cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Everglades National Park

Everglades National Park  is an American national park that protects the southern twenty percent of the original Everglades in Florida. The park is the largest tropical wilderness in the United States and the largest wilderness of any kind east of the Mississippi River. An average of one million people visit the park each year. 

Everglades is the third-largest national park in the contiguous United States after Death Valley and Yellowstone. 

UNESCO declared the Everglades & Dry Tortugas Biosphere Reserve in 1976 and listed the park as a World Heritage Site in 1979.

References

World Heritage Sites in the United States
Geography of Florida
National parks in the United States
Manú National Park

Manú National Park is a biosphere reserve in Peru.

Before becoming an area protected by the Peruvian government, the Manú National Park was conserved because it was inaccessible; that is, people could not get to it. The park is fairly inaccessible by road to this day. In 1977, UNESCO recognised it as a Biosphere Reserve and in 1987, it was named a World Heritage Site.

It is the largest National Park in Peru, covering an area of 15,328 km². The Biosphere Reserve includes an additional 2,570 km², and a further 914 km² are included in a "Cultural Zone" (which also given protection), bringing the total area up to 18,811 km².

The park protects several ecological zones ranging from as low as 150 metres above sea level in parts of the Amazon Basin, to Puna grassland at altitudes of 4200 metres. Because of this topographical range, it has one of highest levels of biodiversity of any park in the world.

Overall, more than 15,000 species of plants are found in Manú, and up to 250 varieties of trees have been found in a single hectare.

The reserve is visited by birdwatchers from all over the world, as it is home to over 1000 species of birds. This is over 10% of all living bird species, and more than the number of bird species found in the entirety of North America.

The Park has one of the most varied collections of land vertebrates ever found in Latin American tropical forests.

References 

Peru
National parks in South America
World Heritage Sites in South America
Biosphere reserves
Plane Stupid

Plane Stupid is a non-violent environmentalist group in the United Kingdom. It is against making airports bigger.

Plane Stupid was started in 2005 by Joss Garman, Richard George and Graham Thompson.

References

Environmental organizations
Organisations based in the United Kingdom
2005 establishments in the United Kingdom
Nissan Pathfinder

The Nissan Pathfinder is a midsize crossover SUV made by Nissan Motor Company. Its competitor was originally the Toyota 4Runner. It has been around since 1985 and has had five generations since then. It featured hidden rear door handles, a design feature that was later used by Alfa Romeo. The first generation was made from 1985 to 1995. The second generation was made from 1995 to 2004 and spawned an upscale version with the Infiniti QX4. The third generation was made from 2004 to 2012. The fourth generation is a midsize crossover SUV that allows seating for seven and was made from 2012 to 2020. The fifth generation launched in 2021 for the 2022 Model Year. 

Pathfinder
Sport utility vehicles
1980s automobiles
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles
2010s automobiles
Controlled drugs in the United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, certain drugs are classified as controlled drugs. Controlled drugs are illegal to possess, use, or supply to others without a license. These drugs are governed under the Misuse of Drugs Act of 1971. This act defines three categories of controlled drugs: A, B, and C. The penalties for illegaly possessing, using or supplying a controlled drug are different depending on which category the drug belongs to. Many of these drugs are also governed by other laws, such as the Medicines Act. Also, there are many other drugs that are not controlled by the Misuse of Drugs Act but that are controlled by other laws.

Class A drugs are drugs that are considered the most dangerous. They carry the harshest punishments. Class C drugs are those that are thought to be much less dangerous. They therefore carry much less serious punishments. More serious punishments are dealt if the person is considered to have had the intention to supply the drug to others. Possession with intent to supply carries a maximum penalty of life in prison.

The laws governing the use and supply of drugs for medical purposes are not part of the Misuse of Drugs Act. A different set of categories apply, which are defined in the Misuse of Drugs Regulations. This sets out five schedules, each with their own restrictions. These restrictions say that a person can possess and use certain drugs if they have the proper prescriptions for them. A prescriptions must be given by somebody who is licensed to provide it (e.g., a medical doctor). The drug itself must be supplied by somebody who is licensed to supply it (e.g., a pharmacy).

References

Illegal drugs
United Kingdom law
Lose Yourself

"Lose Yourself" is a hip hop song by American rapper Eminem. Eminem won an Academy Award in 2003 and a Grammy in 2004 for "Lose Yourself". It was performed live at the 2022 Super Bowl in Los Angeles and has had over 5,000,000 downloads in the United States alone.  It is from and about his movie "8 Mile." It is Eminem's second-biggest hit to date.

References

2002 songs
Eminem songs
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songs
Geomorphology

Geomorphology  is the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them.

More broadly, it studies the evolution of the topography of a planet. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform history and dynamics, and to predict future changes. They use a combination of field observation, physical experiment, and numerical modeling. 

Geomorphology is part of geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology and archaeology. This range of interests leads to a wide variety of research styles and interests in the field.

References 

Earth sciences
subfields of geology
Branches of geography
George Marshall

George Catlett Marshall (December 31, 1880 – October 16, 1959) was an American military leader. He was Chief of Staff of the Army, Secretary of State, and the third Secretary of Defense. Marshall served as the United States Army Chief of Staff during World War II. As Secretary of State, his name was given to the Marshall Plan. For this plan, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953.

References

1880 births
1959 deaths
American people of World War II
Politicians from Pennsylvania
Time People of the Year
American Nobel Prize winners
United States Secretaries of State
United States Secretaries of Defense
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
John Isner

John Robert Isner (born April 26, 1985) is an American professional tennis player from Greensboro, North Carolina. He is best known for his first round marathon match at Wimbledon in 2010 against Nicolas Mahut, where they played the longest ever tennis match, which lasted 11 hours and 5 minutes and was played over three days.

References

Other websites

Isner`s official website

1985 births
Living people
American male tennis players
People from Greensboro, North Carolina
Sportspeople from North Carolina
Steve Keirn

Steve Keirn is a professional wrestler. He was born on September 10, 1951. Since the early 1990s, he has had a wrestling school called the "School of Hard Knocks".

1951 births
American professional wrestlers
Living people
Jubilees

The book of Jubilees is an ancient book written in Hebrew. It is sometimes called the Lesser Genesis. It was known to early Christians and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church believes it to be a book of the Bible . 

Old Testament
2010 US Open (tennis)

The 2010 US Open was a tennis event played on an outdoor hard courts, held between August 30 and September 13, 2010 at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows, Queens, New York City, United States.

