cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Roger Wolcott Sperry

Roger Wolcott Sperry (August 20, 1913 – April 17, 1994) was an American neurobiologist and Nobel Prize winner. 

He shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel. In 1989, Sperry also received the National Medal of Science.

Before Sperry's experiments, some research evidence seemed to indicate that areas of the cerebral cortex were largely interchangeable. In his early experiments, Sperry showed that the opposite was true: after early development, circuits of the brain are largely hardwired. That is, they are set with a particular function.

Sperry's work was on 'split-brain' research. In his Nobel-winning work, Sperry tested ten patients who had undergone an operation developed in 1940 by William Van Wagenen, a neurosurgeon in Rochester, NY.  

The surgery, designed to treat epileptics with grand mal seizures, severed (cut) the corpus callosum, the area of the brain used to transfer signals between the right and left hemispheres.  

Sperry and his colleagues tested these patients with tasks that were known to be dependent on specific hemispheres of the brain and demonstrated that the two halves of the brain may each contain consciousness.  In his words, each hemisphere is

This research contributed greatly to understanding how each cerebral hemisphere works. 

Some activities, such as naming objects or putting blocks together in a particular way, can only be done when using one side of the brain or the other. It seems the left hemisphere usually specializes in language processes and the right is dominant in visual-construction tasks.

References 

1913 births
1994 deaths

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
American Nobel Prize winners
American neuroscientists
Scientists from Hartford, Connecticut
Machair (TV series)

Machair was a Scottish Gaelic television soap opera produced by Scottish Television Enterprises between January 1993 and April 1999.

Machair was written in English and translated into Gaelic, then given English subtitles and broadcast during primetime.  At first, critics thought this process would not work, but when the show aired it got lots of praise from reviewers.  Kenneth Roy, television critic of Scotland on Sunday, described it as "A credit to the company (Scottish Television) and a smack in the face to those of us who were doubtful" and after a few episodes said "It is even better than it looked at first glance quite simply the best thing to have happened to television in Scotland for a long time." Audiences liked the show too. Machair got 30% audience share and made it into the Top Ten of programmes viewed in Scotland, even though fewer than 2% of the Scottish population can speak Gaelic.  It was nominated for awards for production and writing from The Celtic Film Festival and Writers Guild of Great Britain.

References

Other websites
 

1993 television series debuts
1999 television series endings
1990s British television series
British soap operas
Scotland in fiction
1993 establishments in the United Kingdom
1999 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1990s British television series debuts
1990s establishments in Scotland
Oil refinery

An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial plant where crude oil is made into useful petroleum products by fractional distillation and other processes. Products include gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas.

References

Other websites 

 Searchable United States Refinery Map
 Interactive map of UK refineries 
Complete, detailed refinery description
Petroleum Refinery Planning and Optimization Using Linear Programming
Student's Guide to Refining
 Global refinery shortage shifts power balance
Ecomuseum Bergslagen  - history of Oljeön, Sweden
Detailed refinery description 
Fueling Profits: Report on Industry Consolidation (publication of the Consumer Federation of America)
Price Spikes, Excess Profits and Excuses (publication of the Consumer Federation of America)
Refinery study
2011 NACS Annual Fuels Report 
Basics of Oil Refining Overview of crude oil refining process
Basics of Oil Refining  Overview of crude oil refining process with focus on Canadian crude oil
Refinery Animations & Videos  Oil Refinery Process Animations,Videos & 360 Degree Views
Chicago Bridge & Iron: Virtual Refinery 
Encyclopaedia of Hydrocarbons, ENI and Treccani ed., 5 volumes

Energy
Fuel
IP Phone

An IP Phone is a VoIP-based telephone service. Because it uses the internet instead of a phone company, call costs are often lower.

Telecommunications
List of Rugrats episodes

The following is a list of episodes from the American animated series Rugrats. The first episode aired on Sunday, August 11, 1991. The first three seasons aired between 1991 and 1995. The series returned with two Jewish holiday specials in April 1995 and December 1996. From 1997 to 2004, the series began airing regular episodes again. The 10th anniversary special "All Growed Up" aired on July 21, 2001, on Nickelodeon. Rugrats ended on Sunday, August 1, 2004. Rugrats reruns still air on TeenNick’s late night programming block NickRewind. There are 9 seasons, 172 episodes, three movies, and two direct-to-DVD specials.

Series overview

Episodes

Pilot (2001)

Season 1 (1991–92)

Season 2 (1992–93)

Season 3 (1993–95)

Season 4 (1996–97)

Season 5 (1998)

Season 6 (1999–2001)
In the United States, episodes 102, 111, 123 and 124 were held over from this season and ended up airing during Season 7. The first Klasky Csupo logo still appeared after the second logo appeared at the end of The Rugrats Movie. The second logo did not appear until "Runaway Reptar".

Season 7 (2001–02)
During season 7, Rugrats made a change with a different format that consisted of three episodes per show. Additionally, all half-hour stories from this point on had two ad breaks instead of one. This is the only season of Rugrats to have three episodes per show.

Season 8 (2001–03)
The original format for Rugrats was brought back for season 8. However, the half-hour episodes retain having two commercial breaks. The first Klasky Csupo logo appeared after the credits in the early airings of this season. However, the Season 8 DVD from Amazon.com, "The '90s Are All That" and the later airings kept the second logo.

