cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Magician

A magician is an entertainer who does illusions and magic tricks by learning about the tricks of the mind and using them to his/her advantage; magicians will occasionally use props, such as a pack of cards. 

The most famous magicians are:
 Harry Houdini
 David Copperfield
 Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin
 David Blaine
 P.C. Sorcar
 Doug Henning

Harry Potter is a fictional magician who uses words to create magic.

Related pages
 List of magicians

 
Entertainment occupations
Republic P-47 Thunderbolt

The P-47 Thunderbolt (also called The Jug ) was a fighter aircraft made by Republic Aviation. It first flew in 1941, and was introduced in 1942. It had a very big Pratt and Whitney R-2800-59 engine, which had more than 2,000 horsepower. Because of this, the P-47 could go more than 430 miles per hour. In fact, it was the biggest engine ever at the time.  It had 8 machine guns, 2 more than most fighters. It's shape and speed made it similar to the Fw 190.

During 1944, the P-51 Mustang was lighter, faster, and could turn better. Because of this, it started replacing the P-47 as a fighter. The P-47 was then used for bombing in late World War II. It was retired from the American Air National Guard in 1955.

Now, there is a jet called the A-10 Thunderbolt II, and it is named after the P-47.

Related pages
P-40 Warhawk

References 

United States Army aircraft
World War II American aircraft
Judo

is a modern Japanese martial art and Olympic sport.  It was developed in 1882 by Jigorō Kanō.

Judo is very scientific in its training methods and fighting techniques.

History
Judo grew out of an older martial art, Jujutsu or Jū-jutsu.

Jujutsu was an ancient and deadly martial art which used chokes, throws, joint locks, and strikes. Kanō created judo by using techniques which were common in jujutsu. He eliminated techniques that he thought were dangerous in training, so that students could train with resistance.Some basic throws are Tai-otoshi and De-ashi-barai (these are in Japanese). There are two types: groundwork and feet work. Ground work is when both players are on the ground. Usually the attacker would be on top and the uke (defender) would be on the bottom.  In feet work both players would move along the mat in a variety of moves.  Every once in a while a player will throw his/her opponent on the floor.  In competitions the players will go full on for each other and once someone has thrown his/hers opponent down they need to hold them down for 20 seconds or the point won't count.  The person who has the most points at the end wins a gold, silver or bronze.

Related pages
 Sports in Japan
 Boxing
 Fencing
 Sport
 Wrestling

References

Other websites

 
Sport in Japan
Humus

Humus (or humous) is the organic matter in the soil. It is made of dead parts of plants and animals. Humus takes in water and has plenty of nutrients. Nitrogen is the most important. Plants put roots into the soil to get the water and nutrients. Humus is good for plants because it is like a sponge.

The dark colour of humus (usually black or dark brown) helps to warm up cold soils in the spring.

How this happens 
When plants and insects die they are first raw organic matter. Bacteria and fungi eat the raw material, but they do not eat all of it. They leave a small amount behind. The part they leave behind is named "humus". This activity is dynamic and keeps happening. There is always more dead material arriving on top. So the soil always has organic material in it, along with small pieces of rock.

In agriculture, "humus" usually means mature compost, or some taken naturally from a forest, where it may have lived for many years.

Related pages
Biomass
Organic matter

Agriculture
Soil
Soil science

Soil science deals with soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth.

It includes soil formation, classification and mapping.

But many more sciences deal with knowledge of soils and the advancement of the soil sciences: engineering, agronomists, chemistry, geology, geography, biology, microbiology, sylviculture, public health, archaeology, and regional planning.

"Soil" refers to anything between the top of the dirt and the top of the underlying rock (called "bedrock"). Soil is often broken into layers. The top layer is high in organic matter (roting plants and such). Then there is a layer of layer of soil where rain water has removed some metals (called "leaching"). Those metals get collected in another, lower layer. Finally, there is a layer made up mostly of broken bits of bedrock. A soil can have all of these layers, or only a few.

Soils are important because most groundwater, which is used in everything from city water supplies to farming, is found in soil, not bedrock.

Fields of application in soil science
 Soil survey
 Soil management
 Standard methods of analysis
 Soil fertility / Nutrient management
 Ecosystem studies
 Climate change
 Watershed and wetland studies
 Pedotransfer function

References

Related disciplines 
 Agricultural sciences
 Irrigation management
 Anthropology
 archaeological stratigraphy
 Environmental science
 Landscape ecology
 Geography
 Physical geography
 Geology
 Hydrology
 Hydrogeology
 Waste management
 Wetland science

Other websites
 Certified Professional Soil Scientist 
 Registered Professional Soil Scientist  (PDF)
SoilScience.info
SoilScience.info's Daily Dirt - Soil Science in Mainstream Media and Popular Press 
SoilScience.info's Job Listings  

Earth sciences
Soil
Queen's Counsel

Queen's Counsel (postnominal QC), during the reign of a male sovereign known as King's Counsel (KC), are senior lawyers in various Commonwealth countries.

They are appointed by letters patent to be one of "Her Majesty's Counsel learned in the law".  They are not a separate type of lawyer. They are more than long serving lawyers,  because their status is given by the Crown and recognised by the courts. 

