cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Project

A project is a temporary  undertaken to create a unique product or service.

Origin 
The word project comes from the Latin word projectum from projicere, "to throw something forwards" which in turn comes from pro-, which denotes something that precedes the action of the next part of the word in time (paralleling the Greek πρό) and jacere, "to throw". The word "project" thus actually originally meant "something that comes before anything else is done". When the word was initially adopted, it referred to a plan of something, not to the act of actually carrying this plan out. Something performed in accordance with a project was called an object. This use of "project" changed in the 1950s when several techniques for project management were introduced. With this advent the word slightly changed meaning to cover both projects and objects. However, in certain projects there may still exist so called objects and object leaders, reflecting the older use of the words.

Characteristics 
 Temporary means that any project will have a start date and end date (but it has nothing to do with short duration). 
 Project produces unique results: meaning the product or service at the end of the project should be some way different than the existing (can be an invention or an innovation.)
 Projects are characterized by progressive elaboration: due to uniqueness and greater uncertainty projects cannot be understood entirely at or before project start, and therefore planning and execution of projects is happening many times in separate steps or phases. As project progresses, project team understands next steps, deliverables and way of execution much better. Based on this knowledge team members elaborate initial draft plans, and execute next phase of the project based on these detailed plans. 

Projects differ from operations, because operations are continuous and repeating (projects are temporary), and operations deliver the same or almost the same results (project results are in contrast unique).

A project usually needs resources to deliver its results. Most of the time project execution is based on detailed plan, which considers also external factors and constraints. Planning, execution and controlling of project is the primary field of project management. For major projects it is necessary sometimes to set up a special temporary organization, consisting of a project team and one or more work teams.

Major projects can be divided into subprojects, and program denotes collection of related projects.

Project types 
Projects can be categorised based on different aspects.

Based on project content
 Construction projects
 IT projects
 Product development projects
 RD projects
 Organisation development projects
 Logistics projects
 Marketing projects
 Community projects
 Cultural projects

Based on initiating or participating organisation
 Internal projects
 Departmental projects
 Cross unit projects
 External projects (customer facing projects)

Based on complexity
 Simple projects
 Complex projects
 Programs
 Megaprojects

Notable projects 
 Manhattan Project: Developed the first nuclear weapon
 Project Apollo: Landing a man on the moon

Management
Central Time Zone

The Central Time Zone subtracts six hours from UTC during standard time (UTC−6) and five hours during daylight saving time (UTC−5).

This time zone is called Central Standard Time (CST) during standard time (Winter). It is called Central Daylight Time (CDT) during daylight saving time (Summer). In the United States and Canada, this time zone is often just called Central Time (CT).

The zone is one hour ahead of the Mountain Time Zone and one hour behind the Eastern Time Zone.

The largest city in the Central Time Zone is Mexico City. In the United States, the largest city is Chicago, and the largest metropolitan area is the Chicago metropolitan area.

Places that are in Central Time Zone

Canada 
In Canada, this time zone includes all of Manitoba, nearly all of Saskatchewan, a little part of western Ontario, and part of Nunavut (most of the Kivalliq Region and part of the Qikiqtaaluk Region).

United States 
In the United States, the time zone includes the entire area of the states of 
Alabama, 
Arkansas, 
Illinois, 
Iowa, 
Louisiana, 
Minnesota, 
Missouri, 
Mississippi, 
Oklahoma, and 
Wisconsin.

It also includes parts of Florida, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Tennessee, and Texas.

Mexico 
Most of Mexico belongs to the Central Time Zone. The six northwestern states are not part of the time zone.

Central America, South America, Oceania 
Central Time Zone includes the Central American countries of Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. In South America, this zone includes the Ecuadorian province of Galápagos. In Oceania, the Chilean Easter Island also belongs to this time zone.

Central Daylight Time 
Daylight saving time occurs from the second Sunday of March to the first Sunday of November. During daylight saving, Central Time Zone is only 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time (UTC−5). Most of the locations in Central Time Zone observe daylight saving time. A few places do not. These include Saskatchewan, Central America and Galápagos. They stay on standard time all year.

Other websites 

Time zones
Salerno

Salerno is a southern Italian city. It has a port. It faces the Mediterranean Sea. It is capital of the province of Salerno.

Cities in Campania
Capital cities in Italy
Opera house

An opera house is a building where operas and ballets are performed. It is similar to a theatre.

The first opera houses were built in the 1630s in Italy, about thirty years after the first operas were written. Traditionally they have a stage where the action takes place and a proscenium archway with a curtain that can be drawn back when the performance begins. In front of the stage is an orchestra pit which is a little lower than the stage so that the audience can still see the stage. The audience sit in the auditorium which is often horse-shoe shaped. The downstairs seats are called “stalls”. Round the stalls there are two or three tiers (storeys) of boxes. Each box can seat a small number of people. At the top towards the back there is a balcony and often a gallery along the sides as well. Some seats in the gallery may have restricted view (it is not possible to see all of the stage).