The men's singles final was initially going to be played on September 12. Rain postponed the final till the following day. In the past two years the final was also pushed forward because of rain.

Seniors finals

Men's Singles

 Rafael Nadal beat  Novak Djokovic, 6–4, 5–7, 6–4, 6–2

Women's Singles

 Kim Clijsters beat  Vera Zvonareva, 6–2, 6–1

Men's Doubles

 Bob Bryan /  Mike Bryan beat  Rohan Bopanna /  Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi, 7–6(5), 7–6(4).

Women's Doubles

 Vania King /  Yaroslava Shvedova beat  Liezel Huber /  Nadia Petrova, 2–6, 6–4, 7–6(4)

Mixed Doubles

 Liezel Huber /  Bob Bryan beat  Květa Peschke /  Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi, 6–4, 6–4.

Juniors finals

Boys' Singles

 Jack Sock beat  Denis Kudla, 3–6, 6–2, 6–2

Girls' Singles

 Daria Gavrilova beat  Yulia Putintseva, 6–3, 6–2

Boys' Doubles

 Duilio Beretta /  Roberto Quiroz beat  Oliver Golding /  Jiří Veselý, 6–1, 7–5

Girls' Doubles

 Tímea Babos /  Sloane Stephens beat  An-Sophie Mestach /  Silvia Njirić, walkover

Wheelchair finals

Wheelchair Men's Singles

 Shingo Kunieda beat  Nicolas Peifer, walkover

Wheelchair Women's Singles

 Esther Vergeer beat  Daniela Di Toro, 6–0, 6–0

Wheelchair Men's Doubles

 Maikel Scheffers /  Ronald Vink beat  Nicolas Peifer /  Jon Rydberg, 6–0, 6–0

Wheelchair Women's Doubles

 Esther Vergeer /  Sharon Walraven beat  Daniela Di Toro /  Aniek van Koot, 6–3, 6–3

Wheelchair Quad Singles

 David Wagner beat  Peter Norfolk, 6–0, 2–6, 6–3

Wheelchair Quad Doubles

 Nick Taylor /  David Wagner beat  Johan Andersson /  Peter Norfolk, 7–5, 7–6(4)

Qualifying stages
Before the 2010 US Open began a series of qualifying matches were held for players who were not able to automatically enter the main draws.

Men's Singles

  Ričardas Berankis
  Rik de Voest
  Ivan Dodig
  Marc Gicquel
  Andreas Haider-Maurer
  Ryan Harrison
  Robert Kendrick
  Martin Kližan
  Dušan Lojda
  Adrian Mannarino
  Kei Nishikori
  Benoît Paire
  Peter Polansky
  Milos Raonic
  Lukáš Rosol
  Júlio Silva

Women's Singles

  Akgul Amanmuradova
  Maria Elena Camerin
  Lourdes Domínguez Lino
  Irina Falconi
  Zuzana Kučová
  Michelle Larcher de Brito
  Nuria Llagostera Vives
  Mirjana Lučić
  Rebecca Marino
  Mandy Minella
  Sania Mirza
  Monica Niculescu
  Zuzana Ondrášková
  Tamira Paszek
  Sally Peers
  Olga Savchuk

Boys' Singles

  Sam Barry
  Julien Cagnina
  Alexios Halebian
  Daiki Kondo
  Mackenzie McDonald
  Karue Sell
  Bruno Semenzato
  Michael Zhu

The following player received the lucky loser spot:
  Giammarco Micolani

Girls' Singles

  Nigina Abduraimova
  Robin Anderson
  Brooke Austin
  Julia Elbaba
  Miyu Kato
  Risa Ozaki
  Sabina Sharipova
  Chanelle Van Nguyen

The following player received the lucky loser spot:
  Gabrielle Desimone

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

2010 US Open (tennis)
2010 in tennis
2010 in New York (state)
2010 US Open – Men's Singles Qualifying

The 2010 US Open Men's Singles Qualifying stage was a pre-tournament, played by competitors who were not automatically qualified for the main draw.

Seeds

  Marsel İlhan (First Round)
  Go Soeda (First Round)
  Karol Beck (First Round)
  Édouard Roger-Vasselin (First Round)
  Simone Bolelli (First Round)
  Grega Žemlja (First Round)
  Adrian Ungur (First Round)
  David Guez (Qualifying Round)
  Ričardas Berankis (Qualifier)
  Rui Machado (Second Round)
  Federico del Bonis (First Round)
  Stéphane Bohli (Second Round)
  Martin Fischer (First Round)
  Ilija Bozoljac (Qualifying Round)
  Ramón Delgado (Second Round)
  João Souza (First Round)

<ol start="17">
 Josselin Ouanna (Second Round)
 Carlos Salamanca (First Round)
 Stefan Koubek (Second Round)
 Thiago Alves (First Round)
 Daniel Muñoz-De La Nava (Qualifying Round)
 'Robert Kendrick (Qualifier)
 'Ivan Dodig (Qualifier)
 Kei Nishikori (Qualifier)<li> Kevin Kim (Qualifying Round)<li> Adrian Mannarino (Qualifier)
<li> Conor Niland (Second Round)<li> Rajeev Ram (First Round)<li> Uladzimir Ignatik (Second Round)<li> Izak van der Merwe (First Round)<li> Mischa Zverev (First Round)''
<li> Benoît Paire (Qualifier)</ol>

Qualifiers

  Ivan Dodig  Lukáš Rosol  Peter Polansky  Dušan Lojda  Andreas Haider-Maurer  Júlio Silva  Martin Kližan  Milos Raonic'''

<li> Ričardas Berankis
<li> Ryan Harrison
<li> Robert Kendrick
<li> Kei Nishikori
<li> Adrian Mannarino
<li> Rik de Voest
<li> Benoît Paire
<li> Marc Gicquel

Qualifying Draw

First Qualifier

Second Qualifier

Third Qualifier

Fourth Qualifier

Fifth Qualifier

Sixth Qualifier

Seventh Qualifier

Eighth Qualifier

Ninth Qualifier

Tenth Qualifier

Eleventh Qualifier

Twelfth Qualifier

Thirteenth Qualifier

Fourteenth Qualifier

Fifteenth Qualifier

Sixteenth Qualifier

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Men's Singles Qualifying
Gisborne, New Zealand

Gisborne is a city on the East Coast of New Zealand's North Island. Gisborne is known as "the first city in the world to see the sun". This is because it is the first major city on the side of the International Date Line that sees the new day first.

