cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Cowboy

Cowboy is a broad term for men who work on ranches. The word "cowboy" was used in England in the early 19th century but its use in the late 19th century in North America comes from the Spanish word vaquero.  The cowboy has deep historic roots tracing back to Spain and the earliest European settlers of the Americas. In the United States the Native Americans and cowboys have a rich history, Still today, Native American cowboys are making a big impact in the world of rodeo.  

Over the centuries Movies about cowboys are often called western movies. Movies often show them as fighting rather than working. Cowboys can be recognized by their big brown hats and lassos. Men who do similar work in Australia are called "stockmen." 

Common clothing includes a belt with a big buckle, a cowboy hat, a lasso, a buttoned polo shirt, chaps, boots, and sometimes include another belt for carrying things while riding a horse.

Job 
A Cowboy is simply a person who works on a ranch and rides on a horse while he herds cattle. However, on the modern day ranch, the job has evolved into more duties such as branding, fencing, hay production, and machine and animal maintenance. Cowboys are also gunfighters, a lawman, outlaw, or a shooting exhibitionist, but was more commonly a hired gun who made a living with his weapons in the Old West.

In American culture

In American culture, the idea of cowboys is of freedom and independence.  It is part of the myth of the Wild West. In movies and other stories, white actors usually play cowboys, for example Clint Eastwood and John Wayne.  In real life, many cowboys of the 1800s were black or Latino.

The fictional cowboy called Sheriff Woody is played by Tom Hanks.

In British culture

In Britain, a "cowboy" is someone who charges money but is unskilled.  For example a "cowboy roofer" is someone who offers to fix a roof but does not know how to fix roofs.

Related pages
Western (genre)

References

Occupations
Janet Reno

Janet Reno (June 21, 1938 – November 7, 2016) was the United States Attorney General from 1993 to 2001, under President Bill Clinton. She was the first woman to ever have this job.

Reno died on November 7, 2016 from complications of Parkinson's disease, aged 78.

References

1938 births
2016 deaths
Cornell University alumni
Politicians from Miami, Florida
Deaths from Parkinson's disease
United States Attorneys General
US Democratic Party politicians
Lawyers from Miami, Florida
1493



Events 
 January 4 – Christopher Columbus leaves the New World.
 March 15 – Christopher Columbus returns to Spain after his first trip to the Americas.
 July 28 – Great fire in Moscow.
 September 9 – Battle of Krbava field between defending Croatian nobles and invading Ottoman Turk forces.
 November 19 – Christopher Columbus goes ashore on an island he saw for the first time only the day before. He names it San Juan Bautista (later renamed Puerto Rico).
 December 23 – Georg Alt's German translation of Hartmann Schedel's Nuremberg Chronicle is published.
1285



Events 
 January 6 – Archbishop Jakub Świnka orders all priests subject to his bishopry in Poland to deliver sermons in Polish rather than German, thus further unifying the Catholic Church in Poland and fostering a national identity.
 April 25 – Mamluk sultan Qalawun begins a siege of the Crusader fortress of Margat (in present-day Syria), a major stronghold of the Knights Hospitaller thought to be impregnable; he captures the fortress a month later.
 September 4 – Roger of Lauria defeats King Philip III of France in a naval battle off of Barcelona.
 The writ Circumspecte Agatis, issued by King Edward I of England, defines the jurisdictions of church and state in England, thereby limiting the church's judicial powers to ecclesiastical cases only.
 The Second statute of Westminster is passed in England, reforming various laws; it includes the famous clause de donis conditionalibus, considered one of the fundamental institutes of medieval law in England.
 The English romantic poem The Lay of Havelok the Dane is written (approximate date).
 Tran Hung Dao leads Vietnamese forces in victory over an invading Yuan dynasty Mongol army.
Baptism

Baptism is a rite or ceremony performed by most Christian churches and denominations. It is done as a cleansing symbol. It shows that the person being baptized has become a follower of Jesus, and it can represent the joining of the Christian family.

Methods
Roman Catholicism baptize infants to mark their becoming members of the church. It is a sacrament usually performed by a priest. In most other churches, it is when the person is old enough to decide that they are ready.

Some religious groups practice baptism by sprinkling a small amount of water on the person, usually their head. Other groups use full immersion, dipping the whole person in the water.

Bible times
In the Old Testament, a similar washing ceremony was done when priests were ordained. Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist before he began his ministry. The usual form of baptism among the earliest Christians was for the person to be immersed totally or partially. But sprinkling, or pouring, was also practiced at an early day with sick and dying persons when total or partial immersion was not practical.

Other websites 
 "Baptism." Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

References 

Sacraments
Nationalities of China

There are many people in China, more than in any other country. They all have many different cultures, histories and beliefs. The Chinese government officially says there are 56 nationalities. They are called  zú or  mínzú in China. Of these, almost all of them (about 90%) are Han people (汉族 : Hàn Zú). The rest of these nationalities (called "ethnic minorities"), from biggest to smallest in population, are: 

