cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Software piracy

Software piracy (officially called copyright infringement of software) refers to the illegal copying of software.  It often uses the Internet.  Some countries have laws about this.  The problem is considered to be bigger in certain countries than in others.  Those who hold the copyright get less money because of copyright infringement.  As a result of this, some copyright holders publish “anti-piracy” campaigns to tell people about the effects of infringement.

Very often, the people making the laws have to make a trade-off between allowing people to copy and use the software, and the copyright holders charging for the content. At the same time, even not allowed distribution makes the content more popular. Because of these two reasons, infringement of copyright for proprietary software and content can be bad also for free software and content.

In 2010 to 2012, the entertainment industry advocated changes to United States law to make it easier to end piracy websites, called Stop Online Piracy Act and Protect IP Act.  Some websites including the English Wikipedia protested these proposals on January 18, 2012.  The next day, the United States Department of Justice seized the Megaupload website which is claimed to be one of the largest piracy websites.

Why people pirate 
Some reasons on why people pirate are: 

 DRM may limit people from using the software in legitimate ways.
 The price of software may be too expensive to a person.
 Not available in their country; No legitimate stores sell that software in their country.
 The experience or quality may be bad for a person, but the pirate's service can be better than a legitimate seller's.
 If a person wanted to be anonymous, software piracy doesn't require an email, or other information that may identify them.
 A person may be opposed to copyright law in general.

How to distinguish software piracy 
Illegally distributed proprietary software often has the following features:
 Can't meet the proprietor's requirement for a legal copyright certificate.
 No after-sales service.
 Unusually low price (though legitimate prices also vary).
 Can't upgrade by the official method. 
 Distribution by download from other than the maker's official Website.
 No DRM, letting people use the software offline or for other purposes.

Related pages 
 Copyright infringement

References 

Copyright
Software
Eric Cantona

Eric Daniel Pierre Cantona (born 24 May 1966 in Marseille) is a French football player turned actor. He was one of Manchester United's greatest players. Cantona has more than 140 appearances with Manchester United. He ended his professional footballing career with the team. Cantona had earlier played for Leeds United before moving to Manchester United in 1992. He has also played for France national team from 1987 to 1994. He retired from football in 1997 and became a film actor.

Club career statistics 

|-
|1983/84||rowspan="3"|Auxerre||rowspan="3"|Division 1||2||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||2||0
|-
|1984/85||5||2||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||5||2
|-
|1985/86||7||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||1||0||8||0
|-
|1985/86||Martigues||Division 2||15||4||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||15||4
|-
|1986/87||rowspan="2"|Auxerre||rowspan="2"|Division 1||36||13||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||36||13
|-
|1987/88||32||8||5||1||colspan="2"|-||2||1||39||10
|-
|1988/89||Olympique Marseille||Division 1||22||5||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||22||5
|-
|1988/89||Girondins Bordeaux||Division 1||11||6||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||11||6
|-
|1989/90||Montpellier||Division 1||33||10||8||8||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||41||18
|-
|1990/91||Olympique Marseille||Division 1||18||8||5||1||colspan="2"|-||3||1||26||10
|-
|1991/92||Nîmes Olympique||Division 1||17||2||2||2||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||19||4

|-
|1991/92||rowspan="2"|Leeds United||First Division||15||3||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||15||3
|-
|1992/93||Premier League||13||6||0||0||1||0||5||1||19||7
|-
|1992/93||rowspan="5"|Manchester United||rowspan="5"|Premier League||22||9||1||0||0||0||0||0||23||9
|-
|1993/94||34||18||5||4||5||1||4||2||48||25
|-
|1994/95||21||12||1||1||0||0||2||0||24||13
|-
|1995/96||30||14||7||5||1||0||0||0||38||19
|-
|1996/97||36||11||3||0||0||0||10||3||49||14
198||58||20||12||colspan="2"|-||6||2||224||72
171||73||16||10||7||1||21||6||215||90
369||131||36||22||7||1||27||8||439||162
|}

International career statistics 

|-
|1987||3||1
|-
|1988||2||0
|-
|1989||4||3
|-
|1990||7||6
|-
|1991||4||2
|-
|1992||9||2
|-
|1993||7||5
|-
|1994||8||1
|-
|1995||1||0
|-
!Total||45||20
|}

References

Other websites 

1966 births
Living people
Actors from Marseille
French footballers
French movie actors
Manchester United F.C. players
Sportspeople from Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur
Twin town

Twin towns are towns or cities in different countries which are paired to encourage human contact and cultural links.

In Europe, the pairs of towns are called twin towns, but other languages  say friendship towns or partner towns; in North America and Australasia, the towns are called sister cities.  Brother cities was the name of twinned cities in the old Soviet bloc. 

Twin towns often (but not always) have similar populations, industries and other characteristics. Sometimes, even larger areas enter into "twinning" agreements, such as that between the provinces of Hainan in China and Jeju in South Korea.

Europe 
The earliest form of town twinning in Europe was between the German city of Paderborn and the French city of Le Mans in 836, although this was not officially established as a modern town twinning arrangement until 1967.

Coventry, United Kingdom was the first ever city to "twin" with another city (Stalingrad, Soviet Union) and hence began the modern practice of twinning. 

After the Second World War twinning was a way to bring European people into a closer understanding of each other and to promote cross-border projects and peace. 

