cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Canton of Bern

The Swiss canton of Bern has about 947,000 people. The canton is in west-central Switzerland and the city of Bern is its capital.

Districts 
As of April 2004, there are 398 municipalities of the canton of Bern within the following 26 administrative districts:

 Aarberg with capital Aarberg
 Aarwangen with capital Aarwangen
 Bern with capital Berne
 Biel with capital Biel
 Büren with capital Büren an der Aare
 Burgdorf with capital Burgdorf
 Courtelary with capital Courtelary
 Erlach with capital Erlach
 Fraubrunnen with capital Fraubrunnen
 Frutigen with capital Frutigen
 Interlaken with capital Interlaken
 Konolfingen with capital Konolfingen
 Laupen with capital Laupen
 Moutier with capital Moutier
 La Neuveville with capital La Neuveville
 Nidau with capital Nidau
 Niedersimmental with capital Wimmis
 Oberhasli with capital Meiringen
 Obersimmental with capital Blankenburg
 Saanen with capital Saanen
 Schwarzenburg with capital Schwarzenburg
 Seftigen with capital Belp
 Signau with capital Langnau im Emmental
 Thun with capital Thun
 Trachselwald with capital Trachselwald
 Wangen with capital Wangen an der Aare

Other websites 

 Official website 
 Official statistics
 Berner Oberland Tourism 
 Biel/Bienne and Seeland Tourism 
 Bernese Jura Tourism
Aarberg (district)

The district of Aarberg is a district of the canton of Bern, Switzerland. The capital is the town of Aarberg. There are 12 municipalities in the district covering an area of 153 km²:
 CH-3270 Aarberg
 CH-3282 Bargen
 CH-3257 Grossaffoltern
 CH-3283 Kallnach
 CH-3273 Kappelen
 CH-3250 Lyss
 CH-3045 Meikirch
 CH-3283 Niederried bei Kallnach
 CH-3271 Radelfingen
 CH-3255 Rapperswil
 CH-3054 Schüpfen
 CH-3267 Seedorf

Former districts of Bern
Aarberg

Aarberg is a municipality in Seeland in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 

Official website 

Municipalities of Bern
Cities in Switzerland
Bargen, Bern

Bargen is a municipality in the administrative district of Seeland in the canton of Bern in Switzerland.

It is a parish and is now part of the district of Aarberg. Its official language is German.

References

Other websites
 Commune of Bargen (in German)
 Google Maps

Municipalities of Bern
Coast Miwok

The Coast Miwok were a Native American tribe who lived in what is now Northern California.

Native American
Sonoma County, California
Pomo

The Pomo were a Native American tribe who lived in what is now Northern California by Russian River. Pomo is a language family that includeds seven languages, including Northern Pomo, Northeastern Pomo, Eastern Pomo, Southeastern Pomo, and Kashaya. The pomo tribe were hunters and gatherers. The men hunted meat and fish, while the women and the children gatherd nuts and berries. The Pomo villages might have had as few as 100 or moore than 1,500. They wove finely crafted baskets and sometimes decorated them with feathers and shell beads.

Native American
Sonoma County, California
Euporie (moon)

Euporie or  is a moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2001, and given the designation .

Euporie is about 2 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 19,088,000 km in 538.780 days, at an inclination of 145° to the ecliptic (145° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.0960.

It was named in August 2003 after Euporie, a Greek goddess of abundance and one of the Horae in Greek mythology (and thus a daughter of Zeus).

It is the closest member of the Ananke group, retrograde non-spherical moons which orbit Jupiter between 19,300,000 and 22,700,000 km, at inclinations of about 150°.

References 

Jupiter's moons
Autonoe (moon)

Autonoe or , is a moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2001, and given the designation .

Autonoe is about 4 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 24,264,000 km in 772.168 days, at an inclination of 151° to the ecliptic (150° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.369.

It belongs to the Pasiphaë group, non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at distances ranging between 22,800,000 and 24,100,000 km, and with inclinations ranging between 144.5° and 158.3°.

Autonoe was named in August 2003 after the Greek mythological figure Autonoe, conquest of Zeus (Jupiter), mother of the Charites (Gracies), according to some authors.

References 

Jupiter's moons
Hegemone (moon)

Hegemone or , is a moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003, and given the designation .

Hegemone is about 3 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 23,703,000 km in 745.500 days, at an inclination of 153° to the ecliptic (151° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.4077.

It was named in March 2005 after Hegemone, one of the Graces, and a daughter of Zeus (Jupiter).

Hegemone belongs to the Pasiphaë group, non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at distances ranging between 22,800,000 and 24,100,000 km, and with inclinations ranging between 144.5° and 158.3°.

Popular Culture 
Season 2 Episode 11 of the expanse saw the hero ship hiding behind the moon

References 

Jupiter's moons
Euanthe (moon)

Euanthe or  is a moon of Jupiter which is not fully round. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2001.  It was given the designation .

