cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Cartography

Cartography is making maps. It is part of geography. How people make maps is always changing. In the past, maps were drawn by hand, but today most printed maps are made using computers and people usually see maps on computer screens. Someone who makes maps is called a cartographer.

Making a map can be as simple as drawing a direction on a napkin, or as complicated as showing a whole country or world. Anyone can make a map, but cartographers spend their lives learning how to make better maps.

For many centuries maps were usually carefully drawn onto paper or parchment. Now they are made on a computer which makes them look neater with accurate images.

Maps are of two main types: 
General maps with a variety of features. 
Thematic maps with particular themes for specific audiences.

General maps are produced in a series. Governments produce them in larger-scale and smaller-scale maps of great detail.

Thematic maps are now very common. They are necessary to show spatial, cultural and social data.

References

Related pages 
Topography
Creator

A creator is a person who creates something.

In some religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) God (or Allah meaning the God in Arabic) is the most important and original creator of the whole universe - including Man who is made "in his image" (see Genesis) to observe it and control it like God. The idea that anything that a person is creating, like an idea, can be owned as property comes from the ethical traditions and legal codes that came from these religions.

In other traditions (Buddhism, Native American mythology) anyone has this potential for creating, and can become part of the greater creating of the universe. Stewardship of home, land and all of Earth is a test for participating in this, or just good sense.

Theology
Chorizo

Chorizo is a pork (pig-meat) sausage which people first made in the Iberian Peninsula. It is made with large pieces of fatty pork, chili pepper and paprika. The special taste of this sausage comes from the mild Spanish paprika in it. 

In the western hemisphere, the Mexican and Caribbean types are better known. These types of chorizo are made with smaller pieces of pork and different seasonings and peppers are used.

Cured smoked chorizo is edible and can be eaten without cooking. Fresh chorizo must be cooked before eating. It can be eaten by its self, or as part of meal. It can also be used in place of ground beef or pork.

Sausage
Creativity

Creativity is the ability of a person or group to make something new and useful or valuable, or the process of making something new and useful or valuable. It happens in all areas of life - science, art, literature and music. As a personal ability it is very difficult to measure. The reason is that we don't understand the mental processes that help some people be more creative than others. Judging what is creative is also controversial. Some people say only things which are historically new are creative, while other people say that if it is new for the creator and the people around them, then it is also creativity.

Some think that creativity is an important thing that makes humans different from apes. Others recognize that even apes, other primates, other mammals and some birds adapt to survive by being creative (for example - primates using tools). Liane Gabora believes that all culture comes from creativity, not imitation. Therefore, these people say, human science should focus on it (pay special attention to it): Ethics for example would focus on finding creative solutions to ethical dilemmas. Politics would focus on the political virtues that need some creativity. Imitation would not be the focus of education. Linguistics might be more interested in how new words are created by culture, rather than in how existing ones are used in grammar.

Intellectual interests (recognized as intellectual rights or intellectual property in the law) are a way to reward creativity in law, but they do not always work very well. A good example is copyright which is supposed to pay authors and artists, but may only pay lawyers to make (imitative) arguments in court.

Creativity is a central question in economics, where it is known as ingenuity (the ability to come up with new ideas) or individual capital - capacities that individuals have, that do not arise from simple imitation of what is known already. This is separate from the instructional capital that might try to capture some of that in a patent or training system that helps others do what the individual leader or founder of the system can do. In urban economics there are various ways to measure creativity - the Bohemian Index and Gay Index are two attempts to do this accurately and predict the economic growth of cities based on creativity.

Related pages 
Imagination
Innovation

Human behavior
Cosmology

Cosmology is the branch of astronomy that deals with the origin, structure, evolution and space-time relationships of the universe. NASA defines cosmology as "The study of the structure and changes in the present universe". Another definition of cosmology is "the study of the universe, and humanity's place in it".

Modern cosmology is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational astronomy and particle physics. 

Though the word cosmology is recent (first used in 1730 in Christian Wolff's Cosmologia Generalis), the study of the universe has a long history.

History
Until recently, people thought that the universe was only the Milky Way galaxy. They thought this because they could only see the planets up to Saturn and stars. With the invention of the telescope, we could see more of the universe. Even in the 20th century, people thought that the Milky Way was the entire universe. With the Hubble Space Telescope, people could see things far away.

Modern cosmology is considered to have started in 1917 with the final paper of Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. This paper was known as "Cosmological Considerations of the General Theory of Relativity" which made physicists start to change the assumption that the Universe never changed. When a scientific discipline begins to change an idea that is believed by many people, it is known as a paradigm shift. During this paradigm shift, the Great Debate took place. Many scientists debated if there were other galaxies. The debate ended when Edwin Hubble found Cepheid Variables in the Andromeda Galaxy in 1926.

