cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Edouard Lalo

Edouard Lalo (born Lille, 27 January 1823; died Paris, 22 April 1892) was a French composer.

His life

His family originally came from Spain.  Edouard learned to play the piano and violin at the Lille Conservatory, but his parents did not want him to take music as a profession.  So he left home when he was 16 and went to Paris.  He took some lessons and earned money by teaching and playing the violin.  He liked chamber music.  Not many people in France were interested in chamber music at that time.  With three friends he formed a string quartet and they helped to make the string quartets of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven better known in France.  He played the viola in his quartet, and later he played second violin.  In 1859 he composed a string quartet.

It was not until the 1870s, when he was already in his 50s, that he started to become really well known.  Some famous conductors such as Pasdeloup, Lamoureux and Colonne and the violinist Sarasate took an interest in his orchestral works and performed them.  He wrote a violin concerto and a work called Symphonie espagnole (Spanish Symphony) which was also for solo violin and orchestra.  Sarasate played both these works.  He wrote a cello concerto in 1877.

He wrote an opera Le roi d’Ys, but no opera house wanted to perform it.  They asked him to write a ballet instead.  He did not know anything about ballet, but he composed one called Namouna.  It had some good music, although people who did not like him said it sounded like Wagner or like the music of someone who is used to writing symphonies.

In 1888 his opera Le roi d’Ys was performed at last.  It was an enormous success, but Lalo only had four more years to live, and he did not compose anything more of importance.  He had married one of his pupils in 1865 and they had a son.

His music
In France Lalo is mainly remembered for his opera Le roi d’Ys, but in other countries his best known work is his Symphonie espagnole.  It is not really a “symphony”,  it is a violin concerto.  It has  five movements and there are lots of lively, Spanish rhythms.  His cello concerto is also an excellent work.

References
The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980

1823 births
1892 deaths
French composers
Romantic composers
People from Lille
Wagenhausen

Wagenhausen is a municipality of the district of Steckborn in the canton of Thurgau in  Switzerland.

References 

Municipalities of Thurgau
Wäldi

Wäldi is a municipality of the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

Municipalities of Thurgau
Wängi

Wängi is a municipality of the district of Münchwilen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

References 

Municipalities of Thurgau
Warth-Weiningen

Warth-Weiningen is a municipality of the district of Frauenfeld in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

References
 

Municipalities of Thurgau
Wigoltingen

Wigoltingen is a municipality of the district of Weinfelden in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

Municipalities of Thurgau
Wilen

Wilen is a municipality of the district of Münchwilen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

Municipalities of Thurgau
Wuppenau

Wuppenau is a municipality in Münchwilen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 

 Official website 

Municipalities of Thurgau
Zihlschlacht-Sitterdorf

Zihlschlacht-Sitterdorf is a municipality of the district of Bischofszell in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

References

Municipalities of Thurgau
Auenstein, Switzerland

Auenstein is a municipality of the district Brugg in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.

It is about 3 km northwest of Lenzburg.

References

Other websites 
 Official Website of Auenstein

Municipalities of Aargau
Auw, Switzerland

Auw is a municipality of the district Muri in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.

Municipalities of Aargau
Daniel D. Tompkins

Daniel D. Tompkins (June 21, 1774 – June 11, 1825) was an entrepreneur, jurist, congressman, governor of New York, and the sixth vice president of the United States from 1817 to 1825.

1774 births
1825 deaths

Governors of New York
19th-century American politicians
1262



Events 
 King Mindaugas of Lithuania renounces Christianity, returning to his pagan roots and reverting to Grand Duke of Lithuania.
 The Icelandic Commonwealth enters into a treaty establishing a union with Norway and acknowledges Norwegian King Haakon IV as its ruler.
 Strasbourg becomes an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire.
 King Henry III of England obtains a papal bull releasing him from the Provisions of Oxford, preceding the Second Barons' War, a civil war started in 1263.
 King Mengrai of the Lannathai kingdom in present-day Thailand founds the city of Chiang Rai as the kingdom's first capital.
 Adam de la Halle writes the first operetta, "Le Jeu de la Feuillee".
 Richard of Chichester is canonized as a saint; he is best known for writing the prayer later adapted into the song Day by Day in the musical Godspell.

Births 
 July 2 – Arthur II, Duke of Brittany (died 1312)
 Ladislaus IV of Hungary (died 1290)
 Hugh le Despenser, 1st Earl of Winchester (died 1326)

Deaths 
 July 15 – Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford, English soldier (born 1222)
 Aegidius of Assisi, companion of Saint Francis of Assisi
 Shinran Shonin, Japanese founder of the Jodo Shinshu branch of Pure Land Buddhism
 Matilda II of Boulogne, Queen of Portugal, spouse of King Afonso III of Portugal (born 1202)
Chuck Norris facts

Chuck Norris facts is an Internet phenomenon with joke "facts" about martial artist and actor Chuck Norris. The "facts" are jokes about Norris' toughness, attitude, virility, "alpha-male status", and masculinity. They are given in a comically serious tone, for example:

Chuck Norris' tears cure cancer. Too bad Chuck Norris has never cried. Ever.

The "facts" usually say that Chuck Norris is a very angry, all-powerful, superbeing. Some of these "facts" have also turned into popular jokes.  Like most Internet phenomena, the Chuck Norris facts have spread around the world. They have been translated into many different languages as well as used as the basis for advertising and other Internet phenomena. The "facts" often refer to his use of roundhouse kick attacks to do almost anything, his beard, and his role in the action television series Walker, Texas Ranger.