For example, Coventry twinned with Dresden as an act of peace and reconciliation, both cities having been heavily bombed during the war. Each twin city country is represented in a specific ward of the city and in each ward has a peace garden dedicated to that twin city. 

Another early example of town twinning dates back to 1947 when Bristol Corporation (later Bristol City Council) sent five 'leading citizens' on a goodwill mission to Hanover.
 
Twinning is more popular in Europe than anywhere else, but the idea has now spread to other continents.

Since 1989, the European Union has had a support scheme for town twinning.  In 2003 an annual budget of about 12 million euros was given to about 1,300 projects.

North America 
The first city in North America to establish a sister city relationship was Toledo, Ohio, United States, with Toledo, Spain in 1931. In 1944, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada  twinned with the Ukrainian city of Odessa, which at the time was part of the Soviet Union. This was to show support and to help the allied port city during World War II.

Images

Other websites 

 Town-twinning information from the European Commission
 Sister Cities International (cities twinned with cities in the USA)
 Germany and the town twinning movement
 List of UK twin towns 
 Toledo Sister Cities International
 Two Toledos Documentary
 Town twinning in Europe's municipalities, towns and regions 

Diplomacy
Settlements
Buffyverse

The Buffyverse is a fictional universe created by writer/director Joss Whedon. It is the setting used for the movie Buffy the Vampire Slayer (BtVS), the BtVS television series and the Angel television series.  Comic books and novels based on both the Buffy and Angel television series and the Fray comic book also take place in the Buffyverse. The term Buffyverse was created by the fans of the shows and later used by Whedon as the name for his world. The term has also been used in the titles of published works.

The Buffyverse is a world where Vampires and demons exist. Many different types of fictional creatures and monsters can be found in this world. These creatures include werewolves, ghosts, trolls, and witches. It is a world where magic is used often. Most of the people in the Buffyverse do not know that these creatures live in this world or that magic exists.

Notable features

The Slayer
The Slayer or Chosen One is a young girl with super-human strength, agility and stamina. It is her destiny to fight evil. When one Slayer is killed, a new girl is chosen to become the new Slayer. The new slayer has all of the power of the last Slayer as soon as she is chosen. The new Slayer also begins to have dreams that tell her of her future and Slayers from the past.

The first Slayer was created long before written history by a group of men who looked like Aborigine. She was created by combine her with a demon. As each Slayer is killed, the demon moves to the next slayer. It gives her the powers of the Slayer as well as the dreams of its past with the other slayers.

Hellmouth 
In the Buffyverse there are many different dimensions or worlds. Some are full of evil. A place where the borders between the normal world and an evil dimension are weak is called a Hellmouth. Evil in the normal world will naturally move towards a hellmouth. The area closest to a hellmouth will be home to much evil and strange circumstances.

There are two well known hellmouths in the Buffyverse. The first is located in Sunnydale, California. This is the place where the stories in Buffy take place. It is the largest and most powerful hellmouth in the Buffyverse. The second hellmouth is in Cleveland, Ohio. Not much is known about this hellmouth.

References

Other websites 

Fan forum
Buffyverse dialog database 

Whedonverse
Loudness

Volume can mean loudness, for example, in the volume control on computers and televisions which lets you tell the unit how loud you want its sound to be.  Loudness is measured in Decibels (Db) and can be measured using a "Decibel Meter" or "sound level meter".

Sound
Atlas Mountains

The Atlas Mountains (Amazigh: Idurar n Watlas, ) are a mountain range in northwest Africa. They extend about 2,400 km (1,500 miles) through Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. The highest peak is Tougkal, with an elevation of 4,167 metres (13,671 ft) in southwestern Morocco. The second highest mountain is the M'Goun of 4071 meters. The southwestern part is called "Anti-Atlas".

The Atlas ranges separate the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines from the Sahara Desert. Most of the people living in the Atlas Mountains are part of Berber tribes in Morocco and in Algeria. 

The mountains are named after the ancient Greek Titan, Atlas.

Other websites

Mountains of Africa
Geography of Algeria
Geography of Morocco
Tunisia
Genetic drift

Genetic drift is a random effect on biological populations. Its effect is to remove genetic variation from a population of living organisms.

In natural populations there are a number of forces acting. There are forces which add heritable variation to the population, such as mutation and recombination. There are also  factors which remove variation from the population, and drift is one of these.

Overview 
In a species, or an interbreeding population, there is usually a great deal of genetic variation. This genetic variation is in the form of different alleles at many loci (gene positions) on the chromosomes.

Changes in allele frequency are mainly caused by natural selection, that is, by differential survival, and contribution to the next generation. But as populations get smaller, there is a tendency for each generation to become more homozygous, with less variety of alleles. This is an effect similar to inbreeding: it leads to genetic uniformity.

Genetic drift is the name given to this loss of variation. It can affect evolution in surprisingly big ways, but only when populations are quite small. What 'small' means would depend on the organism. 50 individuals is small, 5000 is not, 500 is maybe. The basic mechanism of drift is that genetic variety is reduced by chance, making the individuals more similar to each other, and hence more vulnerable.