The Big Bang model was then created by Belgian priest, Georges Lemaître in 1927. This was supported by Edwin Hubble's discovery of the redshift in 1929 and later by the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation. This was found by Arzo Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964. 

All of these discoveries have been further supported throughout the 20th century. Some more observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation were found by the COBE, WMAP, and Planck satellites. Some more observations of the redshift were found by the 2dfGRS and SDSS. These are known as redshift surveys. Survey is this context refers to an astronomical survey. An astronomical survey is a place in space. A redshift survey is a survey that looks for redshifts.

On 1 December 2014, at the Planck 2014 meeting in Ferrara, Italy, astronomers reported that the universe is 13.8 billion years old and is composed of 4.9% regular matter, 26.6% dark matter and 68.5% dark energy.

Related pages
String theory
Earth Science
Inflation

References 

Astrophysics
Cooking

Cooking is a process to make food ready to eat by heating it. Cooking can kill bacteria that may be in the food.

Raw food is food that is not cooked. Some foods are good to eat raw.  Other foods are not good for the body when they are raw, so they must be cooked. Some foods are good to eat either raw or cooked.

Methods
Cooking is often done in a kitchen using a stove or an oven. It can also be done over a fire (for example, over a campfire or on a barbecue).

The heat for cooking can be made in different ways. It can be from an open fire that burns wood or charcoal. It can be on a stove or in an oven that uses propane, natural gas, or electricity.

There are several different ways to cook food. Boiling cooks food in hot water. Frying (deep or shallow) cooks food in hot butter, fat or oil.  Baking and roasting cook food by surrounding it with hot air. Grilling means cooking food on a metal grill that has heat under it.

People often cook meat by boiling, roasting, frying, or grilling it. Some foods such as bread or pastries are usually baked.

Usually food is cooked in some kind of pot or pan.  Sometimes people cook food by putting it directly into the fire, or by wrapping the food in leaves before they put it into the fire.

Cooks 

A person whose job it is to cook food may be called a cook or a chef.  The word cooker means a machine or tool that a cook might use to cook food. Rice cookers and pressure cookers are examples.

References 

 
Basic English 850 words
Chat

To chat is to talk about ordinary things that are not very important. A person can chat with another person, or to many people. People also use this word now for parts of the Internet where we can talk with many different people at the same time. Usually, people chat on the Internet in a chat room or messaging service like AOL Instant Messenger (AIM), Yahoo Messenger Windows Live Messenger or Tencent QQ. There are also programs which let people use different messaging services from one program, such as Pidgin.

Related pages
 Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
 Conversation

Human communication
Internet communication
Messaging
Cup

A cup is any kind of container used for holding liquid and drinking. These include:

teacup
paper cup

Cup may also mean:

Measuring cup, a measuring instrument for liquids and powders, used primarily in cooking
Cup (unit), a customary unit of volume and measure
Cancer of unknown primary origin, form of cancer
The cup of a brassière, the part that covers the breasts
A cup-shaped trophy or award for winning in a sport

Basic English 850 words
Time Cube

Time Cube was a personal website created on 1997 by Otis Eugene Ray. On that website, Ray explained his theory of everything, known as "Time Cube". It described the planet Earth as having a cubic symmetry, and time as rotating four "corners". He also said that all of modern physics is wrong. Scientists reject these ideas, saying that they make no sense and cannot be tested.

The Time Cube website was written in an angry and hateful voice. On his site, Ray said that not believing in Time Cube would be "stupid and evil". Some of the comments were racist and discriminatory, especially against black people and Jews. There were also many comments against gay people. Many people found the site to be difficult to understand. 

Ray spoke about Time Cube at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in January 2002. At MIT, a professor tried to cancel the lecture before it took place. Ray believed this is proof of a conspiracy to keep information about Time Cube hidden. Ray also spoke about Time Cube at the Georgia Institute of Technology in April 2005.

Otis Eugene Ray died on March 18, 2015. He was 87 years old. The website went down on August 2015. It was last archived by the Wayback Machine on January 12, 2016.

Related pages 
 Conspiracy theory
 Pseudoscience

References 

Pseudoscience
American websites
1997 establishments in the United States
Conspiracy theories
Census of Marine Life

The Census of Marine Life was a ten-year survey of life in the oceans, starting in 2000. Its head was Ron O'Dor of Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. It used data from researchers all over the world. More than 70 nations were involved and over a billion US dollars were spent on it.

It was a major work of marine ecology. It was founded by J. Frederick Grassle.

