cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Pangaea

Pangaea was the global supercontinent which formed in the Palaeozoic era. The process started about 450 million years ago (mya) and was complete by 210 mya.

Pangaea was the latest of a series of global supercontinents. They formed at various times since plate tectonics began on Earth. Generally Pangaea and Gondwana are considered as parts of the same supercontinent Gondwana-Pangaea.

Formation 
The collisions between continental plates formed the greatest mountain ranges in the history of the Phanerozoic eon. The mountain building included the Caledonian orogeny, the Alleghenian orogeny and the Variscan orogeny. The low mountains of Scotland, Scandinavia and eastern North America are the ground-down remains of these vast events.

Break-up 
There were three major phases in the break-up of Pangaea. The first signs of rifting came in the Triassic before Pangaea was completely formed.

Pangaea broke up about 180/200 million years ago, in the early middle Jurassic. It broke into supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana before each of these broke into the current continents. One rift resulted in a new ocean, the North Atlantic Ocean.

The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the Lower Cretaceous (150–140 Ma), when Gondwana separated into multiple continents (Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, and Australia).

The third major and final phase of the break-up of Pangaea occurred in the early Cenozoic (Paleocene to Oligocene). Laurasia split when North America (also called Laurentia) broke free from Eurasia, opening the Norwegian Sea about 60–55 Ma. The Atlantic and Indian Oceans continued to expand, closing the Tethys Ocean.

The break-up of Pangaea continues today in the Great Rift Valley in East Africa and Arabia.

Other sources 
Matte P. 2001. The Variscan collage and orogeny (480-290 mya) and the tectonic definition of the Armorica microplate: a review. Terra Nova 13, 122-128.
Stampfli G.M; Raumer J.F. von & Borel G.D. 2002. Paleozoic evolution of pre-Variscan terranes: from Gondwana to the Variscan collision. Geological Society of America Special Paper 364, pp. 263–280.
Torsvik T.H. et al 1996. Continental break-up and collision in the Neoproterozoic and Palaeozoic - a tale of Baltica and Laurentia. Earth-Science Reviews 40, pp. 229–258.
Ziegler P.A. 1990. Geological atlas of western and central Europe. 2nd ed, Shell Internationale Petroleum Maatschappij B.V.

References 

Supercontinents
Fatah

Fatah is a Palestinian nationalist political party. Fatah is an acronym for Harakat At-Tahriri Al-Filistiniya. That means Palestinian National Liberation Movement in English. It was created by Yasser Arafat in the late 1950s. 

In 1968 Fatah joined the Palestinian Liberation Organization, and in 1969 it got a leadership role. When it was founded, it did not accept the existence of Israel, but now the group officially does. 

The political part of the party is not considered a terrorist group by any country, but its military part, the al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades is considered a terrorist group. Fatah says that the Brigades are not a part of the party but Israel says that Fatah supports the al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades.

Fatah and the Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades 
Leaders of the brigades, and other members have said they are a military group that is a part of Fatah. On their website, and on posters they post the Fatah Emblem. Leaders of Fatah have said they did not create the brigades, or make them the military of Fatah. Since 2002 leaders in Fatah have tried to get the brigades to stop attacking Israeli citizens.

References 

Nationalist organizations in Palestine
Political parties in Asia
Politics of Palestine
Socialist International
West Bank
Balkh

Balkh () is a city in Balkh Province of Afghanistan. It was a big city hundreds of years ago, but it was ruined by Mongols. It was not ruined forever, though. In 1850 it was captured by Dost Mohammad Khan.

Related pages 
 Balkh Province

References 

Cities in Afghanistan
Hessischer Rundfunk

The Hessischer Rundfunk (HR) is a German television and radio broadcasting company based in Frankfurt am Main in the State of Hesse.

HR is a member of the group of German public-broadcasting institutions that makes up ARD.

The HR produces the regional television service HR Fernsehen  (which used to be called HR Fernsehen ) and six regional radio channels.

Other websites 
 Official website in German

German broadcasting companies
Frankfurt
As Sulaymaniyah Province

As Sulaymaniyah (, ) is a province in the east of Iraq. The capital is Sulaymaniyah. The area is . Almost 1,800,000 people live there.

Provinces of Iraq
Arbil Province

Arbil (,  Hewlêr; also written Erbil or Irbil) is a province in the north of Iraq. The area is . 1,425,000 people live in the province.

Provinces of Iraq
Dahuk Province

Dahuk (also Dohuk or Duhok, , , Duhok, Assyrian: ܢܘܗܕܪܐ, Nohadra) is a province in north of Iraq. The capital is also called Dahuk. 510,000 people live in the province.

References 

Kurdistan
Provinces of Iraq
Babil Province

Babil () is a province in Iraq. The area is . 2,000,000 people live in the province. The capital is Al Hillah  a Shia 

It contains the ancient city of Babylon.

The name Babil is the Arabic name for Babylon.
Coruscant

Coruscant is a fictional planet in the Star Wars movies. It has been the capital of the Galaxy for many years, and during that time, the planet has become one big city. It's most notable appearance was in the prequel trilogy.

Star Wars planets

sv:Lista över platser i Star Wars#Coruscant
Digital Video Broadcasting

Digital Video Broadcasting (often shortened to DVB) is a series of standards for sending digital content, like Television using digital technology.  Compression of the data stream allows carrying several video channels in one analog television channel.

