cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Gran Vía

The Gran Vía (The Great Way) is one of the most important shopping areas in Madrid, Spain.  It also has hotels and large movie theaters.

Many of the buildings on the Gran Vía are decorated with fancy sculptures.  One of the more impressive buildings on the Gran Vía is the Edificio Metropolis.  It was built in 1907 by Jules and Raymond Février.  It has a statue of the winged Roman goddess, Victoria, on the top.  Madrid's first skyscraper, Telefonica's Head Office, is also on the Gran Vía.

The Gran Vía was planned in the 1850s.  They did not start building the road until 1904 and finished it in 1929.  People laughed at the plan because it took so long to get started.  As a joke, they called it the 'gran vía' or 'great road'.

Other websites 
A View On Cities - Gran Via, Madrid

Buildings and structures in Madrid
Fountain of Cibeles

Cibeles is the name given to the marble fountain found in the Plaza de Cibeles (Cybele's Square) in Madrid, Spain. It is on a very busy road crossing. The statue was made by Ventura Rodriguez. King Carlos III asked to have it made in 1716. It has changed several times. It was moved to the central position in 1895.

The lady is the Goddess of Fertility. She sits on a chariot pulled by lions. The lions' names are Hippomenes and Atalanta. They were people that the goddess turned into lions because they ruined her temple. The lions were made by Robert Michel. 

Buildings and structures in Madrid
Puerta del Sol

The Puerta del Sol (Sun Gate) is known as 'Spain's belly button'. In the 1400s, it was the gate or entrance of the east side of the city. Since the sun rises in the east, it got the name Puerta del Sol. It is now the center of 'kilometer 0' of Madrid. All roads are measured from this point.

It was rebuilt in 1854. The statue of King Carlos III is in the middle of the square. The red brick building there is the former post office. The famous Oso y el Madroño (bear eating madroños) statue can also be found here. The Puerta del Sol is also famous for its New Year's celebration which has been broadcast on television since December 31, 1962.

Gallery

Buildings and structures in Madrid
Royal Palace of Madrid

The Palacio Real de Madrid (Royal Palace of Madrid) is the official home of the King of Spain. It is located in Madrid, Spain. It is one of the largest palaces in western Europe.

King Felipe V had the palace built to replace the Alcazar that was burned down. It is made of limestone and granite. It was supposed to look a little like the Palace of Versailles in France. Juan Bautista Sachetti was in charge of building the palace. They started to build it in 1738. Carlos III moved into the palace in 1764. It took a hundred years to decorate all the rooms.

Spanish kings lived there until 1931 when King Alfonso XIII was forced to leave Spain. The Royal Palace is still used for special ceremonies. Letizia was supposed to walk on a red carpet from the Royal Palace to the cathedral for the wedding with Prince Felipe but it rained so she was taken in car.

Fifty of the rooms in the palace are open for public visits. Visitors enter the palace from the Plaza de la Armería. Some of the rooms that can be seen are: the 'porcelain' room, 'throne' room and 'clock' room. There is a royal army museum in the palace.

Location
The Almudena Cathedral is nearby the palace.

The Royal Alcazar of Madrid was originally on the site.

References

Palaces in Spain
Buildings and structures in Madrid
Puerta de Alcalá

The Puerta de Alcalá (Alcalá Gate) is a monument in the Plaza de la Independencia ("Independence Square") in Madrid, Spain. Francisco Sabatini created the monument in 1778 for Carlos III when he arrived in Madrid.  It is the gateway to the Court.  It is built of granite and limestone.  It has three big arches that have lion's heads on top made by Robert Michel.  There are two smaller arches on the sides.  At the very top of the monument, there are angels, trophies and the coat of arms which were all made by Francisco Gutiérrez.

Other websites 
 A site with some more information about the monument 
 Puerta de Alcalá at Google Maps
 High resolution photos

Buildings and structures in Madrid
Plaza

Plaza is a Spanish word related to "field" which describes an open public space in a city, such as a city square. In Spanish America, the plaza mayor of each city had three things: the cathedral, the cabildo or administrative center, and the audiencia or law court. The plaza might be large enough to serve as a military parade ground. At times of crisis or fiesta, it was a space where many people could be together at once. Similar to Italian piazzas, plazas are still a center of community life, like the market-place.

Most colonial cities in Spanish America were planned around a square plaza de armas, where troops could gather.

A plaza de toros is a bullring.

Shopping center
The first shopping center in the United States, opened in Kansas City, Missouri in 1922, was called "Country Club Plaza" and had Spanish-style architectural details. More recently, plaza has been used to describe a shopping center, similar to a shopping mall. Calling a shopping center a plaza is to give the idea of a center of cultural life.

Related pages

Plaza Mayor of Madrid

Spanish culture
Transduction (physiology)

In physiology, transduction is the change of a stimulus from one form to another. 

Transduction in the nervous system means synaptic events where an electrical signal is converted into a chemical one by the release of neurotransmitters. 

In sensory transduction a chemical or physical stimulus is transduced by sensory receptors into an electrical signal.

For example, in the visual system, sensory cells called rod  and cone cells in the retina change the physical energy of light signals into electrical impulses that travel to the brain. The light causes a change in a protein called rhodopsin. 

In mammals, more light hitting the receptor results in the transduction of a signal into fewer electrical impulses. In invertebrates, more rhodopsin activation results in increased frequency of neuron firing.

