cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Organization of American States

The Organization of American States (OAS in English; OEA in the other three official languages) is an international organization based in Washington, D.C. It has all thirty-five independent nations of the Americas as its members.

For its work Organization of American States (OAS) uses four languages: English language, French language, Portuguese language, and Spanish language.

Many people and politicians of different countries of North America and South America had thought of an organization of their countries. These countries have also formed different organizations from time to time. Beginning from 1889-1890, these countries held meetings known as the International Conference of American States. At its first conference, 18 countries formed the International Union of American Republics.

In 1910, these countries held the Fourth International Conference of American States at Buenos Aires. They changed the name of the International Union of American Republics to the Union of American Republics. These countries held the ninth International Conference of American States between March and May 1948 at Bogotá. On 30th April 1948, 21 countries signed an agreement. They called this agreement the Charter of the Organization of American States. This was the beginning of the Organization of American States (OAS). OAS started functioning from December 1951.

The Charter of the OAS states the goals for forming the OAS. There are many goals. Some important goals relate to peace and security for these countries; development of democratic governments; and economic cooperation.

Members 
All 35 independent nations of America are members of the OAS. Upon foundation on 5 May 1948 there were 21 members:

The later expansion of the OAS included the newly independent nations of the Caribbean (most of whom gained independence only after World War II) and Canada. Members with later admission dates (sorted chronologically):

 (member since 1967)
 (1967)
 (1969)
 (1975)
 (1977)
 (1979)
 (1979)
 (1981)
 (1981)
 (1982)
 (1984)
 (1990)
 (1991)
 (1991)

Related pages
 Caribbean Community
 United Nations

Notes

Other websites 

 Official site

International organizations
Political organizations based in the United States
1948 establishments
Politics of North America
Politics of South America
Gustav Holst

Gustav Holst (21 September 1874 - 25 May 1934) was a famous English composer. He was born in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire. He studied composition at the Royal College of Music in London.  He also learned to play the trombone. He became Director of Music at St Paul’s Girls’ School, Hammersmith, (London). Some of his music was written for the pupils at this school: for example, the popular St Paul’s Suite (1912-1913) for string orchestra.  

His most famous work is The Planets (1918). This is a suite of seven movements for orchestra, each about a different planet (the Earth is not included, and Pluto had not yet been discovered). The music does not really describe the planets, it describes the Roman gods after which the planets are named.  Mars, for example, is the “Bringer of War”. It has a very exciting rhythm with five beats in a bar. Jupiter has a tune which has become famous as the hymn “I Vow to Thee, My Country”. He died of heart failure in London.

References

Other websites

 www.GustavHolst.info
 List of compositions
 Gustav Holst: The Lost Films (Discovered 2009) 
 Holst Birthplace Museum, Cheltenham

20th-century English composers
Cardiovascular disease deaths in England
Deaths from heart failure
Musicians from Gloucestershire
1874 births
1934 deaths
Nelson's Column

Nelson's Column is a national monument of the United Kingdom based in Trafalgar Square, London. The column was built between 1840 and 1843 to commemorate Admiral Horatio Nelson's death at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.

Monuments and memorials in England
Buildings and structures in London
1840s establishments in England
Cousin

A cousin is a term in  genealogy. It is not a direct ancestor or descendant, but is a relative who shares a common ancestor. The word 'cousin' is often used to mean a person's first cousin  the child of someone's aunt or uncle.

Cousin relationships can have degree and removal (e.g. a second cousin once removed is a cousin with a degree of two and a removal of one).
 The family line of the cousin with smallest number of generations to the most recent common ancestor is used to determine the degree (if they are the same use either one). The number of generations from the parrents to the common ancestor (number of generations minus one) is the degree.
 When the cousins are separated by a different number of generations from the most recent common ancestor, the cousin relationship is "removed". The difference between the number of generations for each cousin is the removal.

Other websites
Ancestry.com - cousin removal
Geni.com - Defining the Genealogical Term, 'Removed'
SearchforAncestors.com - Cousin Relationship Calculator
Eastman's Online Genealogy Newsletter - What Is "Second Cousin Once Removed?" 

Family
996



Events 
 March/April – Pope John XV dies before being able to crown Otto III, King of Germany as Holy Roman Emperor. Otto resides in Pavia while waiting for the election of the next Pope.
 May 3 – Twenty-four year old Bruno of Carinthia, grandson of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor and first cousin of Otto III, is elected Pope Gregory V. He is the first German Pope.
 May 21 – Sixteen year old Otto III is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by his cousin Pope Gregory V.
 October 24 – Hugh Capet, King of France dies and is succeeded by his son Robert II of France.
 Abu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah, fifth Caliph in Egypt dies and is succeeded by his son Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.
 November 1 – Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk, Bishop of Freising, which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi (Austria in Old High German).
 Niujie Mosque constructed in Beijing
1345



Events 
 Miracle of the Host
 Holland, Hainaut and Zeeland are inherited by emperor Louis IV of the Holy Roman Empire and becomes part of the imperial crown domain, until 1347.
1347



