cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Pineal gland

The pineal gland is a small endocrine gland in the middle of the brain of humans and other vertebrates. It makes and releases the hormone named melatonin.

There is almost no melatonin in the blood in the daytime. At the end of the day, melatonin in the blood allows sleepiness in humans and other animals which sleep at night. There is melatonin in the blood all night, while the person or animal is sleeping. In the morning, there is less and less melatonin in the blood. When light enters the eyes, the melatonin of the blood goes away.

Some people have circadian rhythm sleep disorders which make them sleepy much earlier or much later than normal. The most common one is Delayed Sleep-Phase Disorder (DSPD, or Delayed Sleep-Phase Syndrome, DSPS). People with DSPD usually go to bed at 3 in the morning or later but they sleep normally for at least eight hours.

References 

 Eakin R.M 1973. The third eye. Berkeley: University of California Press.
 Guyton A.C. & Hall J.E. 2001. Textbook of medical physiology. 10th ed, Saunders.

Sleep
Glands
Hormones
Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid

γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid, commonly shortened to GHB)  is a chemical substance. Small quantities of it can be found in the central nervous system of many animals. It can also be discovered in wine, beef and small citrus fruits. 

In the central nervous system, GHB interacts with other neurotransmitters, such as gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA). 

Many countries have regulated it as an illegal drug, even though it can be used in medicine. It can be used as an anesthetic, and a sedative. In the past it has been used to treat insomnia and depression. It can also help people who have a problem with alcoholism or cataplexy. In patients with narcolepsy it has been used to treat sleepiness during the day. Athletes have used it to make their performance better.

The drug has been used as a recreational drug. This is because it can make a person euphoric. Many countries have made it illegal if it is not used as medicine. Its most common name as an illegal drug is probably liquid Ecstasy. However, ecstasy is a different drug that is unrelated to GHB.

GHB is naturally produced in the human body's cells. Its chemical structure is similar to that of ketone body beta-hydroxybutyrate. As a supplement or drug, it is used most as a salt. GHB is also produced as a result of fermentation. Small amounts of the substance can be found in some beers and wines. 

GHB can cause 'GHB comas'. This is when people faint or become unconscious. This is what causes most deaths.

Use as an illegal drug
GHB is a depressant of the central nervous system. Its effects have been described as similar to those of alcohol or ecstasy. People feel in a good mood. They also lower their inhibitions. If the dose is increased, the symptoms include nausea, drowsiness, breathing problems, amnesia, unconsciousness and death. The effect of GHB lasts between 1.5 and 3 hours, but may be longer. They can be longer if the drug is mixed with alcohol, or a large dosis was taken.

Certain substances called "pro-drugs", are changed to GHB in the stomach. One such drug, is gamma-butyrolactone. Such products are also a problem. Lots of them are used in industrial processes. An example of this are paint strippers. What is fine for use in industry may be bad for humans.

Some street names, especially when mixed with other substances such as amphetamines, can be Soap, Water, Salty water, Blue water, and Grievous Bodily Harm.

References

Drugs
Reichsmark

The Reichsmark (which was shown with the symbol RM) was the currency in Germany from 1924 until June 20, 1948. One Reichsmark was subdivided into 100 Reichspfennig.

Banknotes images

Other websites 
 Coins of the Third Reich

Former currencies of Europe
Economy of Germany
History of Germany
Plum (color)

Plum is a color similar to purple. The name comes from the fruit called a plum.

The first written use of plum as a color name in English was in 1805.

Meaning of plum
 In business, the color plum represents a business deal that is profitable—a plum contract. A plum job is a job that one is assigned to that has a high salary or the job may be a sinecure with good pay but not much work to do. Thus, the color plum represents prosperity.

Tones of plum color comparison chart

Related pages
 List of colors

References
Bánica

The Dominican city of San Francisco de Bánica, or simply Bánica, is a municipality of the Elías Piña province, on the border with Haiti and near the River Artibonite.

Origin of name
The name Bánica comes from the Taíno name of the region, Banique ("land of ebony trees").

Population
The municipality had, in 2010, a total population of 2,112: 1,043 men and 1,069 women. The urban population was  of the total population.

History
The town was founded in 1504 by Diego Velázquez, who later went to conquest the island of Cuba, on the left side of the Artibonite river. It was an important town in those years but later it lost its importance. In the 18th century, the Spanish government moved the city to its present place, away from the river, and brought families from the Canary Islands to live there.

When the Haitian independence, most of the people moved to other places. When the Haitians occupied the eastern part of the island (the present Dominican Republic), they founded again the town as part of the Artibonite department.

After the Dominican Independence in 1844, the town was made a municipality of the Azua province. But again the town was abandoned by its inhabitants. After the "Restoration War" (1863 - 1865), some families from other towns near the Haitian border came to live in Bánica.

Bánica was made a municipality of the San Juan province in 1938 and then, in 1942, of the new province of Elías Piña.

Geography

Bánica is at  to the west of Santo Domingo and  to the northeast of Comendador.

The limits of the municipality are the municipality of Pedro Santana to the north, the San Juan province to the east, the municipality of Comendador to the south and Haiti to the west.

The average daily temperature in the city is 25.4 °C.

Administrative division
The municipality of Bánica has two municipal districts; these are:

Economy
The main economic activity of the municipality is farming. Commerce with Haiti is also an important economic activity in the city.

