cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
List of planets

This is a list of two types of planets: standard planets and dwarf planets, in the Solar System.

Planets in the Solar System 
 Terrestrial planets
Mercury – The planet with the second highest temperature in the Solar System and the closest planet to the Sun.
 Venus – The warmest planet. Sometimes called "Earth's twin" because Venus and Earth are very similar.
 Earth – The only planet that is known to have life. It has one natural satellite, the Moon.
 Mars – Sometimes called the "red planet" and "the brother of Earth".
 Phaeton or Astra – a planet that some think broke apart to form the asteroid belt, though most astronomers think it never formed.

 Gas giants
Jupiter – The largest planet in the Solar System.
 Saturn – Sixth planet from the Sun. It has giant rings around it.
 Uranus - Seventh planet from the Sun. It has 11 rings around it.
 Neptune – The farthest planet that we know from the Sun.

Other 
 Pluto – the smallest planet, Pluto is now considered a "Dwarf planet" by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) since August 24, 2006.  
 Theia – Hypothetical planet which some think crashed into Earth, and created the Moon.
 Planet Nine – a hypothetical planet beyond Neptune. It has not been found, but some astronomers think its gravity pulls on the orbits of many dwarf planets.  It is thought to be a gas giant.

Dwarf planets 
 Ceres is the largest asteroid (not mentioning plutinos) in the Solar System's main asteroid belt.
 Haumea is shaped like an egg.
 Makemake crosses paths with Eris.
 Eris follows the most elliptical path of any planet.

Exoplanets

Definition of a planet

Technically, there was never a scientific definition of the term planet before 2006. When the Greeks observed the sky thousands of years ago, they discovered objects that acted differently than stars. These points of light seemed to wander around the sky throughout the year. The term "planet" is derived from the Greek word "planetes" - meaning wanderer.

In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) convened a Planet Definition Committee, deliberated, and ultimately reached consensus on a new definition of planet which leaves us with the eight planets we today consider to comprise the Solar System (thus the exit of Pluto).  That new definition: " A “planet” is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit [meaning: 'there are no other bodies in its path that it must sweep up as it goes around the Sun'.]"

Astronomy lists
List of nearest galaxies

This list of the nearest galaxies to Earth is ordered by increasing distance. Many of the distances are only estimates, and some may be incorrect by 50% or more. The distance ranking in this list should be seen only as a guess. Distances are given in light years (ly).

The nearest galaxies (ranked) 
Milky Way – home galaxy of Earth
Canis Major dwarf  25,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Segue 1 – 75,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Sag DEG – 81,000 ly (satellite or part of Milky Way)
Large Magellanic Cloud – 160,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Small Magellanic Cloud – 190,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Ursa Minor dwarf – 205,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Draco dwarf – 248,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Sculptor dwarf – 254,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Sextans dwarf – 257,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Carina dwarf – 283,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Fornax dwarf – 427,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Leo II – 701,000 ly
Leo I – 890,000 ly
Phoenix dwarf – 1,271,000 ly
Barnard's galaxy (NGC 6822) – 1,760,000 ly
NGC185 – 2,021,000 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
NGC147 – 2,152,000 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
Andromeda galaxy (M31) – 2,363,000 ly
Messier 32 (NGS 221) – 2,650,000 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
M110 (NGC 205) – 2,363,500 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
Andromeda I – 2,363,500 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
Andromeda II – 2,363,500 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
Andromeda III – 2,363,500 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
LGS 3 – 2,477,500 ly (satellite of Triangulum)
IC 1613 – 2,494,000 ly
Triangulum galaxy (M33) – 2,592,000 ly
Aquarius dwarf – 2,608,000 ly
Tucana dwarf – 2,836,000 ly
Wolf-Lundmark-Melotte (WLM) – 3,064,500 ly

Related pages 
Galaxy
List of galaxies
Local Group
Most distant things
IC 1101: the largest known galaxy, with about 100 trillion stars.

References 

Astronomy lists
List of water sports

Many sports are played in water.
The following is a list of water sports, divided by category. This list is not complete. Some of the sports include only one part related to swimming, as for example Triathlon.

In the water (13)
Swimming
Triathlon - Usually a combination of swimming, cycling and running
Modern pentathlon includes épée fencing, pistol shooting, swimming, a show jumping course on horseback, and a cross-country run.
Rescue swimming - Swimming with the goal to rescue other swimmers or the practice thereof.
Surf lifesaving - A competitive sport which evolved from the training activities of lifeguards at Australian surf beaches.
Water polo - A team ball sport played in water.
Synchronized swimming - A hybrid of swimming, gymnastics, and ballett.
Fin swimming - Swimming with fins
Water aerobics - Aerobics in the water
Water gymnastics - Gymnastics in the water
Snorkeling - The practice of swimming at the surface (typically of the sea) with a mask and a short tube called a snorkel.
Diving off springboards or off platforms
A water slide  - A slide with water flowing down it

Underwater water (6)
Diving
Scuba diving - Swimming under water using a (self contained) breathing apparatus
Free-diving - The aim to maximize the depth dived using no breathing apparatus
Apnea - The practice of not breathing for extended times.
Underwater rugby - Rugby played under water with a ball that has been rendered neutrally buoyant. Surfacing to breathe is only allowed without the ball.
Underwater hockey - Hockey played under water with short wooden curved sticks and a heavy puck. Players wear diving masks, snorkels, and fins, and must surface to breathe while team mates continue the game on the pool bottom.

