cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Leo III of Armenia

Leo (or Leon) III of Armenia (c.1236-1289) was king of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, ruling from 1270 to 1289. He was the son of Hethum I of Armenia and Queen Isabella of Armenia.  
 
In 1262 Leo married Keran (Kir Anna), the daughter of Prince Hethum of Lampron.
In 1266 Leo was captured and his younger brother Thoros killed while fighting the Mamluk invaders. Leo was ransomed by his father, who gave up the throne for him shortly after. He was known as a pious king, devoted to Christianity.

In 21 years of marriage Leo had 15 children by his wife Keran, eight sons and seven daughters. Two sons and two daughters died at an early age:
 Hethum II (ruled 1289 to 1293, 1294 to 1297, 1299 to 1307)
 Princess Fimi of Armenia (born c.1266)
 Princesse Sybil of Armenia (born c.1269)
 Thoros III (ruled 1293 to 1298)
 Prince Ruben of Armenia (born c.1272)
 Princess Zablun of Armenia (born c.1274)
 Princess Sybil (or Zabel) of Armenia (born c.1276)
 Sempad (ruled 1297 to 1299)
 Constantine III (ruled 1299)
 Isabelle of Armenia (died c.1321), who married Amalric of Tyre
 Princess Theophane of Armenia (born c.1278)
 Rita of Armenia, who married Michael IX Palaeologus, co-Emperor of the Byzantine Empire with his father Andronicus II Palaeologus
 Prince Nerses of Armenia (born c.1279)
 Oshin (ruled 1308 to 1320)
 Prince Alinakh of Armenia (born c.1283)

5 of his 15 children, Hethum, Thoros, Sembat, Constantine, and Oshin, later became the Armenian kings, who often fought each other to gain the throne.

He was succeeded by his son Hethum II.

Bibliography

1236 births
1289 deaths
Monarchs of Armenia
Armens

Armens (Armenian: Արմեններ, Առամեններ), were Armenian tribes, the people are called Arman, Armenic or Armanen. They correspond with the Hayasa-Azzi Tribes. The Armans united with the tribes of Hayasi. Recent linguistic studies present strong evidence that the Indo-European language group originates in Anatolia.  According to most accounts, the Armens were generally tall, blond-haired, and blue-eyed in appearance, in contrast to their Urartian cousins who tended to be slighter with black hair and black eyes. The Urartian state, which existed there prior to the coming of the
Indo-European-speaking "Armen" tribes from the west, was a federation of many peoples.

History 
At the end of the second millennium BC, another Indo-European ethnic group, closely related to Thracians and Phrygians and referred to by the Greeks as Armens, migrated to the Armenian Highland from Northern Balkans.
   
One theory suggests that the Armens were of Thracian origin, and related to the Phrygians. The Armens were near the head waters of the Halys, to the west of the Euphrates. The Armens seemed to have mixed blood with another Asiatic element whose patronymic Hai, became in time their national designation. The country where the Armens settled were a mountainous region, traversed by deep valleys and smiling plains.

Etymology 
The word Armani, (mentioned in Akkadian inscriptions as early as 2400 BC) an early form of Armen-Armin or Arman denotes the national affiliation, as with many cultures standing for the particular nation thus, the God AR being the primary deity in the Indo-European (aka Aryan) pantheon - thus AR MAN denotes—Men of Ar or Children of Ar, again initially AR standing for ARAREL-ARARICH [hence Ar-Ar-At the Place of ARAR] -- Create-Creator, also Sun, Light, Life and Love.

References

Related pages
Hayasa-Azzi
Kingdom of Armenia

Ancient Armenia
History of Armenia

The history of Armenia and Armenians is very ancient and can go back at least 2000 BC. Archaeologists say the Shulaveri-Shomu culture of the central Transcaucasus region, and Armenia today, as the earliest known prehistoric culture in the area, carbon-dated to around 6000 - 4000 BC. But, a newer discovered tomb has been dated to 9000 BC. Another early culture in the Armenian Highlands and surrounding areas—the Kura-Araxes culture is in the period of ca. 4000 - 2200 BC, and is believed to have to go into the Trialeti culture (ca. 2200 - 1500 BC), and meaning Armenians are one of the oldest Indo-European subgroups.

Urartu 
Urartu was an ancient kingdom in the Armenian Highlands.

Some experts say that the Armenians started as a mixture of the different peoples to move through the area in history: The Hurrians, Urarteans, Luvians and Mushki. This last group, also knowns as Phrygians may have brought their Indo-European language to Armenia. The Armenian language today is Indo-European, but shows a lot of influence from the earlier languages, especially Urartean.

Ancient period 

The Armenians had friendly relations with the Parthian empire. The fighting between the Roman Empire and Parthia was centered in Armenia. Armenia was in between Parthian and the Roman Empire. The Armenians had already played a role in the early history of the Roman-Parthian relations. Tigranes put military and political relations with Rome and Parthia on an international legal foundation. The Parthians were allies to Armenians in many times. Many Parthian noble families had moved out and they went to Armenia.

Related pages 
Hayasa-Azzi
Battle of Rhandeia

References

Other websites 
 Armenia at Livius.Org  (ancient history)
 All about Armenia by www.haias.net
 Rulers.org — Armenia list of rulers for Armenia
 History of Armenia 
 A book about the history of Armenia from 1827. It was written by a priest.
First Republic of Armenia

The First Republic of Armenia, 1918–1920, was the first modern establishment of an Armenian republic. The country was created after the Russian Tsarist empire that began with the Russian Revolution of 1917 that lost power. Its creation with borders were the Democratic Republic of Georgia in the north, the Ottoman Empire to the west, the Persian Empire to the south, and Azerbaijan Democratic Republic to the east.

