cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Mahmud II

Mahmud II (Ottoman Turkish: محمود ثاني Mahmud-ı sānī) (July 20, 1785 – July 1, 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He ruled from 1808 until his death. Mahmud was the son of Sultan Abdül Hamid I. His time as sultan is notable mostly for the major legal and military changes he caused.

Mahmud II was born in Istanbul.  He was 23 years old wheb he came to the throne.  He was a calligraphy artist, composer and poet.  He wrote poems under the pseudonym "Adli".  He was a brave, strong will, patient and prudent temperament.  He replaced the old military organization maintained by the governors of irregular auxiliaries (sekban - I Cedid).  When the soldiers shortly after arose, he defeated them with this.  The 1808 revolting insurgents killed Alemdar Mustafa Pasha. 

In 1812 the peace treaty was signed in Bucharest with the Russians.  In 1813, with the help of Muhammed Ali Pasha, he defeated the Wahhabis, who desecrated the holy places and shrines in Mecca and Medina. 
 In 1821 the Greek War of Independence broke out and  thousands were killed. 
 In the “Auspicious Incident” the corps of Janissaries was abolished and replaced by a conscription army.
 In 1827 the war with Russia began again.
 In 1829 the peace treaty was concluded in Edirne.
 In the years 1831 and 1839, riots broke out in Egypt. 

In July of 1839 the Sultan Mahmud II died as the ill effects of life experienced by him calamitous events he was afflicted with tuberculosis and died.
His body was buried in the Türbe in Divanyolu.
Mahmud II was devoted to many works of the highest degree in any field.
He opened many new schools, and ordered to build large buildings. 
All the great mosques of Istanbul were repaired in his time. 
The bridge was built in Unkapani his time. 
In Mecca, he had built a madrasa and mend the Great Mosque (Mescid-i Aksa) in the holy city of Jerusalem.
The poet and Sümbülzâde Vehbi Kececizâde Izzet Molla died at this time.

His sons: Abdülmecid I *, * Abdulaziz, 4 Sehzades names Ahmet, Bayezid, veliaht Abdulhamid, Suleyman, 2 Sehzades called Mehmed Murad Nizameddin, Abdullah Osman.
 
His daughters: Emine Sultan, Sultan Hamide, Hayriye Sultan, Sultan Saw, * Saliha Sultan, Ayse Sultan, Sultan Atike *, 2 Fatma Sultan, Sultan Münire, Mihrimah Sultan *, * Adile Sultan.

1785 births
1839 deaths
Sultans of the Ottoman Empire
Mahmud II of Great Seljuk

Mahmud II (Kabızlık; died 1131) proclaimed himself the Seljuk sultan of Baghdad in 1118 after the death of Mehmed I (probably Mahmud's father). Mahmud fought against the Seljuk Sultan of Khorasan, Ahmed Sanjar, whom Mehmed I had revolted against in 1105. Mahmud was succeeded by Dawud.

Persian people
Kings and queens
1100s births
1131 deaths
Baghdad
Mahmud of Ghazni

Mahmud of Ghazni (, ; (2 November 971 – 30 April 1030) was the ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire from 997 until his death. He turned the former provincial city of Ghazni into the rich capital of an extensive empire which included modern-day Afghanistan, most of Iran, and parts of north-west India including modern-day Pakistan. He was also the first ruler to carry the title Sultan, signifying his break from the power of the Islamic Caliph.

Mahmud of Ghazni was known as Yāmīn al-Dawlah Maḥmūd (in full: Yāmīn al-Dawlah Abd al-Qāṣim Maḥmūd Ibn Sebük Tegīn). He was the eldest son of Emir Subuktigin. When he was young, Mahmud helped his father gain land through military campaigns against Turk nobles. In 997, he overthrew his younger brother, Ismail, who had been nominated for the throne after his father’s death. As soon as he had the throne, he went out to conquer territory.

Between 1000 and 1026, he invaded India at least 17 times. He was the first major Muslim army to invade India. His raid of Punjab was the last invasion where he increased his territory in India. From then on, most of Mahmud’s raids were to gain wealth. Mahmud's last and most famous raid was on Somnath. This is a temple city on the Gujarati coast that was also a pilgrimage site. The temple had many riches: heavy golden chains and thousands of jewels. The battle was violent, and more than 50,000 people died. Mahmud's army won.

With all his riches, Mahmud founded a university, a library, and a museum, a grand mosque and richened his capital. When Mahmud was about to die, he ordered all of his riches to be placed before him.  Mahmud died on 30 April 1030.

Related pages 
 Ghaznavid Empire

References 
 "Mahmud of Ghazni." World Book Advanced. World Book, 2013. Web.  4 Dec. 2013.
 "Mahmud of Ghazni." Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998.Biography in Context. Web. 4 Dec. 2013.

971 births
1030 deaths
Turkic peoples
Monarchs of Afghanistan
Emperors and empresses
Ghaznavid Empire

The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Turkic Sunni Muslim state, which existed from 975 to 1187. It was centered in Ghazni, a city in present Afghanistan, and ruled much of Persia, Transoxania, and the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.