Season 9 (2002–04)
The third Klasky Csupo logo appeared after the credits in the early airings of this season. However, the Season 9 DVD from Amazon.com, "The '90s Are All That" and the later airings kept the second logo.

DVD releases
Nickelodeon and Amazon.com produce DVDs of new and old Nickelodeon shows through the CreateSpace service. Using a concept similar to print on demand, Amazon manufactures the discs, cover art, and disc art. , Seasons 1–9 were available. , the Amazon.com releases have been discontinued.

In Australia, Beyond Home Entertainment has released all 9 seasons on DVD.

In May 2017, Nickelodeon and Paramount Home Entertainment released Seasons 1 and 2 on DVD. In February 2018, Nickelodeon and Paramount Home Media Distribution released Seasons 3 and 4 on DVD.

Rugrats Tales from the Crib (2005–06)
These movies are direct-to-DVD movies that are part of the Rugrats series.

Notes

References

General references

Other websites
 TV.com's Rugrats episodes
 TV Guide's Rugrats episode

Lists of Nickelodeon television series episodes
Traveler's cheque

A traveler's cheque (also traveller's cheque, travellers cheque, traveller's check or traveler's check) is a preprinted  cheque for a fixed amount.  The person who buys it must sign it and then sign it again when he "cashes" it.  It is a good way for a traveller to take money when going on holiday.  If a traveler's cheque is stolen it can be replaced so long as the person still has a receipt to prove that he bought it.

Traveler's cheques were a large part of the business of American Express.  Since 2005 the American Express have been issuing "American Express Travelers Cheque Cards".  These can be used in stores like a credit card.

Other websites
 American Express Traveler's Cheques merchant site 

Money
Catscratch

Catscratch is a cartoon television show that aired on Nickelodeon and Nicktoons Network from 2005 to 2007.

American children's television series
Nickelodeon
English-language television programs
2005 television series debuts
2007 television series endings
Nabarlek

The nabarlek (Petrogale concinna), also known as the pygmy rock-wallaby or the little Rock-wallaby, is a small marsupial, a type of wallaby from northern Australia. Nabarleks are small kangaroos. They can hop and jump with their powerful legs, and balance on their long tail.

References

Marsupials of Australia
Mathias Grünewald

Mathias Grünewald (c. 1470 in Würzburg, died 31 August 1528) was a German painter and artist. Today he is seen as one of the important German artists of the Renaissance. His real name was Mathias Gothart or Mathias Neidhardt, his first name is also spelled Mathis. Sometimes he is called Mathias of Aschaffenburg. Today, only ten paintings and 35 drawings survive. At first many of his works were attributed to Albrecht Dürer, even though Dürer's style of paining is completely different. All the surviving works have religious motifs.

1470s births
1528 deaths
German painters
People from Würzburg
American Airlines Center

The American Airlines Center (also known as the AAC) is a multi-purpose arena. It is in the Victory Park neighborhood, near downtown Dallas, Texas. It is currently used by the Dallas Stars, Dallas Mavericks and, Dallas Vigilantes. It is also used for concerts and entertainment.

References

Sports buildings in Texas
Sports in Dallas, Texas
2001 establishments in the United States
2000s establishments in Texas
Dallas Stars
Torsten Wiesel

Torsten Nils Wiesel (born June 3, 1924) is a Swedish neuroscientist.

He and David Hubel won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for their discoveries of information processing in the visual system. The prize was shared with Roger Sperry for his independent research on the cerebral hemispheres.

After serving as president of the Rockefeller University, he is now director of the Shelby White and Leon Levy Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior at the same institution. He is also an advisor to several countries and organizations, mainly helping young scientists do research. He is a member of the President's Council of University of the People.

Torsten was married to American editor Jean Stein from 1995 until they divorced in 2007.

References 

Foreign Members of the Royal Society
1924 births
Living people
Swedish neuroscientists
People from Uppsala
Yi-junyong

Yi junyong (or Lee Junyong, , hanja: , June 25 1870 - March 22, 1918) was a Korean politician. He was a member of the Joseon Dynasty royal family. He was the grandson of Heungseon Daewangun, and elder nephew of Emperor Kojong of the Korean empire. He was rival of his uncle Kojong 1874 to 1907. His title was 'Prince Youngseon' ().

References

Other websites 
 http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=536044
 http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=128028

1870 births
1917 deaths
Korean politicians
Keine Sorgen Arena

The Keine Sorgen Arena ("No Worries Arena") is a football stadium in Ried, Austria. It is the homeground of SV Ried. The stadium is named after a slogan used by one sponsor of SV Ried, an upper Austrian insurance company. Since 2018 it is called Josko-Arena. Josko is another sponsor of SV Ried.

The stadium replaced the former stadium of SV Ried which had only 1 100 places and was a multipurpose stadium with a running track. The new stadium is only used for football and has 7 700 seats of whom 120 are a VIP-area. The weststand and the awaystand offer only standingroom.