Background
Chuck Norris facts were first seen on the Internet in early 2005. Conan O'Brien's Chuck Norris jokes on Late Night with Conan O'Brien have been seen as a cause for the fad.  These "facts" are similar to "Tall tales" such as those of Paul Bunyan.  Chuck Norris Facts started being used in the gaming community shortly after a Chuck Norris Fact generator was created for use with World of Warcraft in early 2006.

Chuck's response
Chuck Norris has talked about the Chuck Norris facts on his official website, chucknorris.com, with a statement. He was surprised and liked the attention. He said that some of the statements were indeed funny but he tries not to take any of them seriously. He hoped that the "facts" would get people to want to know the real facts about Chuck Norris found in his literary works.

Norris appeared in a 2007 commercial for Mountain Dew where he had his revenge on the two fictional webmasters of a site that showed Norris in a humorous way. This is a reference to the Chuck Norris facts meme.

In December, 2007, Norris sued when these statements were published in book form by Penguin in November 2007.

References

Other websites
Chuck Norris Facts.com 
Over 8,000 Chuck Norris facts (with sounds)
More Chuck Norris facts 
Chuck Norris' official response 
A Washington Post article on Chuck Norris facts

Internet memes
Comedy
Magglio Ordóñez

Magglio Jose "Maggs" Ordóñez (b. January 28, 1974) is a former Major League Baseball player from Venezuela. He was a right fielder and right-handed batter. Ordóñez was born in Coro, Venezuela. He played for the Chicago White Sox from 1997 to 2004 and the Detroit Tigers from 2005 to 2011. After his baseball career, Ordóñez became a mayor in Venezuela.

Other websites 

, or Retrosheet
Pura Pelota – Venezuelan Professional League statistics

1974 births
American League All-Stars
Chicago White Sox players
Detroit Tigers players
Living people
People from Caracas
Venezuelan baseball players
Johan Santana

Johan Alexander Santana  () (born March 13, 1979, in Tovar, Mérida State, Venezuela) is a Major League Baseball left-handed starting pitcher who plays for the New York Mets. His first team was the Minnesota Twins.

1979 births
Living people
Venezuelan baseball players
New York Mets players
Minnesota Twins players
National League All-Stars
Minnesota Twins

The Minnesota Twins are a Major League Baseball team in Minneapolis, Minnesota. They began in 1901 as the Washington Senators, based in Washington, D.C. They moved to the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area in 1961. That area is often called the "Twin Cities", so the team was renamed the "Twins". They have often worn a "TC" emblem on their uniforms and caps.

As the Senators, they were not very successful overall. They had some strong teams in the 1920s and 1930s, but most years they played poorly. As the Twins, they have had much better success, with two World Series championships, in 1987 and 1991, and many other post-season games.

They first played at Metropolitan Stadium in the suburb of Bloomington, Minnesota. They moved to the Metrodome in 1982, and then to Target Field in 2010.

References

 
1960s establishments in Minnesota
1894 establishments in the United States
Major League Baseball teams
Sports in Minneapolis, Minnesota
Hard-Fi

Hard-Fi are a popular indie rock band from Staines an area of London, England. They are named after Lee Scratch Perry's description of his studio . They have had two hit albums in the UK charts: "Stars of CCTV" and "Once Upon a Time in the West". Their most successful songs include "Suburban Knights" and "Hard to Beat".

Band Members 
 Richard Archer
 Kai Stephens
 Ross Phillips
 Steve Kemp

English rock bands
English punk bands
Indie rock bands
Room

A room (or chamber) is a space inside a structure or building. Usually, a room is separated from both other rooms and the outside by walls.

Each room usually has a specified purpose. They are defined by their use. Examples of such rooms are the bedroom, the kitchen, and the bathroom.

Other websites
Goldbach's conjecture

Goldbach's conjecture is one of the oldest unsolved problems in number theory and in all of mathematics. It states:

Every even integer greater than 2 can be written as the sum of two primes.

Origins 

On 7 June 1742, the Prussian mathematician Christian Goldbach wrote a letter to Leonhard Euler  in which he suggested the following conjecture, which would later be called Goldbach's strong conjecture:
Every integer greater than 2 can be written as the sum of two primes. 
He considered 1 to be a prime number, a convention subsequently abandoned. A weaker version of Goldbach's original conjecture is:
Every integer greater than 5 can be written as the sum of three primes. 
This is called Goldbach's weak conjecture.  Euler, becoming interested in the problem, wrote back to Goldbach saying that the weak conjecture would be implied by Goldbach's strong conjecture, saying that he was certain that the theorem was true ("ein ganz gewisses Theorema"), but he was unable to prove it. 

Goldbach's weak conjecture was later proved by Harald Helfgott in 2013,  but Goldbach's strong conjecture has not been proved yet.

References

Other websites 
 Goldbach's conjecture, part of Chris Caldwell's Prime Pages.

Number theory
Conjectures
Compass (drafting)

A compass (or pair of compasses) is a drawing tool that can be used to draw circles or arcs, parts of circles. They can also be used  to measure distances, in particular on  maps. Compasses can be used for mathematics, drafting, navigation, and more.

Compasses are usually made of metal, and have two parts called legs meeting at a hinge. The legs can be moved apart or together to change the size of the circle. One part has a spike, a sharp, pointy part at its end, and the other part has a pencil or a pen. There are two types of compasses: the mechanical compass and normal compass. The mechanical compass is a compass that has a mechanical pencil, and the normal compass is a compass that has a normal pen or pencil on it. To make the compass work, you need to change how far the pencil sticks out.

A divider is a compass that has two parts with a spike, and is used to show measurements of distances and lengths. It is called a divider because it is used to divide (make smaller things from a bigger thing) a distance in two, using geometry.

