cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
RVV Hillesluis

Rotterdamse Voetbalvereniging "Hillesluis" (translated:Rotterdam's Football Society "Hillesluis") was a football club in Rotterdam. It was located near the Feyenoord stadium. It was created in 1932 in a Rotterdam's town with the same name. It was disestablished in 2012.

This club has 21 teams from which:
4 senior teams
6 junior teams
7 pupil teams
1 lady's team
1 futsal team
2 disabled teams

Other websites
RVV Hillesluis 

1932 establishments in Europe
2012 disestablishments in Europe
Dutch football clubs
Rotterdam
Tyrant

A tyrant (pronounce: tie-rant) is a person who rules with absolute power. In its Greek origin the word has no negative meaning: we translate Oedipus Tyrannus as 'Oedipus the King'. A tyrant  usually rules a country, and he often got his position as powerful ruler by force, although some of them inherited their power.

Later, the word came to mean someone who ruled with cruelty and injustice. The rule of a tyrant is called tyranny.  The adjective is tyrannical.

A dictator or despot is someone who rules with absolute authority, usually cruelly. It now has the same meaning as 'tyrant', whereas before, 'tyrant' meant something like 'ruler' or 'king'.

In the 10th and 9th centuries BC, Ancient Greece was ruled by monarchs. By the 7th century BC, they were ruled by groups of aristocrats. These aristocrats started to become unpopular. This gave cruel people the chance to get power for themselves, telling the people that they would be good rulers, but turning bad once they got power.

Around 650 BC the tyrant Cypselus became powerful in Corinth.  There were other tyrants in the Asiatic countries that were ruled by Greece.  Cypselus’s son Periander was also a cruel tyrant who ruled for 40 years. The tyranny in Corinth came to an end after he died.

Politics
Ancient Greece
Johann Pachelbel

Johann Pachelbel  (born Nuremberg (German:Nürnberg), baptized 1 September, 1653; died Nürnberg, buried 9 March, 1706) was a German composer and organist.  He is very famous for his organ music.  He also wrote other keyboard music and music for the Protestant church.  His Canon in D has become a very popular piece of music and is very often played today at church weddings and other events.

He was brought up in Nürnberg and had his first music lessons there.  In 1669 he went to study at the university of Altdorf, but after a year he had to leave because his father could not afford to keep him.  About a year later he went to study at the Gymnasium Poeticum in Regensburg.  The directors of that school must have realized that he was an extremely talented musician, because they made an extra scholarship for him and allowed him to have special music lessons outside the school.

In 1673 he went to Vienna where he was deputy organist at  St Stephen’s Church.  He heard a lot more music there, especially the music of the catholic composers of  South Germany and Italy.  After a short while at Eisenach he got the job of organist at the Predigerkirche in Erfurt.

In 1681 he married, but his wife and their baby boy died in the plague.  In 1684 he married again and the couple had five sons and two daughters. Pachelbel taught Johann Christoph Bach who later taught Johann Sebastian Bach.

Pachelbel became a very famous organist.  He stayed in Erfurt until 1690.  After another five years he became organist at St Sebald, Nürnberg where he stayed for the rest of his life.

His music
Pachelbel is best known for his organ music.  He wrote many organ pieces based on chorales while he was in Erfurt.  In Nürnberg he wrote many pieces called Magnificat fugues. These were preludes which were played before the singers sang the Magnificat. His organ music also includes toccatas, ricercares, fantasias and ciacconas.  He wrote many suites for harpsichord and chamber music and vocal music.

Audio
Canon in D played on a piano:

1653 births
1706 deaths
Baroque composers
Entertainers from Bavaria
German composers
German organists
People from Nuremberg
Analgesic

Analgetics (one analgetic) (or analgesics) is a word for some drugs that are used to stop pain. These are also known as painkillers. There are several kinds of painkillers. All act on the nervous system. Some painkillers (such as opioids) can make people addicted if they are taken for a long time. Some painkillers have side effects that can harm people when they take too much (e.g., too much paracetamol can be dangerous for the liver)

Types of Analgesics 
 Paracetamol
 Opiates
 NSAIDs (commonly aspirin and ibuprofen)
 COX-2 inhibitors directly block a receptor.

References
Blender (program)

Blender is a free, open source 3D computer graphics program. It is available for many operating systems, for example Microsoft Windows, macOS and Linux. It is made by the Blender Foundation. It was used, for example, to make the short movies Elephants Dream, Big Buck Bunny and Sintel.

History
A Dutch animation studio called NeoGeo created Blender as an in-house application. The song Yello, which is from a song album called Baby, started an idea of the name "Blender". Ton Roosendaal founded NaN in June of 1998. He wanted to make and show off the program to the public. The program was published as shareware until NaN went bankrupt in 2002. The creditors, people who have other people oweing money to them, agreed to sell out Blender under the laws of the GNU General Public License in exchange for a one-time payment of 100,000 Euros (102,000 in U.S. dollars.) On July 18, 2002, Roosendaal put money into a Blender funding campaign—in order to collect donations. On September 7, 2002, the collected funds was given notice to the public. This proved that the Blender source code would be published. Blender is now an open source program. Right now, the Blender Foundation watches and takes care of it. It is the Blender Foundation's responsibility to do such a thing. The Blender Foundation have the right to use dual licensing, so that, in addition to GNU GPL, Blender would also have the permission to use the following name: "Blender License". Blender License does not have a rule that says it needs a disclosing source code but it does have a rule on payments to the Blender Foundation. On the other hand, this choice was never used and became null in 2005. Right now, Blender belongs only to GNU GPL.

