cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
World War

A World War is a war in which most of the countries in the world fight or help. 

There have been two World Wars so far, World War I and World War II.  Several wars such as the Seven Years' War were fought in many places around the world, but they were wars among European countries.

After World War II, many people were scared that a World War III might start, probably between the United States and Western Europe on one side and the Soviet Union and maybe China on the other.  After World War II, countries had many powerful weapons, including jet bomber airplanes, which could carry many powerful bombs fast and far; nuclear weapons which could destroy many buildings and kill many people instantly; and missiles which could carry nuclear weapons to other countries very fast.  

Many people were afraid that World War III might start during the Cold War.  After the end of the Soviet Union, people were less afraid that World War III would begin.  However, many countries still have powerful weapons and can still use them. 

Albert Einstein is supposed to have said, "I don't know what weapons countries might use to fight World War III, but wars after that will be fought with sticks and stones". That is because World War III would probably be so large that it would destroy civilization.

War
Click

Click is an onomatopoeia. It is sometimes used to indicate pressing the button on a computer mouse.

Computing
Buzz Aldrin

Dr. Edwin Eugene "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr., retired Colonel (born January 20, 1930) is an American pilot and astronaut. He was one of the Apollo 11 astronauts and the second person to have ever walked on the moon.

Early life
Aldrin was born in Glen Ridge, New Jersey. He earned a BSc in Mechanical Engineering from the military academy West Point in 1951. After graduate and postgraduate studies, he received a ScD in Aeronautics and Astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1963.From his earlier activity as a fighter pilot in the Korean War he won several medals, including the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal.

Apollo 11 mission
Aldrin was the second person in history to set foot on the Moon (after Neil Armstrong, during the Apollo 11 mission).

The Lunar Lander Module landed on the Moon on July 20, 1969.

He was 39 when he set foot on the moon.

He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the NASA Exceptional Service Medal. After the death of Michael Collins in 2021, Aldrin became the last surviving member of the Apollo 11 crew.

Later life 
Aldrin left NASA in March 1972. He has been married three times: to Joan Archer, to Beverly Zile, and to his current wife, Lois Driggs Cannon. He had three children with Joan, named James, Janice and Andrew. He married Cannon on Valentine's Day, 1988. He is the oldest contestant on the television series Dancing with the Stars. He competed in 2010.

References 

1930 births
Living people
American astronauts
American aviators
Apollo astronauts
People from Glen Ridge, New Jersey
Scientists from New Jersey
Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria. In the past, people called it consumption.

TB is caused by several types of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The disease usually attacks the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body.

How it spreads 
The bacteria can travel through the air and spread from one person to the next. This happens when infected people cough, sneeze, or spit.

Of every 100 people with TB, between five and ten people show symptoms.  In these people, the disease is called active.  Tuberculosis kills more than half of the people who are infected if they do not get treatment.

Detection and treatment

Diagnosis of active TB relies on radiology. Doctors often look at an X-ray of the chest. In addition, they check body fluids. These fluids have microbes in them, which are grown in cell cultures. The cell cultures are then analysed to see if the person is infected with TB.

If the patient has TB, but does not show symptoms, the disease is 'latent'. Doctors use a skin test, called the Mantoux test, to detect latent TB. They often do blood tests too.

There is a vaccine against some forms of tuberculosis. It is called bacillus Calmette–Guérin vaccine.

TB used to be easily treated and cured with antibiotics. However, the bacterium is now highly resistant to most antibiotics. This resistance makes treatment difficult. Many different kinds of antibiotics need to be given over a long period of time. There is a form of tuberculosis that is resistant to all drugs.

Symptoms 
Tuberculosis can have many symptoms.  The most common include:
 A cough that does not go away, especially if the person is coughing up blood (this is called hemoptysis)
 Chest pain
 Not having any appetite
 Weakness
 Weight loss
 Chills
 Very pale skin
 Listless eyes 
 Fever
 Sweating a lot at night
 Difficulty breathing
 Feeling very tired
 People are also more likely to get tuberculosis if they live close to other people who have TB.  For example, TB can spread easily in homeless shelters, prisons, and immigrant communities.