 Drift reduces genetic variation in populations, potentially reducing a population’s ability to survive new selective pressures. 
 Genetic drift acts faster and has more drastic results in smaller populations. Small populations usually become extinct. 
 Genetic drift may contribute to speciation, if the small group does survive.
 Bottleneck events: when a large population is suddenly and drastically reduced in size by some event, the genetic variety will be very much reduced. Infections and extreme climate events are frequent causes. Occasionally, invasions by more competitive species can be devastating. ♦ In the 1880/90s, hunting reduced the Northern elephant seal to only about 20 individuals. Although the population has rebounded, its genetic variability is much less than that of the Southern elephant seal.♦ Cheetahs have very little variation. We think the species was reduced to a small number at some recent time. Because it lacks genetic variation, it is in danger from infectious diseases.
Founder events: these occur when a small group buds off from a larger population. The small group then lives separately from the main population. The human species is often quoted as having been through such stages, for example, when groups left Africa to set up elsewhere (see human evolution). Apparently, we have less variation than would be expected from our worldwide distribution. Groups that arrive on islands far from the mainland are also good examples. These groups, by virtue of their small size, cannot carry the full range of alleles to be found in the parent population.

Related pages 
 Evolution
 Natural selection
 Hardy–Weinberg law
 Population genetics

References 

Evolutionary biology
Classical genetics
1956 Winter Olympics

The 1956 Winter Olympics, officially known as the VII Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1956 in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy. The USSR debuted in these Winter Olympics. They immediately showed their strength by winning more medals than any other nation.

Participating nations 
A total of 32 nations sent athletes to Cortina d'Ampezzo. Bolivia, Iran, and the USSR competed at the Winter Games for the first time. Korea, Liechtenstein, and Turkey returned after having missed the 1952 Winter Olympics. Argentina, Denmark, New Zealand, and Portugal did not compete at these Games, after participating in 1952.

Athletes from West Germany (FRG) and East Germany (GDR) competed together as the United Team of Germany at these Games, an arrangement that would continue for the next two Olympiads.

Olympics
1956 in Europe
1950s in Italy
Winter Olympics 1956
Veneto
Winter Olympics in Europe
Feather duster

A feather duster is a tool used for cleaning.  It consists typically of a handle and a segment composed of natural or artificial feathers which form the cleaning-contact surface. It is particularly useful for removing dust from surfaces.

Feather dusters use the principles of static electricity to take up small debris such as dander.

Cleaning tools
Electrostatics

Electrostatics (also known as static electricity) is the branch of physics that deals with apparently stationary electric charges.    

Electrostatics involves the buildup of charge on the surface of objects due to contact with other surfaces.  

Although charge exchange happens whenever any two surfaces contact and separate, the effects of charge exchange are usually only noticed when at least one of the surfaces has a high resistance to electrical flow.  This is because the charges that transfer to or from the highly resistive surface are more or less trapped there for a long enough time for their effects to be observed.   

These charges then remain on the object until they either bleed off to the ground or are quickly neutralized by a discharge: e.g., the familiar phenomenon of a static 'shock' is caused by the neutralization of charge built up in the body from contact with non-conductive surfaces.

Examples 
 The attraction of plastic wrap to ones hand when one has removed it from a package.
 Spontaneous explosion of grain silos.
 Damage of electronic components during manufacturing or the operation of photocopiers.

Related pages 
Electromagnetism
Ionic bond
Lightning
Luigi Galvani

References

Other websites and further reading
General
RMCybernetics: High Voltage Physics . Homemade projects & experiments.
"Man's static jacket sparks alert". BBC News, 16 September 2005.

"Can shocks from static electricity damage your health? ". Wolfson Electrostatics News pages.
"Can Gravity be an Electrostatic Force? " A Quantum theory of Gravitation, 2005.
 invisible wall of static

Essays and books
William J. Beaty, "Humans and sparks; The Cause, Stopping the Pain, and 'Electric People". 1997. 
William Cecil Dampier, "The theory of experimental electricity". Cambridge [Eng.] University press, 1905 (Cambridge physical series). xi, 334 p. illus., diagrs. 23 cm. LCCN 05040419 //r33

Electricity
Coat of arms of Dominican Republic

The coat of arms of the Dominican Republic, as described by Article 96 of the Dominican Constitution, has a shield supported by an olive branch (left) and a palm leaf (right); above the shield, a blue ribbon displays the national motto: Dios, Patria, Libertad (God, Fatherland, Freedom). Below the shield, there is a red ribbon with the words República Dominicana (Dominican Republic).

In the center of the shield there is an opened Bible with a small cross above it, and on each side flanked by three spears, two of them holding Dominican flags. The Constitution does not specify in what page should be opened the Bible; only that is the "Book of Gospels, opened". In fact, only the 1916 Constitution said "opened in John, Chapter XIII" but that constitution was not valid because of the occupation of the country by United States.

The National Flag of Dominican Republic has a small coat of arms in the center of the white cross.

The first Dominican coat of arms was created by the first Dominican Constitution of 6 November 1844 but it was frequently changed until 1913; sometimes, two different coats of arms were used at the same time.

The official Dominican coat of arms, or Great Seal of the Nation, was established in 1913, when Adolfo Nouel was the President of the Dominican Republic.

References

Dominican Republic
Dominican Republic
1844 establishments in the Dominican Republic
Eustis, Florida

Eustis is a city in Lake County, Florida, United States. Its current population as of 2005 is 17,683.

Other websites 
 City of Eustis

Cities in Florida
Fort Walton Beach, Florida

Fort Walton Beach is a city in Okaloosa County, Florida, United States. As of 2005, the population is estimated to be 19,817.

