cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
3LW

3LW (Three Little Women) was an American girl group. The group consist of Naturi Cora Maria Naughton, born May 20, 1984, Adrienne Eliza Bailon, born October 24, 1983, Kiely Alexis Williams, born July 9, 1986. The band was formed in 1999 in Newark, New Jersey.

In August 2002, Naturi Naughton announced that she had been forced out of 3LW. Before the year's end, the ladies held various auditions in Atlanta, Los Angeles and New York in search of a third member. Jessica Benson made the cut and joined 3LW in December. The group disbanded in 2007.

Members 
 Adrienne Bailon - born Adrienne Eliza Bailon on October 24, 1983, Manhattan, New York, U.S.
 Kiely Williams - born Kiely Alexis Williams on July 9, 1986, Alexandria, Virginia, United States
 Naturi Naughton - born Naturi Cora Maria Naughton on May 20, 1984, East Orange, New Jersey
 Jessica Benson - born in 1988, Severn, Maryland

Discography

Studio albums
 2000: 3LW
 2002: A Girl Can Mack
 2002: Naughty or Nice

Unreleased albums
 2006: Point of No Return [Leaked]

Other albums
 2005: Neva Get Enuf

Awards and nominations

Other websites
 Official site 
 Myspace
 Discogs

1999 establishments in the United States
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2007 disestablishments in the United States
American girl groups
American R&B bands
American hip hop bands
American soul bands
Musical groups established in 1999
Musical groups disestablished in 2007
Musical groups from New Jersey
Newark, New Jersey
1990s establishments in New Jersey
Nadia López

Nadia Yvonne López Ayuso (born June 21, 1983 in Oaxaca), is a Mexican singer. She was a finalist of the first season of La Academia. Her passion for music began since she was a little girl, setting her to knock on doors by participating on contests, and festivals.

Singles 
 Esta Libertad- #52 (MEX)
 Como Hacerte Saber- #82 (MEX)
 Contigo Si w/ Yahir- #1 (1 Week) (MEX)
 Endulzame El Oido- #32 (MEX)
 Heridas- #91 (MEX)
 Abrázame- #98 (MEX)
 Un Poco de tus Besos- #72 (MEX)

1983 births
Living people
Mexican singers
People from Oaxaca
Diana Reyes

Diana Reyes (born November 18, 1979)  is a Mexican singer. She records duranguense music.  She was born in La Paz, Baja California Sur.  She has released three gold records since 2004: La Reina del Pasito Duranguense, Las No. 1 de la Reina, and Te Voy a Mostrar.

References

Mexican singers
Latin singers
1979 births
Living people
Baja California Sur
Ivy Queen

Ivy Queen (born Martha Ivelisse Pesante on March 4, 1972 in Añasco, Puerto Rico) is a composer and singer known as "The Queen of Reggaeton".

Early Life 
At a young age Ivy's parents moved to New York where she was raised.  When she was in her teens, her parents returned to their hometown, Añasco.  Ivy went to school and graduated from high school.

When Ivy was 18, she moved to San Juan and met rapper and producer, DJ Negro.  DJ Negro helped her and introduced her to a group called "Noise".  With "Noise" she wrote and performed her first song "Somos Rapperos Pero No Delincuentes" (We're Rappers, Not Delincuents).  Soon, DJ Negro convinced Ivy to go "solo" and in 1997, she made her debut with the recording of the album "En Mi Imperio" (In My Empire) for the Sony International Records label which sold over 100,000 copies.  In the same year, Ivy traveled to Panama where she represented Puerto Rico in "The Battle of Rap".  She also did some presentations in the Dominican Republic, which were all "sold out" and later that year, she participated in "The First National Festival of Rap and Reggae".  There, Ivy was proclaimed the "Rap Singer of the Year".  Also, in 1997, Ivy was awarded the "Artista '97" award, naming her "The Peoples Favorite Rap Singer", by Artista magazine.

In 1998, Ivy recorded her second album, for the Sony Label, titled "Original Rude Girl" which carried the following hit songs "Interlude in the Zone", "Sabes Que Tu" (What Do You Know?) and "The King and The Queen".  It sold more than her first album and was highly acclaimed by her growing fan base.

Ivy's third album "Diva", was released in 2003.  The songs were originally written by her and performed with the participation of various artists.

Ivy Queen's style does not include the crude language so common in that genre.  Instead she focuses on her lyrics which contain positive messages for her generation.  Ivy usually speaks in her songs about Puerto Rico and about the abuse that many women suffer.

1972 births
Living people
Puerto Rican singers
Rap musicians
Fanny Lu

Fanny Lucía Martínez de Leeu (born February 8, 1973), more commonly known as Fanny Lú, is a singer from Cali, Colombia. Fanny Lu completed her studies in Colegio Bolivar and then went on later to study at Universidad de los Andes. In 1994, she became a television presenter. Afterward, she went into the music industry.

Fanny's debut album "Lágrimas Cálidas" (Warm Tears) was released in 2006. The album was an instant hit in Latin America. It was very popular in Colombia, where it spent five weeks at #1. The lead single "No Te Pido Flores" (I'm Not Asking for Flowers) also spent 7 weeks at #1 on the Hot 100 Billboard Charts in Latin America, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela, and Mexico, and has received a numerous amount of airplay in Latin radio in the US. The song has also peaked at #16 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs. The second single from her debut album is the song called "Y Si Te Digo"(And If I Tell You) and it peaked at #1 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs.

