cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Substitution box

In cryptography, a S-Box (Substitution-box) is a basic component of symmetric-key algorithms. In block ciphers, the S-Boxes are used to make the relation between the key and the ciphertext (coded text) difficult to understand–Shannon's property of confusion. The S-Boxes are carefully chosen to resist cryptanalysis (decoding).

In general, an S-Box takes some number of input bits, m, and transforms them into some number of output bits, n: an m×n S-Box can be implemented as a lookup table with 2m words of n bits each. Fixed tables are normally used, as in the Data Encryption Standard (DES), but in some ciphers the tables are generated dynamically from the key; e.g. the Blowfish and the Twofish encryption algorithms. Bruce Schneier describes IDEA's modular multiplication step as a key-dependent S-Box.

One good example is this 6×4-bit S-Box from DES (S5):

Given a 6-bit input, the 4-bit output is found by selecting the row using the outer two bits, and the column using the inner four bits. For example, an input "011011" has outer bits "01" and inner bits "1101"; the corresponding output would be "1001".

The 8 S-Boxes of DES were the subject of intensive studies for many years cause of a concern that a method of bypassing the DES cipher to obtaining access to the plaintext–a vulnerability (susceptibility) known only to its designers–might have been planted (inserted) in the cipher. In 1994, the S-Box design criteria were finally published by its designers after the public rediscovery of differential cryptanalysis, showing that they had been carefully tuned the design to increase resistance against differential cryptanalysis attacks. Other research had already indicated that even a very small modification to one of the 8 S-Box used by the DES could weaken it very much.

The design of good S-Boxes was the subject of a great amount of research; now much more is understood about their use in block ciphers than when the DES S-Boxes were released.

Related pages
 Substitution cipher

References

Other websites
 A literature survey on S-Box design
 John Savard's "Questions of S-Box Design"
 Gargiulo's "S-Box Modifications and Their Effect in DES-like Encryption Systems"

Cryptography
Martigues

Martigues is a commune of 46,200 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Mas-Blanc-des-Alpilles

Mas-Blanc-des-Alpilles is a commune of 373 people (1999). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Maussane-les-Alpilles

Maussane-les-Alpilles is a commune of 2,155 people (2004). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Meyrargues

Meyrargues is a commune in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France. 3,400 people lived there in 2006.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Meyreuil

Meyreuil is a commune of 4,450 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Mimet

Mimet is a commune of 4,400 people (2004). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Miramas

Miramas is a commune of 23,800 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Mollégès

Mollégès is a commune of 2,171 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Mouriès

Mouriès is a commune of 3,085 people (2008). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Noves

Noves is a commune of 4,845 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Orgon

Orgon is a commune of 2,913 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Paradou

Paradou is a commune of 1,162 people (1999). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Pélissanne

Pélissanne is a commune of 9,268 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Les Pennes-Mirabeau

Les Pennes-Mirabeau is a commune of 19,043 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
La Penne-sur-Huveaune

La Penne-sur-Huveaune is a commune of 6,150 people (2008). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Peynier

Peynier is a commune of 2,900 people (2005). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Peypin

Peypin is a commune of 5,097 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Peyrolles-en-Provence

Peyrolles-en-Provence is a commune of 4,286 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Plan-de-Cuques

Plan-de-Cuques is a commune of 10,503 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Plan-d'Orgon

Plan-d'Orgon is a commune of 2,738 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Confusion and diffusion

In cryptography, confusion and diffusion are two properties of the operation of a secure cipher.

Confusion and diffusion were identified by Claude Elwood Shannon in his paper, "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems" published in 1949. In Shannon's original definitions:
Confusion refers to making the relationship between the key and the ciphertext as complex and as involved as possible
Diffusion refers to the property that redundancy in the statistics of the plaintext is "dissipated" in the statistics of the ciphertext.

Diffusion is associated with the dependency of the output bits on the input bits. In a cipher with good diffusion, flipping an input bit should change each output bit with a probability of one half (this is termed the Strict Avalanche Criterion).

Substitution (a rule for replacing plaintext symbols by another) has been identified as a mechanism for primarily confusion (see S-box); on the other hand transposition using P-box (rearranging or swapping the order of symbols) is a technique for diffusion, although other mechanisms are also used in modern practice, such as linear transformations (e.g. in AES). Product ciphers use alternating substitution and transposition phases (rounds) to achieve both confusion and diffusion respectively.

Related pages
 Substitution-permutation network

References
 Claude E. Shannon, "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems", Bell System Technical Journal, vol.28-4, page 656–715, 1949.  

Cryptography
Port-de-Bouc

Port-de-Bouc is a commune of 17,900 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône

Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône is a commune of 8,524 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Puyloubier

Puyloubier is a commune of 1,671 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Le Puy-Sainte-Réparade

Le Puy-Sainte-Réparade is a commune. It is in the  Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France. 5,112 people lived there in (2006).