There are different standards, some of them are
DVB-S, DVB-S2: Use Satellites to broadcast
DVB-C: Use a coaxial cable
DVB-T, DVB-T2: Use a terrestrial signal, relayed thorough various stations

Digital Audio Broadcasting is similar, but for audio.

Related pages 
 Digital Multimedia Broadcasting

Television technology
Baghdad Province

Baghdad () is a province in Iraq. The capital is also called Baghdad. 

The area is . The province is the smallest province in Iraq.
Linguine

Linguine are a form of Italian pasta. Sometimes they are also called Linguini (this is an English-language form, and is not Italian). 
They are flat, like fettuccine and trenette, but narrow like spaghetti. 

The name means "little tongues" in Italian - the word being derived from Latin lingua "tongue" with the suffix -ine which indicates that an item is smaller or lesser.

Linguine alle vongole (with clams) is a popular use of this sort of pasta.

Pasta
Basra Province

Basra or Al Basrah () is a province in the southeast of Iraq. It has an area of . The capital is also called Basra. 2,565,893 people live in the province.
Egg (food)

Most eggs that are eaten by humans, including bird eggs and turtle eggs, have a protective, oval eggshell, the albumen (egg white), the vitellus (egg yolk), and various thin membranes, that are layers like skin. Every part of the egg is edible, although the eggshell is usually thrown away. Eggs are a good source of protein, choline, and fat-soluble vitamins.

Roe and caviar are edible eggs produced by fish.

Egg as a food ingredient 
Birds' eggs are a common food source. The most commonly used bird eggs are those from the chicken, the duck, and the goose. Smaller eggs such as quail eggs are sometimes used as a gourmet ingredient, as are the largest bird eggs, from ostriches.  

Most of the chicken eggs sold for human consumption are unfertilized. The hens are kept without any roosters. Fertile eggs can be bought and eaten as well. There is no difference in the food value of fertilised and unfertilised eggs. Fertile eggs for eating do not have a baby bird inside. This is because eggs have to be kept cool before they are sold, and the cold stops the young inside from starting to grow.

Chicken eggs are widely used in many types of cooking. Recipes that use eggs include sweet and savoury dishes. Eggs can be used and cooked in many different ways. They can be hard-boiled, soft-boiled, scrambled, fried, combined with flour in cakes or eaten raw. Roasted eggs are used at the Jewish holiday of Passover. Pickled eggs are hard-boiled and then put in vinegar. They are often sold in UK fish and chip shops.

Eating raw eggs is not recommended for some people. This is because the egg may be contaminated with bacteria (like salmonella) that could cause illness. This could be serious for the elderly, the infirm, or pregnant women.

The body can use about 91% of the protein of a cooked egg, nearly twice as much as from a raw egg.

Color 

There is no difference in taste or food value between white or brown eggs.  The color of a chicken's egg depends on the breed.

In most of the United States, eggs are generally white; while in the northeast of that country and in the United Kingdom, eggs are generally light-brown. People in Brazil and Poland prefer brown or reddish eggs, because white eggs are thought of as "industrial", that is, for use in commercial bakeries.  The reason some people prefer one colour of egg and other people prefer a different colour is probably because of what the colours are linked with in their minds.  For example white is linked with purity, and brown-shelled eggs with greater wholesomeness.

Carotenoids can affect how intense the color of the yolk is.

Related pages 
Egg (biology)
 List of egg dishes

References 

 Stadelman W.J. and Cotterill O.J. 1995. Egg science and technology. 4th ed, New York: Food Products Press.

Other websites 

 9 Health Benefits of Eggs 
 Nutritional values of eggs 
 Nutritional value of free range eggs compared with factory eggs
 Criticism of the validity of the "Animal Care Certified" logo used by United Egg Producers(UEP) 
 British Egg Industry and the Lion Mark
 10 Health Benefits of Eggs

Breakfast foods
List of egg dishes

The following is a list of egg dishes:

Plain egg dishes

Savory egg dishes

Sweet egg dishes

References

Food-related lists
Dhi Qar Province

Dhi Qar () is a province in south east of Iraq, with an area of . The capital is An Nasiriyah and 1,454,200 people live in the province.
Diyala Province

Diyala () is a province in east of Iraq. Its area is . The capital is Baqubah. 1,271,000 people live in the province.
Leitmotif

A leitmotif (pronounced , “LITE-mow-teef”) (also spelled leitmotiv), is a German word meaning leading motif.  It is a little musical theme that is often repeated in a piece of music, very often in opera. The leitmotif is linked in the musical story with a person or a thing or an idea.  The leitmotif might be a short tune, but it can also be a rhythm or just a chord.

The word “leitmotif” is sometimes used in other things such as literature.  In a book it might be an idea that keeps coming during the story.  It can also be used in movies or video games.

The word “leitmotif” is particularly associated with the operas of Richard Wagner.  The leitmotif helps to make the story dramatic and bind it together, because it makes the music easier to understand.  Sometimes a leitmotif will change during an opera as the character changes.  Various dramatic effects can be made with leitmotifs. For example, a leitmotif might be played before a character comes onstage, so the audience will know who is coming before the actor can be seen.  Three examples of leitmotifs from Wagner's Ring Cycle  Der Ring des Nibelungen  are: the leitmotif for the chief god Wotan (a person), the leitmotif for the Tarnhelm, the invisibility helmet, (a thing), and the leitmotif for the Renunciation of Love (an idea).