History of Iran
History of Afghanistan
History of Pakistan
Royal dynasties
963 establishments
12th-century disestablishments in Asia
960s establishments in Asia
1186 disestablishments
Mahmud Shah (Sultan of Malacca)

Sultan Mahmud Shah (died 1528) ruled Malacca from 1488 to 1528. He was the son of Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah.

References

History of Malaysia
1528 deaths
Year of birth missing
Mahmud Shah Durrani

Mahmud Shah Durrani (1769 - 1829) was the ruler of the Durrani Empire between 1801 and 1803, again between 1809 and 1818. He was the son of Timur Shah Durrani and half-brother of his predecessor, Zaman Shah. On July 25, 1801, Zaman Shah was deposed, and Mahmud Shah ascended to rulership. He then had a chequered career; he was deposed in 1803, restored in 1809, and finally deposed again in 1818. He died in 1829. Between his two stints, the country was ruled by Shoja Shah, another of his half-brothers.

1769 births
1829 deaths
Afghan leaders
Kings and queens
Durrani Empire

The Durrani Empire (actually Afghan Empire) was established in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani at Kandahar, Afghanistan. It included the land that is now called Afghanistan, Pakistan, eastern Iran and western India. The Durrani Empire is considered the foundation of the modern state of Afghanistan, with Ahmad Shah Durrani (Ahmad Shah Baba) being the "Father of the nation". 

The Durrani dynasty diminished in the early 19th century when Afghanistan was fighting defensive wars with Persia on one side and British India on the other side. The Barakzai dynasty took over control of the kingdom but lost many of Afghanistan's territories by the end of the 19th century. It became to what is now Afghanistan after the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 when the state became officially recognized by all the major countries in the world.

Related pages
Hotaki dynasty
Delhi Sultanate

References

History of Afghanistan
History of Pakistan
History of Iran
1747 establishments
1919 disestablishments
18th-century establishments in Iran
Cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at basic actions of the mind. These are aspects of the higher brain, such as thought, feeling, problem solving, memory, and language. Cognitive psychologists often look at mental changes that happen after a stimulus (things that can be felt by the five senses) and before a behavioral response (what a person does after sensing something).

The general idea of cognitive psychology was surveyed in several 19th century works:
Carpenter, William Benjamin 1874. Principles of mental physiology. London: Henry S. King. Reprinted: 
James, William 1890. Principles of psychology. 2 vols, Harvard University Press. Reprinted by Dover Publications in 1950, vol 1: , vol 2: .

Cognitive psychology had its beginnings in the Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who came up with a theory of "stages" or "phases" that describe children's cognitive development.

Major research areas 
Perception
Learning
Memory
Psycholinguistics (the psychology of language)
 Grammar and linguistics
 Phonetics, phonology, and acoustics
 Pragmatics
Thinking

References

Related pages 
Social psychology

Cognition
Branches of psychology
Celâl Bayar

Mahmut Celâl Bayar (16 May 1883 – 22 August 1986) was a Turkish politician, statesman and the third President of Turkey. At the time of his death, he was the longest lived former head of state, living over 103 years (he was surpassed in 2008 by Chau Sen Cocsal Chhum).

Centenarians
Presidents of Turkey
1883 births
1986 deaths
Perceptual psychology

Perceptual psychology is a subfield of cognitive psychology that is concerned specifically with the pre-conscious innate aspects of the human cognitive system or  perception.  A pioneer of this field was J. J. Gibson.

Cognition
Abid Hamid Mahmud

Abid Al-Hamid Mahmud al-Tikriti ( 21 September 1957 - June 7, 2012) was an Iraqi lieutenant general under Saddam Hussein's deposed regime, and he was Saddam's bodyguard. He was executed on June 7, 2012.

1957 births
2012 deaths
Executed people
Generals
Iraqi military people
Social psychology

Social psychology is the study in psychology of how people and groups interact. Researchers in this field are often either psychologists or sociologists. All social psychologists use both the individual and the group as their unit of analysis.

Despite their similarity, psychological and sociological researchers tend to differ in their goals, approaches, methods, and terminology. They also favor separate academic journals and professional groups. The greatest period of collaboration between sociologists and psychologists was during the years immediately following World War II. Although there has been increasing isolation and specialization in recent years, some degree of overlap and influence remains between the two disciplines.

References

Relating pages
Cognitive psychology
Erich Fromm
Sociology

Branches of psychology
Mahmoud an-Nukrashi Pasha

Mahmoud Fahmi an-Nukrashi Pasha (1888 - 1948) (Arabic: محمود فهمي النقراشي باشا) was an Egyptian political figure. He was the Prime Minister of Egypt from 1945 to 1946 and again from 1946 to 1948. He was assassinated by the Muslim Brotherhood while he was Prime Minister.

1888 births
1948 deaths
Prime Ministers of Egypt
Neuropsychology

Neuropsychology is the scientific study that studies the function and structure of the brain related to more common psychological processes and overt behaviors. The term has been applied to lesion studies in humans and animals. It has also been applied to efforts to record electrical activity from individual cells (or groups of cells) in higher primates (including some studies of human patients).

References

Branches of psychology
Neurology
Indian English

Indian English or South Asian English is several dialects or varieties of English. It is spoken mainly in India, and by first-generation members of the Indian diaspora.

