cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Evidence (law)

In law, evidence is an object of some kind, a document of some kind, or the testimony of a person in a court of law.  Evidence is used to show something is either true or false. Evidence has to follow rules in most jurisdictions. In the United States, for example, evidence was based on legal precedent until 1975. In that year Congress created the Federal Rules of Evidence. They became the official rules that all forms of evidence must follow in federal courts. Most states in the US use rules based on the federal rules. China, while a civil law country, has followed much of the US Federal Rules of Evidence in their " Uniform Provisions of Evidence".

A subpoena can be used to require a person or organization to provide documents used for evidence.

Admissibility of evidence 
In most jurisdictions there are exclusionary rules that automatically suppress certain kinds of evidence. For example, in the US, this may be evidence that violates the constitutional rights of a defendant. To be admissible in most jurisdictions, evidence must be relevant and it must be reliable. In most cases evidence that may prejudice a jury or judge against a defendant is inadmissible.

Kinds of evidence 
Testimony is a statement made by a witness in a court. It is accepted as true or false based on other evidence.
Real evidence (also called Physical evidence). Real evidence is a thing, an object of some kind, that can be inspected. This may to be to see it actually exists or that it makes an inference of some kind.
Hearsay evidence is when a witness or other person makes a statement outside of court. It is a statement by a witness in court regarding something not of the person's own knowledge but that they heard from someone else. Generally, hearsay evidence is rarely admitted in court.
Documentary evidence is any document presented as evidence so it may be inspected in court.
Demonstrative evidence can be a model or demonstration of what happened at a particular time or place.
Eyewitness testimony is an account given under oath to events the person witnessed. It depends on human memory and can be affected by a number of factors which may make the accounts inaccurate.
Circumstantial evidence (also called Indirect evidence) is evidence that does not directly prove a fact of a case but may be inferred or presumed to have a bearing on a case. Circumstantial evidence can make a defendant appear to be guilty without directly proving guilt. Many courts consider circumstantial evidence to be more powerful than eyewitness testimony.
Corroborating Evidence is evidence used to strengthen other pieces of evidence already given.
Expert testimony is evidence given by experts in their fields. This may include "skilled witnesses" who by their experience may testify. Examples include bankers or landowners testifying to the value of a piece of land.

References 

Legal terms
Gourd

Gourds are from the pumpkin  family. They are about 15 to 12 inches long. Gourds are mostly found in the United States or in Mexico. Their shape is like a squash. Their color is orange, brown, or green. It is eaten in curries, spaghetti, tacos, and salad.

Other websites

Vegetables
Cucurbitaceae
Impartiality

An essential part of any of the world's legal systems is impartiality. It is important for tribunals, judges, juries and arbitrators to be impartial. It is equally important for the legal systems themselves to be impartial.

Judges and tribunals 
Judges cannot favor one party over another or give more weight to one side's claims than the other. Judges learn about the law from outside the courtroom and before a trial begins. Because of this a judge may have an opinion regarding the law. When a judge expresses these views he or she is not being impartial.

Juries 
In the US legal system, juries are screened and individuals selected by a process called voir dire. Both the prosecution and the defense question jury candidates before a judge. This is to see if they can remain impartial. Any person having a personal interest in the outcome of the trial or who is obviously biased may be removed. This is called striking a juror. It is rare to have more than 10% of potential jurors struck from a trial. Trial by jury began in the United Kingdom. Except for cases where there is a provision by the law, it is the right of every person accused of a crime to have an impartial jury trial. More and more criminal trials are held without a jury. The less severe crimes are tried by magistrates. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees the right to a fair trial. In Canada juries are made up of 12 ordinary persons, male or female, who are expected to be impartial triers of fact. They decide whether the Crown (the prosecution) has made its case. Judges have the option of increasing the jury to 13 or 14 jurors, but only 12 may vote on the guilt or innocence of the accused. 

Juries in Scotland have 15 jurors. In many European civil law countries and Japan, juries can be made up of laypersons and judges. Also the opposing council may not be able to strike jurors as in the United States. 

Many believe the Magna Carta first guaranteed a right to trial by one's peers. The Latin judicium parium does not mean a trial by jury. The word judicium in the language of the day meant a judge. The term liber homo, usually translated as freeman, at that time were a limited class in England. So it did not mean every person.

References 

Law
Legal terms
Charles Russell

Charles Russell (1817-1892), known as "Black Douglas", was an Australian bushranger, who became famous for robbing miners on the road between Bendigo and Melbourne.

Early life 
Russell was born in Bristol, England in 1817. After coming to Australia, he was well known as a prize fighter, boxing for money. He began robbing people on their way to and from the goldfields at Bendigo. One report claimed he robbed 16 people and chained them to a log.

In 1860, Wilhelmine Guischard wrote a book called Black Douglas: An Australian Romance.

In 1926, his pistol was given to the police. Russell had forgotten it during a robbery in 1857. It was planned to be presented in the Castlemaine Art Gallery.