Uses 
Circles can be made by pressing the leg with the spike into the paper, putting the pencil on the paper, and moving the pencil in the circle. To do this, you need to not to move the legs farther apart or closer together while you are drawing the circle. A circle can be made bigger or smaller by moving the legs farther apart or closer together.

Distances can be measured on a map using dividers,compasses with two spikes. The distance between the spikes on the map shows a distance in reality. Measuring how many times the compasses fit between two things on the map shows the distance between those things.

Compass and straightedge drawing is used to show things in plane geometry (geometry used on a flat area). Real compasses are used on paper, but the perfect compass used in proofs is an imaginary, perfect tool that draws perfect circles. The most strict definition of this ideal tool, used for explaining, is the "collapsing compass". It draws a circle from a given place with a given radius and cannot be used again. That is, unlike a real pair of compasses, it cannot simply be moved to another place and used to draw another circle that is the same.

Tools
Mathematical tools
Measuring tools
43 Ariadne

43 Ariadne is a fairly big and bright main belt asteroid. It is the second-biggest member of the Flora asteroid family. It was found by N. R. Pogson on April 15, 1857 and named after the Greek heroine Ariadne.

Characteristics 
Ariadne is very stretched out (almost twice as long as its smallest shape). It is a retrograde rotator, although its pole points almost parallel to the ecliptic towards ecliptic coordinates (β, λ) = (-15°, 235°) with a 10° uncertainty[2]. This gives an axial tilt of about 105°.

Trivia 
 For reasons unknown, "Asteroid 43 Ariadne" was included in a list of names of supporters of the NASA spacecraft Stardust that was stored on a microchip within the spacecraft.
 The maximum apparent size of Ariadne is equal to the maximum apparent size of Pluto.

References 

 Supplemental IRAS Minor Planet Survey 
 M. Kaasalainen, J. Torppa & J. Piironen Models of Twenty Asteroids from Photometric Data, Icarus, Vol. 159, p. 369 (2002).
 P. Tanga et al. Asteroid observations with the Hubble Space Telescope, Astronomy & Astrophysics, Vol. 401, p. 733 (2003).
 PDS lightcurve data 
 G. A. Krasinsky et al. Hidden Mass in the Asteroid Belt, Icarus, Vol. 158, p. 98 (2002).

Other websites 
 shape model deduced from lightcurve
 bi-lobed shape model from Hubble lightcurves
 Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Ephemeris

Asteroids
45 Eugenia

45 Eugenia is a big Main belt asteroid. It is famous because it is one of the first asteroids to be found to have a moon orbiting it. It is also the second known triple asteroid, after 87 Sylvia.

Discovery 
Eugenia was found in 1857 by Hermann Goldschmidt. It was named after Empress Eugenia di Montijo, the wife of Napoleon III, and was the first asteroid to be named after a real person, rather than a figure from classical legend (although there had been controversy about whether 12 Victoria was really named for the mythological figure or for Queen Victoria).

Physical characteristics 
Eugenia is a big asteroid, with a diameter of 214 km. It is an F-type asteroid, which means that it is very dark in colouring (darker than soot) made up of carbonate. Like Mathilde, its density appears to be unusually low, indicating that it may be a loosely-packed rubble pile (an asteroid that has been broken apart by a collision and pulled back together by gravity).

Lightcurve analysis indicates that Eugenia's pole most likely points towards ecliptic coordinates (β, λ) = (-30°, 124°) with a 10° uncertainty, which gives it an axial tilt of 117°. Eugenia's rotation is then retrograde.

Moons

Petit-Prince 
In November 1998, astronomers at the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope on Mauna Kea, Hawaii, found a small moon orbiting Eugenia. This was the first time a moon orbiting an asteroid had been found by a ground-based telescope. Eugenia's moon has been named (45) Eugenia I Petit-Prince, after Empress Eugenia's son, the Prince Imperial. The moon is much smaller than Eugenia, about 13 km in diameter, and takes five days to complete an orbit around it.

S/2004 (45) 1 
A second, smaller (estimated diameter of 6 km) moon that orbits closer to Eugenia than Petit-Prince has since been found and provisionally named S/2004 (45) 1. It was found by analyses of three images acquired in February 2004 from the 8.2 m VLT "Yepun" at the European Southern Observatory (ESO) Cerro Paranal, in Chile. The discovery was announced in IAUC 8817, on 7 March 2007 by Franck Marchis and his IMCCE collaborators.

Other websites 
 Johnston Archive data
 Astronomical Picture of Day 14 October 1999
 SwRI Press Release
 Orbit of Petit-Prince, companion of Eugenia
 IAUC 8177
 Shape model derived from lightcurve (on page 17)

References 

Asteroids
Moomin (singer)

MOOMIN (b. July 13, 1972) is a Japanese reggae singer. He comes from Chigasaki City, Kanagawa Prefecture.

Albums

Other websites
Official site (UMG)
Official site (Overheat Studio)

Singers from Kanagawa Prefecture
Reggae musicians
1972 births
Living people
Lantana camara

Lantana camara or Spanish flag is a hairy shrub native from tropical America. It is regarded as a notorious weed, and popular ornamental garden plant in many parts of the world.

References

Other websites

Flora of China
Presence of two types of ﬂowers with respect to nectar sugar in two gregariously ﬂowering species
 Medicinal uses

Shrubs
Verbenaceae
14th Dalai Lama

His Holiness Tenzin Gyatso is the fourteenth Dalai Lama. His full name is Jetsun Jamphel Ngawang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzin Gyatso. The Dalai Lama was born in Tagtser (Amdo) in Tibet to a family of farmers on 6 July 1935. He is the fourteenth and current Dalai Lama. He is the political and spiritual leader of Tibet. On October 6, 2009, he received the Lantos Human Rights Prize from United States House Speaker Nancy Pelosi.  In 1989 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work encouraging understanding between different religions and encouraging people and countries to care for one another. He is always working for the freedom of Tibet through dialogue, and encourages young Tibetans to study their language, history and philosophy to preserve it and to promote it to the world.

