cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain

Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain (María Teresa Antonia Rafaela; 11 June 1726 – 22 July 1746) was an Infanta of Spain by birth and was later the wife of Louis of France, Dauphin of France, son of King Louis XV. She died during  childbirth aged 20, She gave birth to a daughter who died at two years of age leaving the Dauphine with no surviving descendants. She used the names "Marie Thérèse" (see right)

Life

She was the second daughter of Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese. Baptised with the names María Teresa Antonia Rafaela, she was known as María Teresa. She was engaged to Louis Ferdinand, Dauphin of France, son of Louis XV of France. The official marriage took place at the Palace of Versailles on 23 February 1745. The marriage was an idea to try and better relations between France and Spain after Louis XV had not married Mariana Victoria of Spain, María Teresa Rafaela's older sister. 

On 19 July 1746, Marie Thérèse Raphaëlle (as she was known in France) gave birth to a daughter before dying herself on 22 July at Versailles. The child died in 1748. Her husband married again to Princess Maria Josepha of Saxony and was the mother of Louis XVI of France. She was buried at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis outside Paris.

Children

Marie Thérèse of France (19 July 1746 – 27 April 1748). Named after her mother, she died in infancy and was known simply as "Madame Royale".

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

11 June 1726 – 23 February 1745 Her Royal Highness The Infanta Doña María Teresa Antonia Rafaela of Spain. 
23 February 1745 – 22 July 1746 Her Royal Highness the Dauphine of France (Son Altesse royale, "Madame la Dauphine".)

Other websites

1726 births
1748 deaths
Spanish House of Bourbon
House of Bourbon
Deaths in childbirth
People from Madrid
Spanish infantes and infantas
Dauphins and Dauphines of France
Maria Antonia of Spain

Maria Antonia of Spain (María Antonia Fernanda; 17 November 1729 – 19 September 1785) was an Infanta of Spain and the youngest daughter of Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese. She was the wife of Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia whom she married in 1750. She was the mother of the last three mainline Kings of Sardinia. In Italy she is known as Maria Antonietta but sometimes known incorrectly as Maria Ferdinanda. Her name was Maria Antonia Fernanda. 
She married the future Victor Amadeus III officially on 31 May 1750. The couple were very happy and had 12 children.

Issue
 Charles Emmanuel IV of Sardinia (24 May 1751 – 6 October 1819) married Princess Marie Clotilde of France in 1773, no issue.
 Maria Elisabetta Carlotta of Savoy (16 July 1752 – 17 April 1755) died in infancy.
 Maria Giuseppina of Savoy (2 September 1753 – 13 November 1810) married Louis Xavier of France, Count of Provence in 1771, no issue.
 Amedeus Alexander of Savoy (5 October 1754 – 29 April 1755) died in infancy.
 Maria Teresa of Savoy (31 January 1756 – 2 June 1805) married Charles of France, Count of Artois in 1773, had issue.
 Maria Anna of Savoy (17 December 1757 – 11 October 1824) married Prince Benedetto of Savoy, Duke of Chablais in 1775, no issue.
 Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia (24 July 1759 – 10 January 1824) married Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria-Este in 1789, had issue.
 Maria Cristina Ferdinanda of Savoy (21 November 1760 – 19 May 1768) died in infancy.
 Maurizio of Savoy (13 December 1762 – 1 September 1799) died unmarried of malaria.
 Maria Carolina of Savoy (17 January 1764 – 28 December 1782) married Antony, Electoral Prince of Saxony in 1781, no issue.
 Charles Felix of Sardinia (6 April 1765 – 27 April 1831) married Princess Maria Cristina of Naples and Sicily in 1807, no issue.
 Giuseppe of Savoy (5 October 1766 – 29 October 1802) died unmarried of malaria.

Titles and styles

17 November 1729 – 31 May 1750 Her Royal Highness The Infanta Doña Maria Antonia of Spain
31 May 1750 – 20 February 1773 Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Savoy
20 February 1773 – 19 September 1785 Her Majesty The Queen of Sardinia

References

Other websites
 

1729 births
1785 deaths
People from Seville
Spanish infantes and infantas
Spanish House of Bourbon
Dukes and Duchesses of Savoy
Princes and Princesses of Savoy
Kings and Queens of Sardinia
Cleisthenes

Cleisthenes was a noble Athenian of the Alcmaeonid family. He reformed the constitution of Athens, and set it on a democratic footing in 508/7 BC.  For these accomplishments, historians refer to him as "the father of Athenian democracy".  He also increased the power of the Assembly, and he broke up power of the Athenian nobility.

With help from the his clan, he overthrew Hippias the tyrant (dictatorial ruler). After the collapse of Hippias' tyranny, Isagoras and Cleisthenes were rivals for power. Isagoras won the upper hand by appealing to the Spartan king Cleomenes I to help him expel Cleisthenes.

So Cleisthenes left Athens as an exile, and Isagoras held power in the city. Isagoras uprooted hundreds of people from their homes on the pretext that they were cursed, and attempted to dissolve the Council (βουλή, boulé). However, the Council resisted, and the Athenian people declared their support of it. Hence Isagoras and his supporters were forced to flee to the Acropolis, remaining besieged there for two days. On the third, they fled and were banished. Cleisthenes was subsequently recalled, along with hundreds of exiles, and he assumed leadership of Athens.

References 

6th-century BC births
6th-century BC deaths
Ancient Greek politicians
Menzies Campbell

Walter Menzies "Ming" Campbell, Baron Campbell of Pittenweem CH CBE PC QC (born 22 May 1941 in Glasgow, Scotland) is a British politician and retired sprinter. He was the leader of the Liberal Democrats from March 2006 to October 2007. He is the Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of North East Fife and the Chancellor of the University of St Andrews.

