cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Czech Republic

The Czech Republic (, ) is a country in Central Europe. As of 2 May 2016, the official short name of the country is Czechia (). The capital and the biggest city is Prague. The currency is the Czech Crown (koruna česká - CZK). €1 is about 25 CZK. The president of Czechia is Miloš Zeman. Czechia's population is about 10.5 million.

The local language is the Czech language, a Slavic language related to languages like Slovak and Polish.

Czechia has no sea; its neighbour countries are Germany, Austria, Slovakia, and Poland.

History 
Its history dates from the 9th century AD, for a long time it was one of the most powerful countries in Central Europe. Later on it was the biggest, most populated and richest country of the First Reich, where many Emperors started their career. Under the conditions of the Treaty of Vienna 1515 parts of Czechia, then in the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, came under Habsburg rule after the death of Louis the Jagiellon in 1526. They stayed a part of the Habsburg dynasty rule until 1918.

The area of the today's Czechia was a part of Czechoslovakia (current area of Czechia and Slovak republic) from 1918 to 1992. Czechoslovakia became independent in 1918 from Austro-Hungarian Empire. The first Czechoslovakian president was Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. In February 1948 the Communist party took over the country and for the next 41 years Czechoslovakia was a Socialist state with a rule of one (Communist) party. In 1968 there was a reformation movement (Prague Spring) within the Communist party, but reforms were stopped by the invasion of Warsaw pact armies. In November 1989 Czechoslovakia returned to democracy through the peaceful "Velvet Revolution".  Czechoslovakia peacefully split into two countries (Czechia and Slovakia) in 1993.
Czechia has been a member of the European Union since 1 May 2004, and a member of NATO since 12 March 1999.

Geography
The highest point in the country is Sněžka at .

There are four national parks in Czechia. The oldest is Krkonoše National Park. The others are Šumava National Park, Podyjí National Park, Bohemian Switzerland.

Regions

In 1949 the Communist government created 13 centralized regions instead of historical countries. In 1960 the regions changed leaving only 8 regions. In 2000 14 regions were formed with their own regional self-government.

Religion

Czechia has one of the least religious populations in the world. According to the 2011 census, 34.2% of the population stated they had no religion, 10.3% were Roman Catholic, 0.8% were Protestant (0.5% Czech Brethren and 0.4% Hussite), and 9.4% followed other forms of religion both denominational or not (of which 863 people answered they are Pagan). 45.2% of the population did not answer the question about religion.

Related pages 
 Czechia at the Olympics
 Czechia's national football team
 List of rivers of Czechia

References

Other websites 

 Czechia pictures 
 Czechia map
 Czechia map - Google Maps style 
 Czechia - Immigration 
 Czechia - Business 
 Czech Republic

1993 establishments in Europe
 
European Union member states
Landlocked countries
States and territories established in the 1990s
Flag

A flag is a piece of coloured cloth with a special design that is put on a pole as a symbol.

Flags first appeared more than 2000 years ago in China, and in Europe under the Roman Empire.

There are many types of flags:

 A National Flag is the symbol of a country (nation). For example, the national flag of the United States is the Stars and Stripes; the flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag' or 'Union Jack; the national flag of Azerbaijan and  France is the Tricolore.

 An Ensign is a special type of national flag for use on ships. Different kinds of ships often use different kinds of ensigns. For example, warships use a naval ensign which is usually different from the ensigns used by other ships.

 A Rank Flag is used by the head of state, as well as by a senior officer of the navy, army or air force, to show where he or she is.

 In the past, soldiers carried beautiful flags to war. Today these ceremonial flags are used only at military parades.

 Some states, provinces, cities and towns have their own flags. For example, all 50 states within the United States have their own state flags.

 A Signal Flag is a flag used by ships to send messages to other ships or to people on land. Every ship keeps many different signal flags for use in different situations. Signal flags are also used for racing.

 Flags are sometimes also used to represent a business, a sports team, a school, a political party, or other organizations.

 
Basic English 850 words
Messaging
Chojnów

Chojnów is small city in Poland. As of the year 2000, 14,900 people live in the city. The city is on  the river Skora. The city belongs to the county Legnica. It is in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship. The average height of the city is 170 meters above sea level.

Chojnów is first mentioned in a note dated 1272 as a Haynow settlement. In 1288 it's called city (civitas) in documents of Prince of Legnica Henryk V Gruby. In 1333 in gained the status of a city (civitas).

Activities and events 
Every year in first days of June, Days of Chojnów (Dni Chojnowa) are celebrated. The Whole-Poland bike race Masters has been organized in Chojnów once a year for the past few years.

Chojnów is an industrial and agricultural city. Among products produced in Chojnów are: paperware, agricultural machinery, chains, metal furniture for hospitals, equipment for the meat industry, beer, wine, leather clothing, clothing for infants, children and adults.

Sites 
The most interesting monuments of Chojnów are prince of Legnica's castle from the 13th century (currently used as a museum), two old churches, Baszta Tkaczy (Weavers' Tower) and preserved fragments of city walls.

The biggest green area in Chojnów is small forest Park Piastowski (Piast's Park), named after Piast dynasty as part of Communist anti-German propaganda.