How common is TB?

Experts believe that one third of the world population is infected with M. tuberculosis.  New infections occur at a rate of one per second. In 2007, about 13.7 million chronic cases were active globally. In 2010, about 8.8 million new cases developed and nearly 1.5 million people died from the disease, most of them  in developing countries. The number of tuberculosis cases has been decreasing since 2006, and new cases have decreased since 2002.

Tuberculosis does not happen at the same rate around the world. About eighty percent of the population in many Asian and African countries test positive for TB, but only five to ten percent of people in the United States do.

People usually get tuberculosis because of a weakened immune system. Many people with HIV and AIDS can also get tuberculosis.

References

Other websites 
 Frequently asked Questions about TB at CDC.gov
 ExplainTB: Multilingual audiovisual information on tuberculosis

Diseases caused by bacteria
Pulmonology
American (word)

The word American is used to mean a person or a thing from the United States or any country in the Americas - North America, Central America, and South America. In English, the most common use of this word is to mean a person or a thing from the United States. 

Even though the islands in the Caribbean Sea are close to the Americas, people who speak English do not usually use the word "American" for people or things from these islands. 

Due to the ambiguity of the word, some languages avoid using the word to refer to someone and/or thing from the United States and use more specific demonyms instead, such as Spanish estadounidense and German US-Amerikaner, for example. Yankee is sometimes used within the English language too (though the word historically refers specifically to a inhabitant of New England).

A Native American is someone who is mostly descended from the people who lived in the Americas before the Europeans arrived. Native Americans are also called First Nations and Indians.

There is no language "American." Some important languages used in the Americas are English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. Some people still use Native American languages. Quechua is the largest.

North America
South America
Grain

Grain is the seeds of some special kinds of grass. The main types of commercial grain crops are cereals. People grow different kinds of grain as food. The different kinds of grain are perhaps one of the most important foods in the world. 

Some kinds of grain are:
Barley
Maize or Indian corn (or simply as "corn")
Millet
Oats
Rice
Wheat

87% of all grain grown by farmers around the world is maize. Grains contain carbohydrates that people can eat. In poorer countries, grains are a large part of the food supply. In richer countries, they are still important as food, but not as important as in poorer countries. Growing grain uses a lot of water. About 1,000 tons of water is needed to grow one ton of grain.

Many different foods are made from different types of grain. Grain is often ground into a powder called flour. Flour can be made into breads, cakes, or noodles.

Different kinds of beer are made from barley malt, wheat, and other grains.

Tortillas are made from a special flour of dried maize (corn) called masa.

References

Basic English 850 words
Clause

A clause is a part of a sentence. Each clause is made up of a subject (who or what the sentence is about) and a predicate (what happens in a sentence). Each predicate has only one main verb. I love you is a sentence which has only one clause. I love you and I will always love you is a sentence which has two clauses. The two clauses are I love you and I will always love you. These clauses are joined together by the word and, which is a conjunction). Clauses may be independent or dependent.

In use 
Two clauses can be joined with a pronoun. For example: I live in London, which is in England. Here, I live in London is the first clause, and which is in England is the second clause. The word which is a pronoun which takes the place of London. It joins the two clauses. A sentence can contain many clauses. But sentences with fewer clauses are easier to understand.

Dependent and independent clauses 
A simple sentence may also be called an independent clause. It may be a part of a compound or complex sentence, but it can also stand on its own as a simple sentence (or independent clause). 
A subordinate clause also called a dependent clause is one which cannot stand by itself. This is because it does not express a complete thought. It contains both a subject and a verb. A subordinate clause always depends on a main clause. The main clause is almost always an independent clause, therefore the main clause by itself makes sense and can stand on its own. However, the subordinating clause does not. For example, I love you makes perfect sense left on its own. However, and always will, does not. The only time a sentence can be made up of only dependent clauses is when they are joined by correlative conjunctions: conjunction pairs like "either/or", "neither/nor", and "not only/but also".