Features
Blender has many features and tools, such as:
 Modelling tools for creating 3D models, materials etc.
 Rendering engine (part of the program that draws the image of the 3D scene).
 Physics engine which can be used to make simulations of collisions, water, smoke etc.
 Animation tools which can be used to make 3D models move, e.g. for movies.
 Video editor.

Other websites
 Blender website

References 

Graphics software
Free software
Animation
Mark Shuttleworth

Mark Richard Shuttleworth (born 18 September 1973) is a South African business person. He was the first African in space. He bought himself his space travel. He is also the leader of the Ubuntu project.

White South African people
South African businesspeople
1973 births
Living people
Paracetamol

Paracetamol (or acetaminophen) is a common analgesic, a drug that is used to relieve pain. It can also be used to reduce fever, and some kinds of headache. This makes it an antipyretic, something that reduces fevers. It is used in many drugs that treat the flu and colds.

The words acetaminophen and paracetamol both come from the names of the chemicals used in the compound: N-acetyl-para-aminophenol and para-acetyl-amino-phenol. Sometimes, it is shortened to APAP, for N-acetyl-para-aminophenol.

Harmon Northrop Morse was the first to make Paracetamol, in the year 1878. Drugs made with Paracetamol became common in the 1950s. Today, these drugs are some of the most used, together with those containing salicylic acid or Ibuprofen. In the year 1977, Paracetamol was put on the List of Essential Medicines of the WHO.

Safety and dosage
Paracetamol is considered safe for use. The drug is easily available without a prescription. People often take too much Paracetamol. Sometimes this is because people do not know how much they should take. The recommended dose may not work for some individuals. Other times it is because they are trying to commit suicide. Very often, a person's liver can be hurt they take too much Paracetamol. A dose of 150 milligrams for every kilogram of the person's weight (about 10 grams for most adults) will lead to permanent liver damage, and may cause the liver to fail. For people whose livers have already been damaged, such as alcoholics, and for those with a limited secretion of Paracetamol, this amount can be much smaller.==
In England and Wales, about 30.000 people per year go to the hospital after taking too much paracetamol (called paracetamol poisoning), and about 150 die of the poisoning. Since a law was passed saying that Paracetamol packets cannot be too large, fewer people have been committing suicide with Paracetamol. In Great Britain and the United States Paracetamol is the main reason for acute liver failure. About half of the cases are because of an 'unintentional overdose'.

References 

Analgesics
Morphine

Morphine (INN) (IPA: ) is a strong opiate pain killer drug. It is the principal active agent in opium and the prototypical opiate.  Like other opioids, e.g. diacetylmorphine (heroin), morphine acts directly on the central nervous system (CNS) to relieve pain, and at synapses of the nucleus accumbens in particular.  Morphine is highly addictive when compared to other substances, and tolerance and physical and mental dependences develop very rapidly. 

Patients on morphine sometimes say they have insomnia, visual hallucinations and nightmares; if these occur then reduction in dosage or switch to an alternative opioid analgesic should be considered.

The word "morphine" is derived from Morpheus, the god of dreams in Greek mythology. He is the son of Hypnos, god of sleep.

Medical uses 
Morphine is used legally: 
 As a pain killer in hospital settings for
 treating pain after surgery
 relieving pain associated with trauma
 In the relief of severe chronic pain, e.g.
 Cancer pain
 Pain from kidney stones
 Back pain
 As an adjunct to general pain killers
 In epidural anesthesia or intrathecal analgesia 
 For palliative care (i.e. to lessen pain without curing the underlying reason for it. This is often done for patients with incurable diseases)
 As a medication for severe cough
 In nebulised form, for treatment of dyspnoea.  The evidence for efficacy is slim . Evidence is better for other routes .
 As an antidiarrheal in chronic conditions (e.g., for diarrhea associated with AIDS), although loperamide (a non-absorbed opioid acting only on the gut) is the most commonly used opioid for diarrhea.
 Morphine was first isolated in 1804 by Friedrich Sertürner, which is generally believed to be the first ever isolation of a natural plant alkaloid in history. Sertürner began distributing it in 1817, and Merck began marketing it commercially in 1827. At the time, Merck was a single small chemists' shop. Morphine was more widely used after the invention of the hypodermic syringe in 1857. Sertürner originally named the substance morphium after the Greek god of dreams, Morpheus (Greek: Μορφεύς), for its tendency to cause sleep.[2] It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, a list of the most important medications needed in a basic health system.[3]

References

Opioids
Analgesics
Codeine

Codeine or methylmorphine is an opiate used for its analgesic properties. It is also used to treat coughing and diarrhea. It is marketed as the salts codeine sulfate and codeine phosphate. Codeine hydrochloride is more commonly marketed in continental Europe and other regions.