Places of interest
 Iglesia de San Francisco de Asís (Saint Francis of Assisi Church). It is a very interesting colonial Catholic church. It is not known when it was built but in 1740 the Bishop Domingo Pantaleón Álvarez Abréu wrote that in Bánica "there is a new church".
 Reloj de sol (Sundial). In one of his faces there is a date, "1795", that could be the date when it was built. There were only two sundials in the old Spanish colony: one in Santo Domingo and another in Bánica.
 Cerro de San Francisco (Saint Francis Hill). It is a rocky hill at  from the city. Here there is a cave visited by many people to pray to Saint Francis; they get wet with water that falls from the top of the cave and they put limestone dust in their faces so when they get back to town they are identified by their white faces. The hill is protected by law because here there is the only wild population of Pereskia marcanoi, a cactus with leaves and beautiful small purple flowers; its common name is Rosa de Bánica ("Bánica Rose").

References 

Settlements in the Dominican Republic
1504 establishments in the Spanish Empire
Quillaja saponaria

{{Taxobox
| name = Soap bark tree
| image = Quillaja 608.JPG 
| regnum = Plantae
| divisio = Magnoliophyta
| classis = Magnoliopsida
| ordo = Fabales
| familia = Quillajaceae<ref name="V Tech">APG II 2003 listing  notes that Quillajaceae is a part of the order Fabales and no longer a part of the family Rosaceae (order Rosales)</ref>
| genus = Quillaja| species = Q. saponaria| binomial = Quillaja saponaria| binomial_authority = Molina
}}
Soap bark tree (Quillaja saponaria) is a tree of the family Quillajaceae''. In commerce, it is known as Panama wood. The tree grows naturally from warm temperate central Chile north to Bolivia and Peru. It can grow to  to  high. The Soap bark tree gets its name because the inner bark can be made into a powder which can be used as soap. Its compounds are also used as foam in beer and other drinks. The tree also has medicinal uses.

Morphology
Quillay is an evergreen tree, with grey bark. Alternate leaves, glaber, acute apex and obtuse base, bright green, near entire margins with 4-8 teeth. Flowers light green or white, hermaphrodite, pentamer, radiate. Five petals, 5 sepals, 10 stamens and 5 pistils. Fruit: a star-shape capsule, with winged seeds.

References

Rosaceae
Clarence E. Anderson

Clarence E. "Bud" Anderson (b. January 13, 1922 in Oakland, California) was a fighter pilot in the United States Air Force. He joined the Air Force in 1942. During World War II, he flew a P-51 Mustang named "Old Crow". He had 16 kills, and was a triple ace. At the end of World War II, he was a captain. He flew an F-105 Thunderchief in the Vietnam War. He retired from the Air Force in 1972. He was also a test pilot.

1922 births
Living people
American military people
United States Air Force
People from Oakland, California
Wild Weasel

A Wild Weasel is a nickname for an aircraft in the United States Air Force that is supposed to destroy enemy anti-aircraft guns, surface-to-air missiles, and other ground attack weapons by seeking them out with radar and destroying them with missiles.

History 

The idea was first thought of in 1965 during the Vietnam War, because North Vietnamese surface-to-air missiles, or "SAMs" were destroying American aircraft. The first Wild Weasel airplane was the F-100 Super Sabre, a variant of the F-86 Sabre. In 1966, the F-105 Thunderchief took the job.

After that, a new kind of F-4 Phantom IIs, the "G" model was used as a Wild Weasel. During the Gulf War of 1991, Wild Weasel missions were done by the F4-G  and not theF-16 Fighting Falcon, a light fighter-bomber that can also battle enemy fighter aircraft. Currently, the F-16CJ does this. They were being used in the Iraq War.

Weapons used 
In the Vietnam War, the main missile used by Wild Weasels was the AGM-45 Shrike. Currently, some of the weapons used by the Wild Weasel planes includes the AGM-88 HARM and the AGM-65 Maverick air-to-ground missiles. They can also have ALQ-131 and ALQ-184 pods that can mess up enemy radar.

References 

United States Air Force
Vietnam War aircraft
United States military aircraft
Republic F-105 Thunderchief

The F-105 Thunderchief was a bomber during the Vietnam War. It first flew in 1955, and was introduced in 1958. It was used as a bomber, but was later replaced by the F-4 Phantom II and the F-111 Raven. But it was still in service for a while as a Wild Weasel. It could carry an electronic counter-measures pod that could mess up the enemy radar.

United States Air Force aircraft
Vietnam War aircraft
Labour Co-operative

Labour Co-operative or Labour and Co-operative is the name used in the United Kingdom to describe politicians who are elected as members of the Co-operative Party.

The electoral agreement between the Labour Party and the Co-operative Party says that the Co-operative Party candidates must be members of the Labour Party as well.

Labour Party (UK)
Co-operative movement
Heraldic badge

A heraldic badge is not a part of an armiger's achievement of arms, but it is granted by the same body.

The badge is designed to be used by the supporters of an armiger.  A mediaeval knight would be granted arms by letter patent, but his supporters or followers would not be allowed to display that achievement, instead they would use a badge to help identify themselves to each other and to other people.

Today, many English towns and cities have an achievement of arms.  Usually the mayor and council are the only ones allowed to used the full coat of arms.  The departments of the council use a badge, and it is the badge which is painted on council vehicles etc. to identify them.

Badges, like the arms, can only be used with the permission of the person to whom they were granted.