References

Other websites 
 Clauses: the Essential Building-Blocks 
 Purdue Owl: Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses

Grammar
Sacred

The words sacred or holy are sometimes used interchangeably and are often misunderstood to mean "important" or "special"  instead of "set apart" and "pure."

According to Websters 1828 Dictionary (the more accurate definition given the spiritual context- Christian and beyond), sacred means "...separated from that which is common, vulgar, polluted, or open... or Holy." Holy, means "Properly, whole, entire or perfect, in a moral sense. Hence, pure in heart, temper or dispositions; free from sin and sinful affections. Applied to the Supreme Being, holy signifies perfectly pure, immaculate and complete in moral character..."

Most religions have sacred books that provide teachings or doctrines associated with the religion. These books are "set apart," from other books published and associated with the religion. There is a deeper connection to these books over the others.  

For Christians this book is called the Bible.  Muslim peoples have another book, they call the Qur'an. Jews call their book the Torah. Similarly, the Book of Mormon is also considered as a sacred book in Mormonism. 

Some religious people deem specific places sacred because of their mention in the sacred books. Jerusalem is seen as sacred by Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Mecca is sacred in Islam, and Ise Grand Shrine in Mie Prefecture is sacred in Japanese Shinto. In Hinduism the river Ganges is seen as holy.

Related pages
Pilgrimage
Icon

Other websites
Holiness in the Bible

Religion
Translation

Translation means to copy writing or speech from one language into a different language.

The people who do translation are called translators. A translator who is copying a book into another language may use a language dictionary to find out how a word is written in another language. A translator who works with the spoken word is also called an interpreter. Translators can work independently as freelancers or by being hired by translation agencies. People translate poetry, novels, drama, or short stories are called literary translators. 

In computer technology, translation from a programming language to a machine language is called compiling.

There are free translators on the internet.

Related pages 
Bible translations
Concept
Machine translation

Useful resources related to the subject:

 The Impact of Translation in New York City
 Choosing the Perfect Translation Agency for your Company
 Adapt your Translation for a better Understanding of Inter-culture

Language
Hacker

A hacker originally meant someone who likes to do new things with computers. Now hacker is used to mean "someone who tries to get into another person's computer using computer software such as Trojan horse programs, computer viruses, and worms that can hurt other people computers". The correct name for a person doing these illegal things was cracker, but many news stories used the word hacker even though it was in error. Another meaning of hacker is someone who can change or program something, like how people can change or program a Furby to say something insulting or humorous.

A person doing something illegal with a computer belonging to someone else without asking for permission from the owner is also called a hacker.

In the recent years computers were becoming increasingly more complex. This also means that people with bad intentions have more opportunities to use them for criminal purposes. Computer engineers aren't always able to find vulnerable places in the computer code. Hackers find such places, and use them.

There are also hackers who use the same skills for good purposes. Such hackers are called white hat hackers. They help computer engineers to find vulnerable places and correct problems.

A lot of skills are often required to be a hacker. A hacker should be able to find problems or solutions that most other people cannot find.

References 

Computing
Internet security
Leninism

Leninism is a way of thinking about how the communist party should be organized. It says it should be a dictatorship of the proletariat (the working class holds the power). It is thought to be one of the first steps towards socialism (where the workers own the factories, etc.). It is one part of Marxism–Leninism, which emphasizes the transition from capitalism to socialism.

Beliefs
Vladimir Lenin was a Russian Marxist. He had a set of ideas based on Marxism. Lenin's development of Marxism has become known as Leninism. These ideas include:

 Democratic Centralism, also known as the idea of the vanguard party.  Like other communists,  Lenin wanted to see a socialist revolution led by the working class.  But he thought the workers needed strong leadership in the form of a Revolutionary Party based on Democratic Centralism.  Lenin wanted Communist political parties in every country to lead the revolution.  He thought the vanguard party would need to have strong discipline, or it would fail.
 The idea that capitalism is the cause of imperialism (empire-building). He thought that imperialism was the "highest stage" of capitalism.
 Accepting the idea that the oppressed ethnic minorities (smaller groups of people) should get to have Nationalism and decide how they should be governed.
 Teaching the proletariat (working class) about politics, especially Marxism.