The use of leitmotif was not completely new in the 19th century.  For example: the first four notes of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony are used like a leitmotif during the whole symphony.  It was, however, Carl Maria von Weber who first used it a lot in his operas.  A music critic called F. W. Jähns used the word to describe Weber’s work.  Hector Berlioz wrote a symphony called Symphonie Fantastique which has a tune which he called idée fixe (“fixed idea”) to represent the love between the two characters.

Wagner did not actually use the word “leitmotif”.  He preferred to call such themes “Grundthema” (basic idea) or simple “Motiv”.  Some people, such as Eduard Hanslick, who did not like Wagner’s music, thought that Wagner’s use of leitmotifs made the music too simple.  Claude Debussy said the use of leitmotifs in operas was like having a world where crazy people would always use "visiting cards" to introduce themselves and then start singing their names to be sure everyone knew what was going on.

Many other composers used leitmotifs in a similar way to Wagner, e.g. Richard Strauss in his operas, Elgar in his oratorios The Kingdom and The Apostles or Alban Berg in his opera Lulu.  

Leitmotifs or music themes are also used to dramatise movies. For example, the famous Jaws theme uses a leitmotif for the shark.

Musical forms
Opera terminology
Karbala Province

Karbala () is a province in Iraq, with 710,274 people living there. The capital of the province is also called Karbala, that is a holy city for Shi'a Muslims.
Maysan Province

Maysan () is a province in southeastern Iraq, bordering Iran. The capital is Amarah. 785,068 people live in the province.
Najaf Province

Najaf () is a province in southwestern Iraq. The province has an area of 28,824 km². The capital is also called Najaf. 1.477.134 people live in the province.
Ninawa Province

Ninawa (, , Assyrian: ܢܝܢܘܐ Nîněwâ) is a province in north of Iraq It has an area of 37,323 km². The capital is Mosul which lies near the Tigris river. 2,600,000 people live in the province. The ancient Biblical city of Nineveh is also in this province.  The name Ninawa is the Arabic name for Nineveh.
Al Muthanna Province

Al Muthanna (also Muthanna, ) is a province in southern Iraq, bordering Saudi Arabia. The province has an area of 83,268 km², and 1.035.000 people live there. The capital is Samawah.
Kirkuk Governorate

Kirkuk Governorate ( ,  Parêzgay Kerkûk,  , ) or Kirkuk Province is a governorate in northern Iraq, with an area of . 

The capital is also called Kirkuk, and 949,000 people live in the province.

References
Provinces of Iraq

Iraq is divided into 18 provinces (muhafazah). also the Iraqi Constitution has recognized only one autonomous federal region inside Iraq, the name of the region is Iraqi Kurdistan Region, this region consists of the three provinces of Dahuk ( دهوك ), Arbil ( اربيل ) and As-Sulaymaniyyah (السليمانية )
Brussels-Capital Region

Brussels-Capital Region is one of the three regions of Belgium. Its official name can be in the three official languages of Belgium

 and
 

It has 19 municipalities:

Related pages 
There are two other regions:
 Flanders (Flemish Region)
 Wallonia (Walloon Region)

References

Other websites 

www.brussels.irisnet.be Official website
Vaishali

Vaishali or Vesali (Pali)  was a city in what is currently Vaishali District, Bihar, India. The city was the capital of the Licchavi and the Vajjian Confederacy. At the time of the Buddha, Vesali was a very large and rich city. It was crowded with people and with much food.

Cities in India
History of India
Settlements in Bihar
Licchavi

Licchavi (also Lichchhavi, Lichavi) was an ancient republic that existed in what is now Bihar state of India before the birth of Mahavira (b. 599 BC). Its capital was Vaishali.

From about 400 to 750, a kingdom in Nepal in the Kathmandu Valley had the same name, Licchavi.

Origins
Early Buddhist legends tell that Licchavi was a ruling family during Gautama Buddha's time in India, but links to the Nepalese kingdom are speculative.  The language of Licchavi inscriptions is Sanskrit, and the particular script used is closely related to official Gupta scripts. That means that India was a significant cultural influence. That was likely through Mithila, now the north of Bihar, India.

References

Other websites
  Tamot, Kashinath and Alsop, Ian. "A Kushan-period Sculpture, The Licchavi Kings", Asianart.com
  History of Nepal,  Thamel.com
  "Nepal: The Early Kingdom of the Licchavis, 400-750", Library of Congress Countryreports.org (September, 1991)
 Vajrācārya, Gautamavajra, "Recently Discovered Inscriptions of Licchavi, Nepal", Kailash - Journal of Himalayan Studies, Volume 1, Number 2, 1973. (pp. 117-134) 

History of India
Nepal
Bihar
Republicanism

Republicanism is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic with an emphasis on liberty and the civic virtue practiced by citizens.  Republicanism always stands in opposition to aristocracy, oligarchy, monarchy, and dictatorship.  More broadly, it refers to a political system that protects liberty, especially by incorporating a rule of law that cannot be arbitrarily ignored by the government.

United States 
According to John Adams, “They define a republic to be a government of laws, and not of men.” Much of the literature deals with the issue of what sort of values and behavior by the citizens is necessary if the republic is to survive and flourish; the emphasis has been on widespread citizen participation, civic virtue, and opposition to corruption.