Queen's Counsel have the privilege of sitting within the Bar of court, and wear silk gowns of a special design (hence the informal title Silks).   The special robes are the reason why becoming a QC is often called "taking silk".

In order to "take silk" a lawyer usually has to serve as a barrister or a Scottish advocate for at least 10 years. Recently solicitors have also been appointed Queen's Counsel.

A QC's status means they generally charge higher fees than ordinary barristers, and always have another barrister as an assistant.  This assistant is called a "junior" even if the junior has been a lawyer longer than the "silk".
Pedogenesis

Pedogenesis or soil evolution (formation) is how soil is created.

Climate regulates soil formation. Soils develop more in areas with more rainfall and more warmth. The rate of chemical weathering increases by 2-3 times when the temperature increases by 10 degrees Celsius (50°F). Climate also affects which organisms are present, affecting the soil chemically and physically (movement of roots, burrowing by animals).

The organisms living in and on the soil form distinct soil types. Coniferous forests have acidic leaf litter. Mixed or deciduous forests leave a larger layer of humus. Prairies have very high humus accumulation, creating a dark, thick soil.

The rock from which soil is formed is called 'parent material' (bedrock). The main types are: eolian (wind), glacial material, alluvium, lake material other parent materials.

Pedogenesis is the major topic of the science of pedology. Its other aspects include the soil morphology, classification (taxonomy) of soils,  and their distribution in nature.

Related pages
Topography

References 
 Buol, Stanley W; F.D. Hole & R.W. McCracken. 1997. Soil genesis and classification. 4th ed, Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames. 
 Hole Francis D. & J.B. Campbell. 1985. Soil landscape analysis. Totowa Rowman & Allanheld. 

Geology
11 (number)

11 (eleven  or ) is a number. It comes between ten and twelve, is an odd number, and is a prime number, after 2, 3, 5, and 7.

Integers
Prime numbers
12 (number)

Twelve is a number. It comes between eleven and thirteen, and it is an even number. It is divisible by 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12. Its ordinal is 12th (twelfth). In Roman numerals, it is written as XII. It is the base of duodecimal numbers. It is often called dozen.

12 is also referred to as, The Twelve Imams or the Twelve Apostles of Christ

Mathematics
 Twelve is the first abundant number.

References

Integers
14 (number)

Fourteen is a number. It is between 13 and 15. It is an even number.  It is divisible by 1, 2, 7, and 14.

In Roman numerals, 14 is written as XIV.

Integers
Rock (geology)

A rock is a naturally occurring solid. It is made of minerals (which are crystalline), or other mineral-like substances. The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. That means the Earth's crust is made of rock. The different minerals in the rocks make different kinds of rock. 

Rock is often covered by soil or water. It is beneath the oceans, lakes, and rivers of the earth, and under the polar icecaps. Petrology is the scientific study of rocks.

Rock classification
Rocks are classified by their minerals and chemical make-up. The processes that formed them are also noted. Rocks may be igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Rock types may change in a so-called 'rock cycle'.

Igneous rocks 
For the main article, see Igneous rock

Igneous rocks are formed when molten magma cools, either above or below the surface. They are divided into two main categories: plutonic rock and volcanic rock. Plutonic or intrusive rocks are made when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earth's crust (example granite). Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or ejecta (examples pumice and basalt).

Sedimentary rock 
For the main article, see Sedimentary rock

Sedimentary rocks are the most common rocks on Earth. They form at or near the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rock is formed in layers which were laid down one by one on top of another. Some of the layers are thin, some are thick. Layers are made by deposition of sediment, organic matter, and chemical precipitates. Deposition is followed by squeezing of sediment under its own weight, and cementation. This process is called 'consolidation': it turns the sediment into a more or less hard substance.

The approximate amounts of different kinds of sedimentary rock are:
Shale (including mudstone, and siltstone): 60%
Sandstones 20%.
Carbonate rocks (limestone and dolomite): 15%.
All others: 5%.

Only sedimentary rocks have fossils.

Metamorphic rock 
For the main article, see Metamorphic rock

Metamorphic rocks are formed by rocks coming under great pressure and high temperatures. These temperatures and pressures are found under mountains and volcanoes, especially when continental plates move together. These conditions change the make-up of the original minerals.

Impact on human life 
Rocks have had an impact on human life. They have been used by humans for over two million years. The mining of rocks for their metals has been one of the most important things in human advancement. Rocks are mined for building materials of all kinds.

Related pages
 Geology
 Quarrying
Bedrock

References
15 (number)

Fifteen is a number. It is between fourteen and sixteen, and is an odd number. It is divisible by 1, 3, 5, and 15.

In Roman numerals, 15 is written as XV. 

Integers
16 (number)

Sixteen is a number. It comes between fifteen and seventeen, and is an even number.  It is also the 4th square number, after 1, 4, and 9.

In Roman numerals, 16 is written as XVI. 

Integers
Square numbers
Weathering

Weathering is the breaking down of Rock (geology) rocks, soil and their minerals through direct contact with the Earth's atmosphere, waters, or living things. It is a natural process. 