References 

Notes

Other websites 
 City of Fort Walton Beach
 Local Boating Events and Information
 Outdoor Recreation Guide for Fort Walton Beach, Destin, and Pensacola
 Local Family Condo Rentals

Cities in Florida
Supercell

A supercell is a strong type of thunderstorm with a thick, rotating updraft (a mesocyclone). Supercell thunderstorms are the largest, most dangerous type of thunderstorms. There are really only two types of thunderstorms: supercell and ordinary, but some have four classifications: single-cell, multi-cell, squall line, and supercell.

References 

 Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms - NWS
 University of Illinois World Weather Project
 Weather Glossary for Storm Spotters - NWS
 Lemon, Leslie R. (1998): On the Mesocyclone "Dry Intrusion" and Tornadogenesis 
 Lemon, Leslie R., Charles A. Doswell III (1979): "Severe Thunderstorm Evolution and Mesocyclone Structure as Related to Tornadogenesis". Monthly Weather Review Vol. 107, No. 9, pp. 1184–1197. 
 Browning, K.A. and Ludlam, F.H. (1962): "Airflow In Convective Storms", Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 88, 117-135.  (PDF)

Other websites 

 Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
 Explanation of Supercells  
 Picture sequence of a supercell in Nebraska 
 Sideshow of Supercell images

Severe weather

de:Gewitter#Superzellengewitter
Kathleen Blanco

Kathleen Babineaux Blanco (December 15, 1942 – August 18, 2019) was an American politician.  She served as Governor of Louisiana from 2004 through 2008 until being replaced by Bobby Jindal. She was born in New Iberia, Louisiana. Blanco is a member of the Democratic Party.

In December 2017, Blanco was diagnosed with an incurable form of eye melanoma and liver cancer. On April 19, 2019, it was announced that she was in hospice care. Blanco died on August 18, 2019 under hospice care in Lafayette, Louisiana at the age of 76.

References

1942 births
2019 deaths
Governors of Louisiana
Deaths from liver cancer
Deaths from melanoma
Deaths from eye neoplasm
US Democratic Party politicians
Lieutenant Governors of Louisiana
Armenian hypothesis

The Armenian hypothesis suggests that the Proto-Indo-European languages was spoken in the Armenian Highland in the 3rd millennium BC. Scholars Tamaz Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich Ivanov place the homeland in Armenia.

Related pages
Armenian Highland
Ancient Armenia

References
T. V. Gamkrelidze and V. V. Ivanov, The Early History of Indo-European Languages, Scientific American, March 1990
I.M. Diakonoff, The Prehistory of the Armenian People (1984).
Robert Drews, The Coming of the Greeks (1988), argues for late Greek arrival in the framework of the Armenian hypothesis.
Martiros Kavoukjian, Armenia, Subartu, and Sumer : the Indo-European homeland and ancient Mesopotamia, trans. N. Ouzounian, Montreal (1987), .

Indo-European
Armenian language
Ancient Armenia
Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups
Wilsonian Armenia

Wilsonian Armenia is used for the borders that were drawn by Woodrow Wilson at the Treaty of Sèvres. The area was to the north and to the west side of Trabzon Province to provide the DRA an area to the Black Sea. The Armenian national fight for "Western Armenia" being somewhat part of the newly established Turkish republic dropped from the table.

Other websites 
Wilson for Armenia - Armenian Cause and International Law
Wilsonian Armenia - Armeniapedia.org

History of Armenia
Yasuo Fukuda

Yasuo Fukuda () (born 16 July 1936) was Prime Minister of Japan from 2007 to 2008. He was born in Gunma, Japan. The prime minister before him was Shinzo Abe. He hosted the G8 meeting in Hokkaido in July 2008, but resigned on September 1, 2008, due to low approval ratings and political deadlock. He was succeeded by Taro Aso.

References

1936 births
Living people
Prime Ministers of Japan
People from Gunma Prefecture
Mercenary

Mercenaries are soldiers who fight for money, rather than for their country, political/religious beliefs, or other benefits.

Mercenaries are a very old phenomenon. They are mentioned in the Old Testament, and King David had a bodyguard of Cretan and Philistine mercenaries. They are also mentioned in the Iliad, specifically the Myrmidons who fought in the Trojan War (12th century BC).

The Carthaginians often used mercenaries. The so-called Free Companies in the Middle Ages were mercenary companies of rogue knights and archers. The Japanese ronin were mercenary samurai. 

For many years in the Middle Ages, soldiers from Switzerland fought battles for whoever paid them. The popes would hire soldiers from Switzerland to fight for them.  The Swiss Guard is all that is left of Switzerland's mercenary tradition, but it is no longer a mercenary force because all its members are Catholic, and they are prepared to fight not for their country but for their beliefs. 

Soldiers of professional volunteer armies, like the US Army, are not considered as mercenaries since they fight for their country and fatherland. Likewise, foreign volunteers in standing armies, such as French Foreign Legion, are not considered as mercenaries since they are loyal to the country that they serve. However, various private military contractors are considered as mercenaries. 

Military
Kere

Kere ( or Kerey) is a lake in Kazakhstan, in Akmola Province. Its area is 63.8 square kilometres. It is about 10 km south of Lake Tengiz

References

Kere
Jean-Pierre Jeunet

Jean-Pierre Jeunet (born 3 September 1953 in Roanne, Loire, France) is a French movie director.

Career 
Jean-Pierre Jeunet bought his first camera at the age of 17 and made short movies while studying animation at Cinémation Studios. He made friends with Marc Caro. Caro was a designer and comic book artist. Caro worked on many of Jeunet's movies with him.