Other websites
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
 Res Publica: an international anti-monarchy Web directory 

Politics
Tabriz

Tabriz تبریز  is the largest city in north-western Iran with a population of 1.6 million. Most of them speak the Azerbaijani language. Tabriz is north of the volcanic cone of Sahand and south of the Eynali mountain. It is the capital of East Azarbaijan Province.

Other websites 

Tabriz Historical Buildings Virtual Library - Related to Tabriz University 
Tabriz Information
Tabriz Culture & Information Center
Tabriz City 
Tabriz from Encyclopaedia of the Orient 
Tabriz Municipal Office 
tabrizinfo.com
Tabriz Municipality News Agency
Tabriz Metro
Hundreds of Tabriz Pictures

Cities in Iran
East Azarbaijan Province
Saber–toothed cat

The sabertoothed cats or sabretooth cats are some of the best known and most popular extinct animals. They are among the most impressive carnivores that ever have lived. These cats had long canines and jaws which opened wider than modern cats. This suggests a different style of killing from modern felines.

The sabre-tooth style of life evolved at least five times amongst carnivorous mammals. This is one of the best-known examples of convergent evolution.
Creodonts, were the earliest sabre-tooths known. They lived in the Eocene, and are in a different order from the Feliformia. Machaeroides and Apataelurus are examples. 
The Nimravids were a basal group in the Feliformia, lasting from the Eocene to the later Miocene epochs. Hoplophoneus is an example.
The Barbourofelidae is another family of Feliforms which developed the sabre-tooth lifestyle. They flourished in the Miocene. They are probably more closely related to the felids than the Nimravids.
Sparassodonts, such as Thylacosmilus, were a  metatherian  group of mammals. They used to be called "marsupial sabre-tooths", but they belong to a sister-group to the marsupials. Miocene to Pliocene.
The Machairodontinae: a subfamily of the Felidae, lived from the Miocene to the Pleistocene (23 million years ago to 11,000 years ago). Includes the famous Smilodon.
Nimravides, which is a member of the Felinae, and <u/l>not</u/l> one of the Nimravids.

The saber tooths were ambush predators, and probably lived in open forests. This would explain their widespread occurrence in the Miocene, when much of the land was covered with woodland. Apart from the canine teeth, their adaptations included strength in the forelimbs (more so than present-day large cats). Their robust (heavy, tough) bodies speak of strength rather than speed.

An idea of how they killed is as follows. They hid in wait, and pounced. They hung on round the prey's neck, gripping and slashing the underside of the throat with their canine teeth. This would cause death by blood loss and loss of the air supply.

The fact that their teeth vary is interesting. Some have larger teeth, some had smaller dagger-like teeth, some had smooth thick teeth, others had blade-like teeth, sometimes with serrated edges. Some had flanges on the lower jaw, most did not. Ewer remarks that this must show that there were variations in killing method, and in the type of prey, but we know little about this.

There are none living today: they are extinct. The extinctions followed climate change, as the world cooled and grassland took over from woodland in the Pliocene and Pleistocene.

References 

Fossils
Prosper Mérimée

Prosper Mérimée (September 28, 1803 – September 23, 1870) was a French writer. He was also a historian and an archaeologist. He is probably best known for writing the short story "Carmen". "Carmen" became the basis for the opera Carmen by Georges Bizet.

1803 births
1870 deaths
French writers
Jerry Hsu

Jerry Hsu (b. December 17, 1981) is an American professional skateboarder. He was born in, and currently lives in, San Jose, California. Hsu is a member of the San Jose Tilt Mode Army crew. He has several pro model skateboard decks with Enjoi Skateboards. Hsu was featured in the skateboard videos Bag of Suck by Enjoi. He won an award for best video part by Transworld Skateboarding Magazine and a reader's choice award for his work in the video.

References

1981 births
Living people
American skateboarders
Sportspeople from California
People from San Jose, California
Wasit Province

Wasit () is a province in the east of Iraq. The capital is Al Kut. Wasit is an Arabic word meaning "middle". The province is along the Tigris about midway between Baghdad and Misan.
Scrambled eggs

Scrambled eggs is a dish made from beaten whites and yolks of  eggs (usually chicken). The dish often contains other ingredients.  Cream, butter, milk, water or oil (used in China) will dilute the egg proteins to create a softer texture.

Sample recipe
The eggs and a large piece of butter are put into a saucepan over a low heat.  The egg whites and egg yolks are then "scrambled" or mixed together.   The mixture should be mixed together all the time they are being cooked.

When cooked a little créme frâiche is added.  This is because the eggs will be hot enough to carry on cooking themselves.  Adding a cool liquid will stop the eggs from overcooking. Some salt and pepper or other seasoning can be added to taste as well.

In the home the eggs can be mixed together first and then poured into a pan.  The créme frâiche does not need to be added if the eggs will be eaten almost immediately.

Properly made, the eggs should be moist and creamy consistency.  If any liquid is coming from the eggs, it means the eggs have been overcooked or that the add the vegetables were undercooked.

Other methods of preparation
Using a double boiler  or bain-marie means that the heat is constant, and does not to be adjusted  to make sure the eggs do not brown or burn.  The baine marie method is slower than cooking directly in a pan over a heat but makes it easier to  cook the eggs perfectly. The eggs must be taken out of the bain marie when cooked, otherwise they will carry on cooking and spoil.