Related pages 
Signal transduction

References 

physiology
Resource

A Resource is something that can be used for a purpose. For example, tools and materials are resources. There are many kinds of resource:
Resource (Types and Developments), any natural or human wealth that can be used for satisfying human needs
 Resource (economics), properties and opportunities which are used in the process of producing goods, including:
 Natural resource, something that is valuable in its relatively natural form
 Human resources (HR) or human capital, valuable human work power
 Resource (project management), economic resources used in planning of tasks
 Resource (computer science), files which contain data (like icons or images) to be used by a computer program, including
 Resource (Web)
Uniform Resource Identifier
Uniform Resource Locator
 Resource (Macintosh), data associated with a Mac OS file
 Resource (Windows), data embedded in EXE and DLL files
 Resource (Java), application data
Lyrics

Lyrics are the words to a song. A person who writes lyrics is called a lyricist.

The lyrics of a song will usually have a meaning. Some times the meaning is easy to find but other times it can be very difficult to know what the lyrics mean. Some lyrics are so strange that it is nearly impossible to understand them. In such cases, people tend to look more at the form, articulation, meter, and symmetries of the lyrics instead of looking at their meaning.

There are many websites that have the lyrics to songs. This may be a bad thing since many web sites include copyrighted lyrics without permission from the copyright holder. The United States Music Publishers' Association (MPA), which represents sheet music companies, created a campaign against such sites in December 2005. MPA president Lauren Keiser said that the sites are "completely illegal" and that he wanted to see some site operators put in prison.

Etymology and usage
"Lyric" is from the Greek; a lyric was originally a song sung with a lyre.

A lyric poem is one that expresses a subjective, personal point of view.
 I would be the Lyric
 Ever on the lip,
 Rather than the Epic
 Memory lets die.
 –Thomas Bailey Aldrich

The word lyric was used for the "words of a popular song" about 1876  for the first time. The plural lyrics was used only in referring to the words of several songs. That it is used for the words of a single song as its lyrics became increasingly common (probably because of the association between lyrics and the plural form words), and is common in modern usage of today's society. Use of the singular form lyric is still grammatically acceptable.

References 

Poetry
Writing

hu:Líra (műnem)
Judicial review

Judicial review is the power of a court to decide whether a law or decision by the government is constitutional. This power was established in the United States in the Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison.

Countries that have judicial review are: India, Ireland, Malaysia, the Philippines, England, Scotland, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States.

Related pages
 Constitution
 Constitutional economics

Law
Asian Dust

Asian Dust (also yellow dust, yellow sand, yellow wind, or China dust storms) is a weather occurrence that happens each year. It affects much of East Asia during the spring. The dust comes from deserts in Mongolia, northern China, and Kazakhstan. The dust comes from surface winds and dust storms in the desert. The wind carries the clouds eastward to China, Japan, Eastern Siberia, and the Koreas. Smaller particles in the clouds can travel much farther to places like the United States. In the last ten years, these dust storms have become a serious problem because they have picked up industrial pollutants.

Other websites
 Asian Dust in Korea 
 Ostapuk, Paul Asian Dust Clouds
 Szykman, Jim et al.Impact of April 2001 Asian Dust Event on Particulate Matter Concentrations in the United States
 Kwon Ho-Jang et al.Effects of the Asian Dust Events on Daily Mortality in Seoul, Korea 
 Carbon Monoxide Measurements in the Mongolian Desert Dust Cloud at Boulder 
 The Bibliography of Aeolian Research 

Weather events
Aden Abdullah Osman Daar

Aden Abdulle Osman Daar (Aaden Cabdulle Cusmaan Daar) (9 December 1908 – 8 June 2007), was a Somali politician. 

In February 1944, he joined the Somali Youth Club (later called the Somali Youth League). The group was a nationalist party that wanted independence for Somalia. Daar became a member of the party's steering board. In 1946, he was appointed as the secretary of one section of the party. He was chairman of the Somali Youth League from 1954 to 1956, and again from 1958 to 1959. In 1956, he was elected chairman of the Legislative Assembly.

When Somalia gained its independence on July 1, 1960, Daar was elected as the first president of Somalia. He was beaten in the 1967 presidential election against Abdirashid Ali Shermarke. He finished his term as president on June 10, 1967.

1908 births
2007 deaths
Presidents of Somalia
Service of worship

A service of worship is a religious meeting where people of a church come together, usually in a cathedral or church building, in order to worship God. It may also be called a church service or prayer service or just service.  It is the usual term used in the Christian religion for such a meeting.  The term is also used sometimes in Judaism, although prayer service or just service are more common.

Christianity

In the Christian churches services are normally held on Sundays, although there may be services on other days as well, especially in large churches or cathedrals.

In the Protestant church services are usually led by a pastor, although sometimes they may be led by laymen (people who are not priests). In Catholic churches and some others, they are called "Mass". 

Services often include Holy Communion or Eucharist.  Matins is a morning service which does not include communion.  An evening service is called Evensong.

Church services are also held for weddings, funerals, or other special occasions.

Services may include prayers, singing, sermons (preaching) and readings from the Bible.

Judaism
In Judaism, each prayer service is built around two main elements:  Shema and Amida.  But there are 3 prayers required for each day.