Near the water (20)
Boating - The use of boats
Bodyboarding - Similar to surfing, but the board is smaller and the person lies down on the board
Canoeing
Canoe Polo - Polo using a canoe
Dragon Boat Racing - A team paddling sport on water
Fishing - The recreation and sport of catching fish
Hydroplane racing
Jet sprint boat racing
Kayaking
Kite surfing - on flat water using a kite for propulsion
Motor boating
Offshore powerboat racing
Parasailing - A person is towed behind a vehicle (usually a boat) while attached to a parachute
Rowing - Propels a boat by means of oars
Sailing - Using the wind for propulsion
Surfing - The sport or pastime of riding a wave towards the shore while standing or lying on a surfboard.
Wakeboarding - Similar to water skiing, but using only one board attached to the feet
Wake skating - Similar to wakeboarding, but the board is NOT attached to the feet
Water skiing - Using skis to slide over the water while being pulled by a boat or other device
Wind surfing - On flat water using wind for propulsion in combination with sails

Overall, there are a total of 39 water sports.

Sports lists
Tony Blair

Sir Anthony Charles Lynton "Tony" Blair (born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007. He was Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007 and Member of Parliament (MP) for Sedgefield from 1983 to 2007. On the day he stood down as Prime Minister and MP, he was made official Envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East on behalf of the United Nations, the European Union, the United States and Russia.

Blair was elected Leader of the Labour Party in the 1994 leadership election following the sudden death of his predecessor, John Smith. Under Blair's leadership the party abandoned many policies it had held for decades. Labour won a landslide victory in the 1997 general election, which ended 18 years of Conservative rule with the heaviest Conservative defeat since 1832.

He was the Labour Party's longest-serving Prime Minister and the only leader to have taken the party to three uninterrupted general election victories.

Gordon Brown, Chancellor of the Exchequer during all Blair's ten years in office, succeeded him as party leader and Prime Minister in 2007.

Early life
Blair was born at Queen Mary Maternity Home in Edinburgh on 6 May 1953. He was the second son of Leo and Hazel Blair. Blair joined the Labour Party in 1975.

Career
Blair was a lawyer before becoming a politician. He married Cherie Booth, also a lawyer, who graduated from the London School of Economics with a first-class honours degree. Blair himself left Oxford University with a second-class degree. They have four children: Euan, Nicky, Kathryn, and Leo. There was a controversy over Blair sending Euan to a grant-maintained school. As a result of this, Alastair Campbell discovered Blair "standing stark naked reading the Daily Mail."

As Prime Minister
As Leader of the Labour Party, he won the 1997, 2001 and 2005 UK general elections. Blair is the first and only Labour Party leader to have won three general elections in a row.

He attributes his success in politics to a pair of "lucky brogues", which he wore for every single Prime Minister's Questions of his leadership. He claimed that "cheap shoes are a false economy".

After-PM
On the day of his resignation, Blair was made an official envoy in the Middle East. In 2004, he started the Commission for Africa. He continued work as a commissioner after his service as Prime Minister ended.

In December 2021, Queen Elizabeth II honored Blair with the Order of the Garter.

References

Other websites
 

1953 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Oxford
British Roman Catholics
British autobiographers
Former Labour Party (UK) MPs
Former members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Leaders of the Labour Party (UK)
Leaders of the Opposition (United Kingdom)
Politicians from Edinburgh
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
Accident

An accident is when something goes wrong when it is not meant to. Physical accidents are things like collisions, injuries, and falling. Non-physical accidents are things like accidentally telling someone a secret, forgetting something important, or deleting an important computer file.

Road accidents kill thousands of people each month in the United States, and thousands each week in the world. They injure more thousands each week. The majority involve a car but there are also many bus, truck and bicycle accidents. Aircraft crashes, ship sinkings and other transport accidents also attract much attention. 

Injuries from accidents, however, are more numerous at home than elsewhere. They attract less attention because only a few people are hurt at a time.  

Often, accidents are investigated so that we can learn how to avoid them in the future. Sometimes by studying an accident we can discover new things, for example penicillin.

Most of the deaths resulting from injuries are caused by fire accidents. Thus, accidental fires are one of the leading causes of unintentional deaths.  The main cause of death in fire incidents is burning, but inhalation of smoke and toxic gas causes death as well. Often the cause of the fire is very simple and unexpected, such as forgetting a candle near something flammable, defect in the hardware, or old electrical wires. So most of the large fires are caused by simple reasons.

Work accidents 
Industrial accidents such as mine cave-ins and the West Gate Bridge collapse also kill and maim many workers. The Bhopal disaster killed thousands, mostly not workers. 

An accident at work is defined as an external, sudden and violent event. Work accidents happen while an someone is working. It may cause the injury or death of the worker or someone else.  For an accident to be a work accident, there must be a direct or indirect relationship of cause and effect between the accident and the work.

Many construction workers are injured.  There are multiple reasons for that, but the main  reason is working on the edge of high buildings without using a safety belt. Thus, you have to follow the safety rules when you are working on these places.

Chemical accidents can happen in a laboratory.  Especially, some students make chemical mistakes that injure them seriously.