Euanthe is about 3 kilometres in diameter.  It orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 20,465,000 km in 598.093 days.  This orbit is at an inclination of 143° to the ecliptic (142° to Jupiter's equator) with an orbital eccentricity of 0.2001.

It was named in August 2003 after Euanthe, who was the mother of the Graces, according to some Greek writers.

Euanthe is in the Ananke group, retrograde non-spherical moons which orbit Jupiter between 19,,300,000 and 22,700,000 km, at inclinations of about 150°.

References 

Jupiter's moons
Kalyke (moon)

Kalyke or , is a non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard, et al. in 2000, and given the designation .

Kalyke is about 5.2 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 23,181,000 km in 721.021 days, at an inclination of 166° to the ecliptic (165° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.2140.

It was named in October 2002 after the Greek mythological figure Kalyke or Calyce.

It belongs to the Carme group, made up of non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23,000,000 and 24,000,000 km and at an inclination of about 165°.

References 

Jupiter's moons
Megaclite (moon)

Megaclite or , is a moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2000, and given the designation .

Megaclite is about 5.4 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 24,687,000 km in 792.437 days, at an inclination of 150° to the ecliptic (148° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.308.

It was named in October 2002 after Megaclite, mother by Zeus (Jupiter) of Thebe and Locrus (although both of these are assigned a different father by other authors).

It belongs to the Pasiphaë group, non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at distances ranging between 22,800,000 and 24,100,000 km, and with inclinations ranging between 144.5° and 158.3°.

References 

Jupiter's moons
Emerald (color)

Emerald is a color that is a shade of green. It is light and bright, with a faint bluish cast. The name comes from the color of emerald.

The first written use of emerald as a color name in English was in 1598.

Emerald are highly transparent color . This  color is evenly distributed, with no eye-visible color zoning.

Meaning of emerald
 The color emerald may be used to represent Ireland.  Ireland is often called the emerald isle.

Tones of emerald color comparison chart

Related pages
 List of colors

References
Isonoe (moon)

Isonoe or , is a non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2000, and given the designation .

Isonoe is about 3.8 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 23,833,000 km in 751.647 days, at an inclination of 166° to the ecliptic (169° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.166.

It was named in October 2002 after Isonoe, one of the Danaides in Greek mythology, and a lover of Zeus (Jupiter).

Isonoe belongs to the Carme group, made up of non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23,000,000 and 24,000,000 km and at an inclination of about 165°.

References 

Jupiter's moons
André-Marie Ampère

André-Marie Ampère (20 January 1775 – 10 June 1836) was a French physicist or a mathematician who helped discover electromagnetism. An electrical unit called the ampere is named after him.

Life 
Ampere was born in France in 1775. During his childhood, Ampere's father taught him Latin, until he found out that his son was talented in mathematical studies. However, young Ampere continued his study on Latin, so that he could understand and master the works of Euler and Bernoulli.  In his later life, Ampere began to distinguish himself in mathematics, but also he studied history, travels, poetry, philosophy, and the natural sciences.

During the French Revolution, a great sorrow came to Ampere's life; he lost his father who was executed by revolutionaries.  The death of his father brought a huge impact to Ampere.
In 1796, he met the daughter of a blacksmith living near Lyon named Julie Carron, and married her in 1799. Afterward, Ampere worked as a professor in Lyon, giving lessons in mathematics, chemistry, languages, and physics. He continued working as a professor even after the death of his wife in 1803. However, her death bothered Ampere for the rest of his life. Ampere died at Marseille and buried in the Cimetiere de Montmartre, Paris.  In his work Journal et correspondence, we can see his amiability and childlike simplicity of character.

Works 

Ampere is most known for establishing the relationship between electricity and magnetism, and combining them into a new field called electromagnetism, or electrodynamics. On September 11, 1820, Ampere heard from the discovery of H.C.Orsted that a magnetic needle can be activated by a voltaic current. Only a week later, he came up with a much more advanced version of that kindred phenomena. It was such an amazing development. On the same day, he also discovered like charges repel and different charges come towards each other.

More readings

Other websites 

 Ampere and the history of electricity (Correspondence, bibliography, experiments, simulations, etc., edited by CNRS, France)
 Ampere's Museum (CNRS) is in Poleymieux-au-Mont-d'or, near Lyon, France
 Catholic Encyclopedia on André Marie Ampère

1775 births
1836 deaths
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery, Paris
French academics
French physicists
People from Lyon
Cyllene (moon)

Cyllene or , is a moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003, getting the designation .

Cyllene is about 2 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 23,396,000 km in 731.099 days, at an inclination of 140° to the ecliptic (140° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.4116.

It was named in March 2005 after Cyllene, a naiad (stream nymph) or oread (mountain nymph) associated with Mount Kyllini, Greece. She was a daughter of Zeus (Jupiter).

It belongs to the Pasiphaë group, non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at distances ranging between 22,800,000 and 24,100,000 km, and with inclinations ranging between 144.5° and 158.3°.