Some of the most famous opera houses in the world are Teatro alla Scala (or “La Scala”) in Milan, the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, London, the Metropolitan Opera House in New York, the War Memorial Opera house in San Francisco, the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow and the Sydney Opera House in Sydney which is a very modern building.
REO Speedwagon

REO Speedwagon is an American rock band. They formed in Illinois in the late 1960s. The band continues to record and tour to this day.  They were most popular in the 1980s, when they had a #1 album and two #1 singles.

Discography
Studio albums
 REO Speedwagon (1971)
 R.E.O./T.W.O. (1972)
 Ridin' the Storm Out (1973)
 Lost in a Dream (1974)
 This Time We Mean It (1975)
 R.E.O. (1976)
 You Can Tune a Piano, but You Can't Tuna Fish (1978)
 Nine Lives (1979)
 Hi Infidelity (1980)
 Good Trouble (1982)
 Wheels Are Turnin' (1984)
 Life as We Know It (1987)
 The Earth, a Small Man, His Dog and a Chicken (1990)
 Building the Bridge (1996)
 Find Your Own Way Home (2007)
 No So Silent Night... Christmas with REO Speedwagon (2009)

Other websites
REO Speedwagon's Official website

1967 establishments in the United States
1960s American music groups
1960s establishments in Illinois
1970s American music groups
1980s American music groups
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American hard rock bands
Musical groups established in 1967
Musical groups from Illinois
Will

Will could mean:

 Will (modal verb)
Shall and will, comparison of the two verbs
 Will (law), a legal document that explains the last wishes of someone after they die, such as what they want to happen to their money and their things.
 Living will, a legal document that explains the desires of the author with regard to medical decisions when they are unable to act on their own behalf.
 Will (philosophy), is the part of us that makes conscious choices and actions.
 Free will, is the theory that every person can decide what to do freely.

Basic English 850 words
Gaetano Donizetti

Gaetano Donizetti (born Bergamo 29 November 1797; died Bergamo 8 April 1848) was an Italian composer. He was the most famous composer of operas in Italy in the years between the death of Bellini (1835) and the time when Verdi was becoming well-known. Bellini and Donizetti wrote operas in the bel canto style: music with beautiful, smooth melodies.

Donizetti’s family were very poor. His talent was discovered by Simon Mayr who was maestro di cappella (music director) at S Maria Maggiore in Bergamo. He opened a school which trained boys to sing in the church choir and gave them a good musical education. Donizetti learned a lot from Mayr and was always very grateful to him.

Donizetti’s first operas were performed in Venice. A rich lady who realized he was very talented paid so that he did not have to do military service. His opera Zoraida di Granata was very successful in Rome and he was given a contract for an opera for Naples. For several years he composed between two and five operas every year. They were not particularly successful. One of the reasons was that the libretti he was given (the words he had to set) were not very good. 

In 1828 he married. None of their three children lived very long and his wife died in 1837 which made him very sad during his last years. This can be felt in his music.

His opera Anna Bolena made him internationally famous. It was performed in London and Paris. His opera Maria Stuarda was based on a play by Schiller. It was not popular at first. The audience did not like the tragic ending. Today it is recognized as containing some great music, especially in the final scene. After a visit to Paris he returned to Naples to produce Lucia di Lammermoor which was based on Scott’s novel The Bride of Lammermoor. There is a French version as well as an Italian version of this opera. 

In 1838 he moved to Paris where he had his operas performed in four theatres. Berlioz wrote very critical articles about him in a music journal. Donizetti had gone to Paris hoping that he would earn lots of money so that he could then retire, just like Rossini had done. However, his health was not good and he found it harder to concentrate. He managed to composed Don Pasquale which is one of the best comic operas every written, but it does have a lot of music that he had written earlier. He was obviously finding it difficult to think of new ideas. Soon he became really ill. He was suffering from syphilis. He was put in a sanatorium near Paris for 17 months. In 1847 some friends arranged for him to stay with them, but he was very ill by then. He was paralysed and almost unable to speak. His friends looked after him until he died.

He was buried in Bergamo. His remains are now in a church there. The house where he was born is a museum.

1797 births
1848 deaths
Romantic composers
Italian composers
Blonde

Blond or blonde is a light color of hair or a person with this color hair. The spelling blonde means a female with this hair colour, and the spelling blond can mean a male with the same hair color. The color itself can have either spelling (blonde or blond), according to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary.

Some people are blonde because they have less pigment in their hair than dark haired people. To be blonde is usually to have blonde ancestors. Then it is genetic - blondes have genes that make them blond. Sometimes it is not genetic - this is called albinism. People can also use chemicals to make themselves blonde. Bleach is sometimes used to make the color of a person's hair lighter.