References

Bushrangers
Vivian Dandridge

Vivian Alferetta Dandridge (April 26, 1921 – October 26, 1991) was an American singer, dancer and actress. She was the older sister of actress Dorothy Dandridge. She was a member of the Dandridge Sisters music group until it ended in 1940. She played Melisse in the movie I Walked with a Zombie (1943). She was in the 1940 movie Irene.

Dandridge was born in Cleveland, Ohio. She died of a stroke at age 70 in Seattle, Washington.

References

Other websites

1921 births
1991 deaths
Actors from Cleveland, Ohio
American movie actors
Cardiovascular disease deaths in Washington (state)
Deaths from stroke
Singers from Cleveland, Ohio
Moda Domani Institute

Moda Domani Institute is a French higher studies establishment. The school is in Paris, France. It started in 2014. Moda Domani Institute is specialist in the fields of luxury, fashion and design.

References

Other websites
 Official

Education in France
Shigeru Yoshida

Shigeru Yoshida (22 September 1878 – 20 October 1967) was a Japanese diplomat and politician. He served as Prime Minister of Japan from 1946 to 1947 and from 1948 to 1954. 

He was the Ambassador to England in 1936. By 1939 he had fallen out of favor with the government. He was against the military expansion Japan was engaged in at the time. All he felt he could do was retire. He was later imprisoned for these same views. When General Douglas MacArthur became the military governor of Japan, Yoshida was called to Tokyo to become the new foreign minister.

References 

Prime Ministers of Japan
1878 births
1967 deaths
Politicians from Kanagawa Prefecture
University of Tokyo alumni
Andy Dalton

Andrew Gregory Dalton (born October 29, 1987) is an American football quarterback for the Cincinnati Bengals of the National Football League (NFL).  He played college football at Texas Christian University (TCU).  In his final college game, the 2011 Rose Bowl against the Wisconsin Badgers, Dalton led the Horned Frogs to a 21–19 victory.  He left the TCU program as its all-time leader in wins. He also holds several statistical passing records.

Dalton was selected by the Bengals in the second round (35th overall) of the 2011 NFL Draft. He signed a four-year, $5.2 million contract.  Under a West Coast-style offensive scheme, Dalton and receiver A.J. Green, the Bengals' 2011 first-round selection from the University of Georgia, have become a great quarterback/receiver combination. Dalton and Green broke NFL records for completions (completed passes) and yards for a rookie quarterback/receiver combination.

Dalton is one of five quarterbacks in NFL history to have thrown for over 3,000 yards in each of his first three seasons. The others are Cam Newton, Peyton Manning, Andrew Luck, and Russell Wilson. Dalton is also one of five to have passed for at least 20 touchdowns in each of his first three seasons. He joins Manning, Luck, Wilson, and Dan Marino. Dalton is the only quarterback to lead the Cincinnati Bengals to four consecutive Playoffs. He is just one of five quarterbacks to lead his team to the playoffs in each of his first four seasons. He is also the Bengals franchise record holder for passing yards and touchdowns in a season. 

Due to his red hair, Dalton has been nicknamed "The Red Rifle" by Bengals fans.

References 

1987 births
Living people
American Christians
American football quarterbacks
Cincinnati Bengals players
Sportspeople from Texas
Lisa Jardine

Lisa Anne Jardine, CBE FRS FRHistS (née Bronowski; 12 April 1944 – 25 October 2015) was a British historian of the early modern period.

Early life
Jardine was born in Oxford, England. She studied at Cheltenham Ladies' College, Newnham College, Cambridge, and the University of Essex.

Career
From 1990 to 2011, she was Centenary Professor of Renaissance Studies and Director of the Centre for Editing Lives and Letters at Queen Mary, University of London. From 2008 to January 2014 she was Chair of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA).

Personal life
In 1969, she married scientist Nicholas Jardine, with whom she had a son and a daughter/ In 1982, she married the architect John Hare with whom she had one son. She was the cousin of television director Laurence Moody and actress Clare Lawrence Moody.

Death
Lisa Jardine died of cancer on 25 October 2015, aged 71.

References

Other websites

1944 births
2015 deaths
Deaths from cancer
English historians
People from Oxford
Writers from Oxfordshire
Ed Walker (radio personality)

Ed Walker (April 23, 1932 – October 26, 2015) was an American radio personality from Washington, D.C..  He hosted a weekly four-hour Sunday night program, The Big Broadcast, on WAMU-FM, featuring vintage radio programs from the 1930s to 1950s, such as Gunsmoke, The Jack Benny Show, The Lone Ranger, Fibber McGee and Molly, and Superman. 

Walker began hosting The Big Broadcast in 1990 when his friend John Hickman retired hosting due to illness. The show, which started in 1964 as Recollections, has been the longest running program on WAMU.  The show ranks first in its timeslot, and its audience is "remarkably young for a public radio crowd." Walker was blind. 

Walker died in Rockville, Maryland from cancer, aged 83.

References

1932 births
2015 deaths
Cancer deaths in Maryland
American radio personalities
People from Illinois
People from Washington, D.C.
Marsha Hunt

Marsha Virginia Hunt (born October 17, 1917) is a retired American movie, theater, and television actress. She was blacklisted by Hollywood movie studio executives in the 1950s. She was known for her roles in Johnny Got His Gun, Raw Deal, Born to the West, Pilot #5, and in Pride and Prejudice.