References 

Jupiter's moons
Dive bomber

A dive bomber is a bomber aircraft that dives towards the ground so it can get very close to its targets so that it is more likely to hit them. This can also limit the chance of anti-aircraft fire hitting the plane.

Diving nearly vertically at the target, the aircraft will release the bombs very close to the target at high speed. This allows a dive bomber to drop bombs accurately on a relatively small target, or a moving target quite easily. Dive bombers were widely used to attack high value targets such as ships and bridges. This also had the advantage of attacking ships at a weak spot. A ship's armour was heaviest near the water. On the top of the ship, however, either the armour was very thin, or there was no armour at all. Also, dive bombing allowed relatively small aeroplanes carrying a limited bomb load to do more damage than usual.

Because of better bombsights and better anti-aircraft warfare after World War II, dive bombers were replaced by attack aircraft. 

Military aircraft
Naters

Naters is a municipality of the district of Brig in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

On 1 January 2013 the former municipalities of Birgisch and Mund merged into the municipality of Naters.

References

Other websites
 Official website 

Municipalities of Valais
Ried-Brig

Ried-Brig is a municipality of the district of Brig in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 
 Official website 

Municipalities of Valais
Simplon

Simplon is a municipality of the district of Brig in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

A member of the Swiss Federal Council Josef Escher was born in Simplon.

References

Other websites 

 Official municipality website of Simplon 
 Official tourism website of Simplon 

Municipalities of Valais
Fiberglass

Fiberglass (also called fibreglass and glass fibre) is material made from extremely fine fibers of glass.  

It is used as a reinforcing material for many polymer products. The composite material, that is produced by this method is called "fiberglass" in popular usage. The proper names are fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) or glass-reinforced plastic (GRP).

Glassmakers throughout history have experimented with glass fibers, but mass manufacture of fiberglass was only made possible when finer tools for machines were produced. The first major use was in "glass wool" for insulation, starting in the 1930s.  

Glass fiber is formed when silica-based or other formulation glass is extruded into many fibers with small diameters that are suitable for textile processing.  Glass is unlike other polymers because, even as a fiber, it has little crystalline structure (see amorphous solid).  The properties of the structure of glass in its soft stage are very much like its properties when spun into fiber.

Safety 
Bare fiberglass can cause skin irritation and cuts when handled without gloves. There have been concerns that fiberglass can be accidentally inhaled into the lungs, where it might cause cancer and other lung problems, similar to asbestos. Fiberglass has been called "man-made asbestos". Substitutes for fiberglass building insulation, such as cellulose and aerogel, have started to appear.

Related pages
Optical fiber

References

Other websites
https://www.facebook.com/OEMfibreglass/
OEM Fibreglass
Owens-Corning
Fiberglass and health 
UC Davis PDF on Fiberglass Health Effects
FULLTECH Fiber Glass Corp.
SORG GmbH & Co KG
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Fibrous Glass Page

Fibers
Glass
Insulation
Composite material

Composite materials are made from two or more basic material mixed together. The materials can be natural or not, and keep their separate properties when mixed together. However, the composite material as a whole may behave differently from either of its parts. For example, reinforced concrete (made of concrete and steel) has resistance to pressure and to bending forces. Bullet-proof glass (made of glass and plastic) is more resistant to impact than either glass or plastic on their own.

Concrete itself is a composite material, one of the oldest man-made composites, used more than any other man-made material in the world.

Wood is a natural composite of cellulose fibres in a matrix of lignin. The earliest man-made composite materials were straw and mud combined to form bricks for building construction. This ancient brick-making process was documented by Egyptian tomb paintings.

Fibre-reinforced polymers are in wide use today, as is glass-reinforced plastic.

Background 

The most primitive composite materials were straw and mud in the form of bricks for building construction. The Biblical book of Exodus tells of the Israelites that were oppressed by Pharaoh and forced to make "bricks without straw". Today we use shower stalls and bath tubs made of fiberglass, a type of composite.

Related pages
Alloy
Fibre
Polymer
Thermoplastic
Reinforced concrete

References

Other websites 

Composite material key concepts 
Society of Manufacturing Engineers: Plastics, Composites & Coatings Community
Fibre-reinforced polymer

A fibre-reinforced polymer (also fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP)) is a composite material that consists of a polymer matrix that is reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually fibreglass, carbon, or aramid, the polymer is usually an epoxy, vinylester or polyester thermosetting plastic. FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automobile, marine, and construction industries.

Related pages
 Glass-reinforced plastic

Other websites
 Business Week story about FRPs used to construct bridges

Materials science
Polymers
Fibreglass

Fibreglass (US: fiberglass) is a composite material. It is a fibre-reinforced polymer made of a plastic reinforced by fine fibres made of glass. The composite material may be called glass-reinforced plastic (GRP).