Football stadiums in Austria
Upper Austria
PKN Orlen

Polski Koncern Naftowy Orlen S.A. (PKN Orlen) is a Polish oil and gas company. It has a lot of petrol stations in Poland, Germany, Czech Republic, Lithuania and Slovakia. It is the biggest company in Poland and one of the biggest oil and gas companies in Europe.

History
PKN Orlen was founded in People's Repubic of Poland.In 1999 it was privatized.

Brands of PKN Orlen Group
 Basell Orlen Polyolefins
 Petrochemia Płock
 UniPetrol
 Benzina
 Solino
 Anwil
 Orlen KolTrans
 Orlen Lietuva
 Polkomtel
 Orlen Transport
 Orlen Lietuva
 Orlen Oil
 Orlen Gaz
 CPN
 Bliska
 Star
 Benzina Plus
 Ventus
 Orlen Petrocentrum
 Orlen Wir
 Orlen Medica
 Orlen Budonaft
 Spolana
 Orlen International Exploration and Production Company
 Orlen Upstream

Companies of Europe
Poland
Richard Roberts

Sir Richard John Roberts FRS (born 6 September 1943, Derby) is a British biochemist and molecular biologist.

He was awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Phillip Sharp for "the discovery that genes in eukaryotes are not contiguous strings but contain introns, and that the splicing of messenger RNA to delete those introns can occur in different ways, yielding different proteins from the same DNA sequence".

Roberts has worked at Harvard University, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and New England Biolab. He was knighted in the 2008 Birthday Honours.

Work 
It used to be thought that each gene on DNA coded for a single protein in a continuous strip. Roberts and Sharp independently found out that the genes in adenovirus (which causes the common cold), were split into segments that were combined later in RNA processing.

In 1997 Roberts proved that in the adenovirus coding DNA is separated by stretches of DNA which are non-coding. The coding sections are exons, and the non-coding sections are introns.

Furthermore, it turned out that this structure occurs in all higher organisms. The discovery that a gene in could be present in the genetic material as several distinct and separate segments was revolutionary.

The second part of Robert's work was in gene-splitting and gene splicing. This means to cut pieces out of, and add pieces to, a coding sequence. This creates a protein which works differently from the original version. This is now used in genetic engineering.

Suggested effect on evolution 
This kind of structure may allow more flexible responses to environmental change, and so speed up evolution. The structure may also be responsible for a number of inherited genetic defects.

Here's a key part of the Nobel presentation speech by Professor Bertil Daneholt of the Nobel Assembly of the Karolinska Institute:

"Earlier it was believed that genes evolve mainly through the accumulation of small discrete changes in the genetic material. But their mosaic gene structure also permits higher organisms to restructure genes in another, more efficient way. This is because during the course of evolution, gene segments - the individual pieces of the mosaic - are regrouped in the genetic material, which creates new mosaic patterns and hence new genes. This reshuffling process presumably explains the rapid evolution of higher organisms".

References 

1943 births
Living people
English biochemists
British Nobel Prize winners
Fellows of the Royal Society
Knights Bachelor
English molecular biologists
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners
People from Derby
Asseco

Asseco Poland S.A. is a Polish company in the technology sector, the biggest in Warsaw Stock Exchange.

History
It was founded in 1991.

References

Technology companies of Europe
1991 establishments in Europe
1990s establishments in Poland
Etta Baker

Etta Baker (March 31, 1913 – September 23, 2006) was an American blues guitarist and singer from North Carolina, United States. She played in the Piedmont blues style.

Baker was born Etta Lucille Reid in Caldwell County, North Carolina of African American, Native American, and European American origin. Since the age of three she played 6- and 12-string guitar and Banjo. She was thought by her father, who was also a Piedmont blues musician. She did her first recording in 1956, when folk singer Paul Clayton was asked by her father to listen to his daughter. She played "One Dime Blues" and Clayton was very impressed. Next day he did some recordings with his taperecorder in Etta Bakers home.

Over the years she played with different musicians like Bob Dylan, Taj Mahal, and Kenny Wayne Shepherd. Etta Baker had nine children, one of them died in the Vietnam War. She died at the age of 93 in Fairfax, Virginia, while visiting a daughter who had suffered a stroke.

Honours
North Carolina Folk Heritage Award from the North Carolina Arts Council (1989)
National Endowment for the Arts' National Heritage Fellowship (1991)
North Carolina Award (2003)
North Carolina Folklore Society's Brown-Hudson Folklore Award (1982 - together with her sister Cora Philips)

Discography
 1956 : Instrumental Music From the Southern Appalachians (1956, Tradition Records; reissued 1997)
 1990 : One Dime Blues
 1998 : The North Carolina Banjo Collection (various artists) (1998, Rounder)
 1999 : Railroad Bill
 2004 : Etta Baker with Taj Mahal (Music Maker 50)
 2005 : Carolina Breakdown  with Cora Phillips (Music Maker 56)
 2006 : Knoxville Rag with Kenny Wayne Shepherd (CD Title: "10 Days Out- Blues From The Backroads", it also includes a DVD that shows Kenny & Etta playing guitar in her kitchen), Reprise Records, 2006

Singers from North Carolina
Musicians from North Carolina
American guitarists
Blues guitarists
1913 births
2006 deaths
Piedmont blues
Susumu Tonegawa

Susumu Tonegawa (born 6 September 1939) is a Japanese scientist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1987.