The "Prince of Wales's Feathers" is the badge of the heir apparent of the British monarch.  The badge is used because the coats of arms of the prince and the monarch are very similar.

Heraldry
Postal code

A Postal code is a series of numbers or letters and numbers used by a post office to help identify where a letter or parcel should be sent.
The code can be read by machines, this speeds up sorting mail.

In the United Kingdom the first part of the post code has one or two letters and one or two numbers. This identifies the post town and an area in the post town. The second part is used to identify an even smaller area, down to just one street or a few house in a long street.

The post town is the main town in an area. Sometimes this is a lot bigger than the real town. Ipswich, for example is the post town for most of east Suffolk.

In Europe most postal codes are all numbers. Often the one or two letter country code is put in front of the code to make sure that towns and cities are not mixed up, or for international post.

In France the first two numbers of the postal code relate to the department. Codes for Monaco start with 98 as if it was part of France, but has the letters "MC" instead of "F" for international mail.

Related pages
ZIP code
 Postal codes in the United Kingdom

Postal service
Les Six

Les Six (pronounced "Le sees") is French for "The Six". Les Six were a group of six French composers who were friends around the year 1920. They were young at the time, and they shared a lot of ideas about music. The composer Erik Satie called them "Les Nouveaux Jeunes", but then a man called Henri Collet called them "Les Six" in an article he was writing, and that name was always used for them after that.

In their music they tried to be different from Richard Wagner and other composers of Romantic music, and different from Debussy and Ravel who had been writing Impressionistic music. They also wanted to write in a simple way instead of using complicated rhythms such as those of Stravinsky or twelve tone music like Arnold Schoenberg. Many of their pieces were quite short. They liked strong, masculine music, especially jazz. 

The six composers did not stay together for very long as they soon developed their own personal styles in their compositions.

Members 

 Georges Auric (1899–1983) wrote lots of rhythmic music which had lots of energy. He wrote music for movies.
 Louis Durey (1888–1979) did not want to follow fashion. He used traditional ways of composing and wrote in his own, personal way.
 Arthur Honegger (1882–1955) liked chamber music and the symphony. His popular piece Pacific 231 describes a train journey on the Canadian Pacific Railway.
 Darius Milhaud (1892–1974) was a very talented composer who wrote in several different styles. Some of his music uses bitonality and polytonality (writing in two or more keys at the same time. His love of jazz can be heard in popular pieces like Le Boeuf sur le Toit which he called a cinema-symphony.
 Francis Poulenc (1899–1963) was the most famous of the six composers. He continued to write in a style which was similar to the music of the 1920s. Many of his pieces are often performed today, e.g. Gloria, his ballet Les Biches, some of his chamber music and many songs.
 Germaine Tailleferre (1892–1983) was the only female in the group. She liked to use dance rhythms. She was the only member of Les Six to earn diplomas from the Paris Conservatory. She loved children and animals and wrote many works about them. She also wrote operas, concertos, and many works for the piano.

After 1920 

It was really only in 1920 that all six composers were together. They had all been inspired by Jean Cocteau and Eric Satie. By 1921 Louis Durey had already left the group. Les Six continued to be associated with the style of French music from around the 1920s. They still remained friends, and used to visit a bar known as "La Gaya" which became Le Boeuf sur le Toit (The Ox on the Roof): the title of Milhaud's ballet. The group published an album of piano pieces together called "Album des Six". Five of the members worked together on the music for Cocteau's work Les Mariés de la Tour Eiffel 

The name "The Six" was a reference to the group of Russian composers who had been known as "The Five".

French composers
Georges Auric

Georges Auric (born Lodève, France, 15 February 1899; died Paris 23 July 1983) was a French composer.  He was one of the six composers who became known as Les Six.

Childhood
Auric was a child prodigy.  He composed a lot of music from the age of 10, but most of these early works he destroyed later. He grew up in Montpellier.  In 1913, his parents moved to Paris so that he could study at the Paris Conservatoire. He studied with the composer Vincent D'Indy at the Schola Cantorum.

By the time he had joined Les Six he had already become a composer with a strong, personal style of writing. His music is often energetic and aggressive.

Works
Auric wrote ballet music for Diaghilev.  When Jean Cocteau started making motion pictures at the beginning of the 1930s Auric began writing film music. He wrote soundtracks for a number of French and British films, and then for Hollywood movies, too.  The Song from Moulin Rouge made it to the hit parade.

In 1962, he gave up writing for moving pictures when he became director of the Opéra National de Paris and then chairman of SACEM, the French Performing Rights Society. Auric continued to write classical chamber music, especially for wind instruments, for the rest of his life.

1899 births
1983 deaths
20th-century French composers
People from Montpellier
The Left (Germany)

The Left (), sometimes called the Left Party (), is a political party in Germany. It is a democratic socialist political party in Germany. It is considered to be left-wing populist by some researchers. The party is the direct descendant of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). It was formed on 16 June 2007, when The Left Party.PDS joined with WASG to form a unified party. The Left is a founding member of the Party of the European Left. It is also the largest party in the European United Left–Nordic Green Left (GUE/NGL) group in the European Parliament.

According to official party figures, the Left Party had 60,350 registered members as of December 2020. It is the fifth-largest party in Germany.

The party participates in governments in many states including Brandenburg, Thuringia, and Berlin. The Left parliamentarian Bodo Ramelow is the Minister-President of Thuringia.