References

Other websites 
 Books by Vladimir Lenin
 What Is To Be Done?.
 Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism.
 The State and Revolution.
 "The Lenin Archive".
 "First Conference of the Communist International".

 Other similar links
 "Marcel Liebman on Lenin and democracy".
 "An excerpt on Leninism and State Capitalism from the work of Noam Chomsky".
 Rosa Luxemburg. "Organizational Questions of the Russian Social Democracy".
 Karl Korsch. "Lenin's Philosophy".
 "Cyber Leninism".
 "Leninist Ebooks" .
 Anton Pannekoek. "Lenin as a Philosopher".
 Paul Mattick. "The Lenin Legend".
 Paul Craig Roberts. "Dead Labor: Marx and Lenin Reconsidered".

Communism
Marxism
Bolshevik

A Bolshevik was a Russian communist in the early 20th century. They are also called the Bolshevik Communists. The majority of the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was a Marxist political party.

At the party congress in 1903, members disagreed with each other. The party divided into two groups, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. They were called Bolsheviks because it means "those who are more." Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik group. The more moderate group, the Mensheviks (meaning "those of the minority") were led by Julius Martov. Although the Bolsheviks were called "those who are more", before 1917 there were more Mensheviks. Many of Lenin's opponents were afraid that he liked to control things too much.

In 1905 the Bolshevik group became a separate political party, the RSDLP(B) the 'b' in brackets standing for 'Bolshevik'.

Revolution 
After the February Revolution, some of the Mensheviks took positions in the Russian Provisional Government. Lenin said socialists must oppose the Provisional Government. The government began to falter and Lenin started to have more authority. Because of this, many Mensheviks joined the Bolsheviks.

The Bolsheviks led the October Revolution in Russia in 1917. They said they created the world's first Workers' State. The Mensheviks opposed the government led by the Bolsheviks. Many ended up in prison or were killed. After that, they opposed the Bolsheviks from outside Russia, in exile. 

After the Revolution, the Bolshevik Party was called the Russian Communist Party.

Russian Revolution
List of tectonic plates

This is a list of the biggest tectonic plates on Earth. Including small ones, there are about a hundred tectonic plates. These are only the large ones.

Primary plates 
These seven plates make up most of the seven continents, and the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

 African plate
 Antarctic plate
 Indo-Australian plate
 North American plate
 Pacific plate
 South American plate
 Eurasian plate

Secondary plates 
These plates are generally shown on major plate maps, with the exception of the Arabian and Indian plates, which are smaller than the others.

Arabian plate
Caribbean plate
Cocos plate
Juan de Fuca plate
Indian plate
Nazca plate
Philippine Sea plate ( also known as the Filipino plate)
Scotia plate
 Somali plate
Panama Plate

Tertiary plates 
These are parts of major plates, and bits and pieces of ancient plates that became broken up. 

 Agean plate

Related pages
Plate tectonics

Other websites 
Bird, P. (2003) An updated digital model of plate boundaries  also available as a large (13 mb) PDF file 

Science-related lists
List of oil fields

This list of oil fields includes major fields of the past and present.

(Amounts in parentheses are estimated reserves, in barrels.)