Events 
 The Black Death ravages Europe (1347-1351)
 Roman Commoner Cola di Rienzo proclaims himself a new Roman dictator in Capitoline Hill in Rome; Pope Clement VI denounces him as a pagan and a heretic and he is driven out of the city by the end of the year
1565



Events 
March 1 – the city of Rio de Janeiro is founded.
April 27 – Cebu City is established becoming the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines.
May 18 – The Ottoman troops landed on the island of Malta. The Great Siege of Malta began.
June 17 – Matsunaga Hisahide assassinates the 13th Ashikaga Shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiteru.
August 28 – St. Augustine, Florida (named after St. Augustine), established. It is the oldest remaining European settlement in the United States.
September 4 – Spanish fleet of Pedro Menéndez de Avilés lands on modern-day Florida to oust the French under Jean Ribault. He later destroys the French colony of Fort Caroline.
September 8 – Pedro Menéndez de Avilés settles in St. Augustine, Florida.
September 8 – The Knights of Malta lift the Turkish Siege of Malta (siege started on May 18).
Livestock

Livestock are domestic animals that are kept by people. Their uses are for meat, milking, wool, leather, or labor. Taking care of livestock is animal husbandry. Some types of livestock are: cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and chickens. Chickens produce eggs; pigs produce meat; cattle, goats and sheep create milk, and sheep also create wool. Horses, cattle, camels, llamas, water buffalo, and other large animals do work for people, such as pulling wagons and other vehicles.

The breeding, keeping alive, and killing of livestock is called animal husbandry. Animal husbandry have been practiced by humans for a long time. There are different animal husbandry practices used by different cultures. It is an important part of the economy and culture of many countries.

Intensive animal farming, which is sometimes called "factory farming" is mostly used today. 99% of livestock in the US are now raised with intensive animal farming. Intensive animal farming increases the amount of things we can get from the livestock but it has also led to bad effects on animal welfare, the environment, and public health.

Etymology

Livestock as a word was first used between 1650 and 1660. Today, cattle means domesticated bovines, while livestock now means domesticated animals.

History 
Animal husbandry started when humans stopped hunting and gathering and settled in farming communities. Animals are domesticated when the way they breed and live are controlled by humans. After a long time, the way they act and the way they look changes. Today, many farm animals cannot live in the wild.

The dog was domesticated in Europe and the Far East from about 15,000 years ago. Goats and sheep were domesticated between 11,000 and 5,000 years ago in Southwest Asia. Pigs were domesticated by 8,500 BC in the Near East and 6,000 BC in China. Domestication of the horse dates to around 4000 BC. Cattle have been domesticated since approximately 10,500 years ago. Chickens and other poultry may have been domesticated around 7000 BC.

Some common livestock

References 

Domesticated animals
Agriculture
Pressure

Pressure means how much force something is pushing on something else with.
It is expressed as force acting per unit area: 

P = F / A 

(Pressure = Force divided by Area that force is acting on) 

It can also be defined as thrust (compressive force acting perpendicularly to the surface of a body) acting per unit area.

Pressure is directly proportional to force and inversely proportional to area., so the same amount of force applied by a hand will produce less pressure than when applied by something smaller, like a finger. 

It is important to understand the distinction between pressure and force. Body A may exert a much larger force on a surface than body B, but if that force is spread out over an area larger than that of body B, the pressure exerted will be less than that of body B. More force is not always equal to more pressure, and vice versa 

Pressure is also related to density. If a solid or a fluid is more dense, it has a larger weight, and therefore exerts a larger force, over the same area.

The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa) named after French physicist Blaise Pascal, who did much work on pressure. 1 pascal = a force of 1 newton per square meter. To measure much larger and much smaller pressures, sub-multiples of the unit, such as kilopascal and megapascal exist.

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by oxygen and other molecules (the atmosphere basically) on a body/point/area at sea level, and is equal to approximately 100000 Newtons or 100Kn.Atmospheric pressures is measured using instruments such as the barometer which uses the principles of pressure and vaccum to measure the atmospheric pressure.

Other websites 

 Pressure -Citizendium

References 

Measurement
Crocodilia

The Order Crocodilia is a group of Archosaur reptiles. There are three living families.

Crocodiles are the nearest living relatives to birds, because they are both survivors of the Archosaurs.

Crocodiles are first found in the Upper Cretaceous period. They are descendents of a much wider group of Archosaurs called the Crocodylomorphs. These, in the Upper Triassic, were slender land-living forms, the sister group of the dinosaurs. 

The Crocodylomorphs, in turn, were part of an even larger group, the Crurotarsi, which are first seen early in the Triassic.