Most people are not blondes by their genes. Only some people, mostly with European ancestry, are blondes by their genes, and also some Australian Aborigines have a different gene that makes them blonde. Natural blondes are most common around the Baltic Sea and Scandinavia. The Nordic countries such as Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, and Finland also have many blond people. Ireland and Scotland also have a high number of natural blondes. According to recent genetic analysis, both mtDNA and Y chromosome exist in Austrians. There is also a large number of blondes in England, Baltic countries, Slavic countries (especially Poland), north-western parts of Russia and among European descent that have lived in Kazakhstan since the Soviet Union. Natural blondes are also common in Canada, United States, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Chile, The Netherlands, United Kingdom, and Germany. Light hair can also brought on by environmental factors, especially exposure to sunlight.

References

Hair
Harold Macmillan

Maurice Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton, OM, PC (10 February 1894 – 29 December 1986), was a Conservative statesman. He was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1957 to 1963.

Macmillan served in the Grenadier Guards during the First World War. After the war he joined his family publishing company, then entered Parliament at the 1924 general election. After losing his seat in 1929, he regained it in 1931.

During World War II, Churchill made Macmillan Minister Resident in the Mediterranean. This made him the go-between for Churchill and the British forces in North Africa and the Middle East. The Mediterranean was a major theatre of war, and Macmillan's work made his name as a serious politician.

Macmillan became Foreign Secretary and then Chancellor of the Exchequer under Churchill's successor Sir Anthony Eden. When Eden resigned in 1957 after the Suez Crisis, Macmillan succeeded him as Prime Minister and Leader of the Conservative Party.

Macmillan  presided over a country becoming more affluent (rich), with low unemployment and high (but uneven) economic growth. In his Bedford speech of July 1957 he told the nation they had 'never had it so good'.

References

1894 births
1986 deaths
Alumni of the University of Oxford
British military personnel of World War I
Chancellors of the Exchequer
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People educated at Eton College
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Secretaries of State of the United Kingdom
UK MPs 1931–1935
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UK MPs 1945–1950
UK MPs 1950–1951
UK MPs 1951–1955
UK MPs 1955–1959
UK MPs 1959–1964
United Kingdom Earls
Crucifixion

Crucifixion is a way to execute (kill) someone, usually because they have committed a crime. It was used as a capital punishment by the government of Rome. A prisoner was beaten with whips, and made to carry their own cross. They were either tied or nailed to the cross. The Romans used different types of crosses: T-shaped, X-shaped, and sometimes just trees. It killed people by making them bleed, go into shock, and making it hard for them to breathe, eventually dying of suffocation. Some of the people would live for several days before dying. The Roman soldiers (which were like the police of that time) would often break the legs of the criminal to speed it up.

Jesus Christ
The most famous person to have been crucified was Jesus Christ, the Son of God according to the Christian religion. He was crucified along with two thieves. The cross later became a symbol of Christianity. Six of the twelve apostles of Jesus were also crucified later on, but most of them asked to be crucified in a different way from Jesus. For example, Andrew (who later became the patron saint of Scotland) was crucified on an X-shaped cross. In the year 337 AD, Emperor Constantine I abolished crucifixion in the Roman Empire.

References

Capital punishment
Christian symbols
William Ewart Gladstone

William Ewart Gladstone  (29 December 1809 – 19 May 1898) was a British Victorian politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom for the Liberal Party in four terms between 1868 and 1894.

His career lasted more than 60 years. He served as Liberal Prime Minister four times. This was more than any other person (1868–1874, 1880–1885, 1886 and 1892–1894). Gladstone was 84 years old when he resigned for the last time. This made him Britain's oldest ever Prime Minister. He served as Chancellor of the Exchequer four times (1853–1855, 1859–1866, 1873–1874 and 1880–1882).

Gladstone was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford.

References

Other websites

 
 
 
 

1809 births
1898 deaths
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Chancellors of the Exchequer
Christian theologians
English Anglicans
English theologians
Former Conservative Party (UK) MPs
Former members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Leaders of the Liberal Party (UK)
Liberal Party MPs (UK)
People buried in Westminster Abbey
People educated at Eton College
People from Liverpool
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Secretaries of State of the United Kingdom
Stanley Baldwin

Stanley Baldwin, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley,  (3 August 186714 December 1947) was a Prime Minister of the United Kingdom three times. He presided over the economic crisis of the 1930s and abdication of King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom.

1867 births
1947 deaths
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Chancellors of the Exchequer
English Anglicans
Former Conservative Party (UK) MPs
Former members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Leaders of the Conservative Party (UK)
Leaders of the Opposition (United Kingdom)
Politicians from Worcestershire
Privy Councillors (Canada)
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
UK MPs 1929–1931
UK MPs 1931–1935
UK MPs 1935–1945
United Kingdom Earls
William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham

William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham (15 November 1708 – 11 May 1778) was a prime minister of Great Britain. He was appointed by King George III. 

His London house, in St. James's Square, is now the home of the international affairs think tank called Chatham House.