 China
 Daqing Field, Heilongjiang (40 billion)
 Brazil
 Campos Basin
 Iran
 Aghajari Field (14 billion)
 Ahwaz Field (17 billion)
 Gachsaran Field (15 billion)
 Marun Field (16 billion)
 Iraq
 Kirkuk Field (16 billion)
 Rumaila Field (20 billion)
 Kazakhstan
 Tengiz Field (15-26 billion)
 Kashagan Field, Caspian (~50 billion)
 Kuwait
 Burgan Field (66-72 billion)
 Mexico
 Cantarell Field
 Chicontepec Field
 Nigeria
 Niger Delta Field (34 billion)
 Russia
 Samotlor Field (20 billion)
 Romashkino Field (16-17 billion)
 Saudi Arabia
 Abqaiq Field (12 billion)
 Berri Field (12 billion)
 Faroozan-Marjan Field (10 billion)
 Ghawar Field (75-83 billion)
 Manifa Field (11 billion)
 Safaniya-Khafji Field, Neutral Zone (30 billion)
 United Arab Emirates
 Zakum Field, Abu Dhabi (12 billion)
 United States
 Prudhoe Bay, Alaska (10 billion)
 Wilmington Oil Field, California (0.3 billion)
 Venezuela
 Bolivar Coastal Field

Geography-related lists
Fuel
Anarchism

Anarchism is a philosophical movement and political movement, that is against all enforced kinds of hierarchy. For example, anarchism says that the government is harmful and not needed. It also says that people's actions should never be forced by other people. Anarchism is called a libertarian form of socialism.

Anarchism is a group of ideas centered on the belief that government is both harmful and not needed. The word "anarchism" is from the Greek αναρχία, which means "without rulers", not "without rule"; it is also sometimes translated as "without government".

In the common language, the word anarchy is often used to describe chaos or anomie. However, anarchists usually do not want this. Rather, they define "anarchy" as a way of relations between people. They believe that, once put into place, these relations work on their own. Anarchists are usually opposed by the systems they wish to remove.

Principles 

Individual freedom, voluntary association, and being against the state are important beliefs of anarchism. There are also big differences between anarchist philosophies on things like whether violence can be used to bring about anarchy; the best type of economy; the relationship between technology and hierarchy; the idea of equality; and the usefulness of some organization. The word "authority" is not clear, but anarchists are not against some types of authority (e.g. the authority of someone skilled in self-defence over someone that wants to learn self-defence), they are only against control by force.

References
List of countries by area

This is a list of countries by total area. The total area is the sum of all land and Inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers). Data is taken from the United Nations Statistics Division.

References

Area
List of countries and dependencies by population

This is a list of countries and dependent territories by population.  The number shows how many people live in each country. Countries with the most people are at the top of the list. Countries with the fewest people are at the bottom.

Also see: List of countries, List of countries by area, List of countries by population density.

Sovereign states and dependencies by population

Note: All dependent territories or constituent countries that are parts of sovereign states are shown in italics and not assigned a numbered rank.

References 
e
 CIA, 9 August, 2005.
Notes

Population
Signature

A signature is a special way that people write their name to let others know that they understand or approve of something that was written. A signature is often used to sign a contract, a cheque, or a petition.

There are many ways to write a signature, and signatures may look different depending on your location. In the United States, many people have a signature which is made from writing their name in their own handwriting, often in cursive. Some signatures may be written in a different style than normal writing, which may make it difficult to read. Some people practice autographs, or fancy signatures that are hard to copy.  

Hundreds of years ago some people used sealing wax to make a copy of their signet rings next to or instead of a signature. This was called their "seal. This is where the term "seal of approval" comes from. Some formal documents still use an official wax seal, such as a coat of arms.

Types of signatures 
Wet signature:- A wet signature, ink signature, or wet ink signature is the physical marking a person makes to sign their name on a physical document, usually with a pen.

Wet signatures are the most common kind of signatures and have been used for centuries as a unique marking to indicate agreement and prevent fraud. Physical signatures have been used since 3500 B.C. in the form of seals, but it was in the 1600s when signatures written on paper became widely used and legally valid.

Although wet signatures can be forged by skilled people, they were the norm until the beginning of the 21st century, when online signatures started to become legally binding.

Electronic signature or E-signature:- Software programmes allow an electronic representation of a signature to be used that’s been created by the software.