References 

Health
Stone Age

The Stone Age was a prehistoric time when people made tools from stone. It began when people created the first stone tools about 3.3 million years ago.  About 99% of human history happened during the Stone Age. It lasted for about 3.4 million years, and ended between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC. 

Stone Age people also made tools out of wood and bone. However, these materials do not last as long as stone. For this reason, most of the Stone Age tools archaeologists have found are made of stone.

Archaeologists divide the Stone Age into three sections: Paleolithic ("old stone"), Mesolithic ("middle stone"), and Neolithic ("new stone").  During the Neolithic period, people invented farming and pottery, and started to care for animals like cows and pigs.

Sometime between 3000 BC and 2000 BC, people discovered the art of smelting (making metals). This probably happened in the Middle East. People used copper first, then learned how to make bronze. When people started using these metals instead of stone, the Stone Age ended and the Bronze Age began.

Some groups of people in Papua New Guinea continued to use Stone Age technology into the 20th century. They used stone-tipped weapons to kill animals for food and clothing. They made shelters using animal skin.

References
Virgil

Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 70 BC21 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was a poet in the Latin language. His poems are about gods and their mythology.  Virgil's most famous epic poem is called the Aeneid.

Life 
Tradition is that Virgil was born in the village of Andes, near Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul. Scholars looking at the way he used words think that he may have Etruscan, Umbrian or even a Celtic background. Study of his name has led to beliefs that his family may have been earlier Roman settlers. These modern beliefs are not supported by evidence from his own writings or from writers of his biographies. Some scholars have noted that his nickname, MARO, is an anagram of the two main themes in the Aeneid: AMOR (love) and ROMA (Rome).

References 

70 BC births
19 BC deaths
Ancient Roman writers
Anarchy

Anarchy (From Greek αναρχια meaning "without a leader") is a word that has more than one meaning. Some of its meanings are:
 When there is no leader, or when nobody has power over everyone (used just in the anarchist movement).
 When there is no political order, and there is confusion (used often from mass media)
 When people do not have any reason to work together, or do not have anything that makes them feel like a group.

In the first meaning listed, an anarchy might be a made-up or real society based on a group's beliefs about anarchism (see anarcho-communism).

In the second meaning listed, "anarchy" has to do with having no political order. The CIA World factbook  says that there is only one nation, Somalia, that is in a state of anarchy. In Somalia, the government is no longer in control, and some parts of the country are ruled by mobs and warlords who sometimes fight one another.

There are some countries (Afghanistan, Albania, Burundi, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Rwanda) where government is "emerging" or "transitional", and were in civil unrest in the near past. The DC  says that the Solomon Islands is moving towards civil unrest because "violence, corruption and crime have undermined stability and civil society".

When there is no political order, more than one government or political authority might sometimes compete for the same food, oil, land, or groups of people. The word "Anarchy" to used to describe this. However, because there is more than one competing authority, a better word might be polyarchy. The difference between "anarchy" and "polyarchy" is important to someone who thinks that true anarchy would work well. The word for someone who thinks this is "anarchist", and the word for this kind of thinking is "anarchism". Anarchism has been thought about for hundreds of years. The book called "The Politics of Individualism" attempts to teach its readers that anarchism is not always simply an opposition to the government, but a complicated political movement against the domination of few people.

Other uses of the word 
Anarchy which follows the death of a ruler and ceases when his successor rises to power, is called interregnum (literally: "in-between rules").

(Another use of the word “Anarchy” is when it is said as “The Anarchy”. This is the name that is sometimes given to the civil war and unsettled government in England when Stephen of England was King.)

References

 
Economic systems
Society
Shinto

Shinto () is a form of Japanese animism. It has many kami, translated as gods or nature spirits. Some "kami" are just spirits of certain places, and some are the overall "kami" (like "Amaterasu", the Sun goddess). The word "Shinto" comes from the Japanese words "", shin—the word for spirit or god, and "", tō—the word for "the way" or "path". So, Shinto means "the way of the gods." 

State Shinto was the main religion of Japan before World War II. During the period 1868 to 1945 the Japanese government used Shinto for propaganda. All Japanese were forced to register with their local shrine. All Shinto priests worked for the government. War was seen as a sacred duty. The Emperor of Japan was seen as a god. Japanese Buddhism was also involved with the war effort (See Zen at War).

Shinto has many rituals and customs, and some are done every day. Festivals are frequent. Some people mix Shinto and Buddhist rituals and beliefs. 

 Although Jinja-Honcho manages almost all shrines, some, such as Yasukuni, are run separately.

 Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess, is seen as the holiest of all Shinto kami. Her shrine is in Ise, Japan.

Other page 
Shinto shrine

Other websites 
 Kokugakuin University Encylopedia of Shinto
Colonization

Colonization is the act of one country settling another place, in order to become the new rulers of the new country, and to live in the new country. An early example is the settlers who went from the cities of Ancient Greece to start new cities.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in The Americas.  This is how the Europeans learned that North America and South America were there.  The Europeans colonized the Americas.  Because of this, and the killing of many Native Americans, most people now living in North America are the descendents of Europeans.

Sometimes, science fiction stories talk about space colonization on space stations or planets other than Earth.  Some science fiction stories like The Matrix speak of the robots the human beings made, taking over, and colonizing Earth.

Related pages
Colony

Politics
Dry cell

Dry cells are a type of chemical cells. Dry cells are commonly used today in the form of batteries. Dry cells are used in many electrical appliances.