Fibreglass is cheaper and more flexible than carbon fibre. It is stronger than many metals (when compared by weight), and can be moulded into complex shapes. The plastic matrix is usually a thermoset polymer – such as epoxy or polyester resin,  or it may be a thermoplastic.

The benefits of fibreglass include:

 Fibreglass is strong with a long durability, and can withstand weathering
 Designs that cannot be achieved with glass can be done so with fibreglass
 Cost effective
 Fibreglass is non-conductive, as well as being radio frequency transparent, and has a lower reaction to thermal-conductivity
 Has the appearance of glass while offering more diverse usages

Uses 
 Sail planes, Sports cars, micro cars, karts, lorries, wind turbine blades.
 Pods, domes and architectural features where a light weight is needed
 Roofing products, swimming pools and composite housing
 Protective sleeving for RF Antennas
 Electrical enclosures
 Piping for above and below ground systems

Use of the term 
"Fiberglass" refers to the complete glass fiber reinforced composite material, rather than just the glass fibre inside it.

References

Other websites 
Building a fibreglass fishing boat
Glass reinforced polyester use in Europe

Materials science
Polymers
Building materials
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic

Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP or CRP), is a very strong, light and expensive composite material or fiber-reinforced plastic. Similar to glass-reinforced plastic, one uses commonly the name of its reinforcing fibers (carbon fiber) for the composite material. The plastic is most often epoxy, but other plastics, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are also sometimes used. Some composites contain both carbon fiber and other fibres such as kevlar, aluminium and fiberglass reinforcement. Less commonly, the terms graphite-reinforced plastic or graphite fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) are also used.

It has many applications in aerospace and automotive fields, as well as in sailboats, and notably in modern bicycles and motorcycles, where these qualities are of importance. It is becoming increasingly common in small consumer goods as well, such as laptop computers, tripods, fishing rods, paintball equipment, racquet sports frames, stringed instrument bodies, classical guitar strings, and drum shells.

Related pages
Carbon fiber
Graphite
Aramid
Fiberglass

Other websites 

Japan Carbon Fibre Manufacturers Association (English)
Carbon fibre page from the Department of Polymer Science at USM
Engineers design composite bracing system for injured Hokie running back Cedric Humes

Materials science
Polymers
Carbon fiber

Carbon fiber (British English: carbon fibre) is a type of fiber that is made of carbon atoms. It is also sometimes called graphite fiber. It has the highest compressive strength of all the reinforcing materials (composites), and it has a high strength to weight ratio and low coefficient of thermal expansion. The density of carbon fiber is also much lower than the density of steel. Carbon fiber is in the form of several thousand long, thin strands of material that is composed of mostly carbon atoms.

Applications 

Carbon fiber is most notably used to reinforce composite materials, particularly carbon fiber reinforced polymers. Reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC)  is used structurally in high-temperature applications. The fiber is also used to filter high-temperature gases.

Molding a thin layer of carbon fibers significantly improves fire resistance of polymers or thermoset composites. This works because a dense, compact layer of carbon fibers efficiently reflects heat.

The increasing use of carbon fiber composites is displacing aluminum from aerospace applications in favor of other metals.

Related pages
 Carbon fiber reinforced plastic

Notes

Other websites 
 The Chemistry of Carbon Fiber
 Making Carbon Fiber
 Bacon's breakthrough  at ACS.org
 Carbon Fiber at pslc.ws

Fibers
Woven fabrics
Coefficient

In mathematics, a coefficient is a constant multiplicative factor of a certain object. For example, the coefficient in 9x2 is 9. A coefficient can also be a variable such as ,  and . 

The object can be such things as a variable, a vector, a function, etc. In some cases, the objects and the coefficients are indexed similarly, leading to expressions such as:

where an is the coefficient of the variable xn for each n = 1, 2, 3, …

Related pages 

 Polynomial

References 

Algebra
Enrico Fermi

Enrico Fernando Fermi (September 29, 1901 — November 28, 1954) was an Italian-American physicist who worked on the first nuclear reactor and helped make quantum theory. He also was important to particle physics, and statistical mechanics. Fermi won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1938 for his work on induced radioactivity. He built the world's first nuclear reactor. Fermi was one of the greatest scientists of the 20th century.

Early life 
Fermi was born in Rome and went to a local grammar school. He was very good at maths and science and won a prize from Scuola Normale   Superiore of Pisa. He went to the University of Pisa where he studied physics. In 1923 he was given a scholarship from the Italian government and went to Göttingen for more study. He was given a Rockefeller scholarship in 1924 and studied in Leyden. He came back to Italy at the end of 1924 and became Lecturer in Mathematical Physics and Mechanics at the University of Florence.