In 1758, during the Seven Years' War, he came up with the strategy of blocking the St. Lawrence River so the French troops in Quebec and Montreal could not get more supplies. This weakened the French side, and helped to win the war.

His son, William Pitt the Younger, was also a prime minister.

References 

1708 births
1778 deaths
English Earls
Former members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
People buried in Westminster Abbey
People from Westminster
Politicians from London
Whig party (UK) politicians
Prime Ministers of Great Britain
Herbert Asquith

Herbert Henry Asquith, 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith KG PC KC (12 September 1852 – 15 February 1928) served as the Liberal Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1908 to 1916. Until 5 January 1988, he had been the longest continuously serving Prime Minister in the 20th century. He was not, however, in favour of the right of women to vote.

As Prime Minister, he led the Liberal Party to a series of domestic reforms, including social insurance and the reduction of the power of the House of Lords. He led the nation into the First World War, but a series of military and political crises led to his replacement in late 1916 by David Lloyd George. His falling out with Lloyd George played a major part in the downfall of the Liberal Party.

His ministry was significant for the Old Age Pension (1908), National Insurance Act (1911) and the Parliamentary Act (1911), which restricted the power of the House of Lords. 

Asquith's descendants include: ambassador Dominic Asquith (great-grandson), actress Helena Bonham Carter (great-granddaughter) and actress Anna Chancellor (great-great-granddaughter).

References 

1852 births
1928 deaths
Alumni of the University of Oxford
British lawyers
British people of World War I
Chancellors of the Exchequer
Congregationalists
English Protestants
Former members of the British House of Commons for Scottish constituencies
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Members of the House of Lords
Politicians from Yorkshire
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Secretaries of State for the Home Department
Secretaries of State of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom Earls
Plantation

A plantation is a large farm which is specialized on farming one type of crop.  Plantations grow cash crops, mostly for export, and less for local use. Crops grown on plantations include banana, sugarcane, coffee, tea, cotton and tobacco. 

Some of the problems with plantations come from the fact that they are monocultures, that is there is only one kind of crop that is grown there. This makes them vulnerable to pests, for example.
Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire. They produced large quantities of wine and olive oil for export. Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the relative decline of subsistence farming. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time. Earlier forms of plantation agriculture were associated with large disparities of wealth and income, foreign ownership and political influence, and exploitative social systems such as indentured labor and slavery.

Agriculture
Philip II of France

Philip II of France (August 21, 1165 – July 14, 1223), was King of France from 1180 to 1223.

Kings and Queens of France
1165 births
1223 deaths
Arthur Balfour

Arthur James Balfour, 1st Earl of Balfour, KG OM PC (25 July 1848 – 19 March 1930) was a British Conservative statesman and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1902 until 1905.

He was minister of Foreign Affairs from 1916 to 1919. In this capacity he wrote the so-called Balfour Declaration in 1917.

1848 births
1930 deaths
Former Conservative Party (UK) MPs
Government ministers
Knights of the Garter
Order of Merit
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom Earls
Zionists
Monte Carlo

Monte Carlo is the largest city in Monaco. Its area is 5 square km, and around four hundred people live there.

Monte Carlo is also the centre of  gambling, politics, fireworks and culture. Monte Carlo has a lot of casinos, hotels and historical buildings.

Monte Carlo is one of Europe's leading tourist resorts. Within the casino complex is the Grand Théâtre de Monte Carlo, an opera and ballet house, and the headquarters of the Ballets de Monte Carlo.

References
Slideshow

Slideshow means a show of slides. It is a display of several slides  for information or for artistic purposes.  

Slideshows are conducted by a presenter using an apparatus, such as a slide projector, an overhead projector  or in more recent years, a computer running presentation software. The word comes from the use of slides which have been around for many years. Slides originally were projected on movie theater screens by magic lanterns as part of early movie house shows.

The word slideshow does not appear in the Webster’s New Twentieth Century Unabridged Dictionary (1973 edition), but is accepted as correct spelling in Microsoft Word in both Office 2000 and Office XP editions.

Other websites 
myPicPals - Online Sideshow Builder
Myspace Slideshow  - Reviews of online slideshows
Example of a show of objects of art 

Photography
Slide

In photography, a slide  is a thin translucent photograph bound in paper, plastic or similar frame and often used for projection with use of a slide projector for a slideshow. The terms reversal film and transparency are also used. 

One can  it from negative and print.