Singles

Filmography
Fanny Lu did the Spanish translated voice for Beth, a character in the Sony Pictures animated film "Open Season" or "Amigos Salvajes", which is the Spanish title.

Other websites
Official Site
Official Myspace

Colombian singers
1973 births
Living people
Latin singers
Kat DeLuna

Kat DeLuna (born Kat Emperatriz de Luna in 1987) is an American crossover artist. Signed to Epic Records, she sings songs in both English as Spanish. At the age of 12, she was invited by the 'Queen of Merengue', Milly Quezada, to sing with her on stage in front of a big crowd of over thousand people. In April 2004, she opened for J Records musician Cassidy as part of the all Latino girl group Coquette.

Life
Kat and her family moved from The Bronx, US to the Dominican Republic early, where she was raised in poverty. Kat spent her time listening to Aretha Franklin and Billie Holiday records. At the age of 14, they moved back to the US, where Kat realized her potential as a singer. With that goal in mind, Kat was accepted to the New Jersey School of the Performing Arts. As a freshman, she scoured the pages of The Village Voice for auditions. After many auditions, DeLuna received a call for an all girl group, which later became the first Latina, Hip Hop/R&B group: Coquette. While being a part of Coquette, Kat continued to search for opportunities to pursue her dream of becoming a solo artist. At age of 15, Kat entered a Coca-Cola sponsored karaoke competition. Her version of "I Will Always Love You" won the competition. The competition also resulted her into meeting the legendary Cuban salsa singer Rey Ruiz. Ruiz gave KAT advice and with it, she started writing her own music and has continued to do so since. 

Currently, Epic Records, her label, is in the process of launching a promotional campaign for her worldwide first single "Whine Up". The song features Elephant Man and a music video is in the works. On the official website, a video of DeLuna doing a choreography to the song is shown on the front page. Also Elephant Man is shown in the short rehearsing video.

Discography

Singles
"Whine Up" (featuring Elephant Man).

Other websites
Official website

1987 births
Living people
singers from New York City
Aventura

Aventura is a Bachata-R&B music group from New York City. They became popular worldwide with their hit single Obsesión in 2003/2004.

Members
 Anthony "Romeo" Santos, lead singer and featured composer
 Leny Santos, guitarist, producer/arranger
 Max Santos, bass guitar
 Henry Santos Jeter, singer and composer

Discography
 Generation Next, 1997, Label:	Premium Latin / Mach 1
 We Broke the Rules, 2002, Label : KTE
 Love & Hate (Amor Y Odio), 2003, Label : KTE	  
 Unplugged, 2004
God's Project, 2005, Label: Mach 1

References

Other websites
Official site

1994 establishments in the United States
1990s American music groups
1990s establishments in New York (state)
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
2011 disestablishments in the United States
American R&B bands
Latin music
Musical groups disestablished in 2011
Musical groups established in 1994
Musical groups from New York City
Jennifer Peña

Jennifer Marcella Peña (born September 17, 1983 in San Antonio, Texas) is a Tejano/Latin pop singer. At age 12, she sang at the Houston Astrodome as a tribute to Selena. Signed by EMI, Peña's first album was nominated for a Tejano Music Award, and after her second album, she appeared on the soundtrack of Selena and was nominated for a Grammy Award. She has since released two more albums, most recently Seducción, both of which have been successful.

Pena's former boyfriend, also a singer, was involved in an argument with singer Obie Bermudez after a multiple artist concert in Texas during the summer of 2004; the argument was apparently started by jealousy from her ex-boyfriend towards Bermudez.

During September of that year, Pena openly admitted to a magazine that she and the famous Puerto Rican rapper Bermudez have been having a serious relationship.

References

singers from Texas
1983 births
Living people
Latin singers
People from Corpus Christi, Texas
Tejano musicians
Tito Nieves

Humberto "Tito" Nieves (June 4, 1958, Río Piedras, Puerto Rico)' became one of the leading Salsa singers of the 1980's and the early 90s. Raised in the U.S., Nieves began his career while participating in Cimarron, a New York-based orchestra. In 1977, he teamed up with the legendary singer Hector Lavoe and his Orchestra and joined Conjunto Clasico later. Nieves decided to start his solo career in 1986, setting himself apart by singing Salsa in English.

Albums
 "The Classic" (1988)
 "Yo Quiero Cantar" (1989)
 "Dejame Vivir" (1991)
 "Rompecabeza: The Puzzle" (1993)
 "Un Tipo Comun" (1995)
 "I Like It Like That" (1997)
 "Dale Cara A La Vida" (1998)
 "Clase Aparte" (1999)
 "Asi Mismo Fue" (2000)
 "En Otra Onda" (2001)
 "Muy Agradecido" (2002)
 "Fabricando Fantasias" (2004)
 "Hoy, Manana, Y Siempre" (2005)
 "Canciones Clasicas De Marco Antonio Solís" (2007)
 "En Vivo" (2007)
 "Dos Canciones Clasicas De Marco Antonio Solís" (2008)
 "Entre Familia" (2010)

References

Other websites
 Booking Agent for Tito Nieves profile
 Tito's website

1958 births
Living people
Puerto Rican singers
Manny Manuel

Cruz Manuel Hernández Santiago (born December 1, 1972), known by his stage name of Manny Manuel, is a Puerto Rican singer. He sings merengue, boleros, and tropical music. He first became well known as a member of the group Los Sabrosos del Merengue. He started a solo career in 1994. Manuel was born on the mountain town of Orocovis, Puerto Rico. He studied elementary and high school in the José Rojas Cortés School at his hometown. Since a young age, he started performing in talent shows and other musical activities. He later joined the group Tempo Merenguero. He later became a singer and choreographer for the merengue duo of Mayra y Celinés.