References

Other websites

 Marsha Hunt documentary film 

 Interview with Glenn Lovell for 50 YEARS: SAG REMEMBERS THE BLACKLIST
 Interview with Elizabeth Farnsworth on PBS's "Newshour" about Blacklisting 
 Attitude Toward Aging with Marsha Hunt, WebMD Live Events Transcript
Marsha Hunt on the cover of Life magazine ; March 6 1950
 Interview October, 2014 in the Indianapolis Star

1917 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
American centenarians
Actors from Chicago
Ann Blyth

Ann Marie Blyth (born August 16, 1928) is an American actress and singer. Her performance as Veda Pierce in the 1945 movie Mildred Pierce, she was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress.

Blyth also appeared in Our Very Own (with Farley Granger), The Great Caruso (with Mario Lanza), One Minute to Zero (with Robert Mitchum), The World in His Arms (with Gregory Peck), Rose Marie, The Student Prince, Kismet, The Buster Keaton Story, and The Helen Morgan Story (with Paul Newman).

Other websites

Ann Blyth "Women's International Centre" biography and more recent photograph
Photographs of Ann Blyth

1928 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
Actors from New York
Singers from New York
People from Mount Kisco, New York
Janis Paige

Janis Paige (born September 16, 1922) is an American movie, musical theatre and television actress. She was born in Tacoma, Washington. Her career began in 1944. She retired in 2001. Paige made her live dramatic TV debut June 27, 1957, in "The Latch Key" on Lux Video Theatre. 

Paige appeared in many television shows during her career such as 87th Precinct (TV series),The Pat Boone Chevy Showroom, Trapper John, M.D., All in the Family, Columbo and Caroline in the City, and in the 1975 television movie John O'Hara's Gibbsville (also known as The Turning Point of Jim Malloy).

References

Other websites
 
 
 

1922 births
Living people
American stage actors
American television actors
Actors from Washington
People from Tacoma, Washington
Barbara Hale

Barbara Hale (April 18, 1922 – January 26, 2017) was an American actress. She was best known for her role as legal secretary Della Street on more than 270 episodes of the long-running Perry Mason television series. She was also known for her roles in The Window, The Giant Spider Invasion, Jolson Sings Again, and in Last of the Comanches. She won an Emmy Award in 1959.

Hale died at her home in Sherman Oaks, California on January 26, 2017 of complications from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, aged 94.

References

Other websites

Barbara Hale Home Page
 Barbara Hale Annex

Emmy Award winning actors
1922 births
2017 deaths
Deaths from COPD
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
Actors from Illinois
Zwolle, Louisiana

Zwolle is a town in Sabine Parish, Louisiana, United States.

Settlements in Sabine Parish, Louisiana
Towns in Louisiana
Ringgold, Louisiana

Ringgold is a small town in Bienville Parish, Louisiana, United States.

Towns in Bienville Parish, Louisiana
Gibsland, Louisiana

Gibsland is a small town in Bienville Parish, Louisiana, United States.

Towns in Bienville Parish, Louisiana
Injunction

An injunction is a court order that either commands or prevents a party from doing a specific act.

US law 
Injunctions can be temporary or permanent. A restraining order and a preliminary injunction are examples of temporary injunctions. Either may be issued early in a lawsuit to prevent either party from doing anything that might unfairly influence the outcome of the litigation. A permanent injunction is usually issued after a case is settled. It enforces the final decision of the court.

Australian apprehended violence orders
In the state of New South Wales, an apprehended violence order (AVO) may be issued against a person from whom another person fears violence. They can be issued to prevent physical abuse, harassment or stalking. Any person who violates an AVO may be charged with a criminal offence.

UK injunctions and super-injunctions 
While the United Kingdom has injunctions much the same as other countries they also have super-injunctions. This is an injunction (sometimes called a gag-order) that prevents journalists from writing anything about a court case. It also prevents them from reporting that the injunction itself has been issued. If any injunction in the UK prevents details of the order from being known it is also called a super-injunction.

Anti-suit injunctions 
In common law countries anti-suit injunctions are court orders used to prevent a court or tribunal from assuming jurisdiction or taking over an ongoing lawsuit. An anti-suit injunction may also be used to prevent a party from filing a second lawsuit in another jurisdiction at the same time as the first case.

Related pages 
 Burden of proof
 Civil litigation
 Equity (law)
 Equity court
 Lawsuit
 Peace bond
 Anti-social behaviour order

References

Law
Legal terms
Tullos, Louisiana

Tullos is a small town in La Salle and Winn Parishes in the U.S. state of Louisiana

Towns in Louisiana
Settlements in Winn Parish, Louisiana
Abita Springs, Louisiana

Abita Springs is a town in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana, United States.

Towns in Louisiana
Colville, Washington

Colville  (Ktunaxa: xapqǂinik̓) is a city in Stevens County, Washington, United States. The population was 4,673 at the 2010 census.  It is the county seat of Stevens County.