Scrambled eggs may also be made in a  microwave oven by put the ingredients in a glass bowl and cooking for 30 seconds then whisking, then cooking and whisking again until the desired consistency is achieved.

Variations of Scrambled Egg Dishes
Many things can be added to scrambled eggs.  Often the end result can have a different name, for example:

scrambled eggs à l'arlésienne (Scrambled eggs as made in the town of Arles, France)- add the diced, cooked pulp of courgettes (zucchini), a little garlic, and tomato fondue.  Put the cooked eggand vegetable mixture into the hollowed, cooked courgettes shells, on an oiled gratin dish sprinkled with Parmesan cheese and brown the oven.

scrambled eggs à l'américaine scrambled eggs in the American way - Add cubes of smoked bacon fried in butter to eggs.

scrambled eggs Rossini named after the composer Rossini- Cook some scrambled eggs.  Sauté some thin slices of foie gras in butter.  Cook some sliced truffle in butter.  Plate the scrambled eggs on a serving dish, garnish with foie gras and truffles, then coat with a very reduced Madeira demi-glace sauce.

Related pages
List of egg dishes

Notes

References
Escoffier, Georges Auguste. Escoffier: The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery. Translated by H. L. Cracknell and R.J. Kaufmann. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2002.
McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. New York: Scribner, 2004.
Robuchon, Joël, Members of the Gastronomic Committee. Larousse Gastronomique. New York: Clarkson Potter/Publishers, 2001.

Other websites
An article on cooking scrambled eggs
Scrambled eggs recipe

Egg dishes
Breakfast foods
Salah ad Din Province

Salah ad Din () is a province in north of Iraq. The province has an area of 24,751 km². The capital is Tikrit where Saddam Hussein was born and 1,147,000 people live in the province. The majority population is Sunni. In 2011, the province declared autonomy.

References
LATAM Airlines Brasil

LATAM Airlines Brazil () is Brazilian airline. LATAM was founded in 1961, but since 2000 it has grown fast. It's now the biggest airline in Brazil and all of Latin America.

History
TAM Airlines began in 1961, with the name Taxi Aereo Marília (Marília Air Taxi). In 1971, one of the airline's pilots buys 33% of the airline's shares. In 1976, the pilot founds an airline with the name Transportes Aereos Regionais (Regional Air Transport).  Both TAM and TAR Airlines were combined in 2000.  This formed the TAM Airlines. In 2010, LAN Airlines and TAM Airlines were also combined. They formed the LATAM Airlines Group.

Gallery

References

1961 establishments in South America
Star Alliance
Airlines of South America
Economy of Brazil
1960s establishments in Brazil
Al-Qādisiyyah Province

Al-Qādisiyyah () is a province in south of Iraq. The capital is Al Diwaniyah.
Limb

A limb is a part of the body of a living creature, which extends from its trunk. Examples are the branches of a tree, and the legs of a man.

In normal human body, there are four limbs: two upper limbs (arms) and two lower limbs (legs). Each limb has several joints.

Limbs and extremities
Australosphenida

Australophenida are a clade of mammals which has nearly entirely died out. Today, living specimen exist only in Australia and New Guinea with only five surviving species species, but fossils have been in Madagascar and Argentina. Species consist are of the platypus and echidnas.

This grouping includes the following animals:
 Monotremata 
 Kollikodontidae (extinct)
 Kollikodon
 Ornithorhynchidae (platypus)
 Obdurodon
 Steropodontidae (extinct)
 Steropodon
 Teinolophos
 Tachyglossidae (echidnas)

Monotremes
Steropodontidae

Steropodontidae was a family of monotremes that are known fossils from the Early Cretaceous in Australia.

References 

 Rich et al. 2001. Monotreme nature of the Early Cretaceous mammal Teinolophos. Acta Paleontologica Polonica. 46:113-118

Monotremes
Steropodon

Steropodon galmanii was a prehistoric species of monotreme, or a egg-laying mammal, that lived during the Mesozoic, in the Lower Cretaceous period. It is the second-earliest known relative of the platypus: the earlist is called Teinolophos.

References 
Archer M. et al 1985. First Mesozoic mammal from Australia – an early Cretaceous monotreme. Nature 318: 363-366.

Monotremes
Kollikodon

Kollikodon ritchiei is a fossil monotreme species. It is known from an opalised teeth frgament, with one premolar and two molars in situ. The fossil was found al Lightning Ridge, New South Wales, Australia.

References 

 Flannery, T.F., Archer, M., Rich, T.H., Jones, R. (1995) "A new family of monotremes from the Cretaceous of Australia". Nature 377: 418-420.

Monotremes
Teinolophos

Teinolophos trusleri was a prehistoric species of monotreme, or egg-laying mammal. It is known from a lower jawbone found in Flat Rocks, Victoria, Australia. It lived during the Lower Cretaceous, about 123 million years ago (mya).

References 

Monotremes
Obdurodon

Obdurodon is a extinct monotreme genus. Obdurodon differed from modern Platypuses in that it still had teeth (except for juveniles, the modern platypus does not have teeth).