After several years, Manuel joined the group Los Sabrosos del Merengue. He joined them at the same time they had their hit song "Fiera Callada". After the success of the song, the group released their first album, Sin Fronteras. Manuel samg a large part of the lyrics on this album. The album included a cover version of Rocío Durcal's song "Te Amo". The group made a second album titled Haciendo Historia. It had hits like "Colegiala" and "Frente a Frente".

After making these two albums with Los Sabrosos, Manuel chose to have a solo career. In June of 1994, Manuel left the group. In October 1 of the same year, he started as a solo performer. Several months later, he released his first solo album. It was titled Rey de Corazones. The album was certified platinum after a few weeks. With the success of the album, on November, 1995, Manuel performed at the Luis A. Ferré Performing Arts Center. He sold out six shows.

In 1996, he followed with his second album titled Auténtico. On May of the same year, he performed at the Guaynabo Performing Arts Center in a special Mother's Day concert. Later, in November, he had a very large concert at the Roberto Clemente Coliseum.

Other websites
Biography at Fundación para la Cultura Popular 
Biography by Patricia Maldonado
Biography at E-mail Urbano
Biography at LaHiguera.net

1972 births
Living people
Puerto Rican singers
American choreographers
Girl in a Coma

Girl In a Coma is a rock band from San Antonio, Texas on Joan Jett's Blackheart Record's label.  The band is made up of sisters Nina(vocals/guitar) and Phanie Diaz (drums) and Jenn Alva (bass). The group recorded a rock version of the song "Si Una Vez" by Selena.

Discography
 2007 "Both Before I'm Gone"

Other websites
Official site

American rock bands
American punk bands
Musicians from San Antonio, Texas
Musical groups from Texas
Angel y Khriz

Khriz y Angel is a Puerto Rican reggaeton group. The band members are Ángel Rivera Guzmán and Chrístian Colón. They work a lot with Luny Tunes another Puerto Rican reggaeton group. They were introduced in 2002 in the CD MVP, by Hector 'El Bambino' with the song "Casando Voy".

Los MVP’s is Khriz Y Angel’s own CD where they present the listener to soulful hits like "Ven Bailalo" and "Te Quiero Ver Hoy", as well as "De Caseria" featuring Divino and the up beat "Ram Pa Pan Pan".   

In the year 2005, they have come up with the songs "Fua", "De Lao A Lao" (bachata and merengue reggaeton versions), and "Mazacotte". They have been compared to artists like Daddy Yankee, Don Omar, and Wisin y Yandel in terms of fame.

References 

Reggaeton
American musical groups
Puerto Rican entertainers
Musical groups established in 2002
2002 establishments in the United States
Establishments in Puerto Rico
Karen Rodriguez

Karen Rodriguez (born 1989) is an American singer from New York City, New York.  Her father is Dominican and her mother, Elvira Rodriguez, is Peruvian. She went to LaGuardia Arts School in New York   She played the starring role as Maria in "West Side Story" as a freshman. In 2008, she appeared in the fifth season of a Puerto Rican talent show Objetivo Fama and finished in seventh place.

She considers Selena to be her biggest idol, and is a fan of Juan Gabriel and Juan Luis Guerra.

American Idol

Performances/Results

 Rodriguez was saved first from elimination.

References 

singers from New York City
1989 births
Living people
Prince Royce

Geoffrey Royce Rojas (born May 11, 1989 on the Bronx) known by his stage name Prince Royce is a Dominican-American bachata singer.  He started his career when he signed on with Top Stop Music label. His eponymous debut album, Prince Royce, was recorded in 2009 and released in 2010. The album was produced by Sergio George the manager of Top Stop Music.  The album became a success peaking at #1 on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart.  The lead single from the album, Stand by Me is a cover of a song which was originally composed and performed by Ben E. King. The single reached #1 on the Latin Tropical Airplay chart and #8 on the Top Latin Songs chart.  It was announced on September 8, 2010, that his album would become a nominee for a Latin Grammy Award for "Best Contemporary Tropical Album".

Discography

Studio albums

Singles

Featured singles

Music videos

References

Other websites
Official Website

"Corazon Sin Cara GruvStar Remix 

Living people
1989 births
singers from New York City
Latin singers
Frankie J

Frankie J (born on February 16 1980 in Baja, California, USA) is an American singer-songwriter. Frankie J had first appeared on A.B. Quintanilla III's band "Kumbia Kings". He later left the band to become a solo artist. His debut album What's a Man to Do was released on May 27, 2003. In 2005, Frankie J released his third studio album The One and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 chart. It had sold 130,000 copies in one week. It was then certified platinum by the RIAA for shipments of 1 million copies.