While the PDS was considered by German authorities as extremist, the WASG was not considered extremist. The party is the most left-wing party of the six represented parties in the Bundestag. It has been called far-left by some news outlets. The German Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (Verfassungschutz) states that the party is not regarded as extremely left or a threat to democracy. However, it does monitor some of its internal factions, such as Socialist Left.

Related pages
 Electoral Alternative for Labour and Social Justice / WASG

References

Other websites 

 Official Website of Die Linke 
 The European Left site

2007 establishments in Germany
Berlin
Socialism
Louis Durey

Louis Durey (born Paris, 27 May 1888; died Saint-Tropez, France, 3 July 1979) was a French composer.  He was the oldest, but probably the least well-known of the six composers who are called Les Six.

Birth
Louis Durey was the son of a businessman.  He had no idea that he wanted to be a composer until he heard the opera Pélléas et Mélisande by Claude Debussy.  He was then already 19 years old. He taught himself how to compose.

Works
Durey became a member of the group called Les Six in 1920. However, he did not take part in the music they wrote together in 1921 called Les Mariés de la Tour Eiffel.  This made Jean Cocteau very annoyed. 

Durey became interested in left-wing politics and later joined the Communist Party.  During the years of the Nazi occupation of World War II, he worked with the French Resistance and wrote anti-Fascist songs. After the war he had strong Communist ideas.  This made it difficult for him to be successful in the world of music.
In 1950 he got the job of music critic for a communist newspaper in Paris.

He wrote a lot of music during his life, but there were many years when he wrote nothing.  He composed songs, chamber music and choral works.

Louis Durey died at Saint-Tropez, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France.

1888 births
1979 deaths

20th-century French composers
Arthur Honegger

Arthur Honegger (10 March 1892 - 27 November 1955) was a Swiss composer, who was born in Le Havre, France and lived a large part of his life in Paris. He was a member of the group of composers called Les Six. His most popular piece of music is an orchestral work called Pacific 231, which imitates the sound of a steam locomotive.

His full name was Oscar-Arthur Honegger, but his first name was never used. He studied harmony and violin in Paris until his parents moved to Zürich, Switzerland, when he studied at the Conservatory there. He then went back to Paris to study with Charles-Marie Widor and Vincent d'Indy. He wrote a ballet Le dit des jeux du monde in 1918. In 1926 he married Andrée Vaurabourg, a pianist and fellow student at the Paris Conservatoire. They often went on tour together, and his wife played the piano parts to his compositions. The couple had one daughter, Pascale, born in 1932. Honegger also had a son, Jean-Claude (1926-2003) whose mother was the singer Claire Croiza.

In the early 1920s Honegger became famous with the "dramatic psalm" "Le Roi David" ("King David"), which is still often sung by choirs. He wrote a lot of music between the wars, including the oratorio Jeanne d'Arc au bûcher, one of his best works. It tells the story of Joan of Arc.

During World War II Honegger could not leave Paris. He joined the French Resistance. He continued to write very serious music, including four symphonies (numbers 2-5) and some religious music.

Honegger loved trains. As a student he had spent some time travelling to Paris twice a week by train from Le Havre. His popular orchestral work Pacific 231 describes a train on the Canadian Pacific Railway. It was an early piece, written in 1923. 

In 1947 Honegger suffered a severe heart attack, and after that he composed little. A second heart attack caused his death eight years later in Paris. 

Honegger's music is different to that of the other members of Les Six, partly because Honegger liked the Romantic music of Wagner, Strauss and Reger. His music is tonal but with numerous strong dissonances. His musical style was also influenced by the music of Bach.

1892 births
1955 deaths
20th-century composers
Cardiovascular disease deaths in France
Deaths from myocardial infarction
People from Le Havre
Swiss composers
Darius Milhaud

Darius Milhaud (pronounced "DAR-yus MEE-oh") (born Marseille, 4 September 1892; died Geneva 22 June 1974) was a French composer. He was a member of the group called Les Six. He is one of the most important French composers of the 20th century. He wrote more than 400 compositions. His music is often influenced by jazz and polytonality (music in more than one key at once).

Life 

Milhaud's family were Jewish. He grew up in Aix-en-Provence. His father was an almond dealer. When he was very small he often listened to the songs that were being sung by the women who were sorting out the nuts. They were folksongs from the Provence. When he was a young man he liked to go for walks in the Provence country. This was an important part of his life.

Milhaud's parents liked music. His father was a pianist and often played at local music gatherings. His mother had a nice contralto voice. When he was seven he learned to play the violin. He loved the music of Claude Debussy, whom he met once. 

Milhaud studied in Paris at the Paris Conservatory where he met Arthur Honegger and Germaine Tailleferre who were also to become members of Les Six. He studied composition under Charles-Marie Widor and harmony and counterpoint with André Gédalge. He also studied privately with Vincent d'Indy. He taught himself to play the piano. In Paris he was able to listen to music by a lot of great composers.

He was terribly sad when a close friend was killed in World War I. He decided to go to Brazil. He worked there for nearly two years, deciphering codes. He liked the sounds of the jungle. These sounds were to have an impact on his music. The other great influence was jazz, which he heard in 1922 in New York.

Milhaud returned to France and worked very hard. He often travelled. In 1940 he had to emigrate to the United States because the Nazis were arresting Jewish musicians. In America he gave lectures.

His health became poor. He had rheumatoid arthritis for nearly all his adult life, and by 1948 he was in a wheelchair. He still continued to travel, and to teach, for as long as possible. Probably his most famous student was Dave Brubeck.