 Zhuang (壮族 : Zhuàng Tû
 Manchu (满族 : Mǎn Zú)
 Hui (回族 : Huí Zú)
 Miao (苗族 : Miáo Zú) (Hmong)
 Uyghur (维吾尔族 : Wéiwúěr Zú)
 Yi (彝族 : Yí Zú)
 Tujia (土家族 : Tǔjiā Zú)
 Mongol (蒙古族 : Měnggǔ Zú)
 Tibetan (藏族 : Zàng Zú)
 Buyei (布依族 : Bùyī Zú)
 Dong (侗族 : Dòng Zú)
 Yao (瑶族 : Yáo Zú)
 Korean (朝鲜族 : Cháoxiǎn Zú)
 Bai (白族 : Bái Zú)
 Hani (哈尼族 : Hāní Zú)
 Li (黎族 : Lí Zú), also called Hlai in the ethnic group's language.
 Kazak (哈萨克族 : Hāsàkè Zú)
 Dai (傣族 : Dǎi Zú, also called Dai Lue, one of the Tai ethnic groups)
 She (畲族 : Shē Zú)
 Lisu (傈僳族 : Lìsù Zú)
 Gelao (仡佬族 : Gēlǎo Zú)
 Lahu (拉祜族 : Lāhù Zú)
 Dongxiang (东乡族 : Dōngxiāng Zú)
 Va (佤族 : Wǎ Zú) (Va)
 Sui (水族 : Shuǐ Zú)
 Naxi (纳西族 : Nàxī Zú) (includes the Mosuo (摩梭 : Mósuō))
 Qiang (羌族 : Qiāng Zú)
 Tu (土族 : Tǔ Zú)
 Xibe (锡伯族 : Xíbó Zú)
 Mulao (仫佬族 : Mùlǎo Zú)
 Kirgiz (柯尔克孜族 : Kēěrkèzī Zú)
 Daur (达斡尔族 : Dáwòěr Zú)
 Jingpo (景颇族 : Jǐngpō Zú)
 Salar (撒拉族 : Sǎlá Zú)
 Blang (布朗族 : Bùlǎng Zú)
 Maonan (毛南族 : Màonán Zú)
 Tajik (塔吉克族 : Tǎjíkè Zú)
 Pumi (普米族 : Pǔmǐ Zú)
 Achang (阿昌族 : Āchāng Zú)
 Nu (怒族 : Nù Zú)
 Ewenki (鄂温克族 : Èwēnkè Zú)
 Gin (京族 : Jīng Zú), meaning Vietnamese or Kinh people.
 Jino (基诺族 : Jīnuò Zú)
 De'ang (德昂族 : Déáng Zú)
 Uzbek (乌孜别克族 : Wūzībiékè Zú)
 Russians (俄罗斯族 : Éluōsī Zú)
 Yugur (裕固族 : Yùgù Zú)
 Bonan (保安族 : Bǎoān Zú)
 Monba (门巴族 : Ménbā Zú)
 Oroqen (鄂伦春族 : Èlúnchūn Zú)
 Derung (独龙族 : Dúlóng Zú)
 Tatar (塔塔尔族 : Tǎtǎěr Zú)
 Hezhen (赫哲族 : Hèzhé Zú)
 Lhoba (珞巴族 : Luòbā Zú)
 Gaoshan (高山族 : Gāoshān Zú), meaning Taiwanese aborigines

China
Shang Dynasty

The Shang Dynasty (existed from 1600BC - 1046BC) was the second dynasty in China following the Xia dynasty. Most of what we know about the Shang Dynasty is from reading pictures on oracle bones and bronze objects. A dynasty is a series of rulers which are considered to be part of the same family because they are ruling a country(s) over generations. According to tradition, the last Shang king was overthrown in 1046 BC. The succeeding dynasty was called the Zhou Dynasty.

Kings

References

Other websites 

Zhengzhou Shang City Site

 
 

Chinese dynasties
King Tang of Shang of China

King Tang of Shang of China, in Chinese:"湯", born Zi Lu, in Chinese:"子履" (1617 BC - 1588 BC) was the first king of the Shang dynasty in Chinese history. He fought Jie, the last king of the Xia dynasty.

He was the leader of his tribe, or group of people,  for more than 17 years. While leader, he made many smart men officials to help fix his government. 

When he saw that the Xia Dynasty was starting to be weak, Tang started 16 wars fighting the Xia Dynasty, getting many lands. Tang finally defeated the dynasty in 1600bc.
 
Many people of his country thought he was a good leader.  He made taxes smaller and did not force his people to be soldiers for a long time. He affected many people from foreign places.

1617 BC births
1588 BC deaths

Kings of Shang Dynasty
Bu Bing

King Bu Bing of Shang of China, in Chinese:"卜丙", born Zi Sheng, in Chinese:"子勝",.  He was the third king of the Shang Dynasty (1600 BC - 1046 BC). He was the second son of King Tang. 

In Records of the Grand Historian, he was recorded as the second king of the Shang Dynasty. In that book he is given the name "Wai Bing", in Chinese:"外丙". But in the oracle script, he was recorded as the third king of the Shang Dynasty. In these records his name is "Bu Bing",in Chinese:"卜丙".

Kings of Shang Dynasty
New Year's Eve

New Year's Eve is the holiday before New Year's Day, on December 31, the last day of the current year. 

Today, Western countries usually celebrate this day with a party which ends with a group countdown to midnight. Party hats, noisemakers, fire crackers and drinking champagne are fairly common during this holiday.

Many towns also have firework shows or other noisy ways to start the new year. Places like Berlin, Chicago, Edinburgh, Los Angeles, London, New York, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Sydney, Toronto,  and Tokyo are well known for their New Year's Eve celebrations.

New Year's Eve is also a work holiday in some countries, such as Australia, Argentina, Brazil, France, Mexico, the Philippines, and Venezuela.

Related pages

 Chinese New Year
 Omisoka (Japan)
 Áramótaskaupið (Iceland)

Holidays
Chen dynasty

The Chen dynasty 陳朝 (557-589) was the fourth and the last of the southern dynasties in China.  It was an ethnic Han dynasty.

Few records survive from the time of the Chen dynasty.  However, the records that exist say that the dynasty was strong and rich. Legend says that the Chen dynasty had ten times more wealth than Europe at the time.  The Chen dynasty's rulers had a tax system and ruling system similar to the Kang-Qian 'flourishing age'.  (The Kang-Qian age was the last and richest Chinese feudal dynasty).