End of the Republic, 1920 

Armenia gave way to communist power in late 1920. In September 1920, the Turkish revolutionaries moved in on the capital. First an armistice was concluded, on November 18, and then a full peace treaty - Treaty of Alexandropol on 2nd and/or 3rd of December 1920.

During that time, the Soviet 11th Red Army invasion started on the 29th of November 1920. The actual transfer of power took place on December 2 in Yerevan. Armenian leadership approved an ultimatum, presented to it by the Soviet plenipotentiary Boris Legran - who was at work as one of major Russian diplomats on Caucasus at that time. Armenia decided to join the Soviet sphere, while the Soviet Russia agreed to protect its remaining territory from the advancing Turkish army. Soviets also pledged to take steps to rebuild the army, protect the Armenians, not to pursue non-communist Armenians. None of these promises were kept.

On December 4, 1920, the Red Army entered Yerevan, the government of Armenian Republic effectively stopped working. On December 5, the Armenian Revolutionary Committee (Revkom; made up of mostly Armenians from Azerbaijan) also entered the city. Finally, on the following day, December 6, Felix Dzerzhinsky's dreaded secret police, the Cheka, entered Yerevan, thus effectively ending the existence of the Democratic Republic of Armenia.
The rest of Armenia was under control of the communist government. The part by Turkey remained for the most part theirs - by the subsequent Treaty of Kars. Soon, the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed, under the leadership of Aleksandr Miasnikyan. It was to be included into the newly created Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic.

Related pages
 Armenia
 Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan
 Democratic Republic of Georgia

References 

1918 establishments
1920 disestablishments
Smaug

Smaug is a fictional dragon from The Hobbit. He is the main villain of the J.R.R. Tolkien book and it's adaptations. The author called him a "most specially, greedy, strong and wicked worm".

Fictional biography
Smaug is one of the most feared dragons on Middle-earth. He decided to sleep in a pile of gold until Bilbo Baggins woke him up. Smaug knows that Bilbo is after the Arkenstone. He left the area and decided to fly to Lake-town and ravage it with fire. He was killed by Bard the Bowman with an arrow.

Peter Jackson trilogy (2012-2014)
In The Hobbit movie trilogy, Smaug's motion capture and voice were done by Benedict Cumberbatch. He is digitally created by Weta Digital and is considered one of the most impressive features of the trilogy, specifically the end of the second movie. In the third movie, his death helped Sauron let his armies roam free.

Other media
Smaug, voiced by Benedict Cumberbatch became an interviewed guest for a December 2014 episode of The Colbert Report with clips from the third movie.

Fictional characters introduced in 1937
Fictional dragons
Characters in The Hobbit
Georgian language

Georgian (Ⴕⴀⴐⴒⴓⴊⴈ Ⴄⴌⴀ, khartuli ena) is the official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus.

Georgian is the primary language of about 3.9 million people in Georgia itself (83 percent of the population), and of another 500,000 abroad (chiefly in Turkey, Iran, Russia, the United States and Europe). It is the literary language for all ethnographic groups of Georgian people, especially those who speak other South Caucasian languages (or Kartvelian languages): Svans, Megrelians, and the Laz.  Gruzinic, or "Kivruli", which is sometimes considered a separate Jewish language, is spoken by an additional 20,000 in Georgia and 65,000 elsewhere (primarily 60,000 in Israel).

References 

Caucasian languages
Languages of Azerbaijan
Mount Ararat

Mount Ararat (Turkish: Ağrı Dağı; Armenian: Արարատ; Kurdish: Grîdax‎ or Çiyayê Agirî) is the tallest peak in  the Armenian Highlands and modern-day Turkey. The mountain is always capped with snow, and it is a dormant volcano. 

It is in Iğdır Province, near the northeast corner of Turkey, 16 km west of Iran and 32 km south of the Armenian border and Northern Kurdistan.

History 
The people and area who lived in this area was the Armenian kingdom of Ararat (in Assyrian: Urartu). Armenians lived here for nearly 3000 years. In the 16th century the mountain became part of the border between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid dynasty of Persia. Later it was the border of Russia. In 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne put Ararat in the administration of Turkey. It is a national symbol of Armenia and an object of irredentism.

Gallery

References 

Mountains of Turkey
South Caucasus

South Caucasus, also referred to as Transcaucasia or Transcaucasus, is the southern area of the Caucasus region between Europe and Asia, going from the Greater Caucasus to the Turkish and Iranian borders, between the Black and Caspian Seas. 

All of Armenia is in Transcaucasia; the majority of Georgia and Azerbaijan, including the exclave of Naxçıvan, fall within this area. The countries in the region produce oil, manganese ore, tea, citrus fruits, and wine.

The region is one the most complicated in the post-Soviet area, and has three heavily disputed areas – Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Georgia, and Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan.

History 
The region was combined togerther twice – during the Russian Civil War (Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic) from 9 April 1918 to 26 May 1918, and under the Soviet rule (Transcaucasian SFSR) from 12 March 1922 to 5 December 1936. 