He discovered the genetic mechanism that produces antibody diversity. Although he won the Nobel Prize for his work in immunology, Tonegawa is a molecular biologist by training. In his later years, he has turned his attention to the molecular and cellular basis of memory.

Tonegawa is best known for elucidating the genetic mechanism in the adaptive immune system. If each antibody was coded by one gene, it would take millions of genes to protect against antigens.

Instead, as Tonegawa showed in a landmark series of experiments beginning in 1976, genetic material can rearrange itself to form the vast array of available antibodies. The main mechanism is called RNA splicing.

Antibodies have a 'variable region' in their structure. Tonegawa compared the DNA of B cells (a type of white blood cell) in embryonic and adult mice. He found that genes in the mature B cells of the adult mice are moved around, recombined, and deleted to make the many versions of the variable region of antibodies.

The critical work 
The critical work was started in Basle, Switzerland, and later at MIT. "Our work resolved the long held debate on the genetic origin of antibody diversity. It turned out that this diversity is generated by somatic recombination of the inherited gene segments and by somatic mutation".

Related pages 
 List of Nobel Prize winners by country

References 

1939 births
Living people
Japanese scientists
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners
People from Aichi Prefecture
Japanese Nobel Prize winners
Kyoto University alumni
Edexcel

Edexcel is a UK examination board. It is one of England, Wales and Northern Ireland's five main examination boards. Edexcel is owned by the private-sector Pearson PLC.  The company offers many qualifications including A levels and GCSEs. Edexcel's name is from the words education and excellence.

Education in the United Kingdom
Companies of England
Chamber pot

A chamber pot (also a chamberpot), a piss pot, a potty, a po, a gazunder, or a thunder pot) is a container with a handle, usually used as a urinal at night. It is kept in a bedroom under a bed or in a nightstand.

During Victorian times, some chamber pots were built into a cabinet with a closeable cover.

History
The chamber pot was originally designed for females. Called the Bourdaloue, it allowed women to urinate squatting or sitting without accidents. It was supposedly named after the French Catholic priest Louis Bourdaloue, whose sermon were so long that women brought Bourdaloue so they could urinate without having to leave.

In the 19th century, water closets started to be more common than chamber pots, but chamber pots were still used until the mid-20th century. Today, they are used in countries that have no indoor plumbing.

In North America and the UK, "potty" refer to the toilets made especially for potty training. These toilets are similar to chamber pots.

In the Philippines, chamber pots are used as urinals and are commonly called "Arinola" in Philippine languages like Tagalog and Cebuano.

In Korea, chamber pots are referred to as yogang (요강). Currently, they are still used in some country regions in the North.

Related pages

Furniture
SimCity 2000

SimCity 2000 is a city building computer game released in 1994. It is the sequel to SimCity. It had a lot of new things such as more power plants, hills and mountains, subways, water pipes, prisons, schools, libraries, museums, and hospitals. There were also roads, highways, and other buildings.

The game also had different scenarios.

1994 video games
Windows games
PlayStation games
Game Boy Advance games
Nintendo 64 games
SimCity
Amiga games
DOS games
Sega Saturn games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Jonathan Dickinson State Park

Jonathan Dickinson State Park is a Florida State Park and historic site in Martin County, Florida, between Hobe Sound and Tequesta. The park has many kinds of areas, such as sand pine scrub, pine flatwoods, mangroves, and river swamps. The Loxahatchee River, which was named a National Wild and Scenic River in 1985 (the first in Florida), runs through the park. The address is 16450 S.E. Federal Highway, Hobe Sound.

History
The park is named after Jonathan Dickinson, a Quaker merchant who was shipwrecked in 1696, with his family and others, on the Florida coast near the present-day park. He wrote a journal about their encounters with local tribes, and their journey up the coast to St. Augustine.

A man known as Trapper Nelson lived on the banks of the Loxahatchee River after coming to the area in the 1930s, living off the land trapping and selling furs. He soon became known as the Wildman of the Loxahatchee. After he died in 1968 the state got his land, and gave it to the park. 

The United States Army established Camp Murphy, a top-secret radar training school, in the area that is now the park, in 1942. The camp included over 1,000 buildings, and housed more than 6,000 officers and soldiers. The camp stopped being used in 1944, after only two years. Most of the camp buildings were torn down, but some of the building foundations remain. The property was given to the State of Florida in 1947, and opened as a state park in 1950.

Recreational activities
The park has such activities as bicycling, boat tours, boating, cabins, canoeing, fishing, hiking, horse trails, kayaking, picnicking areas, swimming, wildlife viewing and full camping facilities. It also has the Elsa Kimbell Environmental Education and Research Center, with exhibits about the park's natural and cultural history.  The park operates a 44-passenger boat for tours of Trapper Nelson's homestead.

Gallery

Other websites
 Jonathan Dickinson State Park  – official site
 Jonathan Dickinson State Park at State Parks of the United States
 Jonathan Dickinson State Park  at Absolutely Florida

Florida
State parks in the United States
1950 establishments in the United States
1950s establishments in Florida
Phillip Sharp

Phillip Allen Sharp (born June 6, 1944) is an  American geneticist and molecular biologist.