In 1925 Milhaud married his cousin, an actress called Madeleine Milhaud. She often performed speaking parts in her husband's musical works. In his final years, she devoted herself to looking after him. She died in Paris on 17 January 2008 at the age of 105.

His works 

Milhaud's most popular works include Le Boeuf sur le Toit (ballet), La création du monde (a ballet for small orchestra with solo saxophone, influenced by jazz), Scaramouche (for Saxophone and Orchestra, also for two pianos), and Saudades do Brazil (dance suite). His autobiography is called Notes Sans Musique (Notes Without Music), later rewritten as Ma Vie Heureuse (My Happy Life).

References 
 Groves Dictionary online 

1892 births
1974 deaths

20th-century French composers
Autobiographers
Aix-en-Provence
Saône

The Saône is a river in eastern France. It is a right tributary of the Rhône river. It starts in the Vosges department amd joins the Rhône in the city of Lyon.

Two French departments has the name of the river in their names: Haute-Saône and Saône-et-Loire, both in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.

Geography
The Saône river has a length of  and a drainage basin with an area of . 

Its average yearly discharge (volume of water which passes through a section of the river per unit of time) is  at Couzon-au-Mont-d'Or in the Metropolitan Lyon.

Average monthly discharge (m3/s) at Couzon-au-Mont-d'Or (13 years)

Course
The Saône river starts  in the commune of Vioménil in the Vosges department, at an altitude of about . The river flows in general to the south-southwest.

The Saône river flows through the 3 regions and 6 departments. It flows through the following communes, among others:
 Grand Est region
 Vosges department: Darney, Monthureux-sur-Saône, Châtillon-sur-Saône.
 Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region
 Haute-Saône: Jonvelle, Corre, Jussey, Port-sur-Saône, Scey-sur-Saône, Gray;
 Côte-d'Or: Auxonne, Saint-Jean-de-Losne, Seurre;
 Saône-et-Loire: Verdun-sur-le-Doubs, Chalon-sur-Saône, Tournus, Mâcon, Crêches-sur-Saône.
 Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region
 Ain: Thoissey, Jassans-Riottier, Trévoux;
 Rhône: Belleville-sur-Saône, Villefranche-sur-Saône, Anse;
 Metropolitan Lyon: Neuville-sur-Saône, Fontaines-sur-Saône, Caluire-et-Cuire, Lyon, La Mulatière.

The Saône river flows into the Rhône river as a right tributary in the city of Lyon.

Main tributaries 
The main tributaries, over 40 km long,  of the Saône river are:

Left tributaries:
 Côney - 55.2 km
 Lanterne - 64.3 km
 Durgeon - 42.4 km
 Ognon - 213.6 km
 Doubs - 452.8 km
 Seille - 100 km
 Reyssouze - 75.1 km
 Veyle - 66.8 km
 Chalaronne - 52.3 km

Right tributaries:
 Amance - 46.3 km
 Salon - 71.6 km
 Vingeanne - 93.3 km 
 Tille - 82.7 km
 Ouche - 95.4 km
 Dheune - 66.7
 Grosne - 95.6 km
 Azergues - 61.9 km

Gallery

Related pages
 List of rivers of France

References

Rivers of France
Grand Est
Bourgogne-Franche-Comté
Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes
Hereford

Hereford (pronounced  or )  (pronounced  "Henforth") is a city and civil parish in the West Midlands of England, close to the border with Wales and on the River Wye. It is the county town of Herefordshire.

The name Hereford comes from the Anglo Saxon here, meaning an army and ford which is a place where soldiers could cross.

Hereford has had a cathedral since 1059.

In 1997, Hereford Council lost its status as a city council, and had to appoint Charter Trustees. Its ancient city traditions are recognised and carried on by the parish council, which is led by the City Mayor.

Transport

Road 
The A49, A438, A465, A480, A4103, A4110, B4399, B4224 and B4359 roads pass through Hereford.

Rail 
Hereford has a train station.

Bus 
Hereford has a city bus station, for routes in the city, and a country bus station, for routes out of the city.

Related pages
Hereford Cathedral

References

County towns in England
The finger

The finger (also called "the bird", or most commonly "the middle finger") is a common insulting hand signal in some countries. 

If you put your middle finger up, you are saying something like "fuck you" or "fuck off". However, it may also be used humorously, for example between people who are close friends. Context is everything in these non-verbal gestures.

The gesture dates back to ancient Greece and it was also used in ancient Rome. Historically, it represented the phallus.

References 

Profanity
Non-verbal communication
Ariel (moon)

Ariel is a moon of Uranus found on October 24, 1851 by William Lassell. It was found at the same time as Umbriel.

The moon is named after the leading sylph in Alexander Pope's poem Rape of the Lock. It is also the name of the spirit who serves Prospero in Shakespeare's The Tempest.

Uranus' moons
Trondheim

is a city and municipality in the county of Sør-Trøndelag, Norway. With 198,219 inhabitants (as of October 2019), Trondheim is Norway's third largest municipality, as well as the centre of the fourth largest urban area, with a population of about 186,364. As of 2019, the Trondheim Region, a statistical metropolitan area, has a population of 279,234.