Sauropsida
Archosauria
Crurotarsi
Crocodylomorphs
Crocodilia

Taxonomy
 Order Crocodilia
 Family Crocodylidae
 Crocodiles
 Family Alligatoridae
 Alligators
 Caimans
 Family Gavialidae
 Gharial
 False Gharial
Hertz

The hertz (symbol: Hz, definition: 1/s) is a unit derived from time which measures frequency in the International System of Units (SI). Frequency is how often something happens. A frequency of 1 hertz means that something happens once a second. The note Middle C (the C in the middle of the piano) is 261.65 (262) Hz. This means there are 262 vibrations every second, which is heard as the note Middle C, when that piano key is played.

Humans are able to hear sounds between 20-20 000 Hz. Owls are able to hear sounds between 200–12000 Hz.

The basic unit is 1/second. The unit is named after a German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.

Multiple units 
1000 hertz is 1 kilohertz. 1000 kilohertz is 1 megahertz, 1000 megahertz is 1 gigahertz: (see table)

Examples 
 The frequency of the Earth's spinning (once per ~24 hours) is about 12 microhertz (much smaller than 1 Hz).
 The hertz is sometimes used to measure the power of a processor in computing and electronics.
 Amateur radio in the United States Of America is at different frequencies between 1.8 and 1300 MHz
 Air traffic control uses frequencies between 3 and 25 MHz as well as frequencies between 108 and 136 MHz
 Musical note middle G (G4) has a frequency of 392 Hz.

Sources 

Units of measurement
Ulster Scots dialects

Ulster Scots, sometimes called Ullans, is a dialect of Scots spoken in some of the northern parts of Ireland, across Ulster. It is closely related to the English language.

References

Dialects of English
Ireland
Northern Ireland
West Germanic languages
Jack o'lantern mushroom

The jack o'lantern mushroom is an orange- to yellow gilled mushroom.  It looks like the chanterelle and emits light. Unlike the chanterelle, the jack o'lantern mushroom is very poisonous. While eating this mushroom will not kill you, it may cause cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea. This mushroom smells and looks very appealing, so there are reports of repeat poisonings from individuals who were tempted to try them a second time.

Description 
The Jack-o-Lantern mushroom's fruiting body (its stem and cap) is an orange color. It grows from late summer into November, in large clumps on or near tree stumps. However, it can also be found growing on the ground (along buried roots) nearby. Underneath the cap is its well-known glowing color, which glows in a lime green color. This mushroom is asexual.

Gallery 

fungi
Simcoe Composite School

Simcoe Composite School is a high school in Simcoe, Ontario, Canada. It was established in the year 1898. There are lots of multicultural courses for students 14 to 21 years of age to study. The school is located near two parks, a busy downtown, fast food restaurants, and a post office. There is also a special education program for the mentally disabled to attend special courses and swimming on Wednesday afternoons at the local recreation centre. The school colors are blue and white.

English, French, and Spanish are the languages that are taught in Simcoe Composite School. There are also computer, music, drama, woodworking, and other classes. Simcoe is one of the oldest high schools in Norfolk County. Students from all over the county can attend this high school along with several others in the area.

Schools in Canada
Buildings and structures in Ontario
1898 establishments
1890s establishments in Canada
Paul Keating

Paul John Keating (born 18 January 1944) was the 24th Prime Minister of Australia. He was from the Labor Party. He grew up in the city of Sydney and the suburb of Bankstown. He left De La Salle College at Bankstown at 14 years of age and worked as a clerk with the Sydney County Council doing this while juggling with studies and managed a rock band called The Ramrods. Annita van Iersel married Paul Keating in 1975. In 1998, the Keatings separated.

Keating was Treasurer from 1983 to 1991 and Deputy Prime Minister from 1990 to 1991. He challenged and beat Bob Hawke for the job of prime minister in 1991. He won one election in 1993 but was beaten by John Howard in 1996. As treasurer with Bob Hawke, he made lots of changes to the Australian economy and made it more modern. In the early 1990s, Australia had a really bad recession while he was treasurer, and when he became Prime Minister. As Prime Minister he tried to make Australia better friends with Asian countries and liked things like APEC. He also wanted Australia to become a republic and wanted the government to say it was "sorry" to Aboriginal people for the things that white Australians did long ago.

References

Politicians from Sydney
Keating, Paul
1944 births
Living people
Republicans
Australian Labor Party politicians
Treasurers of Australia
Deputy Prime Ministers of Australia
Commonwealth of Independent States

The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is the confederation of countries that used to form the Soviet Union. On December 8, 1991, leaders of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine met at the nature reserve called Belovezhskaya Pushcha in Belarus. They discussed the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in place of the Soviet Union. They reached an agreement about many points and signed a document creating the CIS. One of these points stated that the alliance would be open to all the republics of the Soviet Union. Other nations with similar goals could also join the CIS.