The dialect evolved during and after the British colonial rule of India. English is the co-official language of India, with about 90 million speakers, but with fewer than quarter of a million calling it a first language.

In 19th century India, Britain first faced the need to teach English to a body of people who were important to Britain.
There were a number of schools which taught and used English in India. They were mostly run by missionaries. Many taught European and Eurasian children and orphans. The products of these schools provided the first generation of teachers.

References 

Dialects of English
Languages of India
Languages of Bangladesh
Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov  (14 September 1849 – 27 February 1936) was a Russian physiologist, psychologist, and physician.

He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for research about the digestive system. Pavlov is widely known for first describing classical conditioning.

Early life and education 
The son of a priest, and a theology student, Pavlov turned to science after being influenced by progressive ideas.  He took natural sciences at the University of St Petersburg, and got a doctorate in 1878.

Works 
In the 1890s, Pavlov was investigating the gastric function of dogs by externalizing a salivary gland so he could collect, measure, and analyze the saliva and what response it had to food under different conditions. He noticed that the dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered to their mouths, and set out to investigate this "psychic secretion", as he called it. Pavlov performed and directed experiments on digestion, eventually publishing The work of the digestive glands in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.

Legacy

The concept for which Pavlov is famous is the "conditioned reflex" he developed with his assistant Ivan Tolochinov in 1901.

As Pavlov's work became known in the West, particularly through the writings of John B. Watson, the idea of "conditioning" as an automatic form of learning became a key concept in the developing specialism of comparative psychology, and the general approach to psychology called behaviourism.

The British philosopher Bertrand Russell was an enthusiastic advocate of the importance of Pavlov's work for philosophy of mind.

Pavlov's research on conditional reflexes greatly influenced not only science, but also popular culture. The phrase "Pavlov's dog" is often used to describe someone who merely reacts to a situation rather than using critical thinking. Pavlovian conditioning was a major theme in Aldous Huxley's dystopian novel, Brave New World, and also to a large degree in Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow.

It is popularly believed that Pavlov always signalled the food by ringing a bell. However, his writings also record the use of many stimuli, including electric shocks, whistles, metronomes, tuning forks, and a range of visual stimuli. Catania did not believe Pavlov ever actually used a bell in his famous experiments. Littman tentatively attributed the popular imagery to Pavlov’s contemporaries Vladimir Bekhterev and John B. Watson, until Thomas found several references that clearly said Pavlov did, indeed, use a bell.

It is less widely known that Pavlov's experiments on the conditional reflex included children, some of whom apparently underwent surgical procedures, similar to the dogs, for the collection of saliva.

References 

1849 births
1936 deaths
Physiologists
Russian psychologists
Russian Nobel Prize winners
Russian physicians
Soviet people
Saint Petersburg State University alumni
Hamilton College

Hamilton College is a private, independent, liberal arts college in Clinton, New York. In 2007, U.S. News & World Report ranked Hamilton the 17th best liberal arts college in the United States.
The college is known for its emphasis on writing and speaking. The school was founded in 1793, chartered as Hamilton College in 1812, and has been coeducational since 1978, when it merged with Kirkland College.

The Sacerdote Great Names Series at Hamilton 
Starting in 1996 the Sacerdote Great Names Series has brought some of the most sought after speakers to campus for presentations. While most of these have been in the form of speeches, they have also included concerts by B. B. King and Aretha Franklin.

To date the speakers that have been part of this series are:

 Jon Stewart, November 14, 2008 (announced)
 Aretha Franklin, April 5, 2008
 Al Gore, April 26, 2007
 Tom Brokaw, April 27, 2006
 Bill Clinton, November 9, 2004
 Bill Cosby, October 15, 2003
 Rudolph Giuliani, September 24, 2002
 Madeleine Albright, March 6, 2002
 Jimmy Carter, April 30, 2001
 Desmond Tutu, April 11, 2000
 Lady Margaret Thatcher, December 9, 1999
 B.B. King, October 20, 1998
 F.W. de Klerk, April 8, 1998
 Elie Wiesel, April 3, 1997
 James Carville, and Mary Matalin October 15, 1996
 Colin Powell, April 1, 1996

Facts and Figures about the College Community

Other websites 
 Official website
 Hamilton College Wiki
 America's Best Colleges 2008, Hamilton College At A Glance
 Graduates for a Greener Hamilton 
 Hamilton College Alumni for Governance Reform

References 

Colleges and universities in New York
1793 establishments in the United States
18th-century establishments in New York (state)
Jon Stewart

Jon Stewart (born Jonathan Stuart Leibowitz; November 28, 1962), is an American comedian, actor, writer, and producer. He is best known as the host of Comedy Central's The Daily Show and for his political satire. Stewart started as a stand-up comedian, but later branched out to television, hosting Short Attention Span Theater for Comedy Central. He went on to host his own show on MTV, called The Jon Stewart Show and then hosted another show on MTV called You Wrote It, You Watch It.” Stewart is Jewish.

In 2014, Stewart directed his first movie, a drama about Iran called “Rosewater.”

Filmography

References

Other websites 

1962 births
Living people
Actors from New York City
Comedians from New York City
American movie actors
American television actors
American television presenters
American television writers
Comedy Central personalities
Emmy Award winners
Grammy Award winners
Jewish American actors
Jewish American writers
Television talk show hosts
Writers from New York City
Quagga

The Quagga (Equus quagga quagga), also Cape Quagga,  is a recently extinct zebra.

