cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Nail (anatomy)

A nail is a hard part of the body at the tip of the fingers and toes, of which most people have ten. Toenails and fingernails are similar, except that toenails grow four times more slowly. Only certain mammals have nails: mostly, they are found in primates. They are made of the same kind of material (keratin) as the claws of other animals.

Like hair, nails never stop growing. They must be cut from time to time. It does not hurt when people cut their nails as they are not innervated.  The nails are made up of a protein called keratin which also makes up the main element of hair and skin. People paint their nails to make themselves look more attractive, usually females. On occasion nails can grow into the skin acting as a place of infection known as an ingrowing nail. They can hurt, so are often treated through medicine. The cutting and painting of the nails is called a manicure.

Functions 
The functions of nails are not obvious. They include:

 Protecting the fingertip and the surrounding soft tissues from injuries. 
 Helping delicate movements of the fingertips by allowing counter-pressure on the pulp of the finger. The nail then acts as a counterforce when the end of the finger touches an object. This improves the sensitivity of the fingertip, even though there are no nerve endings in the nail itself. 
 The nail is a tool. For example, when a person pulls out a splinter in a finger. Also, it may be used for some cutting or scraping actions.
Fingernails are a part of the body often used for display in females.

Related pages 
Nail art
Manicure
Body art
Cosmetics
Lipstick

References 

Limbs and extremities
Integumentary system
Jacob de Gheyn III (painting)

Jacob de Gheyn III is a famous painting.

It was painted by Rembrandt in 1632 and is the most stolen painting in the world. It has been stolen and recovered from galleries  at least four times, making it the world's most stolen painting.

Every time the painting has been recovered anonymously and as a consequence nobody was accused of the theft. This painting by Rembrandt is so well known that it would be difficult for a thief to take it again.
 
Jacob de Gheyn III, also known as Jacob III de Gheyn (1596–1641), was a Dutch Golden Age engraver, son of Jacob de Gheyn II, canon of Utrecht (city), and the subject of a 1632 oil painting by Rembrandt. The portrait is half of a pair of pendent portraits. The other piece is a portrait of de Gheyn's friend Maurits Huygens, wearing similar clothing (ruffs and black doublets) and facing the opposite direction

As legend goes, a man by the name of Marcus Smith V was found in a gallery sneaking and slowly making his way toward the painting with intent to steal it. The ghost of Jacob de Gheyn III sneaked up behind him and killed him. the legend is most likely untrue because Smith was with a lover that night and was actually poisoned the next night.

17th-century paintings
Dutch paintings
Paintings by Rembrandt van Rijn
María Capovilla

María Esther de Capovilla (September 14, 1889 – August 27, 2006) was an Ecuadorian supercentenarian. She was the world's oldest living person between May 29, 2004, aged 114 years 258 days, and her death from pneumonia on August 27, 2006, aged 116 years 347 days. At the time of her death she was verified as the sixth oldest person on record, and later the fifth oldest when the case of Shigechiyo Izumi was discounted. She remained the world's fifth oldest verified person until Misao Okawa surpassed her age in February 2015. Following Capovilla's death, Elizabeth Bolden became the world's oldest person.

Sources

1889 births
2006 deaths
People from Guayaquil
Deaths from pneumonia
Capovilla, Maria Esther de
Supercentenarians
Ming Kipa

Ming Kipa is a Nepalese Sherpa girl who (as recorded in the 2009 Guinness Book of Records) was the youngest person to climb Mount Everest until 2010. She reached the summit on May 24, 2003 when she was 15 years old, with her brother Mingma Gyula and her sister Laphka. Nepalese law does not allow climbers under 16 to climb Everest, so Ming Kipa Sherpa summitted Everest from the Chinese side.

In 2010, her record was broken by 13-year old Jordan Romero.

References

Sherpa
Kipa, Ming
Kipa, Ming
1987 births
Living people
Mountain climbers
Sergey Karjakin

Sergey Karjakin  (born 12 January 1990 in Simferopol) is a Russian (formerly Ukrainian) chess grandmaster. 

He was a chess prodigy and holds the record for the youngest grandmaster in history, at the age of twelve years and seven months. 

On 25 July 2009 Karjakin adopted Russian citizenship and afterwards played for Russia.

He won Candidates Tournament 2016 and earned the right to challenge for the World Chess Championship. In November 2016, he lost the championship match to Magnus Carlsen in the rapid tiebreaks after drawing 6–6 in the classical games. He won the 2016 World Blitz Chess Championship. He played in the candidates tournament again in 2018, coming third.

References 

1990 births
Living people
Ukrainian chess players
Chess grandmasters
Yusuf Islam

Yusuf Islam (born July 21, 1948) is an English singer. He sang many of his early songs when he called himself Cat Stevens. He was born as Stephen Demetre Georgiou to a Swedish mother and Greek father. He became a Muslim in 1977. After 2 years, he took the name of Yusuf İslam. He has sold over 60 million albums around the world since the late 1960s as Cat Stevens or Yusuf İslam.

As a waiter in his father's cafe, he began writing songs "to escape the mundanity of it all". Chart success was followed by adulation, touring, drug use, confusion, tuberculosis and, in the early 1970s, Islam's changed outlook and an album called Tea For The Tillerman.

