cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
HMS Beagle

HMS Beagle was a Cherokee-class ship of the Royal Navy. It was launched on 11 May 1820 from the Woolwich Dockyard on the River Thames. It is best known for a voyage that carried Charles Darwin.

First voyage (1826–1830)
On 22 May 1826, Beagle left to survey bodies of water in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. One of the bodies of water found was named the Beagle Channel after the ship. During the voyage, Captain Pringle Stokes became depressed and shot himself. He died ten days later. Robert FitzRoy became the new captain. Beagle returned to England on 14 October 1830.

Second voyage (1831–1836)

On 27 December 1831, the Beagle began her second voyage.

Captain FitzRoy did not want to have the stress and loneliness that led to the suicide of the first captain. He looked for someone to go on the voyage to keep him company. The person found was Charles Darwin.

On this voyage, the crew did surveys in South America. Beagle returned to Falmouth, Cornwall, England on 2 October 1836.

Darwin kept a diary of the things he saw and did on this voyage. He rewrote it as the book called Journal and Remarks. The book was published in 1839 as the third volume of the official account of the expedition. It was very popular. It was reprinted many times with different titles. It eventually became known as The Voyage of the Beagle.

Third voyage (1837–1843)

In 1837, Beagle went to survey the coast of Australia. Commander John Clements Wickham was in charge. They started with the western coast between the Swan River (modern Perth, Australia) and the Fitzroy River. They then surveyed both shores of the Bass Strait. In May 1839 they sailed north to survey the shores of the Arafura Sea opposite Timor. This voyage ended in 1843.

Many places around the coast were named on this voyage. Many of the places were named for important people or members of the crew. Wickham named Port Darwin in honour of Charles Darwin. A settlement there became the town of Palmerston in 1869, and was renamed Darwin in 1911.

During this survey, the Beagle Gulf was named after the ship.

References

Sources and references
 
 

Ships
Royal Navy
Footscray

Footscray is a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It is 5 kilometres from Melbourne's centre. About 13,000 people live in Footscray.

Footscray is built largely on the traditional lands of the Kulin nation. Footscray has been home to the Aboriginal Woiwurrung and Boonwurrung tribes of the Kulin nation for over 40,000 years.

The suburbs around Footscray are Seddon, West Footscray, Braybrook, Flemington, Maidstone,Yarraville, Kingsville and West Melbourne.

Footscray is famous as a multicultural meeting point. Footscray's 1300 people come from 135 different countries. It is at the centre of cultural life in Melbourne's west and the centre for new arrivals to Melbourne's west since the 1950s. The shopping areas around Footscray Station represent the diversity of migration to Australia. There are many Vietnamese, Ethiopian, Filipino, Indian, Somali, Afghani, Chinese, Burmese, South Sudanese restaurants and businesses as well as many others. Try T. Cavallaro & Sons which have been making Melbourne's best cannoli in Footscray for more than 50 years.

Footscray is home to two fresh food markets. There is the Footscray Market that is opposite the Footscray Train
Station. This market is open from Tuesdays to Saturdays. Footscray Market has
many butchers and fishmongers as well as some fresh fruit and vegetables. Go to
Footscray Market near closing time for bargains! There is also the Little
Saigon Market on Byron Street which is open everyday. Little Saigon is a wet
market where you can get fruits and vegetables at the cheapest prices in
Melbourne. Its noisy, busy and you can always try everything before you buy.

References

Other websites 
 Footscray Historical Society

Suburbs of Melbourne
Goebel Brewing Company

The Goebel Brewing Company was a brewing company in Detroit, Michigan. It was started by August Goebel. It later expanded to produce Goebel Private Stock 22 in Muskegon, Michigan and Oakland, California. From 1950 to 1959, it outsold all other beers in Michigan.

The company sponsored the Detroit Lions football team, the Detroit Tigers baseball team, and the Detroit Red Wings hockey team.

In 1961, their head brewmaster died. They hired a new brewmaster from Germany and sales fell. In 1964, they sold out to another Detroit brewery, The Stroh Brewing Company. After 150 years, the Goebel Brewing Company was out of business.

Stroh produced a cheap beer under the Goebel Beer name for a few years before selling out themselves.

Companies based in Detroit, Michigan
American food companies
1964 disestablishments
1960s disestablishments in the United States
20th-century disestablishments in Michigan
Defunct companies of the United States
Companion planting

In gardening and farming, companion planting is the planting of different crops next to each other. It is done to help the crops grow and to use the space available as much as possible.

Depending on the crops chosen, companion planting may encourage processes that help the plants, such as pollination. Some companion plants may help stop pests, such as caterpillars or fungi, from damaging the crop. Some of these, called trap crops attract pests away from the crop. Other plants may serve as shelter for the crops.

Many of the basic principles of companion planting were used thousands of years ago in Mesoamerica. From about 8,000 years ago, Native American peoples grew squash, maize and common beans together. The stalk of the corn were there for the beans to climb, and the beans fixed nitrogen, helping the maize.