It was one of the six subspecies of plains zebra. It was a yellowish-brown zebra with stripes only on its head, neck and forebody, and looks similar to an Okapi. The Quagga was native to dry grassy plains in the south of the African continent. It was found as far north as the Orange River. It is believed to have separated from other plains zebras between 120,000 and 290,000 years ago. The name Quagga comes from the noise that they made. (kwa-ka-ka) (qua-ga-ga).

The Quagga was hunted for food, for their skin and also because farmers did not want it to eat the grass they needed for their sheep and goats. The last wild Quaggas died during a drought in 1878. The last captive Quagga died in the Amsterdam Zoo on 12 August 1883. Her body is now in a museum. There are 23 Quagga specimens in museums, seven skeletons, and some skulls and other bones.

A foundation in Africa is trying to bring Quaggas back to life by taking zebras that have very light stripes and breeding them. They began in 1987 and the first Quagga foal was born in 2005.

References

Equids
Extinct species
IUCN Red List extinct species
Mammals of Africa
Odd-toed ungulates
Zebras
Przewalski's horse

Przewalski's horse (Equus przewalskii or E. ferus przewalskii),  the Mongolian wild horse, is a close relative of the domestic horse.  The two are the only equids that can cross-breed and produce fertile offspring. Przewalski's horse is a rare and endangered subspecies of the wild horse, Equus ferus. It is native to the steppes of central Asia, especially Mongolia.

At one time extinct in the wild, it has been reintroduced to its native habitat in Mongolia from stock in zoos. It is now in several nature reserves and national parks. As of 2002, the world population of these horses was about 1,000.

Relationships between horses 
Most "wild" horses today, such as the American mustang or the Australian brumby, are feral horses descended from domesticated animals which escaped and adapted to life in the wild. In contrast, Przewalski's horse has never been successfully domesticated, and remains a truly wild animal today.

Przewalski's horse is one of three known subspecies of Equus ferus, the others being the domesticated horse, Equus ferus caballus and the extinct tarpan, Equus ferus ferus. Przewalski's horse is the only remaining truly wild "horse" in the world. There are still a number of other wild equines, including three species of zebra and various subspecies of the African wild ass, onager (including the Mongolian wild ass) and kiang.

Relation to domestic horse 
Although Przewalski's horse can hybridize with domestic horses to produce fertile offspring, it has an extra pair of chromosomes.

"Mitochondrial DNA research has shown that Przewalski's horse is not the ancestor of modern domestic horses. [There are] a number of consistent differences in their appearance. Przewalski's horses, unlike domestic horses, shed their tail and mane hair once per year. Thus it is clear that Przewalski's and domestic horses are very closely related and have in the past interbred, but the fixed chromosomal number difference between them indicates that they are distinct populations".

In zoos 
According to ISIS, about 480 Przewalski's were reported in captivity.

References 

Horses
Mammals of Asia
Nation state

The nation state is a certain form of state that has a territory on which mainly one nation is located. The state is a political entity (the government, etc.); the nation is a cultural and/or ethnic entity. The term "nation state" means that both are on the same territory, which distinguishes the nation state from the other types of stats that had existed.

Examples 
Clear examples of nation states include:
 Iceland: although the inhabitants of Iceland are ethnically related to other Scandinavian groups, the national culture and language are found only in Iceland. There are no cross-border minorities since the nearest land is too far away.
 Japan: Traditionally seen as a good example of a nation-state, Japan includes minorities of ethnically distinct Ryūkyū peoples, Koreans; Chinese; and, on the northern island of Hokkaidō, the indigenous Ainu minority. See also Japanese Demographics .
 Portugal: although surrounded by other lands and people, the Portuguese nation has occupied the same territory for almost 900 years. A long time ago, Portugal was formed from groups of people that were be separate. They all passed through and settled in the area that later became Portugal. They included native Iberian peoples, Celts, ancient Mediterraneans (Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans), Germanic peoples like the Suebi and the Visigoths, the invading Berbers and Arabs, and Jews.

Before nation-states 

In Europe, in the 18th century, the classic non-national states were empires of many ethnicities, (Austria-Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the French Empire and the British Empire).

Characteristics 
 Nation states have a different attitude to their territory from dynastic monarchies. No nation would swap territory with other states simply, for example, because the king's daughter got married.
 They have a different type of border that is mostly defined by where the cultural/ethnic (nation) group settles, but many nation states have also had borders based on geography like rivers and mountain ranges.
 The most noticeable characteristic is how much nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity in economic, social and cultural life.

References

Further reading 
 Hobsbawm, Eric J. (1992). Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press. .
 White, Philip L. (2006). "Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State," In A.G.Hopkins, ed. Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 257–284.

Related pages
 City-state
 Ethnic group
 Nation
 Nationalism
 Secession
 Sovereignty
 State

Other websites 
 From Paris to Cairo: Resistance of the Unacculturated (Identity and the Nation state)

Political geography
Nationalism
Joseph McCarthy

Joseph Raymond McCarthy (November 14, 1908 – May 2, 1957) was an American politician. He was a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957. Beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period of intense anti-communist suspicion inspired by the tensions of the Cold War.