The Chen dynasty took in an enormous amount of silver, which was used as money at the time.  The records that still exist say that the dynasty had as much as 30 million taels of silver in their reserves.  (A silver tael weighed about 30 grams.)  During the Chen dynasty, there was also a huge demand for Chinese silk, spices, porcelain, artwork, and many other products.

In the year 589, the Sui dynasty took over the Chen dynasty after the last Chen Emperor abdicated (gave up his position as Emperor).

Kings

Chinese dynasties
557 establishments
589 disestablishments
6th-century establishments in Asia
Establishments in China
Disestablishments in China
Fighter aircraft

Fighter aircraft are small military planes that are made to fight other airplanes. They are often fast, having aerodynamic shapes (shapes that make them move through air easily) and very powerful engines for their size. They also usually are maneuverable (turn well). Fighters can carry many different kinds of weapons, including missiles, machine guns, and bombs. While fighters may be used as attack aircraft to attack vehicles, soldiers, or buildings on the ground, they are different from bombers because they are mainly designed to fight other airplanes. Specialized fighters have been made, such as night fighters, interceptors, and air superiority fighters.

Examples of fighter aircraft 
 Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor
 MiG-17
 North American P-51 Mustang
 SPAD S.XIII

Other websites 

 WW2DB: List of WW2-era Fighter Aircraft
 aircraft fighter: aircraft fighter in the world

Military aviation
Air force
Aircraft carrier

Aircraft carriers are warships that carry airplanes and other aircraft like helicopters. They are used by navies to allow aircraft to fight along with naval warships.  Aircraft carriers are usually very large, carrying hundreds or thousands of sailors and tens or hundreds of aircraft.

The top of an aircraft carrier is called the flight deck and looks like a very small airport. Old aircraft carriers carried airplanes that could takeoff and land in the short distance of the flight deck without help. Similarly, small modern aircraft carriers only carry helicopters or specially designed airplanes such as the Harrier that can take off and land straight up and down or in the short distance of the flight deck. 

The flight deck of a large, modern aircraft carrier has a landing area and a take-off area. The landing area is in the back and has a short runway. Airplanes stop by using a hook on the back of the airplane to grab wires stretched across the runway. In the front, the flight deck has a steam-powered catapult that connects to the front wheel of an airplane. The catapult pulls and throws the airplane off the deck, helping it take off quickly. So, aircraft carriers are basically small, floating, mobile airports. 

Because they are big ships and need much electric power, big modern aircraft carriers have on-board nuclear power plants. Others are powered by oil-burning engines.

Except for their airplanes, aircraft carriers usually have few weapons, so other warships escort them. Together, the aircraft carrier and these warships form a carrier group.

Military aviation
Warships
Bay of Bengal

The Bay of Bengal is a bay. It is in the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. The bay is also west of the Malay Peninsula and east of India. It looks like a triangle. It is called the "Bay of Bengal", because to the north are the Indian state of West Bengal and the country of Bangladesh.it is an extended part of the Indian ocean. But most of the part the see landed on part of Bangladesh. It has four sea port on part of Bangladesh. Bay of Bengal  named on the history of Bangladesh.

References 

Bays
Geography of Asia
Indian Ocean
Malay Peninsula

The Malay Peninsula (Malay: Semenanjung Tanah Melayu) is a big peninsula in Southeast Asia. The place is divided into three political parts. This includes:

 the northwest is the extreme south part of Myanmar
 the middle area and northeast is the south part of Thailand
 the south is the part of Malaysia called Peninsular Malaysia or West Malaysia

Geography of Asia
Peninsulas
Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia, is the southeastern part of Asia. There are ten countries in this region. All the countries in Southeast Asia are a part of ASEAN, except for East Timor. Some of the countries are mostly on the Asian mainland; they were formerly called Indochina. The others are only on islands. All of the countries in Southeast Asia are in the tropics except for the northernmost areas of Myanmar, which is in the subtropics. These are the countries in Southeast Asia:
 Brunei
 Cambodia
 East Timor
 Indonesia
 Lao PDR (Laos)
 Malaysia
 Myanmar (formerly Burma)
 Philippines
 Singapore
 Thailand
 Vietnam

The United Nations also includes the region of North-east India and Bangladesh traditionally, due to ethnicity similarities and culturally as part of Southeast Asia.

Related pages
 Central Asia
 East Asia
 South Asia
 West Asia

References
American Graffiti

American Graffiti is a 1973 American teen comedy-drama movie directed by George Lucas. This was Lucas' second movie and made him very well known. It is about what happens to a group of teenagers one night in August 1962 in Modesto, California, while they are driving around town and listening to radio DJ Wolfman Jack.

Release dates

Other websites 

1973 comedy movies
1973 drama movies
1970s comedy-drama movies
1970s teen movies
American comedy-drama movies
American teen comedy movies
American teen drama movies
English-language movies
Movies directed by George Lucas
Movies set in California
Movies set in the 1960s
United States National Film Registry movies
Universal Pictures movies
Screenplays by George Lucas
Infrared

Infrared (IR) radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation (a wave with electricity) . The wave is longer than light which humans can see and shorter than microwaves. The word infrared means below red. It comes from the Latin word infra (meaning below) and the English word red. (Infrared light has a frequency below the frequency of red light.) Red light has the longest wavelength that human eyes can see. Infrared waves cannot be seen by the eye.

Near-infrared waves are between 800 nm and 1.4 µm. Most infrared from the Sun is near-infrared. Thermal imaging is mostly done with thermal radiation waves between 8 and 15 µm.

People sense infrared as heat.

Most remote controls use infrared to send the control signals. Many missiles for anti-aircraft warfare find their target by infrared.

Telecommunications 
Before Bluetooth was invented, some computers, personal digital assistants, and mobile phones used infrared technology to send files to other devices. Bluetooth replaced infrared in the early 2000s. Infrared is limited by the need to have both devices in a "line of sight" with each other.

Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fiber communications systems. Infrared light with a wavelength around 1,330 nm (least dispersion) or 1,550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices for standard silica fibers.

Related pages 
 Infrared spectroscopy
 Infrared telescope

References 

Physics
 
Chemistry
Republika Srpska

Republika Srpska (Serbo-Croatian: Република Српска / Republika Srpska) is one of the two parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina.  The other part is the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and there is also a special city that is not in either, the Brčko District.

Regions 
The Republika Srpska has seven main parts (called regions). They are:

Related pages
 Municipalities of Republika Srpska

References

Other websites 

Regions of Republika Srpska
 
1995 establishments in Europe
20th century establishments in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Kenneth Branagh

Sir Kenneth Branagh (born 10 December 1960) is a British actor, movie director and television producer. He played Hamlet. He has directed and acted in many Shakespeare adaptations. He has acted alongside popular actors including: Emma Thompson, Keanu Reeves, Michael Keaton, Maggie Smith and Alan Rickman. 

Since Richard Attenborough's death in August 2014, Branagh has been the president of the Royal Academy of the Dramatic Arts in London.

In 2022, he won a Golden Globe Award for screenplay writing and earned two Academy Award nominations for his movie Belfast.

Filmography

Other websites 

1960 births
Living people
Actors from Northern Ireland
BAFTA Award winning actors
BAFTA Award winning directors
British movie actors
British movie directors
British movie producers
British stage actors
British television actors
British television producers
Emmy Award winning actors
People from Belfast
Golden Globe Award winning writers
Sculpture

Sculpture is a type of art. It must be three-dimensional (meaning it must have height, width, and depth like a cube). There are many kinds of sculptures from different parts of the world, like China and India, or from different time periods, like the renaissance and modern times. The pictures below are of sculptures:
 Holograms
 Pottery
 Glass blowing
 Costume
 Mask
 Doll
 Relief
 Statue

Examples

References 

 
Non-verbal communication
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor

Charles V (24 February 1500–21 September 1558) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1519, King of Castile and Aragon from 1516, and Lord of the Low Countries as Duke of Burgundy from 1506. 

Philip the Handsome (son of Maximilian I of Austria and Mary of Burgundy) and Joanna the Mad  (daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile) were his parents. He ruled Austria, Spain, Two Sicilies, Sardinia, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg, Hungary, Bohemia, Croatia, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela.

His Majesty or His Imperial Majesty was first used when he was king. His Empire became large and was known as "in which the sun does not set". He was also known as "The Emperor of Universal Dominion."

He divided his empire between his brother Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor and his son Philip II of Spain.

1500 births
1558 deaths

Holy Roman Emperors
Kings and Queens of Spain
Kings and Queens of Italy
Counts and countesses of Flanders
Lava

Lava is magma, hot molten rock that flows through holes in the Earth's crust and onto the surface. Like magma, lava can be either viscous (~thick) or fluid (~thin). Blocky lava is so thick and slow that it barely moves along the ground. Other types of lava, like pahoehoe, aa, and pillow lava, are thinner and flow faster. Lava sometimes sets things on fire. Sometimes it even destroys towns.

Types of lava

Blocky lava 
Blocky lava is cool, stiff lava that cannot travel far from where it was erupted. Blocky lava usually oozes out from a volcano only after an explosion has let out lots of the gas pressure from the place where there is magma. Blocky lava makes jumbled piles of sharp chunks.

Pahoehoe 
Pronounced pah HOY HOY, pahoehoe gets its name from the Hawaiian word for "ropy" because its surface looks like coils of rope. Pahoehoe lava flows slowly, like wax dripping down from a candle, making a glassy surface with round wrinkles.

Aa 
Aa is a Hawaiian word that is pronounced AH-AH. This lava that has a sharp, jagged surface. This stiff lava pours out quickly and makes a crust that breaks easily. The crust is torn into sharp pieces as the hot lava underneath still moves.

Pillow lava 
Pillow lava is made when lava erupts underwater. It makes round lumps that are the size and shape of pillows. Pillow lava has a round shape because the lava cools very quickly when it touches water.

They occur wherever mafic or intermediate lavas push out under water. This happens along marine hotspot volcano chains and the constructive plate boundaries of mid-ocean ridges. Pillow lavas occur in the oldest preserved volcanic sequences on earth, the Isua and Barberton greenstone belts. This shows that large bodies of water were on the Earth's surface early in the Archaean. Pillow lavas are used generally to show volcanism occurred underwater in metamorphic belts. Pillow lavas are also found where volcanoes were under ice early before an eruption.

Lava tube 
A lava tube is a natural channel formed in flowing lava. The lava continues flowing under the tube's upper surface. Later, when the lava is cooled and solid, the tube remains as a feature in the landscape.

Gallery

References

Other websites

Volcanology
1178



Events 
 June 18 – Five Canterbury monks see what was possibly the Giordano Bruno crater being formed
 The Sung Document written detailing the discovery of "Mu-Lan-Pi" (suggested by some to be California) by Muslim sailors
 The Chronicle of Gervase of Canterbury written
 The Leaning Tower of Pisa begins to lean as the third level is completed
675



Deaths 
 Saint Colman, bishop of Lindisfarne
 Wulfhere, king of Mercia
 Saint Amand
1106



Events 
 September 28 – Henry I of England defeats his older brother Robert Curthose, duke of Normandy, at the Battle of Tinchebrai, and imprisons him in Devizes castle; Edgar Atheling and William Clito are also taken prisoner.
 Balaguer, Spain, is captured from the Moors by the count of Urgell.
 Boleslaus III of Poland begins a war against his brother Zbigniew for control of Poland.
525