The purpose of the Census of Marine Life was to say what is alive in our seas and oceans.

Other websites 
 Census of Marine Life website

Biological oceanography
Maize

Maize or Indian corn (called corn in some countries) is Zea mays, a member of the grass family Poaceae. It is a cereal grain which was first grown by people in ancient Central America. Approximately 1 billion tonnes are harvested every year. However, little of this maize is eaten directly by humans. Most is used to make corn ethanol, animal feed and other maize products, such as corn starch and corn syrup.

Maize is a leafy stalk whose kernels have seeds inside. It is an angiosperm, which means that its seeds are enclosed inside a fruit or shell. It is has long been a staple food by many people in Mexico, Central and South America and parts of Africa. In Europe and the rest of North America, maize is grown mostly for use as animal feed. In Canada and the United States, maize is commonly referred to as "corn".  

Centuries of cross breeding have produced larger plants, and specialized varieties. Corn has become an important ingredient in American foods through the use of corn starch. People have long eaten sweet corn and popcorn with little processing, and other kinds after processing into flour for making cornbread, tortillas, and other artificial foods.

Maize has been a fruitful model organism for research in genetics for many years: see Barbara McClintock. Research has shown that artificial selection developed maize from a Mexican plant called Teosinte.

The genus Zea 
There are five species and many subspecies in the genus. They are all plants similar to the cultivated maize, with less developed cobs. The wild ones are sometimes called teosintes, and they are all native to Mesoamerica.

References 

 
Model organisms
Civics

Civics is the study of government.  It most often refers to studying government in high school to prepare to be a good citizen.  In college, civics is usually called political science.  Since a city has the most unsimple government problems, the word for this study is like that for city.

Theories of civics can be grouped as:

Anarchist
Capitalist
Democrat
Green
Libertarian
Republican

Politics
Coin

A coin is a piece of metal that is used as currency, or money. Coins have been made for about 2600 years. The first place to make coins was Lydia (modern Turkey). These coins were made of precious metals and allowed people to trade with a standard amount of metal.

Most people use coins as currency. They usually have lower value than banknotes. Most are made in government mints.

Appearance 
Many coins have unique or complicated decorations; one side often has the picture of a famous or important person's head on it. 

The different decorations on each side of a coin might be used to decide things randomly. This is called "tossing a coin".  A person can throw the coin into the air and catch it.  You then look at which side is facing up. If the head is facing up it is called "heads", if the other side is facing up it is called "tails". Before tossing the coin someone has to decide what each side means. Tossing a coin can be a type of gambling, which is illegal (against the law) in some countries.

Other views 
Some people see coins as a sign of greed, such as some Communists and Puritans, who sometimes condemn over-hoarding of coins, and ascetics, who often keep little in the ways of money (coins), leading a "poor"-lifestyle.

Collecting 

Because coins have been made for a very long time, some people collect old coins. They can be much cheaper than other old things, especially if they are made of cheap metals like copper. Older coins normally cost more than newer ones, but rarity matters more-some coins from the 1920s cost vast sums, while some Roman coins cost very little.

References 

Currency
Conceptual metaphor

A conceptual metaphor or cognitive metaphor is a metaphor which refers to one domain (group of ideas) in terms of another. For example, treating quantity in terms of direction:
Prices are rising.
I attacked every weak point in his argument. (Argument as war rather than enquiry or search for truth).
Life is a journey.
Love talked about as if it were war or competition.
Time talked about as if it were a path through space, or a quantity that can be saved or spent or wasted.

The idea of a conceptual metaphor came from a book by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in 1980: Metaphors we live by.
"The most recent linguistic approach to literature is that of cognitive metaphor, which claims that metaphor is not a mode of language, but a mode of thought". Donald Freeman.
A convention is to write conceptual metaphors in small capital letters, e.g. , with the target domain (idea being referred to) first, here "money," and the source domain (terms used to refer to it) second.

Political metaphors 
 eminence grise: literally, "grey man," from French. Colloquially, the power-behind-the-throne. An official close to the president or monarch who has so much power behind the scenes that he or she may double or serve as the monarch.
 figurehead: a leader whose powers are entirely symbolic, such as a constitutional monarch.
 puppet government: a government that is manipulated by a foreign power for its own interests.
 star chamber: a secretive council or other group within a government that possesses the actual power, regardless of the government's overt form.
 character assassination: spreading (usually) manufactured stories about a candidate with the intent to destroy his or her reputation in the eyes of the public.
 landslide victory: a huge victory for one side.
 riding coattails: victories by local or state politicians because of the popularity of more powerful politicians.
 grassroots: a political movement driven by the constituents of a community.
 astroturfing: public relations campaigns in politics and advertising that try to create the impression of being spontaneous, grassroots behavior.
 straw man: the practice of refuting an argument that is weaker than one's opponent actually offers, or which he simply has not put forth at all. A type of logical fallacy.
 spin (public relations): a heavily biased portrayal of an event or situation.
 witch-hunt: the hysterical pursuit of political enemies
 bread and circuses: satisfaction of shallow or immediate desires of the populace at the expense of good policy; also, the erosion of civic duty and the public life in a populace.