He made claims that there were large numbers of Communists and Soviet spies and sympathizers inside the federal government and elsewhere. The term "McCarthyism," coined in 1950 in reference to McCarthy's practices, was soon applied to similar anti-communist pursuits.

During World War II he was a captain in the United States Marine Corps.

McCarthy died of hepatitis at the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center.

Other websites

 Retrieved on 2008-07-11

|-
 
 

 

1908 births
1957 deaths
American military personnel of World War II
American Roman Catholics
Anti-Communists
Deaths from hepatitis
Disease-related deaths in Maryland
Infectious disease deaths in the United States 
United States senators from Wisconsin
US Republican Party politicians
Poet laureate

A poet laureate is a poet officially appointed by the government of a country. He or she is responsible for writing poems for special occasions in that country, for example a coronation or military victory.

The first official Poet Laureate was Ben Jonson in 1619. There are also Poets Laureate in the United States, Canada, and New Zealand.

The Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom is Carol Ann Duffy.  She was appointed Poet Laureate on 1 May 2009 to take the place of Andrew Motion.  She is the first British woman Poet Laureate.

Other websites
List of poets laureate in the UK
List of emperors of Japan

The list of emperors of Japan presents the traditional order of succession. Records of the reigns of the emperors of Japan were compiled according to the traditional Japanese calendar, and these traditional dates have been converted into the Western calendar format.

Emperors of Japan

Related pages 
 Japanese imperial family tree
 Line of succession to the Japanese throne

References 

Lists of monarchs
Lists of Japanese people
One of the Boys

One of the Boys is the first album by pop singer Katy Perry. Four singles were released from it. The album's first single "I Kissed a Girl" was no.1.

Track list 
 "One of the Boys" - 4:07
 "I Kissed a Girl" - 2:59
 "Waking Up in Vegas" - 3:19
 "Thinking of You" - 4:06
 "Mannequin" - 3:17
 "Ur So Gay" - 3:37
 "Hot N Cold" - 3:40
 "If You Can Afford Me" - 3:18
 "Lost" - 4:15
 "Self Inflicted" - 3:25
 "I'm Still Breathing" - 3:48
 "Fingerprints" - 3:44

2008 albums
Katy Perry albums
Debut albums
Pop albums
Hot N Cold

"Hot N Cold" is a single by pop singer Katy Perry. The song came from the album One of the Boys. The single was released on September 30, 2008.

The song reached number one in Canada, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, and Belgium (Wallonia). It climbed to the top three in the US and the top five in the UK, Australia, and New Zealand.

References 

2008 songs
Katy Perry songs
Dance-pop songs
If I Were a Boy

"If I Were a Boy" is a song by American singer Beyoncé, written by Toby Gad, BC Jean and Beyoncé Knowles for her third studio album, I Am... Sasha Fierce (2008).

Music video 
The music video for "If I Were a Boy" was directed by Jake Nava and portrays Knowles as an NYPD officer. It begins with Knowles and her husband reciting words such as "honesty" and "commitment". It later shows Knowles on patrol with her male partner. The video tells of the ways a both men and women hurt each other in a relationship. Knowles stated: "It's about all of the little things that mean so much in a relationship[…] At the end of the clip, you realize that I was acting out his life, and it all starts over again. He was a cop and everything that happened was really him doing the same thing to me."

Track Listing

References 

2008 songs
2000s ballads
Beyoncé songs
Pop ballads
R&B ballads
Songs with feminist themes
Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)

"Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" - is a song by American singer Beyoncé Knowles. It was written by The-Dream, Tricky Stewart and Beyoncé Knowles for her third studio album, I Am... Sasha Fierce (2008).

Music video 
The music video for "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" was shot on September 14, 2008 and directed by Jake Nava and released to major outlets on October 13, 2008. In the video, Knowles is performing as Sasha Fierce. The video features much choreography, showing Sasha with two other female dancers in all black leotards.

The video is based upon a 1960s routine performed by Gwen Verdon.

It was uploaded to YouTube on October 3, 2009.

Track listing

References 

2008 songs
Beyoncé songs
Dance-pop songs
R&B songs
Songs with feminist themes
Secure Shell

Secure Shell (SSH) is an Internet communication protocol used mostly to allow users to log into other computers and run commands. It lets people exchange data using a secure channel between two computers. It is used mainly on Linux, Macintosh and Unix computers. It is a lot like Telnet, but is safer. It is less likely to be hacked than Telnet is. 

A person can make a key out of numbers. This key has two parts, a private part that should not be shared and a public part that should be. These parts are mathematically related to each. To send a message to a computer, the message is encrypted with the sender's private key and the receiver's public key. This is done in such a way that the message can only be read if the receiver has their private key and the sender's public key. This means that an attacker cannot read the messages without both keys.  

SSH was designed by Tatu Ylönen in 1995 to replace the less secure protocols rlogin, Telnet and rsh, which were used to access shell accounts on remote computers.

Related pages
 Internet protocol suite
 Communications protocol

Other websites 

 Putty - SSH on Windows

Internet security
Computer protocols
Application programming interface

An Application Programming Interface (API) is a set of functions, procedures, methods or classes used by computer programs to request services from the operating system, software libraries or any other service providers running on the computer. A computer programmer uses the API to make
application programs.