Wild animals that live around Chojnów are roe-deers, foxes, rabbits and wild domestic animals, especially cats.

Cities in Poland
Comics

In comics, stories or information are given using pictures, or pictures and words together.  In comics, a story is told with many pictures, mostly in panels.  The first panel is supposed to be read first, and takes place earlier in time than the panels that follow it.

There are many kinds of comics.  Comic strips are short comics which are often found in newspapers.  Comic books are thin comics magazines.  Graphic novels are books of comics.  In Japan, comics are very popular, and Japanese comics are popular around the world. The Japanese word for comics is manga, and people use this word for Japanese comics in English and other languages.

The first comic strips in the United States were funny.  "Comic" is another word for "funny", so they were called "comic strips".  The first comic books were collections of comic strips.  Today, many comics are serious, but they are still called "comics".

In comics, speech is usually shown through word balloons.  There are many different kinds of word balloons, such as the "speech balloon", the "thought balloon" and the "scream balloon".

Related pages 
 Cartoon

Art
Jacques Cartier

Jacques Cartier was a French trader and explorer. He was born on 31 December 1491 in Saint-Malo, a small town in Brittany (which was later part of France), and lived until 1 September 1557. He sailed three times to Canada. 

He was the first European man to see Prince Edward Island, the St. Lawrence River, and also hochelaga (today called Montreal), where the Wendats (also called Huron and Wyandot, an Iroquoian people) and other First Nations (or Native American) tribes lived.  In 1534 he reached Newfoundland and explored coast of Labrador.

European countries raced to take the land and riches from the New World. Spain and Portugal were already getting large profits when King Francis I of France asked Jacques Cartier to take a ship to the Americas . Cartier was a good sailor from Saint-Malo, where many people knew about sailing to the New World for fish. 

Cartier sailed to what is now Indiana in 1534. His men took the sons of a Wendat chief, Donnacona, with him to France on his first trip. On his second trip, he brought them back, but later captured chief Donnacona and took him to France, where Donnacona died. Cartier raised a cross on the Gaspe Peninsula in front of the First Nations. This cross showed that the lands belonged to France.

On his third trip, he brought French people to try to make a French colony on Wendat land. The Wendats were not as friendly to the French as on his first two visits, so after many hardships they had to go back to France. 

Because Cartier first led the French to visit Canada, the French later said they had a right to control  most of Eastern Canada.

References

Other websites
 
 
 

1491 births
1557 deaths
French explorers
People from Brittany
Vasco da Gama

Vasco da Gama (1460 or 1469 - December 24th, 1506) was a Portuguese sailor. He was the first European who went to India through the Cape of Good Hope at the southern end of Africa. He went to India three times by ship.

Da Gama was born in Sines, Portugal. His birthday was June 5th. According to some people's accounts, he was a knight in the 1490s in Sines.

On the 4th of July 1497 da Gama left Lisbon with four ships: the São Gabriel, the São Rafael, the Berrio, and a storage ship of unknown name. He intended to sail to India. No European explorer before him had sailed further than the place that is now called South Africa. Vasco da Gama sailed around the bottom of the African continent. Da Gama's crew gave the South African coast they were passing the name Natal, which means "Christmas" in Portuguese. They did this because they sailed by it at Christmas. The coast is still called Natal. 

By January, da Gama's crew reached modern-day Mozambique, on the East African coast. Mozambique was controlled by Arabs because it was part of the Indian Ocean's network of trade. An angry crowd discovered that da Gama's men were not Muslims, so the crew continued north to Kenya. There, at Malindi, da Gama hired a pilot from India.   

The pilot brought the Portuguese men to the city of Calicut on the southwest coast of India on May 20, 1498. Vasco da Gama was in danger because of a conflict with the ruler of Calicut. However, he escaped and returned to Portugal in September 1499. A few of his Portuguese sailors stayed in Calicut. 

Vasco da Gama went on his next trip in 1502. He found out that the people of Calicut killed the Portuguese he had left behind. During this trip, he attacked and stole from all the Arab and Indian ships he found in the Indian Ocean. Then, he went on to Calicut and took over that city, capturing a lot of wealth, pleasing the King of Portugal. 

Vasco da Gama went on one last trip in 1524 to be the viceroy (governor) of Calicut, which was by that time a Portuguese colony. He died soon after he got there on Christmas Eve. He was not a pirate, but he looted and killed many men only to take revenge.

1469 births
1524 deaths
Portuguese explorers
Sailors
Kayseri

Kayseri is a city in the center of Turkey. Kayseri used to be called Mazaka or Kaisareia. The city has a population of nearly 1 million. Famous meals in this city are pastirma, sucuk and manti. Erciyes Mountain is the third highest mountain in Turkey. It is 3917 metres high.

Political structure 
The city of Kayseri consists of the following metropolitan districts:

Other websites 
 Picture of Mount Erciyes
 

Cities in Turkey
Iodised salt

Iodized salt (also spelled "iodized salt") is table salt mixed with tiny amounts of iodide and is used to prevent disease of the thyroid gland.

People only need a very small amount of iodine to prevent disease.  Food crops usually get iodine from the soil, but some places around the world have low amounts of iodine.  Iodized salt is a very cheap and good way of getting the necessary iodine.