References

Cities in Washington (U.S. state)
County seats in Washington
Vivian, Louisiana

Vivian is a town in Caddo Parish, Louisiana, United States and is home to the Red Bud Festival. The population was 3,671 at the 2010 census. it is the second most populous municipality in Caddo Parish (after Shreveport).

Towns in Caddo Parish, Louisiana
Scott Barr

Harvey Scott Barr, Jr. (August 21, 1916 – October 26, 2015) was an American politician from the U.S. state of Washington. Barr was born in Spokane. He served the 7th district in the Washington House of Representatives from 1977 to 1983, and the same district from 1983 to 1993 in the Washington State Senate. His term ended with his resignation in December 1993. He was a Republican.

Barr died in Colville, Washington on October 26, 2015 from natural causes, aged 99.

References

1916 births
2015 deaths
Civil servants
Politicians from Washington
People from Spokane, Washington
US Republican Party politicians
Coushatta, Louisiana

Coushatta is the parish seat of Red River Parish, Louisiana, United States. it is the most populous municipality in Red River Parish.

Towns in Louisiana
Settlements in Red River Parish, Louisiana
Parish seats in Louisiana
Judgment (law)

In law, a judgment is a decision of a court regarding the rights and liabilities of parties in a legal action or proceeding. Judgments also generally provide the court's explanation of why it has chosen to make a particular decision.

The phrase "reasons for judgment" is often used interchangeably with "judgment." The former refers to the court's reasons for arriving at the judgment it did. The latter refers to the final court order. a judgement, whether by a court or a tribunal, is the final part of a court case. The judgement is also called a legal decision.

References 

Law
Legal terms
Case law

Case law in a legal system are those laws based on previous judicial decisions. This is opposed to decisions based on existing statutes or regulations. In countries using common law, it is generally uncodified meaning there are no collections of legal rules, and laws to rely on. Instead they rely on legal precedent. Precedents are previous legal cases that are used as examples for deciding the present case. They are also binding on lower courts where the facts and issues are similar. In countries that use civil law, their laws are codified, and there is much less reliance on case law.

Common law 
Judges make judicial decisions based on precedent, and their own understanding when there are few or no precedents. This is "judge-made law" as compared to statuary law, which is made by legislatures, and governments. In the United States the courts can rule statutes, and regulations unconstitutional if they go beyond the authority given by the constitution. In the United Kingdom judge-made law, or common law cannot rule against statutes made by an act of Parliament. The judiciary, and legislative branches are not coequal. Judges, however, have traditionally used one of three ways of interpreting statutes: 
 They may be interpreted literally or simply as the law was written.
 They may use the "golden rule" meaning that if the law is difficult to interpret the judiciary may use a less obvious meaning.
 They may apply the "mischief rule". If the act lends itself to more than one interpretation, choose the interpretation that best deals with the problem.

Civil law 
Judges make decisions by decisions based on the appropriate laws. They then investigate to learn all the facts. Finally they make a decision. Under civil law, judiciary decisions are not a critical part of forming civil laws. Under Dutch civil law for example, there are so many civil laws that it becomes difficult for lawyers and judges to know if they have found all the laws that apply to a case. Even with all the laws, not every situation is covered. The civil court will research everything it can on the subject, then make a decision. For this reason those who start a legal case never know for certain what the decision will be.

References

Other websites 
 Case law (or Common law), Library of Congress
 Case Law in the United Kingdom 

Law
Legal terms
Lien

A lien ( or ) is a form of security interest attached to property to secure the payment of a debt to a creditor. A lien is usually a public record. The owner of the property is called the lienee. The creditor or person holding the lien is called the lienor or lien holder.

In the United States, the term lien generally refers to a wide range of legal interests. It includes other forms of mortgage or charge.  In the USA, a lien is a non-possessory security interests meaning the lien holder does not usually possess the property.

In other common law countries, the term lien refers to a very specific type of security interest. The holder of a lien right to retain (but not sell) property until the debt or other obligation is discharged.  In contrast to the usage of the term in the USA, in other countries it refers to a purely possessory form of security interest. When possession of the property is lost, the lien is released.

References 

Law
Legal terms
Real estate
Lanfranc

Lanfranc (1005  1010 at Pavia — 24 May 1089 at Canterbury) was a cleric, teacher and jurist who became Archbishop of Canterbury under William the Conqueror.

This celebrated Italian jurist gave up his career to become a monk at Bec in Normandy.  In 1070 he became the Archbishop of Canterbury in England. This was the peak of an extraordinary life.

Life 
Lanfranc was born in the early years of the 11th century at Pavia in Italy. His father, Hanbald, held a rank equivalent to a magistrate.  He was orphaned at an early age. Lanfranc was trained in the liberal arts. He crossed the Alps, and took up the role of teacher in France and eventually in Normandy. About 1039 he became the master of the cathedral school at Avranches. He taught for three years with much success. 

In 1042 he gave this up to become a monk in the newly founded Bec Abbey. He became the first prior of Bec Abbey in 1045. He became a friend of William, Duke of Normandy and by 1050 his counselor. Lanfranc then became the abbot of St Stephen in Normandy. 