The Soviet Union had 15 republics: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Georgia, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. On 6th September 1991, the Soviet Union had recognized the independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Out of the remaining 12 republics, all (except Georgia) joined the CIS. Before joining the CIS, on 21st December 1991, leaders of these 11 countries had met in Kazakhstan to accept the original CIS agreement of 8th December 1991. Because Ukraine did not ratify the CIS agreement in the national parliament, it never became an official member of the CIS, but nevertheless participated as a de facto member. In December 1993, Georgia also joined the CIS. On 26th August 2006 Turkmenistan left the permanent membership, and became an associate member. On 15th August 2008 Georgia left the CIS membership, and Georgia's CIS membership officially ended on 17th August 2009. On 19 May 2018, Ukraine, which stopped participating in CIS in 2014 because of its conflict with Russia over Crimea and the Donbass, formally ended all participation in CIS.

With the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Soviet Union ceased to exist. It was the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Many consider that with CIS, Russia continues to have some control over the former republics of the Soviet Union. 

The CIS has its headquarters at Minsk, Belarus. An Executive Director heads the CIS. The CIS is not a successor country to the Soviet Union. The CIS is an organization or alliance of independent countries. It is more like the European Community. The member countries of the CIS had also signed many agreements for economic cooperation and defense cooperation. They have signed other agreements for cooperation in foreign policy and other matters.

Other websites 
 http://cis.minsk.by Belarus
 Commonwealth of Independent States - Citizendium 

1991 establishments
International organizations
Political organizations based in Europe
Soviet Union
Politics of Asia
Politics of Europe
Political organizations based in Asia
Association of Southeast Asian Nations

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is an international organization. On 8th August 1967, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore, and the Philippines formed the ASEAN. At that time, communism was growing in Vietnam, and these five countries were also facing problems inside their own countries. In this background, these five countries created ASEAN as a show of common display of cooperation. In short, the purpose of the organization is political and economic cooperation. The organization is headquartered in Jakarta, Indonesia.

There had been an earlier organization called the Association of Southeast Asia (ASA). It was an international organization of Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand. These three countries had formed ASA in 1961. It was named because all the countries in it are a part of Southeast Asia.

In 1976, the ASEAN countries held a conference in Bali. After this, these countries started closer economic cooperation. But, by the mid-1980s, the activities of the ASEAN had slowed down. By 1991, Thailand proposed a free trade area. The ASEAN countries meet every year to talk about many matters.

Originally there were only five members of the ASEAN. Brunei Darussalam joined the ASEAN on 7 January 1984. Vietnam joined the ASEAN on 28 July 1995. Laos and Myanmar joined the ASEAN on 23 July 1997. Cambodia became a member on 30th April 1999. East Timor is the only Southeast Asian country that is not a member of ASEAN. However both East Timor and Papua New Guinea (which is not considered geographically a part of Southeast Asia) are observers of ASEAN and wish to become full members of ASEAN.

Some information about ASEAN countries is as follows:
 About 8% of the population of the world lives in ASEAN countries. About 240 million Muslims live in these countries, mostly in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei. 
 About 170 million Christians live in these countries, mostly in the Philippines.
 About 170 million Buddhists live in these countries, mostly in Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Singapore.
 The major products of the ASEAN countries are electronics, petroleum, and wood. The total Gross domestic product of these countries are $1,073.9 billion USD.
 All the countries of the ASEAN countries have old cultures, and different types of governments.

The ASEAN countries had created an ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF). 27 countries are members of the ASEAN Regional Forum. The leaders of these countries meet and talk about various matters, especially security and economic cooperation. The current members in the ARF are: Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Vietnam, Brunei, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia, Australia, Canada, the People's Republic of China, the European Union, India, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Mongolia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Russia, East Timor, United States, and Sri Lanka.

The ASEAN holds a meeting every year. The meeting lasts for 3 days, and the members discuss many things.

References

Other websites
ASEAN Secretariat official website
ASEAN Foundation
Simple English Video about ASEAN, YouTube

1967 establishments in Asia
UNICEF

The United Nations Children's Fund or UNICEF is an international organization. The United Nations established UNICEF on 11 December 1946. At that time, its name was United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund. Thus, UNICEF became its short name. In 1953, United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund dropped the words Emergency and International from its name. Its name became United Nations Children's Fund. But, in short, its name continued as UNICEF. 

The current Executive Director of UNICEF is former United States National Security Advisor Anthony Lake since 2010.

UNICEF has its headquarters in New York, United States of America. UNICEF provides many types of assistance and help to children and mothers. It receives money from different governments and private persons. It works in almost 190 countries

Functions 
UNICEF has decided the following 5 areas as priority or main areas:
 Young Child Survival and Development
 Primary Education and Gender Equality
 Child protection
 HIV/AIDS
 Early childhood

Some other priority areas are the child in the family, and sports for development.

UNICEF has been working for over 60 years in different countries all over the world. In 1965, this organization received the Nobel Peace Prize for its work. But, many people and governments have not always praised the work of the UNICEF. They have pointed out some defects in the way UNICEF works. Still, it is the world’s leading organization for the development of children. It operates in 190 countries around the world.

Other websites 
 Official UNICEF homepage
 UNICEF Colombia
 Careers at UNICEF 
 Donate to UNICEF 
Get Legal Advice Here.