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Rognac

Rognac is a commune of 11,900 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Rognes, Bouches-du-Rhône

Rognes is a commune of 4,194 people (1999). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Rognonas

Rognonas is a commune of 3,623 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
La Roque-d'Anthéron

La Roque-d'Anthéron is a commune of 4,722 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems

Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems is a paper published by Claude Shannon discussing cryptography from the viewpoint of information theory. It is one of the foundational treatments (primitives) of modern cryptography. It is also a proof that all theoretically unbreakable (un-crack-able) ciphers must have the same requirements as the one-time pad encryption algorithm.

Shannon published an earlier version of this research in the classified report A Mathematical Theory of Cryptography, Memorandum MM 45-110-02, Sept. 1, 1945, Bell Laboratories.

In 1948, Shannon published his great paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" which is considered one of the founding works of the field of information theory.

Related pages
 Confusion and diffusion
 Product cipher

References
 Shannon, Claude. "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems", Bell System Technical Journal, vol.28(4), page 656–715, 1949.

Other websites
 Online retyped copy of the paper 
 Scanned version of the published BSTJ paper

Cryptography
Come as You Are (Nirvana song)

"Come as You Are" is a song by the American grunge band Nirvana. It was the second single from their second album, Nevermind, the first was the enormously popular "Smells Like Teen Spirit". It is one of the band's most famous songs. Rolling Stone magazine named it as the 445th on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.

Music video
There was a music video for the song. It has a lot of random scenes, such as Kurt Cobain sitting on a chandelier hanging from a ceiling, a handgun floating in a swimming pool, and a baby swimming in that pool (a reference to the cover art of Nevermind.)

Release
After the single was released, the English post-punk band Killing Joke became angry at Nirvana for supposedly ripping off their song "Eighties".

Nirvana thought that "Smells Like Teen Spirit", the previous single from Nevermind, would not be very popular, and that "Come as You Are" would be a big hit. However, "Smells Like Teen Spirit" became the band's most famous song and one of the most famous songs ever, even though Come as You Are was also popular.

Other versions of the song
On November 18, 1993, Nirvana played "Come as You Are" on their show on MTV Unplugged. The show contained mostly their unpopular songs and covers of other artists' songs; "Come as You Are" was the only hit they played.

Nirvana songs
1992 songs
Luduş

Luduş (German: Ludasch, Hungarian: Marosludas) is a town in Mureş County, Romania. It is the fourth biggest city in the county by population. The name of the town in Hungarian means "gooses at Maros"

Towns in Romania
2008 Yemen floods

The 2008 Yemen floods took place on October 23, leaving 65 dead and 20,000 without shelter. The Yemeni governorates of Hadhramaut, Lahij, Al Mahrah and Ta'izz were affected the worst by the floods, and most of the deaths were in Hadhramaut.

Details

Before the flooding was several days of rain starting on October 23, as the remains of a tropical cyclone moved over the area. Rain continued, with weather systems coming in from neighbouring Saudi Arabia and northern Somalia, causing severe flooding in some areas of Yemen. Better conditions are expected by Sunday.

Thousands of families fled Hadhramaut alone; many schools were used as evacuee shelters, but these could only hold 10% of the affected. Search and rescue teams said that the number of deaths may increase due to the likelihood of people trapped in flooded houses. Electricity and telephone lines were cut off, and many homes were damaged.

Reaction

The Yemeni government promised to supply tents as a means of emergency shelter, along with other emergency supplies, with six transport aircraft loaded with supplies taking off from Sanaa on Saturday and more scheduled for later. President Ali Abdullah Saleh ordered the creation of a committee to provide aid to affected civilians. Also, the United Arab Emirates declared their intent to provide relief. However, several residents in the city of Shibam say that government assistance and support, if any, is low.

The Organisation of the Islamic Conference declared the situation a "national catastrophe" and started a drive on Saturday to collect funds for the relief of flood victims.

Yemeni president Ali Abdullah Saleh said, "The damages... are great and the catastrophe is also great."

Damage
Along with deaths, about 730 homes were destroyed, along with businesses and other building projects. The severe thunder of the thunderstorms resulted in at least nine deaths from lightning in the Al Mahrah, Ta'izz and Lahij governorates.  The rain also destroyed large amounts of farmland and killed large numbers of livestock.

References

2008 in Asia
2000s disasters in Asia

2008 floods

Floods in Asia
October 2008 events
Alexander Ramsey

Alexander Ramsey (September 8, 1815– April 22, 1903) was an American politician. He was born near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

Ramsey was elected from Pennsylvania as a Whig to the U.S. House of Representatives and served in the 28th and 29th congresses from March 4, 1843 to March 3, 1847. He served as the first Territorial Governor of Minnesota June 1, 1849 to May 15, 1853 as a member of the Whig Party.

In 1855, he became the mayor of St. Paul, Minnesota. Ramsey was elected the second Governor of Minnesota after statehood and served from January 2, 1860 to July 10, 1863. Ramsey is credited with being the first Union governor to commit troops during the American Civil War (he happened to be in Washington, D.C. when fighting broke out). He resigned the governorship to become a U.S. Senator, having been elected to that post in 1863 as a Republican. He was re-elected in 1869 and held the office until March 3, 1875, serving in the 38th, 39th, 40th, 41st, 42nd, and 43rd congresses.