Cities in New Zealand
Changi

Changi is a place in the east of Singapore. It has Changi Airport, Singapore Expo, Changi Air Base and Changi Naval Base.

History 

Singapore had its international airport at Kallang and Paya Lebar. But it expanded so rapidly that the Singapore government worried about having not enough space for airport to grow bigger. There were many proposals for a new location and the Singapore government chose Changi in the end.

Other places in Changi 

There are also other places in Changi, for example the Changi Prison, which had the Japanese Prisoner-of-war (POW) camps. These camps had the Allied powers prisoners staying there.

There is also the Changi Air Base, Changi Naval Base, Changi Point Ferry Terminal and Changi Ferry Terminal.
Southern Islands

The Southern Islands of Singapore is a group of islands at the south of Singapore. It features famous islands like Sentosa(pictured), the Sisters Islands and Kusu Island.

Development 
The Singapore Tourism Board has spent close to S$300 million and took about 15 years to develop the southern islands of Singapore. This whole project is to bring gas, water, electricity and telecommunication supplies to the southern islands.

Geography of Singapore
Coupe de la Ligue

The Coupe de la Ligue is a French football competition. It is organized by the Ligue de Football Professionnel. It was established in 1994. Its current champion is Olympique de Marseille.

Football in France
Wrought iron

Wrought iron is a type of iron. It has very little carbon in it. Most steels have much more carbon. It also has some slag in it. This gives it a fibrous look similar to how wood looks. It is tough, malleable, ductile, and can be welded easily. It was most common in the old days when cast iron was the only other type of iron. Now mild steel is used instead. If it contains too much sulfur, it becomes very brittle when heated. Wrought iron has a rough surface that can hold paint and zinc for galvanization much more easily.

Wrought iron was one of the most common types of iron in the medieval times. Its popularity has declined. It is needed to make historical items look historical.

Related pages
Mild steel

Iron
Slag

Slag is a liquid residue from making iron. It consists of calcium silicate. The silicon dioxide in iron has to be taken away. The calcium oxide reacts with the silicon dioxide solid to make liquid calcium silicate, which is lighter than iron. It is drained out of the blast furnace. Slag can be used to make concrete. Air can be blown through molten slag to make a fluffy insulation made mineral wool.

Concrete made with blast furnace slag is almost pure white compared to ordinary concrete which is greyish.

Related pages
Steel

Chemicals
2010 US Open – Women's Singles Qualifying

The 2010 US Open Women's Singles Qualifying stage was a pre-tournament, played by competitors who were not automatically qualified for the main draw.

Seeds

  Akgul Amanmuradova (Qualifier)
  Jelena Dokić (First Round)
  Monica Niculescu (Qualifier)
  Zhang Shuai (Second Round)
  Varvara Lepchenko (Second Round)
  Evgeniya Rodina (Qualifying Competition)
  Shenay Perry (First Round)
  Andrea Hlaváčková (First Round)
  Mariana Duque Marino (First Round)
  Anastasia Pivovarova (Second Round)
  Patricia Mayr (Qualifying Competition)
  Zuzana Kučová (Qualifier)
  Zuzana Ondrášková (Qualifier)
  Rossana de los Ríos (First Round)
  Tatjana Malek (First Round)
  Anastasiya Yakimova (Second Round)

<li> Nuria Llagostera Vives (Qualifier)
<li> Arantxa Rus (Second Round)
<li> Katie O'Brien (Qualifying Competition)
<li> Olivia Sanchez (First Round)
<li> Maria Elena Camerin (Qualifier)
<li> Anna Floris (First Round)
<li> Alexandra Panova (Qualifying Competition)
<li> Michaëlla Krajicek (First Round)
<li> Stéphanie Dubois (Qualifying Competition)
<li> Laura Pous Tió (First Round)
<li> Maša Zec Peškirič (First Round)
<li> Lilia Osterloh (First Round)
<li> Sesil Karatantcheva (Qualifying Competition)
<li> Anna-Lena Grönefeld (Second Round)
<li> Ekaterina Bychkova (First Round)
<li> Nina Bratchikova (First Round)

Qualifiers

  Akgul Amanmuradova
  Nuria Llagostera Vives
  Monica Niculescu
  Mirjana Lučić
  Sally Peers
  Tamira Paszek
  Mandy Minella
  Lourdes Domínguez Lino

<li> Rebecca Marino
<li> Irina Falconi
<li> Maria Elena Camerin
<li> Zuzana Kučová
<li> Zuzana Ondrášková
<li> Olga Savchuk
<li> Sania Mirza
<li> Michelle Larcher de Brito

Qualifying Draw

First Qualifier

Second Qualifier

Third Qualifier

Fourth Qualifier

Fifth Qualifier

Sixth Qualifier

Seventh Qualifier

Eighth Qualifier

Ninth Qualifier

Tenth Qualifier

Eleventh Qualifier

Twelfth Qualifier

Thirteenth Qualifier

Fourteenth Qualifier

Fifteenth Qualifier

Sixteenth Qualifier

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Women's Singles Qualifying
2010 US Open – Boys' Singles Qualifying

The 2010 US Open Boys' Singles Qualifying stage was a pre-tournament, played by competitors who were not automatically qualified for the main draw.

Seeds

  Diego Sebastian Schwartzman (First Round)
  John Morrissey (First Round)
  Sam Barry (Qualifier)
  Diego Galeano (Qualifying Round)
  Giammarco Micolani (Qualifying Round) (Lucky Loser)
  Libor Salaba (First Round)
  Shane Vinsant (Qualifying Round)
  Julien Cagnina (Qualifier)

<li> Vitor Galvao (First Round, retired)
<li> Augusto Laranja (Qualifying Round)
<li> Karim Hossam (First Round)
<li> Gregoire Barrere (First Round)
<li> Karue Sell (Qualifier)
<li> Tomas Hanzlik (First Round)
<li> Gonzales Austin (First Round)
<li> Sai Kartik Nakireddi (First Round)

Qualifiers

  Bruno Semenzato
  Michael Zhu
  Sam Barry
  Daiki Kondo

<li> Alexios Halebian
<li> Mackenzie McDonald
<li> Karue Sell
<li> Julien Cagnina

Qualifying Draw

First Qualifier

Second Qualifier

Third Qualifier

Fourth Qualifier

Fifth Qualifier

Sixth Qualifier

Seventh Qualifier

Eighth Qualifier

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Boys' Singles Qualifying
2010 US Open – Girls' Singles Qualifying

The 2010 US Open Girls' Singles Qualifying stage was a pre-tournament, played by competitors who were not automatically qualified for the main draw.