The three daily prayers in Judaism are Shaharit (Shacharit) for morning prayer, Minha (Mincha) for afternoon prayer and Arvit or Maariv for evening prayer.  The basics of each prayer consist of the Shema (although the afternoon prayer does not require Shema), and the Amida (standing prayer) which is the definitive prayer of each service.  Fundamentally, when a Jew says "prayer", he or she means Amida.  Everything else (which is largely Psalms) is just detail.
The Shema. The Shema includes three paragraphs from the Torah:  , , and .  These three paragraphs include the most basic ideas about Judaism, God, and God's relationship with the Jewish people.
The text of the Shema says it should be said "when you go to bed" and "when you wake up".  Because of this, Shema is said at the morning and evening prayer services, but not the afternoon service.
The Amidah. The Amidah ("standing prayer") is a group of blessings about everything in the relationship between God and Jews.  After the Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed, prayer became a substitute for sacrifices.   Because of this, Amidah is said at the same time of day as sacrifices:
Morning and afternoon every day, at the time of the daily burnt-offering
Evening every day, at the time when remaining pieces of the day's sacrifices were burned
Musaf. Late morning on Shabbat, Rosh Chodesh (day of new Jewish month) and major Jewish holidays, because additional sacrifices were offered then
Ne'ilah. Late afternoon at the end of Yom Kippur
Jewish prayer services are held whenever the Amidah prayer is said.  In the morning and evening, they also include Shema.

References

Worship

lt:Apeigos
Bandidos

Bandidos is a motorcycle club with a worldwide membership. The club was formed in 1966 by Don Chambers in Texas. Its slogan is "We are the people our parents warned us about". Bandidos is estimated to have 2 400 members in 195 chapters, located in 14 countries.

The Bandidos are involved in transporting and distributing cocaine and marijuana, and are involved in the production, transportation and distribution of methamphetamine, according to the DOJ.

The Bandidos are most active in the Pacific, Southeastern, Southwestern and the West Central regions of the U.S. The Bandidos are growing in each of these regions.

References

Other websites 
Bandidos MC

Motorcycle clubs
Hells Angels

Hells Angels is a motorcycle club with a worldwide membership. The club was formed in 1948 in Fontana, California. One of the best known members is Ralph 'Sonny' Barger, the "Godfather of the Hells Angels".

Other websites 
Hells Angels MC
Ralph 'Sonny' Barger homepage
Hells Angels World Links

Motorcycle clubs
Outlaws Motorcycle Club

The Outlaws Motorcycle Club is an American motorcycle club. It was formed in Mc Cook, Illinois in 1935. The club has chapters in USA, Canada, Australia, Asia and Europe.

Other websites 
Outlaws MC

Motorcycle clubs
Blood and Honour

Blood and Honour is a Neo-Nazi music promotion network. The group organises concerts and distributes records by Rock Against Communism bands. Ian Stuart Donaldson, singer of the band Skrewdriver, was the founder of Blood and Honour. The name Blood and Honour is taken from the motto of the Hitler Youth, Blut und Ehre.

Other websites 
 Blood & Honour International
 Blood & Honour UK
 Blood & Honour UK - Central Division
 Blood & Honour Radio
 Blood & Honour USA
 Blood & Honour Australia
 Blood & Honour Croatia 
 Blood & Honour Finland 
 Blood & Honour Greece 
 Blood & Honour Netherlands 
 Blood & Honour Hungary 
 Blood & Honour Vlaanderen 
 Blood & Honour Ukraine 

Rock Against Communism
Perry Rhodan

Perry Rhodan is a German science fiction series, published since 1961.

Perry Rhodan picks up nearly every theme that has ever appeared in science fiction. People from outside have criticised the series, but its commercial success during several decades has become a literary phenomenon in itself.  If nothing else, Perry Rhodan provides a mirror of the 1960s Cold War, 1970s New Age, and 1980s peace movement in its story line.  The series has an important influence on German writers in the field. The writing of the series still goes on.

History

Written by an ever-changing team of authors, Perry Rhodan is issued in weekly  in the traditional German Heftchen (pulp booklet) format.  The series was created in 1961 by K. H. Scheer and Clark Darlton.  Initially, it should have thirty volumes, but it became an long lasting success and passed 3100 installments in January 2021.

Story

Perry Rhodan is one of four fictional astronauts of the USA. In 1971, they fly to the moon, where they meet an extraterrestrial space-ship. From its owners they get technology, which they use to end the cold war and to unite the people of the Earth. Then "Terra", the Earth, becomes a power in intergalactical politics.

Other websites 
 Perry Rhodan Official Homepage (German)
 Perrypedia German Wiki-project about Perry Rhodan's Universe
 Cedric Beust's Issue Summaries (1-2500)  (English)
 Series summary (1-1799) (English)
 Mission Stardust (aka …4…3…2…1…morte) at the Internet Movie Database
 VPM's English-language Perry Rhodan site
 Technology of the Perry Rhodan Universe
 Official French Homepage
 French Fan Homepage 

Science fiction books
Series of books
Wieluń

Wieluń is a city in the central part of Poland in Łódź Voivodeship. Around 27,000 people live here. The city was started in 1283.

Twin towns 
Wieluń is twinned with:
  Adelebsen, Germany
  Osterburg, Germany
  Ochtrup, Germany
  Letterkenny, Ireland

Other websites 
Official city webpage

Cities in Poland
Nasjonal Samling

Nasjonal Samling (Norwegian for "National Gathering" or "National Unity") was a fascist party in Norway, active in the period 1933–1945. The party was founded by Vidkun Quisling and a group of sympathisers. The party's paramilitary wing was called Hirden (the Hird).

Political parties in Norway
1940s in Norway
1933 establishments
1945 disestablishments in Europe
20th-century establishments in Norway
1930s establishments in Europe
World War II
Style guide

For the Wikipedia style guide, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style.
A style guide (also known as style manual) is a set of rules for language usage and design of documents (records). Some style guides are about things related to graphic design, such as arranging words and white space on a page. Website style guides often help with visual or technical things. Literary style guides help with choosing the best words, common errors in grammar, punctuation and spelling; and help for how to express ideas in a precise, fair and forceful way.