An API works by communicating with and exchanging data with other systems, acting as a messenger between the user and the system to retrieve the necessary data the user is requesting from the system. 

Main types of web APIs:

 Open APIs - available to the public; they can be accessed by any external users.
 Partner APIs - available to strategic business partners; they are exposed to a public API developer portal.
 Internal APIs - available to a company's internal development teams; they are exposed to a private API developer portal.
 Composite APIs - are a sequence of tasks bundled into a single API call. 

Types of API include web services API like the Twitter API, which allows programs to use the API to receive updates on tweets.

References

Software
Peregrine falcon

The peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) is a cosmopolitan bird of prey in the family Falconidae. It can also be known just as the peregrine, and was once called the "Duck hawk" in North America. In Pakistan it is officially the military iconic symbol of the PAF and the unofficial territory bird of Gilgit-Baltistan.

The peregrin is a crow-sized falcon, with a blue-grey back, barred white underparts, and a black head and "moustache". It can go at up to 322 km/h (200 mph) in a dive, which means it is the fastest animal in the world. As with other bird-eating raptors, the female is bigger than the male. There are 17–19 subspecies recorded, and each varies slightly in appearance and where they live. There is disagreement over whether the distinctive Barbary falcon is a subspecies of the Peregrine or just a different species.

The use of certain pesticides, especially DDT was not good for the animals. It could be shown that in areas where DDT was used, the thickness of the shells of their eggs was reduced. This caused a dramatic decline in their numbers, in certain countries. Since the use of DDT has been forbidden in many countries, their numbers are increasing again. This recovery was helped because their nesting places were protected in many countries; some countries also bred these falcons in captivity and released them into the wild.

Other websites 

Conservation organizations:
 European Peregrine Falcon Working Group
 Peregrine Falcon Fund
 The Canadian Peregrine Foundation
 Falcon Research Group

References 

Falconiformes
Birds of Pakistan
Birds of Kashmir
Mozilla Public License

The Mozilla Public License (MPL) is a free and open source software license developed and maintained by the Mozilla Foundation. It is a weak copyleft, characterized as a middle ground between permissive free software licenses and the GNU General Public License (GPL), that seeks to balance the concerns of proprietary and open source developers. As such, it allows re-licensing. MPL software can thus be converted into a copyleft license such as the GPL, or to a proprietary license (example:KaiOS).

It has undergone two revisions, a minor update to version 1.1, and a major update to version 2.0 with the goals of greater simplicity and better compatibility with other licenses.

The MPL is the license for Mozilla Firefox, Mozilla Thunderbird, and most other Mozilla software, but it has been used by others, such as Adobe to license their Flex product line, and The Document Foundation to license LibreOffice 4.0 (also on LGPL 3+). Version 1.1 was adapted by several projects to form derivative licenses like Sun Microsystems' own Common Development and Distribution License.

The MPL license was approved as an Open Source software license by the Open Source Initiative also as a Free Software license by the Free Software Foundation.

Version 1.0 was created by Mitchell Baker when she was working as a lawyer at Netscape Communications Corporation and version 1.1 when she was working at the Mozilla Foundation.

Related pages
 List of software licenses

References

Software licences
Mozilla
Ubisoft

Ubisoft formerly as Ubi Soft is a company that makes video games. They are based in Canada. They are famous for making many popular games including the Rayman franchise and the Tom Clancy games such as Rainbow Six and Splinter Cell.

Companies of France
Video game companies
French culture
Permissive software license

A permissive free software licence is a free software licence for a copyrighted work that offers freedoms such as publishing a work to the public domain. In contrast, copyleft licences like the GNU General Public License require copies and derivatives of the source code to be made available on terms not more restrictive than those of the original licence.

A license tells what someone can do with something that was bought. It also tells what cannot be done with it without getting into legal trouble.

Examples of permissive licences include the MIT License and the BSD licence.

Related pages
 Copyleft

References

Software licences
Hero / Heroine

"Hero / Heroine" is the 2nd single by rock and roll-Alternative pop band Boys Like Girls. It is off the album Boys Like Girls.

Music video
The music video for "Hero/Heroine" was released in September 2007.

2007 songs
Boys Like Girls songs
Thunder (Boys Like Girls song)

Thunder is a single released by American rock band Boys Like Girls. Thunder was released May 6th, 2008 on radio airplay. The single was originally released months before May 6, 2008 as an acoustic version. The song was released off the album Boys Like Girls.

Music Video
The music video shows a group of friends, in which there are couples, hang out. The music video starts with the band playing, and then moves on to the friends going to restaurant to eat, with intervals of the band playing. The friends then go a field, where they drink and laugh. The friends then start making a human pyramid, but fail. The couples start hanging out alone and kissing. From this on, the band is shown playing in the rain. The friends are then shown going to a swimming pool and start swimming, with a couple kissing underwater. They then run through a carpark and stand by the railings to see the sunrise. The couples are then kissing again, and the music video ends with the band leaving their instruments.

FN'MTV
The video for Thunder was released on the MTV summer special Friday Night MTV (or FNMTV).