Between 1967 and 1974, Menzies Campbell held the British record for the 100 metres sprint as he was able to do it in 10.2 seconds. He was also the captain of the Great Britain athletics team between 1965 and 1966. In 1975, Campbell became the Chairman of the Scottish Liberals and was elected as an MP at the 1987 General Election. He became the Liberal Democrat's chief spokesperson on foreign affairs and defence in 1992 and became the Liberal Democrat's deputy leader in 2003. He was elected leader of the Liberal Democrats in March 2006 but had to resign in October 2007 and was replaced by Nick Clegg.

Campbell married Elspeth, Lady Grant-Suttie, daughter of Major General Roy Urquhart, in June 1970. The couple have no children. Lady Campbell has a child from her previous marriage.

References

1941 births
Living people
British male athletes
Former Liberal Democrats MPs (UK)
Former members of the British House of Commons for Scottish constituencies
Leaders of the Liberal Democrats (UK)
Members of the House of Lords
Politicians from Glasgow
Sportspeople from Glasgow
Monocalcium phosphate

Monocalcium phosphate is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Ca(H2PO4)2. It contains phosphate, calcium, and hydrogen ions.

Properties
Monocalcium phosphate is a colorless solid. It dissolves a little in water to make an acidic solution. It is made by replacing one of the hydrogen ions in phosphoric acid with a calcium ion.

Preparation
It is made by reacting calcium phosphate rock with sulfuric acid. This makes monocalcium phosphate.

Uses
It is used in baking powder. When it is dissolved in water, it makes an acidic solution which reacts with the sodium bicarbonate to make carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide makes it rise. It is also used in fertilizers.

Related pages
Dicalcium phosphate
Sodium phosphate

Phosphorus compounds
Calcium compounds
Dicalcium phosphate

Dicalcium phosphate is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CaHPO4. It contains calcium, hydrogen, and phosphate ions.

Properties
Dicalcium phosphate is a white solid. It does not dissolve in water. It can be thought of as phosphoric acid where two of the hydrogen ions are replaced with calcium ions.

Preparation
It can be made by reacting phosphoric acid with calcium hydroxide. It can also be made by reacting sulfuric acid with a certain amount of tricalcium phosphate.

Uses
It is used in fertilizers. It is also used in vitamin tablets. It is used to make sure chickens get calcium.

Related pages
Monocalcium phosphate
Tricalcium phosphate

Phosphorus compounds
Calcium compounds
Toonzai

Toonzai was a group of cartoons broadcast on Saturday morning on The CW. It was first broadcast on August 14, 2010. It used to be named The CW4Kids. The programs were broadcast on weekday afternoons. 

The block is programmed by 4Kids Entertainment. They also programmed the 4Kids TV on Fox until December 2008. 4Kids also indicated that it will retain Yu-Gi-Oh! and Sonic X in its lineup, along with adding Dragon Ball Z Kai, a redone version of Dragon Ball Z from Funimation Entertainment that is shared with Nicktoons.

Programming
In most markets, most affiliates use the network's current Saturday morning schedule. Some, such as Atlanta's WUPA-TV broadcast the block on Sundays. This is usually done because the stations were at one time UPN affiliates and UPN did not have children's television programming on Saturday mornings. Former WB affiliate WCCT-TV in Hartford airs the first three hours of the block on Saturday mornings and the last two hours on Sunday mornings to make room for their own programing.

KMYS in San Antonio, currently the newest CW affiliate has decided to air the block during early Sunday morning and early Monday morning (split into a two-hour and three-hour block) airing before 5am due to its previous commitment of airing Fox's Weekend Marketplace infomercial block on Saturday mornings (a holdover from its MyNetworkTV affiliation), along with already existing religious and paid programming on Sunday mornings; this by default will force most younger viewers of the block in that market to record it overnight for later viewing.

Schedule
All times Pacific. Actual times may vary, depending on affiliate.

Shows
 Dragon Ball Z Kai (TV-Y7-FV) (also airs on Nicktoons in the USA)    
 Sonic X (TV-Y7-FV)
 Yu-Gi-Oh! (TV-Y7-FV) (previously aired on Fox Kids and 4Kids TV in the USA)
 Yu-Gi-Oh! 5D's (TV-Y7-FV)

Former shows
 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Back to the Sewer (TV-Y7-FV) (August 14, 2010 - August 21, 2010)
 Dinosaur King (TV-Y7-FV) (August 14, 2010 - October 9, 2010)

Former "Popcorn For Breakfast" Movies
 Turtles Forever (TV-Y7-FV)  (August 28, 2010)

Related pages
 4Kids Entertainment

References

Other websites
  (Defunct)

2010 American television series debuts
2010s American television series
American children's television series
John Smith (Labour Party leader)

John Smith (13 September 1938 – 12 May 1994) was a British politician who was the leader of the Labour Party from July 1992 until his death from a heart attack. 

John Smith was born in the Scottish town of Dalmally in Argyll and Bute. He became a Labour Party Member of Parliament (MP) at the 1970 General Election for the constituency of North Lanarkshire (Monklands East from 1983). In 1978, he was given a cabinet post however lost this after Labour's defeat at the 1979 General Election. He continued in the shadow cabinet until 1992, when Labour leader Neil Kinnock resigned and Smith was elected leader. During Smith's time as leader, opinion polls showed that Labour were becoming more likely to win an election than the Conservatives.