United Nations
Charities
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally known as the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and, after 1791, the Commonwealth of Poland, was a state of Poland and Lithuania that was ruled by a common monarch. The Commonwealth was an extension of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, a personal union between those two states that had existed from 1386. It was the largest and countries of 16th- and 17th-century Europe and had one of the largest populations. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth covered more lands than the present lands of Poland and Lithuania since it covered also all of present-day Belarus, a large part of present-day Ukraine and Latvia, and the west of present-day Russia.

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had high levels of ethnic diversity and religious tolerance. However, the amount of religious freedom varied over time.

After several decades of prosperity, it entered a period of political, military and economic decline. The Commonwealth ended with the final Partitions of Poland in 1795. Its growing weakness led to it being divided by its more powerful neighbours: Austria, Prussia and the Russian.

Some information

In Poland, the official languages were Polish and Latin. In Lithuania, the official languages were  Old Belarusian, Latin, and Lithuanian.
The Commonwealth was one of largest countries of its time. It had a large population. At one time, the Commonwealth covered about 400,000 square miles. Population was around 11 million. People of different ethnicities lived in the Commonwealth.
For about 200 years, the Commonwealth withstood wars with other powers of Europe of that time: Muscovy Russians, the Ottoman Empire, and Swedes.
The Commonwealth developed a system of laws and legislature that reduced the power of the monarch. Some concepts of democracy also developed in the Commonwealth like constitutional monarchy.
In theory, the two countries of the Commonwealth were equal, but Poland had a leading role.
The Commonwealth had a leading influence of the Catholic Church. However, the government allowed peoples of different religions to follow their religions. Thus, peoples of many religions lived in the Commonwealth.
The Commonwealth also produced a national constitution, the first in Europe.
Agriculture was the main economic activity in the Commonwealth.

References

Notes

1795 disestablishments
Former republics
Former state unions
History of Belarus
History of Lithuania
History of Poland
History of Ukraine
1569 establishments
1790s disestablishments in Europe
Unification of Germany

The Unification of Germany occurred in the 19th century. Until then, there had been many states in Central Europe. Some of them were very small, possibly no more than  from one border to the other. Many Germans wanted a nation that would be united, powerful and influential. The leaders of Germany believed that they are part of the German Empire dynasty which led to the strategic battles and alliances which united Germany.

The unification took place on January 18, 1871. After the Franco-Prussian War, the German princes proclaimed the German nation in Versailles, France, at the Hall of Mirrors. The unification joined together many independent German states, which became the German Empire. Otto von Bismarck, Prime Minister of Prussia, became Chancellor of the Empire.

The unification of Germany had begun many years earlier, during the Napoleonic Wars. At the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, which is also called the Battle of Nations, many of the German states joined Russia, Sweden and Austria to defeat Napoleon's army. In 1815,  the Congress of Vienna ended the Napoleonic Wars. Austria remained the most politically-powerful German state.  Prussia emerged as Austria's political and diplomatic rival.

There were many problems in unifying the German states. Not all politicians wanted unification. Some feared that it would give Austria and Prussia too much power among the many states. There were also problems in deciding who would collect taxes and how much was be paid.

Background 
Before the creation of the modern German State, there were hundreds of small duchies and kingdoms. Many of these kingdoms were a part of the Holy Roman Empire. In 800 AD, Pope Leo III made the Frankish King, Charlemagne, the Holy Roman Emperor. 

In the 18th century the hundreds of rulers of parts of the Holy Roman Empire were practically independent; they seldom had to obey the Emperor, and often made war against each other or against the Emperor. During the Napoleonic Wars the empire was abolished. Napoleon made a new satellite state, the Confederation of the Rhine. He was soon defeated and the Congress of Vienna reorganized the German states into a new German Confederation. Bismarck's North German Confederation replaced that, until he converted it into the German Empire.

References 

19th century in Germany
Nationalism
OPEC

OPEC, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries  is an international organization. Since 1965, the headquarters of OPEC has been in Vienna, Austria. OPEC was established in Baghdad, Iraq on 10–14 September 1960.

Its work is to "coordinate and unify the petroleum policies" of its members, and also to "ensure the stabilization of oil markets in order to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers, and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry".

According to the United States Department of Energy Energy Information Administration (EIA), OPEC crude oil production is an important factor affecting global oil prices. OPEC sets production targets for its member nations and generally, when OPEC production targets are reduced, oil prices increase.  Projections of changes in Saudi production result in changes in the price of crude oil.

OPEC was formed in 1960 when the international oil market was largely dominated by  multinational companies known as the 'seven sisters'. The formation of OPEC was a turning point in state control over natural resources. In the 1960s OPEC made sure that oil companies could not unilaterally cut prices. In December 2014, OPEC and the oil men were named in the top 10 most influential people in the shipping industry by Lloyds.