Related pages
 Slide projector
 Slide copier

Other websites 
Agfa SCALA 200x Professional film  
Kodak TRI-X Reversal Film 7266 
Chemical Reversal Processing of B&W Negative Film

Photography
Projection

Projection can be any of:
 The display of an image by devices such as:
Movie projector
Video projector
Overhead projector
Slide projector

 Map projection, in cartography
 Graphical projection, the production of a two-dimensional image of a three-dimensional object
Isometric projection
Oblique projection
Orthographic projection

 In chemistry, any one of:
 Fischer projection
 Haworth projection
 Newman projection
 Stereochemical projection

Projection (mathematics), any of several different types of functions, mappings, operations, or transformations
3D projection
Projection (relational algebra)
Projection (linear algebra)
Power projection, the capacity of a state to implement policy by means of force, or the threat thereof, in an area distant from its own territory
Psychological projection, a defense mechanism in which one attributes to others, one’s own unacceptable or unwanted thoughts or emotions
a forecasting of future developments based on current statistics and trends
 Enamel projections, extensions of dental enamel beyond the normally smooth cervical margin and onto the root of the tooth
Projection (Cylon ability), the ability to perceive your environment in any form you choose, displayed by the humanoid Cylons in the television series Battlestar Galactica

ja:投影法
Wall Street Crash of 1929

The Wall Street Crash of 1929 was the greatest stock market crash in the history of the United States. 

It happened in the New York Stock Exchange on Tuesday October 29, 1929, now known as Black Tuesday.  Bank failures followed, resulting in businesses closing. This caused worldwide panic, which started the Great Depression. Stock prices did not reach the same level until late 1954.

The crash signaled the beginning of the 10-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries. Countries imposed high tariffs and otherwise restricted imports. International trade declined. Soup kitchens were the place to go for food for many people. The Depression ended in the United States with the start of American mobilization for World War II at the end of 1941. People who lost their homes lived in what were Hoovervilles. They called many things after Herbert Hoover. They named the food handed out to the poor “Hoover Blankets” they called the newspapers they used as Blankets. “Hoover hogs” were jack rabbits that were used for food, and “Hoover Wagons” were broken down cars that were pulled by mules. Great Depression was ushered in by the stock market crash of October 29, 1929. It ended as dramatically a decade later on September 3, 1939, when the Second World War began. The widespread poverty and suffering during the 1930s. The Great Depression spread rapidly from the US to Europe and the rest of the world as a result of the connection between the United States and European economies after WWI.The Wall Street Crash was the U.S. Stock Market crash of October 29, 1929, which triggered the Great Depression

Causes 
Stock-exchange speculation led hundreds of thousands of Americans to invest heavily in the stock market, creating an economic bubble. Many were borrowing money to buy more stocks.   

"At the turn of the 20th century, stock market speculation was restricted to professionals, but the 1920s saw millions of 'ordinary Americans' investing in the New York Stock Exchange. By August 1929, brokers had lent small investors more than two-thirds of the face value of the stocks they were buying on margin – more than $8.5bn was out on loan". 

The amount of money out on loan was more than the entire amount of currency circulating in the U.S.A at the time. When a stock price declined below the amount of borrowed money, the owner had to sell to pay the debt. This caused prices to decline more. Years later, regulations limited the use of debt in this way.

References 
https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Great-Depression/353208
1929 in the United States
Economic history
Levi Strauss

Levi Strauss (February 26, 1829–September 26, 1902) was a German-born American maker of clothing.

Born as Löb Strauss into a Jewish family in Buttenheim in Franconia, Bavaria, now a part of Germany.  In 1847, Strauss, his mother and two sisters moved to New York City to join his brothers Jonas and Louis Löb in their dry goods business. By 1850 he had adopted the name "Levi Strauss".

In 1853, Strauss moved to bustling San Francisco, California, where the California Gold Rush was still in high gear. Levi expected that the mining camps would welcome his buttons, scissors, thread and bolts of fabric; additionally, he had yards of canvas sailcloth intended for tent-making and as covers for the Conestoga wagons that dotted the landscape next to every stream and river in the area.

It was on California Street that Levi and his brother-in-law David Stern opened a dry goods wholesale business called Levi Strauss & Co.  Levi was often found leading a pack-horse, heavily laden with merchandise, directly into the mining camps found throughout the region. The story goes that both prospectors and miners, often complaining about the easily torn cotton "britches" and pockets that "split right out" gave Levi the idea to make a rugged overall trouser for the miners to wear. These were fashioned from bolts of brown canvas sailcloth, with gold ore storage pockets that were nearly impossible to split. Levi exhausted his original supply of canvas as the demand grew for his hard-wearing overalls, and so he switched to a sturdy fabric called serge, made in Nimes, France. Originally called serge de Nimes, the name was soon shortened to denim.

In 1872, Levi received a letter from Jacob Davis, a Reno, Nevada tailor. Davis was one of Levi Strauss' regular customers, who purchased bolts of cloth from the company to use for his own business. In this letter, Davis told Levi about the interesting way in which he made pants for his customers: he placed metal rivets at the points of strain—pocket corners and on the base of the fly. As he did not have the money to patent his process he suggested that Levi pay for the paperwork and that they take out the patent together.

On May 20, 1873, Strauss and Jacob Davis received United States patent #139121 for using copper rivets to strengthen the pockets of denim work pants. Levi Strauss & Co. began manufacturing the first of the famous Levi's brand of jeans in San Francisco, using fabric from the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company in Manchester, New Hampshire.