On 12 May 1994 in London, Smith died of a heart attack and was buried on the Scottish isle of Iona. Tony Blair replaced Smith as Labour leader on 21 July 1994.

1938 births
1994 deaths
British lawyers
British Protestants
Calvinists
Cardiovascular disease deaths in England
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Former Labour Party (UK) MPs
Former members of the British House of Commons for Scottish constituencies
Leaders of the Labour Party (UK)
Leaders of the Opposition (United Kingdom)
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Scottish Christians
Scottish politicians
Secretaries of State of the United Kingdom
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
Serie C

Serie C is the third highest division of Football in Italy after the Serie A and Serie B. It has its headquarters in Florence. In the past, it also had a club from San Marino in it. The league in the past was divided as Lega Pro Prima Divisione and Lega Pro Seconda Divisione. However, it was combined as only one division: Serie C, in 2017. It was originally founded as the Serie C in 1935, rebranded in 2014 to Lega Pro, and then rebranded again to Serie C in 2017.

Football in Italy
1959 establishments in Europe
1950s establishments in Italy
Stopping power

Stopping power is a way to measure how powerful a firearm is. Stopping power is a measure of how quickly the gun kills an animal, for instance. Many large animals are not killed after being shot with an ordinary gun and can do damage before they die. Elephant guns, which have much more stopping power, are used to kill the large animal quickly.

Firearms
TERGV

The TERGV (for Regional Express Train on high-speed line) is a model to run trains in Nord-Pas-de-Calais. The idea is to run regional trains on lines constructed for "express trains", instead of the "classic lines". This works only in the case that the high-speed line is used only rarely. Running regional trains on such lines slows down the express trains, and costs more than running them on the classic lines. Despite these problems, the concept is very promising for distances between 100 and 200 km.  

There are currently two lines that operate in this manner:
Lille-Dunkerque (30 minutes)
Lille-Calais-Boulogne-sur-Mer (55 min, 30 min to Calais)
To use these connections, an extra fee must be paid, which is three euros, per day. Another line, Lille to Arras has been opened. This line does not require the extra fee, and has proved very successful. 

Transport in France
High-speed rail
Planet of the Apes (1968 movie)

Planet of the Apes is an American science fiction movie released on February 8, 1968, directed by Franklin J. Schaffner, and produced by Arthur P. Jacobs. It was based on the novel La planète des singes written by Pierre Boulle and released in 1963. The movie stars Charlton Heston and features Roddy McDowall, Kim Hunter, Maurice Evans, James Whitmore, James Daly, and Linda Harrison. It was released by 20th Century Fox.

Plot
The film's story is about an astronaut crew who leave Earth on a deep space mission and crash land on a supposedly alien planet in the 40th century. Ony three out of the four crew members survive the crash and the survivors find the world to be home to a society of apes; including gorillas, orangutans, and chimpanzees. These apes have the intelligence of human beings as well as the ability to speak and walk upright like humans. Humans in this society are treated like slaves and live in the wilderness without the ability to speak. At the end of the movie, one of the crew members finds the Statue of Liberty and realizes they were on Earth all along.

Reception and influence
Planet of the Apes was a box office success, meaning it earned a good amount of money and got highly favourable reviews from critics. The movie was given praise for exploring ideas such as class differences, religion, slavery, racism, and nuclear technology. Liberal online magazine Fadewblogs included the film in their list of must-watch movies for atheists. It was followed by four sequels: Beneath the Planet of the Apes (1970), Escape from the Planet of the Apes (1971), Conquest of the Planet of the Apes (1972), and Battle for the Planet of the Apes (1973). A live action television show was shown in 1974 and an animated television show called Return to the Planet of the Apes came out in 1975. In the animated cartoon The Fairly OddParents episode Abra-Catastrophe! has a segment where humans are slave cavemen and the apes are their overlords!

In 2001, a remake of the movie was made directed by Tim Burton and starred Mark Wahlberg, Helena Bonham Carter, Tim Roth, Michael Clarke Duncan, and Kris Kristofferson. In August 2011, the series was rebooted with Rise of the Planet of the Apes, followed by two sequels Dawn of the Planet of the Apes and War for the Planet of the Apes in 2014 and 2017. A third sequel is planned.

References

Other websites

1968 movies
1968 science fiction movies
American science fiction movies
English-language movies
Planet of the Apes movies
Movies based on books
Movies set in New York City
Time travel movies
Movies composed by Jerry Goldsmith
Movies directed by Franklin J. Schaffner
20th Century Fox movies
Dystopian movies
Small business

A small business, sometimes called a mom and pop store by some in the United States, is a business that is privately owned and operated. They have a small number of employees and do not sell many things. Whether or not the law says that a business is "small" is different in different countries and industries.
 The Australian Fair Work Act 2009 says that a small business is a business with less than 15 employees.
 In the European Union, to be called "small", a business must have fewer than 50 employees.
 In the United States, a business must have fewer than 500 employees to qualify for some Small Business Administration programs.
 In India businesses with fewer than ten employees are in the "Unorganised sector".

Small businesses are common in many countries.  Some examples include: convenience stores, other small shops (such as a bakery), hairdressers, tradesmen, lawyers, accountants, restaurants, guest houses, photographers, small-scale manufacturing, and online business, such as web design and programming.

Good things about small business
A small business can be started at a very low cost. It also does not need to be open all the time.

Independence is another good thing about owning a small business.   Being able to operate by themselves is a good thing for small business owners. Small business owners can make their own decisions about what they want to do with their company.  However, entrepreneurs often must work very long hours and understand that their customers are their bosses.