Digital signature:- A digital signature is a signature created by the authoriser such as copying, pasting and embedding a copy of their signature or a signature created using a stylus pen.

References 
Writing
Authentication methods
Ivory Coast

Ivory Coast or Côte d'Ivoire, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country in West Africa.

The capital of Côte d'Ivoire is Yamoussoukro but its biggest city is Abidjan. Other cities can be found at List of cities in Côte d'Ivoire.

Geography
It borders the Gulf of Guinea to the south and five other African nations. Liberia is to the southwest, Guinea to the northwest, Mali to the north-northwest, Burkina Faso to the north-northeast, and Ghana to the east.

Regions
Côte d'Ivoire is divided into nineteen regions.  The regions are further divided into 81 departments.

Related pages
Côte d'Ivoire at the Olympics
Côte d'Ivoire national football team
List of rivers of Côte d'Ivoire

References 

Notes

 
French-speaking countries
Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
1960 establishments in Africa
Auction

An auction is a method of goods or services can be sold and bought. In an auction, the price of an item is not fixed in advance. People wanting to buy the item say how much they are willing to pay for it. This is called bid. In each round, the bids are evaluated: If certain criteria are met, the auction is stopped and one bidder will buy the item at the specified price. Alternatively there will be another round. If certain conditions are met, the auction will stop, and the item will not be sold. There are different kinds of auctions, with different rules.

Auctions usually happen with a given timeframe, when the time expires, the bid that best matches will win, or the item will not be sold.

There are companies that specialize in doing auctions. These companies will charge fees for doing the auction; they may also get a commission that depends on the price the item is sold at.

Auctions can be done online, or they can be done offline. Sometimes, bids are placed by telephone, or over the internet.

Most common kinds of auction 
The most common kinds of auction are:
 English auction: the highest bidder wins. The auction starts at the lowest price the seller is willing to sell at, and goes up with the price as long as someone is willing to pay a higher price.
 Dutch auction goes the other way round: The auction starts with the highest price, and goes down until a price is found, at which someone is willing to buy. The auction is stopped, when a predefined lowest price is reached, below which the auction cannot take place.
 Sealed first-bid auction: All the bids are submitted at the same time, in a sealed envelope, the bidder with the highest bid wins
 Vicrey auction (or sealed-bid second-price auction) : Works the same as the Sealed first-bid auction, but the bidder only plays the second-highest price. This kind of auction is very important in economic theory, and to model certain economic contexts

The mechanisms why auctions work 
Auctions work because of information asymmetry: The seller wants to sell at the highest possible price, and the buyers want to pay as little as possible.But the seller does not know the prices the buyers are willing to pay: Setting a price that is too hight means that there will be no sale, setting a price that is too low means that there will be less profit. Each buyer knows how much he is willing to pay, but does not know the price the other buyers are willing to pay. So buyers influence each other. The theory that models these phenomena is called auction theory. It is based on game theory and microeconomics.

Commerce
Blitzkrieg

Blitzkrieg is a German word which means lightning war, referring to the high velocity of a lightning bolt.

In a blitzkrieg the attacking motorized infantry armies move quickly, and are helped by tanks and aircraft. Slower moving enemy units are overrun or surrounded. They are often captured with little fighting. Often the slower units become disorganized and are not yet ready to fight when they are captured. The strategy of blitzkrieg  was developed in the 1930s. The Wehrmacht seldom called it by that name.

This method worked well, early in World War II during the invasions of Poland and France. It was mostly successful in Operation Barbarossa. Later in the war, the Allies learned to defeat German blitzkrieg attacks by defence in depth and by attacking the flanks of the attackers with reserve forces.

The Blitz refers to the German bombing of Britain, particularly London, during World War II, which destroyed over a million homes and killed over 40,000 people. The bombing was supposed to quickly destroy industry and morale (happiness). The Blitz was in response to the bombing of German cities by the British Royal Air Force (RAF). The Blitz began in September 1940 and continued until May 1941.