Ramsey served as Secretary of War from 1879 to 1881, under President Rutherford B. Hayes.

Legacy 
The Minnesota Historical Society preserves his home as a museum. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969. Alexander Ramsey Park, located in Redwood Falls, Minnesota, is the largest municipal park in Minnesota.  Ramsey County, Minnesota, Ramsey County, North Dakota, the city of Ramsey, Minnesota, the city of Ramsey, Illinois, Ramsey Park in Stillwater, Minnesota, and Alexander Ramsey Elementary School in Montevideo, Minnesota are also named for him.

References 

1815 births
1903 deaths
United States Secretaries of War
United States senators from Minnesota
Politicians from Pennsylvania
Lounge Act

"Lounge Act" is a song by the American grunge band Nirvana. It was the ninth song on their second studio album, Nevermind, which is credited with bring grunge music to the mainstream. The song is much like the post-grunge songs that were very popular starting in the mid-1990s, after Nirvana broke up.

The title "Lounge Act" came from when the band thought it sounded like a song they would play in a lounge.

It is one of the songs in the soundtrack of the video game Skate., a skateboarding video game from 2007 for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3.

Nirvana songs
1991 songs
Hurricane Dean

Hurricane Dean was the strongest tropical cyclone of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season. It was also the strongest Atlantic hurricane since Hurricane Wilma of 2005. Also, it made the third strongest Atlantic hurricane landfall. Dean moved west-northwest from the eastern Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lucia Channel and into the Caribbean Sea. It became into a very strong hurricane, reaching Category 5 status on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale before moving south of Jamaica on August 20. The storm moved onto land on the Yucatán Peninsula on August 21 as a Category 5 storm. It moved across the peninsula and entered the Bay of Campeche, as a weakened storm, but still a hurricane. It strengthened for a short time before making a second landfall in Veracruz near Tecolutla, Mexico, on August 22. Dean slowly moved to the northwest, weakening into a low pressure area which dissipated over the southwestern United States.

The hurricane's strong winds, waves, rains and storm surge caused over 45 deaths across ten countries and caused estimated damages of US$1.5 billion. First impacting the islands of the Lesser Antilles, Dean's path through the Caribbean severely damaged agricultural crops, especially those of Martinique and Jamaica. When it reached  Mexico, Hurricane Dean was a Category 5 storm, but it missed large cities and its exceptional Category 5 strength landfall caused no deaths and less damage than in the Caribbean islands it passed as a Category 2 storm. Because of the damage, the name Dean was retired, and will not be used again for a tropical cyclone.

Related pages
2007 Atlantic hurricane season
Tropical cyclone

References

2007 Atlantic hurricane season
Retired tropical cyclone names
Hurricanes in Mexico
2007 in Mexico
2000s in Puerto Rico
2000s in the Dominican Republic
2000s in Haiti
2000s in Jamaica
History of the Cayman Islands
2000s in Belize
2000s in Honduras
2000s in Nicaragua
August events
Hurricanes in Jamaica
Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes
Amazon Basin

The Amazon Basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its branches. It is low-lying in relation to sea level.

The river has its origins high up in the Andes of Peru and Ecuador. Most of this drainage basin (54%) is in Brazil, including the lower part. The river also has tributaries from Colombia, Venezuela and
Bolivia. The Amazon rainforest is the largest in the world, covering about 8,235,430 km2 with dense tropical forest.

The Amazon Basin is one of the world's most important ecosystems.

Regions of South America
Drainage basins
Bixa orellana

Bixa orellana (also known as achiote) is a shrub or small tree from the tropical area of the American continent. The name comes from the Nahuatl word for the shrub, achiotl.  It is also known as Aploppas, and its first Tupi name urucu. It is grown there and in Southeast Asia, where it was brought by the Spanish in the 17th century. It is best known as the source of the natural pigment annatto, made from the fruit. The plant bears pink flowers and bright red spiny fruits which contain red seeds. The fruits dry and harden to brown capsules.

Malvales
Xochiquetzal

In Aztec mythology, Xoːchiquetzal () was a goddess of flowers, fertility, games, dancing and agriculture (planting and harvesting), as well as craftsmen and pregnant women.  She was first a moon and love goddess.

Aztec gods and goddesses
Tlatoani

Tlatoani ( ; plural , ) is the Nahuatl word for the ruler of an altepetl, a pre-Hispanic state. The word means "speaker", but may be translated into English as "king". A  () is a female ruler.

References

Kings and queens
Mexican people
José de Acosta

José de Acosta (September/October 1539 – February 15 1600), was a Spanish 16th-century Jesuit missionary and naturalist in Latin America.  He wrote several works including  and .

1539 births
1600 deaths
Jesuits
Missionaries
Naturalists
Spanish Roman Catholics
Spanish writers
Catarrh

Catarrh () is a thick fluid of mucus and white blood cells caused by the swelling of the mucous membranes in the head because of an infection. It is a symptom usually from the common cold and coughs, but can also be found in people with infections of the adenoids, middle ear, sinus or tonsils.