Codeine is an alkaloid found in opium in concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 3.0 percent. Codeine can be extracted from opium. Today, most codeine is synthesized from morphine through the process of O-methylation.

Uses 
Codeine is used to treat the following:
Cough, though its efficacy in low dose over the counter formulations has been disputed.
Diarrhea
Moderate to severe pain
Irritable bowel syndrome

Compound analgesics 
Codeine is often marketed as drugs in combination with paracetamol (acetaminophen) as co-codamol (best known in North America as Tylenol 3). Research has shown the combination to be very much more effective than paracetamol, and much less addictive that pure codeine. 

There are similar combinations with aspirin as co-codaprin or with ibuprofen. These combinations provide greater pain relief than either agent alone. Drug synergy is an important principle.

References 

Opioids
Analgesics
Opium

Opium is a narcotic resin produced from opium poppies (Papaver somniferum). It contains up to 16% morphine, an opiate alkaloid, which is most frequently processed chemically to produce heroin for the black market. The resin also has non-narcotic alkaloids in it. Some of these are papaverine and noscapine. Opium is also known as afeem, and was called "God's Own Medicine" during its time of greatest popularity. It can be yellow or dark brown, and has a bitter taste.

Opium has been used and produced for thousands of years. During this time, the source plant has been changed and adapted. The methods of processing the plant, and extracting substance and consuming it also have changed.  The medicinal use of poppies for pain relief dates back to ancient times, but widespread use in patent medicines or as a recreational drug has occurred only in the last few centuries.  Drug prohibition laws in most countries were introduced in the 20th century.  Today the opium crop is worth in excess of $400 million legally and $7 billion illegally, after processing. Opium has caused many wars in China, such as the Opium Wars, because of heavy addiction to the drug. People who become addicted to opium become dull, lazy, and even sleepy. Opium itself is a very harmful and addictive ingredient and comes in many other forms of illegal drugs; including Heroin and/or Diamorphine. 

Health Risks

Health risks include, overdose, respiratory depression, risk of HIV if injected, and risk of permanent brain dulling if used for prolonged periods of time.

References  

Opioids
Pethidine

Pethidine or meperidine (often called Demerol in the United States) is a synthetic opioid - a man-made drug similar to morphine. It is a painkiller. It is used against moderate to severe pain. It can mix badly with other medicines, including muscle relaxants, some antidepressants, benzodiazepines, and alcohol.

Pethidine can be bad for people with liver disease, kidney disease, an enlarged prostate, trouble peeing, hyperthyroidism, asthma or Addison's disease. It can also be bad for people who have had seizures or epilepsy.

Opioids
Analgesics
National Assembly (France)

The French National Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale) is one of the two houses of the Parliament of France under the Fifth Republic. The other is the Senate ("Sénat").

The National Assembly consists of 577 members known as députés (deputies), each elected by a single-member constituency. Deputies are elected in each constituency through a two-rounds system. It is presided over by a president normally from the largest party represented, assisted by vice-presidents from across the represented political spectrum. The term of the National Assembly is five years; however, the President of France may dissolve the Assembly (by i.e.: calling a new election), unless he dissolved it in the preceding year.

The official seat of the National Assembly is the Palais Bourbon on the left bank of the river Seine.

Other websites 
 Official website

Politics of France
Parliaments
Hyperthyroidism

Hyperthyroidism is a medical condition. It is caused by a thyroid gland that is too active. The thyroid gland makes hormones. These hormones manage the body’s metabolism. An example of one of these hormones is thyroxine. The thyroid-stimulating hormone starts the making of thyroxine. The thyroid-stimulating hormone is also called “TSH.” TSH is made in the pituitary gland. Hyperthyroidism is determined by a doctor by blood tests that show a decreased thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) level.

The most common cause of this disorder is "Graves’ disease.” Graves’ disease is a condition in which the thyroid gland becomes overactive. Antibodies from the immune system in the bloodstream attack itself (this is called an autoimmune disease). This causes the thyroid gland to grow, as well as produce more thyroid hormones.

Some symptoms of this disorder are the swelling of the neck, as well as weight loss. In addition, patients could experience their hands trembling, as well as their blood pressure increasing. They could also experience nervousness and anxiety attacks. Medication can stop the effects of hyperthyroidism. However, hyperthyroidism cannot be fixed completely. Hyperthyroidism can occasionally cause death.

References

Diseases
Endocrine system
99942 Apophis

(99942) Apophis is a near-Earth asteroid that worried people for a short time in December 2004. This was because observations seemed to show that it would hit the Earth in 2029. Other observations had more accurate, or better, ideas. During 2029, Apophis would go through a "gravitational keyhole", an area in space no more than about 400 meters across. This would make it hit the Earth on April 13, 2036. This danger made the asteroid Level 1 on the Torino impact hazard scale until August 2006.

More watching showed scientists that the "keyhole" would be missed. On August 5, 2006, Apophis was lowered to a Level 0 on the Torino Scale. As of October 19 2006 the probability that Apophis will hit the Earth on April 13, 2036 is something around 1 in 45,000. It may also hit in 2038, but however the probability for that encounter, or meeting, is 1 in 12.3 million.