Together, Jeunet and Caro directed award-winning animations. Their first live-action movie was The Bunker of the Last Gunshots (1981). It was a short movie about soldiers in a futuristic world. Jeunet also directed numerous television advertisements and music videos.

Jeunet and Caro's first full-length movie was Delicatessen (1991). It was a black comedy set in a famine-plagued future. Next came The City of Lost Children (1995). It was a dark fantasy movie with a story about a doctor who kidnaps children in order to steal their dreams.

Because The City of Lost Children was well liked, Jeunet was asked to direct the fourth movie in the Alien series - Alien: Resurrection (1997). Though not well received by critics, Alien: Resurrection turned a profit at the box office.

Jeunet returned to France after making Alien: Resurrection. The fact that he had made a Hollywood movie gave him freedom on his next movie, Amélie. Amélie is lighter and more romantic than his earlier movies. This story was a huge success worldwide. It was nominated for several Academy Awards. For this movie he also got an European Film Award for Best Director.

In 2004, Jeunet released A Very Long Engagement. It is based on the novel by Sebastien Japrisot. The movie is set after World War I. It is about a woman (played by Audrey Tautou) looking for her missing lover.

Filmography 
 L'Évasion (1978)
 Le Manege (1980)
 Le Bunker de la derniere rafale (1981)
 Pas de repos pour Billy Brakko (1984)
 Foutaises (1989)
 Delicatessen (1991)
 The City of Lost Children (1995)
 Alien: Resurrection (1997)
 Amélie (2001)
 A Very Long Engagement (2004)

References

Other websites 
 Jean-Pierre Jeunet Official Site 

1953 births
Living people
French movie directors
Graham Yost

Graham John Yost (born September 5, 1959) is a Canadian movie and television screenwriter. His most famous works are the 1994 movie Speed, Broken Arrow, and Hard Rain. Yost did not write the dialog for Speed. The dialog was written by Joss Whedon.

He has also written for the television series Herman's Head, Band of Brothers, and Boomtown. More recently, he is the creator of the NBC drama Raines starring Jeff Goldblum that premiered on March 15, 2007.

Yost won an Emmy award for his part in the mini-series From the Earth to the Moon and for his involvement in The Pacific. Graham also won a Golden Globe for his work on HBO miniseries, Band of Brothers. Graham was one of the writers for the show.

References

Other websites

1959 births
Living people
Canadian screenwriters
Emmy Award winners
Longboat

A longboat was an open boat used on-board ships during the age of the sailing ships. The original name was 'Shallop' but was changed to longboat in the 18th century. A ship or vessel would carry several ship's boats  for various uses. The most important would be a longboat, an open boat to be rowed by up to eight or ten oarsmen. The longboat had rowing benches designed for up to two men to an oar. A longboat was designed for use in rough water and could be rigged for sails. 

One of its main uses was as a pulling boat. Another was to weigh anchor. When a ship was at anchor, longboats carried people and supplies between ship and shore.

References 

Boats
Jarrow

Jarrow is a town in England. It has 27,000 people.

History 
Romans had set up a fort near Jarrow in the 1st century. Later in the 5th century, Anglo-Saxons occupied the location. It is not well known when Jarrow was first built. The name of "Jarrow" has been used from 750.  The monastery of St Paul is the sister monastery of Monkwearmouth in Sunderland.

Today 
Jarrow is part of the Metropolitan Borough of South Tyneside.

Towns in Tyne and Wear
1952 Winter Olympics

The 1952 Winter Olympics, officially known as the VI Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1952 in Oslo, Norway.

Participating nations 
A total of 30 nations sent athletes to compete at these Games, which was the highest number to that date. This was the first time New Zealand and Portugal participated in the Winter Olympic Games. Australia, Germany, and Japan returned, after having missed the 1948 Winter Olympics. Korea, Liechtenstein, and Turkey did not participate in 1952, after having competed in 1948.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1952 Winter Olympics
1952 in sports
1952 in Europe
20th century in Norway
History of Oslo
1940 Summer Olympics

The 1940 Summer Olympics, officially known as Games of the XII Olympiad, were not held.

The games were planned for Tokyo in Japan, but the Japanese organizers withdrew in 1938 because of the Second Sino-Japanese War.

In 1938, the International Olympic Committee decided to hold the games at Helsinki in Finland.

The games were cancelled because of World War II.

Related pages
Sports in Japan
1916 Summer Olympics
1940 Winter Olympics
1944 Summer Olympics
1944 Winter Olympics

References

Other websites 

Olympics
1940s in Japan
Cancelled Olympic Games
Summer Olympic Games
1936 Winter Olympics

The 1936 Winter Olympics, officially known as the IV Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1936 in the town of Garmisch-Partenkirchen in Bavaria, Germany. Germany also hosted the Summer Olympics the same year in Berlin.

Participating nations 
28 nations sent athletes to compete in Germany, to date the largest number at a Winter Games. Australia, Bulgaria, Greece, Liechtenstein, Spain, and Turkey all made their Winter Olympic debut in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, and Estonia, Latvia, the Netherlands, and Yugoslavia all returned to the Games after having missed the 1932 Winter Olympics.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Olympics, Winter
Winter Olympics
History of Bavaria
Olympic Games in Germany
Sport in Bavaria
Winter Olympics in Europe
Atlas (anatomy)

In anatomy, the atlas is the top cervical vertebra (neck bones) of the spine. In anatomy, the atlas is written (C1) for short.