The area of Transcaucasia, which is where modern day Azerbaijan,Georgia and Armenia are located, is one of areas where the wine producing vines vitis vinifera grow. Some experts think that this may be where wine was produced for the first time.  Archeological excavation and carbon dating of grape pips from the area have dated back to 7000-5000BC.

Related pages
 Caucasus
 North Caucasus (Ciscaucasia)
 Ibero-Caucasian languages
 Peoples of the Caucasus

Footnotes

Sources and references 
(incomplete)
 Transcaucasia (The Columbia Encyclopedia article) 

Eastern Europe
Caucasus
Mongols

The name Mongols (Mongolian:  Mongol) explains one or more ethnic groups. A hard definition includes the Mongols proper (self-designation Monggol), which can be split into eastern and western Mongols. In a bigger sense, the Mongol peoples also people who speak a Mongolic language but use other self-designations, such as the Kalmyks of eastern Europe.

The name Monggol has its meaning in the Tungusic languages and usually means "the invincible ones". At first it was applied to a small and still insignificant tribe in the area of the Onon river. In the 13th century it grew into an umbrella term for a large group of tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan.

The religion of the Mongols 

The polytheistic (believing in many gods) Mongols thought that good and evil spirits controlled the world. They also believed in a sky god, who ruled all the spirits. They called him Tengri (TENG gree), which means, "the great god of heaven". The Mongols lived in fear of the spirits and hoped for blessings from them.

Every yurt had small idols made of felt. The wives and daughters of the nobles made these idols at sewing parties. The Mongols believed that these idols protected their families and animals. Before every meal they put food and drink on the idols' lips. They also prayed to them.

The Mongols believed that some men, called shamans (SHAH muns), had power over the spirits. The shamans were the priests of the traditional Mongol religion, called shamanism (SHAH muh NIZ um). The shamans were medicine men and witch doctors who used a special language when doing their magical . The Mongols talked to their shamans before making big choices and followed their advice.

Other religions 

The later empire of the Mongols had many people with many religions, including Christians. The most important Christian group in the Mongol Empire was the Nestorian Church, sometimes called the Church of the East. These Christians were named for Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople.

United States

Related pages
 Mongol Empire
 History of Mongolia

References

Other websites 
Ethnic groups of Mongolia
Ethnic map of Mongolia

Ethnic groups in Asia
Mongol peoples
Mongolian people
La Liga

La Liga, commonly known La Liga Santander for sponsor reasons, is a football league which is the top division in Spain.

2019–20 clubs
Athletic Bilbao
Atlético Madrid
Barcelona
Celta Vigo
Deportivo La Coruña
Eibar
Espanyol (from Barcelona)
Getafe
Granada
Las Palmas
Levante (from Valencia)
Málaga
Rayo Vallecano (from Madrid)
Real Betis (from Seville)
Real Madrid
Real Sociedad (from San Sebastián)
Sevilla
Sporting de Gijón
Valencia
Villarreal

Champions

Former champions

Related pages
Segunda División
Segunda División B

 
1929 establishments in Europe
1920s establishments in Spain
Stanley Marcus

Stanley Marcus (April 20, 1905 – January 22, 2002) was the president of the Neiman-Marcus company, a store in the United States that sells expensive clothing and objects. He became famous for inventing many new ways to sell products and new ways to tell people about his store.

Mr. Marcus created an award for people who designed clothing. He also began art shows in his store, to make people want to visit the store to see the art. In 1939, the company started a catalog, which is a book that shows all the products that people can buy from the store. In 1951, the catalog listed unusual gifts for people to buy. Many people started to read the catalog every year to see the unusual gifts.

In the 1940s, at the time of the Second World War, the government of the United States asked Mr. Marcus for help. The government wanted to make sure there would be enough fabric to make clothes for the military, so they asked Mr. Marcus to make rules about clothes for ordinary people. He made rules for companies that made clothes so that popular styles for women and men would not change every year. With these rules, people would not need new clothes so often. Also, he said that men's socks should not use rubber to make elastic to hold the socks in place. This rule made sure the government could use rubber for military products that were needed for the war.

Personal life
Mr. Marcus married Mary "Billie" Cantrell in 1932. When he met her, Billie was working in the Neiman-Marcus store. She continued to work for four years. She retired in 1936 after she gave birth to a baby; they named the baby Jerrie. In 1938, she gave birth to twins, Richard and Wendy.

Mr. Marcus collected art and books. His favorite artists from Mexico were Rufino Tamayo, David Alfaro Siqueiros, Diego Rivera, and Antonio Ruíz. He became friends with Rivera and Tamayo. Mr. Marcus also liked American artists, such as Alexander Calder, who made sculptures, and Georgia O'Keeffe, who was a painter. He gave large amounts of money to a museum that showed O'Keeffe paintings.

The Degolyer Library at Southern Methodist University has a collection of things related to Mr. Marcus. The collection includes photographs, letters, and newspaper articles. Mr. Marcus also gave the library a collection of more than 5,000 miniature books. (Miniature books are very small books, small enough for a doll.)

Other websites
Career Highlights video, from Advertising Hall of Fame
 Infoplease, Noteworthy Deaths 2002

1903 births
2002 deaths
Businesspeople from Texas
Collectivity of Saint Martin

Saint Martin (French: Saint-Martin), officially the Collectivity of Saint Martin (French: Collectivité de Saint-Martin), is a new overseas collectivity of France. It was created on 22 February 2007. It is in the northern parts of the island of Saint Martin and nearby small islands. The southern half of the island is a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

Demographics 
The French part of the island has a land area of . At the 2011 census, the population in the French part of the island was 36,286 (up from only 8,072 inhabitants at the 1982 census), which means a population density of  in 2011.