References 
 Archer, et al. "Description of the skull and non-vestigial dentition of a Miocene platypus (Obdurodon dicksoni) from Riversleigh, Australia, and the problem of monotreme origins".
 Augee, M.L. "Platypus and Echidnas". Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales.  1992. Pages 15–27. (O. dicksoni).
 Pascual, et al. "First discovery of monotremes in South America". Nature 356 (1992), Pages 704-706 (Monotrematum).
 Woodburne and Tedford. "The first Tertiary Monotreme from Australia." American Museum. Novitates Number 2588. 1975. Pages 1–11.  (O. insignis).

Monotremes
Curtiss P-40 Warhawk

The Curtiss P-40 (also called the Tomahawk, Warhawk, and Kittyhawk) was a fighter aircraft that could also be used for attacking things on the ground. It was made by Curtiss. It first flew in 1938 and saw combat during World War II. It was not as fast high up as the German Luftwaffe fighters, but was used a lot in other places. It was used not only the United States Army Air Force, but also a mercenary air force called the "Flying Tigers." They put the mouth of a shark on their P-40s. It could fly to 360 miles per hour. In 1948, the United States Air Force stopped using it.

References

United States Army aircraft
Royal Air Force aircraft
Australian military aircraft
World War II American aircraft
Flying Tigers

The Flying Tigers was a group of American fighter pilots from the United States Army Air Force, the United States Navy, and the United States Marine Corps. Claire Lee Chennault commanded it.

History 

During 1937, Claire Lee Chennault retired from the American military and became the military advisor to China. He to looked at their air force. It was bad, and could not fight their enemy, Japan. In 1938, Chennault was going to make the Flying Tigers. In late 1941, after Pearl Harbor, the Flying Tigers started fighting the Japanese.

The airplane they used was the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk. There were about 100 of the fighter aircraft. They could not turn with the Japanese fighters, such as the A6M Zero, Ki-43 Oscar, and Ki-27 Nate, but the P-40 was tough, had more guns, and was faster in a dive.

The Flying Tigers stayed in World War II for the whole time.

Things the Flying Tigers were famous for 

The Flying Tigers are well known for things. One thing was their airplane paint, which had a shark face on the sides. They were also known for fighting hard during the war. Franklin D. Roosevelt had said they were good.

List of aces 

The following are flying aces from the Flying Tigers, with their air-to-air victory credits: (In alphabetical order).

 Percy Bartelt (5.0)
 William Bartling (5.0)
 Charles Bond (7.0)
 George Burgard (10.0)
 Robert Hedman (6.0)
 David Lee "Tex" Hill (10.25)
 Frank Lawlor (7.0)
 Robert Little (10.0)
 William McGarry (8.0)
 Robert Neale (13.0)
 John Newkirk (7.0)
 Charles Older (10.0)
 Edmund Overend (5.0)
 Robert Prescott (5.5)
 Joseph Camille Rosbert (6.0)
 Richard Rossi (6.0)
 Robert Sandell (5.0)
 Robert H. Smith (5.0)
 Robert T. Smith (8.9 kills)

References 

World War II
United States military aircraft
United States Army
United States Navy
United States Marine Corps
Shusha

Shusha () is a city in Azerbaijan. The city is a major centre of Azerbaijani culture and music.

History  
Shusha was founded in 1750-1752 by Panah-Ali khan Javanshir (r. 1748-1763), the founder and the first ruler of the Karabakh Khanate (Qarabağ xanlığı - in Azerbaijani). The first capital of the Karabakh khanate was the castle of Bayat, built in 1748 in the district of Kebirli. However, soon afterwards Panah Ali khan realized that in order to secure himself and his newly established khanate from external threats, he needed to build a new more reliable castle. Shusha was turned into the capital of the Karabakh khanate.

Shusha was a popular mountainous-climatic recreation resort in Azerbaijan.

On May 8, 1992, the city was captured by the Armenian forces and all of the city's predominantly Azerbaijani population was either expelled or killed.

References

Other websites 
 Shusha: from A to Z
 Shusha by Travel-images.com
 Shusha – the town of the dead. Photo-report.

Caucasus
Cities in Azerbaijan
Districts of Azerbaijan
Settlements in Azerbaijan
Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
1750s establishments
Establishments in Azerbaijan
Doritos

Doritos ,pronounced  as (),os  a brand of flavored corn (maize) tortilla chip snack. They have been made by the American food company Frito-Lay since 1966. They come in different flavors, including Nacho Cheese and Cool Ranch. They may be eaten with a dip such as salsa. They are made with varying vegetables and are not fruit products.

Other websites 
 Doritos America 
 Doritos Canada
 Doritos China 
 Pepsico France 
 Doritos Australia
 Doritos Scotland
 Doritos Germany 
 Nutrition facts

Snack foods
Mount Silverthrone

Mount Silverthrone is a 20 km wide, deeply dissected caldera complex in southwestern British Columbia, Canada. Most of its eruptions occurred during the last ice age. The products have since been heavily eroded. It is the highest peak in the Ha-Iltzuk Icefield, the largest icefield in the Coast Mountains south of the Alaska Panhandle.

References

Volcanoes of British Columbia
Mountains of British Columbia
AIM-9 Sidewinder

The AIM-9 Sidewinder is a short-range air-to-air missile, which means it is shot from an aircraft and is supposed to hit an aircraft. It is heat seeking, which means it locks on to heat. It first flew in 1953, and went into air forces in 1956. It was used during the Vietnam War along with the AIM-7 Sparrow, but was not good. At the time, it would hit only 10-20% of the time, and could be fooled. Sometimes it could lock on to the sun or other bogus heat source and not an enemy airplane.