History 
The city of Trondheim was founded in 997. It was frequently used as the seat of the king, and was capital of Norway until 1217. In the Middle Ages, Trondheim was the site of several battles, including the battle between King Sverre and Erling Skakke, in 1179. The city has experienced several major fires - the most devastating in 1651 and 1681. The 1651 fire destroyed 90% of the buildings in Trondheim, and the 1681 fire led to a total reconstruction of the city.

The city of Trondheim became a municipality January 1, 1838. The rural municipalities of Byneset, Leinstrand, Strinda and Tiller were joined into Trondheim on January 1, 1964.

Other websites 
 Municipality website (Norwegian only)
 Trondheim.no, Trondheim's official website in Norwegian and English
Trondheim Region

The Trondheim Region is a statistical metropolitan area in the counties of Sør-Trøndelag (population: 223,363) and Nord-Trøndelag (23,388) in Norway. It is centered around the city of Trondheim.

1/ km²2/ Population per km², population data from ssb ;3/ Orkdal has been added to region due to new road completed

Trondheim
Ajax (programming)

AJAX stands for Asynchronous JavaScript and XML. It is a technique used to make webpages faster to use. If they are programmed with AJAX, they seem to react faster. They only send small bits of information to the web server. That way the whole web page does not need to reload, only small parts of it.

Good things
There is a clear separation between what the page shows (the content), how it looks (the style), and what it does (the function). Programmers that change what the page does do not need to concern themselves with how the page looks.
Pages done with Ajax only load small bits from the server. Most of the time, they execute code on the client. This makes the program load first so it can respond faster.
Ajax can be used to read XML or JSON among other file formats.

Problems
There are also some problems with Ajax. These are among other things:
It uses JavaScript. Some people have JavaScript disabled.
Because it does not reload the full page, it breaks the history function of the Web browser. The Back button does not work any more.
If the network is slow (there is a high latency), this becomes more obvious when the whole page needs to be reloaded. Users might not expect these delays.
Some web browsers do not support Ajax well, if at all.

References

Internet
JavaScript
City of Bradford

Bradford is a major city in West Yorkshire, England. The city has a population of about 500,000 people. Bradford grew due to its excellence in the textile trades of nineteenth century England. Bradford is home to Bradford City Football Club who became the first English football club to win the current FA Cup trophy in 1911.

Bradford is near to Leeds.  The two cities share the Leeds Bradford International Airport.

References 

 
1847 establishments in Europe
1840s establishments in England
Lithuanian litas

Lithuanian litas (Lithuanian: Litas) was the national currency of the Republic of Lithuania. Litas became a currency of Lithuania in 1922, then again in 1993. In present days, there are 8 coins (1, 2, 5, 10, 50 cents and 1, 2 and 5 LTL) and 6 banknotes (10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 LTL) in use. It stopped being in use in 2015.

General information 

 ISO 4217 Code: LTL
 Inflation: 3.6 % (2006 estimate)
 Subunit: 1/100 (1 cent (centas))
 Symbol: Lt
 Central bank: Bank of Lithuania

Former currencies of Europe
Litas
Maria Holl

Maria Holl (* 1549 in Altenstadt near Geislingen an der Steige, in Germany; † 1634) was an inn-keeper in Nördlingen. She was accused of witchcraft, but she did not confess to a crime, despite the torture. After this, she was released, and cleared of the accusations.

Because she was very successful running the tavern, she was accused of witchcraft. In total, she was tortured 56 times. At all times she only confessed to God. No matter what was done to her, she could not be made to say to have a pact with the devil. Many citizens of Nördlingen were in favor of her. She was cleared of the accusations on October 11, 1594. She was among the last people to be tried for Witchcraft, in Nördlingen.

Maria Holl died in 1634, probably from the Plague. 

1549 births
1634 deaths
German people
Duduk

The Duduk is a traditional woodwind instrument of Armenian origins.

History 
The duduk is one of the oldest double reed instruments in the world which dates back over 3,000 years. Many different duduks can be found in Armenia and the Caucasus. The roots of Armenian duduk music go back to the times of the Armenian king Tigran the Great (95-55 BC). The instrument is seen in many Armenian manuscripts of the Middle Ages.

References

Other websites 
 Jivan Gasparyan, "Eshkhemed"
 Jivan Gasparyan & Nune Yesayan "Dle Yaman"
 Jivan Gasparyan "Tribute" 
 Jivan Gasparyan "Horovel" 
 Jivan Gasparyan "Hin U Nor Husher" 
 Vatche Hovsepyan "Duduk" 
Duduk.com
Duduk.co.uk

Woodwind instruments
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
Droopy Dog

Droopy Dog is a cartoon character created by Tex Avery for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio in 1943. It first appeared on a cartoon named Dumb Hounded (1943).

Animated characters
Fictional dogs
Iraqi Kurdistan

Iraqi Kurdistan or South Kurdistan is the part of Kurdistan which is in Iraq.

Iraqi Kurdistan is in the north of Iraq. The area is to the west of Iranian Kurdistan. To Iraqi Kurdistan's west is Syrian Kurdistan, and to the north is Turkish Kurdistan.

Gallery

References 

Iraq
Biohazzard Records

Biohazzard Records is a German based Independent record label. It was founded by music journalist Sascha Bahn and Alexander C.H. Lorenz (publisher of "MUMM" compilation). He has more as 20 years experience in management of bands. The label is distributed through "Alive!", edel.net (Digital Distribution) and DanseMacabre (Das Ich). They focus at Gothic, Gothic Metal and some kinds of Electro.