Levi Strauss died on September 26, 1902, at the age of 73. He left his thriving manufacturing and dry goods business to his four nephews—Jacob, Louis, Abraham and Sigmund Stern—who helped rebuild the company after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire. The following year, Jacob Davis sold back his share of the company.

Peter Haas and his family are the primary heirs to the Levi Strauss fortune.

Other websites 
 Levi Strauss Company
 Levi's
 Levi's Europe
 Levi's Online Store 

 

Businesspeople from San Francisco
1829 births
1902 deaths
Wagner (disambiguation)

Richard Wagner was a German opera composer

Wagner could also mean:

 Anthony Wagner, the 20th century English officer
 Robert Wagner, American actor
Apostolic Palace

The Apostolic Palace, also called the Papal Palace or the Palace of the Vatican, is the official residence of the Pope in the Vatican City.

The palace is a complex of buildings, with the Papal Apartment, the Catholic Church's government offices, a handful of chapels, the Vatican Museum and the Vatican library. In all there are over 1,000 rooms with the most famous including the Sistine Chapel and its renowned ceiling frescoes painted by Michelangelo (restored between 1980-1990) and Raphael's Rooms.

The other papal residences are at the Lateran Palace and the Castel Gandolfo outside Rome.

Before 1871, the Quirinal Palace was the Pope's official residence. After the final overthrow of the Papal States in 1870, the King of Italy confiscated that palace in 1871, making it the king's official residence; after the abolition of the Italian monarchy in 1946, it became the President of the Italian Republic's residence.

Related pages
Borgia Apartment
Clementine Hall
Domus Sanctae Marthae
Papal Gentlemen
Papal Apartment 
Sistine Chapel
Raphael Rooms

Vatican City
Palaces
Transcendental number

A real or complex number is called a transcendental number if it cannot be found as a result of an algebraic equation with integer coefficients.

Proving that a certain number is transcendental can be very hard. Each transcendental number is also an irrational number. The first people to see that there were transcendental numbers were Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Leonhard Euler. The first to actually prove there were transcendental numbers was Joseph Liouville. He did this in 1844.

Well known transcendental numbers:
 e
 π
 ea for algebraic a ≠ 0

References 

 David Hilbert, "Über die Transcendenz der Zahlen  und ", Mathematische Annalen 43:216–219 (1893).
 Alan Baker, Transcendental Number Theory, Cambridge University Press, 1975, .

Other websites 
 Proof that  is transcendental 
 Proof that  is transcendental (PDF)  (German)
 Proof that  is transcendental (PDF)  (German)

Transcendental numbers
Number theory
Flip-flop

In footwear and fashion, flip-flops are a kind of flat, backless sandal. They have a flat sole held on the foot by a u-shaped strap that passes between the first (big) and second toes and around either side of the foot, attached to the sole at three points, commonly known as the thong strap. They may have been developed out of traditional Japanese woven or wooden soled sandals (i.e., zori and setta) in Australia.

Footwear
Hamlet (place)

A hamlet is a small settlement, smaller than a village. Usually, all settlers in a hamlet are centered around a single economic activity. A hamlet may consist of a farm, a mill, a mine or a harbor. All the people living there would be workers on that farm, mill, mine or harbour. Hamlets, especially those with a medieval church may have resulted from a medieval village, that was abandoned for some reason.

Because of the small size of the settlement, there are usually no buildings which have a central or admninistratrive function. There usually is no church, town hall or pub. Roads and streets in the hamlet do not have names, most of the time.5-6 families may live there usually within a 2km radius area. 

In Germany, Austria, Switzerland and the Alsace region of France, such hamlets often have names that end in -wil, -wil(l)er, -wyhl or -viller.

 

bg:Махала
he:כפר#כפר מסורתי וכפריר
Recording Industry Association of America

The Recording Industry Association of America or RIAA is an organization that was created and paid for by large record companies. It is based in Washington, D.C. It symbolizes the entire recording industry of the United States of America. The RIAA also participates in the collection, management and distribution of music licenses and royalties.

The association is responsible for certifying gold and platinum albums and singles in the U.S. Its goals are:
to protect intellectual property rights worldwide and the First Amendment rights of artists;
to perform research about the music industry;
to watch over and review laws, regulations and rules that apply to the music industry.

Members 
The members of the RIAA are mostly record companies in the U.S.

History 
The RIAA was created in 1952 to create technical standards for vinyl records so any record could play on any record player without difficulty. In today's times, the RIAA's goals is to prevent piracy of records. The RIAA says that the music industry loses nearly 4.2 billion U.S. dollars a year because of this.

Related pages
 Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ)
 American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP)
 Japanese Society for Rights of Authors, Composers and Publishers (JASRAC)

References

Other websites
Official website of the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA)

1952 establishments in the United States
Music industry
Washington, D.C.
Mar del Plata

Mar del Plata is a city of Argentina in the Buenos Aires Province. It is found on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, about 400 km south of Buenos Aires. Mar del Plata has a population of 541,733 people. It is the 7th biggest city in Argentina.