More reading 
Cooke, Bill. (2006) Fatal attraction. Astronomy, May 2006, pp. 46-51.

Other websites

Risk assessment 
These sources are updated as new orbital data becomes available:
 http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/risk/a99942.html  (NASA JPL)
  page and  impactor table from NEODyS.

NASA 
 http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news146.html  (JPL)
 http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news148.html  (JPL)
 http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news149.html  (JPL)

Other articles 
 Closest Flyby of Large Asteroid to be Naked-Eye Visible (2029 approach)
 http://skyandtelescope.com/news/article_1458_1.asp  (Sky and Telescope)
 An asteroid, headed our way (Christian Science Monitor, on efforts to deflect the asteroid if needed)

Asteroids
Baruch Spinoza

Baruch Spinoza (24 November 1632 in Amsterdam – 21 February 1677 in The Hague) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Jewish origin. He is considered to be one of the great Rationalist philosophers of the 17th century. Other famous rationalists include Gottfried Leibniz and René Descartes.

Life 

Spinoza's ideas were not cherished by the Jewish community in Amsterdam of the time, and Spinoza was excommunicated in 1656.

Key ideas 

An important idea in Spinoza's philosophy is God and Nature (everything that exists) are the same thing. Opposing Dualism, Spinoza said that the body and the mind (soul)  are two of God's infinite attributes. 

There is no good or evil in Nature, and that these words only have meanings for human beings. For a person, an event that leads to happiness is good, and an event that leads to suffering is bad. 

Spinoza describes two types of thoughts, or emotions:

 When a person acts from his own nature, he is said to be Active. The more you understand your actions, the more active you become. Active emotions lead to happiness and an understanding of God, as well as to Freedom. 
 When a person is being influenced by another person, or a thing, he is said to be Passive. 

The goal of every person is to intellectually love God (that is, understand Nature as much as humanly possible).

References 
 Jewish Encyclopedia

1632 births
1677 deaths
17th-century philosophers
Dutch Jews
Dutch philosophers
Jewish philosophers
Writers from Amsterdam
Rationalism

Rationalism is the view that reasoning by itself is a source of knowledge or proof. It is a philosophical movement that began in the 17th century, but the same ideas were also talked about before then. Rationalist philosophers believe that all knowledge can be understood through a process of reasoning, without any external sources. They do not believe that human beings can understand everything this way, but that it is theoretically possible. Rationalist philosophers attempt to understand ideas like God and the soul in this manner.

The first people to talk about rationalism were Marin Mersenne and René Descartes, in the 17th and 18th centuries. Other philosophers who are seen as rationalist today include Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz and Immanuel Kant. Famous people opposed to this idea were David Hume and John Locke.

Rationalism also influenced natural law. Natural law is a theory that says that there are laws given by nature, valid everywhere. Deism was also influenced by rationalism. According to deism, a supreme being created the universe. This being, and other religious truths can be determined by observing nature, and finding natural laws. This would make religions that are based on  revelation unnecessary.

References 

Epistemology
Philosophical movements and positions
2029

2029 (MMXXIX) will be .

Predicted events 
 Friday, April 13 — The asteroid 99942 Apophis (previously also known by its provisional designation 2004 MN4) will pass within 30,000 km (18,600 mi) of the Earth. 
 Music by Buddy Holly will enter the public domain this year.
 Ray Kurzweil and other futurists predict that computer intelligence will exceed biological intelligence.
 The FBI will have permission to reveal to the public the Top Secret papers on John F. Kennedy's assassination.

2029 in fiction

Computer and video games 
 Deus Ex (2000): JC Denton's "assigned birth date" is  March 17.

Manga 
 Ghost in the Shell:  Public Security Section 9 is established.

Movies 
 The Terminator (1984): Kyle Reese and a Terminator are sent back in time to 1984.
 Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991): Two Terminators, a T-800 and a T-1000, are sent back in time to, respectively, protect and kill John Connor as a teenager.

Music 
 Post-Grunge rock band Our Lady Peace's popular song "In Repair", among others, from their 2000 album Spiritual Machines, references the year 2029 in the opening, which states "The year is 2029. The machines will convince us that they are conscious...". The entire album was attributed and decidated to futurist Raymond Kurzweil.
 Gothic Metal band Type O Negative speaks of the year 2029 (specifically April 13, 2029) in their song "The Profit of Doom", which is from the narrative of a doom prophet. The album with the song "The Profit of Doom", entitled Dead Again, was released on March 13, 2007.

Television 
 Six Feet Under ("Everyone's Waiting," 2005): Keith Charles is shot and killed by robbers seizing the contents of his armored truck.

Comics 
 10 January — Comic book character Tintin, from The Adventures of Tintin created by Herge, turns 100 years old.

Other websites 

 
Years in the future
Elephants Dream

Elephants Dream is a short movie made using mostly open source software. Blender was the main program used to make the movie. It began production in September 2005 and was released on March 24, 2006. It was first developed under the name Orange, then later changed to Machina then finally to Elephants Dream since the people working on the movie could not decide how "Machina" would be pronounced. The movie is 11 minutes long.