Types of dry cells
Primary cells
Zinc-carbon cells, also known as Leclanche cells
Alkaline cells
Lithium cells
Mercury cells
Silver oxide cell
Secondary cells
Nickel-cadmium cell
Lithium-ion cell
Nickel metal-hydride cell

Primary cells are not rechargeable. They have to be thrown away after their chemicals are used.

Secondary cells are rechargeable. They can be used again.

Related pages
Battery
Rechargeable battery
Table of batteries

References

Electronics
Physical chemistry
Batteries
Sahel

The Sahel is a narrow belt of land in North Africa. It is a strip of land about 5500 kilometers long and 450 kilometres wide. It lies at the southern edge of the Sahara Desert 

The Sahel has a tropical semi-arid climate. It is between the dry desert land to the north and the forest areas to the south. The temperature is high throughout the year. There is little rainfall in the Sahel (between 100-150 mm and 600mm). It comes during summer months and may be unreliable. It may be very dry in some years, especially if a large area of low pressure, which brings rain, is not carried North over the Sahel by strong winds.

The Sahel is the Arabic word for 'edge' or 'shore'.

The Sahel is facing a big problem, desertification.
The distribution of rainfall in the Sahel region is uneven. The rainfall in the region has been below average since 1970. The Sahel is becoming drier on the whole. The problem of drought affects most of the countries in the Sahel. As a result, crops and animals die. There is no vegetation to protect the soil, which is then removed by flash floods and strong wind. This leads to soil erosion. Finally, the desert spreads towards the surrounding areas.

With better medical services, the birth rate increases and the death rate decreases in the Sahel. As a result, the population in the Sahel is growing. To meet the ever-increasing demand for firewood, a lot of trees have been cut down. More land has become barren. This is called deforestation. 

Furthermore, people farm intensively in order to grow more crops, the soil becomes infertile with a lack of nutrients. If this process continues for a long time, no crops can be grown. This is called overcultivation. 

People keep animals for food due to the lack of good soil, the animals will have to eat grass and etc. But as the animals eat the grass, they also dug up the soil. As people keep too many animals, the demand for grass is too great. Soil erosion is caused while the animals keep digging the soil up as they eat, and the wind and rain blow away the soil. This process is called overgrazing. 

Modern solutions can be used to give a better agricultural result in the Sahel. We can try drip irrigation or hybrid. We should stop using excessive water and consider our actions, to save the Sahel and lake Chad before it is too late.

References 

Geography of Africa
Biomes
Global

Global is a prefix which means that it applies to the entire world rather than any special place or people.

It is used to mean "universal".

Geography

da:Global
de:Global
en:Global
sv:Global
Marco Polo

Marco Polo was born in 1254 and died on January 8,1324. He was an Italian trader and explorer. He was one of the first Europeans to explore Central Asia and East Asia. Many other explorers, including Christopher Columbus, looked up to him. He could speak four languages.

Marco Polo was known for the book, Travels of Marco Polo, where he talked about Asia.

Early life 
Marco Polo  was born in Venice, one of the most successful trading cities. Polo's mother died when he was very young and he was raised by his aunt and uncle.  His father and uncle returned from their Silk Road travels when Marco was about 15 years old.  Two years later, the three of them started their journey to Cathay (China).  His family were well-known merchants, not explorers.  He learned about writing, reading, and arithmetic, and how to do business.

Travels 
Polo went on a 24-year trip to China with his father and uncle during the Mongol Dynasty. He left Venice at the age of 17 on a boat that went through the Mediterranean Sea, Ayas, Tabriz and Kerman. Then he travelled across Asia getting as far as Beijing. On the way there he had to go over mountains and through terrible deserts, across hot burning lands and places where the cold was horrible. He served in Kublai Khan's court for 17 years. He left the Far East and returned to Venice by sea. There was sickness on board and 600 passengers and crew died and some say pirates attacked. Nevertheless, Marco Polo survived it all.

Some scholars believe that while Marco Polo did go to China, he did not go to all of the other places described in his book.  He brought noodles back from China and the Italians invented different sizes and shapes and called it pasta.  Polo returned to Venice with treasures like ivory, jade, jewels, porcelain and silk.

His father had borrowed money and bought a ship.  He became wealthy because of his trading in the East.  His nickname was Marco Il Milione, due to an ancestor of his called Emilione.

"Travels of Marco Polo" 
Soon after Polo returned from his journeys he fought in a war against Genoa, got captured and put in prison. When he was in prison, he became friendly with a fellow prisoner, Rusticello, who was a writer of romances and novels. He told the writer about all his adventures, which became a book called The Travels of Marco Polo. The published version was written by Rustichello da Pisa, based on what Polo had told him. It became famous throughout Europe. In the book he said that Kublai Khan's wealthy new empire had a postal system.  He also talked about the Chinese people.  China used paper money that was made from mulberry bark.

References 

1254 births
1324 deaths
Italian explorers
European geographers
People from Venice
Herpes zoster

Herpes zoster (also known as shingles or zona) is a disease in humans.  The same virus that causes chickenpox also causes shingles. The symptoms are pain and a rash with blisters. The shingles vaccine reduces the risk of shingles. Antivirus medicine can reduce the seriousness and duration of shingles if started within 3 days of the rash.