Weathering occurs in one place with little or no movement, and should not be confused with erosion which is when rocks and minerals are moved to another place by ice, water, wind or gravity.

Mechanical weathering 
Mechanical or physical weathering is when the rocks and minerals are broken down but the Chemical composition remains the same. Mechanical weathering physically breaks up rock.

Wind 
Wind can blow water or small particles such as sand against the rock thus breaking it down.
The wind blowing over your skin removes body heat.local winds are the winds that blow over short distances.

Rain 
Rain is another force that works slowly. The force of raindrops on some rocks make them wear down. Rain also can make a chemical change in some rocks, because it is usually slightly acidic. The water mixes with the minerals in the rock to break it down.

Temperature 

Changing temperature can make a rock crack. Every day when the sun shines on the rock, its surface is heated. Heat causes the surface to expand (get bigger) a little. The inside of the rock, though, does not heat up as fast as the outside of the rock. The inside of the rock stays cooler. At night, the surface cools down and contracts. The expanding and contracting makes some places on the surface weak, and a crack is made.

Also, if water gets into a crack in a rock and the temperature goes below the freezing point, the water will freeze and expand. After some time, the rock may be weak enough to break into pieces.

Ice 
Ice, which can be miles thick, grinds the surface of the rock below it. The particles are carried with the ice, and if a glacier ends up in the sea, so does all the material carried with it.

Lava or magma 
Lava or magma can cause weathering when molten rock touches older rock. It causes the older rock to change form to a different crystal structure.

Chemical weathering 
Chemical weathering is the breaking down of rock which changes the chemical composition.

Carbon dioxide cycle 
The carbon dioxide cycle is the most important for weathering. CO2 is put into the atmosphere mostly by volcanoes, and it is taken out of the atmosphere by photosynthesis, and by one other process. 

While it is in the air, CO2 can dissolve in water droplets to form weak carbonic acid.

When rain hits rock it does so with mechanical energy and dilute acid. The acid dissolves many types of minerals and rocks though, of course, very slowly. When a mineral like feldspar is dissolved, it lets sodium ions into the sea; chlorine ions come from other minerals. The sea tastes salty because of the elements which have been dissolved out of rocks.

Related pages
Erosion
Pedogenesis

References 

Chemistry
Recrystallisation

Recrystallization (see also crystallization) is an essentially physical process that has meanings in chemistry, metallurgy and geology.

In chemistry, recrystallization is a procedure for purifying compounds. A crystal compound often has other compounds on it that make it less useful. To get rid of these extra items, the crystal is placed in a boiling liquid. Soon the crystal dissolves. The boiling solution, or the mix of the liquid and the dissolved crystal, gets colder. The crystal will form again. The unwanted compounds stay in the solvent, or the liquid. Now the crystal is pure and made of only the compound. Each type of compound works best in a certain type of liquid. Sometimes two or more liquids mixed together are needed to dissolve a crystal.

In geology, solid-state recrystallization is a metamorphic process that occurs under situations of intense temperature and pressure where grains, atoms or molecules of a rock or mineral are packed closer together, creating a new crystal structure. 
Limestone is a sedimentary rock that undergoes metamorphic  recrystallization to form marble, and clays can recrystallize to muscovite mica.

In metallurgy, recrystallization is the nucleation and growth of new undeformed grains in a deformed metal.

For ice, recrystallization means the growth of larger crystals at the expense of smaller ones. Some biological antifreeze proteins have been shown to inhibit this process, and the effect may be relevant in freezing-tolerant organisms.

Related pages

 Crystal
 Crystallization

Gallery

Chemistry
Laboratory techniques
Geology
Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981

The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 is an law for environmental conservation made by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It protects native species and restricts the release of non-native species into the wild. The Act is split into four parts. Killing most mammals and almost all birds is illegal in the United Kingdom, except for certain types and for certain reasons.

Licenses
General licences under the act to hunt birds are issued each year by the Department for Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) in England. The Department can give a licence to kill or disturb birds. It also gives out a general licence.  This allows any "authorised person", that is someone who has the landowner's permission, to kill certain birds, or to destroy their eggs or nests, if there is no other way to get rid of the birds.

This table shows the name of the bird, and the reasons () that type of bird can be destroyed.

1or to prevent serious damage to livestock or damage to foodstuffs for livestock, crops, vegetables, fruit, growing timber, fisheries or inland waters.

Other websites
Official text of the Act

1981 in the United Kingdom
Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom-related lists
Soil classification

Soil classification means that one finds categories of soils that are based on general characteristics as well as criteria that decide about the use that is possible.

Soil classification can be approached from both the perspective of pedogenesis and from soil morphology. But in both cases interpretations do not vary widely.

Further reading
 Eswaran, H., Rice, T., Ahrens, R., & Stewart, B. A. (Eds.). (2002). Soil classification : a global desk reference. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press.
 McBratney, A. B., & de Gruijter, J. J. (1992). A continuum approach to soil classification by modified fuzzy k-means with extragrades. Journal of Soil Science, 43(1), 159-175.