Politics and government 

Saint Martin was for many years a French commune. It was part of Guadeloupe, which is an overseas région and overseas département of France. Because of this, it is in the European Union. In 2003 the population of the French part voted for a split from Guadeloupe. They wanted to make a separate overseas collectivity (COM) of France. On February 9, 2007, the French Parliament passed a bill granting COM status to both the French part of Saint Martin and neighbouring Saint-Barthélemy. The new took effect when the law was published in the Official Journal.

Saint Martin remains governed as it was when a commune within Guadeloupe—by a mayor and a municipal council elected by the European citizens living on the French side of the island. As is the case in metropolitan France since the promulgation of the Maastricht Treaty, nationals of any member state of the European Union are allowed to vote at the municipal elections. Nationals from countries not part of the European Union, which represent a large part of the population on the French side of the island, are not allowed to vote in the elections. In 2003, the people of the French part of the island voted to separate from Guadeloupe. In 2007, the French Parliament voted to make Saint Martin a overseas collectivity (COM) of France. The new status took effect on 15 July 2007, once the local assemblies were elected,

Saint Martin remains part of the European Union. The official currency in Saint Martin is the euro (though the United States dollar is also widely accepted).

References 

Saint Martin
Overseas Territories of France
Sint Maarten

Sint Maarten (or Saint Martin) is a country that is part of the Netherlands. It is on the southern half of the island of St. Martin in the Caribbean.

The Island area of St. Martin () was part of the Netherlands Antilles, until the Antilles was dissolved in October 2010, when Sint Maarten became a "country" ("land") within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Government of the Netherlands is responsible for defence, foreign affairs and nationality law. Although part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the territory of Sint Maarten is not part of the European Union; however, its people are citizens of the European Union.

Related pages
Saint Martin
Collectivity of Saint Martin

References

Dependent territories
French overseas collectivities

The Overseas collectivities (French: collectivité d'outre-mer or COM), are an administrative division of France. These territories include some former overseas territories and other French overseas holdings with a particular status. All of these were given the name collectivités d'outre-mer because of a constitutional reform on March 28, 2003.

As of March 31, 2011, there are five of these communities:
 French Polynesia, with a great degree of autonomy, two symbolic manifestations of which are the title of the President of French Polynesia (Le président de la Polynésie française) and the territory's additional designation as a pays d'outre-mer. Legislature: Assembly of French Polynesia.
 Saint-Barthélemy
 Saint-Martin
 Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Newfoundland, Canada, which has a Territorial Council.
 Wallis and Futuna in the Pacific Ocean, which is the only inhabited part of France that is not divided into communes.

Other websites 
Official site 
past and current developments of France's overseas administrative divisions like collectivité d'outre-mer (French language) 

Subdivisions of France
William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire

William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire, KG, PC (8 May 1720-2 October 1764) was a British Whig statesman who was Prime Minister of Great Britain for a short period of time.

Titles from birth to death 
 Lord Cavendish of Hardwick (1720-1729)
 Marquess of Hartington (1729-1741)
 Marquess of Hartington, MP (1741-1751)
 The Rt. Hon. Marquess of Hartington (1751-1755)
 His Grace The Duke of Devonshire, PC (1755-1756)
 His Grace The Duke of Devonshire, KG, PC (1756-1764)

1720 births
1764 deaths
English Dukes
Knights of the Garter
John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute

John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, KG, PC (25 May 1713 - 10 March 1792) was a Scottish nobleman. He was Prime Minister of Great Britain (1762–1763) under King George III. 

1713 births
1792 deaths
Politicians from Edinburgh
Scottish Earls
Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington

Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington, KG, KB, PC (1674–2 July 1743) was a British Whig statesman and Prime Minister of Great Britain. 

Compton served in government from 1715, and as the head of government from 1742 until his death in 1743.

Compton worked closely with Lord Carteret, to get the support of the various factions making up the Government.  Lord Carteret, was the Secretary of State for the Northern Department, which later became the Home Office.

Styles from birth to death
The Hon. Spencer Compton (1674-1698)
The Hon. Spencer Compton, MP (1698-1710)
The Hon. Spencer Compton (1710-1713)
The Hon. Spencer Compton, MP (1713-1716)
The Rt. Hon. Spencer Compton, MP (1716-1725)
The Rt. Hon. Sir Spencer Compton, KB, MP (1725-1728)
The Rt. Hon. The Lord Wilmington, KB, PC (1728-1730)
The Rt. Hon. The Earl of Wilmington, KB, PC (1730-1733)
The Rt. Hon. The Earl of Wilmington, KG, KB, PC (1733-1743)

References 

1674 births
1743 deaths
British Earls
Knights of the Garter
Knights of the Bath
Former members of the British House of Commons
Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham

Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, KG, PC (13 May 1730-1 July 1782) was a British Whig statesman. He is most notable for his two terms as Prime Minister of Great Britain. He served in two high offices during his lifetime (Prime Minister and Leader of the House of Lords).