There are many more, enough to prove the importance of the metaphor in our lives.

Notes 

Metaphors
Comet

A comet is a ball of mostly ice that moves around in outer space. Comets are often described as "dirty snowballs". They are very different from asteroids.  The orbital inclinations of comets are usually high and not near the ecliptic where most solar system objects are found. Most of them are long-period comets and come from the Kuiper belt. That is very far away from the Sun, but some of them also come near enough to Earth for us to see at night.  

They have long "tails", because the Sun melts the ice. A comet's tail  does not trail behind it, but points directly away from the Sun, because it is blown by the solar wind.
The hard centre of the comet is the nucleus. It is one of the blackest things (lowest albedo) in the solar system. When light shone on the nucleus of Halley's Comet, the comet reflected only 4% of the light back to us.

Periodic comets visit again and again. Non-periodic or single-apparition comets visit only once.

Comets sometimes break up, as Comet Biela  did in the 19th century.  Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 broke up, and the pieces hit Jupiter in 1994. Some comets orbit (go around) together in groups. Astronomers think these comets are broken pieces that used to be one object.

Famous comets 

Halley's
Hale-Bopp
Shoemaker-Levy 9
Ikeya seki

History of comets 
For thousands of years, people feared comets. They did not know what they were, or where they came from. Some thought that they were fireballs sent from demons or gods to destroy the earth. They said that each time a comet appeared, it would bring bad luck with it. Whenever a comet appeared, a king would die. For example, the Bayeux Tapestry shows the return of Halley's Comet and the death of a king. Comets were also known to end wars and thought to bring famine. During the Renaissance, astronomers started to look at comets with less superstition and to base their science on observations. Tycho Brahe reasoned that comets did not come from the earth, and his measurements and calculations showed that comets must be six times farther than the earth is from the moon.

Edmond Halley reasoned that some comets are periodic, that is, they appear again after a certain number of years, and again and again. This led to the first prediction of a comet's return, Halley's Comet, named after him.

Isaac Newton also studied comets. He realised that comets make U-turns around the sun. He asked his friend Edmond Halley to publish this in his book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Before Newton said this, people believed that comets go in to the sun, then another comes out from behind the sun. 

In later years, some astronomers thought comets were spit out by planets, especially Jupiter.

All this new information and research gave people confidence, but some still thought that comets were messengers from the gods. One 18th century vision said that comets were the places that hell was, where souls would ride, being burned up by the heat of the sun and frozen by the cold of space.

In modern times, space probes have visited comets to learn more about them.

Related pages
List of comets

Other websites 
Are Comets Made of Antimatter?
Cytology

Cytology is the study of the cells, especially their appearance and structure. Cells are the small parts that make up all living things, and their effects on each other and their environment.

There are two types of cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have a clear and easy-to-see nucleus, and do not have a membrane, or wall, around them. Eukaryotic cells have an easy-to-see nucleus where all of the cell's functions take place, and a membrane around them. The main organelles of a cell and their uses are: 
 Mitochondria: produces energy for the cell
 Endoplasmic reticulum: makes proteins and carbohydrates for the cell to use
 Golgi bodies: store and package products that the cell uses
 Plastid (present in plant cells only): contains chemicals needed to photosynthesize (create energy from sunlight); in plants only.
 Nucleus: directs the actions of the cell
 Centrosomes: guides the cell in mitosis and meiosis, the processes for cell division.

Related pages
Cell biology is mostly about how cells work, and about cell division and molecular biology.
Histology deals with techniques for looking at tissues under a microscope.
Cytopathology is a medical discipline that deals with techniques for looking at cells under a microscope.

 
Molecular biology
Christian

A Christian () is a person who believes in Christianity, a monotheistic religion. Christianity is mostly about the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, in the New Testament and interpreted of prophesied in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament.  Christianity is the world's largest religion, with 2.1 billion followers around the world. 

Christians consider the Holy Bible to be a sacred book, inspired by God.  The Holy Bible is a combination of the Hebrew Bible, or Torah, and a collection of writings called the New Testament.  Views on the importance of these writings vary.  Some Christian groups prefer to favor the New Testament, while others believe the entire Bible is equally important.  Also, while many Christians prefer to consider the Bible as fully true, not all Christian groups believe that it is completely accurate. 