Scientist in Italy 
In 1926, Fermi discovered the statistical laws, now called Fermi statistics. These laws explain the actions of the particles which are subject to the Pauli exclusion principle, which are now called fermions. These are different to the particles called bosons which are explained by Bose-Einstein statistics. In 1927 he became Professor of Theoretical Physics at the University of Rome. He spent time studying electrodynamics, and began to closely look at the atomic nucleus. In 1934, using discoveries made by Wolfgang Pauli, Frédéric Joliot, Irène Joliot-Curie, he was able to show changes in almost every element bombarded with neutrons. This led to the discovery of slow neutrons, nuclear fission and making elements that were not in the Periodic Table.

Fermi expressed his concerns about the dangers of nuclear energy at one of the meetings of the University of Chicago before the end of the WWII.

References 

1901 births
1954 deaths
Cancer deaths in Chicago
Burials at Oak Woods Cemetery
Deaths from stomach cancer
Italian scientists
Naturalized citizens of the United States
American nuclear physicists
People from Rome
American theoretical physicists
Italian Nobel Prize winners
Physical coefficient

A physical coefficient is an important number that characterizes some physical property of a technical or scientific object.

Examples of Physical Coefficients
 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (thermodynamics) (dimensionless) - Relates the change in temperature to the change in a material's dimensions.  
 Partition Coefficient (KD) (chemistry) - The ratio of concentrations of a compound in two phases of a mixture of two immiscible solvents at equilibrium.
 Hall coefficient (electrical physics) - Relates a magnetic field applied to an element to the voltage created, the amount of current and the element thickness. It is a characteristic of the material from which the conductor is made.
 Lift Coefficient (CL or CZ) (Aerodynamics) (dimensionless) -  Relates the lift generated by an airfoil with the dynamic pressure of the fluid flow around the airfoil, and the planform area of the airfoil. 
 Ballistic coefficient (BC) (Aerodynamics) (units of kg/m²) - A measure of a body's ability to overcome air resistance in flight. BC is a function of mass, diameter, and drag coefficient. 
 Transmission Coefficient (quantum mechanics) (dimensionless) - Represents the probability flux of a transmitted wave relative to that of an incident wave.  It is often used to describe the probability of a particle tunnelling through a barrier.  
 Damping Factor a.k.a. viscous damping coefficient (Physical Engineering) (units of Newton-seconds per meter) - relates a damping force with the velocity of the object whose motion is being dampened.
 Coefficient of friction (dimensionless) which could be static or dynamic - it relates friction, a force resisting motion between things touching each other, to a normal force, a force pushing the things together.  
 ''Diffusion coefficient - relates concentration differences in a medium with how much or how fast diffusion occurs in Fick's Law.

Basic physics ideas
Coefficient of thermal expansion

Solids mostly expand in response to heating and contract on cooling. This response to temperature change is expressed as its coefficient of thermal expansion.

The coefficient of thermal expansion is used:
in linear thermal expansion
in area thermal expansion
in volumetric thermal expansion

These characteristics are closely related. The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient can be measured for all substances of condensed matter (liquids and solid state). The linear thermal expansion can only be measured in the solid state and is common in engineering applications.

Thermal expansion coefficients for some common materials

 The expansion and contraction of material must be considered when designing large structures, when using tape or chain to measure distances for land surveys, when designing molds for casting hot material, and in other engineering applications when large changes in dimension due to temperature are expected. The range for α is from 10-7 for hard solids to 10-3 for organic liquids. α varies with the temperature and some materials have a very high variation. Some values for common materials, given in parts per million per Celsius degree: (NOTE: This can also be in kelvins as the changes in temperature are a 1:1 ratio)

Applications
For applications using the thermal expansion property, see bi-metal and mercury thermometer

Thermal expansion is also used in mechanical applications to fit parts over one another, e.g. a bushing can be fitted over a shaft by making its inner diameter slightly smaller than the diameter of the shaft, then heating it until it fits over the shaft, and allowing it to cool after it has been pushed over the shaft, thus achieving a 'shrink fit'

There exist some alloys with a very small CTE, used in applications that demand very small changes in physical dimension over a range of temperatures.  One of these is Invar 36, with a coefficient in the 0.6x10-6 range.  These alloys are useful in aerospace applications where wide temperature swings may occur.

Other websites
MatWeb: Free database of engineering properties for over 64,000 materials
Clemson University Physics Lab: Linear Thermal Expansion 
USA NIST Website - Temperature and Dimensional Measurement workshop
Hyperphysics: Thermal expansion

References

Heat
Physical quantity
Surveying

Surveying is the technique and science of accurately finding out the position of points and the distances and angles between them. These points are usually, but not always, associated with positions on the surface of the Earth. They are often used to make land maps and boundaries for ownership of land. A person who does the surveying is called a surveyor. In order to find the information they need, surveyors use geometry, engineering, trigonometry, mathematics, physics, geology and law.

Surveying has been very important in the development of the human environment since the beginning of recorded history (ca. 5000 years ago) and it is a requirement planning of nearly every form of construction. Its most common uses are in the fields of transport, building and construction, communications, mapping, and the making of legal boundaries for land ownership.