He co-discovered gene splicing, and shared the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Richard Roberts for "the discovery that genes in eukaryotes are not contiguous strings but contain introns, and that the splicing of pre-messenger RNA to delete those introns can occur in different ways, yielding different proteins from the same DNA sequence".

Sharp was born in Falmouth, Kentucky. He completed his PhD in chemistry at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1969. After completing his PhD he worked at the California Institute of Technology until 1971, where he studied plasmids and, later, gene expression in human cells at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory under James Watson.

In 1974 he was offered a position at MIT by biologist Salvador Luria.  He was director of MIT's Center for Cancer Research (now the Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research) from 1985 to 1991; head of the Biology department from 1991 to 1999; and director of the McGovern Institute for Brain Research from 2000 to 2004.

Work 
It used to be thought that each gene on DNA coded for a single protein in a continuous strip. In 1997 Sharp and Roberts independently found out that genes were split into segments that were combined later in RNA processing. 

Sharp and Roberts proved that the coding DNA is separated by stretches of DNA which are non-coding. The coding sections are exons, and the non-coding sections are introns. 

Furthermore, it turned out that this structure occurs in all higher organisms. The discovery that a gene in could be present in the genetic material as several distinct and separate segments was revolutionary.

The second part of Sharp's work was in gene-splitting and gene splicing. This means to cut pieces out of, and add pieces to, a coding sequence. This creates a protein which works differently from the original version.

Suggested effect on evolution 
This kind of structure may allow more flexible responses to environmental change, and so speed up evolution. The structure may also be responsible for a number of inherited genetic defects.

Here's a key part of the Nobel presentation speech by Professor Bertil Daneholt of the Nobel Assembly of the Karolinska Institute:

"Earlier it was believed that genes evolve mainly through the accumulation of small discrete changes in the genetic material. But their mosaic gene structure also permits higher organisms to restructure genes in another, more efficient way. This is because during the course of evolution, gene segments – the individual pieces of the mosaic – are regrouped in the genetic material, which creates new mosaic patterns and hence new genes. This reshuffling process presumably explains the rapid evolution of higher organisms".

References 

1944 births
American geneticists
Living people
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners
American Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from Kentucky
Anti-Comintern Pact

The Anti-Comintern Pact was a pact between Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan, which would later joined by more countries, in Berlin, Germany, on November 25, 1936. It was set up directly against the Comintern, or Communist International, an organization that was led by the Soviet Union. On November 6, 1937, Fascist Italy joined the pact, which was the beginning of the Axis Powers.

References 

1936
1936 in Germany

World War II
1930s in Japan
1930s in Berlin
Reichstag fire

The Reichstag fire () was an arson (setting fire) on the Reichstag building, the meeting place of the German Parliament, in Berlin on 27 February 1933. It was an important event in the creation of Nazi Germany.

A Berlin fire station was called, and by the time the police and firefighters had arrived, most of the building was covered in flames. Inside the building, Marinus van der Lubbe was found. He was a Dutch communist. The Nazis said it proved that communists were beginning a plot against the German government. Van der Lubbe and four Communist leaders were arrested shortly after that. Adolf Hitler, who had become Chancellor of Germany four weeks before, urged President Paul von Hindenburg to pass an emergency law to fight back "the confrontation of the Communist Party of Germany". 

As a result, Enabling Act of 1933 was passed. The Reichstag Fire Decree was issued by German President von Hindenburg on the advice of Chancellor Adolf Hitler on 28 February 1933 in response to the Reichstag fire. The decree suspended most civil liberties in Germany. Many Communists were arrested, including all the Communist Party members of Parliament. This made the Nazis the majority of the Parliament, and made Hitler's the dictator in effect. The following elections gave Hitler more power.  

More investigation continued. In early March 1933, three men were brought to the court. All of them were senior Bulgarian Comintern agents. One Communist was found guilty and executed; the others were acquitted and went to the Soviet Union. 

Historians still do not know who planned the fire or who did it. It is still an ongoing topic of research.

References 

1933
1930s in Berlin
Arson
Attacks on buildings and structures in Germany

Building and structure fires in Europe
February events
Nazi Germany
Fire
Operation Sea Lion

Operation Sea Lion () was the plan to invade the United Kingdom by Nazi Germany during World War II. The plan began in 1940. However, Germany first had to control the sky and sea of the English Channel before a land invasion. With the German Navy weakened during the German invasion of Norway and the German Air Force defeated in the Battle of Britain, the operation was put off on 17 September 1940 and so never happened.

References 

World War II
Max Perutz

Max Ferdinand Perutz FRS OM CBE (19 May 1914 – 6 February 2002) was an Austrian-born British molecular biologist.

He shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with John Kendrew, for their studies of the structures of haemoglobin and globular proteins. The method used was mainly X-ray crystallography.

He went on to win the Royal Medal of the Royal Society in 1971 and the Copley Medal in 1979.  At Cambridge he founded and chaired (1962–79) The Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, fourteen of whose scientists have won Nobel Prizes. Perutz's contributions to molecular biology in Cambridge are documented in The History of the University of Cambridge: Volume 4 (1870 to 1990) published by the Cambridge University Press in 1992.