The question of "Who is a Christian?" can be very difficult.  Christians often disagree over this due to their differences in opinion on spiritual matters. In countries where most persons were baptized in the state church or the majority Christian church, the term "Christian" is a default label for citizenship or for "people like us".
In this context, religious or ethnic minorities can use "Christians" or "you Christians" as a term for majority members of society who do not belong to their group - even in a very secular (though formerly Christian) society.

Persons who are more devoted the their Christian faith prefer not to use the word so broadly, but only use it to refer to those who are active in their Christian religion and really believe the teachings of Jesus and their church.  In some Christian movements (especially Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism), to be a born-again Christian is to undergo a  "spiritual rebirth" by believing in the Bible's teachings about Jesus and choosing to follow him.

Many Christians choose to go to church. Most Christians believe this to be a sign of their religious devotion to God and an act of worship.  However, some Christian groups think that one can be a Christian without ever going to a church.  Though there are many different viewpoints on the issue, most Protestants believe all Christians are part of the spiritual church of Christ, whether or not those Christians go to an actual church each week.  On the other hand, Catholics in the past have believed that the Holy Catholic Church is the only true church.

Related pages
 Christianity
 Religion
 Salvation
 Meitei Christians

References 

Christians
Cheese

Cheese is a dairy product that is made from milk. There are many types of cheese, such as cheddar, Swiss, and provolone. 

Many things affect the form, texture, colour and flavour of a cheese. These include the milk (cow or goat), if the milk has been pasteurized, the amount of butterfat, bacteria and mold in the cheese, how the cheese is made, how much fat is in the cheese, and how old the cheese is.

Origin 
People have been making cheese since before history was written down. It is not known when cheese was first made. It is known that cheese was eaten by the Sumerians in about 4000 BC.

Production 
Cheese is made using milk. The milk of cows, goats, and sheep are most popular. Buffalo, camel, donkey and even hippopotamus milk can also be used. Cheese makers usually cook the milk in large pots. 
Most cheeses are acidified by bacteria. This bacteria turns milk sugars (such as lactose) into lactic acid. 

Salt is added, and a substance from the stomach of young cows called rennet. This curdles the cheese and makes it solid. Some makers do not add rennet, but curdle the cheese in other ways. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are made by fermentation of a fungus called Mucor miehei. Other alternatives use species of the Cynara thistle family.

Other ingredients are added and the cheese is usually aged for a varied length of time.

Classification 
There are many different ways to classify cheeses. Some ways include:
 How long the cheese was aged 
 The texture of the cheese. These include Hard, Soft and Softer.
 How the cheese was made
 What type of milk was used to make the cheese. This is mainly what animal the milk comes from, such as cows, sheep, and goats. The diet of the animal can also affect the type of cheese made from its milk.
 How much fat is in the cheese
 What color the cheese is (common colors are yellow, and white)

There are also man-made foods that some people use instead of cheese. These are called Cheese analogues.

Different types of cheese include:

References

Other websites

Basic English 850 words
Constitution

The constitution of a country (or a state) is a special type of law document that tells how its government is supposed to work. It tells how the country's leaders are to be chosen and how long they get to stay in office, how new laws are made and old laws are to be changed or removed based on law, what kind of people are allowed to vote and what other rights they are guaranteed, and how the constitution can be changed.

Limits are put on the Government in how much power they have within the Constitution (see Rule of Law ). On the other hand, countries with repressive or corrupt governments frequently do not stick to their constitutions, or have bad constitutions without giving freedom to citizens and others. This can be known as dictatorship or simply "bending the rules". A Constitution is often a way of uniting within a Federation.

The UK's constitution is not written in one single document like many other countries' are. In fact, the UK's constitution is not completely written down at all. Some of it can be found in writing, starting with the Magna Carta of 1215 and the Bill of Rights Act 1689 and including more modern Acts of Parliament. Other parts of it are considered common law and are made up of the decisions of judges over many hundreds of years in a system called legal or judicial precedence. Because of this, some people say that the United Kingdom has a de facto or "unwritten" constitution.
 
The United States in 1787 began a trend in the writing of constitutions. The United States Constitution is also the shortest that people are still using, and it has been changed (amended) many times over the years. It was made after the colonists won their independence from Britain. At first they had the Articles of Confederation but the Articles were replaced with today's Constitution.

The Indian constitution of 1950 is the longest ever written constitution in the world. It  has 448 Articles and 12 Schedules in it, with 5 appendices and 98 amendments.