Related pages 
 Intercropping
 Square foot gardening

References 

Gardening
Agriculture
Sustainability
Russo-Turkish War

Russo-Turkish War refers to one of these wars between the Russian and Ottoman Empires:

Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)
Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681)
Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)
Pruth River Campaign
Russo-Austrian-Turkish War (1735–1739)
Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)
Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)
Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)
Crimean War
Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
Russo-Turkish War (1914–1918), commonly called World War I
2nd century BC

The 2nd century BC was a century that started the first day of 200 BC and ended the last day of 101 BC. It is considered part of the Classical period of history.

After having won the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic continued expanding by conquering neighbouring territories. It eventually made Greece part of its empire. It also took the coast of North Africa after destroying the city of Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War. In the east, the Seleucid Empire was forced to make concessions to Rome in order to avoid war. Rome came to dominate the Mediterranean Sea during this period. By the end of the century, its army changed from conscription to a voluntary professional force. These changes were known as the Marian Reforms.

In East Asia, China became very successful under the Han Dynasty. Its empire extended from Korea in the east to Vietnam in the South to the borders of what is today Kazakhstan in the west. The Han also try to get help in fighting the Xiongnu from the Yuezhi people in the west. It is also during this century that the first paper is made in China.

References
John Newman

John Newman (born 16 June 1990) is an English singer. He was the youngest English singer to enter world top charts in first position with "Love Me Again" and in the Top 40 awards with "Love Me Again" and  "Cheating" in 2013. His first single, "Feel The Love", was released in 2012. He lives in London but he is from Settle (Yorkshire). He worked with Rudimental two times. In 2013 he presented his album "Tribute". The songs in this album are "Tribute", "Love Me Again", "Losing Sleep", "Easy", "Try", "Out Of My Head", "Cheating", "Running", "Gold Dust", "Goodnight Goodbye", and "All I Need Is You". The genres he sings are soul, pop and breakbeat. He has been nominated for two Brit Awards in 2013 and 2014.

English singers
1990 births
Living people
Nuclease

A nuclease is an enzyme which cuts the bonds between the nucleotide subunits of nucleic acids. Well known nucleases are deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease.

Kinds of nuclease 
Nucleases may have the prefix "endo" or "exo" added to the name.  Endonucleases break nucleic acid chains somewhere in the middle of the molecule. Exonucleases remove nucleotides from the ends of DNA molecules.

A restriction endonuclease does a specific job. It scans the length of a DNA molecule. Once it finds a particular sequence, it binds to the DNA molecule and makes a cut in each of the two sugar-phosphate backbones.

Different endonucleases cut in different places, but one endonuclease will always cut a particular base sequence the same way, no matter what DNA molecule it is acting on. Once the cuts have been made, the DNA molecule breaks into fragments. In fact, more than 900 restriction enzymes, some sequence specific and some not, have been isolated from over 230 strains of bacteria since their discovery.

These enzymatic tools were important to scientists who were gathering the tools needed to "cut and paste" DNA molecules. They needed a tool to cut DNA at specific sites, rather than at random sites along the length of the molecule. This way they could cut DNA molecules in a predictable way.

This whole field of research started many years ago with the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment.

References 

Enzymes
Genetic engineering
Aretino Records

Aretino was an American record label. It was in business from about 1907 to 1914. Aretino was started by Arthur J. O’Neill. He started many record and phonograph businesses in the Chicago area. O’Neill named this company in honor of Guido Aretino, an 11th-century Italian monk.

Aretino is an odd type of record because the hole in the center is very large compared to the normal size.  It is the largest ever for a record that was made for people to use in their houses. Like many of O'Neill's other companies, Aretino was run as a premium scheme. A phonograph (record player) was offered for not much money. However, this record player could only play Aretino records because it came with a 3-inch spindle.  O’Neill also offered adapters for Aretino discs. These allowed the discs to be played on record players that had normal spindles, or even on a Busy Bee machine (another O’Neill brand) which had two spindles instead of one.

Aretino did not make any of its own recordings: it borrowed masters from other companies. The first series of Aretino records had music on only one side of the disc. They were each given a catalog number beginning with the letter A. The music was recorded on them by Leeds & Catlin. Leeds and Catlin also made a group of records for Aretino with catalog numbers starting with the letter D.  These records have a recording on both sides.  They are very hard to find now.  Leeds & Catlin was later shut down by court order for patent infringement. After that, Aretino records were made for a short time by two record companies named Hawthorne & Sheble and Zonophone.  These companies kept making records which only had music on one side of the record. They also kept using catalog numbers beginning with "A".

It was not long after this that Columbia became the maker of these records.  No other companies made records for Aretino after Columbia began to make them.  These records have a catalog number that begins with the letter "D" and then numbers that are larger than 500.  They have music on both sides.  Of all Aretino records, these are the most common.  Most records from this time period have a diameter of 10 inches.  Columbia also made a group of records for Aretino that are 12 inches in diameter.  These are very hard to find.  They have catalog numbers with the letter "A" at the beginning. Aretino stopped making anything after the year 1914.
 
The music on the Aretino label was like most music from those years.  Some artists on Aretino are Henry Burr, William F. Denny, Byron G. Harlan, Ada Jones, Billy Murray, Vess Ossman, Steve Porter, Cal Stewart, and Bert Williams.

References

1907 establishments in the United States
1914 disestablishments
American record labels
1900s establishments in Illinois
1910s disestablishments in the United States
20th-century disestablishments in Illinois
Shotgun Sports

Shotgun Sports is a competitive shooting sport involving shotguns.  Shotgun Sports include several different events, each with different rules.  The general goal of a shotgun event is to break a clay target, but the targets are thrown in different manners depending on the game.