Related pages
 Gyalo Thondup

References 

1935 births
Living people
Dalai Lamas
Nonviolence advocates
Philosophers
Current national leaders
Spiritual teachers
Lama

This article is about a religious leader. The article about the animals is at Llama
In the Tibetan language, lama means teacher. A lama is a religious teacher, guide, or mentor of Tibetan Buddhism. The meaning is similar to the Sanskrit term guru. The word lama is part of the title, Dalai Lama.

Tibetan Buddhism
Religious leaders
Rinpoche

Rinpoche is a title in Tibetan Buddhism which may be given to a religious teacher known as a lama.  The word "Rinpoche" literally means "precious one". 

In Tibet and Bhutan, when used as "Guru Rinpoche" it refers to Padmasambhava, who first brought Tibetan Buddhism to the Himalayas. When used as "Je Rinpoche", it refers to Je Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelug School.

References
Padmasambhava

Padmasambhava is the person who brought Buddhism to Tibet in the 8th century. The name is in the Sanskrit language and means "born from a lotus flower". In Bhutan and Tibet he is better known as Guru Rinpoche ("Precious Master") or Lopon Rinpoche, where followers of the Nyingma school regard him as the second Buddha.

The mantra of Padmasambhva is "Om Ah Hum Vajra Guru Padma Siddhi Hum" and is called the Vajra Guru mantra.  There is also a prayer called "The Seven Line Prayer" which is devoted to him.

Related pages
Lama
Rinpoche
Yeshe Tsogyal

References

Other websites
The Seven Line Prayer: Text and commentary 

Tibetan Buddhism
Kitsune

() is the Japanese word for fox.  There are a lot of foxes in Japanese folklore. Stories depict them as intelligent beings and as having magical abilities that increase with their age and wisdom. The most important of their magic tricks is the ability to assume human form. While some folktales speak of kitsune employing this ability to trick others — as foxes in folklore often do — others portray them as faithful guardians, friends, lovers, and wives.

Foxes and human beings lived close together in ancient Japan; this is why there are legends about them. Kitsune have become closely associated with Inari, a Shinto kami or spirit, and serve as his messengers. This role has reinforced the fox's supernatural importance. The more tails a kitsune has — they may have as many as nine — the older, wiser, and more powerful it is. Because of their potential power and influence, some people make offerings to them as to a god.

Shinto
Japanese mythology
Phonetics

Phonetics (from the Greek word φωνή, phone which means 'sound' or 'voice') is the science of the sounds of human speech. Someone who is an expert in phonetics is called a phonetician.

Phonetic theory regards the nature of sounds in speech (called phones) and how they are made, heard and thought of. Phonology, which came from it, studies sound systems and sound units (such as phonemes and distinctive features). Phonetics is one of the two parts of orthographical linguistics, the other part being spelling, differing from grammar and lexis.

Phonetics has three main branches:
 articulatory phonetics, regarding the place of articulation and the movement of the lips, tongue, vocal tract, and vocal folds,
 acoustic phonetics, concerned with the traits of the sound waves and how the inner ear hears them, and
 auditory phonetics, concerned with speech perception (mostly how the brain thinks of what the ears hear)

There are more than 100 different phones recognized by the International Phonetic Association (IPA) and are shown in their writing system called the International Phonetic Alphabet.

The first time phonetics was studied was 2,500 years ago in what is now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan
, with , when he wrote about the place and manner of articulation of consonants in Sanskrit in his 5th century BC essay on Sanskrit linguistics. The major Indic scripts today order their consonants the way  did.

References

Accessible sources
 Introduction to phonetics for beginners

Language
Branches of linguistics
Pronunciation
Laws of Form

Laws of Form is a book by George Spencer-Brown published in 1969.  It is about logic, mathematics, and philosophy.  The mathematical systems that Spencer-Brown presented in the book are known by the names "calculus of indications", "distinction calculus", and often just "LOF".

Laws of Form grew out of the author's work in electronic engineering.  The book has been published in several editions and translations and has never gone out of print. A short book, its mathematical part is only 55 pages long.

Spencer-Brown's philosophy was influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, R.D. Laing, Charles Sanders Peirce, Bertrand Russell, and Alfred North Whitehead.

Reception

Laws of Form was listed in the Whole Earth Catalog in 1969 and quickly became a cult classic.  The calculus of indications and the primary algebra may be regarded as a way to think about a fundamental activity of the mind, namely, the ability to distinguish or to draw distinctions.  The book argues that this ability is the foundation of human cognition and consciousness.  According to Spencer-Brown, the primary arithemetic and primary algebra reveal new connections among logic, mathematics, the philosophy of language, and the philosophy of mind.

Mathematical ideas

Let 0 and 1 be the two basic primitive values of Boolean algebra. Let AB denote a binary operation of Boolean algebra. Let (X) stand for the Boolean complement of X. Then the calculus of indications is simply Boolean arithmetic reduced to the two equations 11=1 and (1)=0. These are the only "axioms" in LoF.

The primary algebra is mainly a simpler notation for Boolean algebra, except for one thing. In Boolean algebra, () is not defined. () is "empty" complementation (the complementation of "nothing"). On the other hand, in the primary algebra () is defined, and stands for one of 0 or 1. (()) stands for the other primitive value, and is the same thing as the blank page.