Perutz was born in Vienna, Austria. His family was Jewish. He had worked in Cambridge (Peterhouse College) since 1936, and moved to Britain permanently after the Anschluss, the Nazi takeover of Austria. He did his war work in Canada, and returned to Cambridge after the war. Max did some of his most important work after winning the Nobel award, and is still held in the highest esteem.

Books by Perutz 
1989. Is science necessary? Essays on science and scientists. London. Barrie and Jenkins. 
1997. Science is not a quiet life : unravelling the atomic mechanism of haemoglobin. Singapore. World Scientific. 
2002. I wish I’d made you angry earlier: essays on science, scientists and humanity. Cold Spring Harbor, New York. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.

References 

1914 births
2002 deaths
Deaths from Merkel-cell carcinoma
Austrian Jews
Austrian scientists
British Nobel Prize winners
Fellows of the Royal Society
Jewish British academics
Jewish British scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
British molecular biologists
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
Scientists from Vienna
Austrian Nobel Prize winners
Battle of Moscow

The Battle of Moscow (, ) is a name given by Soviet historians to two periods of fighting on a 600 km area of the Eastern Front during World War II. It took place between October 1941 and January 1942. The Soviet defenses stopped the German attack on Moscow, the Soviet capital, which was one of the Axis's primary military and political objectives in the invasion of the Soviet Union.

The German strategic offensive named Operation Typhoon was planned to attack Moscow from the north and south. The Soviets reacted by sending in more reserve from the Far East. Shortly, German attacks were stopped, and the Soviets began counter-attack and forced to push the Axis back.

References 

1941 in Europe
1942
1940s in the Soviet Union
Moscow
Moscow
Moscow
20th century in Moscow

Battle of Moscow September 1941-January 1942
Second Battle of El Alamein

The Second Battle of El Alamein was a great turning point in the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. The battle lasted from 23 October to 5 November 1942. The First Battle of El Alamein had stopped the Axis from attacking deep into Egypt further. Thereafter, Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery took command of the British Eighth Army in August 1942. In the second battle he took the offensive, with great success.
 
The Allied victory turned the tide in the North African Campaign. It ended Axis's hopes of occupying Egypt, taking control of the Suez Canal, and reaching the Middle Eastern oil fields.

The battle forced Erwin Rommel and his Afrika Corps to retreat back to the former French fortifications in the Mareth Line in the border between Tunisia and Libya.

Notes

Footnote

Citations 

Battle
Battle
Battles involving Australia
Battles involving France
Battles involving Germany
Battles involving Greece
Battles involving India
Battles involving Italy
Battles involving New Zealand
Battles involving South Africa
Battles involving the United Kingdom
North African battles of World War II
John Kendrew

Sir John Cowdery Kendrew CBE FRS (24 March 1917– 23 August 1997) was an English biochemist and crystallographer.

He shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Max Perutz. Their group in the Cavendish Laboratory was the first to determine the structure of proteins, using X-ray crystallography. He was also a Fellow (teacher) at Peterhouse College in Cambridge.

In what became the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Kendrew determined the structure of the protein myoglobin, which stores oxygen in muscle cells.

He spent the early months of World War II doing research on radar. In 1940 he became engaged in operational research at the Royal Air Force headquarters, holding the honorary rank of Wing Commander R.A.F.

John Finch 2008. A Nobel Fellow on every floor. Medical Research Council 2008. ; this book is about the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge.

1917 births
1997 deaths
English biochemists
Royal Air Force
Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners
Fellows of the Royal Society
British Nobel Prize winners
English molecular biologists
Chelsea Kane

Chelsea Kane Staub  (born September 15, 1988) is an American actress and singer professionally known as Chelsea Kane since December 2010. She is best known for her role as Stella Malone in the Disney Channel sitcom Jonas L.A.. She also appeared in the Disney Channel Original Movies, Minutemen and Starstruck. She also co-stars in the Disney Channel animated series, Fish Hooks.

Career 
Kane grew up in Phoenix, Arizona, where she attended Mohave Middle School. She is an alumna of Valley Youth Theatre.

In 2007, she played her first starring role as well as her first theatrical role, in the theatrical motion picture Bratz: The Movie, as "Meredith Baxter Dimly", the film's primary antagonist. She performs two of the songs on the film's soundtrack.

In 2008, she acted in one of the Disney Channel Original Movies Minutemen as "Stephanie Jameson", which aired on Disney Channel in January 2008. She will be in the Jonas Brothers' brand new Disney Channel series JONAS as "Stella Malone", the boys' stylist and childhood best friend. She also has a song written about her performed by The Summer Set.

Filmography 

 Film
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 2003
| Arizona Summer
| Carol
| Direct-to-video film
|-
| 2007
| Bratz: The Movie
| Meredith Baxter Dimly
| First theatrical role
|-
| 2008
|Minutemen
| Stephanie Jameson
| Disney Channel Original Movie
|-
| 2010
| Starstruck
| Alexis Bender
| Disney Channel Original Movie
|}

 Television

 Music videos

 Discography 
 2007 "It's All About Me" (feat. Malese Jow and Anneliese van der Pol) – Bratz: Motion Picture Soundtrack 2007 "Fabulous" – Bratz: Motion Picture Soundtrack 2011 "When Everything Falls Back Down" (feat. Chelsea Kane) by Action Item — single, from album The Stronger The Love''

Awards

References

Other websites

Chelsea Staub Web Site

1988 births
Living people
Actors from Phoenix, Arizona
American movie actors
American television actors
Disney actors
Musicians from Phoenix, Arizona
Singers from Phoenix, Arizona
Common marmoset

The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) is a very small New World monkey that lives in Brazil. Marmosets can found in many forest habitats. Common marmosets eat gum, sap, latex, and resin from trees the most out of all the members of the Callithrix family. 