The problems were later fixed, and the new Sidewinders have a good hitting rate. It is in a lot of air forces. The missile can hit from 11 miles. It is very often on many different aircraft around the world today.

References 

Missiles
Air force
Military aviation
X-intercept

The x-intercept of a line on a graph is where the line touches (intercepts) the x-axis.

Related pages
 y-intercept
 Algebra

Mathematics
Liberty

Liberty means the condition in which an individual has the ability to act following his or her own will and alternatively, achieve their potential, within the context of other words like political freedom.  It is a term that has contested meanings.

Communism and socialism claim to have something defined as liberty for them because of their social equality ideals. Libertarians and classical liberals think communism is against Liberty because communism is most of the times against the individual basic rights (life, freedom and property).

Classical liberalism conceptions of liberty conceive mainly of the freedom of the individual from outside compulsion in terms of freedom from restraint and social liberalist perspective, on the other hand, highlights the need for social and economic equality, as in the power and resources to fulfill one's potential.  As such, a social liberalist connects liberty (i.e. freedom) to the equal distribution of political power (i.e. democracy) in the sense of positive liberty. They argue that liberty without equality means the domination of the most powerful. Thus, freedom and democracy are seen as connected and ultimately, antagonistic.

John Stuart Mill, in his work, On Liberty, was the first to recognize the difference between liberty as the freedom to act and liberty as not being forced to do something.  Mill also sought to define the "nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual” and as such, he describes an inherent and continuous antagonism between liberty and authority and thus, the prevailing question becomes "how to make the fitting adjustment between individual independence and social control".

Types of freedom 
There are mainly nine types of Freedom. They are:

Freedom of association
Freedom of belief
Freedom of speech
Freedom to express oneself
Freedom of the press
Freedom to choose one's state in life
Freedom of religion
Freedom from bondage and slavery
Freedom of education
However, the civil constitutions of each country have different definitions of the freedoms allowed to the citizens. It has been argued that any law limits freedom, since it sets limits on what people may do.

Related pages
 Human rights
 Justice
 Constitutional economics
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
 European Convention on Human Rights

References

Human issues
Philosophy
Freedom
Politics
Dignity

Dignity in humans involves the earning or the expectation of personal respect or esteem.

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood".
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

It is easy to show that many societies do not agree with this in practice. The civilised Greeks and Romans regarded other races as barbarians. A shocking example was Aristotle's advice to Alexander to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'.p58 Many societies based on religion have treated persons of other religions harshly, with little dignity. And sometimes political movements have deliberately and openly talked about and treated some groups as not having human dignity. Nazi treatment of the Jews came after a long period of propaganda against their humanity and dignity.

Related pages
 Human rights
 Pride

References

Other websites
Dignity, article from Parenting For Everyone
Respect at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 Emotional Competency Entry describing Dignity.

Human issues
Virtues
Voluntary association

A voluntary association or union is a group of individuals who  enter into an agreement to form a body (or organization) to work together for a purpose.

In most of the cases no formalities are necessary to start an association. But in some jurisdictions, there is a minimum for the number of persons starting an association, in others the association must register with the police or other official body to inform the public of the association's existence. This is not necessarily a tool of political control but much more a way of protecting the economy from fraud.

Legal status
An unincorporated association has been defined as existing:

"...where two or more persons are bound together for one or more common purposes by mutual undertakings, each having mutual duties and obligations, in an organisation which has rules identifying in whom control of the organisation and its funds is vested, and which can be joined or left at will."

In most countries, an unincorporated association does not have separate legal personality, and nor do members of the association usually enjoy limited liability.  However, in some countries they are treated as having separate legal personality for tax purposes.

Associations that are organized for profit or financial gain are usually called partnerships.  A special kind of partnership is a co-operative which is usually founded on one man–one vote principle and distributes its profits according to the amount of goods produced or bought by the member. Associations may take the form of a non-profit organization or they may be not-for-profit corporations; this does not mean that the association cannot make benefits from its activity, but all the benefits must be reinvested. Most associations have some kind of document or documents that regulate the way in which the body meets and operates. Such an instrument is often called the organization's bylaws, regulations, or agreement of association.

Freedom of association
The freedom of association stands in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
Article 20
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
(2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

Related pages
 Society

Footnotes

Other websites
Law relating to unincorporated associations 
French Association of Epargne and Retraite 

Organizations
Helen Keller

Helen Adams Keller was an American writer and speaker. She was born in Tuscumbia, Alabama in 1880 to Arthur H. Keller and Kate Adams Keller. When she was nineteen months old she became sick and lost her eyesight and hearing. The doctor didn't know what it was, so he called it a "congestion of the stomach and brain." Some people say that it was scarlet fever or meningitis. Communicating with other people was hard for Helen, because she could not see or hear. She made up some home signs that she used to communicate with her family. The home signs were quite simple, pull meant "come", push meant "go" and so on. Sometimes Helen's family did not understand what Helen was meaning with her home signs. That made Helen frustrated and she had temper tantrums. 

When Helen was seven years old, her family decided to find a teacher for her. They wrote to Michael Anagnos, who was the director of the Perkins Institute and Asylum for the Blind. They asked him to help them find a teacher for their daughter. He wrote to them and told them that he knew a young teacher and her name was Annie Sullivan. She had been blind, but a series of operations helped to restore her eyesight. Annie traveled to Alabama to live with Helen’s family and to teach her. Annie went to live with the Keller family in March, 1887.