Discography

Albums

 Performed in Spanish

Singles

Guest appearances

References 

1980 births
American singer-songwriters
Latin singers
Living people
Q'orianka Kilcher

Q'Orianka Kilcher (born February 11, 1990 in Schweigmait, Germany) German-born American actress. She was raised in Hawaii. Q'Orianka's father is from Peru and he belongs to the Quechua/Huachipaeri, while her mother is of Swiss descent by way of Alaska. Her movie credits include the live action version of How the Grinch Stole Christmas, and the starring role of Pocahontas in The New World.

She is a cousin of pop singer Jewel.     

On June 1, 2010, Kilcher and her mother were arrested. Kilcher chained herself to the gates in front of the White House in Washington, D.C. Her mother poured black paint on her to signify oil. Kilcher was against President Barack Obama's meeting with Peruvian President Alan García. She said Garcia sold land in the Amazon rainforest to corporations while suppressing indigenous protests. She and her mother were charged with disorderly conduct. The charges were dropped on June 6, 2011 after they completed community service.

Filmography
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Awards and nominations

References

Other websites

 The Q'Orianka Kilcher Fan Photo Gallery

1990 births
Living people
American movie actors
Actors from Hawaii
Sara Tavares

Sara Tavares (born 1978) is a Portuguese-Cape Verdian singer. After winning the two music festivals in Portugal, in 1994, Sara Tavares recorded her first album Sara Tavares & Shout. It was released in 1996. This album has gospel, soul, funk and pop influences. After the album was released, Sara performed all over the Portugal, Cape Verde and Paris. She also performed on television programs and at social events. By the end of 1998, Sara Tavares started working on her new album. She stopped performing and went through a long period of introspection trying to find her real influences.

Mi Ma Bo was  Sara Tavares' second album. The name translated from the Criolo (language from Cape Verde) means "Me and You".  Mi Ma Bo was produced by Lokua Kanza, a musician from Kongo.  The album is sung in three different languages (Portuguese, Criolo and English).  In Portugal, Mi Ma Bo is a gold record. In France, Monaco and Andorra, "Querer Sonhar" - one of Sara Tavares' compositions from Mi Ma Bo, is included in an African music compilation, together with artists like Miriam Makeba, Lokua Kanza, Césaria Evora, Youssou N'Dour, Mory Kante. It was released by BMG France.

Her new album Balancé was due in February 2006. In this record produced by Sara herself, she wrote and composed all the songs and played many of the instruments.

1978 births
Living people
Portuguese singers
Cape Verdean people
Conservative Judaism

In Conservative Judaism, Jewish values can be divided into ethical and ritual laws - the ethical laws do not change, while the ritual laws are used in different customs. Because oftentimes Jews have to be a part of the society they live in, some of the ritual laws must be adapted to it. Such adaptations also allow modern lifestyles.

Another belief in conservative Judaism is that the texts that are the basis of Judaism should not be read literally, and that they can be analyzed and criticized like any other text. In Conservative Judaism, women are seen as equal to men and are allowed to sit with the men when attending synagogue, whereas in Orthodox Judaism for example, women are expected to sit in a different area. Women are also allowed to not wear head coverings when attending synagogue.

Other websites 
 The Core Principles of Conservative Judaism , by Ismar Schorsch on behalf of the Jewish Theological Seminary
 Conservative Jews in Israel : Official Masorti Movement website
 Standards for Congregational Practice  by the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
 Formulating Jewish Law For Our Time , by Dr. Rabbi Elliot N. Dorff, for the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
 A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice:Official work on Jewish law, by Isaac Klein, 1992
 Emet Ve'emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism 
 Research and articles on Conservative Judaism on the Berman Jewish Policy Archive @ NYU Wagner
 Conservative Judaism on My Jewish Learning
 An intro to Conservative Judaism  on Soc.Culture.Jewish Newsgroups

Jewish denominations
First Minister

A First Minister is the leader of a government. In the United Kingdom, First Minister was once used to mean the same as Prime Minister. Winston Churchill's famous quote: "I did not become His Majesty's First Minister so that I might oversee the liquidation of the British Empire!"

First Minister is now used to describe the leaders of the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. See:

First Minister of Scotland 
First Minister of Wales 
First Minister and deputy First Minister (Northern Ireland)

 
Government occupations

ar:وزير أول
North Borneo at the Olympics

North Borneo at the Olympics is a history which includes only one summer olympic game in one country and two athletes.

The British colony of North Borneo competed in the 1956 Summer Olympics at Melbourne in Australia.

This was the only Olympic appearance for the colony.  North Borneo sent two athletes who took part in the triple jump. They failed to win a medal.

In later years, athletes from North Borneo competed as part of the team from Malaysia.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes
 Malaysia at the Olympics

References

Further reading
 Organizing Committee of the XIV Olympiad. (1956).  The Official Report of the Organizing Committee for the Games of the XVI Olympiad Melbourne 1956 

Former nations at the Olympics
Sport in Malaysia
1956 Summer Olympics
History of Malaysia
Forbes list of billionaires

Forbes list of billionaires is based on an yearly measurement of wealth and assets which is published by Forbes magazine. The latest list was released in March 2014.