Stevens nearly drowned in an accident in Malibu in 1975.  Stevens described the event in a VH1 interview some years later: "I suddenly held myself and I said, 'Oh God! If you save me, I'll work for you.'" He had looked into Buddhism; Zen and I Ching, numerology, tarot cards and astrology", but when his brother David gave him a copy of the Qu'ran, Stevens began to convert to Islam.

In 1977 he changed his name to Yusuf Islam upon becoming a Muslim. He stopped playing and recording pop music for almost 30 years, but started performing again in 2006.

He lives with his family in London, England.

Albums 
As Cat Stevens:
 1967: Matthew and Son
 1967: New Masters
 1970: Mona Bone Jakon
 1970: Tea for the Tillerman
 1971: Teaser and the Firecat
 1972: Catch Bull at Four
 1973: Foreigner
 1974: Buddha and the Chocolate Box
 1974: Saturnight (Live in Tokyo)
 1975: Numbers
 1977: Izitso
 1978: Back to Earth
 2004: Majikat

As Yusuf Islam:
 1995: The Life of the Last Prophet
 1999: Prayers of the Last Prophet
 2000: A Is for Allah
 2001: Bismillah
 2003: I Look I See
 2005: Indian Ocean
 2006: Footsteps in the Light
 2006: An Other Cup
 2007: Yusuf's Cafe Session
 2009: Roadsinger

References 

1948 births
Living people
Converts to Islam
English guitarists
English rock musicians
English singers
Musicians from London
Multi-instrumentalists
Malay language

The Malay language, or Bahasa Melayu, is an Austronesian language spoken in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore, as well as parts of Southern Thailand. A language of the Malays, it is spoken by 290 million people across the Strait of Malacca, including the coasts of the Malay Peninsula of Malaysia and the eastern coast of Sumatra in Indonesia and has been established as a native language of part of western coastal Sarawak and West Kalimantan in Borneo. It is also used as a trading language in the southern Philippines, including the southern parts of the Zamboanga Peninsula, the Sulu Archipelago and the southern predominantly Muslim-inhabited municipalities of Bataraza and Balabac in Palawan.

Writing system 

Malay is normally written with the Latin alphabet called Rumi. But there is also a modified Arabic alphabet that is called Jawi. Rumi is official in Malaysia and Singapore, and the Indonesian language has a different official orthography that uses also the Latin script. Rumi and Jawi are  both official in Brunei. Efforts are currently being undertaken to preserve Jawi script and to revive its use amongst Malays in Malaysia, and students taking Malay language  examination in Malaysia have the option of answering questions using Jawi script. But the Latin alphabet is still the most commonly used script in Malaysia, both for official and informal purposes. 

Historically, Malay has been written in various types of script. Before the introduction of Arabic script in the Malay region, Malay was written using Pallava, Kawi and Rencong script and are still in use today by the Champa Malay in Vietnam and Cambodia.

References

Other websites 

 Malay-English Dictionary (Dr Bhanot's)
 Malay-English Dictionary (from Malay to English only)  from Webster's Dictionary 
 Malay-Chinese Online Dictionary
 Malay Translator

Austronesian languages
Malaysia
Languages of Singapore
Brunei
National Party of Australia

The National Party of Australia is the third biggest political party in Australia. It was first called the Country Party when it started in 1920 and then became the National Country Party in 1975. In 1982 it became the National Party.

The National Party represents the interests of people who live in rural areas, that is, not in big cities. It normally joins together with the Liberal Party to form a coalition government. It has fewer people in Parliament than the Liberal Party. The current leader is Warren Truss. When the National Party is in a coalition government its leader is usually the Deputy Prime Minister.

The Party was quite powerful during the 1940s, 1950's and 1960s. Because it worked closely with the United Australia and later Liberal Party, three National leaders - Earle Page, Arthur Fadden and John McEwen - were Prime Minister for a short time. The Party is strongest in Queensland, where it has had several State Premiers. In 2008, the Liberal Party and National Party came together in Queensland and are now called the "Liberal National Party of Queensland".

The party's federal parliamentary leader since 2021 is Barnaby Joyce. He replaced Michael McCormack following a leadership spill.

References

Other websites
 Official website

 
1920 establishments
1920s establishments in Australia
Oil well

An oil well is a well to get petroleum from the ground.  People in the petroleum industry look for a place that might have oil.  They drill a hole deep in the ground and, if the oil is there, then pump it up from the hole.  Most oil is very deep underground.

Oil wells can be classified by purpose: 
 Production wells produce gas or oil. 
 Appraisal wells determine the characteristics of a hydrocarbon accumulation. 
 Exploration wells explore for new oil and gas. 
 Wildcat wells  explore areas which are not near known gas or oil fields.

Active wells can also be categorized as:
 Oil producers may produce some gas, but they primarily produce liquid hydrocarbons. 
 Gas producers primarily produce gaseous hydrocarbons and aquifer producers primarily produce water to for the purpose of re-injecting it into the ground to manage the pressure of gas or oil wells. 
 Water injectors inject the water that is removed from the aquifer producers, as well as disposal of any water obtained during gas or oil production. 
 Gas injectors inject gas into reservoirs to maintain the reservoir’s pressure, as well as for disposal and sequestering of gas that cannot be immediately used.

Wells may be straight holes, or directionally drilled:
 Straight(vertical) holes wells are those drilled to targets essentially beneath the surface location of the well,  although some small deviation in the  well bore can occur during the drilling process. 
 Directionally drilled wells are those which are drilled to targets not directly beneath the surface location of the well.  Directionally drilled wells can be  classified  further into  Straight kick, S- kick and horizontal wells. 
 In straight kick wells, the well bore is deviated until the desired angle is achieved. This angle is maintained all the way to the bottom of the hole. 
 In S-kick  wells, the well bore is deviated to achieve the desired horizontal displacement and then returns to a vertical direction before penetrating the producing zone. The term "S-kick" is derived from the shape of the course.
 Horizontal wells, as the name implies, are deviated until the well bore achieves a horizontal direction. The well bore may then continue in the horizontal direction for hundreds or even thousands of feet, depending on results desired.

Fuel
Prairie

A prairie is a type of habitat with mostly grasses, but also flowering plants and occasional shrubs or isolated trees.  This type of habitat can be found around the world, but it goes by different names, such as steppes in Asia. What tourist attract is the golden grass in Prairie grassland.  The word prairie generally means grasslands in North America.  There are often many animals on a prairie, that either prefer a prairie or can only live in a prairie. Some that are well known are the American bison (also called the buffalo) and the pronghorn antelope. Birds include the bobolink and meadowlark.

Tall grass prairie 
A tall grass prairie has plants and grasses that typically grow three to seven feet (one to two meters) high, with occasional plants growing higher.  This type of prairie grows in areas with a good amount of rain.  Illinois (the prairie state), Indiana and Iowa are good examples of where a tall grass prairie would be.  This type of habitat usually has rich soil and is very good for farming.  Much of the original prairie has been changed into crops or lost to brush and trees.  

Trees can grow in this area, but most were stopped by fires that would sweep through.  Some oaks and hickories could survive a prairie fire.  If there are scattered trees, it is called a savanna, and an area in a prairie where trees grew closer together is called a grove. In the last century, fires have been stopped, and trees and brush that once did not grow in prairies are taking over. Some of these invasive species were accidentally introduced from Europe or elsewhere. In Illinois, less than 0.01% of the original prairie still exists.  For this reason, conservationists in this area practice prairie restoration to bring the prairie back.

Short grass prairie 

Short grass prairie is in drier areas, and is usually one to two feet (0.3 to 0.6 meters) high and has more space between plants.  The American West (from central Texas up into Canada, east of the arid semi-desert) is all short grass prairie.  Much of this area is converted to pastures for grazing cows and sheep.  Areas near rivers are irrigated for crops. Some of the original native plants are still widespread.

Mixed grass prairie
Mixed grass prairie is found between the short grass prairie and the tall grass prairie and contains more species than either the short grass prairie or the tall grass prairie

References 

 
Grasslands
Mall

A mall or shopping centre is a large building that is full of many smaller shops and stores. It is different from earlier markets or bazaars because most of the shops are not little booths or stalls in one big open area. Each store has its own space with walls. Most of their entrances face a central walking area inside the building.

Name 
"Mall" is the most common name for these buildings in American English, and "shopping centre" is the most common name for them in British English. Americans also talk about "shopping centers", but they use their spelling for the word "center". Malls are also sometimes called plazas.

Overview 
People visit the stores in the mall to shop. Most malls have parking lots (places to park cars). Most malls also have roofs so people can shop inside. Most malls have a food court. Food courts are areas where people buy food. Some malls have movie theatres.

Famous malls 
 West Edmonton Mall, in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, is one of the largest malls in the world.
 The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota is one of the largest malls in the world.
Human papillomavirus

The Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a virus that can infect the skin or mucous membranes (like the genitals, or inside the mouth) of humans. They cause warts. Some of them may cause cancer. There are over 100 different virus types in this group. About 40 virus types can be transmitted sexually. About 12-15 can cause cancer. 

Most cases of HPV can be prevented by a vaccine, which also would stop the HPV from causing cancer.  Most cases of cervical, oral and throat cancer are caused by HPV.

A first step in treatment is the use of salicylic acid. This is available in pharmacies, usually without a prescription. If this does not help, the wart can be frozen, and destroyed that way, or a laser can be used to destroy it. If this still does not help, different methods of chemotherapy can be used.

References

Other websites 
 Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)  from University of California, Santa Barbara's SexInfo
 hpv-centrum  - Video and info from the HPV, hpv centrums in Hungary
 CDC fact sheet - HPV fact sheet from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Viruses
Sexually transmitted diseases
Transparency

In optics, transparency is the property of allowing light to pass through something.  

An object that is transparent can be seen through.  That is, what is on the other side of the object can be seen through it.  The image you can see through a transparent object is similar to the image you can see without it.  It may be changed if the transparent object behaves like a lens.  This could change the size or shape of the image. The opposite of transparency is opacity.

Some animals are transparent, so predators cannot see them so easily. An example of a transparent animal is the jellyfish. Transparency works better in places with a small amount of light than in places with lots of light.

Translucency 
If some light can be seen through an object but some of the detail of the image is lost, it is a translucent material.  

Light passes through a translucent object, but you cannot see objects behind it. The light passes through but the material scatters the light, so you cannot see the object, only its shadow.

Examples of translucent materials are frosted glass, paper, and some types of amber.

Optics
Punjab region

Punjab is a region in South Asia. It is divided by the Radcliffe Line: Some parts of it are in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, and others are in the Republic of India. It is in a plain, with the River Indus flowing through the western part, which is in Pakistan. The soil is very fertile. It lives from agriculture. Main religions in the region are Islam, Sikhism and Hinduism.

Related pages
 Punjab (Pakistan)
 Doab (India)
 Punjab (India)

Regions of Pakistan
Regions of India
Hepatitis

Hepatitis is a disease of the liver. In hepatitis, the liver is inflamed. There can be several reasons why the liver is inflamed. For this reason there are several kinds of hepatitis. The most common forms are Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C. Most cases of Hepatitis are caused by viruses. Some forms are caused by bacteria, fungi or parasites. The bacteria that cause tuberculosis or syphilis can also cause hepatitis; so can the parasite that causes malaria. 

Hepatitis can also be caused by alcohol. About one in four people who drink more than three alcoholic drinks a day (over a period of 10–15 days) will have some form of hepatitis caused by alcohol.

Various drugs and chemicals can also cause hepatitis, most notably paracetamol (overdose), yellow phosphorous, and others. Hepatitis may also be caused by other diseases.

Hepatitis A

Hepatitis A can be spread through personal contact, eating raw seafood, or drinking water with the hepatitis A virus in it. This happens mostly in third world countries. Strict personal hygiene and avoiding raw and unpeeled foods can help prevent an infection. 

Once a person has hepatitis A, their immune system makes antibodies to fight the virus. This will make them immune against future infection. 

People with hepatitis A should rest, drink a lot of water and avoid alcohol. The time between the infection and the start of the illness can run from 15 to 45 days.  About 15% of people with hepatitis A have symptoms from six months to a year after the first diagnosis. Infected people excrete the hepatitis A virus in their stool two weeks before and one week after the appearance of jaundice. 

There is a vaccine for hepatitis A. It will protect against hepatitis A for life.

Hepatitis B

Hepatitis B is not spread by food or casual contact.  Instead, hepatitis B is spread by blood or body fluids from an infected person.  A baby can get it from its mother during childbirth, and it can also be spread by sexual contact, use of street drugs, and unsafe medical care.  Some people just have hepatitis B for a little while and then suppress the infection. Others can be infected for life, usually with few or no symptoms for many years.  Hepatitis B sometimes damages the liver severely, and can cause cancer.  

There is a vaccine that can prevent hepatitis B.  There is no cure for hepatitis B, but there is treatment.

Hepatitis C

Hepatitis C is not spread by food or casual contact.  It is spread in ways that are similar to hepatitis B.  There is no vaccine, and the treatment is somewhat unpleasant.  People with hepatitis C who drink alcohol greatly increase their risk for liver damage.

Other websites 
 International Community : Viral Hepatitis Community 

Diseases caused by viruses
Liver disease
Dewey Decimal System

The Dewey Decimal System is a way to put books in order by subject. It is often used in public libraries and schools in the United States and other countries. It places the books on the shelf by subject using numbers from 000 to 999. It is called "decimal" because it uses numbers to the right of the decimal point for more detail (e.g. 944.1 for History of Brittany). Each subject has its own group of numbers. The system was created by Melvil Dewey in 1876. It is also called the Dewey Decimal Classification. The classification has been changed many times. The latest change is number 23 in 2011. There is also a smaller one for small libraries called "Abridged Dewey". 

Each subject is broken up into 10 smaller, more specific categories.

Here is a list of some sections in it:
 000 – Computer science, information, and general works
 100 – Philosophy and psychology
 200 – Religion
 300 – Social sciences
 400 – Language
 500 – Science
 600 – Technology
 700 – Arts and recreation
 800 – Literature
 900 – History and geography

Related pages
Literature
Reading
Book

More information
Full, 2011
Abridged 2014

Books
Homework

Homework, or a homework assignment, is a set of tasks assigned to students by their teachers to be completed outside the classroom. Common homework assignments may include required reading, a writing or typing project, mathematical exercises to be completed, information to be read before a test, or other skills to be practiced.  

The effects of homework are debated. Generally speaking, homework does not help young children. Homework may help older students, especially low-achieving students. However, homework also creates stress for students and parents, and reduces the amount of time that students can spend in other activities. 

Homework dates back to the 1900s, though it may have existed from earlier.

References 

Learning
Education
Stanford University

The Leland Stanford Junior University, often called Stanford University (or simply Stanford), is a private university next to Palo Alto in California, in the middle of Silicon Valley,
about 37 miles (60 kilometers) southeast of San Francisco and about 20 miles northwest of San José, in Santa Clara County. Leland and Jane Stanford opened the university on 1 October 1891. They named the university after their son, Leland Stanford Junior, who died at young age.

With one of the largest university campuses in the United States, the University includes the Schools of Engineering, Law, Medicine, Education, Business, Earth Sciences, and Humanities and Sciences. Stanford also hosts volunteer programs and a teaching hospital.

History

Leland Stanford Junior died in Europe in 1884. His parents, Leland and Jane Stanford, were rich and influential Californians. They chose to turn a farm they already owned into a large university, as a memorial to their curious son. Stanford had early trouble, as the school ran low on money, and was hurt by the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake.

Herbert Hoover, who later became the US President, helped the school improve its operations, and later university leaders pushed students and alumni to develop the surrounding area. By the 1950's, cities around Stanford University were filling with technology companies, starting what became Silicon Valley.

Campus

Stanford has many special areas. In honor of Stanford graduate and US president Herbert Hoover, Stanford hosts a large think tank and archive called the Hoover Institution. Many former students, like the founders of HP, donate lots of money and have buildings named after them. A large radio telescope called "The Dish" sits on the hills above Stanford.

Student Body

Stanford has about 7,000 undergraduate students, and a larger number of students working on advanced degrees. Few high school students who apply to Stanford are accepted - over the last several years, only four out of every hundred students who applied were offered a spot.

People who worked at or graduated from Stanford University

People who graduated from Stanford University are:

 Nicolas Sadirac (1989), founder and current head of the École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies

People who have worked at Stanford are:

Mary Sheldon Barnes

Related pages
 Volunteers in Asia - American non-profit organization closely related to Stanford

References 

 
Association of American Universities
Pac-12 Conference
Santa Clara County, California
1891 establishments in California
Palladium

Palladium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Pd. It has the atomic number 46. It is a metal. It is silver white. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. It is also part of the platinum group.

Palladium has similar chemistry to platinum. It is extracted from (made by taking from) some copper and nickel ores. Its main use is as a catalyst and also in jewellery. 

Chemical elements
Metals
Transition metals
Catalysts
Personal care

Personal care items are toiletry items. These are products used by people to look after their bodies, and to improve their appearance.  They are usually sold in chemist shops and supermarkets. Many celebrities use beauty products.

Products
Personal care includes products as diverse as  cleansing pads, bandages, colognes, cotton swabs, cotton pads, deodorant, eye liner, facial tissue, hair clippers, lip gloss, lipstick, lotion, makeup,  nail files, pomade, perfumes, razors, shaving cream, moisturizer, talcum powder, toilet paper, toothpaste, and wet wipes.

Care
Cosmetics
Rhythm and blues

Rhythm and blues (also known as R&B or RnB) is a popular music genre combining jazz, gospel, and blues influences, first performed by African American artists. It is now performed worldwide by people of many cultures and ethnic groups.

Contemporary R&B 
During the 1980s, James Brown and Sly & the Family Stone had used parts of psychedelic rock and other styles in their music. Funk became a big part of disco music. In the early 1980s, funk and soul had become sultry and more sexual with the work of Prince and others. The modern style of contemporary R&B came to be a major part of American popular music.

R&B today defines a style of African-American music. It combines elements of soul music, funk music, pop music, and (after 1986) hip hop in what is now called contemporary R&B.

It is sometimes called "urban contemporary" or "urban pop".

R&B in the 2000s 
By the 2000s, the only big difference between a record being a hip hop record or an R&B record is whether its vocals are rapped or sung. R&B started to focus more on solo artists than groups. By 2005, the most famous R&B artists include Usher, Beyoncé (formerly of Destiny's Child), Ashanti, and Mariah Carey.

Soulful R&B continues to be popular, with artists such as Alicia Keys, R. Kelly, John Legend, and Toni Braxton. Some R&B singers have used parts of Caribbean music in their work.

Related pages
 Blues
 Disco
 Funk
 Gospel music
 Hip hop music
 Rock and roll
 Soul music

Other websites 

 
Jazz music
Blues music
Pop music
Soul music
African-American history
Tungsten

Tungsten (sometimes named wolfram) is a chemical element on the periodic table. It has the chemical symbol W and it has the atomic number 74. It is a steel-gray to white colored metal. In chemistry, it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. Tungsten is found in several ores, including wolframite and scheelite.

Tungsten has a higher melting point than any other non-alloy that exists. The pure form (only tungsten) is mainly used in electrical equipment. Its compounds and alloys are used for many things, the most well known being its use in electrical filaments for light bulbs.  It is also used in the filament and target in most X-ray tubes, superalloys, and in glass-to-metal seals.

Tungsten's density and hardness have many uses. In the military, for example, tungsten has been used in armor-piercing artillery.

Tungsten's density is almost the same as gold. Gold-plated tungsten ingots have been fraudulently passed off as solid gold.

Chemical elements
Metals
Transition metals
Particulate

Particulates are very tiny pieces of a solid or liquid that are carried floating in a gas.  When the tiny pieces are solid, it is called a smoke.  When the tiny pieces are liquid, it is called an aerosol. Aerosols can be naturally found in clouds and geysers. There are also artificial aerosols such as haze and some air pollutants. Smokes can be found naturally in wildfires and volcanoes. Artificially, they can be found in cigarettes, factories and power plants. Both of them can cause air pollution and climate change.

,

Materials
Shorthand

Shorthand or stenography is a way of writing. Shorthand systems allow people to write much faster. Shorthand systems have been in use since antiquity. Now, they are not used as much, because there are dictation machines to record voices.

Other websites 
 Shorthand Untangled  - A site dealing with the skills of shorthand, with lots of learning and practice material
 Teeline Online - Learn Teeline Shorthand in your own time - online and offline lessons, exercises, assignments, shortcuts - all you need to either refresh or start from scratch
 A full description in English of the Dutch shorthand system Groote
 A complete Dutch book from 1925 about system Groote
 A downloadable Teeline book (MSWord), written for journalists in particular  (see Teeline)
 Dictation disc samples for free download
 AgiliWriting - an alphabetic shorthand 
 Alpha, the Easy Alphabetic Shorthand 
 Handywrite, a phonetic shorthand system
 Keyscript is a fully alphabetical shorthand based on Pitman's.  It saves 60% of writing
 Sound writing - a learning resource from the British Library
 The Shorthand Place - includes chronological list of shorthand systems
 The Louis A. Leslie Collection of Historical Shorthand Materials. 
 The Shorthand World and Imperial Typist magazine vol. 1 and vol. 5 available on Google Books

Writing systems
Collingwood Football Club

Collingwood Football Club, the Magpies, is a club which plays Australian Rules Football in the AFL. It comes from Collingwood, a suburb of Melbourne in Victoria. In the AFL/VFL, it has won 15 premierships.

History 

The Collingwood Football Club was formed in February 1892.  Collingwood played its first game in the Victorian Football Association on 7 May 1892, against Carlton.  In 1902, Collingwood won its first premiership against the Essendon Football Club.

The Victorian Football League (VFL) formed in 1897.  Collingwood was one of the original teams (along with Fitzroy, Melbourne, St Kilda, Carlton, Essendon, South Melbourne and Geelong).  In the early years of the VFL, Collingwood was the most successful team; it won 11 premierships in the first 40 years. They won the most recent AFL premiership against St Kilda in 2010. The teams had to play a second match after the scores were equal at the end of the first Grand Final game.

References

Other websites

 Football Club website

Australian Football League
Molybdenum

Molybdenum is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Mo. It has the atomic number 42. It has 35 isotopes. The name Molybdenum is from the Greek meaning "leadlike". The color of pure molybdenum is silvery-white. It does not occur naturally, and is made from molybdenite.

Uses 
It is used in alloys with other metals like stainless steel. It helps to make metal stronger, especially in high temperatures, and makes it less likely to rust. This makes it good for use in high speed tools, such as drills and saw blades. It is used in aircraft and missile parts, as well as in nuclear reactors. It is also not toxic, so it is used in making metal bowls for use in making food, medicines and other chemicals.

History 
Molybdenum was used for many years before it was identified in 1778 by Swedish scientist, Carl Wilhelm Scheele. In 1782, Peter Jacob Hjelm was able to separate it into a dark powder he called "molybdenum". It was first mined in 1916 at Climax, near Leadville, in Colorado.

References 

Chemical elements
Metals
Transition metals
Solution

In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture  of two or more substances.  The substances that are dissolved are called solutes. The substance the solutes are dissolved in is called the solvent. An example from everyday experience is a solid like salt or sugar (which are crystalline solids), dissolved in a liquid (like water).  Gases can dissolve in liquids.  An example is carbon dioxide or oxygen in water. Liquids may dissolve in other liquids and gases in other gases.

The amount of solute added to the solvent determines the concentration of the solution. The solution with the large amount of solute is called a concentrated solution; the solution with less solute is called a dilute solution.

Examples of solid solutions are alloys and some minerals. For example, brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.

Related pages
Hypertonic
Hypotonic

References 

Chemistry
Insurance

Insurance is a term in law and economics. It is something people buy to protect themselves from losing money.  People who buy insurance pay a "premium" (often paid every month) and promise to be careful (a "duty of care"). In exchange for this, if something bad happens to the person or thing that is insured, the company that sold the insurance will pay the money back. (However, there are some times when the company will not have to pay the money back, such as if the person was not careful.)

Types of insurance 
There are different kinds of insurance.  There are life insurance and general insurance.

In life insurance, someone ensures their life or someone else's life.  At the death of the insured person or on the date of maturity whichever happens earlier, the amount insured will be paid. 

General insurance is a non-life policy, such as: 
 fire insurance
 marine insurance
 travel insurance
 life Insurance
 home insurance
 car insurance
 commercial insurance
business insurance

Actuaries 
Actuaries are the people who figure out how much the premium should be, forecast trends, evaluate the cost impact of medical programs, design and price new products, assist in designing formulary models, and forecast the impact of risk adjustment on revenues. They balance how much the insurer might have to pay out against the chances of having to pay out.  If actuaries think there is a big chance that the company will have to pay out, they will make the premium higher.

References
The Adventures of Tintin

The Adventures of Tintin () is a Belgian comic strip, created by Hergé (Georges Remi) starting in the late 1920s and into the 1970s. They were originally written and published in French, but have been translated into many languages and are popular around the world.

Plot and characters 
The stories center around a young reporter from Belgium named Tintin, who travels the world and has many exciting adventures with his dog, a white wire fox terrier named Snowy (Milou, in French) and later (starting with The Crab with the Golden Claws in 1941) his friend, Captain Haddock, a bearded drunk with a temper. Other popular characters include Professor Cuthbert Calculus (Professeur Tryphon Tournesol) an absent-minded and mostly deaf (but he insists he's hard of hearing) scientist and inventor, and Thomson and Thompson (Dupond et Dupont), two silly detectives.

The Books 
The stories are a mixture of many different genres, including adventure, satire, and social commentary and changed over time. Twenty-three completed books, came out between 1929 and 1976. A twenty-fourth story, Tintin in Alph-Art, was never officially finished following the death of Hergé in 1983. There have been many unofficial books, but most of those are parodies or not part of the official series. The books in the official series are:
 Tintin in the Land of the Soviets - (1929-1930)
 Tintin in the Congo - (1930-1931)
 Tintin in America - (1931-1932)
 Cigars of the Pharaoh - (1932-1934)
 The Blue Lotus - (1934-1935)
 The Broken Ear - (1935-1937)
 The Black Island - (1937-1938)
 King Ottokar's Sceptre - (1938-1939)
 The Crab with the Golden Claws - (1940-1941)
 The Shooting Star - (1941-1942)
 The Secret of the Unicorn - (1942-1943)
 Red Rackham's Treasure - (1943-1944)
 The Seven Crystal Balls - (1943-1948)
 Prisoners of the Sun - (1946-1949)
 Land of Black Gold - (1948-1950)
 Destination Moon - (1950-1953)
 Explorers on the Moon - (1950-1954)
 The Calculus Affair - (1954-1956)
 The Red Sea Sharks - (1958)
 Tintin in Tibet - (1960)
 The Castafiore Emerald - (1963)
 Flight 714 - (1968)
 Tintin and the Picaros - (1976)
 Tintin and Alph-Art - (finished by someone else in 1986)

Other media 

There have also been plays, films, and animated cartoons based on the stories. Steven Spielberg and Peter Jackson have made a movie about Tintin. There are also Tintin Shops in Europe, which sell books, toys and other items based on the books.

Related pages
Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century

Other websites 
 Official site
 Fan site
  Objectif Tintin 

Comic books
Germanium

Germanium is a chemical element. Its chemical symbol is Ge. Its atomic number is 32. It was discovered by Clemens Winkler. It is a shiny, hard, silver-white metalloid. The chemistry of Germanium is quite like tin. Germanium forms many organometallic compounds. It is an important semiconductor material used in transistors.

Semimetals
Tom Green

Michael Thomas "Tom" Green (born July 30, 1971) is a Canadian actor, comedian, rapper, director, producer and writer. He was born in Pembroke, Ontario. He had his own comedy program, The Tom Green Show, on MTV. He directed, co-wrote and starred in Freddy Got Fingered. He was also a member of the short lived hip hop group Organized Rhyme where he performed under the stage name "MC Bones".

References

Other websites 
 Tom Green's official site and channel
 

Actors from Ontario
Canadian movie actors
Canadian movie directors
Canadian movie producers
Canadian rap musicians
Canadian screenwriters
Canadian television actors
Canadian television producers
Canadian television writers
Canadian voice actors
Comedians from Ontario
Writers from Ontario
1971 births
Living people
Sith

In the fictional Star Wars universe, the Sith are users of the Dark side of The Force and the opposite of the Jedi. 

The Sith live to dominate all others and to control society throughout the Star Wars galaxy so they can get more power. Some famous Sith are Darth Vader, Emperor Palpatine and Darth Maul. 

They lead the Galactic Empire, the antagonists of the Star Wars series who are known for brutality, being a dictatorship, and having a strong control over peoples lives. The Sith lost power for hundreds of years, before slowly taking over the Republic, or the Jedi Government, and turning it into the Galactic Empire.

Expanded universe 

In the Expanded Universe, The Sith at the start were a different species, looking like Humans, but with red skin and small bones coming out from their heads. 

The Sith Species almost all died after the Jedi committed genocide on them thousands of years before the movies. This is why some people think the Sith Empire are the "good guys", who bring law and order to the Galaxy and are just responding to the Jedi actions. 

Star Wars characters
Alex Jones

Alex Jones (born February 11, 1971) is a radio talk show host from Texas. He is described as conservative politically by a mainstream source. He describes himself as a paleoconservative politically, which means that he advocates old or traditional forms of political conservatives, as opposed to the newer forms, i.e. neoconservatives. He also calls himself an "aggressive constitutionalist". He is a conspiracy theorist.
Jones claims that the USA was responsible for the 9/11 attacks.
Jones is the host of The Alex Jones Show on Genesis Communications Network.

Biography
Jones was born in Dallas, Texas  and grew up in the suburb of Rockwall. His father is a dentist. He attended Anderson High School in northwest Austin, Texas. Jones was a lineman on his high school's football team.

He began his career in Austin with a live, call-in format Public-access television cable TV program. In 1996, Jones switched format to KJFK, hosting a show named The Final Edition. In 1998, he released his first film, America Destroyed By Design.

In 1998, Jones organized a successful effort to build a new Branch Davidian church as a memorial to those who died during the 1993 fire that ended the government's siege of the original Branch Davidian complex near Waco, Texas. He often featured the project on his Public-access television program and claimed that Koresh and his followers were peaceful people who were murdered by Attorney General Janet Reno and the ATF during the siege.

In 1999, he tied with Shannon Burke for that year's "Best Austin Talk Radio Host" poll as voted by The Austin Chronicle readers. Later that year, he was fired from KJFK-FM. According to the station's operations manager, Jones was fired because his viewpoints made the show hard to sell to advertisers and he refused to broaden his topics. Jones argued: "It was purely political, and it came down from on high [meaning it was ordered by powerful people]", and, "I was told 11 weeks ago to lay off Clinton, to lay off all these politicians, to not talk about rebuilding the church, to stop bashing [slang for criticizing] the Marines, A to Z."

In early 2000, Jones was one of seven Republican candidates for state representative in Texas House District 48, an open seat swing district based in Austin, Texas. Jones stated that he was running, "to be a watchdog [a person who makes sure no wrongdoing is taking place] on the inside." He aborted his campaign and withdrew before the March primary when polls indicated he had little chance of winning.

Works
Jones maintains several websites and has created numerous documentary movies.

Movies

He is also the author of 9-11 Descent into Tyranny.

References

1971 births
Living people
Jones, Alex
American radio personalities
Writers from Austin, Texas
Writers from Dallas, Texas
Stuart Sutcliffe

Stuart Fergusson Victor Sutcliffe (23 June 1940 – 10 April 1962) was an early member of the English band The Beatles. He was born in Edinburgh, Scotland and raised in Liverpool, England. He was the band's original bassist, but left before they became famous. He wanted to be an artist, and he returned to art school, which he had quit to join the Beatles.

Sutcliffe died in 1962, at the age of 21, in Hamburg, Germany from a brain . It was long thought that the hemorrhage was from a fight with locals after a concert in 1961, but it is now believed he may have been born with a medical condition which caused it.

1940 births
1962 deaths
Cardiovascular disease deaths in Germany
Deaths from cerebral hemorrhage
English painters
Entertainers from Edinburgh
Musicians from Liverpool
The Beatles members
George Boole

George Boole [], (November 2, 1815 – December 8, 1864) was an English mathematician and philosopher.

Works
He created Boolean algebra. This is one of the bases of modern-day computer science. Other humans, like Augustus De Morgan and Charles Peirce, refined and completed his work. In their times, very few people knew of the work those mathematicians had done. Boolean algebra was rediscovered by Claude Shannon about 75 years after Boole's death. In his doctoral thesis, Shannon showed that boolean algebra was useful. It could simplify the design of electric switches and relays (like those that were used in the telephone switchboards of the time). Shannon also showed that such switches could solve boolean algebra problems. All modern-day digital circuits (mainly computers) use such algebra to solve problems.

Other websites 

Roger Parsons' article on Boole 

George Boole's work as first Professor of Mathematics in University College, Cork, Ireland

1815 births
1864 deaths
19th-century English philosophers
English mathematicians
Boolean algebra
Klein bottle

The Klein bottle is a geometrical object, named after the German mathematician Felix Klein.  He described it in 1882, and named it Klein'sche Fläche (Klein surface). Like the Möbius strip, it only has one surface. Mathematicians call this a non-orientable surface. Klein bottles only exist in four-dimensional space, but a model of a Klein bottle can be made in 3D. This model is different from the original because at some point the shape touches itself. In 3D, part of the shape is "inside" the rest. This is not the case in 4D. Some 3D models use different colors to show the 4th component. The part that lies "inside"  then has a different color.

Because the surface is non-orientable, there is no "inside" or "outside". This means that if a liquid were filled "in the bottle", it would run down its surface. This may not be true for the 3D models of the bottle.

The 2-dimensional version of a Klein bottle is a Möbius strip.

Making a Klein bottle from a rectangle
Join the arrows so that they face the same way, like so:

References

Other websites 

Acme Klein Bottles - Clifford Stoll sells blown-glass immersed Klein bottles.
 Klein bottle construction
Klein Bottle Images by John Sullivan
The Klein bottle
A modular origami model of the Klein bottle
A knitted version
Paper klein bottle - make your own
Geodesic klein bottles and some mystic musings
Imaging Maths - The Klein Bottle

Geometry
Entropy

The entropy of an object is a measure of the amount of energy which is unavailable to do work. Entropy is also a measure of the number of possible arrangements the atoms in a system can have. In this sense, entropy is a measure of uncertainty or randomness. The higher the entropy of an object, the more uncertain we are about the states of the atoms making up that object because there are more states to decide from. A law of physics says that it takes work to make the entropy of an object or system smaller; without work, entropy can never become smaller – you could say that everything slowly goes to disorder (higher entropy).

The word entropy came from the study of heat and energy in the period 1850 to 1900. Some very useful mathematical ideas about probability calculations emerged from the study of entropy. These ideas are now used in information theory, statistical mechanics, chemistry and other areas of study. 

Entropy is simply a quantitative measure of what the second law of thermodynamics describes: the spreading of energy until it is evenly spread. The meaning of entropy is different in different fields. It can mean:

Information entropy, which is a measure of information communicated by systems that are affected by data noise.
Thermodynamic entropy is part of the science of heat energy. It is a measure of how organized or disorganized energy is in a system of atoms or molecules.

Thermodynamics