Many organizations in the United States also give help to small businesses, such as the Internal Revenue Service's Small Business and Self-Employed One-Stop Resource.

Problems for small businesses
Small businesses often face a lot of problems because of their size.

In the United States, some of the largest concerns of small business owners are insurance costs, high energy costs and taxes.

Another problem for several small businesses is the fact that much larger businesses can influence their chances for success.

References 
Business
Hydration

Hydration is the adding of water molecules to a chemical substance. The anhydrous (without water) form and the hydrated (with water) form can be quite different. The hydrated form is called a "hydrate". For example, anhydrous tin(IV) chloride is a liquid, while the pentahydrate (with 5 water molecules) is a solid. Anhydrous copper sulfate is white or light green, while the hydrated form is blue. Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride is blue, while the hydrated form is red. Anhydrous copper(II) chloride is brown, while the dihydrate is green.

The number of water molecules for each atom is given by a prefix. Mono- means 1, di- means 2, tri- means 3, tetra- means 4, penta- means 5, hexa- means 6, hepta- means 7, octo- means 8, nona- means 9, deca- means 10.

Chemistry
Pocket Ref

Pocket Ref is a small book that contains various information including tips, tables, maps, science facts, weather information, and so on. It is in a small shape that is made to fit in a pocket. It is written by Thomas J. Glover and published by Sequoia Publishing, Inc.

Reference works
Rival Lovers

Rival Lovers is a dialogue that was thought to have been written by Plato. In Rival Lovers, Socrates is the main character who asks questions.

Works of philosophy
Literature
Stratford

Stratford is an inner-city area of east London which hosted the 2012 London Olympics. Stratford is in the London Borough of Newham.

London Borough of Newham
Leah

The name Leah has biblical roots, and means wild cow in Hebrew. 

In Genesis, the first book of the Bible, Leah is the older sister of Rachel. Leah marries Jacob and becomes the mother of six sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and a daughter, Dinah.

Given names
Conceptual art

Conceptual art is art in which the concepts or ideas involved in the work are more important than traditional aesthetic and material concerns. Many of the works, sometimes called installations, may be constructed by anyone simply by following a set of written instructions. This method was fundamental to one of the first to appear in print:

"In conceptual art the idea or concept is the most important aspect of the work. When an artist uses a conceptual form of art, it means that all of the planning and decisions are made beforehand and the execution is a perfunctory affair. The idea becomes a machine that makes the art".

Conceptual art even questions the nature of art. Joseph Kosuth elevated this into a definition of art itself in his early manifesto of conceptual art. 

The notion that art should examine its own nature was already part of art critic Clement Greenberg's vision of modern art during the 1950s. With the emergence of an exclusively language-based art in the 1960s, however, conceptual artists began a far more radical analysis of art than was previously done. One of the first things they questioned was the assumption that the role of the artist was to create special kinds of material objects.

Conceptual art has come to mean all contemporary art which does not use the traditional skills of painting and sculpture.

References 

Conceptual art
Center of mass

Center of mass or barycenter of a system is the average position of all the mass in a system.

In a rigid body, the centre of mass is always in the same place. In a loose collection the center of mass may be in space, as it is in the Solar System. Also, as planets' orbits change slightly, so will the position of the barycenter.

A simple way to understand the concept of barycenter is to push a supermarket trolley. If you hold only one corner and push, it will only go in a straight line when you push through the centre of mass. Otherwise a turning force is created. This shows that the mass acts as if it were only in one place.

The center of gravity is a closely related term. It is the point where an object can be balanced perfectly by a sharp point holding it up under the object. It is the center of mass acting in a gravitational field.

History 
The concept of center of mass was first introduced by the ancient Greek physicist, mathematician, and engineer Archimedes of Syracuse.  Archimedes showed that the torque (turning force) exerted on a lever by weights resting at various points along the lever is the same as what it would be if all of the weights were moved to a single point — their center of mass.  

Archimedes was the first person to work out ways of finding the center of mass in various objects.

Relation between the two terms 
The center of mass is often called the center of gravity because any uniform gravitational field g acts on a system as if the mass M of the system were concentrated at the center of mass R.

Physics
Mechanics
Marcel Duchamp

Marcel Duchamp (28 July 1887 – 2 October 1968) was a French artist whose work is most often associated with the Dadaist and Surrealist movements. Duchamp's output influenced the development of post-World War I Western art. He advised modern art collectors, such as Peggy Guggenheim and other prominent figures, thereby helping to shape the tastes of Western art during this period.

A playful man, Duchamp challenged conventional thought about artistic processes and art marketing, not so much by writing, but through subversive actions such as dubbing a urinal art and naming it Fountain. This approach would 50 years later be called conceptual art, though he himself used the term 'ready-mades' for this idea. He produced relatively few artworks, while moving quickly through the avant-garde circles of his time.

The creative act is not performed by the artist alone; the spectator brings the work in contact with the external world by deciphering and interpreting its inner qualifications and thus adds his contribution to the creative act.

Duchamp and chess 
Upon his return to Paris in 1923, Duchamp was, in essence, no longer a practicing artist. Instead, he played chess, which he studied for the rest of his life to the exclusion of most other activities.

Duchamp can be seen, very briefly, playing chess with Man Ray in the short film Entr'acte (1924) by René Clair. During this period his fascination with chess so distressed his first wife that she glued his pieces to the board. Duchamp continued to play in the French Championships and also in the Chess Olympiads from 1928–1933, favoring hypermodern openings such as the Nimzo-Indian.