It is named for the Atlas of mythology, because it supports the head in the same way as Atlas held the world on his shoulders. 

The atlas connects to a vertebra called the axis. Together they form the joint connecting the skull to the rest of the spine. The atlas and axis are different in shape from all the other vertebrae. They have more movement. They allow the head to nod and to rotate (turn).

Bones
Vertebra

Vertebrae (singular: vertebra) are the individual irregular bones that make up the spinal column (aka ischis) – a flexuous and flexible column.
There are normally thirty-three (33) vertebrae in humans, including the five that are fused to form the sacrum (the others are separated by intervertebral discs) and the four coccygeal bones which form the tailbone.
The upper three regions comprise the remaining 24, and are grouped under the names cervical (7 vertebrae), thoracic (12 vertebrae) and lumbar (5 vertebrae), according to the regions they occupy.  Each vertebra has a hole through which the spinal cord passes.

References 
 Gray's Anatomy: The Vertebral column - The 1917 Gray's Anatomy is available via the Bartleby project. It is available with full colour diagrams, and provides an excellent starting point in anatomy, as well as a relatively complete source for gross anatomy. This article was copied and pasted from the 1917 Gray's Anatomy, which is in the public domain.
 Smart implant will help broken vertebra  - An article from IsraCast

Bones
1928 Winter Olympics

The 1928 Winter Olympics, officially known as the II Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1928 in St. Moritz, Switzerland. The 1928 Games were the first true Winter Olympics held on its own and not as a part of a Summer Olympics. The preceding 1924 Winter Olympics were later renamed as Winter Olympics. They were actually part of the 1924 Summer Olympics. All preceding Winter Events of the Olympic Games were the winter sports part of the schedule of the Summer Games, and not as a separate Winter Games.

Participating nations 
Athletes from 25 nations competed at these Games, up from 16 in 1924. This was the first time many countries attended the Winter Olympic Games, including Argentina, Estonia, Germany, Japan, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, and Romania.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Olympics
Winter Olympics in Europe
Sport in Switzerland
20th century in Switzerland
1928 in Europe
1928 Summer Olympics

The 1928 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the IX Olympiad, were held at Amsterdam in the Netherlands.  
  
The games were thought to be a success. Half of the expense of the games was covered by the Dutch government.

Participating nations 
A total of 46 nations were represented at the Amsterdam Games. Malta, Panama, and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) competed at the Olympic Games for the first time. Germany returned after having been banned in 1920 and 1924.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 Amsterdam 1928 at Olympic.org

Olympics
Summer Olympics in Europe
Sport in the Netherlands
History of Amsterdam
20th century in the Netherlands
1928 in Europe
1924 Winter Olympics

The 1924 Winter Olympics, officially known as the I Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1924 in Chamonix, Haute-Savoie, Europe (FRANCE) between 30 January and 2 February 1922. At first, the games were called Semaine Internationale des Sports d'Hiver ("International Winter Sports Week") and were held as part of the 1924 Summer Olympics. It was later decided by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) that the Games would be called the I Olympic Winter Games. Russia won the four man bobsled.

Participating nations 
Athletes from 16 nations competed in the first Winter Olympic Games.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 

Olympics
1920s in France
Chamonix
Winter Olympics 1924
Winter Olympics in Europe
1924 in Europe
Ridge (meteorology)

A ridge is a stretched out area of high atmospheric pressure compared to normal recorded pressures. It is also the opposite of a trough.

Related pages
 Trough (meteorology)

Meteorology
Hurricane Hunters

Hurricane Hunters are special aircraft that fly into or around a tropical cyclone to gather information (or data). Hurricane Hunters are only used to study tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean.

Other websites 
 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron homepage
 403rd Wing Homepage
 Air Weather Reconnaissance Association homepage
 NHC Reconnaissance data archive
 The NOAA Aircraft Operations Center homepage 
 Navy Hurricane Hunters homepage 
 VW-1 All Hands Alumni Association homepage
St. Vincent Island, Florida

St. Vincent Island, Florida is one of a group of islands that is located in the Floridan Gulf Coast.

Other websites
St. Vincent Island at Green Nature
Forgotten Florida 
Apalachee

Islands of Florida
Philodendron

Philodendron (tree lover) is a large genus of the Arum family, Araceae. Currently, about 900 different species are known. The plants are evergreen flowering plants. Some of them are vines, some can grow as epiphytes. Most of them grow like bushes. They can reach a height of about 6 meters.

Very often, Philodendron are grown as houseplants. They grow quickly, and are easy to care for. Sometimes Monstera are still called Philodendron. That plant is very similar.

Philodendron are sometime grown because they can neutralise some poisons commonly found indoors, most notably formaldehyde, carbon monoxide and benzene.

Vines
Araceae
Sagittarius (astrology)

Sagittarius is the astrological Zodiac sign that represents the constellation Sagittarius. Sagittarius is from November 22 to December 17. The opposite sign to Sagittarius is Gemini, which is from May 21 to June 20.

Mythology 
In mythology Sagittarius is related to Greek myth of a centaur.
myths also says that the constellation Sagittarius represents chiron because of his responsible actions unlike all the other sagittarians.