Events 
Bernicia settled by the Angles
Ethiopia conquers Yemen
The Daisan river, a tributary of the Euphrates, floods Edessa and within a couple of hours fills the entire city except for the highest parts. Eventually the pent-up waters break through the city walls. The Shroud of Turin was discovered during the rebuilding of the city.
Byzantine emperor Justin I rebuilds Anazarbus and renames it Justinopolis.
Dionysius Exiguus produces his tables for computing the date of Easter.
1221



Deaths 
 August 6 – Saint Dominic, Spanish founder of the Dominicans (born 1170)
 October 4 – William III Talvas, Count of Ponthieu (born 1179)
 October 21 – Alix of Thouars, Duchess of Brittany (born 1201)
 Roger Bigod, 2nd Earl of Norfolk
1156



Events 
 Establishment of the Carmelite Order
 Hogen Rebellion in Japan
 January 20 – According to legend, freeholder Lalli slays English crusader Bishop Henry with an axe on the ice of the lake Köyliönjärvi in Finland.
 The Privilegium Minus elevates Austria to the status of a duchy ruled by the Babenburgs family. (see History of Austria).
 Mosan artists create the Stavelot Triptych, a masterpiece of goldsmithing, as a reliquary to house purported pieces of the True Cross.
1226



Deaths 
 March 7 – William de Longespee, 3rd Earl of Salisbury, English military leader
 October 3 – Francis of Assisi, Italian saint (born 1181)
 November 8 – King Louis VIII of France (born 1187)
 November 14 – Frederick of Isenberg, German politician (executed) (b. 1193)
 December 11 – Robert de Ros, English baron (born 1177)
 Pandulph, Roman ecclesiastical politician
1219



Events 
 Saint Francis of Assisi introduces Catholicism into Egypt, during the Fifth Crusade
 The Flag of Denmark fell from the sky during the Battle of Lyndanisse
1711



Events 
 John Shore invents the tuning fork.
 Alexander Pope publishes An Essay on Criticism.

Births 
 April 26 - David Hume, Scottish philosopher (d. 1776)
 September 11 - William Boyce, English composer
 October 15 - Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine, Queen of Sardinia
 December 11 - Bárbara of Portugal, Portuguese princess

Deaths
 April 14 - Louis, le Grand Dauphin, son of Louis XIV of France (b. 1661)
1765


Year 1765 (MDCCLXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar.

Events 
 The first true restaurant opens in Paris, where a tavern-keeper named Boulanger sells cooked dishes at an all-night place on the Rue Bailleul
 Nicholas Cugnot pioneers the automobile with a three-wheel gun tractor
 James Watt supersedes the 1705 Newcomen engine with a more effective steam engine
 In Lisbon, the auto-da-fé parade (often an excuse for violence against Jews or Christian 'heretics') is abolished
 Josef II becomes Holy Roman Emperor
 Horace Walpole publishes The Castle of Otranto
 The birth of Mary Bryant, one of the first successful escapees from the fledging Australian penal colony.
1590



Events 
 March 14 – Battle of Ivry – Henry IV of France again defeats the forces of the Catholic League under the Duc de Mayenne.
 May – August – Unsuccessful siege of Paris by Henry IV of France. Henry is forced to raise the siege when the Duke of Parma comes to its relief with a Spanish army.
 May 17 – Anne of Denmark is crowned queen of Scotland.
 August 18 – John White, the governor of the Colony of Roanoke, returns from a supply-trip to England and finds his settlement deserted.
 September 15 – Pope Urban VII succeeds Sixtus V.
 December 5 – Pope Gregory XIV succeeds Urban VII.
 Coptic Pope Gabriel VIII succeeds Yoannis XIV.
 Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria Meletius I succeeds Silvester.
 Japan is united by Toyotomi Hideyoshi
1628



Events 
 March 1 – writs were issued in February 1628 by Charles I of England that every county in England (not just seaport towns) pay ship tax by this date.
 August 10 – The Swedish 64 gun sailing ship Vasa sinks on her maiden voyage in the Stockholm harbor
 September 6 – Puritans settle Salem which will later become part of Massachusetts Bay Colony.
 October 28–Siege of La Rochelle ends with the surrender of the Huguenots.
 Charles I reconvenes the English Parliament and accepts the Petition of Right as a concession to gain his subsidies.
 Island of Santorini explodes.
 John Felton assassinates George Villiers, duke of Buckingham.
 William Harvey publishes his findings about blood circulation.
 The Collegiate School, today the oldest educational institution in North America, is established.
 Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus, by William Harvey, is published.
1105



Events 
 Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor deposed by his son, Henry V
 Tamna kingdom annexed by Korean Goryeo Dynasty.
1622



Events 
 January 1 – In the Gregorian calendar, January 1 is declared as the first day of the year, instead of March 25.
 February 8 – King James I of England disbands the English Parliament.
 March 22 – In the Jamestown massacre, Algonquian Native Americans kill 347 English settlers around Jamestown, Virginia (1/3 of the colony's population) and destroys the Henricus settlement.
 May 13 — the Eendracht, Dutch VOC sailing ship and the second recorded European ship to make landfall on Australian soil, is wrecked off the western coast of Ambon Island, Dutch East Indies.
 Étienne Brûlé is the first European to see Lake Superior.
 Portugal loses control of the island of Ormus, after 107 years.
 Albertus Magnus is beatified by the Roman Catholic Church.
 Spanish galleon Nuestra Señora de Atocha sinks off the Florida Keys, while carrying copper, silver, gold, tobacco, and indigo. (Wreck discovered 1985).
Levi Eshkol

Levi Eshkol (born Levi Shkolnik, October 25, 1895 – February 26, 1969) was the 3rd Prime Minister of Israel from 1963 until his death in 1969. He is buried in Mount Herzl in Jerusalem.