General information 
Shingles is a viral disease produced by the varicella zoster virus (VZV), the same virus that causes chicken pox. Its symptoms include pain and a blistering rash that occurs along the nerves that contain dormant virus. You can not catch shingles. However, you can catch chicken pox through direct contact with someone who has shingles, by touching the area of the rash. Most people who get shingles are old.  It sometimes infects younger people, or people with a weakened immune system.  Stress may trigger shingles.  The disease starts with tingling, itchiness, or pain on an infected person's skin.  After a few days, the disease causes a blistering rash.  This rash may be on the trunk or face.  The rash  grows into small blisters filled with fluid.  These blisters dry out and crust over for several days.  The rash causes anything from mild itching to extreme pain.  The rash stays in one region of the body.

The shingles virus is contagious from person to person only by direct contact.  For this reason, persons with shingles are advised to limit contact with those who are not immune to chicken pox, those with increased risk are young children and pregnant women.  Contracting chickenpox when one is pregnant can be dangerous to the unborn child.

If people have had chickenpox, they cannot get chickenpox from someone else again.  However, it is thought that contact with a shingles patient may trigger a person's own dormant chickenpox virus to become shingles.

Treatment 
Doctors recommend antiviral drugs, steroids, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, and topical agents to treat shingles.  The antiviral drugs acyclovir, valacyclovir, and famcyclovir can reduce the severity of shingles.

Prognosis 
Shingles can be very painful and itchy.  It is not very dangerous to healthy people, and it usually ends without major problems. The rash and pain last 3 to 5 weeks. Sometimes, serious problems like temporary, partial facial paralysis, ear damage, or
encephalitis may occur. Persons with shingles on the upper half of the face need immediate medical attention: the virus may cause serious damage to the eyes. Most people who have shingles have only one attack of the disease in their lifetime. However, people with AIDS, cancer or weak immune systems may have multiple attacks.

References

Other websites 
 NIH Facts About Shingles
 NINDS Shingles Information Page

Diseases caused by viruses
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (22 February 1857 – 1 January 1894) was a German physicist. In 1888 he discovered the radio waves previously predicted by Maxwell's equations. He also proved that light is a kind of electromagnetic waves. The unit for frequency is named after him.

Hertz was born in Hamburg in 1857. He studied engineering in Frankfurt and later at the University of Munich. He completed his PhD at the University of Berlin. He taught and continued research at the University of Bonn and University of Kiel.

He died from blood poisoning in 1894.

References

Other websites

1857 births
1894 deaths
German academics
German physicists
People from Hamburg
1869



Events 
 The Periodic table was developed.

Births 
 January 1 – Sigma Nu, First Anti-Hazing Honor/Social Fraternity
 January 4 – Tommy Corcoran, baseball player
 January 10 – Grigori Rasputin, Russian mystic
 January 15 – Stanisław Wyspiański, Polish dramatist, poet, painter, and architect
 February 11 – Helene Kroller-Muller, Dutch museum founder and patron of the arts
 February 14 – Charles Wilson, Scottish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
 March 3 – Michael von Faulhaber, German cardinal and archbishop
 March 12 – George William Forbes, New Zealand Prime Minister and first leader of the New Zealand National Party
 March 14 – Algernon Blackwood, English writer
 March 18 – Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
 April 2 – Hughie Jennings, baseball player
 April 5,6 – Tom Adam, Named number one in the world
 April 11 – Gustav Vigeland, Norwegian sculptor
 April 27 – May Moss, Activist
 May 5 – Hans Pfitzner, German composer
 May 20 – John Stone Stone, American physicist and inventor
 June 27 – Hans Spemann, German embryologist, won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
 August 10 – Lawrence Binyon, English poet and scholar
 September 3 – Fritz Pregl, Austrian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
 September 17 – Christian Lous Lange, Norwegian pacifist, won the Nobel Peace Prize
 September 21 - Carlo Airoldi, Italian marathon runner
 September 23 – Mary Mallon, "Typhoid Mary"
 October 2 – Mahatma Gandhi, Indian political leader, Father of the Nation
 October 25 – John Heisman, American football coach
 November 11 – Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, King)
 November 25 – Herbert Greenfield, Premier of Alberta, Canada
 December 16 – Hristo Tatarchev, Bulgarian revolutionary, leader of the revolutionary movement in Macedonia and Eastern Thrace
 December 22 – Edwin Arlington Robinson, American poet
 December 30 – Stephen Leacock, British-Canadian writer and economist
 December 31 – Henri Matisse, French painter

Deaths 
 July 18 – Laurent Clerc, co-founder of the first American school for the deaf.
 January 1 – Martin W. Bates, U.S. Senator from Delaware (b. 1786)
 January 30 – William Carleton, Irish novelist (b. 1794)
 February 15 – Mirza Ghalib, poet of Urdu (b. 1796).
 March 8 – Hector Berlioz, French composer (b. 1803)
 March 24 – Antoine-Henri Jomini, French general (b. 1779)
 April 20 – Carl Loewe, German composer (b. 1796)
 June 16 – Charles Sturt, Australian explorer (b. 1795)
 June 20 – Hijikata Toshizou, Japanese military commander (b. 1835)
 August 31 – Mary Ward (scientist), first car accident victim
 September 12 – Peter Roget, British lexicographer (b. 1779)
 October 13 – Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, French literary critic (b. 1804)
 October 23 – Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1799)
 December 18 – Louis Moreau Gottschalk, American composer and pianist (b. 1829)

Hit songs 
 "Little Brown Jug" by R.E. Eastburn
 "Now the Day is Over" by Joseph Barnby
 "Shoo, Fly! Don't Bother Me!" by T. Bringham Bishop
 "Sweet Genevieve" by Henry Tucker
1619



Event 
 Johannes Kepler proposes his three laws of planetary motion.
1822



Events 
  André-Marie Ampère discovered the attraction between current-carrying wires.
  The law of electric current and magnetic field was developed.
1824



Events 
 Heat was discovered to be transferred from hot to cold objects.
 Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals founded.
 Brauerei C & A Veltins brewery founded
 Thomas Jefferson University founded
1827



Events 
 People see individual particles of water move.