Origins 
Surveying has existed throughout much of our history.  In ancient Egypt, when the Nile River overflowed its banks and washed out farm boundaries, the boundaries were recreated by surveyors using simple geometry. The construction of the pyramids, including the Great Pyramids of Giza (built c. 2700 BC) show us that the Ancient Egyptians used surveying efficiently.

Surveyor

A surveyor is a person who has the skills to accurately find out the position of points and the distances and angles between them. These points are usually, positions on the surface of the Earth. Finding these points is called "surveying". Surveyors are needed to make land maps and boundaries for ownership of land. In order to find the information they need, surveyors use geometry, engineering, trigonometry, mathematics, physics, and law.

There are different types of surveyor. A construction or building surveyor is the person who has to make sure that buildings are being put up in the correct place and fit in with planning and building laws. A quantity surveyor is the person who keeps track of costs on a building project. A hydrographic surveyor measures points to do with water, such as rivers, lakes and oceans. A marine surveyor is a person who inspects ships. A mine surveyor is the person who finds out the position of underground mines, for example gold mines or coal mines.

Related pages
 Architecture
 Cartography
 Topography
 Trigonometry

Notes

References 
 Keay J (2000), The Great Arc: the dramatic tale of how India was mapped and Everest was named, Harper Collins, 182pp, .
 Pugh J C (1975), Surveying for Field Scientists, Methuen, 230pp,

Other websites 
 National Society of Professional Surveyors 
 The Irish Institution of Surveyors
 National Geodetic Survey
 National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying
 UK Ordnance Survey
 U.S. Geological Survey
 International Federation of Surveyors
 The Institution of Surveyors, Australia 
 The Survey Association (UK)
 Survey of India
 New Zealand Institute of Surveyors

Architecture
Geography
Geometry
Jorge Manrique

Jorge Manrique (c. 1440 – 1479) was a major Spanish poet, whose main work, the Coplas a la muerte de su padre (Stanzas about the Death of his Father), is still read today. He was a supporter of the great Spanish queen, Isabel I of Castile, and actively participated on her side in the civil war that broke out against her half-brother, Enrique IV, when the latter attempted to make his daughter, Juana, crown princess. Jorge died in 1479 during an attempt to take the castle of Garcimuñoz after Isabel gained the crown.

Manrique were one of major Spanish aristocratic families of the Jewish converso descent. See, Norman Roth, "Conversos, Inquisition, and the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain", Madison, WI: The University of Wisconcin Press, 1995, p. 333. Jorge Manrique was a great-nephew of Iñigo López de Mendoza (marquess of Santillana), a descendant of Pero López de Ayala, chancellor of Castile, and a nephew of Gómez Manrique, corregidor of Toledo, all important poets of the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. He was, therefore, a member of a noble family of great consequence.

1440 births
1479 deaths
Spanish poets
Minutes to Midnight

Minutes to Midnight is third studio album by American nu metal band, Linkin Park. Production on the album started as early as late 2003, and initially had a projected release date of sometime in late 2004 or early 2005, but was scrapped due to touring and support of their previous album, Meteora, then prouduction started back up in 2006. It was released on May 14, 2007 all over the world and on May 15, 2007 in North America. Rick Rubin and Mike Shinoda produced the album.

The name "Minutes to Midnight" comes from the Doomsday Clock.

List of songs 
 "Wake" – 1:41
 "Given Up" – 3:09
 "Leave Out All the Rest" – 3:29
 "Bleed It Out" – 2:44
 "Shadow of the Day" – 4:50
 "What I've Done" – 3:25
 "Hands Held High" – 3:53
 "No More Sorrow" – 3:42
 "Valentine's Day" – 3:17
 "In Between" – 3:17
 "In Pieces" – 3:38
 "The Little Things Give You Away" – 6:22

B-sides 
 "No Roads Left" – 3:59

List of singles 
 "What I've Done"
 "Bleed It Out"
 "Shadow of the Day"
 "Given Up"
 "Leave Out All the Rest"

Other websites 
 Minutes to Midnight album website
 Linkin Park website

2007 albums
Linkin Park albums
Concept albums
Rock albums
Thelxinoe (moon)

Thelxinoe or  is a moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2004 from pictures taken in 2003, and originally got the designation .

Thelxinoe is about 2 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 20,454,000 km in 597.607 days, at an inclination of 151° to the ecliptic (153° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.2685.

It was named in March 2005 after Thelxinoe, one of the four original Muses according to some Greek writers, and a daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) by Mnemosyne.

Thelxinoe belongs to the Ananke group, retrograde non-spherical moons which orbit Jupiter between 19,300,000 and 22,700,000 km, at inclinations of about 150°.