Diseases
Upper class

Upper class is an idea in sociology. It refers to the group of people at the top of a society. Members of an upper class often have great power over resources and governmental policy in their area.

Related pages 
 Social class
 Elite

Social groups
Chocolate bar

A chocolate bar is a confectionery made of cocoa beans, cocoa butter, sugar, and milk. There are many types of chocolate, including milk chocolate, dark chocolate, white chocolate, peanut butter chocolate, and many more. 

Chocolate has a lot of calories, so it can give a person energy.  However, most chocolate also has a lot of sugar.

Chocolate comes from the cacao tree.  Cocoa pods grow on these trees.  They get about as big as a melon.  Once they are ripe, they turn from green to orange.  Then workers can split them open and take out cocoa beans.  Factories use machines to break down the cocoa beans into cocoa butter and chocolate.  Then they add sugar and milk to make the chocolate taste better.

Cocoa farmers are some of the poorest people in the world.  Many of them earn very little money.

References

Candy
Veracruz, Veracruz

The city of Veracruz is an important port city on the Gulf of Mexico in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It has a population of 444,438 in the city according to the 2005 census.

References 

Cities in Mexico
Veracruz
Hans Sloane

Sir Hans Sloane, 1st Baronet, PRS (16 April, 1660 – 11 January, 1753) was an Ulster-Scot physician and collector. He donated his collection to the British nation. This collection became the beginning of the British Museum. He also created milk chocolate. Sloane Square in London is named for him.

British physicians
People from County Down
1660 births
1773 deaths
Irish scientists
Royal College of Physicians

The Royal College of Physicians of London was the first medical group in England to receive a Royal Charter. It was created in 1518 and is one of the most active of all medical groups. It was originally created as the College of Physicians by royal charter of King Henry VIII in 1518.

Medicine
Coenraad Johannes van Houten

Coenraad Johannes van Houten (March 15, 1801 – 1887) was a Dutch chemist. He was known for creating a method for pressing the fat from roasted cacao beans to create cacao powder. He started a world-famous chocolate company.

1801 births
1887 deaths
Dutch chemists
Dutch inventors
People from Amsterdam
Chocolate
Cocoa butter

Cocoa butter, also called theobroma oil, is the pale-yellow, pure vegetable fat of the cacao bean. It is used to make solid chocolate bars, and mixed with cocoa powder to make solid pieces of chocolate. Cocoa butter is removed from the cacao beans and can be used to make chocolate, pharmaceuticals, ointments, and toiletries. Cocoa butter has a mild chocolate flavor and smell. It is one of the most stable fats known.

References

Food ingredients
Pietro Longhi

Pietro Longhi (November 5, 1701 – May 8, 1785) was a Venetian painter of contemporary scenes of life.

Related pages
 List of Italian painters

1701 births
1785 deaths
18th-century Italian painters
Alex Turner (musician)

Alex Turner (born 6 January 1986) is a British musician. He is the lead singer and guitarist of the Arctic Monkeys. He is also a member of The Last Shadow Puppets. He was born and raised in Sheffield. His father was a music teacher and his mother was a German teacher.

The Arctic Monkeys have released 5 studio albums. The first was Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not. The second was Favourite Worst Nightmare. The third was Humbug. The fourth was Suck It and See, which was released late in 2011. The fifth was "AM", which was released in 2013.

References

English guitarists
English rock musicians
English singer-songwriters
People from Sheffield
1986 births
Living people
Dodge

Dodge is an American automobile, SUV and truck maker. They are based in Auburn Hills, Michigan. Dodge was created by brothers Horace and John Dodge in 1900. Dodge was sold to Chrysler in 1928. In 2010 Dodge announced it would spin-off the Ram division making it its own brand.

Other websites
Official American website 
Global store locator 

1900 establishments in the United States
American automobile companies
1900s establishments in Michigan
Companies based in Michigan
Ordered pair



Introduction 
In mathematics, an ordered pair is a collection of two objects, where one of the objects is first (the first coordinate or left projection), and the other is second (the second coordinate or right projection). An ordered pair where the first coordinate is  and the second coordinate is  is usually written  (sometimes it is written ). If  is different from , then the ordered pair  is different from the ordered pair  - this is why it is called ordered.

Properties 

If  and  are two ordered pairs, then the characteristic or defining property of ordered pairs is:
.

This means that two ordered pairs are equal if and only if: the first coordinates of the pairs are equal, and also the second coordinates of the pairs are equal.

Definition 

There are many mathematical definitions of ordered pair which have this property. The definition given here is the most common one:

.

Kazimierz Kuratowski was the first person to make this definition.

Mathematics

ru:Пара (математика)#Упорядоченная пара
Arts and crafts

Arts and crafts describes a wide variety of activities involving making things with one's own hands.  Arts and crafts is usually a hobby. Some crafts (art skills) have been practised since preshistoric times, others are more recent inventions. William Morris, John Ruskin and others promoted an "arts and crafts" movement in the late 19th century, which popularized the phrase.