Seeds

  Chanelle Van Nguyen (Qualifier)
  Lin Zhu (First Round)
  Sabina Sharipova (Qualifier)
  Klara Fabikova (First Round)
  Risa Ozaki (Qualifier)
  Miyu Kato (Qualifier)
  So-Ra Lee (Qualifying Competition)
  Katerina Popova (First Round)

<li> Gaia Sanesi (Qualifying Competition)
<li> Nour Abbes (First Round)
<li> Rishika Sunkara (First Round)
<li> Robin Anderson (Qualifier)
<li> Melis Sezer (Qualifying Competition)
<li> Lauren Herring (Qualifying Competition)
<li> Zhaoxuan Yang (Qualifying Competition)
<li> Nigina Abduraimova (Qualifier)

Qualifiers

  Chanelle Van Nguyen
  Julia Elbaba
  Sabina Sharipova
  Brooke Austin

<li> Risa Ozaki
<li> Miyu Kato
<li> Nigina Abduraimova
<li> Robin Anderson

Qualifying Draw

First Qualifier

Second Qualifier

Third Qualifier

Fourth Qualifier

Fifth Qualifier

Sixth Qualifier

Seventh Qualifier

Eighth Qualifier

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Girls' Singles Qualifying
2010 US Open – Men's Singles

Juan Martín del Potro was the defending champion, but chose not to compete this year, after a wrist operation in May and only starting to practice again in August.

Rafael Nadal defeated Novak Djokovic 6–4, 5–7, 6–4, 6–2 to win his first US Open title. It was his ninth career major and Nadal completed the Career Golden Slam with the win. Nadal became the first player since Rod Laver in 1969 to win the French Open, Wimbledon, and the US Open all in the same calendar year.

Seeds

 Rafael Nadal (Champion)
 Roger Federer (Semifinals)
 Novak Djokovic (Final)
 Andy Murray (Third Round)
 Robin Söderling (Quarterfinals)
 Nikolay Davydenko (Second Round)
 Tomáš Berdych (First Round)
 Fernando Verdasco (Quarterfinals)
 Andy Roddick (Second Round)
 David Ferrer (Fourth Round)
 Marin Čilić (Second Round)
 Mikhail Youzhny (Semifinals)
 Jürgen Melzer (Fourth Round)
 Nicolás Almagro (Third Round)
 Ivan Ljubičić (First Round)
 Marcos Baghdatis (First Round)

<li> Gaël Monfils (Quarterfinals)
<li> John Isner (Third Round)
<li> Mardy Fish (Fourth Round)
<li> Sam Querrey (Fourth Round)
<li> Albert Montañés (Fourth Round)
<li> Juan Carlos Ferrero (Third Round)
<li> Feliciano López (Fourth Round)
<li> Ernests Gulbis (First Round)
<li> Stanislas Wawrinka (Quarterfinals)
<li> Thomaz Bellucci (Second Round)
<li> Fernando González (First Round, retired due to a knee injury)
<li> Radek Štěpánek (First Round)
<li> Philipp Kohlschreiber (Second Round)
<li> Juan Mónaco (First Round)
<li> David Nalbandian (Third Round)
<li> Lleyton Hewitt (First Round)
<li> Michael Llodra (Third Round)

Main draw

Finals

Top Half

Section 1

Section 2

Section 3

Section 4

Bottom Half

Section 5

Section 6

Section 7

Section 8

Qualifying draw

  Ričardas Berankis
  Rik de Voest
  Ivan Dodig
  Marc Gicquel
  Andreas Haider-Maurer
  Ryan Harrison
  Robert Kendrick
  Martin Kližan
  Dušan Lojda
  Adrian Mannarino
  Kei Nishikori
  Benoît Paire
  Peter Polansky
  Milos Raonic
  Lukáš Rosol
  Júlio Silva

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Men's Singles
2010 US Open – Women's Singles

Kim Clijsters was the defending champion, and successfully defended her 2009 title, after she won 6–2, 6–1, against Vera Zvonareva in the final.

Seeds

 Caroline Wozniacki (Semifinals)
 Kim Clijsters (Champion)
 Venus Williams (Semifinals)
 Jelena Janković (Third Round)
 Samantha Stosur (Quarterfinals)
 Francesca Schiavone (Quarterfinals)
 Vera Zvonareva (Final)
 Li Na (First Round)
 Agnieszka Radwańska (Second Round)
 Victoria Azarenka (Second Round, retired due to concussion)
 Svetlana Kuznetsova (Fourth Round)
 Elena Dementieva (Fourth Round)
 Marion Bartoli (Second Round)
 Maria Sharapova (Fourth Round)
 Yanina Wickmayer (Fourth Round)
 Shahar Pe'er (Fourth Round)

<li> Nadia Petrova (First Round)
<li> Aravane Rezaï (Second Round)
<li> Flavia Pennetta (Third Round)
<li> Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova (Fourth Round)
<li> Zheng Jie (Second Round)
<li> María José Martínez Sánchez (Second Round)
<li> Maria Kirilenko (Third Round)
<li> Daniela Hantuchová (Third Round)
<li> Alexandra Dulgheru (Third Round)
<li> Lucie Šafářová (First Round)
<li> Petra Kvitová (Third Round)
<li> Alisa Kleybanova (Second Round)
<li> Alona Bondarenko (Third Round)
<li> Yaroslava Shvedova (First Round)
<li> Kaia Kanepi (Quarterfinals)
<li> Tsvetana Pironkova (Second Round)

Main draw

Finals

Top Half

Section 1

Section 2

Section 3

Section 4

Bottom Half

Section 5

Section 6

Section 7

Section 8

Qualifying draw

  Akgul Amanmuradova
  Maria Elena Camerin
  Lourdes Domínguez Lino
  Irina Falconi
  Zuzana Kučová
  Michelle Larcher de Brito
  Nuria Llagostera Vives
  Mirjana Lučić
  Rebecca Marino
  Mandy Minella
  Sania Mirza
  Monica Niculescu
  Zuzana Ondrášková
  Tamira Paszek
  Sally Peers
  Olga Savchuk

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Women's Singles
2010 US Open – Men's Doubles

Lukáš Dlouhý and Leander Paes were the defending champions, but lost in the first round to Martin Damm and Filip Polášek 6–7(7), 6–3, 6–4.

Bob and Mike Bryan won in the final 7–6(5), 7–6(4), against Rohan Bopanna and Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi.