Other websites
 A Compendium of On-Line Soil Survey Information - Soil Classification for Soil Survey by D. G. Rossiter
Engineering soil description and classification 

Geology
Engineering
Soil
Manor house

A manor house or fortified manor-house is a country house, which has historically formed the centre of a manor (see Manorialism).  The term is sometimes used for relatively small country houses which belonged to gentry families, as well as to grand stately homes, particularly as a technical term for minor late medieval castles more intended for show than for defence.

In general terms, the manor house was the house of a feudal lord of a manor, which he occupied only on occasional visits if he held many manors. Although not built with strong fortifications as castles were, many manor houses were partly fortified: they were enclosed within walls or ditches. Often the farm buildings were within these walls as well. Many manor houses had small gatehouses and watchtowers. 

The main feature of the manor house was its great hall. By the beginning of the 16th century, manor houses as well as small castles began to acquire the character and amenities of the residences of country gentlemen. This late 16th century transformation produced many of the smaller Renaissance châteaux of France and the many country mansions of the Elizabethan and Jacobean styles in England.  

In France, the terms château or manoir are often used to describe a French manor house. Maison-forte is another French word to describe a strongly fortified manor house.  In the western France provinces of Brittany and Normandy, certain large manors enjoyed real means of protection. 

In modern usage, the term manor or manor house is often used, especially outside Europe, to mean simply either a country house or indeed any other house considered to resemble one, without any reference to age or to the historical sense of the term.

Related pages
 Mansion
 Reality TV show recreating life in an Edwardian manor house.

Other websites
  Estonian Manors Portal - the English version gives the brief overview of 438 best preserved manor houses in Estonia.

Houses
English country house

The English country house is generally accepted as a large house that was once in the ownership of an individual who in most of the cases owned another great house in the West End of London. The country house was not only a weekend retreat for aristocrats, but also often a full time residence for the minor gentry.

Evolution of the English country house 
The country houses of England have developed over the last 500 years. Before this time most larger houses were fortified, because their owners were feudal lords or overlords of their manor. The Tudor period of stability in the country saw the first of the large unfortified country houses.

With the rise of modern industry and urbanization, when people left the country to go to the big cities the popularity of country houses declined as there were less people in the country. After 1945 it became very difficult to pay for the huge staff that was required to maintain these houses.

References 
Girouard, Mark. Life in the English Country House : a social and architectural history details the impact of social change on design

Other websites 
The National Trust - England, Wales, & Northern Ireland
The National Trust for Scotland
English Heritage
An English Manor House Head Gardener's Online Diary
Lost Heritage - A Memorial to the Lost Country Houses of England

Houses
Larynx

The larynx (plural larynges), also known as the voice box, is an organ in the neck of humans and animals. It  helps to protect the wind pipe by stopping it from inhaling food. It also helps with breathing and making sounds. The larynx houses the vocal cords.

Function 
The larynx makes the voice. Both pitch and loudness are controlled here. It has a small slit through which air passes and makes the vocal cords vibrate. The vibrating vocal cords make the air vibrate. This sound changes as it travels through the vocal tract. It becomes a different sound based on the position of the tongue, lips, mouth, and pharynx.

When swallowing, the backward motion of the tongue forces part of the larynx called the epiglottis to cover up the opening to the larynx, also called the laryngeal opening. This is to stop the food swallowed from entering the lungs. The larynx is also pulled upwards to help with this process. If the larynx is irritated by something that is swallowed, a strong cough reflex is used to protect the lungs.

Disorders of the larynx

There are several things that can cause a larynx to not function properly. Some symptoms are hoarseness, loss of voice, pain in the throat or ears, and breathing difficulties. Larynx transplant is not done very often. The world's first successful operation took place in 1998 at the Cleveland Clinic, and the second took place in October 2010 at the University of California Medical Center in Sacramento.

 Acute laryngitis is the sudden inflammation and swelling of the larynx. It is caused by the common cold or by excessive shouting. It is not serious. Chronic laryngitis is caused by smoking, dust, frequent yelling, or prolonged exposure to polluted air. It is much more serious than acute laryngitis.
 Presbylarynx is age-related hardening of the soft tissues of the larynx. It results in weak voice and restricted vocal range. Bowing of the front portion of the vocal cords is found on laryngoscopy (an examination of the larynx).
 Polyps and nodules are small bumps on the vocal cords. They can be caused by prolonged exposure to cigarette smoke and vocal misuse.
 Two related types of cancer of the larynx, namely squamous cell carcinoma and verrucous carcinoma, are strongly associated with repeated exposure to cigarette smoke and alcohol.
 Laryngeal spasm.
 Laryngopharyngeal reflux is a condition in which acid from the stomach irritates and burns the larynx. Similar damage can occur with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).
 Laryngomalacia is a very common condition of infancy. The soft, immature cartilage of the upper larynx collapses inward during inhalation, causing the airway to be (partly) blocked.
 Laryngeal perichondritis, the inflammation of the perichondrium (a connective tissue around the cartilage) of laryngeal cartilages, causing the airway to be (partly) blocked.