Both children and adults enjoy arts and crafts. Children in schools may learn skills such as woodworking, wood carving, sewing, or making things with all sorts of material. Many community centres and schools have evening or day classes and workshops where one can learn arts and craft skilz

Crafts involving textiles 
 Banner-making
 Calligraphy
 Cross-stitch
 Crocheting
 Embroidery
 Felting
 Knitting
 Lace-making
 Macramé
 Millinery
 Needlepoint
 Patchwork
 Quilting
 Rug making
 Sewing
 Shoemaking
 Spinning (textiles)
 String art
 Tapestry
 Weaving
 T-shirt art

Crafts involving wood, metal or clay

 Metalworking
 Jewelry
 Pottery
 Sculpture
 Woodworking
 Cabinet making
 Marquetry
 Lacquerware
 Wood burning
 Wood turning

Crafts involving paper or canvas
 Bookbinding
 Calligraphy
 Cardmaking
 Card Modelling
 Collage
 Decoupage
 Embossing
 Iris Folding
 Marbling
 Origami
 Papercraft
 Papier-mâché
 Parchment craft
 Quilling or Paper Filigree
 Scrapbooking
 Stamping (with a rubber stamp)
  Sketching

Crafts involving plants
 Basket weaving
 Corn dolly making
 Floral Design
 Pressed flower craft
 Straw marquetry

Other crafts
 Balloon animal
 Beadwork
 Doll making
 Dollhouse construction and furnishing
 Egg decorating
 Etching
 Glassblowing
 Lapidary
 Mosaics
 Stained glass
 Toy making
 Polymer clay

Hobbies
Art
Chrysler

Chrysler  (officially FCA US,LLC.) is a car manufacturer based in the United States. They are one of the oldest car manufacturers in the world. They own other car companies such as Dodge and Jeep. 

It was created by Walter P. Chrysler in 1925 when he renamed the Maxwell Motor Company. From 1998 to 2007, Chrysler was part of DiamlerChrysler, a large German company. Then it was owned by Cerberus Capital Management. Chrysler declared Chapter 11 Bankruptcy on August 30, 2009. In 1979, Chrysler had similar problems. They got 1.5 billion dollars from the U.S. government. Lee Iacocca became CEO. Then, Chrysler created the K-car platform, invented the minivan, and sold many trucks to the army. Chrysler acquired American Motors in 1988, and rebranded the auto company as Eagle. They slowly recovered. Chrysler is currently owned by Italian automotive Fiat, the two companies merged forming Fiat Chrysler Automobiles or F.C.A for short. The company still trades as Chrysler in the United States.

At its peak, Chrysler owned Dodge, Jeep, Plymouth, DeSoto, Valiant, Imperial, and Eagle (AMC). Only Chrysler, Dodge, and Jeep survived. In 2010 Chrysler announced it would spin the Ram trucks off into its own division and Dodge would focus on performance status.

Current Models 
 200
 300
 Pacifica

Websites 
 http://www.chrysler.com/en/ 
 http://www.dodge.com/en/ 
 http://www.jeep.com/en/ 

American automobile companies
1925 establishments in the United States
Companies based in Michigan
Nazia Hassan

Nazia Hassan () singer (April 3, 1965 - August 31, 2000) and Zohaib Hassan (), (born November 18, 1966) were a singing sensation and pioneers of the Pakistani pop music scene during the 1980s.

1965 births
2000 deaths
Pakistani singers
Cancer deaths in England
Deaths from lung cancer
Pakistani Muslims
People from Karachi
Sufis
Bilawal Bhutto Zardari

Bilawal Bhutto Zardari () (born 21 September 1988) is co-chairman of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), and the eldest child and only son of the late Pakistani politician and former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto and her husband Asif Ali Zardari, the former President of Pakistan. Chairman Bhutto Zardari is also the grandson of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, a former Prime Minister of Pakistan. After completing his studies from the United Kingdom in 2013, Bilawal took over the formal charge of the PPP and made changes in it.  

In the 2018 general election, he ran for Prime Minister of Pakistan but ended in third place loosing to Imran Khan.

1988 births
Living people
Pakistani politicians
Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq

Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq (, born 1953) is a prominent Pakistani politician and former Federal Minister for Religious Affairs of Pakistan.

Haq joined the Pakistan Army in 1971. He entered Pakistani politics following the 1988 death of his father, the military dictator and self-appointed President of Pakistan General Zia-ul-Haq.

1953 births
Living people
Pakistani military people
Pakistani Muslims
Pakistani politicians
Zille Huma

Zille Huma () is the daughter of the late Melody Queen Madam Noor Jehan and the only one of her four daughters to follow in her mother's footsteps. Today, she is a popular Pakistani pop singer.

References

Pakistani singers
Punjabi people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Sonya Jehan

Sonya Jehan is a French-Pakistani  Bollywood actress. Jehan's first movie was Taj Mahal: An Eternal Love Story in 2005. Her original name was Sonya Rizvi.  She changed it to Jehan to honor her grandmother, Noor Jehan, who is a legendary singer and Lollywood actress.