1895 births
1969 deaths
Burials at Mount Herzl
Former Members of Knesset
Government ministers of Israel
Israeli former political leaders
Jewish Israeli politicians
Mapai politicians
Naturalized citizens of Israel
Prime Ministers of Israel
Ukrainian Jews
1580



Events 
March 1 – Michel de Montaigne signs the preface to his most significant work, Essays. They are published later the same year.
June 11 – Juan de Garay founds Buenos Aires.
June 25 – Publication of the Book of Concord, a collection of Lutheran confessional documents.
July 12 – Publication of the Ostrog Bible, the first complete printed Bible in a Slavic language.
September 26 – Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe
1580-1764 First session of Jewish Waad (Sejm of 4 countries) in Lublin, Poland. 70 delegates of Jewish local kahals met to discuss taxations and other issues important to Jewish communities.
Portugal loses independence to Spain following the death without heirs of king Henry of Portugal. The Habsburg rule would last until 1640.
Yermak entered Siberia with a band of 1636 men. Russia begins the conquest of Siberia.
1045



Events 
 Emperor Go-Reizei ascends the throne of Japan.
 Harold Godwinson becomes Earl of Wessex.
 Edward the Confessor marries Edith.
 Edward the Confessor begins construction on Westminster Abbey.
 Pope Benedict IX sells the Papacy to Pope Gregory VI.
 Movable type printing is invented by Bi Sheng in China.

Deaths 
 June – Rainulf Drengot, Norman adventurer.
Islam and clothing

Muslims have different dress codes for different contexts. Conservative ideas of hijab require people to dress modestly both for outside and religious contexts. Clothing for everyday wear, inside and outside the house is different, and very much depends on the family.

Clothes for men
Islamic men wear thobes as well as Kufi Hat's.Muslim men also have many rules about clothing, some of the most strict ones involve gold, there are over 160 rules  

A mans clothing is modest and loose so as not to emphasize the shape of the body. It should cover at least the area from navel to knees.
They should wear a qamisi a knee covering religious clothing to prayer and many many more.

Clothes for women

Islam says that women should dress in a very special way. This dress code applies to women and adolescent girls, but not to children. Usually, women who travel to Islamic countries should also wear such dress.

In the very least, the garment should cover the shoulders. Long-sleeved garments (and trousers) are preferred. Use a headscarf to cover the hair (especially when you enter a mosque or other place of worship).

Abaya- long flowing outer garment worn over all other clothing.
Jilbab- garment that may be worn like a dress, usually with trousers underneath.
Dupatta- a long rectangular scarf usually worn over the shoulders in front of the neck, or however you prefer. Women will sometimes use a dupatta over their head for a hijab.
Scarf or veil - the head covering worn by many Muslim women. Traditionally, it is a square folded into a triangle or simply a triangle, but also can be a rectangular shape. To wear- bring the two corners together and pin/knot/wrap at the neck.
Niqab- a veil worn to cover the face. A niqab can be made to leave only the eyes uncovered, only the eyes and forehead uncovered, or to leave the forehead, eyes, and nose uncovered, covering only the mouth.
Burka- a long, loose piece of clothing covering the whole body from head to feet, worn in public by women in many Muslim countries. 

Society
Pepin the Short

Pepin the Short or Pippin (714 – September 24, 768), often known as Pepin the Younger or Pepin III, was King of the Franks from 751 to 768.

Pepin was the son of Charles Martel and Chrotrud (690 - 720), and was born in Jupille, Belgium.

In 740 Pepin married Bertrada of Laon. She was the daughter of Caribert of Laon. They had two sons and a daughter who lived long enough to become adults:

 Charlemagne
 Carloman
 Gisela

Pepin died at Saint Denis and is buried in the basilica with his wife, Bertrada of Laon. His sons, Charlemagne and Carloman, were each King of half the Kingdom of the Franks after him.

714 births
768 deaths

Kings and Queens of France
Chris Martin

Christopher Anthony John "Chris" Martin (born 2 March 1977) is an English singer and pianist for the band Coldplay. He also plays the guitar. He was born in Exeter, Devon, England. He married Gwyneth Paltrow in 2003. They have two children, a daughter, Apple (born 2004) and a son, Moses (born 2006). The couple separated in 2014. 

His band members are called Jonny Buckland (lead guitarist), Guy Berryman (bassist) and Will Champion (drummer).  They met while studying at University College London. In January 1998, they formed the rock band Coldplay. They were influenced by the Scottish rock band Travis.  U2 was another important influence on Martin both musically and politically. 

Martin does not smoke cigarettes or drink alcohol. PETA said he was the World's Sexiest Vegetarian in 2005!

Filmography

Television

Movies

Solo discography
See Coldplay for his work with the band.

References

1977 births
British anti–Iraq War activists
Coldplay
English pianists
English rock guitarists
English rock singers
Living people
Musicians from Devon
Wikibooks

Wikibooks (previously called Wikimedia Free Textbook Project and Wikimedia-Textbooks) is a collection of free books. It is one of many projects that are run by the Wikimedia Foundation. It is a wiki, which makes it possible for anyone to edit.

Some books are original, but others have started as text copied from other sources of free-content textbooks found on the Internet.

The CC-BY-SA license covers all the content that is in Wikibooks.

In February 2010, the Simple English Wikibooks was closed and locked due to anti-Simple-English users on Meta-Wiki misleading the Wikimedia Language Committee.

Wikijunior 
Wikijunior is a subproject of Wikibooks that has books for children. The project consists of both a magazine and a website, and is currently being developed in English, Danish, Finnish, French, German, Italian, Japanese, and Spanish. It is funded by a grant from the Beck Foundation.

Pages in Wikijunior will have the Wikijunior: prefix in front of the page's name.