A common group of marmosets is made up of 15 members, but usually has nine members. Common marmosets have a complex mating system. In a group of marmosets, there will usually be one or two females that will have babies and one male to be the father. The females are usually closely related, while the male is distantly related. If the male dies, the group will break up and form new groups. When marmosets get older, they leave the group they were raised with. It is not known why.

To show fear or submission, marmosets flatten their ear-tufts close to their heads. Marmoset alarm calls tend to be brief and high-pitched. Marmosets monitor and find group members with calls called "trills".

References

Other websites

 

Marmosets
Mammals of South America
Intron

An intron is a non-coding sequence in a gene.

It is any nucleotide sequence within a gene that is removed by RNA splicing to get the final RNA product of a gene. The term intron refers to both the DNA sequence within a gene, and the corresponding sequence in RNA transcripts.  

Sequences of coding DNA which are joined together in the final RNA after RNA splicing are exons. They code for amino acids in the final polypeptide.

Introns are in the genes of most organisms and many viruses. They can be in a wide range of genes, including those that generate proteins, ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). RNA splicing takes place after transcription and before translation.

Introns: parts of a gene which are discarded: non-working bits.
Exons: parts of a gene which are expressed: bits of a gene which code for amino-acid sequences in a protein.

The discovery of introns led to the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1993 for Phillip Sharp and  Richard Roberts. The term intron was introduced by American biochemist Walter Gilbert.

Biological meaning 
There are many unanswered questions about introns. It is unclear whether introns serve some specific function, or whether they are selfish DNA which reproduces itself as a parasite.

Recent studies of entire eukaryotic genomes have now shown that the lengths and density (introns/gene) of introns varies considerably between related species. There are four or five different kinds of intron. Some introns represent mobile genetic elements (transposons).

Alternative splicing of introns within a gene allows a variety of protein isoforms from a single gene. Thus multiple related proteins can be generated from a single gene and a single precursor mRNA transcript. The control of alternative RNA splicing is performed by complex network of signalling molecules. In humans, ~95% of genes with more than one exon are alternatively spliced.

References 

Genetics
Molecular biology
Cell biology
Lake Clarke Shores, Florida

Lake Clarke Shores is a town in Palm Beach County, Florida, United States. The population was 3,451 at the 2000 census. , the population recorded by the U.S. Census Bureau is 3,475.

Land
Lake Clarke Shores is next to the cities of West Palm Beach and Lake Worth. The Village of Palm Springs is west of the town. The town is roughly bounded by Interstate 95 to the east, Florida Mango Road to the west, Summit Boulevard to the north, except for the Lake Patrick neighborhood, and 10th Avenue North to the south, except for the Waterside neighborhood.  

Lake Clarke Shores is located at  (26.645644, -80.075379). According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 1.0 square miles (2.7 km²).  1.0 square miles (2.5 km²) of it is land and 0.1 square miles (0.2 km²) of it (7.62%) is water.

People
As of the census of 2000, there were 3,451 people, 1,407 households, and 1,029 families living in the town.  The population density was 3,538.9 people per square mile (1,359.6/km²).  There were 1,462 housing units at an average density of 1,499.2 per square mile (576.0/km²).  The racial makeup of the town was 93.16% White (77.8% were Non-Hispanic White,) 1.04% African American, 0.23% Native American, 1.94% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 2.46% from other races, and 1.13% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 18.52% of the population.

There were 1,407 households out of which 25.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.5% were married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.8% were people who were not related. 21.0% of all households were made up of people living alone and 8.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 2.82.

In the town the population was spread out with 18.8% under the age of 18, 5.9% from 18 to 24, 27.1% from 25 to 44, 29.6% from 45 to 64, and 18.5% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females there were 98.9 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.3 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $61,328, and the median income for a family was $71,641. Males had a median income of $48,000 versus $33,774 for females. The per capita income for the town was $31,526.  About 2.3% of families and 4.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.8% of those under age 18 and 3.2% of those age 65 or over.

As of 2000, speakers of English as a first language accounted for 84.76% of all residents, while Spanish was the mother tongue of 15.23% of the population.

As of 2000, Lake Clarke Shores had the forty-first highest percentage of Cuban residents in the US, with 10.08% of the town's population.

References

Other websites
Lake Clarke Shores official website

Towns in Florida
Palm Beach County, Florida
List of busiest Amtrak stations

This article lists the 25 busiest Amtrak stations in the United States.