References 

French artists
Chess players
1887 births
1968 deaths
The Gaslight Anthem

The Gaslight Anthem is an American punk band from New Brunswick, New Jersey. The members are Brian Fallon (lead vocals, guitar), Alex Rosamilia (guitar, backing vocals), Alex Levine (bass guitar, backing vocals) and Benny Horowitz (drums, percussion, tambourine). They released their first album, Sink or Swim, on XOXO Records in May 2007, and their second album, The '59 Sound, on SideOneDummy Records in August 2008.  The band's third album, American Slang, was released on June 15, 2010.

2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American rock bands
Alternative rock bands
Folk music groups
American punk bands
Musical groups from New Jersey
New Brunswick, New Jersey
Musical groups established in 2005
2005 establishments in the United States
2000s establishments in New Jersey
Jean-Marie Le Pen

Jean-Marie Le Pen (born June 20, 1928) is a French politician. He was born in La Trinitié-sur-Mer, Brittany, France. He was the leader of the French National Front (FN) from 1972 until 2011, which is a far-right political party in France. He stands for immigration restrictions, the death penalty, raising incentives for homemakers, and is against the EU. He is strongly against same-sex marriage, euthanasia and abortion.

Le Pen served in the French Army from 1953 to 1957.

Jean-Marie Le Pen founded the FN in 1972 and has been its leader ever since. He became a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) in 1984 and has run for President of France five times; in 1974, 1988, 1995, 2002 and 2007. He came second in the 2002 election. Le Pen has often been considered to have xenophobic and antisemitic views and was accused of having practised torture when he fought in the Algerian War (1954-1962). He was suspended from the FN on 4 May 2015.

The youngest of his three daughters is FN leader Marine Le Pen. His granddaughter is FN MP Marion Maréchal-Le Pen.

References

1928 births
Living people
French military people
MEPs for France
National Front (France) politicians
People from Brittany
Leaders of political parties
Ascanio Sobrero

Ascanio Sobrero (12 October 1812 - 26 December 1888) was an Italian chemist, who discovered nitroglycerin in 1847. He was born in Casale, Monferrato and worked in Paris. He was made a professor of chemistry at Turino. His face was badly hurt during an experiment with nitroglycerin. He thought it was too dangerous to be of any practical use. He said that he was ashamed to have discovered something that killed people. He died in Turin, Italy.

References

1812 births
1888 deaths
Italian scientists
COBRA (avant-garde movement)

COBRA (or CoBrA) was a European avant-garde movement active from 1949 to 1951. The name was coined in 1948 by Christian Dotremont from the initials of the members' home cities: Copenhagen (Co), Brussels (Br), Amsterdam (A).

History
COBRA was formed by Karel Appel, Constant, Corneille, Christian Dotremont, Asger Jorn, and Joseph Noiret on the 8th November 1948 in the Café Notre-Dame, Paris, with the signing of a manifesto, "La Cause Était Entendue" (The Case Was Settled), drawn up by Dotremont. Formed with a unifying doctrine of complete freedom of colour and form, as well as antipathy towards surrealism, the artists also shared an interest in Marxism as well as modernism.
Their working method was based on spontaneity and experiment, and they drew their inspiration in particular from children’s drawings, from primitive art forms and from the work of Paul Klee and Joan Miró.
Coming together as an amalgamation of the Dutch group Reflex, the Danish group Høst and the Belgian Revolutionary Surrealist Group, the group only lasted a few years but managed to achieve a number of objectives in that time; the periodical Cobra, a series of collaborations between various members called Peintures-Mot and two large-scale exhibitions.
The first of these was held at the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, November (1949), the other at the Palais des Beaux-Arts in Liège (1951).
  
In November 1949 the group officially changed its name to 'Internationale des Artistes Expérimentaux' with membership having spread across Europe and the USA, although this name has never stuck. The movement was officially disbanded in 1951, but many of its members remained close, with Dotremont in particular continuing collaborations with many of the leading members of the group.

The primary focus of the group consisted of semi-abstract paintings with brilliant color, violent brushwork, and distorted human figures inspired by primitive and folk art and similar to American action painting.  Cobra was a milestone in the development of Tachisme and European abstract expressionism.

Participants
Participants in COBRA included:

Karel Appel (1921-2006)
Corneille (1922-2010)
Pierre Alechinsky (born 1927)
Else Alfelt (1910-1974)
Jean-Michel Atlan (1913-1960)
Mogens Balle (1921-1988)
Ejler Bille (1910-2004)
Pol Bury (1922-2005)
Jacques Calonne (born 1930)
Hugo Claus (1929-2008)
Christian Dotremont (1922-1979)
Lotti van der Gaag (1923-1999)
William Gear (1915-1997)
Stephen Gilbert (1910-2007)
Svavar Guðnason (1909-1988)
Reinhoud d'Haese (1928-2007)

Henry Heerup (1907-1993)
Egill Jacobsen (1910-1998)
Édouard Jaguer (1924-2006)
Asger Jorn (1914-1973)
Aart Kemink (1914-2006)
Lucebert (1924-1994)
Ernest Mancoba (1904-2002)
Sonja Ferlov Mancoba (1911-1984)
Jørgen Nash (1920-2004)
Jan Nieuwenhuys (1922-1986)
Erik Ortvad (1917-2008)
Pieter Ouborg (1893-1956)
Carl-Henning Pedersen (1913-2007)
Raoul Ubac (1910-1985)
Serge Vandercam (1924-2005)

References

Other websites
Huntfor.com/arthistory
Didrichsenmuseum.fi 
Galerie Birch, Danish gallery founded 1946 specializing in COBRA
Museum Jorn, Silkeborg

Art movements
Acronyms
March 0

March 0, although a nonexistent date, is often another name for the leap day February 29. People who were born on a leap day can celebrate their birthday on "March 0", but this date is technically either February  28 or March 1.  It can also be used in software programs.