2020

2018 
On the 32nd list of world's billionaires, the gap between the top 1% of the billionaires and the rest continues to widen. A record of 2,208 billionaires were in the ranking and the total wealth is $9.1 trillion, up 18% since 2017. For the first time, Jeff Bezos was listed as the top billionaire due to Amazon's rising stock price that resulted in one person's biggest one year gain in wealth since Forbes started tracking in 1987.

References

Other websites 
 Forbes: Billionaires in the News 

Lists of people
Gestalt psychology

Gestalt psychology  is a theory of mind and brain formed in Berlin early in the 20th century. 

The idea is that the brain sees things as a whole. The gestalt effect is most clear with sight. We recognise figures and whole forms, not just a collection of lines and curves. In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to structuralism. The phrase "The whole is greater than the sum of the parts" is often used when explaining Gestalt theory. A better wording is : "The whole is different from the parts".

"We are innately driven to experience things in as good a gestalt as possible. “Good” can mean many things here, such a regular, orderly, simplicity, symmetry, and so on, which then refer to specific gestalt laws".
"The original observation was Wertheimer’s, when he noted that we perceive motion where there is nothing more than a rapid sequence of individual sensory events.  This is what he saw in the toy stroboscope he bought at the Frankfurt train station, and what he saw in his laboratory when he experimented with lights flashing in rapid succession (like the Christmas lights that appear to course around the tree, or the fancy neon signs in Las Vegas that seem to move).  The effect is called apparent motion, and it is actually the basic principle of motion pictures".

Early 20th century theorists, such as Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Köhler (students of Carl Stumpf) saw vision of objects as all elements taken together in a global construct. This 'gestalt' or 'whole form' approach sought to understand perception – seemingly innate mental laws which determined the way in which objects are perceived.
It is based on the here and now, and in the way you view things. It can be broken up into two: figure or ground, at first glance do you see the figure in front of you or the background?

These laws took several forms. An example is the way we tend to see similar objects, or close together objects, as meaningfully connected. Gestalt has been criticized for being merely descriptive, but it has formed the basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects, and of research into behavior, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology.

"I stand at the window and see a house, trees, sky. Theoretically I might say there were 327 brightnesses and nuances of colour. Do I have "327"? No. I have sky, house, and trees". Max Wertheimer Laws of organization in perceptual forms. 1923

Gestalt psychology was a forerunner to modern cognitive psychology. It is distinct from gestalt psychotherapy.

Problem solving 
Gestalt psychologists were the first to study problem solving in humans and apes. Wolfgang Kohler showed that chimpanzees could solve problems by thought alone; Max Wertheimer studied how diagrams helped students solve geometry problems, and Karl Duncker studied general problem-solving. Generally, both Wertheimer and Duncker preferred the broader term 'productive thinking' to 'problem solving', but it is not used much now.

References 

Branches of psychology
Illusions
Max Wertheimer

Max Wertheimer (Prague, 15 April 1880 – New Rochelle, New York, 12 October 1943) was a psychologist who was one of the three founders of Gestalt psychology, with Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler.

From 1929 to 1933, Wertheimer was a professor at the University of Frankfurt. When Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of the Third Reich in 1933, it became apparent to Wertheimer that he must leave Germany. In the end, he accepted an offer to teach at The New School in New York.

In New York he continued to investigate problem-solving, or what he preferred to call “productive thinking". The relationship between the book and his earlier work was this: all the problems in the book except one could be solved by considering geometric diagrams. In other words, they were partly visual in essence, and could be represented and partly solved visually. That thread ran through much of the gestalt work.

Wertheimer completed the book (his only book) in late September 1943, and died just three weeks later of a heart attack. Wertheimer was buried in Beechwood Cemetery in New Rochelle, New York.

Phi phenomenon 

The phi phenomenon is an optical illusion described by Wertheimer in 1912, in which the persistence of vision was exploited by the cinema film, applied by Hugo Münsterberg in 1916. This optical illusion is based in the principle  that the human eye is capable of perceiving movement from pieces of information, for example, a succession of images. In other words, from a slideshow of a group of frozen images at a certain speed of images per second, we observe constant movement.

References 
King, D. Brett & Wertheimer, Michael 2007. Max Wertheimer and Gestalt theory. Transaction. 

1880 births
1943 deaths
American psychologists
Czech Jews
Jewish American academics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish German academics
Jewish German scientists
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Scientists from Prague
Refugees from Nazism
Czech psychologists
Optical illusion

An optical illusion (also called a visual illusion) is one which shows images that differ from normal reality. 

The information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give a perception. That is normal, but in these cases the appearance does not tally with a physical measurement of the stimulus source. 

There are three main types of visual illusion: 
literal optical illusions that create images which are different from the objects that make them
physiological illusions: they are the effects on the eyes and brain of over-stimulation of brightness, colour, size, position, tilt, movement
cognitive illusions, the result of unconscious inferences (brain makes the wrong decision).

The general explanation for most illusions is the way the brain works on sense data to produce a meaningful perception. A great 19th century psychologist Hermann von Helmholtz described perception as "unconscious inferences from sensory data and past experience". Richard Gregory discussed how the brain makes an hypothesis about what's out there, and sometimes the hypothesis does not quite work out. His model of perception is an interaction between data from sense organs and previous knowledge and experience.