Seeds 

  Bob Bryan /  Mike Bryan (Champions)
  Daniel Nestor /  Nenad Zimonjić (Third Round)
  Lukáš Dlouhý /  Leander Paes (First Round)
  Mahesh Bhupathi /  Max Mirnyi (Second Round)
  Łukasz Kubot /  Oliver Marach (Quarterfinals)
  František Čermák /  Michal Mertiňák (First Round)
  Jürgen Melzer /  Philipp Petzschner (First Round)
  Julian Knowle /  Andy Ram (First Round)

<li>  Mariusz Fyrstenberg /  Marcin Matkowski (Quarterfinals)
<li>  Wesley Moodie /  Dick Norman (Quarterfinals)
<li>  Julien Benneteau /  Michaël Llodra (Second Round, withdrew due to both players' injuries in their single matches against Tommy Robredo)
<li>  Marcel Granollers /  Tommy Robredo (Semifinals)
<li>  Robert Lindstedt /  Horia Tecău (Third Round)
<li>  Simon Aspelin /  Paul Hanley (Quarterfinals)
<li>  Mardy Fish /  Mark Knowles (Third Round)
<li>  Rohan Bopanna /  Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi (Final)

Draw

Finals

Top Half

Section 1

Section 2

Bottom Half

Section 3

Section 4

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Men's Doubles
2010 US Open – Women's Doubles

Serena Williams and her sister Venus Williams were the defending champions, but as a result of a foot injury Serena withdrew from the competition.
 
Vania King and Yaroslava Shvedova defeated Liezel Huber and Nadia Petrova, 2–6, 6–4, 7–6(4) in the final.

Seeds 

  Gisela Dulko /  Flavia Pennetta (Quarterfinals)
  Liezel Huber /  Nadia Petrova (Final)
  Nuria Llagostera Vives /  María José Martínez Sánchez (First Round)
  Květa Peschke /  Katarina Srebotnik (Third Round)
  Lisa Raymond /  Rennae Stubbs (Quarterfinals)
  Vania King /  Yaroslava Shvedova (Champions)
  Chan Yung-jan /  Zheng Jie (Semifinals)
  Anabel Medina Garrigues /  Yan Zi (Second Round)

<li>  Cara Black /  Anastasia Rodionova (Semifinals)
<li>  Maria Kirilenko /  Agnieszka Radwańska (Third Round)
<li>  Alisa Kleybanova /  Ekaterina Makarova (Second Round)
<li>  Iveta Benešová /  Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová (Third Round)
<li>  Monica Niculescu /  Shahar Pe'er (Third Round)
<li>  Elena Vesnina /  Vera Zvonareva (Quarterfinals)
<li>  Bethanie Mattek-Sands /  Meghann Shaughnessy (Quarterfinals)
<li>  Hsieh Su-wei /  Peng Shuai (Second Round)

Draw

Finals

Top Half

Section 1

Section 2

Bottom Half

Section 3

Section 4

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Women's Doubles
2010 US Open – Mixed Doubles

Carly Gullickson and Travis Parrott were the defending champions, but lost in the first round to Gisela Dulko and Pablo Cuevas 2–6, 4–6.

Liezel Huber and Bob Bryan won in the final 6–4, 6–4, against Květa Peschke and Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi.

Seeds 

  Liezel Huber /  Bob Bryan (Champions)
  Cara Black /  Leander Paes (Quarterfinals)
  Katarina Srebotnik /  Nenad Zimonjić (Second Round)
  Bethanie Mattek-Sands /  Daniel Nestor (Semifinals)

<li>  Rennae Stubbs /  Dick Norman (First Round)
<li>  Elena Vesnina /  Andy Ram (Second Round)
<li>  Lisa Raymond /  Wesley Moodie (Quarterfinals)
<li>  Vania King /  Horia Tecău (First Round)

Draw

Finals

Top Half

Bottom Half

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Mixed Doubles
Brigadier general

Brigadier general is a rank in the army. He is normally in command of a brigade, about 3,000 men. It is between the rank of major general and colonel.  In the United States, brigadier general is also a rank in the Air Force and Marines and is also called O-7. Brigadier in the British Army is OF-6, and also in NATO. The difference is that NATO classes both first and second lieutenants as OF-1.

Military ranks
 4
Hamilton Smith

Hamilton Othanel Smith (born August 23, 1931) is an American microbiologist and a Nobel prize winner. He was jointly awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. He is a leader in the field of genomics.

Hamilton Smith was, with Craig Venter, a leader in the Celera corporation's bid to analyse and sell information about the human genome. The basic idea was to find ways to make DNA sequencing cheaper so that everyone could have their DNA analysed. Then the information could be used for medical purposes.

Smith's award was for the discovery of restriction enzymes. These are enzymes that cut DNA at specific places. Such enzymes, found in bacteria and archaea, probably evolved to provide a defense mechanism against invading viruses. Inside a bacterial host, the restriction enzymes selectively cut up foreign DNA. Host DNA is modified so it does not get cut up. Together, these two processes are called the restriction modification system. To cut the DNA, a restriction enzyme makes two cuts, once through each sugar-phosphate backbone (i.e. each strand) of the DNA double helix.

References 

1931 births
Living people
American Nobel Prize winners
American microbiologists
Macaroni and cheese

Macaroni and cheese, also known as mac and cheese, macaroni cheese, or macaroni pie, is a dish of macaroni that is covered in a cheese sauce. It can be bought packaged. It is a common food for children in the U.S. It was introduced in America by Thomas Jefferson in 1803. It originated in Italy and originally was a high-class food.

Ingredients 

 Pasta (Usually elbow macaroni)
Milk
Cheese (Usually American cheese)

References

Cheese dishes
Pasta
Cordell Hull

Cordell Hull (October 2, 1871 – July 23, 1955) was an American politician from Tennessee. He was the Secretary of State for 11 years. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1945 for helping make the United Nations.

He was a lawyer in his younger years, and an Army officer in the Spanish–American War. He was a US Representative for over 20 years. He later was appointed to the Democratic National Committee. He then became a US Senator, but resigned because he was appointed Secretary of State. As Secretary he promoted a "good neighbor" policy towards Latin America and help for China in its war against Japan. He resigned from the secretary position when his health failed. He died in 1955 from heart attacks and strokes.