Related pages
 Constitutional law
 Constitutionalism
 Constitutional economics
 Democracy
 International law
 Jurisprudence
 Rule of law
 Social contract
 US Constitution

References
Circle

A circle is a round, two-dimensional shape. All points on the edge of the circle are at the same distance from the center. 

The radius of a circle is a line from the center of the circle to a point on the side. Mathematicians use the letter  for the length of a circle's radius. The center of a circle is the point in the very middle. It is often written as .

The diameter (meaning "all the way across") of a circle is a straight line that goes from one side to the opposite and right through the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter  for the length of this line. The diameter of a circle is equal to twice its radius ( equals 2 times ):

The circumference (meaning "all the way around") of a circle is the line that goes around the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter  for the length of this line.

The number π (written as the Greek letter pi) is a very useful number. It is the length of the circumference divided by the length of the diameter ( equals  divided by ). As a fraction the number  is equal to about  or  (which is closer) and as a number it is about 3.1415926535.

The area, , inside a circle is equal to the radius multiplied by itself, then multiplied by  ( equals  times  times ).

Calculating π
 can be measured by drawing a circle, then measuring its diameter () and circumference (). This is because the circumference of a circle is always equal to  times its diameter.

 can also be calculated by only using mathematical methods. Most methods used for calculating the value of  have desirable mathematical properties. However, they are hard to understand without knowing trigonometry and calculus. However, some methods are quite simple, such as this form of the Gregory-Leibniz series:

While that series is easy to write and calculate, it is not easy to see why it equals . A much easier way to approach is to draw an imaginary circle of radius  centered at the origin. Then any point (,) whose distance  from the origin is less than , calculated by the Pythagorean theorem, will be inside the circle:

Finding a set of points inside the circle allows the circle's area  to be estimated, for example, by using integer coordinates for a big . Since the area  of a circle is  times the radius squared,  can be approximated by using the following formula:

Calculating the area, circumference, diameter and radius of a circle

Area 
Using its radius: 

Using its diameter: 

Using its circumference:

Circumference 
Using its diameter: 

Using its radius: 

Using its area:

Diameter 
Using its radius: 

Using its circumference: 

Using its area:

Radius 
Using its diameter: 

Using its circumference: 

Using its area:

Related pages
 Semicircle
 Sphere
 Squaring the circle
Pi
Pi (letter)
 Tau

References

Other websites 

 Calculate the measures of a circle online 

Shapes
Conic sections
Capitalization

Capitalise (British spelling) or capitalize (North American spelling) means to make one or more letters upper case.  The first letter of a sentence is capitalised in many languages, as are the first letters of proper nouns such as names of people and places. In German, however, all nouns are capitalized. It is the only language to do that.

In the Latin alphabet, which is used in English, these are the upper case or capital letters:

A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,U,V,W,X,Y,Z

These are the lower case letters:

a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z

The homonym capitalize is a different word, and means "to fully fund as an investment".

Grammar
Cube

A cube is a type of polyhedron with all right angles and whose height, width and depth are all the  same. It is a type of rectangular prism, which is itself a type of hexahedron.

A cube is one of the simplest mathematical shapes in space. Something that is shaped like a cube is sometimes referred to as cubic.
Surface area of cube=6l^2
Lateral Surface area of cube=4l^2
Volume of cube=l^3

Relative 2-dimensional shape 
The basic difference between a cube and a square is, a cube is a 3D figure (having 3 dimensions) i.e. length, breadth and height while a square has only 2 dimensions i.e. length and breadth.
The 2-dimensional (2D) shape (like a circle, square, triangle, etc.) that a cube is made of is squares. The sides (faces) of a cube are squares. The edges are straight lines. The corners (vertices) are at right angles.  A cube has 8 corners, 12 edges and 6 faces, as in the most usual kind of dice.  A tesseract carries this idea into the fourth dimension (4D) and is made of 8 cubes.

Volume 
 The volume of a cube is the length of any one of the edges (they are all the same length so it does not matter which edge is used) cubed. 
 This means you multiply the number by itself, and then by itself again. 
 If the edge is named 'd' (See Diagram), the equation would be this: Volume=d×d×d (or Volume=d3).

Cube shaped figures 
 Dice
 Boxes

Platonic solids
Cost of living

Cost of living is the amount of money it costs just to live in a certain place.  It includes food, housing, etc.

Economics
Dublin

Dublin () is the capital of the Republic of Ireland, and the biggest city on the island of Ireland. In 2011, there were over 1.1 million people living in the Greater Dublin Area.

Dublin was built by the Vikings upon the river Liffey. The river divides the city into two parts, North Dublin and South Dublin.