References

Punjabi people
Pakistani movie actors
French actors
1980 births
Living people
Aga Khan III

Sir Sultan Muhammed Shah, Aga Khan III, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, GCVO, PC (2 November 1877–11 July 1957) was the 48th Imam of the Shia Ismaili Muslims. 

He became Imam at a very young age. He was seven years old when his father, Aga Khan II, died in 1885. He was one of the founders and the first president of the All-India Muslim League, and served as President of the League of Nations from 1937-38.

He was born in Karachi, in what was British India. He was given a religious education, and also a European education. He attended Eton and Cambridge University, and was a frequent visitor to Britain. 

His followers celebrated his anniversaries as Imam in 1937, 1946 and 1954 by weighing him in gold, diamonds and platinum. The proceeds were spent on welfare and development in Asia and Africa. Girls schools were set up in the remote northern areas of what is now Pakistan. He was knighted by Queen Victoria, and later made a member of the Privy Council.

His choice of successor 
At the end of his life, Sir Sultan Mohammed did a remarkable thing. In his will, he disinherited his son, Aly Khan, in favour of his grandson, Karim. So the next Khan, Aga Khan IV, was a younger man better suited to the modern world.

Marriages  
The Aga Khan married four times:
1896 in Poona, India: to his first cousin Shazadi Begum
1908 to  Cleope Teresa Magliano (1888–1926), a dancer with the Ballet Opera of Monte Carlo. Two sons, including Prince Ali Solomone Khan
1929 (civil), in Aix-les-Bains, France, and (religious), in Bombay, India. The bride was the co-owner of a dressmaking shop in Paris. She became known as Princess Andrée Aga Khan, but did not convert to Islam. By this marriage, he had one son, Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, in 1933-2003. 
1944, in Geneva, Switzerland, Yvonne Blanche Labrousse. She had been his social secretary.

Mausoleum 
The Aga Khan's mausoleum is near the Nile at Aswan, Egypt.

1877 births
1957 deaths
British India
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Leaders of All India Muslim League
Muslim League
Muslims
People of British India
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Iran-Pakistan barrier

The Iran-Pakistan barrier is a separation barrier which Iran has started building along its border with Pakistan replacing an intermittent tattered border fence.

Buildings and structures in Iran
Pakistan
Grand Trunk Road

The Grand Trunk Road (commonly abbreviated to GT Road) is one of South Asia's oldest and longest major roads. For several centuries, it has linked the eastern and western regions of the Indian subcontinent, running from Bengal, across north Republic of India, into Peshawar in Pakistan.

It was built by Sher Shah Suri and is also known as  "Sadak E Sher Shah" named after him. 

Transport in Pakistan
Roads in India
Space-time tradeoff

In computer science, a space-time or time-memory tradeoff is a way of solving a problem or calculation in less time by using more storage space (or memory), or by solving a problem in very little space by spending a long time. Most computers have a large amount of space, but not infinite space. Also, most people are willing to wait a little while for a big calculation, but not forever. So if your problem is taking a long time but not much memory, a space-time tradeoff would let you use more memory and solve the problem more quickly. Or, if it could be solved very quickly but requires more memory than you have, you can try to spend more time solving the problem in the limited memory.

The most common condition is an algorithm using a lookup table. This means that the answers for some question for every possible value can be written down. One way of solving this problem is to write down the entire lookup table, which will let you find answers very quickly, but will use a lot of space. Another way is to calculate the answers without writing down anything, which uses very little space, but might take a long time.

A space-time tradeoff can be used with the problem of data storage. If data is stored uncompressed, it takes more space but less time than if the data were stored compressed (since compressing the data decreases the amount of space it takes, but it takes time to run the compression algorithm). 

Larger code size can be used to increase program speed when using loop unwinding. This technique makes the program code longer for each iteration of a loop, but saves the computation time needed for jumping back to the beginning of the loop at the end of each iteration. 

In the field of cryptography, using space-time tradeoff, the attacker is decreasing the exponential time required for a brute force attack. Rainbow tables use partially precomputed values in the hash space of a cryptographic hash function to crack passwords in minutes instead of weeks. Decreasing the size of the rainbow table increases the time required to iterate over the hash space. The meet-in-the-middle attack attack uses a space-time tradeoff to find the cryptographic key in only  encryptions (and  space) compared to the expected  encryptions (but only  space) of the normal attack. 

Dynamic programming is another example where the time of solving problems can be decreased by using more memory.

Other websites
 Philippe Oechslin: Making a Faster Cryptanalytic Time-Memory Trade-Off.
 Once Upon a Time-Memory Tradeoff.

Computer science
Substitution-permutation network

In cryptography, an SP-network, or substitution-permutation network (SPN), is a series of linked mathematical operations used in block cipher algorithms such as AES.

These networks consist of S-boxes and P-boxes that transform blocks of input bits into output bits.  

S-boxes substitute or transform input bits into output bits.  A good S-box will have the property that changing one input bit will change about half of the output bits.  It will also have the property that each output bit will depend on every input bit. P-boxes permute or rearrange bits across S-box inputs. In addition, at each round the key is combined using some group operation, typically XOR.