Sources

Other websites 
Wikibooks Main page
Wikibooks in English

Wikimedia
Wikis
Websites established in 2004
Charles IX of France

Charles IX of France (June 27, 1550 – May 30, 1574) was a King of France and a member of the house of Valois.

Birth 
Charles was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, on June 27, 1550. His parents were Henry II of France and Catherine of Medici.

Marriage 
Charles was married to Elizabeth of Austria on November 26, 1570. They had one child, Mary Elizabeth of France (October 27, 1572 – April 9, 1578), who died young.

Death 
Charles died in Vincennes, France, on May 30, 1574. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica. The next King was Henry III of France.

1550 births
1574 deaths

Kings and Queens of France
House of Valois
Henry III of France

Henry III of France (September 19, 1551 – August 2, 1589) was a King of France and a member of the House of Valois. He was also a King of Poland.

Birth 
Henry was born in Fontainbleau, France, on September 19, 1551. His parents were Henry II of France and Catherine de Medici. He was Catherine de Medici's favourite son.

Marriage 
Henry was married to Louise of Lorraine on February 13, 1575. They had no children.

Death 
Henry died in Saint-Cloud, France, on August 2, 1589, after being stabbed with a knife. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica. Henry was the last King of the Valois Dynasty. The next King was Henry IV of France, who was a member of the Bourbon Dynasty.

1551 births
1589 deaths

Kings and Queens of France
House of Valois
LGBT royalty
981



Births 
Princess Theodora, later Empress of the Eastern Roman Empire.
997



Deaths 
 April 23 – Saint Adalbert of Prague (martyred)
999



Deaths 
February 7 – Boleslaus II, Duke of Bohemia
February 18 – Pope Gregory V
December 16 – Saint Adelaide of Italy (b. 931)
Maredudd ab Owain king of Deheubarth and Powys
1015



Events 
 August: King Cnut the Great of Denmark launches an invasion of Mercia and Northumbria in England.
 Berserkers are banned in Norway.
 Olav Haraldsson becomes king of Norway.
 Sviatopolk succeeds Vladimir as prince of Kiev.

References
418

418 was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.

Events
 Theodoric I becomes king of the Visigoths.
 December 28 – Pope Boniface I succeeds Zosimus as the 42nd pope.
 Eulalius is elected antipope of Rome.

December 26 – Pope Zosimus
Constance of Arles

Constance of Arles (c. 986 – 28 July 1032), also known as Constance of Provence, was queen of France as the third spouse of King Robert II of France.
Constance of Arles (973 - July 25, 1034) was the third wife of Robert II of France.  They were married in 1003 after Robert had divorced his second wife, Bertha. She was buried in the Saint Denis Basilica with Robert II of France.

They had several children:
Henry I of France
Adela of France - is the mother of Matilda of Flanders, who was the wife of William I of England
Robert I of Burgundy
Eudes of France
Constance of France, married to Count Manasses of Dammartin

Kings and Queens consort of France

973 births
1034 deaths
Marie of Boulogne

Marie of Boulogne was the Countess of Boulogne from 1159 until 1170.

Marie was the daughter of Stephen of England and Matilda of Boulogne.  She was placed in a convent when she was young so that she could become a nun.  When her brother, William of Blois, died, she became the heir of the Count of Boulogne.  She had to leave the convent and was married to Matthew of Alsace.  Marie and Matthew ruled Boulogne together, but their marriage was not happy and they got a divorce in 1170.  

After Marie died, Matthew continued to be the Count of Boulogne until 1173.  After this Marie and Matthew's daughter, Ida of Boulogne, became Countess of Boulogne.  Marie and Matthew's other daughter, Maud of Boulogne, became the wife of Henry I of Brabant.

French people
Earls and countesses
Alix of France

Alix of France was the youngest daughter of Louis VII of France and Eleanor of Aquitaine.  She was married to Theobald V of Blois in 1164.  Their children included:
Louis I of Blois
Margaret of Blois

French royalty

1151 births
1190s deaths
Flemish Region

Flemish Region (Dutch: Vlaams Gewest) is a region in the north of Belgium. The official language is Dutch, sometimes called Flemish. Flanders has 5 provinces. About 7 million people live there. Its capital is Brussels.

Flanders is one of three regions in Belgium. The other two regions are Wallonia (or Walloon Region) and Brussels-Capital Region.

References

Geography of Belgium
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band

Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band is an album released by The Beatles. It was the 9th Beatles album to be released in the United Kingdom.  It was released on 1 June 1967, and stayed at the top of the charts for twenty-seven weeks.  It has lots of well-known songs such as McCartney's "When I'm Sixty-Four" and "A Day in the Life", which Lennon and McCartney worked on together.  For a while before this album came out, The Beatles had been trying new things when they made records, but this album made a much bigger change in the way they sounded.

The album title was used later for a 1978 Universal Pictures movie. Peter Frampton and the Bee Gees played Sgt. Pepper's band, while Billy Preston was the Sergeant. George Burns played Mr. Kite (the mayor), Steve Martin (in his first film) played Maxwell Edison, and Aerosmith was the Future Villain Band. It consistently holds the top spot on critics' lists of the greatest albums of all time.

Songs on the album

Sources

The Beatles albums
1967 albums
Concept albums
Rock albums
Standing's day gecko

The Standing's day gecko (Phelsuma standingi Methuen & Hewitt, 1913) is a  type of gecko. It is diurnal, which means that it sleeps during the night and is awake during the day. It lives in southwest Madagascar and usually is found on trees. Standing's day gecko eats insects and nectar (a type of drink created by flowers).

Lizards
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor

Charles VI (1 October 1685 – 20 October 1740) was Holy Roman Emperor from 12 October 1711 to 20 October 1740. He succeeded his elder brother, Joseph I. His daughter, Maria Theresia of Austria, inherited the throne after he died.