Other websites 

 Official Government website 
 Tourist Info (from the Official Government website)  
 Mar del Plata Website with news and things to do

Cities in Argentina
Buenos Aires Province
Signal (electrical engineering)

In the fields of communications, signal processing, and in electrical engineering more generally, a signal is any time-varying quantity. 

The concept is broad, and hard to define precisely.  Definitions specific to subfields are common. For example, in information theory, a signal is a codified message, i.e., the sequence of states in a communications channel that encodes a message. In a communications system, a transmitter encodes a message into a signal, which is carried to a receiver by the communications channel.  For example, the words "Mary had a little lamb" might be the message spoken into a telephone. The telephone transmitter converts the sounds into an electrical voltage signal. The signal is transmitted to the receiving telephone by wires; and at the receiver it is reconverted into sounds.

Examples of signals 
 Motion.  The motion of a particle through some space can be considered to be a signal, or can be represented by a signal.  The domain of a motion signal is one-dimensional (time), and the range is generally three-dimensional.  Position is thus a 3-vector signal; position and orientation is a 6-vector signal.

 Sound.  Since a sound is a vibration of a medium (such as air), a sound signal associates a pressure value to every value of time and three space coordinates.  A microphone converts sound pressure at some place to just a function of time, using a voltage signal as an analog of the sound signal.

 Compact discs (CDs).  CDs contain discrete bits representing a sound signal, recorded at 44,100 samples per second.  Each sample contains data for a left and right channel, which may be considered to be a 2-vector (since CDs are recorded in stereo).

 Noise typically unwanted but not always.

References
Shannon, C. E., 2005 [1948], "A Mathematical Theory of Communication,"  (corrected reprint ), accessed Dec. 15, 2005. Orig. 1948, Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, pp. 379–423, 623-656.

Electronics
Engineering
Communication
Air New Zealand

Air New Zealand  is a big passenger airline from Auckland, New Zealand. It flies mainly in Australasia and South Pacific, but it also has services to Europe, North America and Asia. It is a Star Alliance member. It joined the alliance in 1999. Its main base or hub is Auckland International Airport.

History
In 1940, TEAL was founded. Its first flights were from Auckland to Sydney and Wellington. Later, flights to Fiji, Samoa, Tahiti and the Cook Islands were added. The Australian government bought 50% of TEAL in 1953. The remaining 50% was owned by the Government of New Zealand. In 1961, the airline became completely owned by the Government of New Zealand. TEAL was officially renamed Air New Zealand on April 1, 1965. The airline bought Douglas DC-8 airplanes in July 1965. These were used for longer routes to Honolulu and Los Angeles. A larger Boeing 747 was bought in 1981. Air New Zealand bought Ansett Australia in 2000. Ansett later went out of business.

Gallery

Destinations
Air New Zealand serves the following destinations:

References

1965 establishments in Oceania
Airlines of Oceania
Auckland
Star Alliance
Transport in New Zealand
1960s establishments in New Zealand
IATA members
Air Jamaica

Air Jamaica is the national airline of Jamaica from Kingston, Jamaica. It flies regular services from Kingston and Montego Bay to 23 airports in the Caribbean, the USA, Canada and United Kingdom. The airline's main bases are Norman Manley International Airport (KIN), Kingston and Sangster International Airport (MBJ), Montego Bay.

References 

Jamaica
Airlines of North America
Artillery

Artillery is a word for the big guns used in an army, for example cannons and howitzers. Such guns are used to shoot targets far away. Artillery is often used to stop enemy troops using an area, to bombard trenches and buildings with enemies in it and to support friendly units. There are many different weapons that are called artillery. They may shoot shells or missiles. Newer systems can even drop mines over a big area, making the area uncrossable. Anti-aircraft warfare includes the use of artillery to fight planes and other aircraft.  

Those who fire the artillery piece are called "gunners". In most cases someone else, called a "spotter" must see the enemy, because artillery often shoots farther than the gunners can see. The artillery crews do not have to see the enemy to damage them.

Different types of artillery

Other websites 

 Artillery -Citizendium
House of Lords

The House of Lords is one of the two Houses of Parliament of the United Kingdom (UK). It is in London, the capital city of the UK. The other house is the House of Commons. Together the two houses form the government and parliament of the UK. 

The House of Lords is not elected (voted for), except in the case of the holders of the seats reserved for hereditary peers (who are chosen by the House or by other hereditary peers in their parties).

 2 people are members because of their job (The Duke of Norfolk, who is the Earl Marshal, and the Marquess of Cholmondeley, the Lord Great Chamberlain, who both help to organise royal events).
 90 people are hereditary peers. These are members of the House of Lords because one of their ancestors was made a member and (since 1999) have been elected from among other such people.
 The other members were made members for life, either life peers, who have existed since 1958 or as law lords. Law lords were senior judges made members of the House to help when the House of Lords was also the highest court in England and Wales (before the foundation of the Supreme Court in 2009).
 The twenty-six most senior Bishops of the Church of England also sit in the House of Lords, they are called the Lords Spiritual.