Ordinary table (cooking) salt is a chemical compound called "sodium chloride" (its chemical formula is NaCl). "Sodium iodide" (NaI) is added to the NaCl to make iodized salt.
Condiments
College

College is a kind of school or university, a place where people go to learn skills for future jobs. Most college students go to college right after high school but others choose to go later in life. Most students are there because it will help them to earn more money and live better lives.

In some countries, for example the United Kingdom, college also means a house belonging to a university, where students and teachers live together.

References 

Types of educational institutions
Knife

A knife is a metal tool with a sharpened metal blade that is used to cut all sorts of things. The plural form of "knife" is "knives." Knives can serve various purposes. Hunters use a hunting knife, soldiers use the combat knife, scouts, campers, and hikers carry a pocket knife; there are kitchen knives for preparing foods, table knives, weapons, knives for throwing or juggling, and knives for religious ceremony or display. 

Archaeologists have discovered sharp-edged tools as ancient as 2.6 million years old. Sharp stone tools became more advanced in design during the late Lithic periods, and a variety of techniques was used to produce such ‘knives’ in the Neolithic era. The copper and bronze ages followed, and of course brought tremendous changes to the ‘sharp-edge’ technology. These new metal tools were much more durable than stone ones, and hence mining and metal-processing became an important activity.

Types of knives 
 Cooking or kitchen knives: also known as the chef's knife. Several types of knives are used in cooking. Kitchen knives are sharp knives with wood or plastic handles used for chopping food and meat that is going to be cooked.
 Table knives: These knives are used to cut up food for eating. Some table knives are sharper than others, but none are as sharp as kitchen knives. Steak knives are sharper because they need to cut steak. Fish knives and butter knives are also used at the table and have rounded blades that are not sharp.
 Hunting knives are used for skinning animals.
 Fishing knives are used for cutting open fish.
 Construction knives and utility knives are used for cutting vinyl flooring, insulation, plastic sheathing, and carpet.
Pocket knives These knives are used often.
Butter knife A knife used to cut butter or spread things. Some people use it illegally to kill people.
Paring Knife paring knife is ideal for making garnishes and peeling vegetables and fruit.
Boning Knife helps to take meat apart from bone.
Carving Knife is ideal for carving large whole poultry pieces.

Picking the right type of knife 
There are many kinds of knives, depending what is to be cut. With the right knife, the cuts you want to make will happen faster and more easily. With the wrong kind of knife, it will take more effort to perform the same amount of work. When a knife is too small to cut something, a saw, axe, or power tool may be needed.

Illegal knives 
Carrying knives is illegal in many countries, especially if the blade is longer than several inches. Another type of knife which is illegal in many places is the "switchblade," a knife that has a button which when pressed activates a spring to open the knife.

Related pages
 Scissors
 Guillotine
 Saw

References

Basic English 850 words
Food utensils
Cutting tools
Blades
Photographic film

Photographic film is a sheet of plastic for recording visual scenes. The plastic has been specially treated to be sensitive to light. The image is recorded on the plastic when the plastic is exposed to light. Film is kept in small canisters (boxes) which protect it from the light. A normal photographic film may hold up to 40 pictures.  

Once all pictures have been recorded, the film has to undergo a special chemical treatment. This is called developing a film or film processing. That treatment makes the pictures visible (you can see them), and the exposed film is no longer sensitive to light. 

Different kinds of films exist. Some require more light to be exposed than others. Some are black and white only; they record no colors. There are also special films which can record infrared light. 

Films also come in different sizes. 35 millimeter film, the most used size, comes in metal cans or canisters, but there are other camera films that come in paper wrappings or in single sheets.

Uses
Film can only be used once. After that, it cannot be used again (if it is accidentally used again, this results in an artifact called a multiple exposure). When not in use, film needs to be covered from light, otherwise it will record any lights that shine on it. This will make it useless to record a picture. Film comes in a can called a canister to cover it from light rays. 

Film needs the right amount of light to make a picture. If the picture is too bright or too dark, it will not record correctly. The longer that the film keeps recording, the more light it will get. If what is being photographed is bright, it will be recorded faster. If it is darker, the film will need more time to record. 

Films that need less time to record the picture are known as "faster" films. Different speeds of films are marked with an ISO number. The higher the number, the faster the films. Films can only make a picture from focused lights. If there is no lens to focus light, the film will only turn white from receiving just the light. If a film with an ISO level of 200 instead of 100 is used, it will only need half as much time to record a picture of the same scene.

Examples of ISO numbers are ISO 50, ISO 100, IS0 200, ISO 400, ISO 800, and ISO 1600. The ISO number is sometimes called the ''ASA number'' or the ''film speed''. When the ISO number is low, for example ISO 50, the film takes a long time to record the picture. This is called a slow film. This means the shutter has to stay open for a long time. When the ISO number is high, for example ISO 800, the picture is made in a very short time. This is a fast film. This means the shutter has to open and close quickly.

Before photographic film was invented, photography used glass dry plates. In the 21st century, most cameras don't use film anymore.