Some modern style guides are for use by all people. These are usually more about language than about how it should look.

Style guides do not stop a writer from using his own unique style, but some writers believe style guides are too restrictive.

Like language itself, many style guides change as time passes. For example, the Associated Press stylebook is updated every year.

Writing
Language
Graphics
Parque del Buen Retiro

The Retiro Park is the best known park in Madrid.  It was planned in 1632 as palace gardens by King Felipe IV.  'Retiro' means retreat or a place to rest.

When it was first built, it was a little way from the city.  Now, the city has become so big that it is in the city center.  It was opened to the public in 1868.

Places in the park include a famous rose garden, a museum, a boating lake and the Crystal Palace. Many shows and street theaters can be seen at the park on weekends.

Madrid
Parks in Europe
1868 establishments in Europe
19th-century establishments in Spain
Crystal Palace (Madrid)

The Palacio de Cristal or Crystal Palace is a large glass building in Madrid, Spain. It is located in the Retiro Park on the Paseo Duque de Fernán Nuñez.  The palace was built in 1887 to keep exotic plants from the Philippines.  It is made of glass and steel. Later in 1924 plastic and rubber were added to it. 

Buildings and structures in Madrid
1887 establishments in Europe
19th-century establishments in Spain
Las Ventas

The Plaza de Toros de Las Ventas is a building in Madrid, Spain used mainly for bullfighting. Sometimes it is just called Las Ventas.  It is made of red brick and ceramic tiles.  It was built in 1929 by José Espelious and Muñoz Monasterio.  The first bullfight was June 17, 1931. It is also used for concerts.

Most fights start at 7 p.m. when the sun is not too hot.  Tickets are sold for 'sol' or 'sombra'.  The 'sombra' tickets for seats not in the sunlight cost more.

Sports buildings
Buildings and structures in Madrid
1929 establishments in Europe
1920s establishments in Spain
Yellow spot

The yellow spot or macula is an oval yellow spot near the centre of the retina of the human eye. It has a size of 1.5 millimeters.

It is specialized for seeing things with highest clearness or visual acuity.

It is the area of best vision where maximum amount of cone cells are present.It is also known as fovea centralis and Macula Lutea.
Most of the sensory cells are present at this spot. It is another name for the macula. It is subdivided into the umbo, foveola, foveal avascular zone, fovea, parafovea and perifovea areas. It has a diameter of 5.5mm in humans. They contain the pigment Iodopsin and respond to bright light and colour, because of which we can see stuff clearly around us. It lies at the back of the eye almost center of the horizontal axis of the eyeball.

It is responsible for the central, high-resolution, colour vision that is possible in good light; and this kind of vision is impaired if it is damaged. It is about 6mm in diameter. The yellow spot is the most sensitive spot on the retina, the sharpest image of the object forms only here.

Eye anatomy
Retina

The retina is the thin layer of cells that lines the back of the eyeball in humans and in many animals. It is made mainly of neurons and its role is to sense the light which gets into the eye and send information about it to the brain.

Most information about light that leaves the retina travels through the optic nerve, and is used by the brain to recognize what you're seeing.  Information about light which travels through the retino-hypothamalic tract is for adjusting circadian rhythms to the 24-hour day. 

The center of the human retina, called the fovea centralis, or just fovea, has the most rod cells and cone cells for receiving light. Even though the fovea takes up only 1.5 square millimeters, it plays the most important roles in vision.  It is only around 1% of the human retina, but the fovea sends about as much information to the visual cortex as the rest of the retina combined. 

Eye anatomy
The Exploited

The Exploited is a Scottish punk metal band. The band was formed in 1979 in Edinburgh, Scotland.

Current lineup
 Wattie Buchan - Vocals
 Irish Rob - Bass
 Willie Buchan - Drums
 Matt McGuire - Guitar

Discography

Studio albums
Punks Not Dead - 1981
Troops of Tomorrow - 1982
Let's Start a War (Said Maggie One Day) - 1983
Horror Epics - 1985
Death Before Dishonour - 1987
The Massacre - 1990
Beat the Bastards - 1996
Fuck the System - 2003

Singles
"Army Life" - 1980  (EP)
"Exploited Barmy Army" - 1980 (EP)
"Dogs of War" - 1981
"Dead Cities" - 1981 (EP)
"Attack/Alternative" - 1982
"Computers Don't Blunder" - 1982
"Troops of Tomorrow" - 1982
"Rival Leaders" - 1983 (EP)

Split albums
Don't Let 'Em Grind You Down (W/Anti-Pasti) - 1981
Britannia Waives The Rules (W/Chron Gen & Infa Riot) - 1982
Apocalypse Punk Tour 1981 (W/The Anti-Nowhere League, Chron Gen, Anti Pasti & Discharge) - 1992

Live albums
On Stage - 1981
Apocalypse Tour (Limited Edition) - 1981
Live At The Whitehouse - 1985
Live And Loud - 1987
Live Lewd Lust - 1989
Don't Forget The Chaos - 1992
Live In Japan - 1994
Live at the White House-1996
25 Years of Anarchy and Chaos-2005

EPs
Jesus Is Dead - 1986 (12")
War Now - 1988 (12")

Videography
Live At The Palm Cove - 1983
Sexual Favours - 1987
The Exploited: 83-87 (1993)
Live In Japan - 1993
Alive At Leeds - 1995
Rock and Roll Outlaws - 1995
Buenos Aires 93 (1996)
Beat 'Em All - 2004