Researcher Mark Changizi of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in New York thinks optical illusions are due to a 'neural lag'. When light hits the retina, about one-tenth of a second goes by before the brain translates the signal into a visual perception of the world. Scientists have known of the lag, and have discussed how humans compensate for it. Some suggest that our motor system somehow modifies our movements to offset the delay.

Changizi asserts that the human visual system has evolved to compensate for neural delays by generating images of what will occur one-tenth of a second into the future. This foresight enables humans to react to events in the present, enabling humans to perform reflexive acts like catching a fly ball and to maneuver smoothly through a crowd. Illusions occur when our brains attempt to perceive the future, and those perceptions do not match reality. 

Essentially, the ideas of Helmholz, Gregory and Changizi are similar. We do not mechanically turn sense data into a picture of the world, as some had thought. What we do is use our brains to work out what it is we are looking at. This involves the use of memory and logic, though at a fast rate. The process is very good, but not foolproof. When it fails we get an illusion.

References

Related pages 
Impossible object

Psychology
Illusions
Cassette single

A cassette single is a recording of a single song sold on a  compact audio cassette.  Record companies introduced this sales format in the 1980s. At that time, vinyl record album sales were declining in favor of cassette recordings; the cassette single was introduced to replace the vinyl 45 record in a similar way.

The sales of cassette singles did not exceed vinyl single sales to the same extent as cassette albums had.  As compact disc players became more common, cassette singles were for the most part replaced by CD singles.

Music technology
Guitar solo

A guitar solo is a portion of a musical performance when a guitar is used without other instruments.

In addition to their roles of rhythmic and harmonic accompaniment, guitars are well-suited to performing solo lines. This can take the form of a prominent section where the guitar is heard over other instruments, or unaccompanied, the guitarist providing all the necessary melody and harmony themselves. Many times, a guitar solo is a virtuosic performance in the rock music idiom with a heavily-overdriven electric guitar. However, solo instrumentation for the guitar can be found in a wide variety of musical styles and eras.

Many famous guitarists are known for their solo work. Approaches to solo creation vary from the jagged/atonal approach of Andy Gill from Gang of Four and Andy Partridge from XTC, the studio-produced soundscapes of Jimi Hendrix or Bill Nelson, or the composed approach of Frank Zappa.

The use of the guitar solo in popular music was especially notable during the 1980s, where a flashy and attention-grabbing instrumental was virtually obligatory for a guitar-based band. In later years, guitar solos became viewed as something of an "80s cliché", and their usage declined. Guitar solos in pop music have subsequently become much rarer, and more subdued and understated when used.

Notable rock-guitar soloists
 Eric Clapton
 Jimi Hendrix
 Eddie Van Halen
 Frank Zappa
 Steve Vai
 Joe Satriani
 Yngwie Malmsteen
 Jimmy Page
 Kerry King
 Dimebag Darrell
 Kirk Hammett
 Randy Rhoads
 Zakk Wylde
 John Petrucci
 The Edge (David Howell Evans) 
 Carlos Santana

Related pages
 Riff

Guitars
The Band Perry

The Band Perry is an American musical group. The members are Kimberly, Reed and Neil Perry (the first was born in 1981, the second in 1988 and the latter was born in 1990). Their self titled first record was released on October 12, 2010.

Discography

Studio albums
The Band Perry (2010)
Pioneer (2013)

Extended plays
The Band Perry EP (2010)

Other websites
Official website

Musical groups established in 2005
Country bands
Musical groups from Alabama
Musical groups from Mississippi
Musical groups from Tennessee
2005 establishments in the United States
Tri-Cities, Tennessee
Criminal (song)

"Criminal" is the fourth single released under Britney Spears' seventh studio album Femme Fatale. This song was released on September 30, 2011 and has gotten positive critical acclaim.

2011 songs
Britney Spears songs
Sound check

A soundcheck, simplified as sound check is an activity that takes place a couple of hours before a concert. The performer(s) and the sound crew run through a short song to make sure that the sound in the venue is clear and at the right volume and tonal frequencies. Soundchecks are especially important for popular and other musical genres that use heavily-amplified PA systems; having correct sound is very important to the success of such events.  A soundcheck remains part art and not all science, however, because the acoustics of a venue often change somewhat once it is filled with an audience.

Artists who change their set list during the course of a concert tour often use soundchecks as a rehearsal opportunity to try out new material or revive old material, before possibly introducing such material into the concert properly.

References 

Concerts
Music
Ricky Martin (1991 album)

Ricky Martin is the eponymous debut solo studio album recorded by Puerto Rican singer Ricky Martin, It was released  by Sony Discos and Sony Music Mexico November 26, 1991 (see 1991 in music).

Track listing

© MCMXCI. Sony Music Entertainment (México). S.A. de C.V.

Chart performance

References

1991 albums
Spanish-language albums
Debut albums
Latin music albums
Latin pop albums
Ricky Martin
Latin Pop Albums

Latin Pop Albums is a record chart that is published weekly on Billboard magazine. The chart ranks Latin pop albums by the number of recorded sales an album made that week.

Chart achievements 
Shakira's album Fijación Oral Vol. 1 became the best-selling album of the 2000s decade.