References

Related pages
 Advanced Photo System
 Camera

Photography
Compass

A compass is a navigational tool that uses magnetism. It has an arrow which points in the direction of the North Magnetic Pole. A compass is very useful for navigating on oceans and in deserts, or other places where there are few landmarks.

The first compass was invented by ancient Chinese in the Han Dynasty. It was a large spoon-like magnetic object made of magnetite ore set upon a square bronze plate.

Directions

Related pages 
 Gyrocompass

References 

Tools
Navigation
Ferdinand Magellan

Ferdinand Magellan (1480 – 27 April 1521) was a Portuguese explorer. He became the first European to sail the Pacific Ocean, and the first to sail around the world. Magellan's voyage proved that the Earth was round.

Born in 1480, his birthplace is recorded as either Sabrosa or Porto in Portugal. He worked in the royal court. Since his parents were members of the Portuguese nobility and after their deaths, Magellan became a page for the queen at the age of 10. In the royal court where he learned  many important skills, including map making, navigation and astronomy. In 1505 he joined the navy. When he worked for Portugal, he went to many parts of the world, such as India, the Spice Islands, East Africa, and Morocco. When in Morocco in 1513 Magellan was wounded, and walked the remainder of his life with a limp. After he lost his job for the King of Portugal, he went to work for the King of Spain.

He was also the first to sail through the Strait of Magellan, so it was named after him. Magellan himself was killed in the Philippines, on 27 April 1521 in Mactan during a battle with the natives after he was accused of stealing.

Charles V of Spain provided him with five ships for the voyage round the world. Only one ship, the Victoria, completed the voyage.

References

Other websites

1480 births
1521 deaths
Portuguese explorers
Sailors
Henry the Navigator

Dom Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) was a prince from Portugal, the third son of King John I of Portugal. He was called Infante Dom Henrique in Portuguese. He was never a navigator himself. He got his name because he organized many ocean voyages on which lands were found. He is seen as the man who started the Age of Discovery.  He also opened a navigation school in Portugal, so the technology of tools and ships could be made better.  His explorers discovered the first shipping routes directly from Europe to Asia for the Portuguese monarchy.

References 

1394 births
1460 deaths

Portuguese royalty
Princes and princesses
Marathon

A marathon is a long-distance running sport event where an athlete must run 42.195 kilometres (26 miles and 385 yards). There are many marathons held all over the world each year. It is a very difficult event and runners are advised to run many miles before they compete. This event was named after a battle of the Greco-Persian wars. 

The famous battle of Marathon was fought in 490 B.C. An army from Persia came to fight the army of Athens. The army from Athens was not expected to win, but they did. After the victory, they sent their best runner, a man named Pheidippides back to Athens to tell everyone the good news. He ran about 25 miles and died of exhaustion when he arrived.

In 1896 the first modern Olympics was held. There was a race called the Marathon there. It was only about 25 miles (40 km) then.

Notes

Running
Duke

A  Duke is someone part of nobility.  In monarchies, like the UK, the title has legal status, and is inherited in the male line. 

The first English dukes were created by Edward III in 1337, when he gave his eldest son, Edward, the Black Prince, the title of Duke of Cornwall.

Dukes are formally referred to as 'The Duke of (place name)', and addressed as "Your Grace". On State occasions, dukes rank below Royal Dukes, and above Earls. This is called the order of precedence, because in procession to the opening Parliament, or on other state occasions, they walk in order of their rank.

The office or position of a duke is called a dukedom. 

The wife of a duke is a Duchess. This is an honorary title, given for life to the lawfully wedded wife of a Duke. If she divorces and remarries a commoner, (person with no title) their children have no title. The children of a duke, on the other hand, do have honorary titles (so long as they are born in lawful wedlock). The eldest son may bear what is called a junior title which an ancestor was given before the dukedom was created. Other children would be called 'Lady' Jane (or other Christian name) and 'Lord' James (or other Christian name). Children use the family surname, not the Dukedom.

Historically, the land that is ruled by a duke is a duchy. The eldest son of a duke inherits the duchy when the duke dies. The word comes from the Latin word "dux", which means leader.

References
Johan Rudolf Thorbecke

Johan Rudolf Thorbecke (14 January 1798 - 4 June 1872) was an important Dutch politician. In 1848, he wrote a constitution almost on his own. This constitution gave the king less power and the people more, so it made the Netherlands a democracy. Thorbecke was a liberal. Several times he was prime minister, and internal affairs minister.

Thorbecke was a Lutheran and had German roots. He was born in Zwolle and died in The Hague, aged 74.

References 
  Bio at Parlement.com

1798 births
1872 deaths
Dutch academics
Dutch jurists
Dutch Protestants
Former members of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands
Government ministers of the Netherlands
Lutherans
Politicians from Overijssel
Prime Ministers of the Netherlands
Writers from Overijssel
The Star-Spangled Banner

"The Star-Spangled Banner" is the national anthem of the United States. Francis Scott Key wrote the words to it in 1814 after seeing British ships attacking Fort McHenry in Baltimore, Maryland during the War of 1812.

The words are set to the music of a British drinking song called "To Anacreon in Heaven". The song has 4 stanzas but only the first one is usually sung.