Members 
21 countries are members of OPEC. The names of these countries are: 
 Algeria
 Angola
 Austria
 Bahrain
 Benin
 Brunei Darussalam
 Cameroon
 Congo
 Ecuador
 Equatorial Guinea
 Gabon
 Iran
 Iraq
 Kuwait
 Libya
 Nigeria
 Oman
 Saudi Arabia
 Syria
 The United Arab Emirates
 Venezuela. 
Indonesia and Qatar are former members.

Aims 

Member countries of the OPEC came together to form this international organization with several aims. Some of the aims are:
 To protect the interest of the member countries.
 To make sure that the price of petroleum products do not change much. 
 To make certain a regular supply of petroleum oil to other countries.
 To make sure that member countries get the right amount of money from sale of oil products. 
 To decide policies to follow relating to production and sale of petroleum oil.

However, OPEC has not always been able to achieve all these aims.

Related pages
 Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries
 1973 oil crisis
 Cartel

References

Other websites 
 OPEC official site 

International organizations
Franco-Prussian War

The Franco-Prussian War was a war between France and Prussia, which was helped by German allies of Prussia. The war was provoked by Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck, who wanted to unite Germans under Prussian rule by making them fight together against a common enemy. Bismarck irritated French Emperor Napoleon III into declaring war on 19 July 1870. The war ended by a Prussian victory on 10 May 1871.

Causes 
The French feared a Protestant country on their border.  France had helped Prussia beat Austria during the Austro-Prussian War (1866), but it would not allow the North German Confederation and South German states to unify.  In 1869, the throne of Spain was offered to a prince of the Catholic branch of the Prussian Hohenzollern royal family. 

France found out about the offer, and demanded for Prussia to reject it since France did not want to be surrounded by Hohenzollerns. The prince refused, but the French wanted Prussia to do the same. Prussian King Wilhelm I sent a telegram from Ems that assuring French Emperor Napoleon III that the prince would not become king of Spain. Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck publicly released a version that he had edited or doctored to make it seem that his king had insulted the emperor's ambassador. That was part of his plan to unify the German states. Both sides exchanged angry words, and France declared war. On July 19 1870 the war started, and Prussia was fully supported by the South German states.

Results 

With its German allies and universal conscription, Prussia brought together a bigger army than the French. The Prussian Army also had better weapons, training and leadership. For example, the Prussian General Staff were very well organised. The army had some old-fashioned equipment like the Dreyse needle gun, but its Krupp mobile artillery (heavy-duty guns) were far better than the old French muzzleloaders. Notable victories occurred at Sedan, Mars-la-Tour, Gravellote and Metz. The Germans captured Napoleon in Metz, but French Republicans overthrew the Second French Empire and continued the war for a few months. The Germans conquered Paris and then made peace.

After the war, France had to give Prussia some regions that had been under French control. They were most of Alsace and some of Lorraine, most of which spoke German dialects. Prussia took steps to unite the independent German states into one country, the German Empire. The historical term for that is the Unification of Germany.

References 

19th century in France
1870s in Germany
Prussia
Wars involving France
Wars involving Germany
1870
1871
Fernando Alonso

Fernando Alonso Díaz (born July 29, 1981 in Oviedo, Spain) is a racing driver in Formula One. He is from Spain. He won his first F1 title in 2005 and then became the youngest ever Formula 1 World Champion at the age of 24.

Alonso drove until 2006 in Formula 1 for the Renault F1-Team, with which he achieved the driver world championship in the year 2005 and had a major part to play in the Renault F1 Team winning the constructor championship in the same year.

The Drivers' Championship was won again by Fernando with Renault F1 for the second year in a row in 2006 (interestingly, had Alonso not become the youngest World Champion in 2005, he would have still achieved this feat with his 2006 victory) edging out Michael Schumacher of Scuderia Ferrari by 13 points. Renault also retained the Constructor's Championship, beating Ferrari by only five points.

In 2007 Alonso joined Team Vodafone McLaren-Mercedes and entered a four-way battle for the World Championship with his team-mate, the rookie Lewis Hamilton, and Ferrari drivers Kimi Räikkönen and Felipe Massa. Halfway through the season, with wins in Sepang and Monaco, Alonso trails his rookie team-mate by 14 points. The second half of the season should prove interesting.
In the second part Alonso won at Europe and Italy but missed the title by 1 point.

Racing record

Career summary 

* Season still in progress.

Complete International Formula 3000 results 
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Complete Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

 Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.
 Season in progress.

References 

1981 births
Living people
Formula One drivers
Formula One current
People from Oviedo
Peter Crouch

Peter James Crouch (born 30 January 1981) is an English footballer. He was born in Macclesfield and was raised in Singapore and Ealing, west London. At 6 feet, 7 inches (201 cm), he is one of the tallest people to ever play in the Premier League. Crouch played for Liverpool and England. He was the first player to score 10 goals for England in a single year. He is known for his famous robotic dance celebration, which he first performed after his goal against Hungary in May 2006.