Overview 
The movie has a very random and abstract nature. Despite the film's title, Elephants Dream does not have any elephants or dreams. It instead has Proog and Emo in an extremely bizarre construction referred to only as "the machine." Proog tries to introduce Emo to its nature, but Emo is reluctant (If a person is reluctant to do something, he/she does not want to do it.) and argues about its purpose.
Bassam Kurdali, Director of Elephants Dream, explained the plot of the movie by saying:
"The story is very simple- I'm not sure you can call it a complete story even- It is about how people create ideas/stories/fictions/social realities and communicate them or impose them on others. Thus Proog has created (in his head) the concept of a special place/machine, that he tries to "show" to Emo. When Emo does not accept his story, Proog becomes desperate and hits him. It's a parable of human relationships really- You can substitute many ideas (money, religion, social institutions, property) instead of Proog's machine - the story does not say that creating ideas is bad, just hints that it is better to share ideas than force them on others. There are lots of little clues/hints about this in the movie- many little things have a meaning- but we are not very "tight" with it, because we are hoping people will have their own ideas about the story, and make a new version of the movie. In this way (and others) we tie the story of the movie with the "open movie" idea." 
Ton Roosendaal announced the film in May 2005. He is the chairman of the Blender Foundation. The Blender Foundation and the Netherlands Media Art Institute funded the project. The Foundation raised a lot of their funds by selling pre-orders of the DVD. Everyone who preordered before September 1 has his or her name listed in the film's credits. The film was released for download on the Official Orange Project website on May 18, 2006.

Other websites
 The Elephants Dream website

Animated movies
2006 movies
English-language movies
Chapel Royal

The Chapel Royal is a department of the monarch's household in the United Kingdom. 

Incorrectly, the term is also used for the choirs of these chapels. The correct name for these choirs is the Gentlemen of the Chapel. They are a group of priests and singers who sing church services for the British monarch (king or queen). They are helped by young boy singers called choristers or Children of the Chapel. It is an old tradition.  

Today there are two consecrated buildings at St James’s Palace, near Buckingham Palace in London served by the Chapel Royal. These chapels do not belong to the diocese (group of churches in a district).  That is why they are called “royal peculiars” (“peculiar” in this sense does not mean “strange” but “special”). Services are held every Sunday except during August and September.  Members of the public are welcome to go to these services.  This is the only time that the public can go into the royal chapels. The choir also sing at special services, including one held every year on 6 January to celebrate Epiphany when offerings of gold, frankincense and myrrh are made on behalf of the queen.

History 
The Chapel Royal dates back to the late 13th century.  At that time the priests and choir travelled with the king wherever he went.

In the 17th century the chapel had its own building in Whitehall, which burned down in 1698.  Since 1702 it has been based in St. James's Palace.

In the 16th and 17th centuries the choir was the best choir in England.  William Byrd and Thomas Tallis were both organists there during the reign of Elizabeth I.  Boy choristers from choirs outside London were sometimes made to join the Children of the Chapel if they had beautiful voices. These boys also took part in plays at the king or queen’s court.  Charles II liked musical instruments, so the choir were often joined by violins, lutes and viols. 

Some very famous composers were organists at the Chapel Royal.  These include: Thomas Tallis (c.1545-85), William Byrd (c.1572-c.1618), John Bull (1591-1613), Orlando Gibbons (1605-25), John Blow (1673/4-1708), Henry Purcell (1682-95), Jeremiah Clarke (1704-1707), William Croft (1708-27), and George Frideric Handel who was organist from (1723-59).  At the time Handel was appointed he was still German, not English, so he was not allowed to be a member.  Instead, he was given a special title: "Composer of Musick of His Majesty's Chappel Royal".

Today the Choir rehearses twice weekly at St James's Palace. The choir consists of six Gentlemen-in-Ordinary who are professional singers, and ten boys who have scholarships to go to the City of London School where they are called Queen's Scholars. 

The composer Sir Peter Maxwell Davies, who was Master of the Queen's Music, worked closely with the Chapel Royal, composing a new carol for them every Christmas.

The head of the Chapel Royal in Scotland is a Dean. Another Chapel Royal once existed in Ireland.

Other websites
 Chapels Royal, from the official site of the British Monarchy
Churches in the United Kingdom
British royalty
Church architecture
Orlando Gibbons

Orlando Gibbons (born: Oxford, baptised 25 December 1583; died Canterbury, 5 June 1625) was an English composer and organist.  He was one of the most important composers of his day.  He is famous for his church music and organ music.  He lived in the late Tudor and early Jacobean periods.

Gibbons was born in Oxford where his father was a city wait.  The family moved to Cambridge and his brother Edward, who was 15 years older than Orlando, became Master of the Choristers at King’s College.   Between 1596 and 1598 Orlando sang in the choir of King's College, Cambridge where his brother was master.  He entered the university in 1598 and got the degree of Bachelor of Music in 1606. He married and had seven children.