References 

Jupiter's moons
Group (periodic table)

A group is any column on the periodic table. Elements in the same group usually have similar properties, because they have the same number of electrons in the outermost electron shell. There are eight main groups of elements, numbered 1, 2, and 13-18. The other ten groups are transition metals:

Group 1: the alkali metals (lithium family) *not including hydrogen
Group 2: the alkaline earth metals (beryllium family)
Groups 3-12: the transition metals
Group 13: the triels (boron family)
Group 14: the tetrels (carbon family)
Group 15: the pnictogens (nitrogen family) 
Group 16: the chalcogens (oxygen family)
Group 17: the halogens (fluorine family)
Group 18: the noble gases (helium/neon family)

Alkali Metals 
See Alkali metal

The most reactive metals consisting of Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb), Cesium (Cs), and Francium (Fr) 
 never include hydrogen.

Alkaline Earth Metals 
See Alkaline earth metal. They consist of Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba), Radium (Ra)

Transition groups 
See Transition metals. Transition Metals are the most number of elements in the periodic table. They consist of Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Chromium (Cr), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni), Manganese (Mn), Mercury (Hg), Scandium (Sc), Titanium (Ti), Vanadium (V), Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), Cadmium (Cd), Tungsten (W), Platinum (Pt), Yttrium (Y), Molybdenum (Mo) and others.

The noble gases 
The noble gases are the 18th group in the periodic table. They consist of Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), and Radon (Rn). They were previously called Inert gases due to their inert properties.
Periodic table
Differential coefficient

In mathematics, differential coefficient is a term out of use now. The former differential coefficient of a function f(x) is now called its derivative df(x)/dx. It is the (not necessarily constant) multiplicative factor or coefficient of the differential dx in the differential df(x).  

The differential coefficient of f is a constant function only if f is a linear function.

Early editions of Silvanus P. Thompson's Calculus Made Easy use the older term.  In his 1998 update of this text, Martin Gardner puts "derivative" instead of "differential coefficient".  He speaks of it only in context with Thompson's criticism of the term.

Calculus
Period (periodic table)

A period in the periodic table is any horizontal row of elements. 

Each elements in the same period has one more proton than the one to its left.  This means its atomic number is one number higher. The elements in the same period are very metallic on the left and nonmetallic on the right. The smaller atoms are on the left and the larger ones are on the right because the atoms have more protons and electrons.

The first period has 2 elements, hydrogen and helium. The second period and third period each have 8 elements. The fourth period and fifth period each have 18 elements. The sixth period and seventh period each have 32 elements. F-block elements are counted in the sixth and seventh periods. Hence, each one has 32 elements in it.

Standard periodic table 

Chemical Series of the Periodic Table

 Alkali metals
 Alkaline earths
 Lanthanides
 Actinides
 Superactinides
 Eka-superactinides
 Transition metals
 Poor metals
 Metalloids/Semi metals/Half metals
 Nonmetals
 Halogens
 Noble gases

State at standard temperature and pressure. The color of the number (atomic number) above the element symbol shows the state of the element at normal conditions.
 those in blue are gases
 those in green are liquids
 those in black are solid

Radioactivity

 Those with solid borders have stable isotopes (Primordial elements)
 Those with dashed borders have only radioactive naturally occurring isotopes
 Those with dotted borders do not occur naturally (Synthetic Elements)
 those without borders are too radioactive to have been discovered yet.
Periodic table
Physics
Atomic orbital

Atomic orbitals are the places surrounding the nucleus of an atom where the electrons are most likely to be at any given time. It is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom.

The word 'orbital' is used because it was thought that electrons behaved similarly to the solar system, where the nucleus is like the sun and the electrons orbit like the planets. 

The number of atomic orbitals in an element is defined by the period the element is in. Electrons move between orbitals depending on how fast they are moving and how many other electrons there are.

In atomic theory and quantum mechanics, an atomic orbital is a quantum number. Each such orbital can be occupied by one or two electrons. The way orbitals are arranged is related to the electron configurations of atoms. They were derived from descriptions provided by early spectroscopists of certain alkali metal spectroscopic lines as being sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental.

Related pages
Electron cloud
Molecular orbital

References 

Quantum chemistry
Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf

Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf is a borough of Berlin, formed in 2001 by joining together the old boroughs of Charlottenburg and Wilmersdorf.
It has an area of  and has, as of 2003, about 315,200 inhabitants.
Its current mayor is Monika Thiemen (SPD).

The Technical University of Berlin (Technische Universität Berlin), the Berlin University of the Arts (Universität der Künste), the opera (Deutsche Oper Berlin), the Charlottenburg Palace and the Olympic Stadium are located in Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf.

Related pages
 Charlottenburg
 Wilmersdorf

Other websites 

 Official Homepage (English version)
Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg

Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg is a borough of Berlin. It is a new borough, only made in 2001 by joining the old boroughs of Friedrichshain and Kreuzberg.
It occupies  and has a population of about 255,200 as of 2003.

Its current mayor is Franz Schulz (Green Party).

Other websites 

 Official Homepage 
 Xhain.info - Private Portal (in German)
Proteaceae

Proteaceae is a family of flowering plants. Mainly restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, it is a fairly large family, with around 80 genera but fewer than 2000 species. Together with the Platanaceae and Nelumbonaceae they make up the order Proteales.