Boys Like Girls songs
2008 songs
1.22.03.Acoustic

1.22.03.Acoustic is an acoustic compilation album released by pop-rock band Maroon 5. The songs on the album are from the hit pop first album by Maroon 5 called Songs About Jane. There is a song on the compilation album called "If I Fell" which Adam Levine does a cover on by The Beatles. Another song featured in the album is called "Highway to Hell" by AC/DC, in this song Adam Levine is playing drums while Ryan Dusick (drums) sings the song. Although the album is mostly known as an acoustic album, the AC/DC cover is performed as an electric performance.

Track list 
 "This Love"
 "Sunday Morning"
 "She Will Be Loved"
 "Harder To Breathe"
 "The Sun (Maroon 5 song)"
 "If I Fell (The Beatles acoustic cover)"
 "Highway to Hell (AC/DC electric cover)"

References 

2004 albums
Maroon 5 albums
Compilation albums
Live from SoHo (Maroon 5 album)

Live from SoHo is a live album by rock band Maroon 5. The songs performed by the band are the first 6 tracks in order from track 1-6 on the album It Won't Be Soon Before Long. The album was released March 25, 2008.

Performance 
The band Maroon 5 performed Live from SoHo in Apple Store SoHo in New York.

Track listing 
 "If I Never See Your Face Again" – 4:53
 "Makes Me Wonder" – 4:17
 "Little of Your Time" – 2:34
 "Wake Up Call" – 4:10
 "Won't Go Home Without You" – 3:59
 "Nothing Lasts Forever" – 4:00

2008 albums
Maroon 5 albums
Alexander Berkman

Alexander Berkman (November 21, 1870 – June 28, 1936) was a Russian-American writer and a leading member of the anarchist movement of the 19th and early 20th centuries. He was the lover of Emma Goldman. In 1892, he tried to kill Henry Clay Frick because of his involvement with the Homestead Strike. During World War I, he was deported along with Goldman and other foreign-born American anarchists as a result of the Anarchist Exclusion Act. Continuing to write and speak to the poors, Berkman died in France in 1936.

Bibliography

Books by Berkman 
Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist. New York: Mother Earth Publishing Association, 1912.
The Bolshevik Myth (Diary 1920-1922). New York: Boni and Liveright, 1925.
Now and After: The ABC of Communist Anarchism. New York: Vanguard Press, 1929.
Also known as What Is Communist Anarchism? and What Is Anarchism?

Edited collections
Life of an Anarchist: The Alexander Berkman Reader. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 1992. .
The Blast: Complete Collection of the Incendiary San Francisco Bi-Monthly Anarchist Newspaper. Oakland: AK Press, 2005. .

Related pages
List of anarchists

1870 births
1936 deaths
American political writers
Russian writers
Anarchists
People who committed suicide
Murray Bookchin

Murray Bookchin (January 14, 1921 – July 30, 2006) was an American libertarian socialist, political and social philosopher, speaker and writer. For much of his life he called himself an anarchist, although as early as 1995 he privately renounced his identification with the anarchist movement. A pioneer in the ecology movement, Bookchin was the founder of the social ecology movement within libertarian socialist and ecological thought. He was the author of two dozen books on politics, philosophy, history, and urban affairs as well as ecology.

Bookchin was a radical anti-capitalist and always favored the decentralisation of society. His writings on libertarian municipalism, a theory of face-to-face, grassroots democracy, had an influence on the Green Movement and anti-capitalist direct action groups such as Reclaim the Streets. His criticisms of "new age" Greens such as Charlene Spretnak contributed to the divisions in the American Green movement in the 1990s.

Although an anti-capitalist, Murray Bookchin often met with libertarian thinker Murray Rothbard and occasionally attended Libertarian Party (United States) conventions, endorsing their presidential candidate Roger MacBride in 1976.

Bookchin has influenced the thinking of captured Kurdish militant Abdullah Öcalan, who has renounced violence and now wants a peaceful solution to the question of Kurdish autonomy.

Libertarian municipalism
Bookchin was the first to use the term "Libertarian municipalism", to describe a system in which libertarian institutions of directly democratic assemblies would oppose and replace the State with a confederation of free municipalities. Libertarian municipalism intends to create a situation in which the two powers—the municipal confederations and the nation-state—cannot coexist.

Bibliography

Books
 Our Synthetic Environment 1962
 
 The Limits of the City (1973) .
 
 
 
 
 The Rise of Urbanization and the Decline of Citizenship (1987 and 1992)
 The Philosophy of Social Ecology: Essays on Dialectical Naturalism (1990 and 1996) Montreal: Black Rose Books.

Articles
 " Beyond Neo-Marxism ". TELOS 36 (Summer 1978). New York: Telos Press

References

 Biehl, Janet (1997), The Murray Bookchin Reader (An Anthology). Cassell .

Other websites
 Murray Bookchin Archive at Anarchy Archives
 Institute for Social Ecology (ISE)
 Communalism: International Journal for a Rational Society
 Social Ecology London. English study/action group exploring Bookchin's ideas.
 Democratic Alternative. Scandinavian communalist organization based on Bookchin's ideas. In Svenska, Norsk, Espanol, English.
 My Graphics About Murray Bookchin: blog and archive of comic strip stories about Bookchin's life maintained by Janet Biehl.