Let A and B be any two expressions of the primary algebra. The primary algebra is made up of equations of the form A=B, and these equations are treated in the same way as the equations of the number algebra taught in all schools. Standard methods of logic seldom use equations. LoF argues that doing elementary logic with the primary algebra is easier. In particular, if A is a tautology in logic, then one of A=() or A=(()) holds in the primary algebra.

Laws of Form proves the following fact about the primary algebra:

 Cannot prove both A=B and A/=B. Hence the primary algebra is free of contradiction (is consistent);

 Can always prove whichever of  A=B and A/=B happens to be true. (The primary algebra is complete.)
Hence the primary algebra is a well-behaved piece of mathematics. It can be useful even if the philosophy and cognitive science of LoF are wrong or uninteresting.

Reference
 Spencer-Brown, George, 1997 (1969). Laws of Form. E. P. Dutton.

Other websites
Laws of Form Web Site
Spencer-Brown Form : MathWorld
Logical Graph  : PlanetMath
Logical Graph : Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms
Louis H. Kauffman, Box Algebra, Boundary Mathematics, Logic, and Laws of Form

Mathematics books
1969 books
M. C. Escher

Maurits Cornelis Escher (17 June 1898 – 27 March 1972), usually referred to as M. C. Escher, was a Dutch graphic artist born in Leeuwarden, Netherlands. He is known for his often mathematically inspired woodcuts, lithographs and mezzotints. These feature impossible constructions, explorations of infinity, architecture and tessellations (tilings).

During his life, Escher made 448 lithographs, woodcuts and wood engravings. He did over 2000 drawings and sketches. He also illustrated books, designed tapestries, postage stamps and murals. Escher was interested in different ways of making art, he used tile-like repeated patterns in many of his paintings. Early in his career he drew inspirations of nature: he studied art, landscapes and insects. Some of Escher’s most famous drawings include: Drawing hands, Relativity and Flying Fish. Most of his works were related to mathematics.

References 

1898 births
1972 deaths
Dutch artists
People from Leeuwarden
Printmakers
Adit

An adit is a type of entrance to a mine which is horizontal or nearly horizontal. Adits are usually built into the side of a hill or mountain, and often occur when coal or ore is located inside the mountain but above the local valley floor or coastal plain. The use of adits is generally called drift mining.

An adit may be used for haulage typically by rail, drainage, ventilation or any combination thereof. Trackage is often removed for scrap value. Adits may contain wooden timbering or masonry to help protect against soil erosion.

Mining
Mitsubishi A5M Claude

The A5M Claude was a Japanese fighter aircraft made by Mitsubishi. It first flew in 1935 and was introduced in 1937. It was the first monoplane (fixed-wing aircraft with one set of wings) that could work from an aircraft carrier. It was similar to the P-26 Peashooter, an American monoplane fighter. It fought in the second Sino-Japanese War. After the Pearl Harbor attacks, it was not good enough to fight against American fighters like the Curtiss P-40 and the F4F Wildcat, so it was replaced by the A6M Zero.

Near the end of WW2, many A5M’s were pulled out of retirement to be used as suicidal kamikaze aircraft.

Related pages
A6M Zero

References 

Military aviation
Military of Japan
Mitsubishi
World War II Japanese aircraft
Birmingham, Alabama

Birmingham is the biggest city in the U.S. state of Alabama, with about 230,000 people living in it. It is the county seat of Jefferson County. Its metropolitan area has over 1 million people living in it. The city has an area of about  and an elevation of  above sea level.

History 
Birmingham was founded in 1871. Three smaller towns came together to make one, which grew into a large town. It was named after Birmingham, England, a British industrial city. The Alabama city is famous for its iron ore, coal, and limestone, which are used in making steel.

Birmingham Sunday 
Birmingham became famous around the world when a bomb exploded in the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church on Sunday September 15, 1963. Four young black girls were killed. A member of the Ku Klux Klan was charged for the bombing many years later. Richard Farina wrote a sad song called "Birmingham Sunday" in 1964 to the tune of "I Love A Lass". It has been recorded by several singers, including Joan Baez.

References 

 
County seats in Alabama
1871 establishments in the United States
1870s establishments in Alabama
Independent Women Part I

"Independent Women (Part I)" is an R&B song written by American singer-songwriter Beyoncé Knowles, Sam Barnes, Jen-Claude Olivier, and Cory Rooney for Destiny's Child's third studio album, Survivor (2001), only considered as a bonus track. It was produced by Knowles, Rooney, and Poke & Tone and first appeared on the soundtrack to the film Charlie's Angels. Released as both the soundtrack's and album's first single in fall 2000, the song held the number one spot on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for eleven consecutive weeks from November 2000 to February 2001. Although, for the United Kingdom, it was released on the same day, with both Part I and Part II counting as the song release.

The music video was directed by Francis Lawrence. At the end, the women are greeted by the ever-mysterious "Charlie".

Credits and personnel 
 Lead vocals: Beyoncé Knowles, Kelly Rowland 
 Vocal production - Beyoncé Knowles
 Recorded by Manelich Sotolongo at Lobo Studios, Deer Park, New York
 Additional recording by Troy Gonzalez, Ramon Morales at TK Studios, Hawaii
 Audio mixing - Rich Travali
 Mastered by Tom Coyne
 Former Vocals by Farrah Franklin

Official versions 
"Independent Women Part I" (Liquid 360 Dark Angel Mix)
"Independent Women Part I" (Skratch Attack Mix)
"Independent Women Part I" (A Cappella)
"Independent Women Part I" (Joe's Smooth 200 2Step Mix)
"Independent Women Part I" (Joe's Smooth Jazz Carnival Mix) 
"Independent Women Part I" (Maurice's Independent Remix)
"Independent Women Part I" (Maurice's Radio Mix)
"Independent Women Part I" (Victor Calderone Club Remix)
"Independent Women Part I" (Victor Calderone Drum Dub Remix)
"Independent Women Part I" (Instrumental)
"Independent Women Part I" (Let It All Blow Remix)
"Independent Women Part II" (Instrumental)

Destiny's Child songs
2000 songs
Burlington, Vermont

Burlington is a city in the American state of Vermont. It is the county seat of Chittenden County. Burlington was first settled in 1783. It became a city in 1865.