In 1067, when Maurilius, Archbishop of Rouen, died, Lanfranc declined the position.  He would not have been able to do so without the consent of William I. It is likely William had something bigger in mind for Lanfranc. In 1070 Stigand, the Archbishop of Canterbury was deposed by papal legates. William brought Lanfranc from Normandy to England to become the Archbishop of Canterbury.

References 

1000s births
1080s deaths
Archbishops of Canterbury
Italian Roman Catholics
Monks
Roman Catholic archbishops
People from Pavia
Five Nights at Freddy's (series)

Five Nights at Freddy's is an American media franchise created by Scott Cawthon who is no longer apart of the fanf owner , which began with the first video game in 2014 and has since gained worldwide popularity.

The main video game series consists of nine survival horror games taking place in locations somehow connected to family pizza restaurant Freddy Fazbear’s Pizza. In most games, the player takes on the role of a night-time employee, who must utilize tools such as security cameras, lights, doors, and vents to defend themselves against hostile animatronic characters that inhabit the locations. The series’ canon is revealed through voice recordings, minigames, and easter eggs featured throughout the games.

The franchise also includes spin-off games and other media, including a novel trilogy and an anthology series, comprising an all-encompassing (maybe )fictional  universe. A film adaptation is also planned. Merchandise for the games has been produced, and a horror attraction based on the series was featured in the Adventuredome for Halloween 2016. The series also appeared in the Guinness Book of Records: Gamer's Edition, setting a record for the largest number of sequels released in a year.

Main series
 Five Nights at Freddy's (2014)
 Five Nights at Freddy's 2 (2014)
 Five Nights at Freddy's 3 (2015)
 Five Nights at Freddy's 4 (2015)
 Five Nights at Freddy's: Sister Location (2016)
 Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulator (2017)
 Ultimate Custom Night (2018)
 Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted (2019)
 Five Nights at Freddy’s: Special Delivery (2019)
five nights at freddys securtiy breach 2021
 Five Nights at Freddy’s: Security Breach (2021)
 Five Nights at Freddy's AAA Game (TBA)
 Five Nights at Freddy's: Into Madness (TBA)

Spin-offs

 FNaF World (2016)
 Freddy in space (2017)
 Freddy in Space 2 (2019)

Other websites
 
Official website

scott cawthon is no longer the owner of the five nights of freddys games after he got cancelled for donating to a homophobic charity so he resigned and is still looking for some to take over the games
Security interest

A security interest is a legal claim on collateral. The collateral can be real estate, personal property or any asset. Collateral is usually used to secure a loan. 

The borrower is the party who borrows the funds. The lender is the one who lends the money in return for a security interest. The lender can repossess the asset if the borrower fails to repay the loan. The lender can then sell the asset to repay the loan. A loan secured by collateral is called a secured loan (also called a lien). A loan with no collateral (such as a credit card) is an unsecured loan. There is nothing for the lender to repossess.

Different types 
There are different types of security interest or liens:
 Consensual agreements are entered into consensually between a borrower and a lender. For example, a borrower may want to purchase a car or house and the property purchased secures the buyer's obligation to pay for the property.
Statutory liens are security interests that may be secured by statutes. 
Mechanic's Liens are those that come about when a mechanic or contractor is not paid for work they performed. The owner may not sell the property (real or personal) until the debt is paid.
Tax Liens are a type of lien that is placed against property by the local, state or federal government. They are authorized by statute, for delinquent taxes, including property, income and estate taxes. If the taxes remain unpaid for a specified period of time, the property may be sold by the government in what is called a tax sale.

References 

Legal terms
Finance
Particle detector

A particle detector, also known as a radiation detector, is a device used to , , and/or  high-energy particles. These particles can be made by nuclear decay, cosmic radiation, or reactions in a particle accelerator. Particle detectors are used in particle physics, nuclear physics, and nuclear engineering. Modern detectors are also used as calorimeters to measure the energy of radiation. They can measure other things, such as the momentum, spin, or charge of the particles.

Description
Detectors designed for modern accelerators are very big. They are also very expensive. They are called counters when they simply count particles, but do not measure anything else. Usually, particle detectors can also track ionizing radiation (high energy photons or even visible light).

Examples and types
Many of the detectors invented so far are ionization detectors (such as gaseous ionization detectors and semiconductor detectors) and scintillation detectors. Other principles, such as Čerenkov light and transition radiation, have also been applied to detect particles.

Some detectors are used to measure the amount of radiation so that people can protect themselves from it. Others are used to study nuclear and particle physics.

Related pages
Subatomic particle

References

Further reading
Movie instruction media
 "Radiation detectors". H. M. Stone Productions, Schloat. Tarrytown, N.Y., Prentice-Hall Media, 1972.

General Information

Physics
Subatomic particles
Bad Tölz-Wolfratshausen

Bad Tölz-Wolfratshausen () is a district in Bavaria, Germany.