Best of collections
Totally Exploited - 1984
Castle Masters Collection - 1990
Apocalypse '77 - 1992
Singles Collection - 1993
Dead Cities - 2000
Punk Singles & Rarities 1980-83 (2001)
The Best Of The Exploited - Twenty Five Years Of Anarchy And Chaos (2004)
Complete Punk Singles Collection - 2005

Compilation albums
"Oi! - The Album" - 1980
"Lords Of Oi!" - 1997

Scottish rock bands
British punk bands
4Kids

4Kids Entertainment (commonly known as 4Kids) was an American movie and television production company. They specialized in the creation and distribution of children's entertainment around the world. The company is most well known for the large number of Anime and animated television series it has provided to television stations. These series included Yu-Gi-Oh! and Sonic the Hedgehog. 4Kids Entertainment dubbed Pokémon until 2006. The company was first created in 1970 as Leisure Concepts, Inc.

4Kids Entertainment has provided a number of series for the Fox television network. These series have been shown on the network using the name 4Kids TV.

4Kids Entertainment filed for bankruptcy twice. They first filed for bankruptcy in 2011, and again in 2016.

History

In 1970, the company was originally called Leisure Concepts, Inc. It was created by Mike Germakian and Stan Weston.

List of shows

Criticism
4Kids Entertainment gets most of its Anime series from Japan. Before showing the series in the United States and United Kingdom, the series are edited. This editing includes changing the words from Japanese to English. It may also include changing other things which could be thought to be bad. For example, cigarette smoking is often removed before being shown in the United States. Changing the names of items from Japanese items to American items is also often done. This is done so the person watching can understand the show more easily. 

Many times the story of an episode is changed completely to make it better for children. Some people believe all the changes to the Anime is a bad thing. They say that the series should be shown exactly the same as it was originally created. They feel 4Kids made "Americanized kiddy version" of the original series and that it is not right to do this.

Other websites 
 4Kids Corporate 
 4Kids Home Video 
 Defunct website

References

1970 establishments in the United States
Companies based in New York City
Entertainment companies
Cubism

Cubism was one of the most significant art movements of the 20th century. It began in France about 1907, and flourished from 1910 through the 1920s. It was pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso.

Pablo Picasso's 1907 painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon was an early Cubist work. Georges Braque's 1908 Houses at L’Estaque (and related works) prompted the critic Louis Vauxcelles to refer to "bizarreries cubiques" (cubic oddities).

The first organized group exhibition by Cubists took place at the Salon des Indépendants in Paris in the spring of 1911. It included works by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Fernand Léger, Robert Delaunay and Henri Le Fauconnier, but no works by Picasso and Braque were exhibited.

According to one art historian, there were three phases of Cubism. There was "Early Cubism", (from 1906 to 1908) when the movement was initially developed by Picasso and Braque. In the second phase, "High Cubism", (from 1909 to 1914), Juan Gris emerged as an important exponent after 1911. Finally "Late Cubism" (from 1914 to 1921) was the last phase of Cubism as a radical avant-garde movement. Douglas Cooper's emphasis on the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris (from 1911) and Léger (to a lesser extent) was an intentional value judgement.

Its methods 
Cubism is a style of art which aims to show all of the possible viewpoints of a person or an object all at once. It is called Cubism because the items represented in the artworks look like they are made out of cubes and other geometrical shapes. Cubism was first started by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque. Analytical Cubism is the first type of cubism. Most analytical Cubists painted and drew in monochrome (only one colour) so that the person who was looking at the painting did not pay attention to colour, but only to the shapes and the forms that were being shown.

This was changed in 1912 when Picasso first started painting with colours and using collages. Collage is when you glue together different cut-up pieces of paper to make an artwork. This new form of Cubism was called Synthetic Cubism. Picasso invented collage because he was tired of the way he was making his art, and wanted to try out something new.
Pablo Picasso created over 20,000 pictures. From 1912 to 1919 was Picasso's Synthetic Cubism Period.

References
Types of Cubism

There were two main types of Cubism:

 Analytical Cubism - The first stage of the Cubism movement was called Analytical Cubism. In this style, artists would study (or analyze) the subject and break it up into different blocks. They would look at the blocks from different angles. Then they would reconstruct the subject, painting the blocks from various viewpoints.

 Synthetic Cubism - The second stage of Cubism introduced the idea of adding in other materials in a collage. Artists would use colored paper, newspapers, and other materials to represent the different blocks of the subject. This stage also introduced brighter colors and a lighter mood to the art.

Art movements
Sham 69

Sham 69 is a punk rock band from England. The band was formed in Hersham in 1975.

Albums 
 1978: Tell Us the Truth
 1978: That’s Life
 1979: The Adventures of Hersham Boys
 1980: The Game
 1988: Volunteer
 1991: Information Libre
 1993: Kings & Queens
 1993: BBC1 – Live in Concert
 1995: Soapy Water & Mr. Marmalade
 1997: A Files CD
 2001: Direct Action: Day 21
 2007: Western Culture
 2010: Who Killed Joe Public

Other websites 
The Official Sham 69 Website

English punk bands
Visual acuity

Visual acuity (VA) is acuteness or clearness of vision, especially form vision, which depends on the sharpness of the retinal focus within the eye, the sensitivity of the nervous elements, and the interpretative faculty of the brain.

VA is a quantitative measure of the ability to identify black symbols on a white background at a standardized distance when the size of the symbols is varied. The VA represents the smallest size that can be reliably identified. VA is the most common clinical measurement of visual function.