1685 births
1740 deaths
Holy Roman Emperors
Habsburg Dynasty
Counts and countesses of Flanders
Archdukes and Archduchesses of Austria
Pierre Trudeau

Joseph Philippe Pierre Yves Elliott Trudeau  (October 18, 1919 in Montreal, Canada – September 28, 2000 in Montreal, Canada) was the 15th Canadian Prime Minister during the 1970s (1968 - 1979), and then again from 1980 - 1984. He is thought by many Canadian citizens today as having been the greatest Canadian Prime Minister ever. His son is the 23rd and current Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau.

As Prime Minister 
He had many challenges during the 1970s, including the October Crisis, and in 1980 held the country together by defeating the referendum on Quebec sovereignty (the province of Quebec wanted to leave Canada and become its own country), and keeping Quebec a member of the Canadian state. Another popular event associated with Pierre Trudeau is Trudeaumania, which referred to how much he was liked by the Canadian people. As a relatively young man, he was very close to the youth of the time, as well as funny, and he appealed to everyone by being so understanding and just like a normal person. This kind of Prime Minister had never been seen before, and it made people feel like he was a good, friendly person.

Retirement and death 

Trudeau retired from being the Prime Minister in 1984, after which he did not speak to the public very much. He died of prostate cancer and Parkinson's disease in Montreal on September 28, 2000. After he died, his son, Justin Trudeau, spoke at his funeral, which was shown all over the country. He said je t'aime (French for "I love you") and cried on his father's coffin. After this moving eulogy (a speech at a funeral about the dead person), many Canadian people thought Justin would have a future in politics; Justin is the 23 Prime Minister of Canada, elected in 2015. 

1919 births
2000 deaths
Cancer deaths in Quebec
Deaths from prostate cancer
Deaths from Parkinson's disease
Companions of Honour
Order of Canada
People from Montreal
Privy Councillors (Canada)
Leaders of the Opposition (Canada)
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Quebec
Canadian Queen's Counsel
Jennifer Lopez

Jennifer Lynn Lopez (also known as J. Lo) is a Grammy-nominated American singer, dancer, fashion designer and actress. She was born July 24, 1969. She's most known for her performances in Selena, Maid in Manhattan, Out of Sight (co-starring George Clooney), Monster-in-Law, The Cell, and An Unfinished Life (with Robert Redford and Morgan Freeman). She also was a judge for the talent reality series American Idol in 2011 and from 2014 until the show's series finale in 2016.

She began her career as a "Fly Girl" dancer on the 1990s TV series, In Living Color.  Her first album On the 6 was released in 1999. It contains the hit singles "If You Had My Love", "No Me Ames", "Waiting for Tonight", "Feelin' So Good" and "Let's Get Loud". She released J.Lo in 2001, her most successful album to date. J to tha L-O! The Remixes and This Is Me...Then were released in 2002.  The album Brave was released in 2007, followed by Love? in 2011. She has released one greatest hits album, Dance Again... The Hits, in 2012.  Her most recent album is A.K.A., which was released in 2014.

She has many records, including record for having a movie and album (The Wedding Planner, and J.Lo) both #1 on the same week.

Personal life 
All of Lopez' three marriages ended in divorce.

From February 1997 until January 1998 Lopez was married to Ojani Noa.

From September 2001 until June 2002 she was married to Cris Judd.

On June 5, 2004, she married Marc Anthony. They have twin children, son Maximillian David Muñiz and daughter Emme Maribel Muñiz (born on February 22, 2008). The couple separated in July 2011 and divorced in June 2014.

From 2017 to 2021, Lopez has been in a relationship with former MLB star Alex Rodriguez. They were engaged in March 2019. They split in 2021. 

After dating from 2002 to 2004, Lopez reconciled with and began dating American Actor Ben Affleck in April 2021. She publicly confirmed their relationship on her 52nd birthday later that July

Discography 

Studio albums
 1999: On the 6
 2001: J.Lo
 2002: This Is Me... Then
 2005: Rebirth
 2007: Como Ama una Mujer (Spanish language album)
 2007: Brave
 2011: Love?
 2014: A.K.A.

Compilation albums
 2012: Dance Again... the Hits

Remix albums
 2002: J to tha L-O!: The Remixes

DVDs

 2000: Feelin' So Good
 2003: Let's Get Loud
 2003: The Reel Me
 2007: Como Ama una Mujer

Number-one singles

Filmography

Movies

Television

References 

Actors from the Bronx
American dancers
American hip hop musicians
American movie actors
American pop singers
American R&B singers
American television actors
Businesspeople from New York City
 
Latin singers
Musicians from the Bronx
Singers from New York City
1969 births
Living people
Ritual

A ritual (or a rite) is a set of actions people do. In a ritual, the actions are important because every action stands for something. Each ritual of a type is done in a certain way.  Danger might be involved in carrying out the ritual. When the ritual has been performed successfully, it is often followed by a celebration.

Rituals can mark a personal change. For example, a rite of passage may show that a child has reached the age of majority. All societies seem to have had them.

A religious rite is a religious ceremony. Many rituals have a religious significance and are part of the religion or traditions of a community. The rite signals that those who take part are members of the religion, or believers in the religion. The rite may signal status, qualification, prayer and commitment to the god or to the belief.

A rite need not be to a religion as understood in the present day. Fervent support of a sports team, or kissing the ring of an organised crime lord, or a military enrollment is equally a rite, because it has consequences for the behaviour of the person, and for their beliefs.

A ritual can also be linked to obsessive compulsive disorder, when a person believes that performing the ritual again and again is necessary.

References

Related pages 
 Mass (liturgy)
 Ceremony

Culture