Sporting Clays 
In sporting clays, a shooter will walk through a course generally consisting of ten stations.  Each station will have two targets that are thrown as a true pair or as a report pair(one thrown on pull command and one thrown on gun fire).  Sporting clay courses are generally scored out of a 100.

Trap
Trap is another clay target event.  A game of trap is scored out of 25, and a full trap event generally consists of 4 trap games, or 100 targets.  In this event, a team of 5 shooters lines up behind a trap house.  Inside the trap house is a pivoting arm that throws a clay out at a random direction when 'pull' is called.  To vary the difficulty of this game, shooters can stand farther back from the house.

Skeet

In the skeet shooting event, a shooter moves around a field in a semi circle.  Skeet, like Trap, is also a 25 target game, with skeet events generally consisting of four games.  There are 8 stations on the field.  On one end of a field is a high house, and on the other end of the field, there is a low house.  On station 1, 2, 6, and 7 a high single, low single, and double are shot.  On stations 3, 4, and 5 a high single and low single are shot.  Station 8 is in between the high and low house.  At this station, the shooter faces the high house, shoots a high single, then turns and faces the low house to shoot a low single.  This totals 24 targets.  The last target, to make 25, comes from what is referred to as the option.  The option is a target that is shot after the first target that is missed.  If the shooter misses the high bird on station 1, the high bird is shot again.  If the shooter makes it all the way around the field without missing a bird, a second low single is shot on station 8, totaling a perfect 25.

Related pages 
Gun

Other websites 

Summer Olympic sports
Vince Carter

Vincent Lamar Carter (born January 26, 1977) is an American professional basketball player. He plays as a shooting guard or small forward for the Atlanta Hawks of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He has also played for the Toronto Raptors, New Jersey Nets, Orlando Magic, Memphis Grizzlies, Phoenix Suns, and Dallas Mavericks.

After being drafted in 1998 as the fifth overall pick, Carter quickly emerged as a league star.

Carter is an eight-time NBA all-star. In 1999, he won the NBA Rookie of the Year Award. In 2000, he won the Slam Dunk Contest at the NBA All-star Weekend.

His talent for slam-dunks earned him nicknames such as "Vinsanity," "Air Canada," and "Half-Man, Half-Amazing.". Vince led his first team, the Toronto Raptors to their first three playoff appearances. Despite his notability as an exceptional basketball player, he has yet to win a championship.

References

Other websites
 

1977 births
African-American basketball players
Dallas Mavericks players
Living people
Memphis Grizzlies players
New Jersey Nets players
Orlando Magic players
Phoenix Suns players
Sportspeople from Florida
Toronto Raptors players
American basketball players
Chr

In computing, chr is a type of file format commonly used for graphics (i.e. 3D Max Characters and Homebrew NES Dev Graphics) and character sets.

chr Files In NES Dev

Usage
chr files are used to draw 8x8 tiles for homebrew NES development. To draw graphics for the NES such as backgrounds or sprites, they must be pieced together using 8x8 pixel tiles constrained to 4 colors.

Contents
The contents of a chr file can be summed up as multiple lines of bit strings. For example, take the first line of the chr file for the game Super Mario Bros.

<syntaxhighlight lang="C">
000000000011000011110001111100010000000011110001110000100100001000000110011001100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000111110000001111110011111101111111
</source>

When reading the file, it is interpreted as 2 equal length bit strings, such as

<syntaxhighlight lang="C">
String 1 = 0000000000110000111100011111000100000000111100011100001001000010011001100110
String 2 = 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011111001111110011111101111111
</source>

The position of these 2 bit strings represent a pixel in an 8x8 tile, going in row-column order. The color of the pixel can be found out using a simple formula:

The color is irrelevant because it is chosen through the code by the programmer with the attribute table, so it is the bit combination that is significant and there is no storage of color values

Computer file formats
Organotroph

An organotroph is an organism that lives off organic compounds. It is a word used in microbiology to describe organisms based on how they get electrons for respiration (breathing). Some organotrophs are also heterotrophs. Organotrophs may or may not need oxygen in order to grow.

Biology
Ecology
Lars Andreas Larssen

Lars Andreas Larssen (27 March 1935 – 29 January 2014) was a Norwegian stage, movie and television actor. His career began in 1957 when he starred in the movie Nine Lives. In 1959, Larssen starred in a bigger role in the movie The Master and His Servants.

Larssen was born on 27 March 1935 in Hadsel, Norway. He studied acting at the Folketeatret. Larssen was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 2003 and was forced to retire due to his illness. He lived in Oslo during his last years with his wife Monna Tandberg. Larssen died on 29 January 2014 in Oslo from the disease, aged 78.

References

Other websites
 
 Lars Andreas Larssen på sokkel . Larssen's bust unveiled in Melbu (2008).

1935 births
2014 deaths
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
Norwegian movie actors
Norwegian television actors
Norwegian stage actors
Bohuslav Sobotka

Bohuslav Sobotka (born October 23, 1971 in Telnice) is a Czech politician. He served as chairman of the Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) since 2011. He was nominated to be the Prime Minister of the Czech Republic on 17 January 2014 by President Miloš Zeman. He was soon chosen as Prime Minister on 29 January 2014.