Some people may suffer from other visual problems, such as color blindness, reduced contrast, or inability to track fast-moving objects and still have normal visual acuity. Thus, normal visual acuity does not mean normal vision. The reason visual acuity is very widely used is that it is a test that corresponds very well with the normal daily activities a person can handle, and evaluate their impairment to do them.

References

Other websites 
 20/20 Eyesight is Not Necessarily Perfect  Catalog of Stories by Parents of Children Who Tested 20/20, Optometrists Network
 Visual acuity measurement  The Ophthalmology Teaching Website, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto
Visual Acuity of the Human Eye 
Golovin-Sivtsev Table for testing visual acuity  - used in the USSR and post-Soviet states
Visual Acuity  Chapter from the Webvision reference, University of Utah
Blur simulator (for eyeglass prescriptions)

Optometry
Robert Baker

Bob Baker (October 26 1926 - April 23 2002) was an American boxer who fought professionally from 1949 to 1960. He was one of the world's leading bulky heavyweight boxers in the 1950s. Bob "The Grinder, Big Bob, The Behemoth" Baker was born in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. After serving 3 years in the navy, he fought out of Pittsburgh. His most notable accomplishments include the 1949 Pennsylvania Intercity Golden Gloves championship in the heavyweight division. In 1947, he won Pittsburgh Golden Gloves Championship. His amateur record is respectable 33-2. In 1948, Coley Wallace won an unpopular split decision vs. Marciano in the semifinal of the New York Golden Gloves Tournament of Champions and then he won the final of that tournament by an unpopular very close split decision vs 'Big' Bob Baker.
In 1948, Wallace & Baker met again in the final match. This time Baker won & became 1948 Golden Gloves champion again.

Baker started his professional career with 26 undefeated fights before drawing against bulky Kid Riviera but only 10 days later lost to another top boxer, Clarence Henry.

From April 1955 until February 1956, Bob Baker was ranked as the leading challenger to Rocky Marciano's heavyweight title by IBC-International Boxing Club, however Ring Magazine still rated him as #2. On Wednesday, December 7th 1955, Baker beat Nino Valdez in a rematch, again by unanimous decision. The winner of that fight was scheduled to fight Marciano.

After 13 straight wins (Baker's dozen), Baker lost to Tommy Hurricane Jackson on February 3 1956, in New York's Madison Square Garden. It was a conytorversial split decision win for Jackson. In May 1956, Baker easily defeated John Holman. Baker also lost another controversial split decision rematch with Jackson on September 26 1956. Both fights should have been draws.Opinions on both Baker-Jackson fights were divided in many publications with most of them giving the fight to Baker. United Press scored the fight 7-5 for Baker. A poll of all 13 ringside writers favored Baker 9-4.

After 1956, Baker's success was limited. His most notable victory was a sound unanimous decision defeat of solid Canadian George Chuvalo, the future Canadian heavyweight champion, by unanimous decision on September 9 1957. Chuvalo was also a multiple time championship contender in the 1960s and 1970s.

Baker died on April 23 2002, from acute heart failure, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He is survived by his son Bob Baker jr.

Other websites
 Baker's Boxing Record 
 Ring Magazine's 1950s heavyweight ratings

American boxers
Sportspeople from Pennsylvania
1926 births
2002 deaths
Michaëlle Jean

Her Excellency the Rt. Hon. Michaëlle Jean (born September 6, 1957, in Port-au-Prince, Haiti) is a Haitian-born Canadian politician and journalist. She was the Governor General of Canada, replacing Adrienne Clarkson on 27 September 2005, until 1 October 2010 when David Lloyd Johnston took over. She is the Secretary General of Organisation internationale de la Francophonie since 2015 and multilingual who speaks English, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Haitian Creole.

Jean was formally appointed Special Envoy for Haiti for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization on November 8, 2010, for a four-year term.

References

Canadian journalists
Haitian people
1957 births
Living people
Order of Canada
Governors General of Canada
Knights of Justice of the Order of St John
Port-au-Prince
Pascal Duquenne

Pascal Duquenne is a Belgian actor. He was born in Vilvoorde, Flanders, Belgium on 8 August 1970. He was diagnosed with Down syndrome.

It was Jaco van Dormael who noticed him (as Ducquenne was playing theatre). Dormael offered him his first roles in movies.

In 1996 Pascal Duquenne and Daniel Auteuil were awarded a prize (for best male interpretation) at the Cannes Film Festival. Duquenne received the prize for the role of a boy who has Down syndrome. The movie was called Le Huitième Jour (The Eighth Day).

He also has acted in other movies. Currently he lives in Brussels.

Films he acted in
 Toto le hèros (Toto the Hero), by Jaco van Dormael (1991)
 Le Huitième Jour (The Eight Day), also by van Dormael (1995)
 Lumière et compagnie (Light & Co.); a documentary made by about 40 authors (1996)
 The Room, by Giles Daoust (2006)
 Un Noël pas comme les autres  (A Christmas not like the others), by Nancy Franck (1997, Television)
 An episode of the Series Commissaire Moulin (2004, Television)

References

1970 births
Living people
Belgian movie actors
Belgian stage actors
Belgian television actors
Belgian voice actors
People from Flemish Brabant
Catherine Emmerich

Sister Anne Catherine Emmerich (September 8, 1774 - February 9, 1824) was a German Augustinian nun. She is remembered for her mystical visions of Jesus' and Mary's lives. What she saw was written in books, for example, The Dolorous Passion of Our Lord, Jesus Christ. The book later had an important part as a main source of information for Mel Gibson's movie The Passion of the Christ.