References 

Speech and Hearing Science: Anatomy and Physiology 3rd edition. Willard R. Zemlin. 1988. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 

Anatomy of the respiratory system
Endangered species

An endangered species is a species (a population) of animals, plants or other organisms that is in danger of becoming extinct. This could happen because there are few of that animal left, its predators have grown in number, or the climate that it lives in is changing, or the places it lives in have been destroyed. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) has worked out that endangered species are 40% of all organisms. 

Many countries have laws to protect these plants and animals. These laws, if obeyed, can save species by stopping hunting, land development or making parks and reserves. Poaching and other illegal activities, however, can still destroy them. 

Only a few plants and animals at risk of extinction, mostly vertebrates, are put on the lists and get legal protection. Many more species become extinct, or will become extinct, without people knowing about it.

Mammal
This is a list of mammals that are endangered. They include:
 Asiatic linsang
 Asiatic lion
 Black-footed ferret
 Black rhinoceros
 Blue whale
 Bornean ferret-badger
 Dhole
 Ethopian wolf
 Hairy-eared dwarf lemur
 Indonesian mountain weasel
 Snow leopard
 Tiger
 White rhinoceros  (currently considered as near endangered)

Birds
Here is a list of birds that are endangered. They include:
 Albatross
 Crowned solitary eagle
 Grey parrot
 Marquesan imperial pigeon

Related pages
 IUCN Red List

Further reading
Endangered or Not, but at Least No Longer Waiting March 6, 2013 New York Times

References
Archosaur

Archosaurs are a large group of reptiles, including all crocodiles, birds, dinosaurs, and pterosaurs (flying reptiles). There are also a number of smaller extinct groups, mostly from the Triassic period.

The Archosaurs are definitely a monophyletic clade, and do not include reptiles such as the Squamata (lizards and snakes) and the Sphenodontia (Sphenodon).

They have these diagnostic features, called synapomorphies in cladistics talk:
 Teeth set in sockets, which makes them less likely to be torn loose during feeding. Some archosaurs, such as birds, are secondarily toothless.
 Opening in the skull in front of the eyes but behind the nostrils, reduces the weight of the skull.
 Small openings in the jaw bones, which reduces the weight of the jaw slightly.
 Legs held under the body rather than sprawled, or may be held under the body. This improves both breathing and movement.
 A special ridge for attaching muscles to the femur. This detail may have made it possible for dinosaurs to stand on two legs. All early dinosaurs and many later ones were bipedal.

The archosaurs or their immediate ancestors survived the catastrophic Permian–Triassic extinction event. Benton comments: "The key tetrapods to benefit from the Permo-Triassic mass extinction was the Archosauromorpha". Then, in the early and middle Triassic, there was rapid evolution into the types of aquatic and land tetrapods which dominated the rest of the Mesozoic era.

Archosaur classification
Clades:
 Avemetatarsalia
 †Pterosauria
 Dinosauria
 Crurotarsi or Pseudosuchia: The crocodile line of crown-group Archosauria
 †Phytosauria: semi-aquatic long-snouted types
 †Aetosauria: quadrupedal armoured herbivores
 †Ornithosuchidae: look rather like dinosaurs
 Crocodylomorpha (Crocodilia and their ancestors)
 †Rauisuchia ? uncertain group, includes some large-bodied quadrupedal predators

Archosauromorpha
This is an even wider group, which includes diapsid Sauropsida which appeared in the middle Permian and Triassic periods. Their relationships are not well established at present.

Further reading
 Benton M.J. 2015. Vertebrate paleontology. 4th ed, Blackwell, Oxford: Evolution of the Archosauromorphs, p154.
 Carroll R.L. 1988. Vertebrate paleontology and evolution. Freeman N.Y.

References
Calcite

Calcite is one of the most common minerals on the Earth's surface. It is a often part of sedimentary rocks, especially limestone. It is also the primary mineral in metamorphic marble.

It is a chemical or biochemical calcium carbonate with the formula CaCO3. It is a carbonate mineral. It can be a vein mineral in deposits from hot springs, and in caverns as stalactites and stalagmites.

Other websites 

 

Minerals
Geochemistry
Stalagmite

Stalagmites may also refer to a type of fungus.

A stalagmite is a  form that can be found on the floor of a cave. It rises from the floor of a limestone cave when mineralized solutions drip from the ceiling and deposits of calcium carbonate form columns on the ground. The corresponding formation on the ceiling of a cave is known as a stalactite. 

There are several methods to help remember which formation hangs from the ceiling (stalactite) and which rises from the floor (stalagmite):

 StalaCtite has a "c" for "ceiling".
 StalaGmite has a "g" for "ground".
 The T in StalacTite resembles one hanging from the ceiling, while the M in StalagMite resembles a formation rising from the floor.

When touring caves with stalactites and stalagmites you might be asked to not touch the rock formations. This is generally because the formation is considered to still be growing and forming. Since the rock buildup is formed by minerals solidifying out of the water solution, skin oils can disturb where the mineral water will cling. So the development of the rock formation will be affected and not will not be natural anymore.

Stalactites and stalagmites can also form on concrete ceilings and floors, but they form much more quickly on concrete than in the natural cave environment.