Towns and municipalities

References

Districts of Bavaria
Hugo Schnars-Alquist

Carl Wilhelm Hugo Schnars-Alquist (October 29, 1855 – August 20, 1939) was a German painter who painted scenes of the sea. His family were merchants and he started working as a merchant himself. Schnars-Alquist was a self-taught painter. In 1886 he was a student of Hans Gude at the Berlin Art Academy. In 1893 he was the German representative for the fine arts at the World's Columbian Exposition. Schnars-Alquist made many sea voyages which taught him how to paint the sea at different Latitudes and from rough sea to calm. He was a member of the jury at the Chicago and Melbourne art exhibitions. He received a Gold medal at Melbourne. Schnars-Alquist was a member of the Hamburg Geographical Society. He also belonged to the Institute for Maritime Studies at the University of Berlin.

References

Other websites 

Hugo Schnars-Alquist (1855 - 1939)

1855 births
1939 deaths
German painters
People from Hamburg
Pleading

Pleading is usually the first step in a lawsuit. This is when parties formally submit their claims and defenses. A complaint is the first pleading filed by a plaintiff which starts the lawsuit. A complaint lists the  relevant allegations of fact which leads to one or more legal causes of action. It also has a prayer for relief and sometimes a statement of damages claimed. This is called an ad quod damnum clause.  In some situations, a complaint is called a petition. In this case the party filing a complaint is called the petitioner and the other party is the respondent.  In equity, sometimes called chancery, the initial pleading may be called either a petition or a bill of complaint in chancery.

Other terms 
 When used in civil proceedings in England and Wales, the term "complaint" refers to the process by which civil proceedings are started in the magistrates' court. The complaint may be either written or oral.

 A demurrer is a pleading (usually filed by a defendant). It objects to the legal sufficiency of the opponent's pleading and demands that the court rule immediately about whether the pleading is legally adequate. This is before the party must plead on the merits in response.  Since demurrer procedure required an immediate ruling like a motion, many common law jurisdictions therefore went to a narrower understanding of pleadings. They are seen as framing the issues in a case but not being motions in and of themselves. The demurrer is replaced with the motion to dismiss for failure to state a cause of action or the application to strike out particulars of claim.

 An answer is a pleading filed by a defendant. It admits or denies the specific allegations listed in a complaint. It also serves as a general appearance by a defendant.  In England and Wales, the equivalent pleading is called a defence.

 A defendant may also file a cross-complaint or third-party complaint. This is to bring other parties into a case by the process of impleader.

 A defendant may file a counter-claim. This raises a cause of action to defend, reduce or set off the claim of the plaintiff.

References 

Law
Legal terms
Complaint

In legal terminology, a complaint is any formal legal document that establishes the facts and legal reasons for a lawsuit. A complaint must list the reasons for the plaintiff's case, and it must ask for a specific legal remedy. Once a complaint is filed with the court a summons (an order from the court) is notifies the defendant a lawsuit has been filed against them. Once a defendant receives notice of a complaint, they must reply within a specified period of time with an answer. Complaints are pleadings that must be written carefully to properly state the facts and legal basis for the claim. Usually this requires the help of an attorney.

In some jurisdictions, specific types of criminal cases may also be started by the filing of a complaint. This is also called a criminal complaint or felony complaint. All criminal cases are prosecuted in the name of the governmental authority. This is the same authority whose criminal laws were broken and who enforces criminal statutes. The government is sometimes called the state, the People or the Crown (in Commonwealth realms). In the United States, the complaint is often associated with misdemeanor charges presented by the prosecutor without the grand jury process. In most US jurisdictions, the document presented to and authorized by a grand jury is called an indictment.

References 

Law
Legal terms
Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12 (or vitamin B-12) is also called cobalamin. It has a key role in the normal functioning of the brain and nervous system, and for the formation of blood. It is one of the eight B vitamins. 

B12 is normally involved in the metabolism of every cell of the human body, especially DNA synthesis and regulation, but also fatty acid and amino acid metabolism. Fungi, plants and animals (including humans) cannot produce vitamin B12. Only bacteria and archaea have enzymes for its synthesis, although animals can convert it to the version they need. 

Many foods are a natural source of B12 because of bacterial symbiosis. It is produced by some of the gut flora of herbivores. Carnivores, of course, eat herbivores. Also algae and plants get it from symbiosis. So, by one route or another, animals must get vitamin B12 from bacteria (and archaea).

The vitamin is the largest and most structurally complicated vitamin. It can be produced industrially only by bacterial fermentation-synthesis.

Vitamin B12 is a group of chemically related compounds, all of which have vitamin activity. It contains the biochemically rare element cobalt sitting in the center of a ring called a corrin ring. In the human body it is converted to the human physiological forms.

Vitamin B12 was discovered by its relationship to pernicious anemia, which is an autoimmune disease. Because an "intrinsic factor" is needed for B12 to be absorbed, its lack causes a vitamin B12 deficiency. Many other kinds of vitamin B12 deficiency have since been found.

References 

B vitamins
Organometallic chemistry
Louis Agassiz

Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz (May 28, 1807 – December 14, 1873) was a Swiss-born and European-trained biologist and geologist. His work on natural history in Europe and the Americas was important.

His reputation now is less good, because he fought against the theory of evolution, and held wrong ideas about human races. He thought the different human races were of different origins. This idea is called "polygenism". Darwin's comment at the end is interesting:
"...when the principle of evolution is generally accepted, as it surely will be before long, the dispute between the monogenists and the polygenists will die a silent and unobserved death".