Stigmata 
She was stuck in bed when marks of stigmata showed up she had doctors and physicians examine her markings, and it was found to be a genuine stigmatic case.

Other websites 

Sister Emmerich and Gibson

1774 births
1824 deaths
German Roman Catholics
Nuns
Stigmata
New Year

The New Year is an event that happens when a culture celebrates the end of one year and the beginning of the next year. Cultures that measure yearly calendars all have New Year celebrations. On January 1, 1600 Scotland, was the first country to adopt January 1 as the first day of the New Year. Now, many countries celebrate the New Year on 1st of January.

Related pages

 New Year's Eve
 New Year's Day
Happy New Year 2019 Wishes
Happy New Year 2019 Greetings
Happy New Year 2019 Quotes
Happy New Year 2019 Messages
Happy New Year 2019 GIF's
Happy New Year 2019 Images
Happy New Year 2019 Status
Happy New Year 2019 Eve

Holidays
Polyethylene

Polyethylene (also called polyethene, usually shortened to PE) is a thermoplastic. It is used in consumer goods, typical examples are transport wraps, and garbage bags. Other uses include pre-fabricated plastic parts, plastic tubes, and insulation of electric cables. Plastic wrap is usually less adhesive than PVC, but this can be remedied by adding linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), which also increases the film's tensile strength. The world makes over 80 million tonnes of polyethylene per year.

References

Thermoplastics
Polyvinyl chloride

Polyvinyl chloride, also called Polychloroethene or PVC, is a thermoplastic. It turns soft when heated and hard when cooled. Polyvinyl chloride is made by polymerization of the monomer vinyl chloride (chloroethene) CH2=CHCl. PVC can be made softer and more flexible by adding plasticizers. Phthalates are often used to soften PVC in this way.

Vinyl polymers are the most common type of plastic. "Vinyl" is actually Ethylene, a gas that is used to make those plastics including PVC. In popular usage, "vinyl" is often short for PVC, but there are two other vinyl polymers which are more common. The most common is polyethylene, the second-most common is polypropylene. Another, less used, is polystyrene.

Uses 

Softened PVC is used in clothing, upholstery, electrical cable insulation, and other products instead of rubber. In the 1950s PVC became the usual material of phonograph records. Some audiophiles use the word "vinyl" to mean records made of PVC. It is used for electrical insulation of wires and cables, production of sheets, pipes (mainly chlorinated polyvinyl chloride), window frames, films, films for stretch ceilings, artificial leathers, polyvinyl chloride fiber, polyvinyl chloride foam, linoleum, dirt-resistant mats, shoe plastics, furniture edges, etc.

About half of the polyvinyl chloride resin manufactured each year is used to make pipes. PVC pipes are 66% of the newer water pipes in the US.  PVC pipes are 75% of new sewer pipes. PVC is useful because of its light weight, high strength, and low reactivity. Also, PVC pipes can be glued together, or they can be connected by heating (similar to joining HDPE pipe). Both kinds of connections make permanent joints that do not leak.

PVC plastics can be recycled.  Their recycling code is "3".

References

Thermoplastics
Chlorine compounds
Polyamide

A polyamide is a polymer made of amides which are joined by peptide bonds. Examples for polyamides that occur naturally are proteins, such as wool and silk. It is also possible to artificially produce polyamides, one growth-step at a time. Examples for artificially-made polyamides are nylons, aramids and Sodium poly(aspartate).

Polymers
Clarence Henry

Clarence Henry (b. March 27, 1926, d. February 28 1999) was an American heavyweight boxer. Contender for Rocky Marciano's title. 

He was a leading boxer in the heavyweight division in the early to mid-1950s. Henry was 1948 Los Angeles Times Golden Gloves Heavyweight Champion. 

He was elected into the World Boxing Hall of Fame in 1998.

Other websites
Boxing record 

American boxers
Sportspeople from San Antonio, Texas
1926 births
1999 deaths
Supreme Leader of Iran

The Supreme Leader of Iran is the head of state of the Islamic Republic of Iran. 

The Supreme Leader is also the highest ranking Islamic cleric in the country.

The position of Supreme Leader was created after the Islamic Revolution of 1979 in Iran.

The Supreme Leader is more powerful than the President of Iran and chooses the heads of many powerful posts in the military, the government, and the judiciary.

Ayatollah Khomeini (died 1989) and Imam Khamenei have become Supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic so far.

References

Related pages 
 President of Iran

Iran
Heads of state
Religious leaders
1979 establishments in Asia
1970s establishments in Iran
President of Iran

The President of Iran is the head of government of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The president is chosen by direct popular vote, that is the voters choose the president, they do not vote for other people to choose as in the USA. Unlike other countries, in Iran, the President is not the leader of the country. The President does many of the things that are normally done by a head of state but the Supreme Leader is the person who is actually in control of the country. The current President of Iran is Ebrahim Raisi.

List of presidents of Iran 
Abolhassan Banisadr
Mohammad Ali Rajai
Ali Khamenei
Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani
Mohammad Khatami
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
Hassan Rouhani
Ebrahim Raisi

References

Other websites
 The President's Office
 Iran Electoral Archive - President 

 
Iran, President of
Ayatollah Khomeini

Ayatollah Khomeini was born Sayyed Ruhollah Mustafavi Khomeini, 24 September  1902 in Khomein, Central Iran (then Persia), – 3 June 1989) (Persian: روح الله موسوی خمینی). He was also known as 'Imam Khomeini'. Khomein was the political leader of the Islamic Revolution in 1979. 