Releases 
 2000:  Sinnflut - Vergessene Melodien
 2001:  Sinnflut - Wortlosigkeit
 2003:  Silence - The p/o/u/r letters
 2003:  Sinnflut - Gefüge (Part I & II)
 2004:  Sinnflut - Im Anblick meines Augenblicks
 2006:  Eisenfunk - Funkferngesteuert
 2006:  Sanity Obscure - Resurrection
 2007:  Silence - the badtime stories e.p.
 2007:  Eisenfunk - Eisenfunk
 2007:  adoptedCHILD - geliebt-getötet

Artists 
 Eisenfunk
 PISCIDE
 adoptedCHILD
 Sanity Obscure
 Silence
 Sinnflut
 Die Braut
 Concrete/Rage
 Agapèsis
 Scarelett
 S.C. Inc

Other websites 
Biohazzard Records 
Biohazzard Records@myspace

Independent record labels
Entertainment in Germany
Arbil, Iraq

Arbil (also written Erbil or Irbil) is the capital of Kurdistan Region. In Kurdish, the city is called Hewlêr. 1,190,251 people live there, mostly Kurds. The city is 80 kilometers (50 miles) east of Mosul.

References

Cities in Iraq
Kurdistan
Round cities
Ruhr Area

The Ruhr Area () is an urban area in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.  Many of the cities in the Ruhrgebiet used to have a lot of heavy industry.

The Ruhr Area is bordered by the rivers Ruhr River to the south, Rhine River to the west, and Lippe to the north. Southwest it borders the Bergisches Land.

The area has about 5.3 million inhabitants, and is part of the larger Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan area of more than 12 million people.

The Ruhr Area consists of the cities of Duisburg, Oberhausen, Bottrop, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Essen, Gelsenkirchen, Bochum, Herne, Hamm, Hagen and Dortmund and the rural districts of Wesel, Recklinghausen, Unna and Ennepe-Ruhr

Culture
The city of Essen in the Ruhr area was selected as European Capital of Culture for 2010 by the Council of the European Union.

Sources

References

Bishop, Patrick.  Bomber Boys Fighting Back 1940–1945
 French Directorate for Economic Affairs, Memorandum on the separation of the German industrial regions, 8 September 1945.
Gareau, Frederick H.  "Morgenthau's Plan for Industrial Disarmament in Germany", Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Jun., 1961), pp. 517–53 in JSTOR
Yoder, Amos. "The Ruhr Authority and the German Problem", Review of Politics, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Jul., 1955), pp. 345–358 in JSTOR

Further reading
 Kift, Roy, The Complete Ruhrgebiet: The English language guide (2018)  () Klartext Verlag, Essen 
 Berndt, Christian. Corporate Germany Between Globalization and Regional Place Dependence: Business Restructuring in the Ruhr Area (2001)
 Crew, David.   Town in the Ruhr: A Social History of Bochum, 1860–1914 (1979) ()
 Fischer, Conan. The Ruhr Crisis, 1923–1924 (2003)
 Gillingham, John.  "Ruhr Coal Miners and Hitler's War", Journal of Social History Vol. 15, No. 4 (Summer, 1982), pp. 637–653 in JSTOR
 Chauncy D. Harris, "The Ruhr Coal-mining District", Geographical Review, 36 (1946), 194–221.
 Gillingham, John. Industry and Politics in the Third Reich: Ruhr Coal, Hitler, and Europe (1985) ()
 Pounds, Norman J. G. The Ruhr: A Study in Historical and Economic Geography (1952) online
 Pierenkemper, Toni. "Entrepreneurs in Heavy Industry: Upper Silesia and the Westphalian Ruhr Region, 1852 to 1913", Business History Review Vol. 53, No. 1 (Spring, 1979), pp. 65–78 in JSTOR
 Royal Jae Schmidt. Versailles and the Ruhr: Seedbed of World War II (1968)
 Spencer, Elaine Glovka. "Employer Response to Unionism: Ruhr Coal Industrialists before 1914" Journal of Modern History Vol. 48, No. 3 (Sep., 1976), pp. 397–412 in JSTOR
 Spencer, Elaine Glovka.  Management and Labor in Imperial Germany: Ruhr Industrialists as Employers, 1896–1914.  Rutgers University Press. (1984) online
 Todd, Edmund N. "Industry, State, and Electrical Technology in the Ruhr Circa 1900", Osiris 2nd Series, Vol. 5, (1989), pp. 242–259 in JSTOR

Other websites 

  Capital of Culture 2010 Official Site 
  ruhr.2010 Capital of Culture Blog
 Ruhrgebietsbilder: Photos about the Ruhr

Geography of North Rhine-Westphalia
Regions of Germany
Iraqi dinar

The Iraqi dinar is the currency of Iraq. One dinar equals 1000 fils (فلس).

Currency of Asia
Iraq
Massoud Barzani

Massoud Barzani (born 16 August 1946) was the first president of Iraqi Kurdistan. He became president on 14 June 2005.

Masoud Barzani succeeded his father, the Kurdish nationalist leader Mustafa Barzani, as the leader of KDP in 1979. Working closely with his brother Idris Barzani until Idris's death, Barzani and various other Kurdish groups fought the forces of the Iraqi government in Baghdad during the Iran–Iraq War. For much of this time, the Kurdish leadership was exiled to Iran.

Barzani was born in Iranian Kurdistan, during the short-lived Republic of Mahabad.