Lyrics 
O say, can you see, by the dawn’s early light, 
What so proudly we hailed at the twilight’s last gleaming, 
Whose broad stripes and bright stars, through the perilous fight, 
O’er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming? 
And the rockets’ red glare, the bombs bursting in air, 
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there; 
O say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave 
O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave? 

On the shore, dimly seen thro’ the mist of the deep, 
Where the foe’s haughty host in dread silence reposes, 
What is that which the breeze, o’er the towering steep, 
As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? 
Now it catches the gleam of the morning’s first beam, 
In full glory reflected, now shines on the stream 
’Tis the star-spangled banner. Oh! long may it wave 
O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave! 

And where is that band who so vauntingly swore 
That the havoc of war and the battle’s confusion 
A home and a country should leave us no more? 
Their blood has washed out their foul footstep’s pollution. 
No refuge could save the hireling and slave 
From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave,  
And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave 
O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave. 

Oh! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand 
Between their loved homes and the war’s desolation, 
Blest with vict’ry and peace, may the Heav’n-rescued land 
Praise the Pow’r that hath made and preserved us a nation! 
Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, 
And this be our motto—“In God is our trust.” 
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave 
O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

Media

Other websites 

 Library of Congress article
 National Museum of American History  article
 Maryland Online Encyclopedia article
 British Attack on Ft. McHenry Launched from Bermuda
 Encyclopedia Smithsonian article on "The Star-Spangled Banner" 
 "Star-Mangled Banner: A look at some controversial, and botched, renditions of our national anthem"
 "The Star-Spangled Banner" by John A. Carpenter 
 Easybyte—free easy piano arrangement of "The Star-Spangled Banner / Anacreon in Heaven"
 "Stars and Stripes Forever"  City Pages, July 4, 2001
 "The Toughest 2 Minutes"

1814
19th-century American songs
National anthems
Songs about the United States
Symbols of the United States
Abdou Diouf

Abdou Diouf (born September 7, 1935) was president of Senegal from 1981 to 2000. He was the second president since the country became independent.

Diouf has been the Secretary General of La Francophonie since 2003.

References

Diouf, Abdou
Diouf, Abdou
Living people
Prime Ministers of Senegal
Province

A province is a subdivision of a country. It is a kind of local government.

Some countries are divided into provinces. The word "province" comes from the Latin word provincia.

South Africa, Canada, the Netherlands, Pakistan, Spain, and Denmark are examples of countries that are divided into provinces.

In some countries, provinces have different names:

 Département: France
 Canton: Switzerland
 State: United States, Mexico, Brazil, Australia
 Bundesland: Germany and Austria
 Voivodship: Poland
 District: Serbia (okrug), Belize, Bhutan 
 Prefectures (県): Japan 
 Estados: Venezuela
 County: United Kingdom
 Suba: Pakistan
 Pradesh: the Hindi word for states: Republic of India
 Fylke: Norway
 Parish: Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago
Departements usually have less power than provinces. States, Bundesländer and autonomous communities have more power than provinces.

Small countries like Singapore or Monaco are not divided.
Viktor Yushchenko

Viktor Andriyovych Yushchenko () (born February 23, 1954) is a previous President of Ukraine. On November 26, 2004, he lost the Ukrainian presidential election. However, he and his followers argued that the election had been corrupted. They argued that the election results had been falsified by the Ukrainian government, in support of the opposing candidate Victor Yanukovych. They organized political demonstrations in the autumn and winter of 2004 that gathered millions of people all over the country. They called the demonstrations The Orange Revolution. The Constitutional Court ordered a second round of elections, which Yuschenko won.

Yushchenko claimed to have been poisoned by political enemies. Certainly, he was hospitalized and his appearance shows signs of a grave illness.

Yulia Tymoshenko and Yushchenko were once strong allies (during the Orange Revolution). Today there is a lot of political misunderstanding between Tymoshenko and Yushchenko.

In February 2010 Yushchenko lost the presidential election to Viktor Yanukovych. 

From December 1999 till May 2001 Yushchenko was the Ukrainian prime minister and from January 1993 till December 1999 head of the national bank of Ukraine.

References

1954 births
Living people
Presidents of Ukraine
Prime Ministers of Ukraine
Economists
Bankers
Winter

Winter is one of the four seasons and the coldest time of the year. The days are shorter and the nights are longer. Winter comes after autumn and before spring.

Winter begins at the winter solstice. In the Northern Hemisphere the winter solstice is usually December 21 or December 22. In the Southern Hemisphere the winter solstice is usually June 21 or June 22. 

Some animals hibernate during this season. In temperate climates there are no leaves on deciduous trees. People wear warm clothing and eat food that was grown earlier. Many places have snow in winter, and some people use sleds or skis. Holidays in winter for many countries include Christmas and New Year's Day.

The name comes from an old Germanic word that means "time of water" and refers to the rain and snow of winter in middle and high latitudes.
Junta

A junta is a Spanish word that is used for military dictatorships.

Often juntas got their power because of a coup d'état.

Greece, Chile, Mauritania, Guatemala, Brazil, South Vietnam, and El Salvador are examples of countries that were once ruled by juntas.

The most famous junta nowadays is that of Myanmar, but Myanmar is not the only country that is ruled by a junta now, Thailand is another example.