After visiting Harvard University in mid-career, he emigrated to the U.S. in 1847 and became a professor of zoology and geology at Harvard. He founded its Museum of Comparative Zoology.

Agassiz made extensive contributions to ichthyology (including extinct species). He founded glaciology, the study of ice fields and ice ages.

References 

Swiss biologists
American zoologists
American geologists
Maps.me

MAPS.ME (formerly named MapsWithMe) is a mobile app for Android, iOS and BlackBerry that provides offline maps using OpenStreetMap data. In November 2014 it was acquired by Mail.Ru Group and became part of its My.com brand. In September 2015 the app was open sourced. MapsWithMe was created by Yury Melnichek, Alexander Borsuk and Viktor Govako.

Other websites 
 
 
 Source code in GitHub

Software
Cruachan Power Station

The Cruachan Power Station (also known as the Cruachan Dam) is a pumped-storage hydroelectric power station in Argyll and Bute, Scotland. The turbine hall is located inside Ben Cruachan. Water is pumped between Cruachan Reservoir to Loch Awe, a height difference of . It is one of only four pumped storage power stations in the UK. It is capable of providing a black start capability to the National Grid.

Construction began in 1959 at the same time as the Hunterston A nuclear power station in Ayrshire. It was completed in 1965. Cruachan uses cheap off-peak electricity generated at night to pump water to the higher reservoir. It can then be released during the day to provide power as necessary. The power station is open to visitors. Around 50,000 tourists visit it each year.

References 

1965 establishments in the United Kingdom
Dams in Europe
20th-century establishments in Scotland
Steppe Geoglyphs

The Steppe Geoglyphs are a number of Neolithic earth constructions in  the Turgay Trough area of Turgai in northern Kazakhstan.  There are at least 260 of these earthworks.

Many  or all of them are smaller earthworks  (mounds, trenches and ramparts) arranged with each other to make geometric and other shapes (composite figures).   These shapes are squares, rings and three others.  The composite figures range from  slightly under 90 m in length to over 400 m in diameter.
Besides being made of earth dug out and piled up, some of the geoglyphs are made by placing stones next to each other. 

Some of the large shapes have been given names, including Bestamskoe Ring, Ushtogaysky (or Ushtogay) Square, Turgay triradial swastika, Large cross Ashtasti, Ekedyn cross, Ashutasti ring, Kyzyloba line, Koga cross, and Shili square. 

Optical dating (optically stimulated luminescence)  was used to get a date for these structures. The results indicate that they date between eight and one thousand years ago. 

The earthworks were discovered in 2007 by Dimitriy Dey.  He found them when he was looking at Google Earth. He had been looking for pyramids or similar structures in Kazakhstan. The geoglyphs were first reported to the scientific community in 2014.

Road construction in 2013 damaged one of the structures.

References

Additional sources
 Turgay Discovery Research project
 NASA photographs from space 
 Daily Gadget Gizmodo Reviews: Mystery of the ancient patterns in Kazakhstan: Space images reveal ‘remarkable’ structures including a cross and a swastika

Geography of Kazakhstan
Right to a fair trial

The right to  fair trial is an essential right in all countries respecting the rule of law. A trial in these countries that is considered unfair will typically be restarted, or its verdict thrown out. Some of the rights that make a trial fair are explicitly proclaimed in Article 10 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They are clearly stated in the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution. They are also stated in Article 6 of the European Convention of Human Rights, and in Article 14 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, as well as numerous other constitutions and declarations throughout the world. There is no binding international law that defines what is or is not a fair trial. For example, the right to a jury trial and other important procedures vary from nation to nation.

Related pages
Habeas corpus
Presumption of innocence

References 

Law
Due process

Due process is the legal requirement that the government must respect all legal rights that are owed to a person. Due process balances the power of law of the land and protects the individual person from it. When a government harms a person without following the exact course of the law, this is a due process violation, which offends the rule of law.

A judiciary process 
Due process has also been frequently interpreted as limiting laws and legal proceedings. This means that judges—instead of legislators—may define and guarantee basic fairness, justice, and liberty. This interpretation has proven controversial, and is seen as being closer to the concepts of natural justice, and procedural justice used in various other jurisdictions. This interpretation of due process is sometimes expressed as a command that the government must not be unfair to the people or abuse them physically.

History 
Due process developed from clause 39 of the Magna Carta in England. The Magna Carta called it "the law of the land" which became the more modern term due process. When English and American law gradually went in different directions, due process was not upheld in England, but did become part of the Constitution of the United States. It is found in the Fifth Amendment which says "No person shall…be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law,". It is applied to all states by the Fourteenth Amendment.

In other legal systems 
Due process is not used in contemporary English law. But it recognizes two similar concepts are natural justice and the British constitutional concept of the rule of law. However, neither concept lines up perfectly with the American theory of due process. It contains many implied rights not found in the ancient or modern concepts of due process in England. 

Islamic law provides for due process. It includes the presumption of innocence, the right to remain silent and a fair and public trial before a judge. There is no jury and both parties, the injured party and the accused, usually present their own cases.