Crossbenchers 

Many members of the House of Lords sit as Crossbenchers.  This means they do not support either the government or opposition parties, but instead are independent of party politics. They got their name because the benches where they sit are placed across the aisle which separates the government and opposition supporters.

References

Other websites 
Parliament UK

Politics of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
Acapulco

Acapulco is a town and sea port on the Pacific coast of Mexico, 300 km (190 miles) southwest from Mexico City. Acapulco is on a deep, semi-circular bay. It is a stop for shipping and cruising lines running between Panama, and San Francisco, California, USA. In 2005, about 722,499 people lived there.

Its name is a Nahuatl word, meaning "plain of dense reeds". The city has been a port since the 16th century.

Playones de San Isidro 
Playones de San Isidro de Isidro is a community belonging to the Flavio Alfaro canton. The village has a population of approximately 200 people.

Cities in Mexico
Guerrero (state)
1520s establishments in Mexico
Deutsche Bahn

Deutsche Bahn AG (short DB AG or often only DB) is Europe's largest railway company. It runs over 30,000 trains a day and owns more than 5,000 stations. The company headquarters are in Berlin, Germany.

It was founded on January 1, 1994 to replace the Deutsche Bundesbahn, which was the state railway of West Germany, and the Deutsche Reichsbahn, which was the state railway of East Germany.

Deutsche Bahn is also active in the field of logistics and owns companies like Schenker. DB claim they are the second largest logistics company in the world.

Other websites 

DB corporate home page
DB travel portal
DB timetable information

Rail transport in Germany
Transport companies of Germany
Train operating companies
1994 establishments in Germany
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties is a contract of International law. It was signed in the 1960s. It codified earlier customs that were there. 105 states signed the convention.

Other websites 

Full text of the treaty: html, pdf
Easy-to-read version of the text

Sources
Damrosch, Henkin, et al., International Law, West Group 2001.

Treaties and Conventions
The Lost World

The Lost World is a book written by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in the year 1912. In it, Professor Challenger and his companions travel to find a large plateau in South America where dinosaurs still live. After a long journey they find the plateau, and witness not only dinosaurs, but two tribes - an ancient Native American people and ape-men who resemble the missing link.

After many adventures, they return to London and attempt to describe their adventures to a disbelieving public.

Other websites

 

British novels
Science fiction books
Books by Arthur Conan Doyle
Amnesty International

Amnesty International (also called AI or Amnesty) is an international organization founded in London in 1961. They promote human rights in accordance with Universal Declaration of Human Rights and international human rights law.  This organization was the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977 for its defense of human dignity against torture. It is one of the most widely-known human rights groups in the world.  The six key areas that Amnesty International focuses on are refugee rights, the rights of women, children, and of minorities, ending torture, stopping the death penalty, the rights of people imprisoned because of what they believe, and protection of human dignity.

What they believe in 
Amnesty International is based on these central ideas:
 Every person has human rights. Human rights cannot be taken away from a person. They are natural laws that are the right of all human beings from their birth on.
 Human rights cannot be divided. When one right is taken away, this is also bad for other rights. When one right is protected, other rights are in a better position as well.
 Human rights will not be protected by governments alone. Governments have said they will protect human rights, and then not acted upon it. Human rights organisations have to influence the governments.
 To protect human rights, people must help other people. Danger for human rights starts at the level of single persons. To help one person means to stop the danger from growing. One person alone can do this.
 To defend human rights, an organization must be independent and impartial. It should not be for or against any one ideology. An ideology is a certain point of view. It can be political, economic, or religious. Also, the organization should not say one country is the "worst". It should focus on the individual and all individuals.

References

Literature 
 Jürgen Wüst: «Imperialistisches Menschenrechtsgeschrei». Der Kampf des MfS gegen die Internationale Gesellschaft für Menschenrechte (IGFM) und Amnesty International (AI), in: Deutschland Archiv, Nr. 3/1998, S. 418—427

Other websites 
 Amnesty International website

1961 establishments in Europe
1960s establishments in England
Capital punishment
Charities
Human rights organisations in the United Kingdom
Imprisonment and detention
International organizations
Decameron

The Decameron is a collection of 100 short stories. It was written by the Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio around 1350. In the book, ten friends, seven young women and three young men, leave the city of Florence because of the plague and stay in a large house in the countryside. Each day, they entertain each other by taking turns to tell stories. The stories are of different types. Some are romantic, some are erotic, some are comedies and some are tragedies.  

Other writers have used the stories for ideas. Many paintings have been done which illustrate the stories. The picture to the right shows a scene from the story of "The Pot of Basil" in which Isabella buries the head of her murdered lover Ferdinand inside a potplant.

Other websites 
 Decameron Web, from Brown University
 The Decameron - Introduction, from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook

14th-century books