Club career statistics

International career statistics

|-
|2005||4||0
|-
|2006||12||11
|-
|2007||8||3
|-
|2008||6||0
|-
|2009||6||4
|-
|2010||||
|-
!Total||36||18
|}

References

1981 births
Living people
English footballers
Liverpool F.C. players
Sportspeople from Cheshire
Sportspeople from London
Tottenham Hotspur F.C. players
Premier League players
Bishkek

Bishkek (Бишкек) is the capital city of Kyrgyzstan. It has a population of 900,000 (2005). It was originally founded in 1878 as the Russian fortress of Pishpek (Пишпек). From 1926 until 1991 it was known as Frunze (Фрунзе), after the Bolshevik military leader Mikhail Frunze. In the Kyrgyz language, a Bishkek is a churn used to make stirred horse milk (kumis), the Kyrgyz national drink.

Capital cities in Asia
Geography of Kyrgyzstan
Dushanbe

Dushanbe (, ) is the capital city of Tajikistan. About 562,000 people live in Dushanbe as of 2000. The name is borrowed from the Persian word for "Monday" (du "two" + shamba or shanbe "day", lit. "day two") and refers to the fact that it was a popular "Monday" market place.

Capital cities in Asia
Tajikistan
Tashkent

Tashkent (, )) is the capital city of Uzbekistan. It is also the most populated city in Central Asia, with a population of 2,571,668 in 2020. Its name translates from Uzbek to "Stone City" in English

Tashkent has been inhabited by people for thousands of years. It was destroyed by Genghis Khan in 1219, but later profited from the Silk Road. Tashkent was conquered by the Russian Empire in 1865, and became the capital of Russian Turkestan. Under the Soviet Union, Tashkent grew in population.

In 2008, Uzbeks accounted for 63% of the population, and the city has large minorities of Russians, Tatars, Koreans, and Tajiks.

Geography 

Tashkent lies to the west of the Altai Mountains, and is next to the Chirchiq River. Tashkent is situated at around 430 m (1,411 ft) above sea level. Tashkent also suffers from earthquakes, and the major 1966 earthquake destroyed most of the city.

Tashkent has a mediterranean climate with continental climate influences. Winters are cold and snowy, while summers are hot, sunny, and dry. The record high temperature was 44.6 °C (112.3 °F), and the record low temperature was −29.5 °C (−21.1 °F). The city has an average of 427 mm (17 inches) of precipitation each year.

Main sights 
Tashkent is full is historical sights, and this article will just mention a few.

The Amir Timur Museum was opened in 1996, and is dedicated to Mongol conqueror Timur. There are at least 5,000 artifacts on display at the museum. Around 2 million people visit the location each year, and the museum is featured on the 1,000 soʻm bank note. The museum is located downtown next to the Amir Temur Square.

The Kukeldash Madrasah (Tashkent) is an ancient madrasa located close to the Chorsu metro station. It was built in the 16th century during Shaybanid rule. Throughout its existence, it functioned as a caravanserai, museum, and fortress. It was one of the few buildings to survive the 1966 earthquake.

The Navoi Theater, formally the Alisher Navoi Opera and Ballet Theatre, is the possibly the most notable opera house and theatre in Uzbekistan. It was designed by Alexey Shchusev, who also designed Lenin's Mausoleum in Moscow. It was partially built by the Japanese prisoners of war from 1945–47. The theatre can house at least 1,400 spectators.

Sports 
Tashkent is home to some of the most successful Uzbek football clubs. These include Pakhtakor Tashkent, Lokomotiv Tashkent, Bunyodkor, and Spartak Tashkent.

Some notable athletes from Tashkent include cyclist Djamolidine Abdoujaparov, gymnast Elvira Saadi, and footballer Maksim Shatskikh.

References

Other websites 
 All about capital of Uzbekistan – Tashkent
 Photos of historical monuments and modern buildings in Tashkent
 Recent photos of Tashkent with comments in English

Capital cities in Asia
Cities in Uzbekistan
Aşgabat

Aşgabat (; , UniPers: Ešq-âbâd;  - Ashkhabád) is the capital city of Turkmenistan. It also spelled as Ashgabat, Ashkabat, Ashkhabad, Ashgabad, a former Soviet republic. Aşgabat has a population of 695,300 (2001) and is between the Kara Kum desert and the Kopet Dag mountain range. The name is believed to borrow from the Persian Ashk-abad meaning "the City of Arsaces". Another explanation is that the name is a corruption of the Persian Eshq (Love) + abad (natured place or city), and therefore loosely translates as "The city built by/from love". Aşgabat is at 37°58′N 58°20′E (37.9667, 58.333). Aşgabat's ethnic groups are: Turkmen, Russians, Armenians, and Azeris. Arsaces was king of Persia and his name appears between 3 and 4 times in the Bible.

More images

Capital cities in Asia
Geography of Turkmenistan
Crew

A crew usually is a group of people that work within a common organisation, and that have some activities in common. The usual place where crews can be found are ships and airplanes. On such ships and aircraft, some functions some people perform are very special. It is therefore common that crews are organised in a hierarchy. Every person, except the captain, at the top, has a person above them. They will report to that person. 
Teams who work backstage in theaters, on movie sets, and in television studios are also called crews. Such crews are distinct from the cast.