Births 
 February 5 – Peter Lalor, leader of miners rebellion at Eureka Stockade, Ballarat, Australia

Deaths 
 March 26 – Ludwig van Beethoven

New Books 
 Book of Songs  (poetry) – Heinrich Heine
 Herzog Theodor von Gotland (play) – Christian Dietrich Grabbe
 Hope Leslie – Catharine Maria Sedgwick
 Intrigue – Henrietta Rouviere Mosse
 I Promessi sposi (The Betrothed) – Alessandro Manzoni
 The Lettre de Cachet – Catherine Gore
 The O'Briens and The O'Flaherties – Sydney Owenson
 The Prairie – James Fenimore Cooper
 The Red Rover – James Fenimore Cooper
 The Reign of Terror – Catherine Gore
 The Wolf of Badenoch – Sir Thomas Dick Lauder
1815



Events 
 Fresnel developed the theory of light diffraction.
 Napoleon loses the Battle of Waterloo and is sent to Saint Helena.

Births 
January 10 – John A. Macdonald, first Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1891)
February 15 – Constantin von Tischendorf, German Biblical scholar (d. 1874)
April 1 – Otto von Bismarck, German statesman (d. 1898)
 April 1 – Edward Clark, Governor of Texas (d. 1880)
April 6 – Robert Volkmann, German composer (d. 1883)
April 24 – Anthony Trollope, British writer (d. 1882)
August 5 – Edward John Eyre, explorer
October 16 – Francis Lubbock, Governor of Texas (d. 1905)
October 31 – Karl Weierstraß, German mathematician (d. 1897)
November 2 – George Boole, English mathematician and philosopher (d. 1864)
December 10 – Augusta Ada King (née Byron), Countess of Lovelace, early English computer pioneer (d. 1852)
November 12 – Elizabeth Cady Stanton, American women's rights activist (d. 1902)
December 21 – Thomas Couture, French painter (d. 1879)

Deaths 
January 8 – Edward Pakenham, British general (killed in battle) (born 1778)
January 16 – Emma, Lady Hamilton, English mistress of Horatio Nelson (born 1765)
February 24 – Robert Fulton, American inventor (born 1765)
February 26 – Prince Josias of Coburg, Austrian general (born 1737)
March 4 – Frances Abington, English actress (born 1737)
March 5 – Franz Mesmer, German developer of hypnotism (born 1734)
April 21 – Joseph Winston, American patriot and Congressman from North Carolina (born 1746)
June 1 – Louis Alexandre Berthier, French marshal (born 1753)
June 16 – Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Brunswick, German noble and general (killed in battle) (born 1771)
June 18 – Thomas Picton, British general (killed in battle) (born 1758)
June 18 – Claude-Etienne Michel, French general (killed in battle) (born 1772)
June 18 – Guillaume Philibert Duhesme, French general (killed in battle) (born 1766)
August 2 – Guillaume Marie Anne Brune, French marshal (murdered) (born 1763)
August 6 – James A. Bayard (elder), U.S. Senator from Delaware (born 1767)
September 9 – John Singleton Copley, American painter (born 1738)
September 20 – Nicolas Desmarest, French geologist (born 1725)
October 13 – Joachim Murat, French marshal and King of Naples (executed) (born 1767)
December 3 – John Carroll (priest), first American Roman Catholic Archbishop (born 1735)
December 7 – Michel Ney, French marshal (executed) (born 1769)
December 29 – Saartjie Baartman, sideshow performer
Deep house

Deep house is a type of house music. It has influences from disco music and jazz music. The BPM of deep house is usually 100 - 128. 

Music genres
Cytokine

Cytokines are a group of signalling molecules made by cells. They help to control the immune system and fight disease. They are similar to hormones and, as we learn more about each, distinctions between the two are fading.

Cytokines carry signals locally between cells, and these signals have an effect on other cells. They are made of proteins, peptides, or glycoproteins. The cytokines are a large family of polypeptide regulators that are produced throughout the body by many groups of cells.

Some well-known cytokines include interferon, prostaglandin and interleukins. Cytokines can be detected using the ELISA and ELISPOT techniques.

Cytokines work by signal transduction. Each cytokine has a matching cell-surface receptor. Then cascades of signals inside the cell changes cell functions. This may include the regulation of several genes, the production of other cytokines, or an increase in surface receptors for other molecules.

Related pages 
Cytokine storm
Signal transduction

References 

Proteins
Immunology
Cell biology
Bristol

Bristol is a city and ceremonial county in England. It is home to nearly 430,000 people. The River Avon runs through it to the Severn estuary.