Annie helped Helen to learn how to communicate with other people. She taught her the names of things by writing the words on Helen’s hand. At first Helen didn't understand the meaning of the words. The first word Helen understood was "water". She learned this word when Annie put Helen's hand under some water and wrote W,A,T,E,R on her hand. Then she learnt the words and sentences with this method. In 1890, Helen’s family sent her to the Perkins Institute to learn how to speak and communicate. When she was nineteen years old, Helen went to Radcliffe College in Massachusetts. She graduated from Radcliffe in 1904. She was the first deaf and blind person to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree.

In 1903, Helen wrote a book about her life. It was called The Story of My Life. The movie The Miracle Worker, made in 1962, was based on Helen's book. She also wrote a book about Annie Sullivan called Teacher. She wrote twelve other books.

Helen tried to help poor people and other blind people during her life. She traveled to over 39 countries with Annie to talk about her life and experiences.  When Helen was in Japan, she met Hachiko, a famous Akita. She decided to adopt an Akita, and was the first person to bring an Akita to America.

Helen Keller wanted to get married. She fell in love with her secretary, but her mother didn't allow Helen to marry him. At that time, disabled people often could not marry. Helen Keller died in her sleep on June 1, 1968, at Arcan Ridge in Connecticut.

References 

1880 births
1968 deaths
Blind people
Industrial Workers of the World
Nonviolence advocates
People from Tuscumbia, Alabama
Writers from Alabama
Deaf people
Pausanias (geographer)

Pausanias (Greek: ) was a Greek traveller and geographer of the 2nd century A.D., who lived in the times of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. He is famous for his Description of Greece (), a lengthy work that describes ancient Greece from firsthand observations. He is a crucial link between classical literature and modern archaeology.

Biography 
Pausanias was probably a native of Lydia; he was certainly familiar with the western coast of Asia Minor, but his travels extended far beyond the limits of Ionia. Before visiting Greece he had been to Antioch, Joppa and Jerusalem, and to the banks of the River Jordan. In Egypt he had seen the Pyramids, while at the temple of Ammon he had been shown the hymn once sent to that shrine by Pindar. In Macedonia he had almost certainly viewed the traditional tomb of Orpheus. Crossing over to Italy, he had seen something of the cities of Campania and of the wonders of Rome. He was one of the first to write of seeing the ruins of Troy, Alexandria Troas, and Mycenae.

Work 
Pausanias' Description of Greece takes the form of a tour in Ionia on the coast of Asia Minor and in the Peloponnese and part of northern Greece. He constantly describes ceremonial rites or superstitious customs. He frequently introduces narratives from the domain of history and of legend and folklore, and it is only rarely that he allows the reader to see something of the scenery.

References

Other websites 

Description of Greece, tr. W.H.S. Jones and H.A. Ormerod (1918)
Description of Greece, Jones translation at Theoi Project
Bibliography (in French)

Further reading 

 Hutton, William 2005, Describing Greece: Landscape and Literature in the Periegesis of Pausanias (Cambridge). .
 Levi, Peter (tr.) 1984a, 1984b, Pausanias: Guide to Greece, 2 vols. (Penguin). Vol. 1 Central Greece ; vol. 2 Southern Greece .
 Pretzler, Maria. "Turning Travel into Text: Pausanias at work", Greece & Rome, Vol. 51, Issue 2 (2004), pp. 199–216.

Ancient Greece
Greek geographers
Dignitas

In Ancient Rome, Dignitas was regarded as the sum of the personal influence that a male citizen acquired throughout his life. It included personal reputation, moral standing, and ethical worth and the man's entitlement to respect and proper treatment as well.

The word does not have a direct connotation or translation in English. Some interpretations include dignity (merely a derivation) and prestige. The Oxford Latin Dictionary defines the expression as fitness, suitability, worthiness, visual impressiveness or distinction, dignity of style and gesture, rank, status, position, standing, esteem, importance, and honor.

Origins 
Authors who had used dignitas extensively in their writings and oratories include M. Tullius Cicero, Julius Caesar, Cornelius Tacitus, and T. Livius (Livy). The most prolific user was Cicero, who initially related it to the established term auctoritas. These two words were highly associated, auctoritas was thought to be the expression of a man’s dignitas.

The changing definition of dignitas 
Over the course of Ancient Roman history, dignitas took on different meanings over time, adjusting for the gradually changing viewpoints of society, politicians, and the various authors.

Years after Caesar's death, his heir Augustus rejected the contemporary meaning of dignitas. Augustus found the related term auctoritas to be a suitable alternative.

References 
Balsdon, J.p.v.d. "Auctoritas, Dignitas, Otium." The Classical Quarterly ns 10 (1960): 43-50.
Cicero, Ad Familiares 4.14
Cicero, Epistulae Ad Familiares. J. Paul Leonard Library, San Fransisco. Cicero, Epistulae ad familiares. San Francisco State University. 18 May 2007 
Radin, Max. "Roman Concepts of Equality." Political Science Quarterly 38 (1923): 262-289.
Ridler, Vivian. "Dignitas." Oxford Latin Dictionary. 1 vols. London: Oxford UP, 1968.

Ancient Rome