Related pages
 Feistel cipher
 Product cipher
 Square (cipher)
 International Data Encryption Algorithm

References
 Jonathan Katz and Yehuda Lindell, "Introduction to Modern Cryptography". CRC Press, 2007.

Cryptography
Square (cipher)

In cryptography, Square (sometimes written SQUARE)  is a block cipher invented by Joan Daemen, Enrique Peña Nieto and Vincent Rijmen. The design was published in 1997.

SQUARE is a predecessor to the Rijndael algorithm, which has been adopted in 2001 as the Advanced Encryption Standard by the U.S. government. 

Square was introduced together with a new form of cryptanalysis discovered by Lars Knudsen, called the "Square attack".

The structure of Square is a substitution-permutation network with eight rounds, operating on 128-bit block size and using a 128-bit key size.

Square is not patented.

References

Other websites
 SCAN's entry for Square

Cryptography
Permutation box

In cryptography, a permutation box (or P-box) is a method of bit-shuffling used to permute or transpose bits (rearrange or swap the order of bits) across S-boxes inputs, maintaining diffusion while transposing.

In block ciphers, the S-boxes and P-Boxes are used to make the relation between the plaintext and the ciphertext difficult to understand (see Shannon's property of diffusion).

Related pages
 S-box
 Substitution cipher

References

Cryptography
Joe Kinnear

Joe Kinnear is a former football player. He has played for the Republic of Ireland national team. He also coaches football.

Club career statistics

|-
|1965-66||rowspan="10"|Tottenham Hotspur||rowspan="10"|First Division||8||0
|-
|1966-67||20||0
|-
|1967-68||30||1
|-
|1968-69||24||0
|-
|1969-70||9||0
|-
|1970-71||35||0
|-
|1971-72||21||0
|-
|1972-73||24||0
|-
|1973-74||7||0
|-
|1974-75||17||0
|-
|1975-76||Brighton & Hove Albion||Third Division||16||1
211||2
211||2
|}

International career statistics

|-
!Total||26||0
|}

References 

Irish footballers
Irish football managers
Sportspeople from Dublin
1946 births
Living people
Matt Busby

Sir Alexander Matthew Busby was a Scottish footballer and football manager. He played for Scotland national team. Busby managed Manchester United and led them to great success. Many people believe that Busby is one of the greatest football managers of all time.

As a player, Busby played for Manchester City and Liverpool. After his playing career, he went to manage Manchester United and built a great team called the Busby Babes. Eight of those players died in an airplane accident in Munich. This accident was called the Munich air disaster. But Busby again built a winning team after the disaster. He spent 25 years with Manchester United and won 13 trophies.

Club career statistics 

|-
|1928-29||rowspan="8"|Manchester City||rowspan="8"|First Division||0||0||colspan="2"|-||0||0
|-
|1929-30||11||3||1||2||12||5
|-
|1930-31||20||0||1||0||21||0
|-
|1931-32||41||1||5||0||46||1
|-
|1932-33||39||1||7||1||46||2
|-
|1933-34||39||4||8||0||47||4
|-
|1934-35||35||1||1||0||36||1
|-
|1935-36||19||1||1||0||20||1
|-
|1935-36||rowspan="5"|Liverpool||rowspan="5"|First Division||11||1||colspan="2"|-||11||1
|-
|1936-37||29||1||1||0||30||1
|-
|1937-38||33||0||3||0||36||0
|-
|1938-39||42||1||3||0||45||1
|-
|1939-40||3||0||colspan="2"|-||3||0
322||14||31||3||353||17
322||14||31||3||353||17
|}

International career statistics 

|-
|1933||1||0
|-
!Total||1||0
|}

1909 births
1994 deaths
Deaths from cancer
Scottish footballers
Scottish football managers
Brett Emerton

Brett Emerton (born 22 February 1979) is an Australian football player. He plays for Blackburn Rovers and Australia national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1996/97||rowspan="4"|Sydney Olympic||rowspan="4"|National Soccer League||18||2||||||||||||||18||2
|-
|1997/98||24||3||||||||||||||24||3
|-
|1998/99||21||2||||||||||||||21||2
|-
|1999/00||28||7||||||||||||||28||7

|-
|2000/01||rowspan="3"|Feyenoord Rotterdam||rowspan="3"|Eredivisie||28||2||3||1||colspan="2"|-||7||0||38||3
|-
|2001/02||31||6||2||0||colspan="2"|-||9||0||42||6
|-
|2002/03||33||3||2||0||colspan="2"|-||6||1||41||4