1946 births
Living people
Iraqi politicians
Kurdish politicians
Presidents (government)
Nechervan Idris Barzani

Nechervan Idris Barzani (Kurdish:نێچیرڤان بارزانی, Nêçîrvan Îdrîs Barzanî) (born 21 September 1966) has been the Prime Minister of Iraqi Kurdistan since March 2006.

1966 births
Living people
Iraqi politicians
Kurdish politicians
Prime ministers
Credit card

A credit card is a card which allows people to buy items without cash. Each card has a unique number. Using this number, plus other details on the card (such as the validity date, or a code), the client can buy goods or services. The issuer of the card, then transfers the money to the seller. The person using the card gets a credit. The  customer has a certain amount of time to pay the credit card bill. If the bill is left unpaid for some time, the customer will have to pay interest for the amount that is left unpaid. Payment using a credit card is one of the most common methods of electronic payment.

Credit cards are usually small plastic cards with a unique number attached to an account. Most are magnetic stripe cards and many have an EMV chip for use by card readers.

P.S. Only have 1 to 2 credit cards to keep your credit rating up.

Money
Lebanese Civil War

The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) was a conflict that became greatly worse by Lebanon's changing demographics. There was conflict between Sunnis and Shias, between Christians and Muslims, and the involvement of Syria, Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). After a short break in the fighting in 1976 due to Arab League mediation and Syrian intervention, civil strife continued, with fighting primarily focused in south Lebanon, occupied first by the PLO, then occupied by Israel. On May 17, 1983, a US-backed agreement was reached for making peace between Lebanon and Israel. The agreement failed when Syria refused to withdraw its forces.

References 

1980s in Asia
1990s in Asia
Civil wars involving Asia
Wars involving Israel
Wars involving Lebanon
Wars involving Syria
1970s in Israel
20th century in Lebanon
20th century in Syria
1970s conflicts
1980s conflicts
Conflicts in 1990
Mosul

Mosul ( , , ) is a city in the north of Iraq. Under the Ottoman Empire it was the capital of northern Iraq. More than a million people lived there when Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant conquered it in 2014. In 2017 the Iraqi Army with help from Kurdish Peshmerga troops and other militias took the city back.

Further reading
Published in the 19th century
 
 
 
 
 

Published in the 20th century
 
 
 

Published in the 21st century

References

Other websites

 ninava-explorer 
Iraq Image – Mosul Satellite Observation 
Detailed map of Mosul by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency, from lib.utexas.edu
 

Cities in Iraq
Mayonnaise

Mayonnaise (also known as Mayo) is a thick sauce. It is an emulsion of vegetable oil and egg yolk, with either lemon juice or vinegar. It is often used as a condiment for food such as salads, sandwiches and french fries.

References 

Condiments
Germaine Tailleferre

Germaine Tailleferre (born Saint Maur Des Fossés, France, 19 April 1892; died Paris, 7 November 1983) was a French composer.  She was one of the members of the famous group Les Six.

Early years
She was called Marcelle Taillefesse when she was born. When she was grown up she changed her last name to "Tailleferre" just to annoy her father because he had refused to let her study music.  She studied piano with her mother at home, composing short works of her own and then began studying at the Paris Conservatoire.  There she met Louis Durey, Francis Poulenc, Darius Milhaud, Georges Auric and Arthur Honegger. She won several prizes at the Conservatoire.  She often met with her friends who became known as Les Six.

Works
In 1923 Tailleferre began to spend a great deal of time with Maurice Ravel at his home in Monfort-L'Amaury. Ravel encouraged her to enter the Prix de Rome Competition. In 1925, she married Ralph Barton, an American caricaturist, and moved to Manhattan, New York. She stayed in the United States until 1927 when she and her husband returned to France. They divorced shortly afterwards.

Tailleferre wrote many of her most important works during the 1920s, including her 1st Piano Concerto, The Harp Concertino, the Ballets "Le Marchand d'Oiseaux" (the most often performed ballet in the repertoire of the Ballets Suédoises during the 1920s) and "La Nouvelle Cythère" which Diaghilev had asked her to write for his ballet company.

In the 1930s she composed the Concerto for Two Pianos, Choeurs, Saxophones and Orchestra, the Violin Concerto, the Operas "Zoulaïna" and "Le Marin de Bolivar", and her masterwork, "La Cantate de Narcisse", which she wrote with Paul Valéry. Her work in film music included "Le Petit Chose".

When World War II started she had to escape across Spain to Portugal and from there to America.

After the war, in 1946, she returned to her home in France where she composed a lot more music, much of which was not published until after her death.  She was accompanist at a children's music and movement class.  She wrote shorter pieces towards the end of her life because her arthritis made writing difficult.

Tailleferre carried on composing until a few weeks before her death in November 1983.

Other websites 
 Suite Burlesque for piano duet (1981) in Youtube

1892 births
1983 deaths
20th-century French composers
Women composers
Kimbo Slice

Kevin Ferguson also known as Kimbo Slice (February 8, 1974 – June 6, 2016) was a Bahamian-born American mixed martial arts fighter. He began fighting in a series of web videos. He fights in backyards, airplane hangars, and nuclear power plants. He was trained by Bas Rutten. He was born in Nassau, Bahamas.

Slice had six children. He used to work as a bodyguard.

Slice died of heart failure at a hospital in Margate, Florida on June 6, 2016, aged 42.

References

Other websites

 
 
 

1974 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from heart failure
Bahamian people
American mixed martial artists