Population 
Burlington is Vermont's largest city. It has a population of about 40,000 people. It is the smallest American city that is also the largest in its state. Burlington has a metropolitan population of about 210,000.

Geography 
The city is located on the east bank of Lake Champlain. Burlington has an area of about 15.5 sq miles. It sits at an elevation of 200 feet. The suburb of Shelburne is 7 miles nearby Burlington.

Notable residents 
 Grace Coolidge, wife of Calvin Coolidge and First Lady of the U.S.
 Howard Dean, Current Chairman of the Democratic Party, former presidential candidate in 2004, and former Governor of Vermont.
 Bernie Sanders, current United States senator of Vermont, former Mayor of Burlington, and 2016 United States presidential election candidate.

Education
 Burlington College, private non-profit liberal arts college. Closed in May 2016.

Sister Cities
  , Moss Point,
  Puerto Cabezas,  1984
  Yaroslavl,  1988
  Bethlehem and  Arad 1991
  Nishinomiya, Hyōgo,  2008

Although there is no formal twinning agreement, Burlington takes part in the annual Burlington International Games with
   Burlington
  Burlington

References

Other websites 
 Official website of the City of Burlington 
 City of Burlington Sister Cities
 WikiBurlington 
 Elevation data: [ USGS—City of Burlington, VT]

County seats in Vermont
 
1783 establishments
1780s establishments in the United States
18th-century establishments in Vermont
Loretta Spencer

Loretta Purdy Spencer was the mayor of Huntsville, Alabama.  Her first term began October 4, 1996. Her last term ended on November 3, 2008. Spencer is the first woman to be elected mayor of Huntsville. 

1937 births
Living people
Politicians from Alabama
American mayors
Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Tuscaloosa is a city and county seat of Tuscaloosa County, Alabama. Tuscaloosa has a population of about 84,000 people and a metro population of about 117,000 people. Tuscaloosa has an area of about . It sits at a height of 223 feet.

References 

County seats in Alabama
Cities in Alabama
Alabama
Hoover, Alabama

Hoover is a city in Jefferson County, Alabama.

Hoover has a population of about 69,000 people.

Hoover has an area of about 43 miles and sits at a height of 577 feet.

References 

Cities in Alabama
Dothan, Alabama

Dothan is a city and county seat of Houston County. The city has a population of about 65,000 people. Dothan has an area of about  and sits at a height of .

Other websites 
City of Dothan web site
Dothan Chamber of Commerce

County seats in Alabama
Cities in Alabama
Kou Shibasaki

is a Japanese singer and actress. She was born  on 5 August 1981 in Tokyo.

Actors from Tokyo
Singers from Tokyo
1981 births
Living people
Decatur, Alabama

Decatur is a city and county seat of Morgan County, Alabama. It has a population of about 56,000 people. Decatur has an area of about 60 miles and sits at a height of about 561 feet.

References

Other websites 

Official City Tourist Website

County seats in Alabama
Cities in Alabama
Casper, Wyoming

Casper is an American city in the state of Wyoming. It is in Natrona County. About 50,000 people live in Casper. Casper has an area of about 25 square miles and sits at an elevation of 5,150 feet.

Other websites

 
County seats in Wyoming
Natrona County, Wyoming
Wilmington, Delaware

Wilmington is the largest city in the state Delaware, United States, and the county seat of New Castle County. It had 72,664 people in 2000. It now has 70,851 people as of 2010.

Wilmington has an area of about  and is  above sea level, at the place where the Christina River and Brandywine Creek meet.

U.S. President Joe Biden is from Wilmington and owns a home here.

Surrounding municipalities

References

County seats in Delaware
 
1638 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
17th-century establishments in Delaware
Niña

The Niña was one of the ships Christopher Columbus sailed to the new world.  The others were the Pinta and the Santa Maria.

History of Spain
Pinta (ship)

The Pinta is one of the ships Christopher Columbus sailed to the new world.  The others were the Niña and the Santa Maria.

History of Spain
Santa Maria

The Santa Maria was one of the ships Christopher Columbus sailed to the new world.  The others were the Pinta and the Nina. It is named after Saint Mary.

History of Spain
52 Europa

52 Europa is an asteroid. It has a diameter of 289 km, and was found on February 4, 1858 by H. Goldschmidt. It is named after Europa, one of Zeus's conquests in Greek mythology. Europa is the seventh biggest asteroid by volume and the sixth biggest by mass (after Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, Hygiea, and Interamnia) and contains somewhat less than 2% of the mass of the entire main belt.

It is a very dark carbonaceous C-type, and the fourth-biggest of these. It orbits close to the Hygiea asteroid family, but is not a member. Spectroscopic studies have found evidence of olivines and pyroxenes on the surface.

Lightcurve data for Europa has been very hard to interpret, so much so for a long time its period of rotation was in dispute (5 and a half, or 11 hours?) despite many observations[8]. It has now been determined that Europa is a prograde rotator, but the exact direction in which its pole points remains unclear. The most detailed analysis indicates that it points either towards about ecliptic coordinates (β, λ) = (70°, 55°) or (40°, 255°) with a 10° uncertainty [2]. This gives an axial tilt of about 14° or 54°, respectively.