Days of the year
Grand Duchy of Tuscany

The Grand Duchy of Tuscany (, ) was a monarchy in Tuscany, an area in the north-west of the Italian Peninsula. It existed, with interruptions, from 1569 to 1859. It replaced the Duchy of Florence. It was ruled by the Grand Duke of Tuscany. The capital of the grand duchy was Florence. Until the House of Lorraine took over from the Medici, Tuscany was a state of the Holy Roman Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Under the Medici the heir to the grand ducal throne was called the "Grand Prince of Tuscany" whereas the Lorrainers used various titles for the heir apparent. 

 
House of Medici
1569 establishments
1859 disestablishments
Former monarchies in Italy
1560s establishments in Europe
Establishments in Italy
19th-century disestablishments in Italy
1850s disestablishments in Europe
Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany

Cosimo II de' Medici (12 May 1590 – 28 February 1621) was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1609 until 1621. He was the elder son of Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and Christine of Lorraine. He married Maria Magdalena of Austria and had eight children. Galileo Galilei was his childhood tutor.

For the most of his eleven-year reign, he delegated the administration of Tuscany to his ministers. He is best remembered as the patron of Galileo Galilei, his childhood tutor.

He died of tuberculosis in 1621.

Family and children
Maria Magdalena and Cosimo had the following children:

Maria Cristina  de' Medici (24 August 1609 – 9 August 1632) died unmarried.
Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (14 July 1610 – 23 May 1670), who married Vittoria della Rovere (7 February 1622 – 6 March 1694) and had children.
Gian Carlo de' Medici (24 July 1611 – 23 January 1663) made Cardinal in 1644.
Margherita de' Medici (31 May 1612 – 6 February 1679) married Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma and had children.
Mattias de' Medici (9 May 1613 – 14 October, 1667) later made Governor of Siena.
Francesco de' Medici (16 October 1614 – 25 July 1634) died unmarried.
Anna de' Medici (21 July 1616 – 11 September 1676) who married Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria (1628-1662)
Leopoldo de' Medici (6 November 1617 – 10 November 1675) made Cardinal in 1667.

Titles and styles

12 May 1590 - 17 February 1609 His Highness The Grand Prince of Tuscany.
17 February 1609 - 28 February 1621 His Highness The Most Serene Grand Duke of Tuscany.

1590 births
1621 deaths
Grand Princes of Tuscany
People from Florence
Deaths from tuberculosis
Grand Dukes of Tuscany
Maria Magdalena of Austria

Maria Magdalena of Austria or Maria Maddalena of Austria (7 October 1589 – 1 November 1631) was Grand Duchess of Tuscany from her husband's accession in 1609 until his death in 1621. With him, she had eight children, including a duchess of Parma, a grand duke of Tuscany, and an archduchess of Further Austria. She was the youngest daughter of Charles II, Archduke of Inner Austria, and his wife Maria Anna of Bavaria. During the minority of her son, Grand Duke Ferdinando II, she and her mother-in-law Christina of Lorraine acted as regents. She died in Padua.

Family and children

Maria Cristina  de' Medici (24 August 1609 – 9 August 1632) died unmarried.
Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (14 July 1610 – 23 May 1670), who married Vittoria della Rovere (7 February 1622 – 6 March 1694) and had issue.
Gian Carlo de' Medici (24 July 1611 – 23 January 1663) made Cardinal in 1644.
Margherita de' Medici (31 May 1612 – 6 February 1679) married Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma and had issue.
Mattias de' Medici (9 May 1613 – 14 October, 1667) Governor of Siena.
Francesco de' Medici (16 October 1614 – 25 July 1634) died unmarried.
Anna de' Medici (21 July 1616 – 11 September 1676) who married Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria (1628-1662)
Leopoldo de' Medici (6 November 1617 – 10 November 1675) made Cardinal in 1667.

1589 births
1631 deaths
Grand Princesses of Tuscany
Habsburg Dynasty
Grand Duchesses of Tuscany
Archdukes and Archduchesses of Austria
1230s

The 1230s were a decade that lasted from January 1, 1230 to December 31, 1239.

Events 

 The Liverpool Castle started in 1232.
 Ducal state Brunswick-Luneburg was formed in 1235.
 St. Mark Basilica of Heraklion, Venitian Crete built in 1239
Margherita de' Medici

Margherita de' Medici (31 May 1612 – 6 February 1679) was Duchess of Parma and Piacenza by her marriage to Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma. Margherita was regent of Plaisance in 1635 and regent of the entire duchy in 1646 after the death of her husband.

Family 

She was the fourth of eight children and the second daughter born to Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and his wife Maria Magdalena of Austria. 

Margherita's siblings included Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Cardinal Gian Carlo de' Medici, Cardinal Leopoldo de' Medici and Anna, wife of Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Further Austria. Margherita's other siblings died in childhood or eary adulthood. 

Margherita married Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma on 11 October 1628. On 11 September 1646 Odoardo died. Their eldest son, Ranuccio was not yet old enough to rule the Duchy alone so Margherita acted as regent until her son was old enough to govern alone. She died in Parma on February 6 1679.