References

Other websites

1971 births
Living people
Prime Ministers of the Czech Republic
Juan Orlando Hernández

Juan Orlando Hernández Alvarado, often written as JOH, (born October 28, 1968) is a Honduran politician and businessman and drug trafficker. He became the President of Honduras following his victory in the 2013 Honduran presidential election. He was inaugurated on January 27, 2014.

On 7 February 2022, Hernández was being investigated for corruption and drug trafficking. The U.S. government requested an extradition against him for his involvement with narcotics on 14 February. After issuing an extradition warrant, Hernández decided to surrender to US authorities on February 15, 2022.  A day later, Hernández was arrested at his home in Tegucigalpa.

References

Other websites
Biography by CIDOB 

1968 births
Living people
Business people
Presidents of Honduras
Ryan Malgarini

Ryan Timothy Malgarini (born June 12, 1992) is an American actor, and comedian. He is known for his role as Harry Coleman in Freaky Friday.

Movies
 Freaky Friday (2003)
 The United States of Leland (2004)
 The Polar Express (2004)
 Go Figure (2005)
 How to Eat Fried Worms (2006)
 The Young Kieslowski (2014), winner of an audience award at the 2014 Los Angeles Film Festival

References

Other websites
 

1992 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
Actors from Washington
Monty Hall

Monte Halparin, OC, OM (August 25, 1921 – September 30, 2017), known as Monty Hall, was a Canadian television producer, actor, singer, comedian, and sportscaster. He was best known as host of the television game show Let's Make a Deal.

Early life
Hall was born Monte Halparin in Winnipeg, Manitoba on August 25, 1921. He studied at St. John's High School.

The Monty Hall problem

Since Hall was on Let's Make a Deal, Hall's name is used in a probability puzzle known as the "Monty Hall problem", which examines the counter-intuitive effect of switching one's choice of doors, one of which hides a prize, if "Monty" reveals an unwanted item behind a door the player did not choose.

Personal life
Monty married Marilyn Plottel in 1947. They had three children. Plottel died on June 5, 2017.

Death
On September 30, 2017, Hall died from heart failure at his home in Beverly Hills, California at the age of 96.

References

Other websites

 
 Monty's Bio at letsmakeadeal.com
 CBC Digital Archives profile of Monty Hall (1970)

1921 births
2017 deaths
Deaths from heart failure
Canadian movie actors
Canadian television actors
Canadian voice actors
Canadian singers
Canadian television producers
Canadian comedians
People from Winnipeg
Columbian mammoth

The Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi), or Imperial mammoth, was a species of mammoth which lived late in the Pleistocene period. Its remains have been found in Canada, the United States, Nicaragua and Mexico.

The Columbian mammoth went extinct at the end of the ice ages about 11,000 years ago. It shared the fate of many other large mammals, whose extinction is attributed to hunting and climate change.

DNA studies show that the Columbian mammoth was a hybrid between woolly mammoths and another lineage descended from steppe mammoths. This hybridization happened more than 420,000 years ago.

These mammoths did not live in the Arctic regions of Canada, where the woolly mammoth lived. The ranges of the two species may have overlapped, and genetic evidence suggests that they interbred. Several sites have the skeletons of more than one Columbian mammoths. Maybe they died in incidents such as a drought, or perhaps these places were natural traps where individuals tended to die.

References 

Extinct elephants
Megafauna
Phil Crane

Philip Miller "Phil" Crane (November 3, 1930 – November 8, 2014) was a former American politician. He was a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from 1969 to 2005. He was representing the 8th District of Illinois in the northwestern suburbs of Chicago. At the time of his defeat in the 2004 election, Crane was the longest-serving Republican member of the House.

Crane was born in Chicago, Illinois on November 3, 1930. Crane died of lung cancer at the home of his daughter, Rebekah, in Jefferson, Maryland on November 8, 2014, aged 84.

References

Other websites

1930 births
2014 deaths
Deaths from lung cancer
US Republican Party politicians
1980 United States presidential candidates
United States representatives from Illinois
Politicians from Chicago
Pat Buchanan

Patrick Joseph "Pat" Buchanan (; born November 2, 1938) is an American conservative political commentator, author, columnist, politician, and broadcaster.

Buchanan was a senior advisor to three Presidents of the United States. They were Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, and Ronald Reagan. Buchanan was an original host on CNN's Crossfire. He ran for president for the Republican presidential nomination in 1992 and 1996. He ran on the Reform Party ticket in the 2000 presidential election.

Buchanan was born in Washington, D.C. on November 2, 1938.

References

Books
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .

Other websites

 .
 .
 
 
 
 .
 In Depth interview with Buchanan, May 2, 2010

1938 births
Living people
1992 United States presidential candidates
1996 United States presidential candidates
2000 United States presidential candidates
American journalists
White House Communications Directors
American political commentators
US Republican Party politicians
Politicians from Washington, D.C.
Writers from Washington, D.C.
Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania

The Perelman School of Medicine (Penn Med), is the medical school of the University of Pennsylvania. It is an Ivy League school located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Opened in 1765, Penn Med is the first and oldest medical school in the United States. Today, the Perelman School of Medicine is a chief place of biological and medical research and education. It is one of the country's top medical schools. The school ranks among the highest recipients of the National Institutes of Health research awards.