Astrology 
In astrology Sagittarius is ruled by the planet Jupiter.
Astrological signs
Shell Oil Company

Shell Oil Company is the United States-based subsidiary of Royal Dutch Shell. Its parent is a multinational oil company ("oil major") of Anglo Dutch origins. Royal Dutch Shell is one of the largest oil companies in the world. About  22,000 Shell employees are based in the United States The head office in the United States is in Houston, Texas. Shell Oil Company, including its related companies, is one of the US’s largest oil and natural gas producers, natural gas marketers, gasoline marketers and petrochemical manufacturers.

Shell has approximately 25,000 Shell-branded gas stations in the US. They are Shell's most visible public presence. Shell also owns the Jiffy Lube chain of auto oil change stores. Since 1998, Shell Oil Company is a 50/50 partner with the Saudi Arabian government-owned oil company Saudi Aramco in Motiva Enterprises. Motiva is refining and marketing joint venture which owns and operates three oil refineries on the Gulf Coast of the United States. Motiva also operates 8,000 Shell-branded gas stations in the eastern and southern United States. Shell also used to hold 80% of an exploration firm called Pecten that explores and drills in various offshore locations including the oil basin near Douala, Cameroon. It sold the 80% to Addax Petroleum on 31 October 2011.

References

Other websites
Shell in the United States website
Royal Dutch Shell  website
Motiva website
Saudi Aramco  website
Shell Invests in Hydrogen from Biomass Production 
Controversy Over Shell's Oil Exploration in Arctic Continues  September 17, 2013 PBS NewsHour

Companies based in Houston
Noble Energy

Noble Energy, Inc. () of Houston, Texas is the modern name of Noble Affiliates Inc., by which it was known through the 1990s, and it is now an oil and natural gas exploration and production company with almost US$3 billion in income at #660 on the 2007 Fortune 1000 list of the largest American companies.

In 1985, Noble Affiliates started its subsidiary Noble Drilling Corporation () to shareholders, and that company in turn went public by the early 1990s, and then became Noble Corporation, an S&P 500 company.

In South America, the company operates in Argentina and Ecuador. In Africa, Noble Energy operates in Equatorial Guinea. And in Eurasia, it operates in the Mediterranean Sea, the North Sea and China.

References

Companies based in Houston
Pakenham railway line, Melbourne

The Pakenham Railway Line is a Railway in Melbourne, Victoria. It has 25 stations. It was run by M-Train until April 17, 2004, where Connex took over all Melbourne rail services.

List of stations

Bold stations are places where trains end their journeys, italic stations have staff there to help people.

Branches from Frankston line at Caulfield station.

Zone 1 & City Saver
Flinders Street (FSS)
Richmond (RMD)
Zone 1
South Yarra (SYR) – Sandringham line branches
Hawksburn (HKN)
Toorak (TOR)
Armadale (ARM)
Malvern (MAL)
Caulfield (CFD)  – Frankston line branches
Carnegie (CNE)
Murrumbeena (MRB)
Zones 1 & 2 overlap
Hughesdale (HUG)
Oakleigh (OAK)
Huntingdale (HUN)
Zone 2
Clayton (CLA)
Westall (WTL)
Springvale (SPG)
Sandown Park (SNP)
Noble Park (NPK)
Yarraman (YMN)
Dandenong (DNG) – Cranbourne line branches, express services to Pakenham, Cranbourne
 (General Motors, closed)
Hallam (HLM)
Narre Warren (NWA)
Berwick (BEW)
Beaconsfield (BFD)
Officer (OFC)
Pakenham (PKM)

The Traralgon regional line follows on from this line.

Australian railways
Transport in Melbourne
Austrian Empire

The Austrian Empire was an empire that lasted in Europe from 1804 to 1867. The empire was centered on present-day Austria and was a remnant of the Holy Roman Empire which collapsed on 1806. The last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II, became Francis I of Austria. It was succeeded by Austria-Hungary.

19th century in Austria

1804 establishments in Europe
1867 disestablishments
19th-century disestablishments in Europe
1860s disestablishments in Europe
Pilot fish

.

The pilot fish (Naucrates ductor) is a fish that lives in many places of the world. They live in warm water. They eat parasites on larger fish. 

Pilot fish usually gather around sharks (also rays and sea turtles). They eat parasites on their host, and small pieces of food that their host does not eat (leftovers). When pilot fish are young, they gather around jellyfish and drifting seaweeds.

Pilot fish follow sharks because other animals which might eat them will not come near a shark. In return, sharks do not eat pilot fish because pilot fish eat their parasites. This is called a "mutualist" relationship. Small pilot fish are often seen swimming into the mouth of a shark to eat small pieces of food from the shark's teeth. Sailors even said that sharks and pilot fish act like close friends. When a ship captured "their" shark, the pilot fish followed the ship. Some people reported that the pilot fish would follow the ship for up to six weeks. And they do show signs of distress in the absence of their shark.

They will follow ships in other circumstances, sometimes for very long distances. Many pilot fish have been seen on the shores of England, which is a long way from where they usually live.

The pilot fish has a dark blue to blackish-silver colour, and are slightly lighter in colour underneath. They have between five and seven dark stripes going from top to bottom. When the fish is excited, these stripes disappear, and three large blue patches appear on its back. The pilot fish is usually about 30 cm long, but sometimes they can be as big as 70cm.

The pilot fish will not hurt people, and they are said to be good to eat. They are difficult to catch, though.