It has been found that the star CV Aquarii found in 1934, was actually an incorrect misidentification of 52 Europa .

References 
<div class="references-small">
 Supplemental IRAS Minor Planet Survey
 <div id="Michalowski04">T. Michałowski et al. Photometry and models of selected main belt asteroids I. 52 Europa, 115 Thyra, and 382 Dodona, Astronomy & Astrophysics, Vol. 416, p. 353 (2004).
 G. Michalak Determination of asteroid masses II. (6) Hebe, (10) Hygiea, (15) Eunomia, (52) Europa, (88) Thisbe, (444) Gyptis, (511) Davida and (704) Interamnia , Astronomy & Astrophysics, Vol. 374, p. 703 (2001) 
 PDS lightcurve data 
 E. Dotto et al. ISO results on bright Main Belt asteroids: PHT – S observations, Astronomy & Astrophysics, Vol. 358, p. 1133 (2000).
 S.R. Sawyer A High-Resolution CCD Spectroscopic Survey of Low-Albedo Main Belt Asteroids, PhD thesis, The University of Texas (1991).
 P. Schmeer and M.L. Hazen CV Aquarii identified with (52) Europa , Journal of the American Association of Variable Star Observers, Vol. 28, p. 103 (2000).
 V. Zappalà, M. di Martino and S. Cacciatori On the ambiguity of rotational periods of asteroids - The peculiar case of 52 Europa, Icarus, Vol. 56, p. 319 (1983).

Other websites 
 
 shape model deduced from lightcurve

Asteroids
Three Jewels

The Three Jewels, also called the Three Treasures, the Three Refuges, or the Triple Gem, are the three things that Buddhists give themselves to, and in return look toward for guidance, in the process known as taking refuge.  

The Three Jewels are:

 Buddha, which means The Enlightened or Awakened One, who, depending on one's interpretation, can mean the Historical Buddha, Shakyamuni, or the Buddha nature or ideal within all beings;
 Dharma, which means The Teaching, which is the Teachings of the Buddha.
 Sangha, which means The Community, The Community of those great people who have attained Enlightenment, so that those people (Sangha) will help you to attain Enlightenment.

References 

Buddhism
Buddhist terminology
Dharma (Buddhism)

Dharma in Buddhism means the teachings of the Buddha which lead to enlightenment.

What is called Buddhism in western countries is called buddha-dharma in eastern countries. This term simply means "Path of Awakening" and is thus a form of dharma.

 "Dharma" usually refers not just to the sayings of the Buddha but to the later traditions of the various schools of Buddhism which expanded upon the Buddha's teachings.  Tradition says that the Buddha gave 84,000 different teachings to various types of people based on their needs.
 Alternately, "dharma"  
may be seen as the truth which is beyond worldly things, so the word may refer to the ultimate reality, "truth", "phenomena", or "the way things are".

The Dharma is one of the Three Jewels of Buddhism of which followers of Buddhism seek refuge in (what one relies on for his/her lasting happiness).  The three jewels of Buddhism are the Buddha (mind's perfection of enlightenment), the Dharma (teachings and methods), and the Sangha (awakened beings who provide guidance and support).

Buddhist terminology

de:Dharma#Dharma im Buddhismus
Helvetic Republic

The Helvetic Republic was a state lasting for five years, from 1798 to 1803. Its name came from the Helvetii people.

Former countries in Europe
Helvetii

The Helvetii were a Celtic tribe and the main dwellers of the Swiss plateau in the 1st century BC. They are usually featured in Julius Caesar’s commentaries on the Gallic War.

Other websites 
 Celts in Switzerland (German)

Swiss people
Celtic peoples
Saas Fee

Saas-Fee is the main village in the Saastal or the Saas Valley and is a municipality of the district of Visp in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

References

Other websites

www.saas-fee.ch
Large panorama of Saas Fee 

Municipalities of Valais
Evolène

Evolène is a municipality of the district of Hérens in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

Other websites
 Official website 
 Official tourisme website 

Municipalities of Valais
Baden, Switzerland

Baden is a city and municipality of the district Swiss canton of Aargau.

References

Other websites 
 Official webpage of the city of Baden
 Schools in Baden

Municipalities of Aargau
Cities in Switzerland
Baldingen, Switzerland

Baldingen is a municipality of the district Zurzach in canton of Aargau in Switzerland.

Other websites 
  Official Website of Baldingen

Municipalities of Aargau
Beinwil (Freiamt)

Beinwil (Freiamt) is a municipality of the district Muri in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.

Municipalities of Aargau
Ratification

Ratification is the confirmation of a treaty.

Treaties are signed by members of the government of a country.  Many treaties make a country do something, or change the law of the countries which agree to it.  Therefore some countries can only ratify a treaty if it is confirmed by the legislature of the country, or by a referendum (a vote of the people).

The founders solved this issue by dropping the Amendment requirements. 

In the past treaties were signed by delegates chosen by the ruler of a country.  To make sure that the treaty was acceptable to the ruler the treaty would not take effect until it was ratified by the ruler.

The United States is only bound by a treaty if the Senate agrees.  So although President Woodrow Wilson signed the Treaty of Versailles which ended the First World War with Germany and set up the League of Nations the treaty never took effect for the USA because the US Senate never gave its "advice and consent" (agreed) to the treaty.  This is why there was a separate peace treaty between Germany and the USA

In the United Kingdom the government ratifies treaties, it does not need the agreement of the House of Commons.  However if the treaty is going to change the law then a separate act of parliament is needed.  For example before Britain entered the European Union in 1973 the European Communities Act had to be passed to  make the changes to the law that were needed.