History 

John Morgan earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from the College of Philadelphia (now called the University of Pennsylvania. He then earned Doctor of Medicine (MD) from the University of Edinburgh Medical School in Scotland. In 1765, after five years training in Edinburgh and touring Europe, Dr. Morgan returned to Philadelphia. There he opened the United States' first medical school at the University of Pennsylvania. He planned for the school to be one of the best medical schools in the country and the world. Dr. Morgan copied many teaching methods from his medical school.

The School of Medicine's professors were known internationally. Some of these were: Benjamin Rush, Philip Syng Physick, Robert Hare, William pepper, and Joseph Leidy. In 1847, a convention of medical doctors started the American Medical Association. The first President was Nathaniel Chapman, a professor at the School.

References 

Medical education
Pennsylvania
1765 establishments
18th-century establishments in Pennsylvania
1760s establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
Mixed-breed dog

A mixed-breed dog is a dog that is of more than one breed. For example, a Labradoodle is a dog with genes of both Labrador Retriever and poodle.

Other words for a mixed-breed dog are mongrel or mutt.

Dogs
Inline skating

Inline skating is a kind of skating. It involves a person moving across land using shoes that have wheels on the bottom. It is similar to roller skating, except that the wheels are smaller and are in a single line. Inline skating is also called rollerblading, after the Rollerblade brand of skates. .

Inline skates usually have between 2 and 5 polyurethane wheels. These wheels are arranged in a single line. This allows for faster speeds than roller skates.

Skating
The Voyage of the Beagle

The Voyage of the Beagle is the usual title of the book written by Charles Darwin. He first published it in 1839 as his Journal and Remarks.

The title refers to the second survey expedition of the ship HMS Beagle. The ship set sail from Plymouth Sound on 27 December 1831 under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy R.N.

The expedition was originally planned to last two years, but it lasted almost five. The Beagle did not return until 2 October 1836. Darwin spent most of this time exploring on land (three years and three months on land; 18 months at sea). The ship dropped him off at various places and picked him up later.

The book is a vivid and exciting travel memoir as well as a detailed scientific field journal. It includes biology, geology, and anthropology. Darwin's observations were written at a time when Western Europeans were exploring and charting the whole world. Although Darwin revisited some areas during the expedition, for clarity the chapters of the book are ordered by places and locations rather than by date.

Darwin's notes made during the voyage include comments illustrating his thinking. Looking at the plants, animals, rocks and fossils, he ran across questions which he could not answer at the time. On his way back, ideas began in his mind which he developed later as his theory of evolution by natural selection. The second edition of 1845 includes some suggestion of this.

Later, he realised he had made a big mistake in not noting which islands some specimens from the Galapagos Islands were found on. He knew this was a mistake because he had sensed how islands were rather like the higher parts of mountains, which also have many unique species. The idea we now know as geographical speciation was beginning to form in his mind. Darwin opened his secret 'transmutation' notebook (Notebook 'B') in July 1837, less than a year after the Beagle returned to England.

Bibliography 
Darwin, Charles 1839. Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, volume III – Journal and remarks, 1832–1836. London: Henry Colburn. This is the first edition.
Darwin, Charles 1845. Journal of researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world, under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, R.N. London: John Murray. This is the second edition.

References

Other websites 
Darwin Online: R.B. Freeman's bibliographical introduction to the book: 

Books by Charles Darwin
1830s books
Non-fiction books
Palm oil

Palm oil is a vegetable oil. Natural palm oil is red, but the red part is usually removed before the oil is used. It is made from the fruit of the African Oil Palm tree. Some comes from the American Oil Palm. Palm oil is used in many different products, like ice cream, toothpaste, chocolate, and candy. Most palm oil is made in West Africa and Southeast Asia on plantations.

References 

Cooking oils
Agriculture
Candy floss

Candy floss is sugar that is spun with air. It is also called cotton candy or fairy floss. It is spun in machines. When spun, a small amount of sugar creates a much larger serving of candy floss. This is because it is mostly air. It is usually served on a stick or in a bag. Food colouring is sometimes used to change the natural white colour. Flavour is also sometimes added. Candy floss is often sold at fairs or circuses.

Candy floss was first made in Europe in the 18th century. At that time, spun sugar was expensive. The average person could not afford it. Machines to spin the sugar were invented in 1897 by William Morrison and John C. Wharton. They introduced it at the World's Fair in 1904, under the name Fairy Floss. It was very successful. They sold 68,655 boxes at 25 cents each box (equivalent to US$6 per box today). In UAE it sold in 5 AED.

References

Other websites 
 
 Cotton Candy Machines and Marketing Today at Howstuffworks.com

Candy
Desserts
Bed (geology)

In geology a bed is the smallest division of rock or deposit. It is a geologic formation or stratigraphic rock series marked by well-defined divisional planes (bedding planes) separating it from layers above and below. 

A bed is the smallest lithostratigraphic unit. It ranges in thickness from a centimetre to several metres. It can be distinguished from beds above and below it by rock or mineral type and particle size. The term is usually applied to sedimentary strata, but may also be used for volcanic flows or ash layers.