Subfamilies 
Traditionally divided in two subfamilies:Persoonioideae and Grevilleoideae. Recently, workers have recognized seven subfamilies: 
Persoonioideae,
Bellendenoideae, 
Eidotheoideae, 
Proteoideae, 
Sphalmioideae,
Carnarvonioideae
Grevilleoideae

Other websites 
Protea family 
toxicosis in dogs
Phylogeny, biogeography, and the evolution of life-history traits in Leucadendron (Proteaceae)

Proteales
Marzahn-Hellersdorf

Marzahn-Hellersdorf is one of the 12 new boroughs of Berlin. It was created in 2001 when the old boroughs of Marzahn and Hellersdorf were merged (joined together).

Marzahn-Hellersdorf is in northeast Berlin. It has borders with Lichtenberg in the west, Treptow-Köpenick in the south and the state of Brandenburg in the east and north.

The borough contains of five former villages: Biesdorf, Hellersdorf, Kaulsdorf, Mahlsdorf and Marzahn, which became part of Berlin in 1920.

Twinnings 
Marzahn-Hellersdorf has several twin towns:
  Tychy
  Halton
  Lauingen
  Minsk
  Budapest IVth borough and XVth borough

Other websites

 Official Homepage (in German)
 Marzahn-Hellersdorf Website (in German)
 Photo essay
Billionaire

A billionaire is a person who has a net worth of at least one billion (1,000,000,000) units of currency. This is usually used for major currencies with large values, like Pound Sterlings £, American dollars $, or Euros €.

Billionaires (in United States dollars)
In March 2021, there were 2,755 people in the world who were considered to be billionaires (in United States dollars).

Every year, the American business magazine Forbes, and its website, releases a list of billionaires called The World's Billionaires.

The number of billionaires per million people

Related pages 
 Millionaire

References 

 
Money
Pankow

Pankow [] is one of the new borough of Berlin. In 2001, the old borough of Pankow was merged (joined) with the former boroughs of Prenzlauer Berg and Weißensee.

It has an area of  and about 347,100 inhabitants. Pankow's current mayor is Matthias Koehne (SPD).

Between 1945 and 1960 many members of the government of East Germany lived in the Majakowskiring district of Pankow. Western writers often called Pankow capital of East Germany, or used Pankow as shorthand for the East German government.

The Rykestrasse Synagogue Germany's largest synagogue, is located in the Prenzlauer Berg neighbourhood of the Pankow district.

Other websites 

 Official Homepage
Reinickendorf

Reinickendorf is a borough of Berlin. It has an area of  and has, as of December 31 2003, 246,577 inhabitants.

Reinickendorf was created in 1920 by the Greater Berlin Act, and was not changed in the borough reforms of 2001.

Its current mayor is Marlies Wanjura (CDU).

Parts of town 
Reinickendorf is split in ten parts:
 Reinickendorf (73,847)
 Märkisches Viertel (35,833)
 Tegel (33,873)
 Wittenau (29,597)
 Heiligensee (17,800)
 Frohnau (17,309)
 Hermsdorf (16,950)
 Waidmannslust (10,316)
 Konradshöhe/Tegelort (6,031)
 Lübars (5,021).

Politics 
The last elections for the BVV (elections for the representatives in the boroughs parliament) were in October 2001.

Twinning 
  - Greenwich, London, United Kingdom

Other websites

 Official Homepage
Pasithee (moon)

Pasithee or , is a non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2001, and given the designation .

Pasithee is about 2 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 23,307,000 km in 726.933 days, at an inclination of 166° to the ecliptic (164° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.3289.

It was named in August 2003 after Pasithee, one of the Charites, goddesses of charm, beauty, nature, human creativity and fertility, daughters of Zeus (Jupiter) by Eurynome. Pasithee, better known as Aglaea, is the spouse of Hypnos (Sleep) and presides to hallucinations and hallucinogens.

It belongs to the Carme group, made up of non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23,000,000 and 24,000,000 km and at an inclination of about 165°.

References 

Jupiter's moons
Steglitz-Zehlendorf

Steglitz-Zehlendorf is a borough of Berlin. It was formed in 2001 when the former boroughs of Steglitz and Zehlendorf were joined together.

Steglitz-Zehlendorf has an area of  and has, as of 2003, about 288,300 inhabitants. Its current mayor is Norbert Kopp (CDU).

Landmarks 
 The Bierpinsel (literally, "Beer Brush"), a 1970s style tower in Steglitz
 The Botanical Garden in Berlin
 The Library of the Philological Faculty at the Free University of Berlin in Dahlem, by Norman Foster
 The Wannsee lake and villa, home to the notorious Wannsee Conference
 Lichterfelde West Villen Kolonie - exclusive residential area of 1860 with tree lined and cobbled streets

Other websites 
 Official Homepage (in German)