Related pages
 Stalactite

References

Other websites 
 The Virtual Cave: Stalagmites

Caves
Deposition (geology)

Deposition is the geological process where material is added to a land (or a landform). This can happen in many places, such as a beach or river. Some parts of a shoreline build up and grow out, whereas other parts of the shoreline erode and fall into the sea.

In deposition, wind and water lay down grains of material that have been eroded and transported from another place. Deposition happens when the forces which transport sediments  are weaker than the forces of particle weight and friction. This causes a resistance to movement, and the particles drop down. 

Deposition can also refer to the buildup of sediment from organically derived matter or chemical process.

Related pages
Sediment
Sedimentary rock

Geology
Calcium carbonate

Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound, with the chemical formula CaCO3. The elements involved are calcium (Ca), carbon (C) and oxygen (O). It is a common substance found as rock in all parts of the world, and is the main component of seashells, snails, and eggshell. 

Calcium carbonate is usually the main cause of hard water. It is used as a calcium supplement or as a treatment for antacid, but too much can be bad for your health.

Calcium carbonate is found naturally as the following minerals and rocks:
 Aragonite
 Calcite
 Vaterite or (μ-CaCO3)
 Chalk
 Limestone
 Marble
 Travertine

To test whether a mineral or rock contains calcium carbonate, strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid, can be added to it. If the sample does contain calcium carbonate, it will fizz and produce carbon dioxide. Weak acids such as acetic acid will react, but less quickly. All of the rocks/minerals mentioned above will react with acid.

Related pages

 Aragonite
 Calcite
 Limestone
 Ocean acidification
 Gesso
 Cuttlefish
 Cuttlebone

Minerals
Geochemistry
Calcium compounds
Carbonates
Hard water

Hard water is water that has a high mineral content (contrast with soft water).

The main components of these minerals usually are calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions. But there are also dissolved metals, bicarbonates, and sulfates. Calcium usually enters the water as either calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of limestone and chalk, or calcium sulfate (CaSO4) in the form of several other mineral deposits. The main source of magnesium is dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). Hard water is generally not harmful and some hardness in water is a useful source of calcium for healthy bone development .

Other websites 
Alcoa Chemical, Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) Calculator

Water
Soft water

Soft water is water which has relatively low concentration of calcium carbonate and other ions . It contains less than 85.5 parts per million of calcium carbonate. 

The water that lathers with soap easily is called or known as soft water. It describes type of water that contain few or no minerals like calcium (Ca) or magnesium (Mg) ions. The term is usually relative to hard water, which does contain significant amounts of such ions.

Soft water mostly comes from peat or igneous rock sources, such as granite but may also come from sandstone sources, since those sedimentary rocks are usually low in calcium and magnesium. 

Hard water may be better for the heart than soft water. Its calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg)ions may be a dietary supplement for some. 

The main disadvantage of hard water is it deposits calcium carbonate on pipes, especially hot water pipes. This is called "scale formation". It may cause blockage of pipes and reduce boiler efficiency. Also, soap and detergents work less well in hard water. These effects increase as hardness increases. 
 
    Soften water

References 

Water
Moorland

Moorland or moor is a type of habitat that one can find in upland areas, that are characterised by acidic soils. 

Moorland habitats are rather common in the neotropics and tropical Africa but one can find them also in small scattered places in northern and western Europe, northern Australia, North America, Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. In the tiny areas of European moorlands tend to be  environments with only very few species. They are often dominated by heather. In the far more extensive moorlands of the tropics species diversity can be extremely high. 

Moorlands differ from typical heathland in being colder and much wetter, often with extensive bogs.

Famous moorlands in the UK
Notable areas of upland moorland in Britain include the Dark Peak, the Forest of Bowland, the Lake District, the Pennines, Mid Wales, the Southern Uplands of Scotland, the Scottish Highlands and a few very small pockets in western Herefordshire.

Bleaklow, Dark Peak, England
 Bodmin Moor, Cornwall
 Curry and Hay Moors, Somerset, England
 Dartmoor, and Dartmoor wildlife, Devon, England
 Emley Moor, West Yorkshire, England
 Exmoor, Devon and Somerset, England
 Ilkley Moor, West Yorkshire, England
 Marston Moor and North York Moors, North Yorkshire, England
 Rannoch Moor, Highland, Scotland
 Rombalds Moor, West Yorkshire, England
 Saddleworth Moor, Pennine hills, England
 Shropshire Hills, small pockets of moorland, England 
 Staffordshire Moorlands, England
 Ythan Estuary complex, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, largest coastal moorland in the United Kingdom, known for high biodiversity.

Conservation
In Europe if the heather and other vegetation is left for too long, a large volume of dry and combustible material builds up. This may cause a fire which may burn out a large area. But generally moorland wildlife copes with even major fires and are easily able to recover if such intense burnings are not too frequent.

Other websites
Moorland

Habitats
Neotropic

In context of biogeography, Neotropic or Neotropical means one of the world's eight terrestrial ecozones.

This ecozone includes South and Central America, the Mexican lowlands, the Caribbean islands, and southern Florida, because these regions share a large number of plant and animal groups.