References

Rail transport lists
Amtrak
New Haven (disambiguation)

New Haven may refer to:

New Haven, Connecticut, a city in the state Connecticut
New Haven, Indiana, a city in the state of Indiana
New Haven, Kentucky, a city in the state of Kentucky
Spliceosome

A spliceosome is a complex of special RNA and protein subunits. Spliceosomes are amazingly complex molecular machines. They remove introns from a transcribed pre-mRNA segment. This process is generally referred to as splicing.

Each spliceosome is composed of five small nuclear RNAs, (snRNA)s, and more than 50 proteins.

References 

Molecular biology
Organelles
RNA splicing

RNA splicing is a stage in gene transcription. Messenger RNA (mRNA), which transfers the code from DNA to proteins, is built in two stages. 

In the first stage, each gene is translated into a pre-mRNA. Then the exons in pre-mRNAs are joined by splicing, which is done in the spliceosomes. 

This is needed because the gene is split into code sections called exons and non-coding sections called introns. The exons are brought together by splicing.

So, in molecular biology, splicing is a process where introns are removed and exons are joined. This makes the final mRNA. This messenger RNA is then used to produce a correct protein by translation.

Alternative splicing 

In many cases, the splicing process creates a range of unique proteins by varying the exon composition of the same messenger RNA. This phenomenon is called alternative splicing. Alternative splicing can occur in many ways. Exons can be extended or skipped, or introns can be retained.

Eukaryotes vs prokaryotes 
Splicing occurs in all the kingdoms or domains of life, however, the extent and types of splicing can be very different between the major divisions.  Eukaryotes splice many protein-coding messenger RNAs and some non-coding RNAs. Prokaryotes, on the other hand, splice rarely. Another important difference is that prokaryotes completely lack spliceosomes.

Discovery 
Phillip Sharp and Richard Roberts were awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of introns and the splicing process.

In 1977, work by the Sharp and Roberts labs showed that genes of higher organisms are "split" or present in several distinct segments along the DNA molecule.  

The coding regions of the gene are separated by non-coding DNA which is not involved in protein expression.  The non-coding regions, the introns, are cut from the precursor mRNAs in a process Sharp called "splicing".  The split gene structure was found to be common to most eukaryotic genes.

References 

RNA
Genetics
Alternative splicing

Alternative splicing allows DNA to code for more than one protein. It varies the exon make-up of the messenger RNA.

In alternative splicing the exons of the pre-messenger RNA produced by transcription are reconnected in different ways during RNA splicing.

This produces different mature messenger RNAs from the same gene. They get translated into different proteins. Thus, a single gene may code for multiple proteins.

Alternative splicing is normal in eukaryotes. It greatly increases the diversity of proteins that can be encoded by the genome. In humans, ~95% of multiexonic genes are alternatively spliced.

There are various kinds of alternative splicing: the most common is exon skipping. An exon may be included in mRNAs under some conditions or in particular tissues, and omitted from the mRNA in others. There are splicing activators that promote the use of a particular splice site, and splicing repressors that reduce the use of a particular site. New types of alternative splicing are being found.

Abnormal variations in splicing occur in disease. Many human genetic disorders come from splicing variants. Abnormal splicing variants may also contribute to the development of cancer. Non-working splicing products are usually dealt with by post-transcriptional quality control. That is, they are chopped up by enzymes.

Source of diversity 
Alternative splicing (the re-combination of different exons) is a major source of genetic diversity in eukaryotes. One particular Drosophila gene (DSCAM) can be alternatively spliced into 38,000 different mRNA.

Related pages 
CRISPR

References 

Genetics
RNA
Gun control

Gun control is the attempt, usually by a government, to restrain or stop people from owning or using guns.  Gun control may also regulate the making, moving, and selling of guns.  People want gun control because guns are very dangerous.  Gun control is very controversial in some countries, such as in the United States.  Some countries such as the United States, Switzerland, and Israel allow people to own guns to defend themselves, but most countries do not.

Gun Control in the United States
Because of the 2nd Amendment to the United States Constitution, every American citizen has the right to "keep and bear arms".  This has been taken to mean that most people can own guns. Originally, it was thought that the federal government could not ban guns, but states and cities could. However, in 2010, the Supreme Court said that states and cities could not ban handguns. Although banning all guns is not allowed anymore, states and cities can still stop the sale and use of certain kinds of guns, such as guns that fire many bullets very quickly.  They can also say that certain people, such as criminals, cannot own guns.  There is a strong "gun lobby" in the United States.  It is led by the National Rifle Association, which supports the right to own guns.  They want it to be fairly easy to get a gun.  Other groups, such as the Brady Campaign, want guns to be hard to get because they believe that guns cause violence, injury and death.  Some states have very strict gun laws, but others, such as Arizona, Utah, and Mississippi, do not.

References 
Firearms
Politics
Tommy Ramone

Tommy Ramone, also known as Thomas Erdelyi (born Erdélyi Tamás; January 29, 1949 - July 11, 2014), was a Hungarian-American record producer and musician. He was born to Jewish parents in Budapest and grew up in Queens, New York City. He was the drummer for an early and important punk rock band, the  Ramones.

References

American bluegrass musicians
American drummers
American record producers
American rock musicians
Cancer deaths in the United States
Entertainers from Budapest 
Hungarian Jews

Jewish American musicians
Musicians from New York City
Deaths from cholangiocarcinoma
1949 births
2014 deaths