|-
|2003/04||rowspan="7"|Blackburn Rovers||rowspan="7"|Premier League||37||2||0||0||1||0||2||1||40||3
|-
|2004/05||37||4||6||0||1||1||colspan="2"|-||44||5
|-
|2005/06||30||1||1||0||6||1||colspan="2"|-||37||2
|-
|2006/07||34||0||6||0||1||0||6||0||47||0
|-
|2007/08||33||1||1||0||2||0||4||0||40||1
|-
|2008/09||20||1||0||0||2||1||colspan="2"|-||22||2
|-
|2009/10||||||||||||||||||||
91||14||||||||||||||91||14
92||11||7||1||colspan="2"|-||22||1||121||13
191||9||14||0||13||3||12||1||230||13
374||34||21||1||13||3||34||2||442||40
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1998||5||0
|-
|1999||0||0
|-
|2000||1||1
|-
|2001||7||4
|-
|2002||0||0
|-
|2003||2||1
|-
|2004||10||4
|-
|2005||11||2
|-
|2006||9||0
|-
|2007||8||1
|-
|2008||7||4
|-
|2009||3||1
|-
!Total||72||18
|}

References

1979 births
Living people
Australian footballers
Sportspeople from Sydney
David Rocastle

David Rocastle was a football player. He played for the England national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1985-86||rowspan="7"|Arsenal||rowspan="7"|First Division||26||1
|-
|1986-87||36||2
|-
|1987-88||40||6
|-
|1988-89||38||6
|-
|1989-90||33||2
|-
|1990-91||16||2
|-
|1991-92||39||4
|-
|1992-93||rowspan="2"|Leeds United||rowspan="2"|Premier League||18||1
|-
|1993-94||7||1
|-
|1993-94||Manchester City||Premier League||21||2
|-
|1994-95||rowspan="2"|Chelsea||rowspan="2"|Premier League||28||0
|-
|1995-96||1||0
|-
|1996-97||Norwich City||First Division||11||0
|-
|1997-98||Hull City||Third Division||11||0
325||27
325||27
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1988||2||0
|-
|1989||8||0
|-
|1990||1||0
|-
|1991||1||0
|-
|1992||2||0
|-
!Total||14||0
|}

References

English footballers
Sportspeople from London
1967 births
2001 deaths
Premier League players
Fazilka Tehsil

Fazilka () is a city and a municipal council in Ferozpur District of the Punjab (India), 11 km from Pakistan border.

Punjab, India
Flag of Azerbaijan

The flag of Azerbaijan () is one of the national symbols of Azerbaijan and consists of three equal horizontal bands, from top: blue, red, and green; a white crescent and an eight-pointed star (Rub El Hizb) are centered in the red band. The eight points of the star stand for the  branches[?] of the Turkic peoples . The blue band is the colour of the Turks. the green is for Islam and red is for progress and Europeanisation. The official colours and size were adopted on February 5, 1991. The flag is used on land as the civil, state and war flag, and at sea as the civil, state and naval ensign and naval jack. The specific shades of the national flag were laid out in a 2004 law.

References 

Flags of Azerbaijan
Flag
Azerbaijan
Coat of arms of Azerbaijan

The Coat of arms of Azerbaijan mixes traditional and modern symbols. The focal point of the emblem is the fire symbol. This symbol comes from the fact that Azerbaijan has many everlasting fires which also gives the name "land of eternal fire".
The colors used in composing the emblem are taken from the national flag. These colors are found in the background behind the eight pointed star (۞ Rub El Hizb) upon which the flame is shown. The star itself stands for the eight branches of the Turkic peoples, and between each point of the star, there is a smaller eight pointed star found. 

Like other post-Soviet republics whose arms do not predate the October Revolution, the current arms retains some components of the Soviet one. At the bottom of the emblem is a stalk of wheat, representing the main agricultural product of the nation, which was also part of the earlier arms. The other plant represented at the bottom is oak.

References

Azerbaijan
National symbols of Azerbaijan
Roquefort-la-Bédoule

For other uses, see Roquefort (disambiguation)

Roquefort-la-Bédoule is a commune of 5,016 people (2006). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Roquevaire

Roquevaire is a commune of 8,299 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Rousset, Bouches-du-Rhône

Rousset is a commune of 4,025 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Le Rove

Le Rove is a commune of 4,070 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Saint-Andiol

Saint-Andiol is a commune of 3,138 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Saint-Antonin-sur-Bayon

Saint-Antonin-sur-Bayon is a commune of 137 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Saint-Cannat

Saint-Cannat is a commune of 4,684 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Saint-Chamas

Saint-Chamas is a commune of 7,268 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer

Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer is a commune of 2,478 people (1999). It is located in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Saint-Estève-Janson

Saint-Estève-Janson is a commune of 342 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Saint-Étienne-du-Grès

Saint-Étienne-du-Grès is a commune of 2,111 people (2006). It is located in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Saint-Marc-Jaumegarde

Saint-Marc-Jaumegarde is a commune of 1,093 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Saint-Martin-de-Crau

Saint-Martin-de-Crau is a commune of 13,097 people (2016). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

References

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Saint-Mitre-les-Remparts

Saint-Mitre-les-Remparts is a commune of 5,458 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Saint-Paul-lès-Durance

Saint-Paul-lès-Durance is a commune of 928 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Saint-Pierre-de-Mézoargues

Saint-Pierre-de-Mézoargues is a commune of 250 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône