cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Transduction (genetics)

Transduction how a virus moves DNA from one bacterium to another. 

Joshua Lederberg and his graduate student Norton Zinder showed in 1952 that bacteriophages could transfer genetic information between bacteria in Salmonella. This explained how bacteria of different species could gain resistance to the same antibiotic very quickly.  

Transduction also refers to the process whereby foreign DNA is introduced into another cell via a viral vector. This is a common tool used by molecular biologists to introduce a foreign gene into a host cell's genome.

When bacteriophages infect a bacterial cell, they usually reproduce by using the replicational, transcriptional, and translation machinery of the host bacterial cell to make many complete viral particles, including the viral DNA or RNA and the protein coat. Errors in this process can result in the virus carrying over DNA from one bacterium to another.

References 

Horizontal gene transfer
Prokaryotes
Transformation (genetics)

In molecular biology, transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell by the direct uptake and expression of DNA from its surroundings.

Transformation occurs naturally in some species of bacteria, and can also be done artificially. Bacteria that are capable of being transformed, whether naturally or artificially, are called competent.

Transformation is one of three processes by which outside genetic material may be brought into bacterial cells. The other two are conjugation (transfer of genetic material between two bacterial cells in direct contact), and transduction (injection of foreign DNA by a bacteriophage into the host).

Transformation may also used to describe the insertion of new genetic material into nonbacterial cells, such as animal and plant cells. Introduction of foreign DNA into eukaryote cells is usually called "transfection".

History
Transformation was first demonstrated in 1928 by British bacteriologist Frederick Griffith. Griffith discovered that a harmless strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae could be made virulent after being exposed to heat-killed virulent strains.

Griffith thought some "transforming principle" from the heat-killed strain was responsible for making the harmless strain virulent. In 1944 this transforming principle was identified as being genetic by Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty. They isolated DNA from a virulent strain of S. pneumoniae and using just this DNA were able to make a harmless strain virulent. They called this uptake and incorporation of DNA by bacteria 'transformation'. See Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment.

The results of these experiments were at first sceptically received by the scientific community. Not until the discovery of other methods of genetic transfer (conjugation in 1947 and transduction in 1953) by Joshua Lederberg were Avery's experiments accepted. Transformation did not become routine procedure in laboratories until 1972 when Cohen successfully transformed Escherichia coli by treating the bacteria with calcium chloride. This created an efficient and convenient procedure for transforming bacteria and opened the way for biotechnology and research.

Transformation of animal and plant cells was also investigated with the first transgenic mouse being created by injecting a gene for a rat growth hormone into a mouse embryo in 1982.

In 1907 a bacterium that caused plant tumors, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, was discovered and in the early 1970s the tumor inducing agent was found to be a DNA plasmid called the Ti plasmid. By removing the genes in the plasmid which caused the tumour and adding in new genes researchers were able to infect plants with A. tumefaciens and let the bacteria insert their chosen DNA into the genomes of the plants.

Not all plant cells are susceptible to infection by A. tumefaciens, so other methods were developed including electroporation and micro-injection. Particle bombardment was made possible with the invention of the Biolistic Particle Delivery System (gene gun) by John Sanford in 1990.

References 

Horizontal gene transfer
Bacteria
Malibu, California

Malibu () is a beach city in western Los Angeles County, California, situated about  west of Downtown Los Angeles. Known for its Mediterranean climate, a  strip of the Malibu coast incorporated in 1991 into the City of Malibu. The area is known for being the home of Hollywood movie stars, people in the entertainment industry, and other affluent residents. Most Malibu residents live within a few hundred yards of Pacific Coast Highway (State Route 1), which traverses the city, with some residents living up to a mile (1.6 km) away from the beach up narrow canyons. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 12,645.

References

 
1991 establishments in California
Spirochaete

Spirochaetes (or Spirochetes) are the phylum Spirochaetae. These are double-membrane bacteria with long, helically coiled (spiral-shaped) cells. 

Spirochaetes are bacteria. They have flagella, which run lengthwise between the cell wall and outer membrane. The flagella cause a twisting motion which moves the spirochaete about. 

Most spirochaetes are free-living and anaerobic, but there are many parasitic species.

Classification 
The spirochaetes are divided into three families (Brachyspiraceae, Leptospiraceae, and Spirochaetaceae). They are all put in a single order, the Spirochaetales. Disease-causing members of this phylum include:

 Leptospira species, some of which which cause leptospirosis
 Borrelia species, some of which cause Lyme disease
 Borrelia recurrentis, which causes relapsing fever.
 Treponema pallidum subspecies which cause syphilis and yaws.
  Brachyspira'' species, which cause intestinal spirochaetosis.

References

Other websites 
 Introduction to the Spirochetes. UCMP. 

Gram-negative bacteria
Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment

The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment was reported in 1944 by Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, that DNA is the substance that causes bacterial transformation.

This was the culmination of research in the 1930s and early 1940s at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research to purify and characterize the "transforming principle" responsible for the phenomenon first described in Griffith's experiment of 1928. In this early experiment dead Streptococcus pneumoniae of the virulent strain type III-S, when injected along with living but non-virulent type II-R pneumococci, resulted in a deadly infection of type III-S pneumococci.

At that time it was thought protein might be the hereditary material. In their paper in 1944, Avery and his colleagues suggest that DNA, rather than protein was the hereditary material of bacteria, and could be analogous to genes and/or viruses in higher organisms.

This was an epoch-making experiment, but the three men did not get the Nobel Prize. The Nobel laureate Arne Tiselius said that Avery was the most deserving scientist not to receive the Nobel Prize for his work.

References 

Genetics experiments
Molecular biology
Bacteria
Alton, Kansas

Alton is a city in Osborne County, Kansas, United States. There were 103 people living in Alton in the 2010 census. Alton was previously known as "Bull City".

References

Cities in Osborne County, Kansas
Lebanon, Kansas

Lebanon is a city in Smith County, Kansas, United States, in the north central part of the state. The population was 303 at the 2000 census.

References

Cities in Smith County, Kansas
1876 establishments in Kansas
Sprint Corporation

Sprint Nextel Corporation () was a telecommunications company based in Overland Park, Kansas.  It operated under the name Sprint, and was once the fourth largest wireless telecommunications network in the United States behind Verizon, AT&T and T-Mobile, with 56.3 million customers, behind Verizon Wireless and AT&T Mobility.

On April 1, 2020, T-Mobile and Sprint merged, with T-Mobile now being the whole owner of Sprint, making Sprint an effective subsidiary of T-Mobile until the Sprint brand was officially phased out. Leadership, background, and stock changes happened immediately, with customer side changes happening over time. Sprint was officially discontinued on August 2, 2020. Billing was already showing the T-Mobile brand, and on this date all retail, customer service, and all other company branding was replaced by T-Mobile. New rate plans were also introduced as well for all new and existing customers from both companies, though they will all will remain with their current plan if they choose not to switch to a new T-Mobile plan for at least 3 years.

References

Telecommunications
American telephone companies
Overland Park, Kansas
American electronics companies
1937 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Kansas
Companies based in Kansas
Montgomery County, Kansas

Montgomery County (county code MG) is a county found in the U.S. state of Kansas. As of the 2010 census, 35,471 people lived there. Its county seat is Independence, and its most populous city is Coffeyville.

History 
Montgomery County was created on February 26, 1867.

Geography 
The U.S. Census Bureau says that the county has a total area of . Of that  is land and  (1.2%) is water. The lowest point in the state of Kansas is on the Verdigris River in Cherokee Township in Montgomery County (just southeast of Coffeyville), where it flows out of Kansas and into Oklahoma. Western portions of the county contain parts of the northern Cross Timbers eco-region, which separates the forested eastern portion of the United States with the Plains.

Bordering counties 
 Wilson County (north)
 Neosho County (northeast)
 Labette County (east)
 Nowata County, Oklahoma (southeast)
 Washington County, Oklahoma (south)
 Chautauqua County (west)
 Elk County (northwest)

People 

The Coffeyville Micropolitan Statistical Area includes all of Montgomery County.

Education

Unified school districts 
 Caney Valley USD 436
 Cherryvale USD 447
 Coffeyville USD 445
 Independence USD 446

Colleges and universities 
 Coffeyville Community College
 Independence Community College

Communities

Cities 

 Caney
 Cherryvale
 Coffeyville
 Dearing
 Elk City
 Havana
 Independence
 Liberty
 Tyro

Unincorporated communities 

 Avian
 Blake
 Bolton
 Corbin
 Jefferson
 Sycamore
 Videtta Spur
 Wayside

Ghost towns 
 Le Hunt

Townships 
Montgomery County is divided into twelve townships.  The cities of Caney, Cherryvale, Coffeyville, and Independence are considered governmentally independent and are excluded from the census figures for the townships.  In the following table, the population center is the largest city (or cities) included in that township's population total, if it is of a significant size.

Related pages 
 List of counties in Kansas

References

Further reading 

 History of Montgomery County, Kansas; Lew Wallace Duncan; Press of Iola Register; 852 pages; 1903.
 Atlas and Plat Book of Montgomery County, Kansas; Kenyon Co; 36 pages; 1916.
 Historical Atlas of Montgomery County, Kansas; John P. Edwards; 34 pages; 1881.

Other websites 

County
 
 Montgomery County - Directory of Public Officials
Maps
 Montgomery County Maps: Current, Historic, KDOT
 Kansas Highway Maps: Current, Historic, KDOT
 Kansas Railroad Maps: Current, 1996, 1915, KDOT and Kansas Historical Society

1867 establishments in Kansas
Rajon Rondo

Rajon Pierre Rondo (born February 22, 1986 in Louisville, Kentucky) is an American basketball player who currently plays for the Los Angeles Lakers of the NBA as a point guard. Rondo won an NBA Championpship with the Boston Celtics in 2008.  Rondo was selected with the 21st overall pick in the first round of the 2006 NBA Draft by the Phoenix Suns. Rondo played college basketball for the University of Kentucky.

Other websites 
Rajon Rondo's NBA profile page

References

1986 births
Living people
African-American basketball players
Boston Celtics players
Los Angeles Lakers players
Sportspeople from Louisville, Kentucky
American basketball players
Bette Midler

Bette Midler (born 1 December 1945) is an American actress, singer and comedian. She starred in movies such as Ruthless People, Beaches and Hocus Pocus. Midler has won many awards in the entertainment industry. She was born in Honolulu, Hawaii.

Career
Midler released her first album, The Divine Miss M, in December 1972. Midler won the 1973 Grammy Award for Best New Artist because of it.

In 1979 Midler appeared in her first film, The Rose as the main character.

In 1998 she played Cecilia Bloom in Beaches. The film's soundtrack featured a cover version of "Wind Beneath My Wings" sung by Midler. It reached No.1.

In 2000 she had her own sitcom called Bette. It ended after one season.

Filmography

Other websites 

1945 births
Living people
Actors from Honolulu
Comedians from Hawaii
American movie actors
American television actors
American voice actors
Singers from Hawaii
Warner Bros. Records artists
Subway (restaurant)

Subway is a corporation that operates a large chain of fast food restaurants. These restaurants mainly sell Submarine sandwiches, but also pizzas and salads. The name "Subway" comes from the New York City Subway, a public transport system in New York City, and many restaurants are decorated with historic photographs and maps of the subway system.

The first Subway outside of North America opened in Bahrain, in December 1984. Today, there are more than 44,000 Subway locations in 112 countries across the world, making it the world's largest fast food restaurant chain by number of stores. It has more stores than McDonald's, but McDonald's earns more revenue than Subway.

Since 2007, Subway has consistently ranked in Entrepreneur Magazines' top 500 franchise list. It also ranked 2nd on the "Fastest Growing Franchise" lists. In March 2011, Subway was named "the most loved fast food chain in the US" by Amplicate.com.

Products
Subway's main product is a type of sandwich called a submarine sandwich or "sub". Each sub is made from a combination of baguette, meat, cheese and vegetables. Subway has different menu items for different countries. However, there are some common products that are sold in most countries. They are:
 Italian BMT (Stands for "Biggest, Meatiest, Tastiest" though it stood for "Brooklyn Manhattan Transit" at first.)
 Steak & Cheese
 Meatball Marinara
 Chicken Teriyaki
 Subway Club
 Chicken & Bacon Ranch
 Tuna 
 Roasted Chicken
 Veggie Delite

Regional variations
Subway formerly had 23 kosher restaurants in Israel. All were closed by 2004. In the United States, there used to be 12 locations with kosher food. As of 2011 only 5 were open.

Subway opened its first restaurant in India in 2001 in New Delhi. Subway restaurants in India do not serve beef and pork products in deference to Hindu and Muslim beliefs respectively. Subway opened its first all-vegetarian outlet on the campus of Lovely Professional University (LPU) in Jalandhar, Punjab. In 2009, Zagat Survey Says "Top Overall", Behind Wendy's.

References

Other websites 

Official website
Subway restaurant locations map
tellsubway

1965 establishments in the United States
American fast food restaurants
Brandon Bochenski

Brandon Louis Bochenski (born April 4, 1982) is a Kazakhstani-American former professional ice hockey player. He was picked by the Ottawa Senators with the 223rd overall pick in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft. He played in the NHL for many teams including the Ottawa Senators from 2004-2006, Chicago Blackhawks from 2005-2007, Boston Bruins from 2006-2008, Anaheim Ducks in 2007, Nashville Predators in 2007 and the Tampa Bay Lightning from 2008-2010 before leaving North America to sign a one-year contract with the Kontinental Hockey League's, Barys Astana.

Other websites 

1982 births
American Hockey League players
American ice hockey players
Anaheim Ducks players
Boston Bruins players
Chicago Blackhawks players
Living people
Nashville Predators players
Ottawa Senators players
Sportspeople from Minnesota
Tampa Bay Lightning players
United States Hockey League players
Elimination Chamber

Elimination Chamber is a professional wrestling match held by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). One or two matches have taken place each year at the pay-per-view (PPV) event, also called Elimination Chamber (or No Escape in Germany), since 2010.

Dates and venues

DVD box set 
WWE released a DVD with the title Satan's Prison: The Anthology of the Elimination Chamber (Iron Will in Europe), which included every Elimination Chamber match up until Elimination Chamber 2010, in July of 2010. The DVD is very edited mostly because of Chris Benoit.

References

Other websites 
 Elimination Chamber description at WWE.com 

 

de:Wrestling-Matcharten#Elimination Chamber
it:Tipi di match di wrestling#Elimination Chamber Match
Dixie Carter

Dixie Virginia Carter (May 25, 1939, McLemoresville, Tennessee – April 10, 2010, Houston, Texas), was an American movie, television and stage actress. She was best known for playing Julia Sugarbaker in the television series Designing Women (1986-1993). She competed in Miss Tennessee pageants in 1959.

Early life
Carter was born in McLemoresville, Tennessee, and spent many of her early years in Memphis. She attended college at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville and Southwestern at Memphis (now Rhodes College). She was a graduate of Memphis State with a degree in English.

Personal life

She divorced Arthur Carter in 1977, and married Broadway and TV actor George Hearn the same year. Two years later, in 1979, she divorced Hearn. She married for the third time on May 27, 1984, to Hal Holbrook (14 years her senior), who is most noted for his appearances as Mark Twain. Carter renovated her old family home in McLemoresville with the designs of architect Hoyte Johnson of Atlanta.

She and Holbrook divided their time between their homes in Beverly Hills, California, and McLemoresville, Tennessee, where Carter's elderly father, Halbert, resided until his death in early 2007, at age 96.

Death
Carter died on April 10, 2010, in Houston, Texas. Her death was announced by her husband, actor Hal Holbrook, who stated the cause as complications from endometrial cancer which was diagnosed earlier in 2010. In addition to Holbrook, she is survived by her daughters from her first marriage: Ginna Carter (of Los Angeles) and Mary Dixie Carter (of Brooklyn) as well as a sister, Melba Helen Heath (of San Anselmo, California) and several nephews and nieces. In addition to family, her funeral, held on April 15, 2010, was attended by Designing Women co-stars Delta Burke, Annie Potts and Jean Smart. Dixie Carter was interred in her hometown, McLemoresville, Tennessee.

Movies

Awards and nominations

References

Other websites

 Official site
 
 
 

American movie actors
Deaths from endometrial cancer
American television actors
American stage actors
Actors from Tennessee
1939 births
2010 deaths
Bouvier des Flandres

The Bouvier des Flandres is a breed of dog that originated in Flanders. They are now known to be guard dogs, police dogs and pets. They were originally known for cattle droving, sheep herding, and cart pulling. Their name means "Cow Herder of Flanders" in English.

Dog breeds
Flanders
Peter Forsberg

Peter Mattias "Foppa" Forsberg (born July 20, 1973 in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden) is a retired Swedish ice hockey center.

Forsberg was known for his on-ice vision and physical play when he was on the ice. Forsberg won the Stanley Cup in 1996 and again in 2001 while part of the Colorado Avalanche. Forsberg played his NHL career while apart of 4 teams and had a career that spanned over 15 NHL seasons. Forsberg also played in the Swedish Elite League for the Modo Hockey. Forsberg announced that he would make a return to the NHL on January 21, 2011 but later retired after only 2 road games.

Other websites

1973 births
Art Ross Trophy winners
Calder Trophy winners
Colorado Avalanche players
Hart Memorial Trophy winners
Hockey Hall of Fame inductees
Living people
Nashville Predators players
Olympic gold medalists
Philadelphia Flyers players
Quebec Nordiques players
Stanley Cup champions
Swedish ice hockey players
Swedish Hockey League players
Ice hockey centres
Marie François Sadi Carnot

Marie François Sadi Carnot (; 11 August 1837 – 25 June 1894) was a French statesman, the fourth president of the Third French Republic. He served as the President of France from 1887 until he was murdered by Sante Geronimo Caserio in 1894.

Presidency
Carnot had a reputation for honesty, this made him a popular candidate to succeed Jules Grévy who had resigned following a scandal. He was elected by 616 votes out of 827. He assumed office at a critical period, when the republic was all but openly attacked by .

Carnot's popularity helped to force General Boulanger into exile. Boulanger was a conservative and a supporter of the monarchy, and it was feared he would try to overthrow the Republic.

Carnot was near his most popular, when, on 24 June 1894, he attended a public banquet in Lyon. Afterwards he was stabbed by an Italian anarchist named Sante Geronimo Caserio and died shortly after midnight on 25 June. The stabbing aroused widespread horror and grief, and the president was honoured with an elaborate funeral ceremony in the Panthéon.

Related pages
 Politics of France

References

Other websites
 
 Carnot's Gravesite
 Carnot biography 

1837 births
1894 deaths
Presidents of France
People from Limoges
Leaf insect

The family Phylliidae (often misspelt 'Phyllidae') includes the living true leaf insects or walking leaves, which include some of the most remarkable leaf mimics in the entire animal kingdom. They occur from South Asia through Southeast Asia to Australia. There are different views about their taxonomy.

Characteristics 
Leaf insects use camouflage to take on the appearance of a leaf. They do this so accurately that predators often cannot distinguish them from real leaves. In some species the edge of the leaf insect's body even has the appearance of bite marks. To further confuse predators, when the leaf insect walks, it rocks back and forth, to mimic a real leaf being blown by the wind.

They and stick insects go together in the Order Phasmatodea.

The scholar Antonio Pigafetta may have been the first to document the creature.  Sailing with Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigational expedition, he studied and chronicled the fauna on the island of Cimbonbon as the fleet hauled ashore for repairs.

Related pages 
 Stick insect

References 

 
Mimicry
Dictyoptera

Dictyoptera includes two orders of insects – cockroackes and temites (Blattodea), and mantids (Mantodea).

While all modern Dictyoptera have short ovipositors, the oldest fossils of Dictyoptera have long ovipositors, much like members of the Orthoptera.

The term Dictyoptera is usually considered a superorder, with Isoptera, Blattaria and Mantodea being its three orders. In some classifications, however, Dictyoptera is shifted to order status. 

Regardless, in all classifications the three constituent groups are the same, just treated at different rank. Termites and cockroaches are very closely related, with ecological and molecular data pointing to a relationship with the cockroach genus Cryptocercus.

Based on genetic evidence, the closest living relatives of the Dictyoptera are the phasmids. If the Dictyoptera are a superorder they might be included in it.

References 

Insects
Frances Fisher

Frances Fisher (born 11 May 1952) is an England-born American actress. She played Strawberry Alice for 1992's Unforgiven. She also played Ruth DeWitt Bukater in the 1997 movie Titanic. Both movies won the Academy Award for "Best Pictuce". Before those, Fisher starred in the soap opera The Edge of Night (1976-1981).

Fisher was born in Milford on Sea, Hampshire, England.

Fisher supported Senator Bernie Sanders for President in the 2016 U.S. presidential election.

References

1952 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
Actors from Los Angeles
Fredonia, Kansas

Fredonia is a city in Wilson County, Kansas, United States. The population was 2,600 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Wilson County.

References

Cities in Wilson County, Kansas
County seats in Kansas
Grylloblattidae

Grylloblattidae is a family of extremophile and wingless insects that live in the cold on top of mountains. 

They are commonly called grylloblattids, but are also sometimes called ice crawlers or icebugs. 

Most are nocturnal and appear to feed on detritus (rubbish). They have long antennae (23–45 segments) and long cerci (appendages on the rear; 5–8 segments), but no wings. 

Their closest living relatives are the recently-discovered Mantophasmatidae.

The family is placed in its own suborder, Grylloblattodea, and sometimes in its own order, Grylloblattaria. It contains 5 genera and 25 species.

References

Insects
Extremophiles
Parapneuroptera

Paraneoptera is a monophyletic superorder of insects. 

It includes four orders, the bark lice, true lice, thrips, and hemipterans, the true bugs. 

The mouthparts of the Paraneoptera reflect diverse feeding habits. Basal groups are microbial surface feeders, whereas more advanced groups feed on plant or animal fluids.

Hemiptera

Hemiptera is an order of insects often known as the true bugs (bug). They are about 50,000–80,000 species of cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, shield bugs, and others. They range in size from  to around , and share a common arrangement of sucking mouthparts.

Psocoptera

Psocoptera, the bark lice, include 4,400 described species arranged in 3 suborders. There are 50 families of bark lice with over 200 genera. This is the first insect order to show the beginnings of a transition to sucking mouthparts. It is sister group to the Phthiraptera. Bark lice are found on foliage, under bark, or in leaf litter.

Phthiraptera

Phthiraptera, the lice, includes 5,000 described species divided into 4 suborders. 

The body of a louse is dorsoventrally flattened and the eyes are absent or nearly so. The legs are strong for holding onto fur or feathers of the host. All species of lice are parasitic. Lice parasitise all orders of birds and most orders of mammals.

Thrips

Order Thysanoptera includes 5,500 species classified into two suborders. These insects are called thrips.

The mouth is in the form of an asymmetrical mouth cone, consisting of piercing stylets. Thrips are commonly found on and in flowers. Most species are phytophagous, feeding on flowers.

References

Insects
Exopterygota

The Exopterygota  are a superorder of insects. They are in the subclass Pterygota in the infraclass Neoptera. 

In Exopterygotes the young resemble adults but have externally-developing wings. They undergo a modest change between immature and adult, without going through a pupal stage. The nymphs develop gradually into adults through a process of moulting.

The Exopterygota are a diverse insect superorder, divided into eight orders. They include locusts, thrips, and lice among other types of insects.

They are distinguished from the Endopterygota (or Holometabola) by the way in which their wings develop. Endopterygota (meaning literally "internal winged forms") develop wings inside the body and undergo an elaborate metamorphosis involving a pupal stage. Exopterygota ("external winged forms") develop wings on the outside of their bodies without going through a true pupal stage, though a few have something resembling a pupa.

References 

Insects
Xiphosura

Xiphosura is an order of marine chelicerates. It includes a large number of extinct lines and only four recent species in the family Limulidae, which include the horseshoe crabs. 

The group has hardly changed in millions of years. The modern horseshoe crabs look almost identical to prehistoric genera such as the Jurassic Mesolimulus, and are considered to be living fossils.

Xiphosura are traditionally placed in the class Merostomata. This term was originally made for the eurypterids; now, with the Xiphosura added, it is known to be paraphyletic. 

Although the name Merostomata is still seen in textbooks, without reference to the Eurypterida, some have urged that this usage should be discouraged. The shared features of the two groups traditionally grouped in the Merostomata are now thought to be retentions of primitive conditions (symplesiomorphies).

The Xiphosura is basal to a clade comprising Eurypterida and Arachnida. It is estimated that the Xiphosura diverged from the Arachnida 480 million years ago.

References 

Chelicerata
Living fossils
Eurypterid

The eurypterids, related to arachnids, were the largest known arthropods. They are members of the extinct order Eurypterida. It is a most diverse Chelicerate order.

The largest, such as Jaekelopterus, reached 2½ metres in length, but most species were less than 20 cm (8 inches). They were the largest arthropods of all time. They were predators which thrived in the warm, shallow seas and lakes of the Ordovician to the Permian periods, around 460 to 248 million years ago. Recent research suggsts their eyesight was not very good.

The move from the sea to fresh water probably occurred by the Pennsylvanian period. Eurypterids went extinct during the Permian–Triassic extinction event 251 million years ago, and their fossils have a near global distribution.

The typical eurypterid had a large, flat, semicircular carapace, followed by a jointed section, and finally a tapering, flexible tail, most ending with a long spine at the end (Pterygotus, though, had a large flat tail, possibly with a smaller spine). Behind the head of the eurypterids were twelve body segments. These segments are formed by a dorsal plate, called a tergite, and a ventral plate, called a sternite. The tail, known as the telson, is spiked in most eurypterids.

 A recent discovery of a new fossil species of eurypterid, Pentecopterus, has been made. It is two meters long, and lived 467 million years ago, in the Middle Ordovician period.

References 

Fossils
Chelicerata
Amblypygi

Amblypygi is an order of Arachnids also known as whip spiders or tailless whip scorpions. The name 'amblypygid' means "blunt rump", a reference to a lack of the telson (tail). They are harmless to humans.

The Amblypygs are in the subphylum Chelicerata of the phylum Arthropoda. The order has 5 families, 17 genera and about 155 species. They are found in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Some species are subterranean; many are nocturnal. During the day, they may hide under logs, bark, stones, or leaves. They prefer a humid environment.

Notes 

Arachnids
Bushel

A bushel is an imperial unit of dry volume, equal to 4 pecks or 8 gallons. It is most often used in agriculture. A bushel is abbreviated as bsh. or bu. 

Since the volume of a gallon in UK has been defined as the volume of ten pounds of water, the volume of a bushel in SI units is 36.3687 litres.