Aviation
Water transport
Cargo

Cargo or freight means goods which people transport, often using a vehicle made for that purpose rather than for passenger service. The vehicle is usually a truck or freighter or cargo aircraft or freight train. 

The noun is used as not countable; people will talk about some freight.  Today, goods other than bulk cargo are usually packed in shipping containers, which are carried.  A place which loads or unloads cargo is usually called a cargo terminal.

Related pages 
 Cargo plane
 Cargo ship

Other websites 
 The Gallery of Transport Loss -- Photos & Lessons of Disaster

References 

Transport
Paraphilia

Paraphilia is a word used in sociology and medicine.  Like many other medical terms it comes from Ancient Greek. It means that someone is sexually aroused by people (or by things) that are unable to return their affection. The word can also be used to refer to sexual practices which are bad for the mind or body and are mental disorders.

When doctors talk about paraphilia, they usually mean one of the following, among other things:

 Dendrophilia - Sexual attraction to trees
 Emetophilia - Sexual arousal from vomiting or watching others vomit
 Exhibitionism- Wanting to expose oneself to strangers
 Fetishism- Sexual arousal by non-sexual objects, like lamps or boxes.
 Frotteurism- Sexual arousal by rubbing against strangers
 Infantilism - Wanting to be treated like an infant or a toddler
 Incestophilia - Wanting to have sex with relatives
 Klismaphilia - Sexual arousal from enemas
 Masochism- Wanting to be hurt physically
 Necrophilia - Sexual attraction to corpses
 Chronophilia- Wanting to have sex with a specific age group
 Sadism- Wanting to hurt people
 Urolognia - Enjoying urinating on people, and/or having people urinate on him
 Voyeurism- Sexual arousal by looking at strangers doing sexual things
 Zoophilia - Feeling sexually attracted to animals

The respective behaviour is only classified as paraphilia if it is the only means for the person involved to get sexually aroused, for a considerable time.

When normal people talk about paraphilia, they usually mean non-mainstream sexual behaviour.

Homosexuality (LGBT) used to be considered a paraphilia, but this is no longer the case in a lot of countries. However, in a lot of other countries it is still considered abnormal. The opposite of paraphilia is normophilia. An example of a normophilia is teleiophilia.

References

Mental illnesses
Sociology
Belo Horizonte

Belo Horizonte is a Brazilian city, capital of the state of Minas Gerais. It has, approximately, 2.4 million inhabitants and an area of 330.9 km². It is the third largest metropolitan area in the country.

Colleges and Universities
 Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG);
 Universidade do Estado de Minas Gerais (UEMG);
 Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas Gerais (PUC-MG);
 Universidade José do Rosário Vellano (UNIFENAS);
 Centro Universitário Newton Paiva;
 Universidade Salgado de Oliveira (UNIVERSO);
 SKEMA Business School

Culture and Architecture
  ARQBH

Sister Cities
 Toronto, Ontario, Canada
 Porto, Portugal (1986)
 Milan, Italy
 Havana, Cuba
 Bethlehem, Palestine
 Boston, Massachusetts, United States (2007)
 Fort Lauderdale, United States (2003)
 Newark, New Jersey, United States (2006)
 Masaya, Nicaragua (2002)
 Granada, Spain (1975)
 Minsk, Belarus (1987)
 Luanda, Angola (1968)
 Tegucigalpa, Honduras (2004)
 Zahle, Lebanon (1974)
Homs, Syria (2001)
 Tripoli, Libya (2003)
 Cuenca, Ecuador (2004)
 Córdoba, Argentina (2007)
 São Paulo,  Brazil
 Lisbon, Portugal (2007)
 Wuxi, China (1996)

 
Capitals of Brazilian states
Bohemia

Bohemia is one of the regions of the Czech Republic. Poland is to the north, Germany to the west, Austria to the south, and the Czech province of Moravia to the East. The capital city of Prague lies in Bohemia. 

Bohemia is well known for its glasswares (and other handicrafts), its beer, but also its cuisine.

In the Middle Ages Bohemia was sometimes an independent duchy or kingdom. In 1526 it came under control of the House of Habsburg. When Austria-Hungary was defeated in World War I Bohemia became part of Czechoslovakia.
Rhododendron

Rhododendron is a large genus of flowering plants. It includes 1,024 species of woody plants in the heath family (Ericaceae). Some are evergreen, and some are deciduous. They are found mainly in Asia. 

Most of them have quite showy flowers. What gardeners know as Azalea is in fact a kind of rhododendron. Many people have rhododendrons in their garden or flower pot. It is the national flower of Nepal.  One rhododendron, Rhododendron ponticum, has become an Invasive species in North America.

Rhododendron
Yaren

Yaren is the largest settlement on the island country Nauru. Nauru has no official capital, but many government buildings can be found in Yaren, so some people call it the capital. In 2003, 1,100 people lived there.

Cities in Oceania
Nauru