Issue

Caterina Farnese (2 October 1629) died at birth.
Ranuccio Farnese, Duke of Parma (17 September 1630 – 11 December 1694) married (1) Margaret Yolande of Savoy, (2) Isabella d'Este, (3) Maria d'Este.
Alessandro Farnese (10 January 1635 - 18 February 1689), Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands died unmarried.
Onorato Farnese (24 January 1636 -2  November 1656) died unmarried.
Maria Caterina Farnese (3 September 1637 - 24 April 1648) a nun
Maria Maddalena Farnese (15 July 1638 - 11 March 1693) died unmarried.
Pietro Farnese (4 April 1639 - 4 March 1677) died unmarried.
Ottavio Farnese (5 January 1641 - 4 August 1641) died in infancy.

Tuscan princes and princesses
1612 births
1679 deaths
House of Medici
People from Florence
House of Farnese
Dukes and Duchesses of Parma
Vittoria della Rovere

Vittoria della Rovere (7 February 1622–5 March 1694) was Grand Duchess of Tuscany as the wife of Grand Duke Ferdinando II. 

She gave her husband four children, two of which would survive infancy the future Cosimo III and Francesco Maria de' Medici, Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro. She was the Duchess of Rovere and Montefeltro in her own right and these went to her youngest son when she died. She was later the guardian of her three grandchildren. Her marriage bought a lot of art treasures to the House of Medici which are today at the Palazzo Pitti Uffizi Gallery in Florence. She did not get on with her daughter in law Marguerite Louise d'Orléans. 

She was the daughter of Claudia de' Medici. She was distantly related to her husband.

Children

Cosimo de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany (19 December 1639 - 21 December 1639) died in infancy.
Unnamed daughter (1640)
Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (14 August 1642 – 31 October 1723) married Marguerite Louise d'Orléans and had issue. 
Francesco Maria de' Medici (12 November 1660 – 3 February 1711) married Eleonora Luisa Gonzaga, no issue.

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

7 February 1622 – 6 April 1637 Her Highness Vittoria della Rovere, Princess of Urbino
6 April 1637 – 23 May 1670 Her Most Serene Highness The Grand Duchess of Tuscany
23 May 1670 –  5 March 1694 Her Most Serene Highness The Dowager Grand Duchess of Tuscany

1622 births
1694 deaths
Grand Duchesses of Tuscany
House of della Rovere
Eleonora Luisa Gonzaga

Eleanora Luisa Gonzaga (13 November 1686 – 16 March 1741) was the Duchess of Rovere and Montefeltro as the wife of Francesco Maria de' Medici. She was the only child of Vincenzo Gonzaga, Duke of Guastalla and Sabbioneta and his second wife, Maria Vittoria Gonzaga. She did not bear any children and died mad. 

She married on 14 July 1709. 

1686 births
1741 deaths 
House of Medici
Tuscan princes and princesses
House of Gonzaga
Quebec Major Junior Hockey League

The Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (French: la Ligue de hockey junior majeur du Québec, shortened as QMJHL in English, LHJMQ in French) is one of the three major junior ice hockey leagues which make up the Canadian Hockey League. Because the name of the league is so long, it is sometimes called the "Q".

There are 18 teams in the QMJHL that are in Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island in Canada. The winner of the QMJHL plays against the winners of the Western Hockey League and Ontario Hockey League for the Memorial Cup. Many good players go from the QMJHL to the National Hockey League, and nine players from the QMJHL are in the Hockey Hall of Fame.

History
The QMJHL was created in 1969 from two different junior leagues in Quebec, the Quebec Junior Hockey League and the Metropolitan Montreal Junior Hockey League. These two teams wanted to make a better junior league for the province, so combined teams from their leagues. Eight teams were from the QJHL and two from the MMJHL and another team came from a town in Ontario on the Ontario-Quebec border. Nearly every team was within a close distance of Montreal, the largest city in Quebec, though no team played in Montreal.

In 1972 the QMJHL finally wanted a team in Montreal, and tried to get the Montreal Junior Canadiens, who played in the Ontario Hockey Association, to join. The OHA made a deal with the QMJHL and gave them the Junior Canadiens while creating a new team in a different city to keep an OHA team with the same name.

Member teams

Other websites

Quebec Major Junior Hockey League Official website 
Canadian Hockey League Official website
Internet Hockey Database Archive of standings and statistics

Canadian Hockey League
Sport in Quebec
1969 establishments in Canada
Tsūtenkaku

is a tower in Osaka, Japan. It is a well-known landmark and shows advertisements for Hitachi, Ltd.  The tower is 103 meters tall. The main observation deck is 91 meters above the ground. The three characters in the name mean "Reaching Heaven Tower". It is in Shinsekai, part of Naniwa Ward. Tsūtenkaku Kanko Co., Ltd. owns the tower.

History 
The current tower is the second tower on the site. The original tower was built in 1912. The design was based on the Eiffel Tower. The tower had an cable car that connected it to a nearby amusement park called Luna Park. The original was 64 meters tall. It was the second tallest building in Asia at that time. It quickly became one of the most popular locations in the city. Visitors came from all over. 

There was a fire in 1943 which severely damaged the tower. It was not repaired. The tower was taken apart and the steel was used to make things for World War II.

After the war, citizens wanted to rebuild the popular tower. A private company called Tsūtenkaku Kanko Co. Ltd. was set up for this purpose. They hired Tachu Naito to design it. He was nicknamed Japan's "Father of Towers". The new tower opened in 1956.

Signs
In 1957, Hitachi started putting neon sign advertisements on the tower. The advertisements have usually been changed every 5 or 6 years. Hitachi last changed the signs in 2006. New signs are scheduled for autumn 2011. The new signs will use LED lights, not neon. Other lights on the tower also show weather information.