Khomeini was also a poet. His poems are collected together in an Imam Divan. Khomeini died of intestinal cancer and a heart attack on June 3, 1989, in Tehran at the age of 86.

Political life 
On June 5, 1964, Khomeini was arrested and sent into exile (kicked from his country). He was exiled to Iraq, Turkey and then to France. Khomeini gave many speeches in France against Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the last Shah of Iran. On January 16, 1979, Pahlavi left Iran. Two weeks later, on February 1,  Khomeini returned to Iran.

He received a traditional religious education in Qom (city in Iran). When he lived in Najaf (a holy city in Iraq) for some years, he spoke about Islam ideas about Government. During that time, he refined his theory of velayat-e faqih ("government of the jurist").

On February 11, 1979, Khomeini appointed his first own prime minister, Medhi Bazargan. On March 30, 1979 a referendum took place in Iran and as a result, the monarchy was replaced with an Islamic Republic. After the Islamic Revolution, Khomeini became Supreme Leader of Iran.

Rushdie fatwa 
In early 1989 Khomeini issued a fatwā calling for muslims to kill Salman Rushdie and "all those involved in the publication" of his book called The Satanic Verses. Rushdie has never been killed. However the Japanese translator of the book was stabbed to death in 1991.

Gallery

References

Other websites 
 Imam Khomeini

1902 births
1989 deaths
Deaths from cancer
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Disease-related deaths in Iran
Heads of state
Iranian clerics
Iranian Muslims
Iranian politicians
Former dictators
Time People of the Year
Theocracy

In Theocracy, a form of government, the institutions and people that govern the state are very close to the leaders of the main religion or are religious leaders themselves. If the religious leaders do not directly run some bodies of the state, they influence them very much. The word theocracy comes from two Greek words literally meaning God-government, and meaning the government is run by "The Church".

Modern-day states that are theocracies

Andorra 
The Roman Catholic Bishop of Urgell as the Co-Prince, is one of the two heads of states of Andorra (the other Co-Prince as head of state is the President of France). His role is mostly ceremonial, and while Roman Catholicism is the official religion of the country, it is not a theocracy.

Iran 
Iran is a theocratic Islamic republic. In Iran, two bodies, the Supreme Leader and Guardian Council consist of members who are not elected by the people. These two bodies are staffed by Shia clerics. The highest elected official is the President of Iran.

Mohammad Khatami, the former president, said that this model is an alternative to democracy, as it brings in religious elements. He called it a religious democracy.

Vatican City 
The Vatican City is a true theocracy, with no separation of church and state. The head of the Catholic Church is the leader of the country.  The pope is elected by the Papal Conclave.   Most popes have stayed for the rest of their lives, but some have resigned.  One who resigned was Pope Benedict XVI.

State religion 
Many states have a state religion (also called official religion). Israel, for example mixes some aspects of rabbinical law and civil law, even though Judaism is not a state or official religion of the country. Also, the state hires rabbis. In some such states, religious leaders also have civil duties, not only religious ones.

Some historic theocratic states 

Some (now extinguished) states throughout history had characteristics of a Theocracy, as for example: 

 In the Empire of Japan (1868 - 1947), Shinto, the indigenous religion of Japan, was the official state religion (State Shinto), besides, the Emperor of Japan was worshipped, and viewed as, a living deity. 
 Bhutan was formerly governed as a Buddhist theocracy. 
 Though the Byzantine Empire was not de facto a theocracy, the Greek Orthodox Church had a significant role and influence in society, and in matters where the Church had a considerable interest, its concerns would have been taken into account, and even to the point of influence the ruler's decision.

References

Forms of government
Ahmad Jannati

Ayatollah Ahmad Jannati (born 1926) has been the secretary of the Guardian Council of the Islamic Republic of Iran since 1988.

Other websites 
Ayatollah Ahmad Jannati to U.S.: Invade Iran, If You Dare

Iranian people
Religious leaders
Muslims
1926 births
Living people
Guardian Council

The Guardian Council is part of the government of Iran. It ensures the laws passed by Iran's legislature conform to Islam. It was created in 1979.

Government agencies
Iran
Courts (law)
1979 establishments in Asia
1970s establishments in Iran
Incumbent

An incumbent is someone who currently holds a political office.  This word is usually used when talking about elections, which are often between the incumbent and one other person or several other people.  For example, Joe Biden is the incumbent President of the United States since he is still president. It can also be used in sports to let people know if a sportsman still holds the position or award in question.

Related pages 
Inauguration

Voting
Assembly of Experts

The Assembly of Experts was created after the Islamic Revolution in Iran.  It is an assembly of Islamic clerics who have the power to choose the successor of the Supreme Leader of Iran.

Other websites 
 Assembly of Experts - Official website 
 Assembly of Experts in the Constitution of Islamic Republic of Iran 
 Understanding Iran's Assembly of Experts 
Results of Assembly of Experts elections in 6 provinces 
Results of Assembly of Experts elections in four provinces 
Results of Assembly of Experts elections in some provinces 

Iran
Islam
Ali Meshkini

Ayatollah Ali Meshkini (1922-30 July 2007) was the chairman of the Assembly of Experts of the Islamic Republic of Iran from 1984 to 2007.

Other websites
 Ayatollah Meshkini In A Friday Sermon in Qom: An Islamic Rule Under Ayatollah Sistani Is Required in Iraq , video clip, 2004

Iranian people
Religious leaders
1922 births
2007 deaths
Legislative speakers