References 

Latin music
Selena
Ricky Martin
Christina Aguilera
Shakira
Peter Carey (novelist)

Peter Carey (born 1943) is an Australian novelist who has won many awards including two Booker Prizes. He first won the Booker Prize in 1988 for his book, Oscar and Lucinda. He won again in 2001 for his book The True History of the Kelly Gang. Only one other author has won this award twice.

Oscar and Lucinda was made into a movie starring Ralph Fiennes. The True History of the Kelly Gang is the story of Australian bushranger, Ned Kelly, written in the style of Ned's famous Jerilderie Letter.

Novels
Carey his written nine novels:
 Bliss (1981)
 Illywhacker (1985)
 Oscar and Lucinda (1988)
 The Tax Inspector (1991)
 The Unusual Life of Tristan Smith (1994)
 Jack Maggs (1997)
 The True History of the Kelly Gang (2000)
 My Life as a Fake (2003)
 Theft: A Love Story (2006)

References

1943 births
Living people
Writers from Victoria (Australia)
Booker Prize winners
Emperor Kanmu

, also written as Kammu, was the 50th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.  His reign started in 781 and ended in 806.

Kanmu was the first monarch of the Heian period of the history of Japan.

Traditional history
Before he became the monarch, this prince's personal name (imina) was .

Prince Yamabe was the eldest son of Prince Shirakabe (later known as Emperor Kōnin). According to the , Yamabe's mother was a descendant of King Muryeong of Baekje.

Kanmu had 16 empresses and consorts, and 32 imperial sons and daughters. Among his sons were Emperor Heizei, Emperor Saga and Emperor Junna.

Events of Kanmu's life
Before he became the monarch, he was Crown Prince for eight years.

During his reign, Kanmu tried to simplify the hierarchy and the functions of his government.

The capital of Japan was moved from Nara (Heijō-kyō) to Nagaoka (Nagaoka-kyō) in 784.  The capital would be moved again in 794 to Kyoto (Heian-kyō).

Kanmu named Sakanoue no Tamuramaro (758-811) to lead a military expedition against the Emishi.

Timeline
 737 (Tenpyō 9): Prince Yamabe was born.
 773 (Hōki 4): Yamabe received the title of Crown Prince.
 30 April 781 (Ten'ō 1, 3rd day of the 4th month): In the 11th year of Emperor Kōnin's reign, he abdicated. The succession (senso) was received by his son.  Soon after, Emperor Kanmu accepted the monarch's role and duties and powers (sokui).  This was confirmed in ceremonies.
 794 (Enryaku 13): When the capital was moved to Kyoto, the emperor's new home was named .
 17 November 794 (Enryaku 13, 21st day of the 10th month): The emperor traveled by carriage to the new capital.  He moved in a grand parade.  This marks the beginning of the Heian period in Japanese history.
 806 (Enryaku 25): Kammu died at the age of 70.

After his death
According to the Imperial Household Agency, the mausoleum  (misasagi) of Kammu is in Kyoto.  The emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine at this location.

Eras of reign
The years of Kammu's reign are identified by more than one era name (nengō).
 Ten'ō (781–82)
 Enryaku (782–806)

Related pages
 Emperor of Japan
 List of emperors of Japan
 Japanese imperial family tree
 Kammu Seamount

References

Other websites 

Emperors of Japan
737 births
806 deaths
National Cleavage Day

National Cleavage Day, also known as NCD, is a annual celebration that is held in South Africa. It is held in March or April each year. Many countries celebrating on 19th of May (Proverbs 5:19) The event is sponsored by the brassière marketer wonderbra. National Cleavage Day was started in 2002 and held at the beginning of April every year. The NCD was started in April 2002 in South Africa.

Along with the Wonderbra, Cosmopolitan and 5fm, a SABC radio station have sponsored this event. According to Samantha Paterson, the manager for Wonderbra, the National Cleavage Day had become a great start for women's independence and power in all forms of life, from their careers to their relationships and to their own destiny. Anita Meiring, public relations consultant for Wonderbra, explained The event was created to help build women empowerment about their breast being very unique and that they should be very proud of it. She also stated that "It gives men a legitimate (real) reason to stare (look) at boobs (women's breast)."

National Cleavage Day is celebrated in offices, restaurants and bars throughout the nation.
 
This event was given negative feedback from Dr. Siqwana-Ndulo. She had said that "This is a pure marketing tool using people's bodies." She then stated that, "The commission is against any person or advertising company which uses people's bodies for marketing purposes be it advertising a car or anything of that sort."

References

Other websites
 Wonderbra and their support for NCD 

Human sexuality
South Africa
Breasts
Chauchilla Cemetery

Chauchilla Cemetery is a cemetery that has prehistoric remains of prehispanics. Their bodies, which are mummified, contain artifacts. The cemetery is  south of the city of Nazca in Peru.

History 

The cemetery was discovered in the 1920s. However, it was last used in the 9th century. The cemetery has a lot of very important burials that happened over a period of 600 to 700 years. The cemetery was first used around the year 200. This cemetery is a very important source of archaeology to Nazca culture. Because the cemetery was damaged a long time ago, it was protected by Peruvian law in 1997. Tourists pay around seven U.S. dollars for a two-hour tour of the cemetery.