Titles from birth to death 
 The Hon. Charles Watson-Wentworth (1730-1733)
 Viscount Higham (1733-1746)
 Earl of Malton (1746-1750)
 The Rt. Hon. The Earl Malton (1750-1750)
 The Most Hon. The Marquess of Rockingham (1750-1761)
 The Most Hon. The Marquess of Rockingham, KG (1761-1765)
 The Most Hon. The Marquess of Rockingham, KG, PC (1765-1782)

1730 births
1782 deaths
British Marquesses
People from South Yorkshire
Members of the House of Lords
Frederick North, Lord North

Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford, KG, PC (13 April 1732–5 August 1792), more often known by his courtesy title, Lord North, was Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782. North also had a major part in the American Revolution.

Titles from birth to death 
The Hon. Frederick North (1732-1752)
Lord North (1752-1754)
Lord North, MP (1754-1766)
The Rt. Hon. Lord North, MP (1766-1772)
The Rt. Hon. Lord North, KG, MP (1772-1790)
The Rt. Hon. Lord North, KG (1790)
The Rt. Hon. The Earl of Guilford, KG, PC (1790-1792)

1732 births
1792 deaths
British Earls
Knights of the Garter
Politicians from London
Flyweight

In boxing, the term flyweight is used for a specific group of people based on weight. A flyweight is a boxer weighing above 49 kg (108 lb) and up to 52 kg (112 lb). Boxing organizations created many divisions so that fighters could fight people of the same size. Most divisions only separate each other by few lbs.

Professional boxing
The flyweight division was the last of boxing's eight traditional weight classes. Before 1909, anyone below featherweight was considered a bantamweight. In 1911, the organization that eventually became the British Boxing Board of Control held a match that crowned Sid Smith as the first flyweight champion of the world. Jimmy Wilde, who reigned from 1914 to 1923, was the first boxer recognized both in Britain and the United States as a flyweight champion.

Other notable flyweights include Pancho Villa, Walter McGowan, Pascual Pérez, Pone Kingpetch, Fighting Harada, Masao Ohba, Chartchai Chionoi, Efren Torres, Erbito Salavarria, Miguel Canto, Dave McAuley, Charlie Magri, Gabriel Bernal, Santos Laciar, Sot Chitalada, Yong-Kang Kim, Yuri Arbachakov, Danny Romero, Mark "Too Sharp" Johnson, Manny Pacquiao, Jorge Arce, Vic Darchinyan, Nonito Donaire and Pongsaklek Wonjongkam.

References

Boxing
Newtonian telescope

A Newtonian telescope is a type of telescope that was invented by the English scientist Sir Isaac Newton. The telescope sends an image to the back of the tube and then reflects it off an angled mirror back up the tube. The image then goes into an eyepiece and into the person's eye. The eyepiece uses one or more lenses that are used to make the image larger.

Early Newtonian telescopes were made for real science work. Now, "newtonians" are mostly used by amateur astronomers. The most popular type is the Dobsonian telescope, which is on a simple rockerbox mount. People like them because they are cheap to make and easy to use.

References 
 Smith, Warren J., Modern Optical Engineering, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1966, p. 400.

Telescopes
Project management

Project management is the way a person organizes and manages resources that are necessary to complete a project. People that manage projects are known as Project Managers. 

A project is a piece of work which is not a process or an operation. It has a start, an end, and goals. Projects can be very simple, like organising a party, or very complex, like building a space rocket.  

Projects are common in the construction industry, the telecommunications industry and the IT industry.  

The management of a project requires special skills.  

Project managers must ensure that the project is delivered within the existing limitations. These limitations can be time, cost, people, risk, and many more. Project managers must also ensure the best possible distribution of resources. 

A project manager works mainly with people. They need to have people management skills, a good understanding of the tasks and skills needed on a project, an understanding of how long tasks will take, good organising skills, good communication skills, and good efficiency skills.

Project managers do not need to know how to do all of the work that may be needed in a project. For instance, a building project manager does not need to know how to pour concrete. However, they need to know how to manage people that pour concrete, and they need to know how long concrete takes to pour, how much it costs, what needs to happen before concrete is poured, and what needs to happen after concrete is poured.

References

Other websites 

History of Project Management

Business
Management
Vitré

Vitré is a city in the east of Brittany, France. Its name in the Breton language is  and Gallo is Vitræ. It has about 18,000 people. There are medieval streets, castles, churches, chapels and parks. It is a good example for a city of the Middle Ages.

Gallery

Other websites 

 Town Hall and information about Vitré 
 Country of Vitré
 Vitré travel information at Wikivoyage

Communes in Ille-et-Vilaine
Shiver me timbers

Shiver me timbers is an expression of disbelief that was mostly used by pirates. Originally, the phrase was Shiver my timbers.

Phrases
Carcharodontosaurus

Carcharodontosaurus was a giant carnivorous dinosaur of the Cretaceous period, 100–93 million years ago. It was about 13 meters long and had a weight of about six tons. Fossils of Carcharodontosaurus were found in Africa.

Carcharodontosaurus was closely related to the slightly larger Giganotosaurus, its cousin from Argentina; they are both carcharodontosaurid carnosaurs. Recent discoveries of Carcharodontosaurus put its adult length at 39 – 44 feet, making it the largest carnivorous dinosaur in Africa, after Spinosaurus.

Only two Carcharodontosaurus fossils have been found. Two teeth were found in the 1920s. Other parts were found in Egypt in the 1930s. They were destroyed in bombing raids on Munich in World War II while they were on display.