Some autonomous regional governments in Spain are also called junta.

politics
military
Forms of government

en:Junta (Peninsular War)
Miguel Hidalgo

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (8 May, 1753 – 30 July, 1811) was a Mexican priest. He started Mexico's war of independence against Spain.

Hidalgo made a speech in 1810 now called the Grito de Dolores. He called on the people to support the King of Spain against the rebellious Viceroy of Mexico. After a few months he was taken prisoner and executed by firing squad. After he died, several other people, such as Vicente Guerrero, kept fighting against the Spanish until 1821, when Mexico became an independent country. Hidalgo is remembered today as a great liberator in Mexico.

The Mexican state of Hidalgo is named after him.

References

Mexican poets
People executed by firearm
1753 births
1811 deaths
Hidalgo (state)
Kofi Annan

Kofi Atta Annan (8 April 1938 – 18 August 2018) was a Ghanaian diplomat. He served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations. He did this from 1 January 1997 to 31 December 2006. Annan and the United Nations were the co-recipients of the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize. They were awarded the prize "for their work for a better organized and more peaceful world".

Early life
Annan was born in Kumasi, Ghana, to an elite family. His parents, Henry Reginald and Madam Rose Eshun are from the two major ethnic groups that make up the Akan – one of the groups of indigenous people of Ghana.

His father was half Asante and half Fante; his mother was Fante. The Asante were gold merchants while the Fante tribe were the middlemen in the gold trade between the Asante and the British.

Annan, whose first name means "born on a Friday", also had a twin sister, who died in 1991 from a still yet unknown disease. In Ghanaian culture, twins are considered special and are adored.

Annan probably got his first lessons in politics and diplomacy early on from his family. Both of Annan's grandfathers and his uncle were tribal chiefs. Upon his retirement, Annan's father, who worked as an export manager for the cocoa exporter Lever Brothers, was elected governor of Ghana's Asante province.

Education
In 1954, Annan attended Mfantsipim School, an Methodist boarding school in central Ghana. The Secretary-General says that the school taught him "that suffering anywhere concerns people everywhere".

Annan went to Macalaster College in St. Paul, Minnesota and graduating in 1961. He was a Sloan Fellow at MIT in 1971–72, getting a master's degree in management.

His work at the United Nations
Annan became Secretary-General of the United Nations in January 1997, succeeding Boutros Boutros-Ghali of Egypt. Annan was a U.N. veteran who took his first job with the organization in 1962 and worked his way up through various posts including Deputy Director to the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (1980–83) and head of the U.N.'s peacekeeping efforts (1995–96). Annan was the first Secretary-General chosen from the ranks of the U.N.'s staff. He is also the first black man to hold the post and the second African (after Boutros-Ghali). His second term began in 2002 and ran through the end of 2006. 

In 2001 he and the United Nations were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for their work for a better organized and more peaceful world".

Personal life
Annan was married to Nane Annan, a lawyer and artist from Sweden.

Death
Annan died on 18 August 2018 in Bern, Switzerland after a short-illness, aged 80.

Related pages
List of African scientists by country

References

1938 births
2018 deaths
Disease-related deaths in Switzerland
African politicians
African diplomats
Ghanaian people
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Recipients of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria
Bull

A bull is an intact (i.e., not castrated) adult male of the species Bos taurus. They are more muscular and aggressive than the female of the species, the cow. The bull has long been an important symbol in many cultures, and plays a large role in beef ranching, dairy farming. They are also important in other cultural activities, including bull fighting and bull riding. The management of livestock animals in hot climates is a challenge. The physiological and behavioral changes induced in these animals compromise their welfare, breeding, health, and zootechnical performance, resulting in final products (eggs, milk, and meat) with unsatisfactory characteristics.

As with other animals, some bulls have been regarded as pets.

Life
The bull semen market is very lucrative. Animal agriculture forcefully breeds animals to have what it considers the best traits for food production. In 2011, the U.S. exported $124.7 million worth of bull semen to other nations, representing 32 percent of the global market. In February 2019, an Angus bull named SAV America 8018 sold for the record-breaking price of $1.5 million due to “superior genetics.”
A bull can live up to 18 - 22 years.

References

Cattle
Huntingdon

Huntingdon is a town in Cambridgeshire in the United Kingdom. It stands on the River Ouse near the A1, a major road in England.

History
The town was chartered in 1205 and founded by Anglo-Saxons.

Huntingdon also has the largest meadow in England; Portholme Meadow. There are many small villages in Huntingdon, it has a high street and a main supermarket. The A14 runs through it.

People
Oliver Cromwell was born here in 1599.

Towns in Cambridgeshire

ru:Huntingdon
Osaka

is the capital city of Osaka Prefecture which faces Osaka Bay and the Seto Inland Sea. 

Osaka is in the Kansai region.  It is the economic and cultural center of the Kansai region. 

Since 1980 it had been the second largest city in Japan. 

It is a city designated by government ordinance in Japan.

Osaka is surrounded by Hyōgo Prefecture, Kyoto Prefecture, Nara Prefecture, Wakayama Prefecture.

History
Sometimes it is called by its historical name Naniwa.