James I made him a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal, where he was organist from at least 1615 until his death. In 1625 he became senior organist at the Chapel Royal, with Thomas Tomkins as junior organist. He was also keyboard player (mainly harpsichord) in the privy chamber of the court of Prince Charles (later King Charles I), and organist at Westminster Abbey.  He died an early death in Canterbury of apoplexy, and a monument to him was built in Canterbury Cathedral.

Gibbons wrote a lot of keyboard works, around thirty fantasias for viols, some madrigals (the best-known being The Silver Swan), and many popular anthems.  He was very good at writing counterpoint as well as lovely melodies.  His famous verse anthem This is the record of John is often sung by choirs at Advent. It has a lovely solo for a  countertenor who takes it in turns with the full chorus.  Gibbons wrote two settings of the Evensong service: a long one with several verses, and the Short service. His full anthems include O Lord in thy wrath, and the Palm Sunday setting of O clap your hands together for 8 voices.

References 

1583 births
1625 deaths
Baroque composers
English composers
English organists
People from Oxford
Renaissance composers
Waits

Waits or waites were British town musicians. From medieval times up to the early 19th century, every important British town and city had a band of waites. Some other countries in Europe also had waits.  They were called Stadtpfeifer in Germany and Pifferi in Italy.

The duties (things they had to do) varied in different towns and at different times in history.  One of their most important jobs was to play at certain times of day so that people knew what the time was.  They often played from the top of church towers.  Sometimes they were also guards, watching from the towers so that they could spot any danger.  They were like watchmen, making sure everything was all right (there was no police at that time).  They woke people up in the mornings by playing music in the streets.

The instruments they played also varied.  Mostly they were loud wind instruments such as the shawm.  It was a paid job.  The waits wore smart liveries and silver chains of office with the town's arms.

In Germany the Stadtpfeifer would also play at church services.  They would play shawms or  trombones on normal days, but trumpets and drums on feast-days.

In Britain there were no more waits after 1835. The name “waits” is still used in “Christmas Waits” (any group of people singing carols at Christmas).

References 

Music
History of Europe
Tennis Court Oath

The oath was a pledge signed by 576 members out of 577 of France's Third Estate and a few members of the First Estate on June 20, 1789 in a tennis court near the Palace of Versailles. 

The meeting hall of the Estates General had been locked accidentally, but the Third Estate thought that this was an invasion of their rights, and were very angry with the king. They stood in a nearby indoor tennis court. They made a solemn vow that they would not move until "the voice of the country was heard" and their requests were met. They were joined by the nobles and clergy.

The vote had always been taken by class, and usually, the clergy and the nobility voted to support whatever the king wanted, so the vote of the middle class did not matter. The middle class argued that voting should be "by poll" not by order, because they had more representatives than the first two estates combined. They also wanted the Estates General to meet as one body, so that voting would be by poll, rather than by class.

A week later, the king agreed and the Estates General met as the "National Assembly".

Related pages
 French Revolution

1789
French Revolution
Chart

A chart or graph is an image which summarizes data and presents it in an easy to understand way. Charts are often used to make it easier to understand the relationships of different aspects of the data. It is easier to read a chart than the raw data.

Types of charts 
 A bar chart uses bars to show values for different categories.
 A pie chart shows percentage values as a slice of a pie.
 A flow chart shows the separate steps of a process.

C
Bar chart

A bar chart is a type of chart which shows the values of different categories of data as rectangular bars with different lengths. A histogram is a bar chart that shows how data is spread over its categories.

It is another one dimensional diagram also known as pillar diagram or column graph. These bars do not have any specific width but the height of the bar is proportionally to the value of an element. When the variations are small this method is very efficient. 

Charts
Pie chart

A pie chart is a type of chart with the shape of a pie or circle. It presents the relationship of different parts of the data. One would easily see the biggest or smallest share of the total data, by simply looking at the pie chart.

History

The earliest known pie charts were in William Playfair's Statistical Breviary of 1801, in which two are used.

This invention was not widely used at first. The French engineer Charles Joseph Minard was one of the first to use it. In 1858 he used them in maps to add information in a third dimension.

Some have said that Florence Nightingale invented it, but they were ignorant of Playfair's creation.

Nightingale was one of the first to use graphics to get important statistics to the reading public.
The polar area diagram is similar to a usual pie chart, except sectors are equal angles and differ rather in how far each sector extends from the center of the circle.
The polar area diagram is used to plot cyclic phenomena (e.g., count of deaths by month).
For example, if the count of deaths in each month for a year are to be plotted then there will be 12 sectors (one per month) all with the same angle of 30 degrees each. The radius of each sector would be proportional to the square root of the death count for the month, so the area of a sector represents the number of deaths in a month.
If the death count in each month is subdivided by cause of death, it is possible to make multiple comparisons on one diagram, as is seen in the polar area diagram used by Nightingale.

Limitations 

Pie charts are not the most accurate way to show data: that has been known for some time. Pie charts should be used only when the sum of all categories is meaningful, for example if they represent proportions.

Pie charts are rare in scientific writing. They are more common in business and economics. One reason for this may be that it is more difficult to compare the size of items in a chart when area is used instead of length. Stevens' power law says that it is harder to see small differences using visual area than when using length. This means that length is a better scale to use, because differences can be seen more easily.