A skull was uncovered in 1996: its length estimates were larger than the older ones and so was its skull, which measured 5.2 feet or 1.6 metres. Its jaws are narrow like those of Giganotosaurus. Its teeth were up to 7 inches long.

Notes 

Dinosaurs of Africa
Cretaceous dinosaurs
Carnosaurs
Nastika

Astika (Sanskrit: : "orthodox")  and Nastika: ("heterodox") are technical terms in Hinduism used to classify philosophical schools and persons, according to whether they accept the authority of the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta  are classified as astika schools; while Charvaka, Jainism and Buddhism are considered nastika schools.

In non-technical usage, the term astika is sometimes loosely translated as "theist" while nastika is translated as "atheist".   However this interpretation is distinct from the use of the term in Hindu philosophy. Notably even among the astika schools, samkhya<ref>"By Sāṃkhya reasoning, the material principle itself simply evolves into complex forms, and there is no need to hold that some spiritual power governs the material principle or its ultimate source."  Francis Clooney, CJ, "Restoring 'Hindu Theology' as a category in Indian intellectual discourse", in  "Blackwell companion to Hinduism", Flood, Gavin (Ed.) Blackwell Publishing, 2003. </ref> and the early mimamsa school do not accept a God (see Atheism in Hinduism) while accepting the authority of the Vedas; they thus are "atheistic astika schools".

The three main heterodox schools of Indian philosophy do not base their beliefs on Vedic authority:

 Buddhism
 Jainism
 Charvaka

The use of the term nastika to describe Buddhism and Jainism in India is explained by Gavin Flood as follows:
At an early period, during the formation of the Upanişads and the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, we must envisage a common heritage of meditation and mental discipline practiced by renouncers with varying affiliations to non-orthodox (Veda-rejecting) and orthodox (Veda-accepting) traditions.... These schools [such as Buddhism and Jainism] are understandably regarded as heterodox (nāstika) by orthodox (āstika) Brahmanism.

The Tantric traditions in Hinduism, have both astika and nastika lines; as   Banerji writes in "Tantra in Bengal":

Tantras are ... also divided as āstika or Vedic and nāstika or non-Vedic.  In accordance with the predominance of the deity the āstika works are again divided as Śākta, Śaiva, Saura, Gāṇapatya and Vaiṣṇava.

 Related pages 
 Hindu philosophy

 Notes 

 References 
 
 Flood, Gavin (Ed.), "Blackwell companion to Hinduism", Blackwell Publishing, 2003. 
 Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy''. Princeton University Press; 1957. Princeton paperback 12th edition, 1989. .

Hinduism
Philosophy
Cinnamomum

Cinnamomum is a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs. All of them belong to the same family as the laurel, Laurelaceae. The species in the genus have aromatic oils in their leaves and bark. There are over 300 species in the genus. They can be found in the tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas, Oceania, Asia and Australasia.  

Well-known Cinnamomum species include Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum,  also known as "true cinnamon" or Ceylon Cinnamon); Cassia (C. aromaticum or C. cassia), Camphor laurel (C. camphora), Saigon cinnamon (C. loureiroi, also known as Vietnamese cinnamon, Vietnamese cassia, or Saigon cassia), Malabathrum (C. tamala, also known as C. tejpata; tejpat or tej pat in Hindi; or, inaccurately, "Indian bay leaf").

Lauraceae
London Stock Exchange

The London Stock Exchange (LSE) is a stock exchange in London, England. It is the biggest stock exchange in the Europe and third largest in the world.
It is the home of the FTSE 100 Index, as well as others.
The Exchange was opened in 1801 by Queen Elizabeth I.
There are currently 2,938 companies from over 60 countries listed on the London Stock Exchange. The total value of these companies is £3.9 trillion.

References

Stock exchanges in Europe
The 4400

The 4400 was a science fiction television series. The series ran from 2004 to 2007.

The story 
"The 4400" is a reference to 4400 people who disappeared mysteriously over the last century. These people all returned near Seattle, Washington at the same time from a large ball of light. They had not gotten older. After a short time, each person that came back started showing some special abilities, for example: healing, precognition (seeing the future), and persuasion.

Characters 

 Tom Baldwin — Joel Gretsch
 Diana Skouris — Jacqueline McKenzie
 Richard Tyler — Mahershalalhashbaz Ali
 Lily Moore Tyler — Laura Allen
 Shawn Farrell — Patrick Flueger
 Isabelle Tyler — Megalyn Echikunwoke
 Maia Skouris — Conchita Campbell
 Nina Jarvis — Samantha Ferris
 Alana Mareva — Karina Lombard
 Dennis Ryland — Peter Coyote
 Jordan Collier — Billy Campbell

 Recurring
 Kyle Baldwin — Chad Faust
 Danny Farrell — Kaj-Erik Eriksen
 Nikki Hudson — Brooke Nevin
 April Skouris — Natasha Gregson Wagner
 Kevin Burkhoff — Jeffrey Combs
 Matthew Ross — Garret Dillahunt
 Marco Pacella — Richard Kahan
 Tess Doerner - Summer Glau

Science fiction television series
English-language television programs
Foyle's War

Foyle's War is a British detective drama television show. It started on 27 October 2002 and ended on 18 January 2015. The show is set during and after World War II.

On 12 January 2015, it was announced by ITV that they would not commission any more episodes because of how much production costs and their intention to air original drama commissions. The last episode of the series aired on 18 January 2015.