Geography 
It is between the counties of Gloucestershire and Somerset. In 1373, King Edward III ordered that it should be a county itself forever. However, it lost county status in 1974, the year after its 600-year celebrations. It became the largest district within the new Avon county. Avon was never popular and was abolished in 1996, when county status returned to Bristol, which became a unitary council.

History 
The Bristol name means "the place where the bridge is" in Old English. It has been a port for 800 years. Now, ships are too big to reach it. It has a new seaport at Avonmouth.

Historical sites 
It has many historic churches and other buildings. The Clifton Suspension Bridge crosses high above the river. The University of Bristol is also in Clifton.

Bristol was a centre for the slave trade.  During the 2020 George Floyd protests, a crowd pushed down the statue of 17th century slave trader Edward Colston and threw it in the harbour.

Bristol was badly damaged during World War II. It now has many new factories and offices. The Concorde supersonic airliner was made here.

It is also the birthplace of the music genre trip hop., with 3 trip hop bands originating there: Massive Attack, Portishead (named after a North Somerset town) and Tricky.

Notable people 
Some of the most notable people who are currently living, or who are from the city include:

 Banksy - graffiti artist 
 Stephen Merchant - writer and comedian 
 Russell Howard - comedian and television presenter

References

Other websites

 

Unitary authorities
 
Ceremonial counties of England
Ports and harbours of the United Kingdom
1858



Events 
 Charles Darwin proposes the natural selection of species.
 A civil war between conservatists and liberals starts in Mexico.
 The British Empire or rule, begins in India after the surrender and exile of the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II

Births 
 January 7 – Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, Russian-born advocate of the Hebrew language (d. 1922)
 January 10 – Heinrich Zille, German illustrator and photographer (d. 1929)
 January 11 – Harry Gordon Selfridge, American department store magnate (d. 1947)
 March 10 – Kokichi Mikimoto, Japanese pearl farm pioneer (d. 1954)
 March 18 – Rudolf Diesel, German inventor (d. 1913)
 March 23 – Ludwig Quidde, German pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1941)
 April 23 – Max Planck, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1947)
 June 16 – King Gustaf V of Sweden (d. 1950)
 June 16 – William Dickson Boyce, founder of the Boy Scouts of America (d. 1929)
 July 9 – Franz Boas, German anthropologist (d. 1942)
 August 1 – Hans Rott, Austrian composer (d. 1884)
 August 11 – Christiaan Eijkman, Dutch physician and pathologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1930)
 August 27 – Giuseppe Peano, Italian mathematician (d. 1932)
 September 18 – Kate Booth, the oldest daughter of William and Catherine Booth (d. 1955)
 October 3 – Eleonora Duse, Italian actress (d. 1924)
 October 27 – Theodore Roosevelt, 26th President of the United States, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1919)
 November 20 – Selma Lagerlöf, Swedish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1940)
 November 30 – Jagdish Chandra Bose, Indian physicist (d. 1937)
 December 22 – Giacomo Puccini, Italian composer (d. 1924)
 December 25 – Herman P. Faris, American temperance movement leader (d. 1936)
1899



Events 
 January 1 – Queens and Staten Island join with New York City.
 March 26 - the first electric tram in Moscow.
 Thomson measures the charge and mass of an electron.
 August/early September-The 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane hits the Bahamas, Florida and North Carolina

Births 
 May 10 – Fred Astaire
 May 24 – Kazi Nazrul Islam
 August 28 – Chang Myon
 July 7 - George Cukor
 July 11 – E.B. White
Bright Eyes (band)

Bright Eyes is an American indie rock music band. The people in the band are Conor Oberst, a singer-songwriter; Mike Mogis, a musician and producer; and other friends and session musicians from Omaha, Nebraska, USA.

Oberst's singing style and the words to the songs are called desperate or on the verge of tears. Many people think his songs are always about himself, but Oberst has said that they are not. For example, one song, "Padraic My Prince", tells the fictional story of a mother drowning her son in a bathtub. In interviews, Oberst has said that he sings about such things to make rich emotions.

Discography

Albums
Letting Off the Happiness (1998)
Fevers and Mirrors (2000)
A Collection of Songs: Recorded 1995-1997 (2000)
Lifted or the Story Is in the Soil, Keep Your Ear to the Ground (2002)
Vinyl Box Set (7 LP's) (2003)  This collection contains Oberst's first five releases plus bonus material.
I'm Wide Awake, It's Morning (2005)
Digital Ash in a Digital Urn (2005)
Cassadaga (2007)
The People's Key (2011)

EPs/Singles
Every Day and Every Night EP (1999)
"Don't Be Frightened Of Turning The Page" (2001)
"Oh Holy Fools: The Music of Son, Ambulance & Bright Eyes" (2001) 
"Drunk Kid Catholic" CDS (2001)
There Is No Beginning To The Story EP (2002)
Lover I Don't Have To Love CDS (2002)
Home: IV EP (2004)
One Jug of Wine, Two Vessels EP (2004)
"Lua" (2004)
Take It Easy (Love Nothing) (2004)
Four Winds EP (2007)

American rock bands
Indie bands
Electronic music bands
Musical groups from Nebraska
Musicians from Omaha, Nebraska
Musical groups established in 1995
1995 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Nebraska
Greek language

The Greek language is an Indo-European language. It is the official language of Greece (Hellas) and Cyprus. It was first spoken in Greece and was also once spoken along the coast of Asia Minor (now a part of Turkey) and in southern Italy. It was also widely used in Western Asia and Northern Africa at one time. In Greek, the language is called Ελληνικά (elliniká).