This can be shown with the image to the right. The pie chart and the bar chart have the same data. Most people have difficulty putting the slices in the pie chart in order by size from biggest to smallest. When using the bar chart, it is much easier to tell the difference between bars that are very similar in size.

Notes

References 
 Cleveland, William 1985. The elements of graphing data. Pacific Grove, California: Wadsworth. 
 Phillip I. Good and James W. Hardin. 2003. Common errors in statistics (and how to avoid them). Wiley.

Other websites 

 Draw any pie chart
 Warning against using pie charts
 Polar area diagram

Pie
Biographical Directory of the United States Congress

The Biographical Directory of the United States Congress is a biographical dictionary of all present and former members of the United States Congress. It also includes all members of the Continental Congress. It also includes delegates from territories and the District of Columbia and Resident Commissioners from the Philippines and Puerto Rico.

Other websites
 Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
 House Document No. 108-222 ,Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774 - 2005

Legislative branch of the United States government
Teapot

A teapot is a container used to mix tea leaves with boiling water to make tea. Usually the tea leaves are in a tea bag when the tea leaves are put into the water. The tea can be poured from the teapot into cups.

Further reading
Steve Woodhead, "The Teapot Book" A.&C. Black, 2005 .
Robin Emmerson, "British Teapots and Tea Drinking" HMSO, 1992 
Garth Clark "The Artful Teapot"  Thames and Hudson 
Edward Bramah "Novelty Teapots" Quiller Press

Other websites

 A history of teapots 
Sparta Teapot Museum USA 
A brief history of teapots from Stoke-on-Trent Museums 

Tea
Cooking appliances
Le Monde

Le Monde (English: The World) is a French daily evening newspaper.  It is amongst the newspapers most read in France. Its political opinion is slightly left-wing. In many countries outside France, this is the only French newspaper available.

The newspaper should not be confused with the monthly publication Le Monde diplomatique. Le Monde has 51% ownership of the monthly. Despite this, the monthly has a different editorial staff.

Le Monde was founded by Hubert Beuve-Méry. This was at the request of General Charles de Gaulle after the German army was driven from Paris during World War II. The newspaper took over the format of Le Temps, because the reputation of the latter had suffered during the Occupation. Beuve-Méry reportedly asked for total editorial independence as the condition for his taking on the project. Its first edition appeared on December 19, 1944. Le Monde has been available on the Internet since December 19, 1995. It is the principal publication of Groupe Le Monde.

In 2004, it had a circulation of 371,803 copies.

Other websites 
 Le Monde 

French-language newspapers
Begging the question

Begging the question requires two or more ideas. Each of these ideas may or may not be true. The speaker of these ideas tries to show that one idea is true by saying a second idea proves it, but the second idea is true only if the first idea is true already.

Begging the question is commonly known as circular reasoning, though they are not exactly the same.

Begging the question is a fallacy.

Examples 
 "If such actions were not illegal, then they would not be prohibited by the law." (The sentence means "If that wasn't okay, then it wouldn't be okay.")

 "We know God exists because we can see the perfect order of His Creation, an order which demonstrates supernatural intelligence in its design." ("We know God exists because God created us" or "God couldn't create us if God didn't exist")

Modern usage 
"This begs the question" has recently been used to mean "this raises the question."  This usage is often criticized as inappropriate.

References 

Logical fallacies
Ciwan Haco

Ciwan Haco (born 1957) is a Kurdish singer. He was born near Qamishlo in Syria. After finishing high school, he left for Germany in order to continue his studies. He studied music at the University of Bochum for three years. After university, he started his career as a singer. He combined Kurdish folk music with western style pop music, rock, blues, and jazz. He has released 14 albums. He become well-known on the kurdish music scene after he sang for more than 200.000 people in Batman, south Turkey, in 2003. Haco lives in Sweden with his wife. He has two children, Lorin, 7, and Rosa, 5.

1957 births
Living people
Kurdish people
Singers
Tata Young

Amita Marie "Tata" Young (born December 14, 1980 in Bangkok) is a Thai singer, model and actress, partly from American descent. 

She became a singer when she was 15. Her first album was called Amita Tata Young and it was very successful. It sold more than a million copies in less than 5 months. In 2004, she made an English album called I Believe. It sold many copies and made her famous in other countries as well.

In 2006  she made her second English album called "Temperature Rising", which made her even more popular, especially in Asia. In 2008 Tata Young released a Thai language album called "One Love".

Her most recent album Ready for Love was released in 2009.

1980 births
Living people
Tata Young
Thai singers
Tata Young
Bollywood playback singers
Practice

Practice or practise (a verb form in British English) is the act of repeating a behavior over and over, or doing an activity again and again.

It is a way to learn things faster, by repeating them. For example, sport teams practice to prepare for real games, or a musician practices for some hours every day, so he can play perfectly in his concert.

A practice can also mean the way something is done, like in "medical practice".

Skills
Stevens' power law

Stevens' power law is a proposed relationship between the magnitude of a physical stimulus and the intensity or strength that people feel.