References

Other sources 
 
 
 

 NOAA Library Image: http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/historic/nmfs/figb0368.htm

Other websites 

Naucrates ductor at FishBase

Perciformes
Bălţi

Bălţi is the third-largest city in the country of Moldova. It is the major city in the northern part of the country. During the Russian Empire (1812-1917), and later the Soviet era (1940-1990) the name was also spelled Beltsy, from its form in Russian. The city is 135 km north of the capital Chişinău, on the small river Răut, a branch of the Dniester (Nistru). It is located on a hilly landscape that, in the Middle Ages, was covered with forest. This forest has since been almost entirely cut down.

Cities in Moldova
Óscar Pereiro

Óscar Pereiro is a cyclist from Spain.   He was born on 3 August 1977. He came second in the 2006 Tour de France.  On 20 September 2007 he was declared the winner because Floyd Landis was found guilty of doping.

Related pages
 List of Tour de France winners
 Tour de France

1977 births
Living people
Doping cases in cycling
Spanish cyclists
Hawksbill sea turtle

The hawksbill sea turtle or hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) is an endangered species of turtle. 

It is mostly seen in shallow lagoons and coral reefs where its food is. It is smaller than the Australian flatback turtle: it is usually a little more than two feet long. It usually weighs about 150 pounds. It has the most pointed beak among sea turtles, which is how it gets its name. The hawksbill gets food from inside coral reefs, eating sponges, shrimp, squid, and other invertebrates. The hawksbill pointy beak helps the turtle get food out of the tiny cracks and holes in which it searches.

Though they are sometimes seen in American waters, hawksbill turtles almost always nest in the warmer climates that run along the equator. Because people use the shell to make jewelry and other things, the hawksbill turtle is endangered.

Turtles
Marine reptiles
Critically endangered species
1924 Summer Olympics

The 1924 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the VIII Olympiad, were held at Paris in France.

The games were thought to be successful, but costly. The events were well attended.

Participating nations
A total of 44 nations sent athletes to compete at the Paris games.

 

 

Germany was not invited to participate.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 Paris 1924 at Olympic.org

Summer Olympics
1920s in France
History of Paris
Summer Olympics in France
1924 in Europe
1906 Summer Olympics

The 1906 Summer Olympics, also called the 1906 Intercalated Games, were held in Athens, Greece.

These games are not awarded the title of Olympiad because they were held between the III and IV Olympiads. Medals were given to the participants during these games, but the medals are not officially recognised by the International Olympic Committee.

Participants nations 
Athletes from 20 nations took part in the St. Louis games. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Finland
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Ottoman Empire

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

Olympics
Summer Olympics in Europe
Summer Olympic 1906
20th century in Greece
1952 Summer Olympics

The 1952 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XV Olympiad, were held at Helsinki in Finland.

Helsinki was chosen as the host city over Amsterdam, Athens, Lausanne, and Stockholm and five American cities: Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles, Minneapolis and Philadelphia. Helsinki had been given the 1940 Summer Olympics, but they were cancelled because of World War II.

Participating nations 
A total of 69 nations sent athletes to compete at the Helsinki games.Taking part in the games for the first time were The Bahamas, Gold Coast (now Ghana), Guatemala, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Israel, Netherlands Antilles, Nigeria, Saar, the Soviet Union (USSR), Thailand, and Vietnam.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

  Helsinki 1952 at Olympic.org

 
Helsinki
20th century in Finland
1952 in sports
1952 in Europe
1948 Summer Olympics

The 1948 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XIV Olympiad, were held at London in the United Kingdom. 

These were the first Summer Olympics to be held since the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, because no Games were held during World War II.

In part, the games were thought to be a success because the Organizing Committee did not go into debt. The final financial report showed a ₤29,000 profit.

Participating nations 
A total of 59 nations sent athletes to compete at the London Games.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 London 1948 at Olympic.org

1948 Summer Olympics
1948 in sports
1940s in England
20th century in London
1944 Summer Olympics

The 1944 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XIII Olympiad, were not held.

The games were cancelled because of World War II. They would have been held in London, England, which won the bid in the June 1939 International Olympic Committee election, over Rome, Detroit, Lausanne, Athens, Budapest, Helsinki and Montreal. 

London hosted the next Olympic Games, the 1948 Summer Olympics, awarded without an election.

In spite of the war, the IOC had many events at its headquarters in Lausanne, Switzerland to celebrate its 50th anniversary. These events happened on 17 June to 19 June 1944 and were called "The Jubilee Celebrations of IOC" by Carl Diem, the man who began the modern tradition of the Olympic torch relay.

Polish POWs in the Woldenberg (Dobiegniew) Oflag II-C POW camp were granted permission by their Nazi captors to have an unofficial POW Olympics in 1944, showing that the Olympic spirit can survive even during war.

Related pages
 1916 Summer Olympics
 1940 Winter Olympics
 1940 Summer Olympics
 1944 Winter Olympics

References

Other websites
 The Olympic Idea  Chris Matthew Sciabarra

1944 in Europe
Olympics
1940s in England
Cancelled Olympic Games
Summer Olympic Games
20th century in London
1920 Summer Olympics

The 1920 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the VII Olympiad, were held at Antwerp in Belgium.

The games were a financial strain for the host country and the participants. The events were not well attended.

Participating nations 
A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the Antwerp games.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 Antwerp 1920 at Olympic.org

1920 in Europe
20th century in Belgium
Summer Olympics in Europe
Summer Olympic 1920
Antwerp