The United States bushel is slightly smaller than the British bushel because the American gallon is smaller than the British gallon. Its volume has been defined as 2150.42 cubic inches, which makes 35.2391 litres.

References

Imperial units
Units of volume
Adelina Patti

Adelina Patti (10 February 184327 September 1919) was a highly acclaimed Italian-French 19th-century opera diva, earning huge fees, sometimes $5000 in gold,  at the height of her career in the music capitals of Europe and America. She first sang in public as a child in 1851, and gave her last performance before an audience in 1914.

Biography
She was born Adelina Juana Maria Patti, in Madrid, the last child of tenor Salvatore Patti (1800–1869) and soprano Caterina Barilli (died 1870). Her Italian parents were working in Madrid, Spain, at the time of her birth. Because her father came from Sicily, Patti was born a subject of the King of the Two Sicilies, but had a French passport for most of her life, as two of her three husbands were French.  She settled in South Wales in 1903, and after her last concert, for the Red Cross, in 1914 she died there, of natural causes.

References

Italian singers
French opera singers
Italian opera singers
People with foods named after them
1843 births
1919 deaths
Oculocerebrorenal syndrome

Oculocerebrorenal syndrome (also called Lowe Syndrome) is a rare genetic disorder in humans. It affects the eyes, the brain and the kidneys. It is also known as Oculocerebrorenal syndrome. People with lowe syndrome are born with cataracts, that is the lenses of their eyes are not totally clear. Many people with the syndrome develop kidney problems at an early age. The brain develops differently, the development of the child happens slower. Such children may often have learning difficulties. Epilepsy can also occur.

The disorder is caused by a gene defect on the X-chromosome. As a result, much more boys are affected than girls. The syndrome is named after Dr. Charles Lowe, who first described it in 1952. Its occurrence is about one case in half a million live births.

References

Diseases
Rubicon

The Rubicon is a river that flows into the Adriatic Sea south of Ravenna, Italy. In the time of Julius Caesar, a river with this name was the border between the Roman province Gallia Cisalpina, and Italy, which was not a province at the time. The exact river Caesar referred to is unknown; the river that is known as Rubicone today was selected and named by Benito Mussolini.

Rivers of Italy
In Rainbows

In Rainbows is an album by the band Radiohead. It was released in October 2007.

Track listing 
All songs written by Radiohead.

 "15 Step" – 3:58
 "Bodysnatchers" – 4:02
 "Nude" – 4:15
 "Weird Fishes/Arpeggi" – 5:18
 "All I Need" – 3:48
 "Faust Arp" – 2:09
 "Reckoner" – 4:50
 "House of Cards" – 5:28
 "Jigsaw Falling into Place" – 4:09
 "Videotape" – 4:42

References

2007 albums
Radiohead albums
Niklas Bäckström

Niklas Oskar Bäckström (born February 13, 1978) is a Finnish professional ice hockey goaltender. He plays for the Minnesota Wild of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has also played in the SM-liiga for HIFK, SaiPa and Kärpät and in the Elitserien for AIK. He won the William M. Jennings Trophy in 2007 along with Manny Fernandez. He also played for Finland at the 2006 Winter Olympics where he won a silver medal and at the 2010 Winter Olympics where he won a bronze medal.

References

Other websites 

1978 births
Calgary Flames players
Finnish ice hockey goaltenders
Living people
Medalists at the 2006 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 2010 Winter Olympics
Minnesota Wild players
Olympic bronze medalists
Olympic silver medalists
Sportspeople from Helsinki
Swedish Hockey League players
Marcin Gortat

Marcin Janusz Gortat (born February 17, 1984 in Łódź, Poland) is a Polish basketball player who currently plays for the Phoenix Suns as a Power forward and Center. 

He has also played for the Orlando Magic from 2008 to 2010 before being traded to the Phoenix Suns along with Vince Carter, Mickael Pietrus, a 2011 first-round draft pick, and $3 million for Hedo Türkoğlu, Jason Richardson, and Earl Clark.

Other websites
Marcin Gortat's Official website 
Marcin Gortat's NBA player profile

1984 births
Polish sportspeople
Basketball players
Orlando Magic players
Phoenix Suns players
People from Łódź
Living people
Soulmate (song)

"Soulmate" is a 2007 song by the English singer and songwriter Natasha Bedingfield. The song was released during July 2007 in United Kingdom. It was not until late 2008 that this song was released in the United States. It got mixed to negative review from critics within the United Kingdom, though Soulmate did become commercial success. This song gained popularity in the U.S. after being played on an episode of MTV's The Hills.

Songs by Natasha Bedingfield
Pop songs
2007 songs
Achterhoek

Achterhoek (Dutch Low Saxon: Achterhook) (literally in English: back-corner) is a region in the province of Gelderland in the Netherlands. It consists of the eastern part of Gelderland, behind the IJssel river, except for the southwestern part, which consists of the region of (De) Liemers. The Achterhoek region borders the Salland and Twente regions (both province of Overijssel) in the north and the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia in the (south)east.

The Achterhoek lies in the Dutch Low Saxon language area and has a dialect of his own called Achterhooks.

Another name for the Achterhoek is the County of Zutphen, which was historically connected to Guelders

Significant towns include Aalten, Borculo, Bredevoort, Doetinchem, Eibergen, Geesteren, Groenlo, Hengelo, Lichtenvoorde, Neede, Silvolde, Varsseveld, Vragender, Winterswijk, Zelhem, and Zutphen.