In a quarry, bedding is a term used for a structure occurring in granite and similar rocks which allows them to split in well-defined planes horizontally or parallel to the land surface.

Engineering 
In geotechnical engineering a bedding plane often forms a discontinuity that may have a large influence on the mechanical behaviour (strength, deformation) of soil and rock masses. This is important in, for example, tunnel, foundation, or slope construction.

Related pages 
 Strata

Geology
Stratigraphy
Savannah monitor

The savannah monitor (or Bosc's monitor) is a medium-sized monitor lizard from Africa. Its scientific name is Varanus exanthematicus.

Its range extends throughout sub-Saharan Africa, from Senegal east to Sudan and south almost to the Congo River and Great Rift Valley. It is a ground-dwelling species which shelters in burrows, although it is sometimes found in bushes or low trees. 

Information about the diet of Savannah monitors in the wild has been recorded in Senegal  and Ghana. It feeds almost exclusively on arthropods and molluscs.

References 

Lizards
Animals of Africa
Primark

Primark is an Irish clothing retailer founded by Sir Alfred Brown. The company operates in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland (38 stores branded as Penneys), Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Italy, and the United States. The company's headquarters are in Dublin. Primark is a subsidiary of British food processing company ABF. Primark first opened in June 1969 in Mary Street (Dublin). All of the company's merchandise is made specifically for the company. Primark has its own brand names. It sells clothing at the budget end of the market.

References 

Clothing companies
Toots and the Maytals

Toots and the Maytals, originally called The Maytals, are a Jamaican musical group. They are one of the best known ska and rock steady vocal groups. They were formed in the early 1960s when ska was popular. They had a reputation for having strong, well-blended voices. Front man Hibbert's soulful style led him to be compared to Otis Redding.

Studio albums

Musical groups
Jamaican entertainers
Maher El-Beheiry

Maher El-Beheiry () (born March 17, 1943) is an Egyptian judge, and the former Chairman of the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt (SCC). He became Chairman on 1 July 2012.

References

1943 births
Living people
Egyptian Muslims
Judges
Dési Bouterse

Desiré Delano "Dési" Bouterse (born 13 October 1945) is a Surinamese politician. He was the President of Suriname from 2010 to 2020. From 1980 to 1987 he was Suriname's de facto leader when the country was under military rule.

On February 25, 1980, the government of Suriname underwent a military coup led by Bouterse. Though the Suriname Presidency was retained, Bouterse was the nation's ruler until his resignation in 1988.

Bouterse is held responsible for the numerous human rights violations committed under his dictatorship, such as the murder of 15 people known as the December murders, and the massacre in the village Moiwana.

On July 19, 2010, he was elected as President of Suriname with 36 of 50 parliament votes.

References

1945 births
Living people
Presidents of Suriname
Mog (Judith Kerr)

Mog, is the main character in a series of books for children. The author is Judith Kerr. In the series Mog was well loved by Mr and Mrs Thomas (Mog's owners) and their two children Nicky and Debbie. In the books Mog, a cat, would often get into a difficult situation with a new character or event.

Mog died of old age in the final book, Goodbye, Mog and goes to heaven. It was published in 2002.  It is not usual for a pet to die in stories for young children just learning to read. Kerr said ""I don't think it was so much about killing off Mog, as rather doing something about dying...and being remembered."

New book for charity 
In November 2015, Mog came back as a CGI character for the 2015 Christmas video advert for the supermarket, Sainsbury's. In Mog's Christmas Calamity Mog accidentally starts a fire in her house after having a bad dream. She saves her family by calling firefighters by running across the telephone and dialing the emergency number. She is a hero for saving her owners, and is later given an egg as a treat. A special plush Mog and book version of the story were sold at Sainsbury's, with all profits being donated to Save the Children's child literacy work.

References 

Children's books
Fictional cats
Chesterton Community Sports College

Chesterton Community Sports College is a school in Newcastle-under-Lyme. It has received very good GCSE results. There are 5 periods in a day, all one hour each way. Break time is fifteen minutes. Lunch is fifty-five minutes.

Other websites 
 

Colleges and universities in England
Staffordshire
Bettringen

Bettringen is a village in southwest Germany. About 9,000 people live there. It is part of the town of Schwäbisch Gmünd. It is near Stuttgart.

History 
The village is about 800 years old. It was founded in 1218. In the 15th century, the names Oberbettringen (upper Bettringen) and Unterbettringen (lower Bettringen) are found in documents. In 1464, it first became part of Schwäbisch Gmünd. Later it became independent again.

In 1870, more than 500 people lived in Bettringen. Some other villages were part of it.

In 1959, it became part of Schwäbisch Gmünd. That was before the area reforms of Baden-Württemberg.

Politics 
The city council has eight members of the CDU, four members of the SPD, three members of the Green Party and one seat for the FDP.

Religion 
Bettringen is mainly Catholic.

Transport

Road 
The L1160 and L1161 roads pass through the village. The B29 road bypasses the village.
1218 establishments
Villages in Baden-Württemberg
13th-century establishments in Germany
1210s establishments in Europe
Winfried Kretschmann

Winfried Kretschmann (born May 17, 1948 in Spaichingen) is the Minister-President of the Southwest German federal state of Baden-Württemberg. He is the first Minister-President of the Green Party.