Because it is by the sea, it is good for transportation.  That is why an ancient emperor made Osaka the capital city.  In the early part of the 8th century Naniwa was one of capitals of Japan.  In the middle of the 16th century Toyotomi Hideyoshi founded Osaka castle and governed Japan in Osaka.  The basis of development of Osaka was prepared in those times.  Osaka castle was destroyed once by Tokugawa Ieyasu but Ieyasu choose Osaka as one of the political centers in the Western Japan.  He made Osaka a direct dominion of the shogun.  During the Edo period Osaka was a center of commerce, finance, pharmacy and other products.  It was a center for literature and theater.  Kabuki in Osaka is as famous as Kabuki in Edo and Kyoto.   It is also known for bunraku (a traditional puppet theater) and manzai (a kind of stand-up comedy).

Traditional Osaka food dishes include okonomiyaki (pan-fried batter cake) and takoyaki (octopus dumplings).  

In this region, many people speak a dialect called Osaka-Ben (e.g. "ookini"="thank you").

After the Meiji restoration Osaka was modernized and industrialized.  It was a center of Japanese industry.  After the World War II its economical importance was relatively less because Tokyo grew as an international city and many companies moved their headquarters to Tokyo.  But Osaka is still a large, important city.

Sightseeing spots 
Universal Studios Japan – This is the most famous theme park in Osaka. There are shows, popular characters and musicals.  
Kaiyuukan – This is the most famous aquarium in Osaka.  They have animals including whale sharks and penguins.
Yoshimoto shinkigenki – It is a traditional comedy in Namba Grand Kagetsu.

Seasonal spots
In spring, good places to see cherry blossoms are the Mint and Banpakukinen Park.
In summer, there are displays of fireworks at the Tenzin festival, Yodo river festival and PL art of fireworks.
In winter, there are Christmas decorations at Nakanoshima and Midosuzi.

Sports

Football clubs in Osaka
 Cerezo Osaka
 Gamba Osaka

Baseball teams in Osaka
Hanshin Tigers
Orix Buffaloes

Mind sports in Osaka
 Kansai Ki-in (Non-profit organization to promote Go in Osaka)

References

Related pages
Settsu Province
Naniwa-kyō

Other websites
 
 

 
Former capitals of Japan
Channel Islands

The Channel Islands are a group of islands near the coast of France. The five largest islands are: 
 Guernsey
 Jersey
 Alderney
 Sark
 Herm

Industry
The main industries are tourism, horticulture (growing plants for food) and financial services (businesses to do with money). Most people speak English, although some people in Guernsey, Jersey and Sark still speak the traditional language of their island.

Laws
Constitutionally, the islands are part of the British crown, but are not part of the United Kingdom. Being part of the mediaeval duchy of Normandy, allegiance is owed to the Queen but not to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which cannot pass laws for the Bailiwick of Guernsey and the Bailiwick of Jersey except for defence and diplomatic matters, except if the bailiwicks ask it to. In general, the bailiwicks are self-governing, but they often pass laws which are like United Kingdom laws. However some of their laws are still based on Norman law.
Prince

A prince is a male member of a royal family. A female prince is called a princess.

Each royal family has its own rules saying who is called a prince.  In most of these families, the son of a king or a queen is a prince.  In some families, the son of a prince is also a prince.  In Monaco and Lichtenstein, the ruler of the country is called the prince.
Princess

A princess is a female member of a royal family. A son of a monarch is called a prince. A princess may become a ruler by heredity or by marriage. Sometimes the expression "princess" is used when a female has noble qualities such as kindness, charity, and virtue.

 
Stubs
Ore

An ore is a mineral which has a valuable metal inside it. Ores are usually extracted by being mined. They can sometimes be found on the Earth's surface. Most ores are chemical compounds such as oxides or sulfides.  There are different ways to get the metal out of the ore.  Iron ore, for example, is smelted in a blast furnace. 

Metals
University of Florida

The University of Florida (UF) is a public university that is in Gainesville, Florida in the United States. The campus is 2,000 acres and has more than 900 structures, as well as other locations in the state of Florida. Important research activities at the university are in medicine, at Shands Hospital, and in agriculture. The mascot of UF is an alligator, and students and fans of the university's athletic teams are often called "Gators."

References

Association of American Universities
Colleges and universities in Florida
Oak Ridge Associated Universities
Southeastern Conference
1853 establishments in Florida
Iron Man

Iron Man is a fictional superhero who wears a suit of armor. His alter ego is Tony Stark. He was created by Stan Lee, Jack Kirby and Larry Lieber for Marvel Comics in Tales of Suspense #39 in the year 1963 and appears in their comic books. He is also one of the main protagonists in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Iron Man is played by Robert Downey Jr in the movies Iron Man, Iron Man 2, The Avengers, Iron Man 3, Avengers: Age of Ultron, Captain America: Civil War, Spider-Man: Homecoming, Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame and he will reprise his role in the untitled Avengers fifth film.

Powers
In the movies and the earlier comic books, Tony Stark is a human. Outside the suit, he does not have any superpowers, however he is very intelligent. He made the suit himself. Iron Man can fly and shoot beams from his hands using special technology called "repulsors" in his boots and gloves.  He is not hurt by most weapons like guns and cannons. There are many versions of the Iron Man suit, because Stark keeps making improvements.