References

Other websites

2002 British television series debuts
British drama television series
Police television series
ITV television programmes
English-language television programs
Giant anteater

The giant anteater, Myrmecophaga, is an animal that lives in Central and South America.It is also known as the ant bear 

It the only mammal without teeth. Its diet consists of termites and ants, hence the name. It is the largest anteater: its length is between 182 cm and 217 cm. Males weigh between 33 and 41 kg, female are 27 and 39 kg. This species lives on the ground, in contrast to other living anteaters and sloths which are arboreal or semi-arboreal. It forages in open areas and rests in more forested habitats.

Mode of life 
The giant anteater is adapted to eat termites and ants, and does not have any teeth in its mouth. It uses its front claws to dig them up and its long, sticky tongue to collect them. They eat about 30,000 ants and termites every day.

The tongue can reach up to , longer than the length of the skull, and move in and out around 160 times per minute (nearly three times per second). The anteater's tongue has little to no attachments to the hyoid and this is what allows it to flick its tongue at such distances and speed. The hyoid apparatus is large, V-shaped and flexible and supports the tongue as it goes in and out of the mouth. Before being swallowed, insects are crushed against the palate.

The giant anteater knuckle-walks, meaning its front toes are curled under like a fist when it moves.  It is one of only a few animals other than primates that do this.

Related pages 
 Anteater
 Termite
 Ant

References 

Xenarthrans
Sanctuary (TV series)

Sanctuary is a Canadian science-fiction-fantasy television series.

The show originally started out as a no-cost eight-webisode series and later expanded into a television-based 13-episode season after Syfy decided to buy the rights to it. The show ran for 4 seasons before Syfy said that the show had been cancelled.

References

Other websites
Official website

2008 Canadian television series debuts
2011 television series endings
2000s Canadian television series
2010s Canadian television series
Fantasy television series
Science fiction television series
2011 disestablishments in Canada
William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne

William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne (15 March 1779-24 November 1848) was a Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.

Lamb was elected to Parliament in 1806 as a member of the Whig party.
Lamb served as Irish Secretary in the government.  

Lamb became Lord Melbourne when his father died. His family home was in Melbourne in Derbyshire. Melbourne in Australia is named after William Lamb.  

Melbourne became Home Secretary during Lord Grey's government. Grey resigned in 1834 and Melbourne became Prime Minister.

Melbourne was dismissed by King William IV who wanted the Robert Peel's party.  Melbourne came back when the Whigs won the next election.  

Melbourne was Prime Minister when Queen Victoria became queen.  He helped her learn about how the government worked.  

Melbourne helped to reduce the number of people killed for doing crimes.  Melbourne also made changes to local government.

Melbourne resigned in 1841, and died on 24 November 1848.

1779 births
1848 deaths
Irish Viscounts
United Kingdom Barons
Signal (biology)

A signal in biology is any kind of coded message sent from one organism to another, or from one place in an organism to another place.

Vocal calls
Some social behaviours
Chemical signals 
inside organisms
nerve transmission
hormones
inside cells
between organisms

In biology, especially in electrophysiology, a signal or biopotential is an electric quantity (voltage or current or field strength), that is caused by chemical reactions of charged ions. Biological signals can also be seen as an example of signal (electrical engineering).

Another use of the term lies in the transfer of information between and within cells, as in signal transduction.

Related pages
 Signal transduction

Physiology
Ethology
Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury

Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury KG GCVO PC FRS (3 February 1830 - 22 August 1903) was a Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He was known as Lord Robert Cecil before 1865 and as Viscount Cranborne from 1865 until 1868.

Salisbury served as Prime Minister three times for a total of over thirteen years. When Prime Minister, he acted as his own Foreign Minister.

Lord Cecil was elected to Parliament in 1853 as a member of the Conservative Party. In 1866 (now called Viscount Cranborne), he served as Secretary of State for India under Prime Minister Lord Derby. Cranborne resigned, but he would return to government in 1874, now as the Marquess of Salisbury. Salisbury was again Secretary of State for India under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli. In 1878, Salisbury became Foreign Secretary in the Disraeli government.

Salisbury became the Conservative Party leader. Salisbury first served as Prime Minister from 23 June 1885, to 28 January 1886. His first government did not last long as the Conservatives did not have full control.

Salisbury became Prime Minister again on 25 July 1886, with a majority. He would be in office until 11 August 1892. His third time as Prime Minister was from 25 June 1895, until 11 July 1902.

Two issues dominated his time as Prime Minister. One was the struggle between European powers seizing parts of Africa, the so-called "Scramble for Africa". The United Kingdom fought the Second Boer War while Salisbury was Prime Minister.

The other was Ireland, the rise of Irish nationalism amongst Catholics in Ireland. This was backed by his great opponent, Gladstone, leader of the Liberal Party and also three times Prime Minister.

Salisbury helped establish the London County Council. Salisbury built up the Royal Navy. Africa was divided up into colonies. 

Salisbury resigned on 11 July 1902. He died on 22 August 1903. The great issues that had divided the country in his time (colonialism, Ireland and Africa) would last in British politics for most of the next century. The one great issue that was not appreciated at the time was the rise of militant German nationalism, which would in the next century lead to two World Wars. Throughout his career Salisbury wrote articles for the Quarterly Review, which have now been edited and published.