1871 births
1955 deaths
Lawyers from Tennessee
American military personnel of the Spanish-American War
American Nobel Prize winners
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Deaths from stroke
Episcopalians
Military people from Tennessee
United States representatives from Tennessee
United States Secretaries of State
United States senators from Tennessee
US Democratic Party politicians
Penalty (ice hockey)

A penalty in ice hockey is a punishment when a player breaks rules during a game. A referee or a game official will decide the penalty.  Normally it is done by placing the person in a penalty box for a certain amount of time. After that the player can go back into the game. There are several types of penalties. Some are more serious and some are less.

Ice hockey words
2010 US Open – Boys' Singles

The Boys' Singles tournament of the 2010 US Open started on Sunday September 5th, the seventh day of the main tournament.

Bernard Tomic was the defending champion, but was no longer eligible to compete as a Junior this year.

Jack Sock, who received wildcard into the singles main draw, won this tournament, after defeating Denis Kudla in the final.

Seeds

  Juan Sebastián Gómez (First Round)
  Márton Fucsovics (Semifinals)
  Tiago Fernandes (Third Round)
  Jiří Veselý (Quarterfinals)
  Damir Džumhur (Third Round)
  Jason Kubler (First Round)
  Duilio Beretta (Second Round, retired)
  Agustín Velotti (Semifinals)

<li>  James Duckworth (First Round)
<li>  Denis Kudla (Final)
<li>  Renzo Olivo (First Round)
<li>  Máté Zsiga (First Round)
<li>  Victor Baluda (Quarterfinals)
<li>  Dominic Thiem (First Round)
<li>  Roberto Quiroz (First Round)
<li>  Mitchell Frank (Third Round)

Draw

Finals

Top Half

Section 1

Section 2

Bottom Half

Section 3

Section 4

Qualifying draw

  Sam Barry
  Julien Cagnina
  Alexios Halebian
  Daiki Kondo
  Mackenzie McDonald
  Karue Sell
  Bruno Semenzato
  Michael Zhu

The following player received the lucky loser spot:
  Giammarco Micolani

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Boys Singles
2010 US Open – Girls' Singles

Heather Watson was the defending champion, but was no longer eligible to compete as a Junior that year.

Daria Gavrilova won this event, after beating her compatriot Yulia Putintseva 6–3, 6–2 in the final.

Seeds

  Daria Gavrilova (Champion)
  Tímea Babos (Second Round)
  Irina Khromacheva (Second Round)
  Elina Svitolina (Third Round)
  Mónica Puig (Quarterfinals)
  Karolína Plíšková (Quarterfinals)
  Kristýna Plíšková (Second Round)
  Laura Robson (Third Round)

<li>  Gabriela Dabrowski (Third Round)
<li>  Jana Čepelová (Second Round)
<li>  An-Sophie Mestach (First Round)
<li>  Zheng Saisai (First Round)
<li>  Tang Haochen (Third Round)
<li>  Beatrice Capra (withdrew due to fatigue after playing three rounds in the women's singles event)
<li>  Sloane Stephens (Semifinals)
<li>  María-Teresa Torro-Flor (First Round)

Draw

Finals

Top Half

Section 1

Section 2

Bottom Half

Section 3

Section 4

Qualifying draw

  Nigina Abduraimova
  Robin Anderson
  Brooke Austin
  Julia Elbaba
  Miyu Kato
  Risa Ozaki
  Sabina Sharipova
  Chanelle Van Nguyen

The following player received the lucky loser spot:
  Gabrielle Desimone

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Girls Singles
2010 US Open – Boys' Doubles

Márton Fucsovics and Hsieh Cheng-peng were the defending champions, but Hsieh did not enter the junior competition this year. Fucsovics played alongside Máté Zsiga, but the team lost to Guilherme Clézar and Tiago Fernandes in the second round.

Duilio Beretta and Roberto Quiroz defeated Oliver Golding and Jiří Veselý 6–1, 7–5 in the final.

Seeds 

  Márton Fucsovics /  Máté Zsiga (Second Round)
  Renzo Olivo /  Agustín Velotti (First Round)
  Duilio Beretta /  Roberto Quiroz (Champions)
  Oliver Golding /  Jiří Veselý (Final)

<li>  Juan Sebastián Gómez /  Yasutaka Uchiyama (First Round)
<li>  Damir Džumhur /  Mate Pavić (Quarterfinals)
<li>  Denis Kudla /  Raymond Sarmiento (First Round)
<li>  Huang Liang-chi /  Ouyang Bowen (Second Round)

Draw

Finals

Top Half

Bottom Half

Other websites
 Official site of US Open
Boys' Doubles
2010 US Open – Girls' Doubles

Valeria Solovieva and Maryna Zanevska were the defending champions but did not enter the junior competition this year.

Tímea Babos and Sloane Stephens won the title, after their opponents - An-Sophie Mestach and Silvia Njirić withdrew before the final match.

Seeds 

  Daria Gavrilova /  Irina Khromacheva (Semifinals)
  Karolína Plíšková /  Kristýna Plíšková (First Round)
  Tímea Babos /  Sloane Stephens (Champions)
  Caroline Garcia /  Mónica Puig (First Round)

<li>  Jana Čepelová /  Chantal Škamlová (Quarterfinals)
<li>  Verónica Cepede Royg /  Cristina Dinu (Second Round)
<li>  Ons Jabeur /  Yulia Putintseva (Quarterfinals)
<li>  Eugenie Bouchard /  Gabriela Dabrowski (Second Round)

Draw

Finals

Top Half

Bottom Half

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Girls' Doubles
2009 US Open – Men's Singles

Roger Federer was the defending champion, but was defeated by Juan Martín del Potro in the final, 6–3, 6–7(5), 6–4, 6–7(4), 2–6.