Scandinavia gets high ratings by the World Justice Project. They were noted for their criminal justice system including their observance of due process. As of the 2013 Rule of Law Index, the Scandinavian countries were rated higher than the US for due process. The three lowest rated countries in the index were Afghanistan, Zimbabwe and Venezuela.

References

Other websites 
 WHAT IS DUE PROCESS? Icelantic Human Rights Centre
 Due Process Rights before EU Agencies
 Due Process in Islamic Criminal Law 
 Political Judging: When Due Process Goes International

Law
Legal terms
International law
Saskia Post

Saskia Post (1 January 1961 – 16 March 2020) was American-born Australian actress. She is best known for her leading role in the 1986 movie, Dogs in Space, with Michael Hutchence. 

Post also acted in the 1985 AFI Award winning movie, Bliss and in the 1991 movie Proof. It was chosen as "Best Film" at the 1991 AFI Awards.

Early life and education 
Saskia Post was born in Martinez, California in 1961. Her family moved to Australia in 1975. In high school she studied acting and singing. After graduation, she spent a year attending acting workshops and dance classes in Sydney. Saskia then studied drama and arts at the University of New South Wales but dropped out after one year. She took acting classes at The Drama School in 1981.

Career 
Post got her first television role in 1982. She played Julianna Sleven, a Dutch refugee, in The Sullivans. The program was an Australian drama television series about a middle-class Melbourne family and the effect World War II had on their lives.  Post moved to Melbourne to work on the series for twelve months before leaving in 1984. That same year she had a role in the movie One Night Stand, as Eva, a bank teller from the Czech Republic.
 
In 1985, Post appeared in the AFI Award winning movie Bliss, as Honey Barbara's daughter. 

Post had a leading role in the 1986 movie Dogs in Space, directed by Richard Lowenstein. The movie is about a group of young musicians and music fans sharing a house in the Melbourne suburb of Richmond. Post plays Anna, the girlfriend of Sam (Michael Hutchence). Anna dies of a heroin overdose after trying the drug for a second time.

Post has also acted in many stage performances in Melbourne. These include Endgrain, Train to Transcience, Could I Have this Dance?, In Angel Gear, Figures in Glass, Skin and Vincent in Brixton.

Death
Post died of cardiac arrest at the Alfred Hospital in Melbourne on 16 March 2020, aged 59.

References

Other websites 
 
Official Michael Hutchence Memorial Website | Saskia Post

1961 births
2020 deaths
Actors from California
Actors from Melbourne
Australian movie actors
Australian stage actors
Australian television actors
Cardiovascular disease deaths in Australia
Deaths from cardiac arrest
Roosevelt Island Bridge

The Roosevelt Island Bridge is a bridge in New York. It is a lift bridge. It connects Roosevelt Island in Manhattan to Astoria in Queens. It crosses the East Channel of the East River.  The bridge is the only route to the island for vehicles and foot traffic, except for public transportation.

History 
Construction of the bridge began on March 17, 1952. The cost was $6.5 million. It opened on May 18, 1955, as the Welfare Island Bridge. The name was changed to the Roosevelt Island Bridge in 1973.

Before the bridge was built, the only way vehicles could access Roosevelt Island was by using an elevator on the Queensboro Bridge. The elevator was torn down in 1970.

In 2001, the New York City Department of Transportation considered converting the Roosevelt Island Bridge into a fixed bridge. This was to reduce the cost of its maintenance. The bridge is rarely opened (raised for ships to go underneath), because most ships passing by Roosevelt Island use the West Channel of the East River. Most of the bridge openings occur in September during the General Assembly at the United Nations. During this time the West Channel is closed for security reasons.

Navigation 
When the bridge is raised for ships to go underneath, the distance between the water and the bridge is . The bridge is  wide. Its total length, including approaches, is . The main span (distance across) is  long.

The Roosevelt Island Bridge provides direct access to the 'Motorgate Parking Garage', which was designed to minimize vehicle traffic on the island. The garage was completed in 1974 and later expanded in 1990.

References

Other websites 
 Top Ten New York City Bridges
 New York City Department of Transportation Bridges

Bridges in New York City
Queens (New York City)
Buildings and structures in Manhattan
List of World Heritage Sites in Chile

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites are places of importance to cultural or natural heritage. Below is the list of sites in Chile.

History
UNESCO was created for the "conservation and protection of the world’s inheritance of books, works of art and monuments of history and science". The constitution of UNESCO was ratified in 1946 by 26 countries.

Chile agreed to take part in the World Heritage Convention in 1980.

List
The World Heritage Site (WHS) list has developed over time.  It is part of a process; and the list continues to grow.

As of 2014, there are 17 places in Chile which are on the World Heritage List. 
 15 cultural sites  
 2 natural sites

There are 17 sites which are on a tentative list.

Table

Tentative List
The Tentative List consists of sites which have been nominated.  The evaluation process is not yet completed. Here is the list.

Related pages
 World Heritage Committee
 UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Table of World Heritage Sites by country
 List of World Heritage Sites in South America

References

Other websites

 UNESCO, World Heritage Sites

Chile
Chile
Chile
South America-related lists