References 

1830 births
1903 deaths
British Marquesses
Politicians from Hertfordshire
Electrophysiology

Electrophysiology is the study of the electrical properties of biological cells and tissues. It involves measurements of voltage change or electrical current flow on a wide variety of scales from single ion channel proteins, to whole tissues like the heart. In neuroscience, it includes measurements of the electrical activity of neurons, and particularly action potential activity.

Definition and scope

Classical electrophysiologic techniques 
Classical electrophysiology involves placing electrodes into various preparations of biologic tissue. The principle types of electrodes are: 1) simple solid conductors, such as discs and needles (singles or arrays), 2) tracings on a printed circuit boards, and 3) hollow tubes filled with an electrolyte, such as glass pippettes. The principal preparations include 1) living organisms, 2) excised tissue (acute or cultured), 3) dissociated cells from excised tissue (acute or cultured), 4) artificially grown cells or tissues, or 5) hybrids of the above.

If an electrode is small enough in diameter (on the order of microns), then the electrophysiologist may choose to insert the tip into a single cell. 

Many particular electrophysiological readings have specific names:
 Electrocardiography - for the heart
 Electroencephalography - for the brain
 Electrocorticography - from the cerebral cortex
 Electromyography - for the muscles
 Electrooculography - for the eyes
 Electroretinography - for the retina
 Electroantennography - for the olfactory receptors in arthropods

Other websites 
EP Lab Digest - Trade Publication for EP Professionals 

Physiology
Medical imaging
Ion channel

An ion channel is a pore-forming protein that helps to establish and control the small voltage gradient across the plasma membrane of all living cells (see resting potential) by allowing the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient. They are present in the membranes that surround all biological cells.

An ion channel is an integral membrane protein or more typically an assembly of several proteins.

The 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Peter Agre and Roderick MacKinnon for their discovery of ion channels.

References

Notes

 Bertil Hille: Ion channels of excitable membranes, 3rd ed., Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA (2001).

Other websites 
An Interview with Roderick MacKinnon Freeview video by the Vega Science Trust.
The Voltage Sensor in Voltage-Dependent Ion Channels
X-ray crystal structure of a potassium channel 
Neuromuscular Disease Center at Washington University
Nobel Prize Press Release
 International Union of Pharmacologists, Ion channel compendium

Biochemistry
Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth

Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth, PC (30 May 1757–15 February 1844) was a British statesman. He was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1801 to 1804.

His father was a physician specialising in the treatment of mental illness.  His father was one of George III's doctors and this resulted in Addington  being known (in no friendly spirit) as "The Doctor".  Before becoming Prime Minister he had been Speaker of the House of Commons.

He tried but failed to negotiate a lasting peace with Napoleon's France.

He was not well regarded as Prime Minister and his capabilities were summed up in the rhyme: "Pitt is to Addington as London is to Paddington".  As Viscount Sidmouth, he was a very reactionary Home Secretary in the Government of the Earl of Liverpool but he was eventually persuaded to retire in favour of Sir Robert Peel.

1757 births
1844 deaths

British Viscounts
Politicians from London
Legislative speakers
Chancellors of the Exchequer
Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton

Augustus Henry FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton, KG, PC (28 September 1735–14 March 1811) was a British Whig statesman. He was one of a handful of dukes who were Prime Minister of Great Britain.

Education 
He studied at Westminster School and then got a degree from Peterhouse College in Cambridge.

Titles from birth to death 
Mr. Augustus FitzRoy (1735-1747)
Earl of Euston (1747-1756)
Earl of Euston, MP (1756-1757)
His Grace The Duke of Grafton (1757-1765)
His Grace The Duke of Grafton, PC (1765-1769)
His Grace The Duke of Grafton, KG, PC (1769-1811)

1735 births
1811 deaths
English Dukes
Knights of the Garter
Politicians from Suffolk
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
William Wyndham Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville

William Wyndham Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville PC (25 October 1759–12 January 1834), was a British Whig statesman and Prime Minister. Grenville was the son of Prime Minister George Grenville.  

He was educated at Eton College, Christ Church, Oxford and Lincoln's Inn.

References 

1759 births
1834 deaths
Alumni of the University of Oxford
British Barons
People educated at Eton College
Politicians from Buckinghamshire
Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool

Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool (7 June 1770–4 December 1828) was an English politician and the longest serving Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (Robert Walpole held office for longer, but only as Prime Minister of Great Britain) During his time as Prime Minister from 1812 to 1827, Liverpool became known for the harsh rules he put in place to restore order, but he also led the country through the bad period that followed the Napoleonic Wars. Important events during his time as Prime Minister included the Congress of Vienna, the Corn Laws, Catholic emancipation and the Peterloo Massacre.

Titles 
 Robert Jenkinson (1770 - c. 1786)
 Baron Hawkesbury (c. 1786 - 1796)
 Lord Hawkesbury (1796 - 1808)
 2nd Earl of Liverpool (1808 - 1828)

References 

1770 births
1828 deaths
British Earls
Politicians from London
Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich

Frederick John Robinson, 1st Earl of Ripon PC (1 November 1782–28 January 1859) was a British statesman and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (when he was known as Lord Goderich).

Titles 
Frederick John Robinson (1782 - 1827)
The Viscount Goderich (1827 -1833)
The Earl of Ripon ( 1833 - 1859)

1782 births
1859 deaths
British Earls
British Viscounts
Politicians from London