Doetinchem, Winterswijk and Zutphen are the largest towns in the Achterhoek.

Municipalities 
These 10 municipalities belong to the Achterhoek region:

 Aalten
 Berkelland
 Bronckhorst (small part in Liemers)
 Doesburg (partially in Liemers)
 Doetinchem (partially in Liemers)

 Lochem
 Oost Gelre
 Oude IJsselstreek (partially in Liemers)
 Winterswijk
 Zutphen

Related pages 
 Liemers
 Salland
 Twente

References 
 Plaatsengids.nl

 
Regions of the Netherlands
Sally Kirkland

Sally Kirkland (born October 31, 1941) is an American movie and television actress. Kirkland was named after her mother. Her mother was a fashion editor for Vogue and LIFE magazines). She had small roles for 1970s movies (The Sting, The Way We Were and A Star is Born). She also starred in many television roles in the soap operas Valley of the Dolls and Days of Our Lives.

Kirkland was born in New York City.

American movie actors
American television actors
Actors from New York City
1941 births
Living people
Magnus Johansson

Magnus Johansson (born September 4, 1973 in Linköping, Sweden) is an Swedish ice hockey defenceman for the Linköpings HC of the SHL where he is also the captain. He has also played in the NHL for the Chicago Blackhawks for 1 season and the Florida Panthers for 1 season before being signing a contract with the Atlant Moscow Oblast of the KHL and then retured back to Linköpings HC where he was named the team's captain.

Other websites 
Magnus Johansson's NHL Player Page

1987 births
Swedish ice hockey players
Living people
Chicago Blackhawks players
Florida Panthers players
Lorraine Bracco

Lorraine Bracco (born October 2, 1954) is an American actress. She is best known for playing Karen Hill in the 1990 movie Goodfellas and Jennifer Melfi in the HBO series The Sopranos. She has also been in other movies, such as Medicine Man and The Basketball Diaries.

1954 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
Actors from New York City
Lua

Lua is an open source programming language. It was created in 1993 by Roberto Ierusalimschy, Luiz Henrique de Figueiredo, and Waldemar Celes. Lua is used for many different things, especially in video games such as World of Warcraft, SimCity 4 and Transformice. It is also used in the popular virtual world sharing website Roblox under a dialect called Luau. In June 2010, Apple Inc. changed the terms of use for the software development kit of its iOS operating system to allow the use of Lua. This led to Lua being used to make iPhone applications such as Angry Birds. In June 2011, Lua was ranked the tenth most popular programming language by the TIOBE Index.

Examples 
An example Hello World program in Lua:

-- !/usr/bin/lua
print("Hello World!")

An example of setting a value, then printing it:
--!/usr/bin/lua
a = "Hello World!"
print(a)

References

Other websites 
 Lua.org
 lua-users.org

Lua
Adolphe-Marie Hardy

Adolphe-Marie Hardy (23 May 1868 in Dison – 19 June 1954 in Laeken) was a Belgian writer first published in 1888  He rose to be a major figure in French literature.

Hardy was educated at Herve, before starting at the University of Louvain in 1886, studying law.  After getting his doctorate he returned to Dison, where he carried on his literary work as well as working as a lawyer.

Hardy was editor or assistant editor of several literary journals from 1900 onwards, including Rappel de Charleroi,  Dépêche de Liège and the Journal de Bruxelles.

In 1931 Hardy received the Grand Prix de Langue française from the French Academy. He was the first Belgian to win the prize, and he won it for his poem "Le Cortège des mois".
In 1935 he married Madeleine Verhelst. In 1940, they escaped to Issigeac, France. After his wife's death, in 1941, he married Germaine Van Den Boeck. 

In May 1954 he was made a Freeman of the City of Dison, and died at Laeken on June 19 of that year. 

Charles Ranhofer, chef at Delmonico's honoured Hardy early in his publishing career by naming a goose liver pate after him, and Ranhofer's book "The Epicurean", also lists a chicken dish, Cotelettes De Poulet A La Adolphe Hardy.

Related pages
 List of foods named after people

Other websites
 Friends of Adolphe Hardy
 Adolphe Hardy's House, Wallonia Tourist Office

References

1868 births
1954 deaths
Belgian poets
Belgian writers
People from Liège (province)
People with foods named after them
Gnarls Barkley

Not to be confused with Charles Barkley.

Gnarls Barkley is a music group with DJ and music producer Danger Mouse and American rapper Cee Lo Green. The group had a hit song in 2006 with Crazy. Rolling Stone later named the song as one of the "Best Songs of the 2000s". Gnarls Barkley has released two albums: St. Elsewhere in 2006, and The Odd Couple in 2008.

History
In 2006 Gnarls Barkley released their first album St. Elsewhere. It went straight to number one in the UK. The album's first single "Crazy" was the best-selling song of 2006 in the UK. The song won a Grammy Award for Best Urban/Alternative Performance in 2007. In 2008 Gnarls Barkley released their second album The Odd Couple. It had a less pop sound than their first album. It was nominated for the Grammy for Best Alternative Album.

References

American rock bands
Soul bands
Grammy Award winners
Hip hop bands
Musical groups from Atlanta, Georgia
Musical groups established in 2004
2004 establishments in the United States
2000s establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Atlantic Records artists
All Saints (group)

The All Saints are an English-Canadian pop group. They were founded in 1993. The members of All Saints are British Melanie Blatt, Shaznay Lewis and Canadian sisters Natalie and Nicole Appleton. The group were one of the most successful pop groups in the UK in the 1990s with nine Top 10 singles, two platinum albums and two gold albums. The groups biggest hit was the 1997 single Never Ever.