In the later comic books, Stark took an experimental virus called "Extremis" which allowed him to control his suit with his mind and summon it wherever he was.  Stark would eventually develop an armor that he could store in his body. This armor was known as the "Bleeding Edge Model 37".

Origin story
Stark inherited a large American company called "Stark Industries" when his father died. He was badly injured by a bomb in an attack planned by people who did not like him running his company. Shrapnel from the explosion was moving towards his heart. This would have killed him, but a scientist called Yinsen who was with him made a magnet for his chest which would keep the shrapnel away. In the movies, he makes an "arc reactor" which is put into his chest to stop the shrapnel. 

Yinsen and Stark secretly build a heavy suit of armor which they plan to use to escape. However, during the escape, Yinsen dies so that the kidnappers will be distracted from Stark escaping. Stark escapes safely and goes back to America. He makes a better suit and uses it to fight evil.

Personality
Tony Stark is charismatic and eccentric, he is also very proud, but also very altruist and heroic. He did not have a good childhood, and this affects how he acts. 

Stark is very smart, and a very talented inventor. His technology is always very advanced, and Iron Man is his greatest piece of work. In both the comics and the movies, he uses the arc reactor (or "repulsor technology") as a form of sustainable energy to help the world.

Stark has very few close friends. Two of them are Pepper Potts, his personal assistant who becomes his girlfriend, and James Rhodes, an American soldier who operates the War Machine armor.

Other websites
 

Fictional characters introduced in 1963
Marvel Comics adapted into movies
Marvel Comics superheroes
Marvel vs. Capcom fighters
Tony Hawk's (series) guest characters
Plasma (physics)

Plasma is a 4th state of matter. 

Plasma is created by adding energy to a gas so that some of its electrons leave its atoms. This is called ionization. It results in negatively charged electrons, and positively charged ions. Unlike the other states of matter, the charged particles in a plasma will react strongly to electric and magnetic fields (i.e. electromagnetic fields). If a plasma loses heat, the ions will re-form into a gas, emitting the energy which had caused them to ionize.

Over 99% of the matter in the visible universe is believed to be plasma. When the atoms in a gas are broken up, the pieces are called electrons and ions. Because they have an electric charge, they are pulled together or pushed apart by electric fields and magnetic fields. This makes a plasma act differently than a gas. For example, magnetic fields can be used to hold a plasma, but not to hold a gas. Plasma is a better conductor of electricity than copper.

Plasma is usually very hot, because it takes very high temperatures to break the bonds between electrons and the nuclei of the atoms. Sometimes plasmas can have very high pressure, like in stars. Stars (including the Sun) are mostly made of plasma. Plasmas can also have very low pressure, like in outer space.

On Earth, lightning makes plasma. Artificial (man-made) uses of plasma include fluorescent lightbulbs, neon signs, and plasma displays used for television or computer  screens, as well as plasma lamps and globes which are a popular children's toy and room decoration. Scientists are experimenting with plasma to make a new kind of nuclear power, called fusion, which would be much better and safer than ordinary nuclear power, and would produce much less radioactive waste.

Related pages 
Gas
Liquid
Solid
Bose-Einstein condensate
Matter
Plasma window

Other helpful websites 
 Plasma Science and Technology
 Plasma on the Internet comprehensive list of plasma related links.
 Introduction to Plasma Physics: M.I.T. Introduction by I.H.Hutchinson
 Plasma Coalition page
 How to make a glowing ball of plasma in your microwave with a grape | More (Video)
 Phases of Matter

States of matter
Astrophysics
Puebla (state)

Puebla is a state of Mexico. The capital of Puebla is also called Puebla. The volcanos Malinche, Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl are in the state of Puebla.

 
States of Mexico
Dan Aykroyd

Daniel Edward Aykroyd (born July 1, 1952) is a Canadian actor in theater and motion pictures. He also is a script writer, director and producer

Short biography 
Aykroyd was born in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. His parents were Peter and Lorraine Aykroyd. He studied criminology and social science at Carleton University. He dropped out to join a Toronto acting company. Later he went to the United States to pursue his acting career in movies.

Dan Aykroyd is a dedicated Blues fan. For some time he hosted a radio program. He used the alias Elwood Blues. This alias he would later use in the motion pictures The Blues Brothers and Blues Brothers 2000. The first of these movies was co-starred by John Belushi, the second one by John Goodman.

Aykroyd is married to Donna Dixon. They are parents of 3 daughters. Dan's brother Peter Ayrkroyd is a researcher.

Partial filmography

As producer 
 Soul Man (1997) TV series (supervising producer)
 Blues Brothers 2000 (1998)

As director 
 Nothing But Trouble (1991)

As writer 
 Saturday Night Live (TV series)
 The Blues Brothers (1980)
 Ghostbusters (1984)
 Blues Brothers 2000 (1998)

References

Other websites 
 

Actors from Ottawa
Canadian movie actors
Canadian movie directors
Canadian movie producers
Canadian screenwriters
Canadian television actors
Canadian television producers
Canadian television writers
Canadian voice actors
Emmy Award winners
1952 births
Living people
People on the autism spectrum