1921 births
2006 deaths
American anarchists
Jewish American writers
American historians
Green anarchism
People from Burlington, Vermont
Writers from New York City
Green thinkers
Madeleine Albright

Madeleine Korbel Albright (born Marie Jana Korbelová on May 15, 1937) is a former American diplomat and politician of Czech-Jewish descent.

She was born in Czechoslovakia. Her father was Josef Korbel.  She was the first woman to become United States Secretary of State. She was appointed by President Bill Clinton on December 5, 1996.  Ninety-nine United States Senators voted to confirm her.  No senator voted against her.  She was sworn in (taking office) on January 23, 1997. She is currently a professor at Georgetown University.

Before she was Secretary of State, Albright was the United States Ambassador to the United Nations.  She began at the UN on February 6, 1993.

Books
Madam Secretary (2003)
The Mighty and the Almighty: Reflections on America, God, and World Affairs (2006)
Memo to the President Elect: How We Can Restore America's Reputation and Leadership (2008).
Read My Pins (2009).

References 

1937 births
Living people
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
Columbia University alumni
Czech Jews
Czechoslovak people
Jewish American academics
Jewish American politicians
Jewish American writers
Jewish women politicians
Johns Hopkins University alumni
Naturalized citizens of the United States
United States Ambassadors to the United Nations
United States Secretaries of State
US Democratic Party politicians
Women diplomats
Writers from Prague
Educators from Virginia
Politicians from Virginia
United States Secretary of State

The United States Secretary of State (commonly abbreviated as SecState) is the head of the United States Department of State. This department deals with foreign affairs. The Secretary is a member of the President's Cabinet. This person is the highest-ranking cabinet secretary both in line of succession and order of precedence. The President chooses the person they want to be Secretary of the State. The United States Senate must agree with this choice for the person to become the Secretary of State.

The position of Secretary of State was created in April 6, 1789. Thomas Jefferson was the first Secretary. The Presidential order of succession lists the Secretary of State as the 4th person in line if something happens to the President.

Duties
The first duties of the Secretary of State included:
Publication, distribution, and preservation of the laws of the United States
Managing the commissions of people the President puts into office.
Custody of the Great Seal of the United States
Custody of the records of the former Secretary of the Continental Congress, except for those of the Treasury and War Departments

The following are the responsibilities of the Secretary of State. These were added to the duties over time.
 In control of the United States Department of State and the United States Foreign Service.
 Adviser to the President on matters dealing with other countries. This includes choosing diplomats to other nations and dealing with diplomats from other nations.
Takes part in high-level negotiations with other countries. The Secretary deals with both single nations and international conferences or organizations. This includes the negotiation of international treaties.
 In control of the direction, coordination, and supervision of activities of the U.S. Government in other countries when more than one government department is involved.
Support U.S. citizens living or traveling in other countries. This includes information, passports, visas and other services.
Supervises the United States immigration policy in other countries.
Communicates problems dealing with the United States foreign policy to Congress and to U.S. citizens.

List of Secretaries of State

References

 
1789 establishments in the United States
Johann Most

Johann Joseph Most (5 February 1846 in Augsburg – 17 March 1906 in Cincinnati) was a German-American anarchist and orator. He is best known for accepting the strategy of "propaganda of the deed," which promoted direct action against a single person or institution (including the use of violence) to force revolutionary change and inspire further action by others. He travelled in Europe, and he lived in countries such as France and United Kingdom. In 1906, in Ohio, he fell sick because of a chronic case of erysipelas, a bacterial skin infection, in an era without any antibiotic treatments. Most died in a few days.

Related pages
 List of anarchists

References 
Memoiren (New York, 1903).

Other websites 
Johann Most Page  Anarchist Encyclopedia

1846 births
1906 deaths
American anarchists
American political writers
German writers
People from Augsburg
Politicians from Bavaria
Politicians of the Social Democratic Party of Germany
Socialists
Francesco Saverio Merlino

Francesco Saverio Merlino (born 9 September 1856 in Naples; died 30 June 1930 in Rome) was an Italian lawyer, anarchist activist and theorist of libertarian socialism.

Life
Merlino started to participate in the anarchist movement in Italy during his university studies.

In 1884 he went into exile in England and also travelled to the USA. After he returned to Italy in 1894, he was arrested and had to spend two years in prison. 

In the following years, he developed his theory of libertarian socialism in arguments with his friend Errico Malatesta.

Main works
Socialismo o monopolismo? (1887)
L’Italie telle qu’elle est (1890)
gli opuscoli Necessità e basi di un accordo (1892)
L’individua-lismo nell’anarchismo (1893)
Pro e contro il socialismo (1897)
L’utopia collettivista e la crisi del “socialismo scientifico” (1898)
Formes et essence du socialisme (1898)
Fascismo e democrazia (1924)
Politica e Magistratura dal 1860 ad oggi in Italia (1925)
Il socialismo senza Marx. Studi e polemiche per una revisione della dottrina socialista (1897-1930), Massimiliano Boni, Bologna 1974.
Il problema economico e politico del socialismo. (1948)

Related pages
 List of anarchists

Italian anarchists
Italian lawyers
People from Naples
1856 births
1930 deaths