Albums 
 All Saints (1997)
 Saints & Sinners (2000)
 Studio 1 (2006)
 Red Flag (2016)
 Testament (2018)

References

1993 establishments in the United Kingdom
1990s music groups
2000s music groups
2010s music groups
British girl groups
English pop music groups
English R&B bands
Musical groups established in 1993
Musical groups from London
Musical quartets
Musical groups disestablished in 2001
2000s disestablishments in Canada
2000s disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Musical groups established in 2006
2006 establishments in Canada
2006 establishments in England
Musical groups disestablished in 2009
2009 disestablishments in England
Musical groups established in 2013
2013 establishments in the United Kingdom
2010s establishments in Canada
Oxygen difluoride

Oxygen difluoride is the chemical compound with the formula OF2. It has a V-shaped molecular structure like H2O, but has different properties. It is a strong oxidizer.

Preparation
Oxygen difluoride was first prepared in 1929. It was made by the electrolysis of molten potassium fluoride and hydrofluoric acid. The chemicals had a small amount of moisture.   Nowadays, it is prepared by the reaction of fluorine with a dilute aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. Sodium fluoride is left as a side-product:

2 F2 + 2 NaOH →  OF2 + 2 NaF + H2O

Reactions
It is a very powerful oxidizing agent. This is proved by the oxidation number of +2 for the  oxygen atom. This oxidising number is quite unusual. Above 200 °C, OF2 decomposes to oxygen and fluorine.

OF2 reacts with many metals. It produces oxides and fluorides.  Nonmetals also react with it. Phosphorus reacts with OF2 to form PF5 and POF3. Sulfur produces SO2 and SF4 with it. A noble gas, xenon also reacts with it. It produces XeF4 and xenon oxyfluorides.

Oxygen difluoride reacts very slowly with water to form hydrofluoric acid:
OF2 (aq) + H2O (aq) → 2 HF (aq) + O2 (g)

Oxygen difluoride oxidizes sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide:
OF2 + SO2 → SO3 + F2
However, in the presence of UV radiation the products are sulfuryl fluoride, , and pyrosulfuryl fluoride, :

OF2 + 2 SO2 →

Safety
OF2 is a dangerous chemical. This is because it is highly oxidising.

References

Other websites
 National Pollutant Inventory - Fluoride and compounds fact sheet 
 WebBook page for OF2

Fluorine compounds
Phosphorus pentafluoride

Phosphorus pentafluoride, PF5, is a phosphorus halide. It's a colorless gas at room temperature and pressure. It can be formed when OF2 reacts with phosphorus.

Phosphorus compounds
Adaptive immune system

The adaptive immune system is made of specialized cells and processes which kill pathogens or prevent their attack.

The adaptive immune system is switched on by the evolutionarily older innate immune system. This older system is non-specific, whereas the adaptive system is tailored to specific targets.

Whereas the innate immune system is found in all metazoa, the adaptive system is only found in vertebrates. It is thought to have arisen in the first jawed vertebrates.

The adaptive immune response gives the vertebrate immune system the ability to recognize and remember specific pathogens. The system mounts stronger attacks each time a particular pathogen is encountered. It is adaptive immunity because the body's immune system prepares itself for future challenges.

Layered defence
The immune system protects organisms from infection with layered defences. In simple terms, physical barriers prevent pathogens such as bacteria and viruses from entering the organism.

If a pathogen breaches these barriers, the innate immune system provides an immediate, but non-specific response. Innate immune systems are found in all plants and animals.

If pathogens successfully evade the innate response, vertebrates possess a third layer of protection, the adaptive immune system, which is activated by the innate response. Here, the immune system adapts its response during an infection to improve its recognition of the pathogen.

After the pathogen has been killed, the offspring of B and T cells continue. They are ready for a faster response next time. This is a kind of 'immunological memory'. These cells allow the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger attacks each time this pathogen is encountered.

Both innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self molecules. In immunology, self molecules are those components of an organism's body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system. Conversely, non-self molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules. One class of non-self molecules are called antigens (short for antibody generators) and are defined as substances that bind to specific immune receptors and elicit an immune response.

Functions
Adaptive immunity is triggered in vertebrates when a pathogen evades the innate immune system and generates a threshold level of antigen.

The major functions of the adaptive immune system include:
 the recognition of specific “non-self” antigens in the presence of “self”, during the process of antigen presentation (where macrophages and dendritic cells capture antigens so T cells can recognise them).
 the generation of responses that are tailored to maximally eliminate specific pathogens or pathogen infected cells.
 the development of immunological memory, in which each pathogen is “remembered” by a signature antibody. These memory cells can be called upon to quickly eliminate a pathogen should subsequent infections occur.

Related pages 
For the adaptive immune system used by bacteria against viruses, see CRISPR.

References 

 
Vertebrates
Alexander Urbom

Alexander Urbom (born December 20, 1990) is a professional Swedish ice hockey defenseman who is currently playing for the Albany Devils. He was drafted by the New Jersey Devils in the third round, 73rd overall, in the 2009 NHL Draft.

Career statistics

References

1990 births
American Hockey League players
Brandon Wheat Kings players
Living people
New Jersey Devils players
Swedish Hockey League players
Swedish ice hockey players
Ice hockey defencemen