Kretschmann is born to Catholic parents. He went to school in Riedlingen (District of Biberach). His parents wanted him to become a priest. Instead he joined a school for teaching education and became teacher for Biology, Chemistry and Ethics.

Political career 
Kretschmann started his political career at the Communist League of West Germany in 1973. He later changed his view and is now part of the more conservative Green party.

In 1979/80 he was a co-founder of the Green Party in Baden-Württemberg. He was leader of the Green Party in Baden-Württemberg from 1983 to 1984 and 2002 to 2011. In 2011 he became ninth Minister-President of Baden-Württemberg. He was President of the Bundesrat from 2012 to 2013. 

In the parliamentarian of the Baden-Wuerttemberg state parliament election 2016 he was reelected.

Personal life 
Kretschmann is married and has three children.

1948 births
Living people
German politicians of Alliance '90/The Greens
Ministers-President of Baden-Württemberg
Politicians from Baden-Württemberg
Riedlingen

Riedlingen is a town in the German federal state of Baden-Württemberg. About 10,000 people live there. It is near the Danube.

History 
Riedlingen is over 1,000 years old. Its foundation is dated back to the 13th century. Documents mention it as early as 835. In 1806, it became part of the Kingdom of Württemberg. In 1973 it became part of the District of Biberach.

Politics 
Riedlingen's current mayor is Marcus Schafft (CDU).

References

Other websites 

 Official website 

Towns in Baden-Württemberg
François Cavanna

François Cavanna (22 February 1923 – 29 January 2014) was a French author and satirical newspaper editor.
He helped create the Hara Kiri and Charlie Hebdo. He wrote in many of genres including reportage, satire, essays, novels, autobiography and humor. He also translated six books about famous cartoonists.

Cavanna was born on 22 February 1923 in Nogent-sur-Marne. his father was Italian. Cavanna died on 29 January 2014 in Créteil, France from Parkinson's disease, aged 90.

References

Other websites

1923 births
2014 deaths
Deaths from Parkinson's disease
Writers from Ile-de-France
Ralph Hall

Ralph Moody Hall (May 3, 1923 – March 7, 2019) was an American politician. He was a United States representative from Texas from 1981 through 2015.

He was the dean of the Texas congressional delegation. He was also the former chairman of the House Committee on Science, Space and Technology from 2011 to 2013.

He is also a member of the Committee on Energy and Commerce. Originally a member of the Democratic Party for more than fifty years, in 2004 he switched to the Republican Party.

He was the last of two World War II veterans serving in Congress, the other being Michigan Congressman John Dingell.

Hall was born on May 3, 1923 in Fate, Texas. He studied at Southern Methodist University. Hall married Mary Ellen in 1944. They had three children. Ellen died in 2008. Hall died at his ranch in Rockwall, Texas, a suburb of Dallas on March 7, 2019 from cardiac arrest, aged 95.

References

Other websites
Ralph Hall for Congress
Profile  at SourceWatch

1923 births
2019 deaths
Deaths from cardiac arrest
American military personnel of World War II
United States representatives from Texas
US Democratic Party politicians
US Republican Party politicians
Deaths from natural causes
Tlatelolco (Mexico City)

Tlatelolco () is an area in the Cuauhtémoc borough of Mexico City. It is centered on the Plaza de las Tres Culturas.

Mexico City
Solid geometry

Solid geometry is the geometry of three-dimensional Euclidean space. It includes the measurements of volumes of various solid figures (three-dimensional figures). These include pyramids, cylinders, cones, spheres, and prisms.

It is Euclidean geometry, but not plane geometry. Points are defined as a defined position on a sphere. A "staight line" is the shortest path between two points which stays on the surface of the sphere. 

Euclid's account of spherical geometry is in his Elements volumes XIXIII containing solid geometry, and in his lesser-known work the Phaenomena, which includes 25 geometric propositions. The actual discoveries were often made by others. 

The Pythagoreans dealt with the regular solids, like the cube and the sphere. The pyramid, prism, cone and cylinder were not studied until the Platonists. Eudoxus proved the pyramid and cone have one-third the volume of a prism and cylinder on the same base and of the same height.

The equations for areas and volumes in two and three dimensions was proved by Archimedes. One of Archimedes' works was called On the sphere and the cylinder. He asked that a carving of the two solid figures be placed on his tomb. He specified a "right circular cylinder with height equal to its circumference" because he had used this in his proof. 

People use solid geometry for many purposes including engineering and the calculation of perspective.

References 

Fields of geometry
Not proven

Not proven is a type of verdict in Scottish law. Out of the country, the "not proven" verdict may be referred to as the Scottish verdict, and in Scotland itself it may be referred to colloquially as the bastard verdict, which was a term coined by Sir Walter Scott, who was sheriff in the court of Selkirk.

Scottish law is distinct from English law, and this is one of the differences. Juries may convict with a guilty verdict or they may acquit (see below)). A criminal case jury consists of 15 jurors, and make their decision by a simple majority vote: eight votes are necessary and sufficient for the verdict "guilty", which has replaced the older verdict "proven".

In Scotland there are two forms of acquittal:
Not guilty means the accused is innocent, in the opinion of the jury.
Not proven means the prosecution has failed to prove their case, but the jury has disagreed as to the innocence of the accused.