Many famous writers lived in Dublin. Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw were born in Dublin. James Joyce is probably Dublin's best known and most international writer.

Dublin is home to Ireland's largest stadium for all sports, Croke Park. It can hold up to 85,000 people. Croke Park is the usual venue for all Ireland hurling and football finals. The Aviva Stadium hosts rugby and soccer.

Notes

References

Other websites 

 "The Reflecting City"
 Dublin GDP stats 
 WikiSatellite view of Dublin at WikiMapia
 The Dublin Community Blog
 Satellite map of Dublin - Including local geographic features.
 Dublin - Tourist information.

 
County towns in Ireland
Dissolution of the monasteries

The dissolution of the monasteries was an event that happened from 1536 to 1540, when English King Henry VIII took away the land and money that the nuns and monks of the Roman Catholic church owned. Henry VIII then gave this land and money to people that supported him.

This was also when Henry VIII made himself the new head of the Church of England (which is a type of Christianity). Parliament made the Act of Supremacy to give him the right to do both these things. It was part of the Protestant Reformation in England.

History of the British Isles
Anglicanism
Protestant Reformation
Deadline

A deadline is a time by which some task must be completed.

Very often, it means a time limit that is set in place by an authority - for example, a teacher tells students that they must turn in their homework in by a certain time. This is so the teacher is able to report fairly to his or her principal that every student had the same chance to do the work.

Deadlines may also be set by a time horizon that comes from something that is not a human authority, but part of nature.  For example, by sunset one must do those tasks requiring daylight.  However, a human must watch the sun and decide what light is strong enough to still be daylight, so time limits will still be involved even if one observes a horizon and sets a deadline oneself.

A way to remember this is that a time horizon is like the physical horizon where sunset happens and a time limit is a thing people set up to deal with this. A deadline is a thing powerful people set up to ensure less powerful people comply with their way of doing things.

time
Planning
Problem solving
Dutton's Speedwords

Dutton Speedwords is a  made-up language written by Reginald John Garfield Dutton. The idea of Dutton Speedwords is to make frequent words short, and very frequent words very short. Dutton Speedwords can be used as a second language for international communications. Dutton Speedwords is also a shorthand writing system – this means you can use it to write quickly. 

The method was made up by Reginald John Garfield Dutton (1886-1970) in 1922. It was first published in 1935. It was called International Symbolic Script. A year later, it was called Speedwords. It was changed in 1946 and 1951.

It has two uses; to be a language and to be used for writing quickly. Dutton hoped that this would mean more people would learn it because they could use it for two reasons.

The books that Dutton wrote about Speedwords are not printed anymore. But Speedwords is now being used by more people because they find it is good for working online. For example, it makes it faster to type an email.

Another way of writing quickly is Pitman's shorthand. This uses special symbols instead of letters. Speedwords uses Roman letters. This makes it easier to learn. It also means it can be typed using a normal keyboard. Each word means only one thing. This means you do not need to use different forms of the same word.

The words used in Speedwords are the same as the words used in many other languages. The words are like short versions of the writer's own language.

Other websites 

 overview of Speedwords by Richard K Harrison 1994

Constructed languages
Dimension

Dimensions are the way we see, measure and experience our world, by using up and down, right to left, back to front, hot and cold, how heavy and how long, as well as more advanced concepts from mathematics and physics. One way to define a dimension is to look at the degrees of freedom, or the way an object can move in a specific space. There are different concepts or ways where the term dimension is used, and there are also different definitions. There is no definition that can satisfy all concepts. 

In a vector space  (with vectors being "arrows" with directions), the dimension of , also written as , is equal to the cardinality (or number of vectors) of a basis of  (a set which indicates how many unique directions  actually has). It is also equal to the number of the largest group of straight line directions of that space. "Normal" objects in everyday life are specified by three dimensions, which are usually called length, width and depth. Mathematicians call this concept Euclidean space.

Dimensions can be used to measure position too. The distance to a position from a starting place can be measured in the length, width and height directions. These distances are a measure of the position.

In some occasions, a fourth (4D) dimension, time, is used to show the position of an event in time and space.

Other Dimensions
In modern science, people use other dimensions. Dimensions like temperature and weight can be used to show the position of something in less simple spaces. Scientist study those dimension with dimensional analysis.

Mathematicians also use dimensions. In mathematics, dimensions are more general. Dimensions in mathematics might not measure things in the world. The rules for doing arithmetic with dimensions in mathematics might be different than usual arithmetic rules.

Dimensions and vectors
Vectors are used to show distances and directions. Vectors are often used in engineering and science, and sometimes in mathematics.