It is sometimes used as a synonym for the tropical area of South America, although the ecozone also includes temperate southern South America. 
Its fauna and flora are distinct from the Nearctic (which includes most of North America) because of the long separation of the two continents. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama joined the two continents 2 to 3 million years ago.

The Neotropic includes more tropical rainforest than any other ecozone. They extend from southern Mexico through Central America and northern South America to southern Brazil and include the Amazon Rainforest. These rainforest ecoregions are one of the most important reserves of biodiversity on Earth. Extensive deforestation in the late 20th century has reduced this diversity to a degree.

Other websites 
 Map of the ecozones
 Eco-Index, a bilingual searchable reference of conservation and research projects in the Neotropics; a service of the Rainforest Alliance

References 
 Cox, C. Barry; Peter D. Moore 1985. Biogeography: an ecological and evolutionary approach. 4th ed, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
 Dinerstein, Eric; David Olson; Douglas J. Graham; et al. 1995. A conservation assessment of the terrestrial ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean. World Bank, Washington DC.
 Schultz J.: 2005. The Ecozones of the World. 2nd ed, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York.  
 Udvardy M.D.F. 1975. A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world. IUCN Occasional Paper #18. Morges, Switzerland: IUCN.

Ecozones
Nearctic

For the thoroughbred racehorse see Nearctic (horse).

The Nearctic is one of the eight terrestrial ecozones dividing the Earth's land surface.

In ecology, an ecozone is a large land mass that contains many terrestrial ecoregions, each of which has unique plants and animals.

The Nearctic ecozone covers most of North America, including Greenland and the highlands of Mexico. 

Southern Mexico, southern Florida, Central America, and the Caribbean islands are part of the Neotropic ecozone, together with South America.

The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) divides the Nearctic into four Bioregions, defined as "geographic clusters of ecoregions that may span several habitat types, but have strong biogeographic affinities, particularly at taxonomic levels higher than the species level (genus, family)."

Other websites
 Map of the ecozones
 Nearctica, the natural world of North America

References
 Flannery, Tim 2001. The eternal frontier: an ecological history of North America and its peoples. Grove Press, New York.
 Ricketts, Taylor H., Eric Dinerstein, David M. Olson, Colby J. Loucks et al. 1999. Terrestrial ecoregions of North America: a conservation assessment. Island Press, Washington DC.

Ecozones
Nearctic (horse)

Nearctic (born 1954 – died 1973) was a Canadian-bred Thoroughbred racehorse. He had his most successful season in racing at 4 years old, when he won nine races. Nearctic was retired to stand at stud at Windfields Farm in Canada where he became father of a Kentucky Derby winner and the Northern Dancer.
He died at age 19 on July 27, 1973.

Other websites 
 Nearctic's pedigree and stats

1954 births
1973 deaths
Thoroughbred racehorses
Lockerbie

Lockerbie is a small town in Scotland that was devastated on 21 December 1988 when a Pan American 747-400 aeroplane crashed after a bomb exploded on board. The bomb was hidden in a hand held radio in the rear cargo hold. It had been transferred onto the flight from a connecting flight from Amsterdam. All passengers and crew aboard the aeroplane, and 11 people in the town of Lockerbie were killed. The total number of people killed was 270. The Libyan government was found to have organized the bombing. The United Nations placed sanctions on Libya, which stopped people buying and selling items with Libya. In 2003 Libya agreed to pay compensation to the families of the people killed.

References

Towns in Scotland
Circadian rhythm

A circadian rhythm is a rhythm that repeats about every 24 hours.  Plants and animals have these built-in cycles which allow them to flower at the right time, sleep at the right time, etc.

These cycles are also called circadian clocks. The word "circadian" comes from the Latin circa, "around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning "about a day".  Biological time-keeping rhythms include daily, tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms. However, most of these rhythms repeat once a day, so they are called circadian  from the Latin circa (about) dies (a day).

Circadian clocks are the internal clocks which make sure that the organism is doing the right thing at the right time. With more complex animals there is the matter of sleep, which seems to be universal amongst animals which have a brain.

Circadian rhythms do some amazing things, especially in the oceanic animals whose eggs are fertilised externally. This means the eggs and sperm have to be released at the same time by both sexes of the same species. Little is known about the physiology of how this coordination is achieved.

Animal clocks have three main parts:
 a central biochemical oscillator with a period of about 24 hours that keeps time;
 a series of input pathways to this central oscillator to allow  the clock to adjust itself;
 a series of output pathways that regulate rhythms in biochemistry, physiology, and behaviour throughout an organism.

In 2017, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael Rosbash and Michael W. Young "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm" in fruit flies (Drosophila).

The circadian rhythms, also called the "biological clock" or the "body clock", of humans and other animals, regulate many bodily functions including feeding, sleeping, body temperature and hormone production.

Plants 
The actual machinery in plants, fungi and bacteria are different from those in the animal clock. However, they do the same kind of thing in practice.

References 

Physiology
Stud (animal)

A stud in animal breeding is a male animal, such as a horse or dog, that is employed for breeding. The terms for the male of a given animal species (stallion, bull, rooster, etc.) usually mean that the animal is entire, that is, not castrated, and therefore capable of standing at stud. A specialized vocabulary exists for de-sexed animals.