Most people think that it describes a wider range of sensations than Weber-Fechner law. But critics argue that the validity of the law is not sure.

The theory is named after psychophysicist Stanley Smith Stevens (1906–1973).  Although the idea of a power law had been suggested by 19th century researchers, Stevens is credited with reviving the law and publishing a body of psychophysical data to support it in 1956.

The general form of the law is

where   is the magnitude of the physical stimulus,  is the psychophysical function capturing sensation (the subjective size of the stimulus),  is an exponent that depends on the type of stimulation and  is a proportionality constant that depends on the type of stimulation and the units used.

The table to the right lists the exponents reported by Stevens.

References 

 Ellermeier, W., Faulhammer, G. (2000). Empirical evaluation of axioms fundamental to Stevens's ratio-scaling approach: I. Loudness production. Perception & Psychophysics, 62, 1505–1511.
 Green, D. M., & Luce, R. D. (1974). Variability of magnitude estimates: a timing theory analysis. Perception & Psychophysics, 15, 291–300.
 Luce, R. D. (2002). A psychophysical theory of intensity proportions, joint presentations, and matches. Psychological Review, 109, 520–532.
 Narens, L. (1996). A theory of ratio magnitude estimation. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 40,  109–129.
 Smelser, N. J., & Baltes, P. B. (2001). International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp. 15105–15106. Amsterdam; New York: Elsevier. .
 Steingrimsson, R., & Luce, R. D. (2006). Empirical evaluation of a model of global psychophysical judgments: III. A form for the psychophysical function and intensity filtering. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 50, 15–29.
 Stevens, S. S. (1957). On the psychophysical law. Psychological Review 64(3):153–181. PMID 13441853.
 Zimmer, K. (2005). Examining the validity of numerical ratios in loudness fractionation. Perception & Psychophysics, 67, 569–579.

Psychology

it:Soglia percettiva
Logic gate

A logic gate is an electronic component that can be used to conduct electricity based on a rule. The output of the gate is the result of applying this rule to one or more "inputs".  These inputs may be two wires or the output of other logic gates.

Logic gates are digital components. They normally work at only two levels of voltage, a positive level and  zero level. Commonly they work based on two states: On and Off. In the On state, voltage is positive. In the Off state, the voltage is at zero. The On state usually uses a voltage in the range of 3.5 to 5 volts. This range can be lower for some uses. 

Logic gates compare the state at their inputs to decide what the state at their output should be. A logic gate is on or active when its rules are correctly met. At this time, electricity is flowing through the gate and the voltage at its output is at the level of its On state.

Logic gates are electronic versions of Boolean logic. Truth tables will tell you what the output will be, depending on the inputs.

AND logic gate 

AND gates have two inputs. The output of an AND gate is on only if both inputs are on. If at least one of the inputs are off, the output will be off. 

Using the image at the right, if A and B are both in an On state, the output (out) will be an On state. If either A or B is in an Off state, the output will also be in an Off state. A and B must be On for the output to be On.

OR logic gate 

OR gates have two inputs. The output of an OR gate will be on if at least one of the inputs are on. If both inputs are off, the output will be off. 

Using the image at the right, if either A or B is On, the output (out) will also be On. If both A and B are Off, the output will be Off.

NOT logic gate 

The NOT logic gate has only one input. If the input is On then the output will be Off. In other words, the NOT logic gate changes the signal from On to Off or from Off to On. It is sometimes called an inverter.

XOR logic gate 

XOR ("exclusive or") gates have two inputs. The output of a XOR gate will be true only if the two inputs are different from each other. If both inputs are the same, the output will be off.

NAND logic gate 

NAND means not both. It is called NAND because it means "not and." This means that it will always output true unless both inputs are on.

XNOR logic gate 

XNOR means "not exclusive or." This means that it will only output true if both inputs are the same. It is the opposite of a XOR logic gate.     

 
Electronic circuits
Plaza Mayor of Madrid

The Plaza Mayor of Madrid was built in the 1400's on the same location as the old Plaza del Arrabal (square outside the walls). It was used as a market in the Middle Ages. It is also called the Plaza de la Constitución.

In the 1560s, King Philip II and his architect, Juan de Herrera planned to change it into a proper square for the Courts. The first part to be finished was the Casa de la Panaderia (bakery) in 1590. Gómez de Mora gave it the rectangular form. The ground is still cobbled. It finally opened in 1620 under the rule of King Philip III.

The statue in the middle is King Philip III on horseback made by Juan de Bologna. The statue was moved from the Casa de Campo to the Plaza Mayor in 1848.

In the 1700's, it was used for the crowning of kings, bullfights, carnivals and even executions. People watched from the balconies around the square. 

The Plaza has been damaged by three fires. Juan de Villanova had the plaza built again in 1853 and that is what is seen today. People can enter the plaza through nine different arches.

References

Other websites 

 Casa de la Panaderia. High resolution photo
 360° view of Plaza Mayor, Madrid
 Plaza Mayor, description and pictures 
Plaza Mayor Information and photos.
Plaza Mayor in English Visitor and student information, history, present day uses and photos.

Madrid
Town squares
1400s establishments
15th-century establishments in Spain