A vector is a list of numbers. There is one number for each dimension. There are arithmetic rules for vectors.

For example, if Jane wants to know the position of Sally, Sally can give Jane a vector to show the position. If Jane and Sally are in the world, there are three dimensions. Therefore, Sally gives Jane a list of three numbers to show her position. The three numbers in the vector Sally gives Jane might be:
 Sally's distance north of Jane
 Sally's distance east of Jane
 Sally's height above Jane

Related pages 

 3D
 Hypercube, generalization of square and cube beyond three dimensions
 Minkowski spacetime, a four-dimensional manifold
 Space-time

References 

Geometry
Algebra
Distance

Distance is how far one thing is from another thing. It is also a measure of the space between two things. It can be measured along any path. Thus, someone who goes around in a circle has traveled a distance, even though his position has not changed.

In geometry, the distance between two points A and B is sometimes written as . Pythagorean theorem is often used in the calculation of distance. Distance is a scalar, and thus is different from displacement.  Displacement is a vector that measures distance with a straight line (and in only one path). Displacement is the shortest way to travel the distance.

Examples 
 One ball is 5 feet from another ball. The distance between the two balls is 5 feet.
 John walks at a speed of 6 kilometres per hour for one hour. John walks a distance of 6 kilometres. 
 A circle is a curved line. Each point on the circle is the same distance from the centre of the circle.

Related pages 

 Euclidean distance
 Norm (mathematics)

References 

Physical quantity
Mathematics
Depth



Depth in Mathematics 

In math, the distance between the nearest end and farthest end of an object is its depth.

For example, Jane measures a box.  When she measures the distance between the end of the box closest to her and the end of the box farthest away, Jane measures the box's depth.

See
 Volume
 Geometry
 Width
 Height
 Length

Depth in Liquids 

For liquids, the distance between the top or surface of the liquid and the bottom of the liquid is the liquid's depth.

For example, water is a liquid.  If you fill a container with water, the distance between the top of the water and the bottom of the container is the water's depth.  If the depth is big we say the water is deep. 

Physical quantity
Definition

A definition is an exact word or phrase of the meaning, nature, or limits of something. A definition usually answers the question what. Defining means giving a definition. Other words with this meaning are description and explanation. It describes what a word means and explains to the person when and where it can be used.

In mathematics, a definition is an exact way of saying what something is.  It might not be the easiest way to say what it is, but it is used because it is exact.  It can be used in a mathematical proof about the thing.

Words
Diesel-electric

A diesel-electric engine is a diesel generator, a diesel engine that drives an electric generator. The generator feeds electric power to an electric motor which turns a driveshaft.  Its efficiency is higher than when an engine drives a shaft through gears.  Most locomotives and many ships use diesel-electric drive.

Many diesel-electric drives, especially small ones, store the electricity in a battery. Some designs also store braking energy in a flywheel, which can also charge a battery. However, these add even more complexity and weight to the vehicle, so are more appropriate for city driving where service stations are always available and there is much stop and go driving.

Because they do not require any change or investment in stations nor much in vehicle design, diesel-electric vehicles are believed to be the most likely replacement for today's internal combustion engine. When properly tuned, they have low emissions and they use only about one-third of the fossil fuel of most gasoline engines powering similar vehicles.

Honda and Toyota are presently delivering consumer priced diesel-electric cars. By contrast, hydrogen infrastructure is thought to be decades off, and is not fully implemented even in Iceland where there is abundant free geothermal electricity.

In countries like India, government is focusing on fully electric trains rather than diesel electric. That too electricity will be produced by renewable sources like Solar.

Many activists feel that promoting hydrogen is a stall, a way to avoid forcing the shift to diesel-electric vehicles in the nearer term.

Motors
Embassy

A foreign embassy is the official office of one country in another. It is usually in the capital city of the other country. It is where the ambassador and other representatives of the home country work. Much of the diplomacy (talk) between the two governments happens there.  They represent their country to the host government.

Politics
Et cetera

Et cetera means "and the rest" in Latin. It is often used in English to continue a list that is longer than what can be normally written. People most often write "et cetera" as etc.. Very rarely, it is also written "&c" because the ampersand, or the "&", is the same as "et", having been formed by  'e' and 't' being joined into a single letter. It is also the symbol for "and". Some people write it as "ect", but that is wrong since it incorrectly abbreviates "et cetera".

 "Jane has a lot of pets. She has cats, dogs, cows, horses, kangaroos, rabbits, etc."
 "Robert ordered a large amount of groceries in order to stock for later. He ordered carrots, tomatoes, potatoes, eggs, etc."

Latin phrases