Seeds

 Roger Federer (Final, lost to Juan Martín del Potro)
 Andy Murray (Fourth Round, lost to Marin Čilić)
 Rafael Nadal (Semifinals, lost to Juan Martín del Potro)
 Novak Djokovic (Semifinals, lost to Roger Federer)
 Andy Roddick (Third Round, lost to John Isner)
 Juan Martín del Potro (Champion)
 Jo-Wilfried Tsonga (Fourth Round, lost to Fernando González)
 Nikolay Davydenko (Fourth Round, retired - hip injury - against Robin Söderling)
 Gilles Simon (Third Round, retired - knee injury - against Juan Carlos Ferrero)
 Fernando Verdasco (Quarterfinals, lost to Novak Djokovic)
 Fernando González (Quarterfinals, lost to Rafael Nadal)
 Robin Söderling (Quarterfinals, lost to Roger Federer)
 Gaël Monfils (Fourth Round, lost to Rafael Nadal)
 Tommy Robredo (Fourth Round, lost to Roger Federer)
 Radek Štěpánek (Fourth Round, lost to Novak Djokovic)
 Marin Čilić (Quarterfinals, lost to Juan Martín del Potro)

<li>  Tomáš Berdych (Third Round, lost to Fernando González)
<li>  David Ferrer (Second Round, lost to José Acasuso)
<li>  Stanislas Wawrinka (First Round, lost to Nicolás Lapentti)
<li>  Tommy Haas (Third Round, lost to Fernando Verdasco)
<li>  James Blake (Third Round, lost to Tommy Robredo)
<li>  Sam Querrey (Third Round, lost to Robin Söderling)
<li>  Philipp Kohlschreiber (Third Round, lost to Radek Štěpánek)
<li>  Juan Carlos Ferrero (Fourth Round, lost to Juan Martín del Potro)
<li>  Mardy Fish (Withdrew due to rib injury) 
<li>  Paul-Henri Mathieu (First Round, lost to Mikhail Youzhny)
<li>  Ivo Karlović (First Round, lost to Iván Navarro)
<li>  Victor Hănescu (First Round, lost to John Isner)
<li>  Igor Andreev (First Round, lost to Jesse Witten)
<li>  Viktor Troicki (Second Round, lost to Julien Benneteau)
<li>  Lleyton Hewitt (Third Round, lost to Roger Federer)
<li>  Nicolás Almagro (Third Round, lost to Rafael Nadal)

Draw

Finals

Top Half

Section 1

Section 2

Section 3

Section 4

Bottom Half

Section 5

Section 6

Section 7

Section 8

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Men's Singles
2009 US Open – Women's Singles

Kim Clijsters defeated  Caroline Wozniacki in the final 7–5, 6–3. Serena Williams, the defending champion, lost to Clijsters in the semifinals.

Seeds

 Dinara Safina (Third Round)
 Serena Williams (Semifinals)
 Venus Williams (Fourth Round)
 Elena Dementieva (Second Round)
 Jelena Janković (Second Round)
 Svetlana Kuznetsova (Fourth Round)
 Vera Zvonareva (Fourth Round)
 Victoria Azarenka (Third Round)
 Caroline Wozniacki (Final)
 Flavia Pennetta (Quarterfinals)
 Ana Ivanović (First Round)
 Agnieszka Radwańska (Second Round)
 Nadia Petrova (Fourth Round)
 Marion Bartoli (Second Round)
 Samantha Stosur (Second Round)
 Virginie Razzano (First Round)

<li>  Amélie Mauresmo (Second Round)
<li>  Na Li (Quarterfinals)
<li>  Patty Schnyder (Second Round)
<li>  Anabel Medina Garrigues (Second Round)
<li>  Zheng Jie (Third Round)
<li>  Daniela Hantuchová (Fourth Round)
<li>  Sabine Lisicki (Second Round)
<li>  Sorana Cîrstea (Third Round)
<li>  Kaia Kanepi (First Round)
<li>  Francesca Schiavone (Fourth Round)
<li>  Alisa Kleybanova (First Round)
<li>  Sybille Bammer (First Round)
<li>  Maria Sharapova (Third Round)
<li>  Alyona Bondarenko (Second Round)
<li>  Elena Vesnina (Third Round)
<li>  Ágnes Szávay (First Round)

Draw

Finals

Top Half

Section 1

Section 2

Section 3

Section 4

Bottom Half

Section 5

Section 6

Section 7

Section 8

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Women's Singles
2009 US Open – Men's Doubles

Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan were the defending champions, but lost in the semifinals against Lukáš Dlouhý and Leander Paes.

Lukáš Dlouhý and Leander Paes won in the final 3–6, 6–3, 6–2 against Mahesh Bhupathi and Mark Knowles.

Seeds

  Bob Bryan /  Mike Bryan (Semifinals)
  Daniel Nestor /  Nenad Zimonjić (Quarterfinals)
  Mahesh Bhupathi /  Mark Knowles (Final)
 ' Lukáš Dlouhý /  Leander Paes (Champions)
  Max Mirnyi /  Andy Ram (Semifinals)
  Mariusz Fyrstenberg /  Marcin Matkowski (First Round)
  Wesley Moodie /  Dick Norman (Quarterfinals)
  Bruno Soares /  Kevin Ullyett (Second Round)

<li>  Łukasz Kubot /  Oliver Marach (First Round)
<li>  František Čermák /  Michal Mertiňák (Second Round)
<li>  Martin Damm /  Robert Lindstedt (Third Round)
<li>  Simon Aspelin /  Paul Hanley (First Round)
<li>  Travis Parrott /  Filip Polášek (First Round)
<li>  Ashley Fisher /  Jordan Kerr (First Round)
<li>  Stephen Huss /  Ross Hutchins (First Round)
<li>  Marcelo Melo /  André Sá (Second Round)

Draw

Finals

Top Half

Section 1

Section 2

Bottom Half

Section 3

Section 4

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Men's Doubles
2009 US Open – Women's Doubles

Cara Black and Liezel Huber were the defending champions, but Serena Williams and Venus Williams defeated them in the final 6–2, 6–2.

Seeds 

  Cara Black /  Liezel Huber (Final)
  Anabel Medina Garrigues /  Virginia Ruano Pascual (Third Round)
  Samantha Stosur /  Rennae Stubbs (Semifinals)
  Serena Williams /  Venus Williams (Champions)
  Daniela Hantuchová /  Ai Sugiyama (Third Round)
  Nuria Llagostera Vives /  María José Martínez Sánchez (Quarterfinals)
  Su-Wei Hsieh /  Peng Shuai (Second Round)
  Bethanie Mattek-Sands /  Nadia Petrova (Quarterfinals)

<li>  Anna-Lena Grönefeld /  Patty Schnyder (Third Round)
<li>  Maria Kirilenko /  Elena Vesnina (Quarterfinals)
<li>  Zi Yan /  Zheng Jie (Quarterfinals)
<li>  Vania King /  Monica Niculescu (Third Round)
<li>  Alisa Kleybanova /  Ekaterina Makarova (Semifnals)
<li>  Sania Mirza /  Francesca Schiavone (Second Round)
<li>  Raquel Kops-Jones /  Abigail Spears (First Round)
<li>  Victoria Azarenka /  Vera Zvonareva (Second Round)

Draw

Finals

Top Half

Section 1

Section 2

Bottom Half

Section 3

Section 4

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Women's Doubles
2009 US Open – Boys' Singles

Bernard Tomic won in the final 6-1, 6-3 against Chase Buchanan.