A stud farm, in animal husbandry, is an establishment for selective breeding using stud animals.

Animals
Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy is the structure and set of rules that control the activities of people that work for large organizations and government. 

It is characterized by standardized procedure (rule-following), formal division of responsibility, hierarchy, and impersonal relationships. In practice, the interpretation and execution of policy can lead to informal influence.

Bureaucracy is a concept in sociology and political science. Four structural concepts are central to any definition of bureaucracy: a well-defined division of administrative labor among persons and offices, a personnel system with consistent patterns of recruitment and stable linear careers, a hierarchy among offices, such that the authority and status are distributed among actors, and formal and informal networks that connect organizational actors to one another through flows of information and patterns of cooperation. 

Examples of everyday bureaucracies include governments, armed forces, corporations, hospitals, courts, ministries and schools.

Other websites
 Abstracts of academic books and articles about bureaucracy 
 Kevin R. Kosar, "What Ought a Bureaucrat Do?"  Claremont.org, (A review piece that ponders the values that should guide bureaucrats in their work.)
 Scientific Management and the Bureaucratic Organization  Summary of key concepts from on-line course.

Sociology
Anzère

Anzère is a small village in the canton of Valais, Switzerland. It is north of Sion. It is a popular ski resort, with several ski schools.

Skiing
The ski slopes in Anzère cover about 40 kilometers, with 1 cablecar, 2 chair lifts, and 8 T-bars.
There are several cafes in the area, and the entire area is known as Télé-Anzère.

Town Centre
Facilities in and around Anzère's 'Place du Village' include both indoor and outdoor swimming pools, two supermarkets, many hotels, bars and nightclubs, as well as many restaurants and clothing shops. The 'Place du Village' is a person area right in the heart of the village, housing most of Anzère's cafes and restaurants. There is also an internet cafe, a crèperie and a children's play area.

Other websites
Anzère

Ski areas and resorts in Switzerland
Villages in Valais
Sion, Switzerland

Sion is the capital of the Swiss canton of Valais. In 2002, it had a population of 27,700.

Landmarks include the Basilique de Valère and Château de Tourbillon.

Geography 
The city is home to 28,013 people as of 31 December, 2005. It is in the center of the Rhône valley. Sion is the economic and commercial hub of the region and canton.

The older area of the city still stays and is well preserved. As well as the two Château's, a number of other important buildings are there, such as the Château de la Majorie, the Hôtel de Ville and the Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Sion.

History 
Sion really started to develop during the time when Celts were big.

It takes its name from the Latin word Sedunum. It housed the Romans with the rest of the surrounding area in the first century BCE.

The Roman Catholic bishop of Sion is the oldest in Switzerland and one of the oldest north of the Alps.

On 1 January 2013 the former municipality of Salins merged into the municipality of Sion.

Since 2017, Les Agettes part of the municipality.

Economy 

The tertiary sector is the main economic sector in Sion. Tourism is also an important sector due to its historic château's and museums.

Sion is the third largest wine making region in Switzerland, however, the valuable agricultural land and vineyards are undergoing constant regression due to the process of urbanisation.

Sion has also become an important medical site. The Sion-Region hospital is here next to the central institute of Valaisan hospitals and the Romande clinic for physical rehabilitation (SUVA).

Finally, the commune hosts a waste incinerator which disposes of the waste from 44 surrounding communes. This incinerator has a catalytic converter, something that reduces harmful gases to below unacceptable levels. The heat created from the burning is converted into electrical energy that is then provided to local communes.

Airshows 
Public Airshows have been held at the airfield of Sion. Participated Aerobatic teams have been for example the Frecce Tricolori from Italy was well as the Patrouille de France.

Transport 
Sion is on the main railway line, the motorway and also has an airport (Sion Airport).

References

Other websites 
 Official website 
 Tourism guide
Brig (district)

Brig is a part of the canton of Valais, Switzerland. It includes the following municipalities:

Districts of Valais
Monthey, Switzerland

Monthey is the capital of the district of Monthey in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

It has a population is of 15,118 (as of 2004) people (Montheysans).  Monthey is located on the west side of the Rhône valley, south to Lake Geneva. Monthey is important to Swiss industry, with many important companies including chemical companies. The city is close to the famous winter sports region, the Portes du Soleil.

References

Other websites

 Monthey Homepage

Municipalities of Valais
Cities in Switzerland
Sierre

Sierre is the capital of the district of Sierre in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

It has a population of 14,355. It is situated at the language border of the German-speaking upper part of the "Wallis" and the French-speaking "Valais". This city counts as one of the three official bilingual towns in Switzerland. Sierre is starting point for the tourist sites of the Val d'Anniviers including the villages of Vercorin, Chandolin, St-Luc Vissoie, St-Jean Chandolin, Grimentz, Zinal and Ayer. Sierre is connected with Crans-Montana by a cable car.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Sierre became economically important as very early aluminium smelting is enabled by its access to hydroelectricity.

References

Other websites
 Official website 

Cities in Switzerland
Municipalities of Valais