go.  The opera was a great success when it was performed on 26 January 1916.  Granados felt that he was at the beginning of a successful career.  President Wilson invited him to play the piano at the White House.  Because of this invitation he missed the ship that would have taken him back to Spain.  He took a ship to England instead.  In Liverpool, he got off the ship and got onto another one which would take him to Dieppe in France.  The ship was called the Sussex.  When the Sussex was in the middle of the English Channel it was torpedoed by a German submarine.  Granados managed to get onto a lifeboat, but then he saw his wife in the sea and he jumped in to try to save her, but they both drowned.

His music
Granados wrote mainly piano works and songs.  He was influenced by Romantic composers such as Grieg, Schumann and Liszt, but he was starting to make his music sound very Spanish.  His songs include some of the best written by a Spanish composer.  His piano works include Ten Spanish Dances, which are not too difficult to play, and the suite Goyescas which is mostly quite difficult to play.  The most popular piece in this suite is called Lament, or The Maiden and the Nightingale. It has a very romantic tune which is repeated several times.

References

Notes

Bibliography 

1867 births
1916 deaths
20th-century Spanish composers
Spanish pianists
Manuel de Falla

Manuel de Falla (born Cádiz, Spain, 23 November 1876; died Alta Gracia, Argentina, 14 November 1946) was a Spanish composer. Falla (pronounce: “FA-ya”), together with Albéniz and Granados, helped to make Spanish music important again after three centuries during which there had been no important Spanish composers.

Life

Early years 
Falla had his first music lessons in Cádiz. At first he did not know whether he wanted to take music or literature as a career. When he was ten he started to go to music evenings where he heard chamber music being played. Then he started to go to the opera, and he heard church music and orchestral music. He liked the music of Grieg and decided that he wanted to do something similar with Spanish music. He went to Madrid where he studied very hard and won prizes. His first compositions were played in Cádiz. He studied with Pedrell who had also taught Albéniz and Granados.

He wrote a song called Tus ojillos negros which became very popular, and he won a prize for a piano composition, but it was his opera La vida breve (1904-1905) which really showed his genius, although it was not performed at the time. No one in Spain wanted to perform his zarzuelas, so he went to Paris in 1907. He soon made friends with Dukas, Debussy and Ravel. He made changes to La vida breve and it was performed in Paris in 1913. His piano works and songs were also performed in Paris, and in Madrid.

Mid career 
In 1915 he wrote El amor brujo. It was a work with dances, songs and spoken passages. He soon turned it into a ballet. The music uses the songs of Andalusia and the rhythms of Spanish folkmusic. He wrote a work for solo piano and orchestra called Noches en los jardines de España (Nights in the gardens of Spain). Later he changed it to a ballet for Diaghilev, calling it El sombrero. It was performed in London in 1919 with designs by Picasso. The music is very lively and often sounds like a guitar. He wrote a piano piece called Fantasia bética (1919) which is the most important Spanish piano work after Albéniz’s Iberia.

Falla had many friends, including Lorca. They liked small theatre pieces and Falla wrote El retablo and set it as a puppet opera. He liked the music of the past centuries, and wrote a concerto for harpsichord and five other instruments.

Final years 
During his final years Falla was composing a very large work called Atlántida. It was a long oratorio for soloists, chorus and orchestra. The words were in Catalan. Falla did not live long enough to finish the work. He became very depressed because of World War II. In the end he was invited to Argentina where he settled. He continued to work at Atlántida, but he had not finished it when he died. A man called Ernesto Halffter spent many years trying to finish it and prepare it for a performance. It was performed on stage at La Scala, Milan, in 1962, but it does not work well as an opera. Occasionally it is performed as a concert piece.

References 
 The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980

1876 births
1946 deaths
20th-century Spanish composers
People from Cádiz
Joaquín Turina

Joaquín Turina Pérez (9 December 188214 January 1949) was a Spanish composer of classical music.

Biography
Turina was brought up in Seville, and the music of this town always had a big influence on his music. His father was a painter. As a small boy Turina’s favourite toy was a small toy accordion. He started to study medicine, but he wanted to be a musician, so his father let him study music instead. He had piano lessons with Enrique Rodriguez and studied harmony with Garcia Torres, who was in charge of music at the cathedral in Seville.

Soon Turina started to compose. He met Falla and the two musicians became lifelong friends. He moved to Paris in 1905 where he studied with Moskowski and d’Indy. One of the his first works to be performed was piano quintet. The style was similar to César Franck. Albéniz heard it and advised the young composer to make his music sound Spanish.

Turina’s music started to be performed widely. In 1914 both Turina and Falla returned to live in Spain. They were two of the most important Spanish composers. He was choirmaster at the Teatro Real and he had an opera Jardin de oriente performed there. He became director of the Madrid Conservatory and received many honours. He died after a long illness.

Turina’s music always sounds very Spanish, although he used the forms of main European composers. He wrote many short piano pieces which often describe a person. He wrote songs and guitar music.

References

Other websites

1882 births
1949 deaths
20th-century Spanish composers