Seeds

  Yuki Bhambri (Quarterfinals)
  Daniel Berta (First Round)
  Bernard Tomic (Champion)
  Liang-Chi Huang (First Round)
  Agustín Velotti (First Round)
  Yong-Kyu Lim (Second Round)
  Andrea Collarini (Third Round)
  Gianni Mina(Semifinals)

<li>  Shuichi Sekiguchi (First Round)
<li>  Facundo Argüello (First Round)
<li>  Kevin Krawietz (First Round)
<li>  Julien Obry (Second Round)
<li>  Julen Urigüen (First Round)
<li>  David Souto (First Round)
<li>  Dominik Schulz (Second Round)
<li>  Denis Kudla(Quarterfinals)

Draw

Finals

Top Half

Section 1

Section 2

Bottom Half

Section 3

Section 4

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Boys Singles
2009 US Open – Girls' Singles

Heather Watson won in the final 6–4, 6–1 against Yana Buchina.

Seeds

  Kristina Mladenovic (First Round)
  Noppawan Lertcheewakarn (Quarterfinals)
  Tímea Babos (Second Round)
  Sloane Stephens (Third Round)
  Ajla Tomljanović (Second Round)
  Silvia Njirić (Third Round)
  Lauren Embree (Second Round)
  Christina McHale (Withdrew)

<li>  Daria Gavrilova (Semifinals)
<li>  Richel Hogenkamp (Third Round)
<li>  Heather Watson (Champion)
<li>  Tamaryn Hendler (Third Round)
<li>  Miyabi Inoue (First Round)
<li>  Jana Cepelova (Quarterfinals)
<li>  Ulrikke Eikeri (Third Round)
<li>  Beatrice Capra (Quarterfinals)

Draw

Finals

Top Half

Section 1

Section 2

Bottom Half

Section 3

Section 4

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Girls Singles
2009 US Open – Wheelchair Women's Singles

Esther Vergeer won in the final 6-0, 6-0 against Korie Homan.

Seeds
 Esther Vergeer (Champion)
 Korie Homan (Final)

Draw

Finals

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Wheelchair Women's Singles
2009 US Open – Wheelchair Men's Doubles

Stephane Houdet and Stefan Olsson won in the final 6–4, 4–6, 6–4 against Maikel Scheffers and Ronald Vink.

Seeds
 Stephane Houdet /  Stefan Olsson (Champions)
 Maikel Scheffers /  Ronald Vink (Final)

Doubles

Finals

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Wheelchair Men's Doubles
2009 US Open – Wheelchair Quad Singles

Peter Norfolk won in the final 6–6, 3–6, 6–3, against David Wagner.

Draw

Final

Round Robin

Standings are determined by:
Number of wins
Number of matches
Head-to-head records
Percentage of sets won, or of games won
Steering Committee decision.

Other websites
 Official site of US Open

Wheelchair Quad Singles
2010 ATP World Tour

The Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) World Tour is the number one tier tennis tour for men's tennis competition. The 2010 ATP World Tour calendar cosists of Grand Slam tournaments (organised by the International Tennis Federation (ITF)), the ATP World Tour Masters 1000, the ATP World Tour 500 series, the ATP World Tour 250 series, the ATP World Team Championship, the Davis Cup (organized by the ITF), and the ATP World Tour Finals. Also included in the 2010 calendar is the Hopman Cup, which does not distribute ranking points, and is organised by the ITF.

Schedule

Key

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

Other websites
Official website of the Association of Tennis Professionals

ATP World Tour
ATP seasons
Rectus abdominis muscle

The rectus abdominis muscle is a muscle in the human body. It is commonly referred to as "Abs". It is a paired muscle that runs vertically from the lower chest to the pubic region people usually try to put stress to make it look as if they have huge abs and they help us run.

Muscles

fi:Vatsalihakset#Suorat vatsalihakset
Commander

Commander is a rank of naval officer. It may also be used as a general term for a leader.

Commander as a naval rank 
Commander is a rank used in many navies and some air forces. It is rarely used as a rank in armies, except in special forces for a team leader.  

The title (originally "Master and Commander") originated in the 18th century Royal Navy for naval officers who commanded ships of war too large to be commanded by a Lieutenant but too small to warrant the assignment of a Post-captain. 

In practice, these were usually unrated sloops-of-war of no more than 20 guns. The Royal Navy shortened "Master and Commander" to "Commander" in 1794; however, the term "Master and Commander" remained in common use for many years. A corresponding rank in some navies is frigate captain. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the rank has been assigned the NATO rank code of OF-4.

Royal Navy 

A Commander in the Royal Navy is above the rank of Lieutenant-Commander, below the rank of Captain. It is equivalent in rank to a Lieutenant Colonel in the British Army and Wing Commander in the Royal Air Force. A Commander may command a frigate, destroyer, submarine, aviation squadron or shore installation, or may serve on a staff.

Related pages 
Commander-in-Chief
Captain
Lieutenant

References 

Military ranks
Royal Navy
Federalist Papers

The Federalist Papers were a series of essays about the United States Constitution. In total, there were 85 articles, 77 of them appeared in newspapers between October of 1787 and August 1788. Many talked about how the Constitution would solve America's political problems.  Most of them were published in newspapers in New York and Virginia, states where it was not clear whether or not the Constitution would pass (it did).  Most were written by Alexander Hamilton or James Madison, though a few were written by John Jay.  

One of the most famous of the Papers is Federalist No. 10.  It was written by Madison and says that the Constitution would keep the United States from being run by small groups called "factions". The collection of all papers was also published as a book. 

The papers were published using a false name, Publius. This name was used in reference to Publius Valerius Publicola, a Roman Consul and one of the aristocrats who overthrew the Roman Kingdom in the 5th century BC. 

The papers are often thought of as one of the most important works of American political thought.  Sometimes they are used by Supreme Court justices to try to say what the founders were thinking.

Other websites 

 The Federalist Papers, original 1788 printing 

 National Archives on The Federalist
 The Federalist Papers on the Bill of Rights
 Teaching The Federalist Papers
 Booknotes interview with Robert Scigliano on Scigliano's Modern Library edition of The Federalist Papers, January 21, 2001.
 Collection of The Federalist Papers
 EDSITEment on The Federalist and Anti-Federalist debates on diversity and the extended republic
 
 

Democracy
United States Constitution
1788 works
1787 in the United States
1788 in the United States