Access
 JR West, Osaka Loop Line and Yamatoji Line, Shin-Imamiya Station, East Exit (10 minute walk)
 Nankai Railway, Nankai Main Line and Koya Line, Shin-Imamiya Station, East Exit (10 minute walk)
 Osaka Municipal Subway Sakaisuji Line (brown line), Ebisuchō Station, Exit 3 (3 minute walk)
 Osaka Municipal Subway Midosuji Line (red line), Dobutsuen-mae Station, Exit 5 (10 minute walk)
 Hankai Tramway, Hankai Line, Ebisucho Station (3 minute walk)

Photos of the tower today

Photos of the original tower

Related pages
Tokyo Tower

References

Buildings and structures in Japan
Towers in Japan
Osaka
Buildings and structures completed in the 20th century
Francesco Maria de' Medici, Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro

Francesco Maria de' Medici (12 November 1660 – 3 February 1711) was an Italian political leader, Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro.

Early life
Medici was born in Florence. He was the second son of Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany.

In 1683 he was made governor of Siena.

Cardinal
In 1686, Pope Innocent XII made him a cardinal. In 1709, he was permitted to give up his role as cardinal on 14 July 1709 the same year.

Duke
In March 1694, he inherited to the Duchies of Rovere and Montefeltro.

In 1709, he married Eleonora Luisa Gonzaga.

Medici died at the Bagno a Ripoli in 1711.

Titles and styles
 12 November 1660 – 6 March 1694: His Highness Prince Francesco Maria de' Medici.
 6 March 1694 – 3 February 1711: His Highness The Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro.
 2 September 1686 – 19 June 1709: His Eminence Cardinal Francesco Maria de' Medici.

References

Other websites

 Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church,  Medici, Francesco Maria de' 
 Catholic-Hierarchy, (Layman) Francesco Maria de’ Medici 

1660 births
1711 deaths
Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church
House of Medici
Italian Roman Catholics
People from Florence
Tuscan princes and princesses
Regurgitation

Regurgitation is the process of a human or animal letting out the food it had been digesting. Sometimes, blood can come out as well.

Regurgitation can be very important to some animals, such as birds for example. It is used by a number of species to feed their young. This is especially when the young is in its nest or home and the parent hunts for food. Or some birds can occasionally regurgitate pellets of food that is not digestable, such as bones and feathers. Owls are known to do this.

Physiology
Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia

Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia (; 6 April 1875 – 20 April 1960) was a daughter of Tsar Alexander III of Russia and the eldest of  Czar Nicholas II two sisters. She married her cousin Grand Duke Alexander Mikailovich of Russia and had seven children. During her brother's reign, she lived a private life. However, when monarchy fell, she escaped Russia and lived in England.

Early life 
Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna was born on 6 April 1875 at Anichkov Palace in St. Petersburg. Her mother was Empress Maria Feodorovna of Russia.

After her grandfather died, her father became the Russian king. At this time, Xenia was six years old. It was difficult political time because of terrorist threats. Alexander III moved with his family from the Winter Palace to the Gatchina Palace to protect his family.

Xenia, like her brothers, was educated by private tutors. She studied foreign languages very much. Apart from her native Russian, Xenia studied English, French, and German. Xenia also learnt how to cook and make puppets and clothes. She liked to ride, fish, draw, play gymnastics, dance, and perform the piano.

Marriage 

Xenia and her first cousin once removed, Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Russia, who would also be her husband, used to play together as friends in the 1880s. Alexander was also a friend of her brother Nicholas. In 1886, twenty year old Alexander was in the navy. Eleven year old Xenia sent him a card when his ship was in Brazil, "Best wishes and speedy return! Your sailor Xenia". In 1889, Alexander wrote of Xenia, "She is fourteen. I think she likes me."

At age 15, though Xenia and Alexander wanted to marry, her parents did not want to allow them because Xenia was too young. They were also unsure if Alexander was really very nice. The Tsarina Maria Feodorovna complained that Alexander was too proud and rude. It was not until January 1894 that Xenia's parents allowed them to engage. The couple finally wed on 6 August 1894 at Peterhof Palace. Xenia's younger sister, Olga, wrote about the joy of her the wedding, "The Emperor was so happy. It was the last time I ever saw him like that."

References 

1875 births
1960 deaths
Russian grand dukes and duchesses
House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov
Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia

The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (, ), also called the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad, ROCA, or ROCOR) is a small part of the Russian Orthodox Church. It has over 400 parishes worldwide, and an estimated membership of over 400,000 people.

References 

Russian Orthodox Church
Alexei Kosygin

Alexei Nikolayevich Kosygin (;  – 18 December 1980) was a Russian man who was Premier of the Soviet Union.  He was a friend of the previous Prime Minister, Nikita Khrushchev. He and Leonid Brezhnev led the country together until he died.

References

1904 births
1980 deaths
Heads of government of the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
House arrest

House arrest is when someone has been arrested, but not put in prison. Instead, they are made to stay in their homes, hence the term.

A notable example of house arrest is Aung San Suu Kyi of Burma.  She was under house arrest for much of the time between 1990 and 2010.

Subjects typically wear ankle bracelets which alert the authorities when they leave their house.

References

Punishments
Imprisonment and detention
The Stig

The Stig is the 'tame racing driver' from the popular BBC motoring show Top Gear. He coaches the 'stars in the reasonably priced car' and is the driver for the Power laps. His identity is unknown though he has been played by many drivers, the most recent driver is Ben Collins.

Television characters

de:Top Gear#The Stig