Law
Beinwil am See

Beinwil am See is a municipality of the district Kulm in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.

References

Municipalities of Aargau
New Orleans Pelicans

New Orleans Pelicans are an American professional basketball team. They play in New Orleans, Louisiana. They play their home games at the Smoothie King Center. The Pelicans are a part of the National Basketball Association (NBA). The team started playing in the NBA in 1988 as the Charlotte Hornets playing in Charlotte, North Carolina. They moved to New Orleans in 2002. During the 2005 - 2006 and 2006 - 2007 seasons, the team was moved to Oklahoma City because of the damage caused in New Orleans by Hurricane Katrina. During this time they were called the New Orleans / Oklahoma City Hornets. The team returned to New Orleans for the 2007-2008 season.

After the 2012-2013 season, on April 18, 2013, the team changed its name to the "New Orleans Pelicans", and their team colors became red, blue, and gold. Michael Jordan, owner of the Charlotte Bobcats, brought the Hornets name back to Charlotte by renaming the Bobcats for the 2014-2015 season.

References

Other websites

Sports in New Orleans, Louisiana
National Basketball Association teams
1988 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Louisiana
The Queen Vic

The Queen Vic (full name The Queen Victoria) is a fictional pub in the British television show EastEnders. It has the fictional address of 46 Albert Square, Walford, London E20. It is known for being painted several times during the series. 

EastEnders
Ian Beale

Ian Beale is a fictional character in EastEnders. He is played by Adam Woodyatt.

Ian is the son of Pete and Kathy Beale. He is the nephew of Pauline Fowler.

Other websites
 Ian Beale page  on the BBC EastEnders website

EastEnders characters
Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs

Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs is a 1970 album by Derek and the Dominos. It includes one of the best rock songs of all time, with the memorable guitar riff, "Layla".

Songs from the album
"I Looked Away" (Eric Clapton, Bobby Whitlock) – 3:05
"Bell Bottom Blues" (Clapton) – 5:02
"Keep on Growing" (Clapton, Whitlock) – 6:21
"Nobody Knows You When You're Down and Out" (Jimmie Cox) – 4:57
"I Am Yours" (Clapton, Nezami) – 3:34
"Anyday" (Clapton, Whitlock) – 6:35
"Key to the Highway" (Charles Segar, Willie Broonzy) – 9:40
"Tell the Truth" (Clapton, Whitlock) – 6:39
"Why Does Love Got to Be So Sad?" (Clapton, Whitlock) – 4:41
"Have You Ever Loved a Woman" (Billy Myles) – 6:52
"Little Wing" (Jimi Hendrix) – 5:33
"It's Too Late" (Chuck Willis) – 3:47
"Layla" (Clapton, Jim Gordon) – 7:04
"Thorn Tree in the Garden" (Whitlock) – 2:53

1970 albums
National Rugby League

The National Rugby League (NRL) is a professional sports league in Australia. They play rugby league. There are 16 teams. Fifteen teams are from Australia and one is from New Zealand. The NRL is very popular in Australia but only in the states of New South Wales and Queensland and there is also one team in Victoria. It is the biggest rugby league competition in the world.The teams are the 
 Brisbane Broncos
 Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs
 Canberra Raiders
 Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks
 Gold Coast Titans
 Manly Warringah Sea Eagles
 Melbourne Storm
 Newcastle Knights
 New Zealand Warriors
 North Queensland Cowboys
 Parramatta Eels
 Penrith Panthers
 South Sydney Rabbitohs
 St. George Illawarra Dragons
 Sydney Roosters
 Wests Tigers
Winners and runners-up for recent NRL Grand Finals include:

 2020 Melbourne Storm 26 defeated Penrith Panthers 20
 2019 Sydney Roosters 14 defeated Canberra 8
 2018 Sydney Roosters 21 defeated Melbourne  6
 2017 Melbourne 34 defeated North Queensland 6
 2016 Cronulla 14 defeated Melbourne 12
 2015 North Queensland 17 defeated Brisbane 16
 2014 Souths 30 defeated Canterbury 6
 2013 Sydney Roosters 26 defeated Manly 18
 2012 Melbourne 14 defeated Canterbury 4
 2011 Manly 24 defeated Warriors 10
 2010 St George Illawarra 32 defeated Sydney Roosters 8

References

Other websites 
NRL - Premiership Winners

Rugby
Organisations based in Australia
Sport in Australia
Alison Krauss

Alison Maria Krauss (born July 23, 1971) is an American bluegrass-country singer and fiddle player. She is famous for being the leader of the band Alison Krauss & Union Station, and has produced albums for artists like Nickel Creek, Reba McEntire, and Alan Jackson. She has 28 Grammy Awards, more than any other female artist in history.

References 

1971 births
Grammy Award winners
Living people
Musicians from Illinois
Singers from Illinois
American Christians
American bluegrass musicians
Country musicians from Illinois
American country singers
American folk musicians
American pop singers
American violinists
Fiddlers
Mandolinists
Lyle Lovett

Lyle Pearce Lovett (born November 1, 1957) is an American country singer-songwriter and actor.

References

Other websites
 Official Lyle Lovett Website
 
 The Thinking Man's Cowboy, by Matt Dellinger, New Yorker, February 23, 2004.
 Homeboy, by Alec Wilkinson, New Yorker, February 1, 2004.
 Lovett charges ahead with his career - USA Today, May 10, 2002.
 Lyle Lovett Trampled by Bull, Hospitalized With Broken Leg  - FOX News, March 29, 2002.
 Official Lyle Lovett Lost Highway Artist Page 
 UnOfficial Website/Fan site 

Singer-songwriters from Texas
American movie actors
American television actors
Actors from Texas
1957 births
Living people