Preservation of the bodies 
The bodies inside the cemetery have been preserved which is probably because of the dry climate in the Peruvian Desert. However, the funeral rites were also an important factor. The bodies had clothes on them which were made of cotton and were painted with a resin. They were bought in the cemetery, which was built from mud bricks. The resin was thought to have kept out insects and slowed bacteria from feeding on the bodies.

Estaquería, a nearby cemetery, may have given clues to show how the bodies were preserved. At Estaquería, archaeologists have found wooden pillars which was first thought to have been used for astronomical sightings. However, it is not thought that those posts were used to dry the bodies. This was a mummification process. This clue helped archaeologists to understand why these thousand-year-old bodies still had their hair and some soft tissue, like skin, still attached to them.

References

Peru
Cemeteries
Heian period

The  is a time in the Japanese history from 794 to 1185. This grouping of years is named after city of Heian-kyō, which is the early name of present day Kyoto.

History
The Heian period began in 794 when the capital of Japan was moved to Heian-kyō. It lasted until 1185, which is the beginning of the Kamakura period.

In this period Kyoto was the center of Japanese culture. It was also in this period that the first known novel was published. The author was a woman. Poetry was very popular in Heian-kyo at the time.

Timeline
 794: Emperor Kammu moves the capital to Heian-kyō.
 804: Saichō (also known as Dengyo Daishi) establishes the Tendai Buddhist sect in Japan.
 806: Kūkai (also known as Kōbō-Daishi) establishes the Shingon Bhuddist sect in Japan

 858: Reign of Emperor Seiwa begins; the power of the Fujiwara clan expands
 895: Sugawara Michizane persuades Emperor Uda to suspend Imperial embassies to China.

 1053: Byōdō-in temple near Kyōto is completed
 1087: Emperor Shirakawa abdicates and becomes a Buddhist monk, the beginning of the Insei system of Imperial government

 1185: Death of Emperor Antoku; Taira clan is defeated in the Gempei War

Gallery

Related pages
 List of Japanese eras

References

Other websites

 Metropolitan Museum of Art,  Heian Period (794–1185)
 British Museum, Heian period (AD 794-1185)
 Japan-guide.com,  Nara and Heian Periods (710-1185)

Periods in Japanese history
Garnishment

A garnishment is the means for collecting monetary judgments against a defendant by ordering third parties to pay money directly toward the plaintiff. Wage garnishments are a process of deducting money off employees' monetary compensation (including their salary); these types of garnishments continue until entire debts are paid and can be taken for any debt, however usual examples are:

 child support
 defaulted student loans
 tax

Wage garnishments can adversely affect credit reputation or one's ability to open bank accounts. The Consumer Credit Protection Act stipulates the amount of income that can be garnished from an individual's wage. Individuals who earn disposable income under $217.50 per week do not receive any wage garnishment. Individuals who receive a disposable income of between $217.50 and $290 per week can have any amount above $217.50 garnished. For weekly disposable earnings above $290, a maximum of 25% can be garnished.

References 
Law
University of Tübingen

The University of Tübingen, officially the Eberhard Karl University of Tübingen (; ), is a public university in the city of Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany.

History
The University of Tübingen was founded in 1477.  In Germany, Tübingen became known as one of the "five classical university towns".

In 2010, Tübingen joined the Matariki Network of Universities (MNU) together with Dartmouth College (USA), Durham University (UK), Queen’s University (Canada), University of Otago (New Zealand), University of Western Australia (Australia) and Uppsala University (Sweden).

In 2012, the university established the Tübingen Center for Korean Studies at Korea University (TUCKU).  This is Tübingen’s third branch in Asia after the Center for Japanese Language in Kyôto and the European Center for Chinese Studies (ECCS) at Peking University.

Notable alumni 

Alumni include former German President Horst Köhler and Nobel laureates Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, Hartmut Michel and Günter Blobel.

In the late 16th century, Johannes Kepler studied at Tübingen.

In the 18th century, Friedrich Hölderlin, Friedrich Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel shared student rooms.

Faculty
Notable professors include Joseph Ratzinger and Hans Kung.

References

Other websites

 Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen website 
 German version website

1477 establishments
Baden-Württemberg
Tubingen
Establishments in Germany
1470s establishments in Europe
Pylorus

Pylorus is a part of digestive system that separates stomach and duodenum. The pylorus controls the opening between the stomach and the duodenum. It stops large pieces of food from leaving the stomach. It also stops digested food from returning to the stomach from the duodenum. It is made of a muscle which stops food when contracted. When the pylorus is relaxed, it allows a small amount of food to pass as its passage is narrow.

References 

Anatomy of the digestive system
Huxley family

The Huxley family is an English family. Members of the family had top careers in science, medicine, art, and literature. Some family members were also high level public servants in the United Kingdom. 

Thomas Henry Huxley (THH) was the oldest male in the family. He was a zoologist and comparative anatomist. He was one of Charles Darwin's main supporters.

Thomas had several grandsons including Aldous, Julian, and Andrew. Aldous Huxley wrote the books Brave New World and Doors of Perception. Julian Huxley studied evolution, wrote Evolution: the New Synthesis, and was the first director of UNESCO. Andrew Huxley was a Nobel prize winning physiologist and was appointed to the Order of Merit. Thomas and Andrew both served as President of the Royal Society, a century apart.

Many of their relatives succeeded in other walks of life.

Family tree

Related pages 
 Darwin–Wedgwood family