References 

Law
Scotland
Sacrum

In humans, the sacrum is a large, triangular bone. It is at the bottom of the spine and the upper and back part of the pelvis. 

It fits like a wedge between the two hip bones. Its upper part connects with the last lumbar vertebra, and bottom part with the coccyx (tailbone). During the first half of life these bones gradually fuse together.

The sacrum is concave facing forward, and tilted forward. The sacrum connects with four bones:
 the last lumbar vertebra above
 the coccyx (tailbone) below
 the illium portion of the hip bone on either side

Bones
Solero

Solero is a ice-cream brand, usually fruit and/or berry flavored, sold under the Heartbrand name by Unilever.

Other names
Solero is sold as Splice in Australia  and as Salar in Iran.

References

Desserts
Ice cream
Dogecoin

Dogecoin is a Bitcoin-based digital currency (cryptocurrency). It was created by Billy Markus and Jackson Palmer on 8 December 2013, and was inspired by the Shiba Inu featured in the "Doge" internet meme. Palmer and Markus launched the coin on Dec. 6, 2013. Two weeks later on Dec. 19, the value of Dogecoin jumped 300%, perhaps due to China forbidding its banks from investing in cryptocurrency. Doge functions based on the Scrypt technology. It has unlimited emission, and fast transaction processing speed.

Users can buy and sell Dogecoin on digital currency exchanges. They can opt to store their Dogecoin on an exchange or in a Dogecoin wallet.

Dogecoin.com promotes the currency as the "fun and friendly Internet currency", referencing its origins as a "joke."

Elon Musk frequently mentions or talks about Dogecoin on his Twitter account, boosting its popularity significantly in recent years.

References

Cryptocurrency
Outstanding Eagle Scout Award

The NESA Outstanding Eagle Scout Award (NOESA) is a distinguished service award of the Boy Scouts of America (BSA). It is awarded to an Eagle Scout by the National Eagle Scout Association for distinguished service to his profession and community. He must be recommended by his local BSA council, NESA committee, Scout executive and council president.

A council may present one NOESA per year plus one award for every 100 Eagle Scout awards above of 200 awards presented to youth the previous year. The Distinguished Eagle Scout Award (DESA) is a similar distinguished award, but requires twenty-five years as an Eagle Scout. NOESA is not required for the DESA award, but DESA recipients may not receive the NOESA.

Award
The award consists of a round gold pendant with the NOESA emblem in silver. It is suspended from a blue ribbon. The NOESA emblem is in the shape of the NESA logo. It is round with a descending knot, with an eagle in flight and the word NOESA. A smaller pin-on version of the NOESA emblem may be worn on the Eagle Scout square knot patch on the Scout uniform. A lapel pin version of the NOESA emblem may be worn on the lapel when not in uniform. The recipient is also presented with a certificate.

History
The NOESA was introduced during BSA'a 100th Anniversary year with the first 152 awards being made in 2011 by the National Eagle Scout Association. This was on the recommendation of local council NESA Committees. In 2012, an additional 179 were awarded bringing the total to 331.  The award was created to recognize notable Eagle Scouts who had either performed their distinguished service closer to home (at the local, state, or regional level) or who were known nationally, but had not yet been an Eagle for 25-years: a requirement for the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award.

Recipients
For more details: List of Eagle Scouts

References

Scouting
Perfume (song)

"Perfume" is a ballad released by Britney Spears in late 2013. It is from her 8th studio album Britney Jean. It is the second single from the album. It stalled in the bottom 50 of the Billboard Hot 100.

Britney Spears songs
2013 songs
Britney Jean

Britney Jean is the 8th studio album release from Britney Spears. Singles released from the album include "Work Bitch" and "Perfume".

References

Britney Spears albums
2013 albums
Thomas Young

Thomas Young (13 June 1773 – 10 May 1829) was an English polymath. Young made important scientific contributions to many fields. His most famous work is on the wave theory of light.  He also did good work to the fields of vision, solid mechanics, energy, physiology, language, musical harmony, and Egyptology. Among others, William Herschel, Hermann von Helmholtz, James Clerk Maxwell and Albert Einstein have praised Young's work.

References

1773 births
1829 deaths
English writers
English archaeologists
Quakers
British physiologists
Fellows of the Royal Society
Physalis

The Physalis is a genus of plants that is part of the nightshade family. There are between 75 and 90 species. All except one are native to the Americas.

The plants grow small orange fruit encased in a lantern-like husk that comes from the calyx. They are similar to the tomato. Since it has a mild, refreshing acidity similar to the tomato, it can be used in many of the same ways. Many Physalis species are called groundcherries.

References 

Solanaceae
Michael Silka

Michael Alan Silka (20 August 1958 in Hoffman Estates, Illinois, near Chicago – 19 May 1984 in Alaska) was an American spree killer.  It is believed that he killed nine people near a town called Manley Hot Springs in Alaska in May 1984.  Silka was killed in a shootout with police after his murders.

Victims
Fred Burk (also spelled Burke), 30
Albert Hagen, Jr., 27
Joyce Klein, about 30
Lyman Klein, 36
Marshall Klein, 2
Dale Madajski, 24
Larry Joe McVey, 38
Roger Culp, 34
Troy L. Duncan, 34

References

1958 births
1984 deaths
American burglars
American spree killers
Criminals from Chicago