Greeks write their language using the Greek alphabet. The Latin alphabet (used to write English and many other languages) came from the Greek alphabet. Many other alphabets around the world also came from the Greek one.

Greek has an unbroken history of being a written language for over 3,000 years. This is longer than any other Indo-European language spoken today. This history is often divided into three parts, ancient Greek, medieval Greek, and modern Greek. The years 330-1453 are called medieval Greek because that's the time of the Byzantine Empire.

Over 13 million people in the world speak Greek as of 2021. These speakers mostly live in Greece (almost 11 million) and Cyprus (over 1 million). There are also people in other countries around the world who speak the language. This is largely because people left Greece and emigrated, meaning they moved to other countries. Countries like the United States and Australia have a large Greek diaspora.

Related pages 
 Greek numbers
 Ancient Greek language

References

Other websites 

 Greek Dictionary , from Webster's Dictionary .
 Ancient Greek Dictionaries , descriptions of both online dictionaries (with appropriate links) and Greek.
Kamishibai

Kami-shibai (Japanese: 紙芝居) is a storytelling performance with picture cards, and is a traditional Japanese entertainment for children. In Japanese "Kami" means paper and "shibai" means drama or enternainment. The performer tells a story and shows pictures from scene to scene. Kami-shibai is a bidirectional media which is comprised of actions and reactions between a performer and audiences. With the spread of television, kami-shibai went out of date. 

The origins of kamishibai are not clear, but its roots can be taced back to various picture storytelling traditions in Japan such as etoki and emaki scrolls and other forms of visual storytelling which date back centuries. However, the form of Kamishibai that one thinks of today developed around 1929 and was quite popular in the 30s, and 40s, all but dying out with the introduction of television later in the 1950s. 

Typical kamishibai consists of a presenter who stands to the right of a small wooden box or stage that holds the 12-20 cards featuring the visuals that accompany each story. This miniature stage is attached to the storyteller’s bicycle. The presenter changes the card, varying the speed of the transition to match the flow of the story he is telling.

References 

Japanese culture
Entertainment in Japan
PH

pH is a scale of acidity from 0 to 14. It tells how acidic or alkaline a substance is. 
More acidic solutions have lower pH. More alkaline solutions have higher pH. Substances that aren't acidic or alkaline (that is, neutral solutions) usually have a pH of 7.
Acids have a pH that is less than 7. Alkalis have a pH that is greater than 7.

pH is a measure of the concentration of protons (H+) in a solution. S.P.L. Sørensen introduced this concept in the year 1909. The p stands for the German potenz, meaning power or concentration, and the H for the hydrogen ion (H+).

The most common formula for calculating pH is:

[H+] indicates the concentration of H+ ions (also written [H3O+], the equal concentration of hydronium ions), measured in moles per litre (also known as molarity).

However, the correct equation is actually:

where  indicates the activity of H+ ions. But, this equation in most cases provides the same value as the more common formula, so in introductory chemistry the previous equation is given as the definition of pH.

Most substances have a pH in the range of 0 to 14, although extremely acidic or alkaline substances may have pH < 0, or pH > 14.

Alkaline substances have, instead of hydrogen ions, a concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-).

pH indicators 
Certain dyes change colour depending on whether they are in an acid solution or an alkaline solution . pH indicator is a chemical compound added in small amounts to a solution so the pH (acidity or basicity) of the solution can be seen. The pH indicator is a chemical detector for hydronium ions (H3O+) or hydrogen ions (H+). Normally, the indicator causes the colour of the solution to change depending on the pH.

Typical indicators are phenolphthalein, methyl orange, methyl red, bromothymol blue, and thymol blue. They each change colour at different points on the pH scale, and can be used together as a universal indicator.

Another way is to use litmus paper, which is based on a natural pH indicators. The paper can tell you how strong the chemical is, whether it is a stronger acid or a stronger base.

Some common pH values

Neutralization 
Neutralization can be summed up by the equation:

 +  → 
(acid + base → water)

Related pages
 Acid
 Base
 Alkali
 Titration
 Transpiration

Notes

Other websites
 pH-Spectra Database í
 pH Test 
 pH Calculator

Chemistry
Omnivore

An omnivore is an animal whose species gets its energy and nutrients from a diet made up foods that include plants, animals, algae, fungi and bacteria.

Many omnivores change their eating habits during their life cycle. They are sometimes called "life-history omnivores", because they are only omnivores if their whole life is considered.

Some species, such as grazing waterfowl like geese, are known to eat mainly animals at one stage of their lives, but plants at another. Also, many insects, such as the beatle family Meloidae, eat animal tissue when they are larvae, but eat plant matter after they mature.

Animal types
All of these animals are omnivores, but have different feeding behaviors and favorite foods. Being omnivores gives these animals more food security in stressful times. It also makes it easier for them to live in less consistent environments; (those that change along with the season, for example).

Humans, many pigs, many bears, some primates, some rodents, opossums, rails, rheas, most seagulls, and other animals are omnivores.

Related pages
 carnivore
 herbivore
 insectivore
 semi-vegetarian

References