References

Military of Germany
World War II
Tank

A tank is an armoured combat vehicle, typically armed with a large cannon mounted on a turret and a few machine guns.

A tank is covered in thick armour to protect it from enemy weapons. Tanks have tracks that wrap around its wheels to spread out its weight and let it cross rough ground. Most tanks have a powerful gun and one or more machine guns. 

A tank's crew is normally 3-5. A driver, commander and gunner are always present. There may also be a loader, who handles the ammunition for the main gun (so the gunner doesn't have to take eyes off the target). Some WWII tanks also had a separate soldier responsible for the radio.

Using 

The first tanks were made by the British Royal Navy and French car manufacturers during World War I as a way of attacking enemy trenches. They were called tanks to trick the Germans into thinking they were water carriers for the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. Their use in a surprise attack in the Battle of the Somme caused fear among the German soldiers but their small numbers and poor reliability prevented them from making much difference.

Tanks became a main weapon during World War II, where battles between great numbers of tanks were fought, especially between the Germans and the Soviet Union. The Battle of Kursk was the biggest. Well-known World War II tanks were the German Panzer IV, Panther and Tiger I, Soviet T-34 (produced in the largest numbers of any tank of the war and second most ever), British Matilda, Churchill and Cromwell, and American M4 Sherman (second most produced tank of the war) and Stuart tanks. There had also been plans for much larger and more heavily armoured tanks such as the Maus but these were determined to be of little use due to their huge weight, which would have made moving them very difficult, and the huge size, which would have made them easy targets for heavy artillery.

Old tanks are often modified for other uses like carrying soldiers or equipment. Combat engineers use special tank-based vehicles, for example minesweeper tanks or bridge-layer tanks.

The tank is a major part of all large armies today. Tanks have replaced the cavalry everywhere and do the things that soldiers on horseback did in the past. Most modern tanks are of the heavy or Main Battle Tank type, able to fight other tanks. Compared to older types MBTs are very heavy (Russian MBTS being about 40 tons and Western around 60 tons) with a 120 mm (Western) and 125 mm (Russian) calibre cannon and 2-3 machine guns. Marines and other specialized forces also use some light tanks.

Related pages 
 Anti-tank gun

Other websites 

Tanks
Army
Edinburgh

Edinburgh (Scottish Gaelic: Dùn Èideann) is the capital city and second largest city in Scotland. Edinburgh lies on the east coast, where the River Forth flows into the sea. 

The central part is Edinburgh Castle, at the top of a steep hill. The castle has a military display every year, called a tattoo, where soldiers show their skills at marching and competitions, and there are brass bands and bands of bagpipes.

Edinburgh has a very large festival every year, where thousands of performers come to put on shows. The Edinburgh International Festival takes place in August and September. At the same time there is the Edinburgh Fringe. The shows are of all kinds, and range from large ones with famous people, to very small ones by new or unknown actors.

The city is served by Edinburgh Airport, and Haymarket and Waverley railway stations.

Old and New towns 
The Old Town of Edinburgh is the oldest part of the city, and with the 18th-century New Town, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It has preserved its mediaeval plan and many Reformation-era buildings.

Sport 
The city's main football teams are Heart of Midlothian F.C. and Hibernian F.C. Murrayfield stadium in the city is the home of the Scottish national rugby team and Edinburgh Rugby. The nearby Murrayfield Ice Rink is home to the city's ice hockey team, the Edinburgh Capitals. See also Leith Athletic F.C.

Twin Towns 
Edinburgh is twinned with: Florence
  Dunedin
  Nice
  Kraków
  San Diego
  Aalborg
  Kyiv
  Kyoto
  Xi'an
  Vancouver
  St. Petersburg
  Munich

Buildings 
Edinburgh has lots of important buildings. The Balmoral Hotel was opened in 1902 and designed by W. Hamilton Beattie. Saint Giles' Cathedral was built in Mediaeval times. There was a big fire there in 1385. The Royal Museum was designed by architect Francis Fowke and built between 1861 and 1888. Its sister museum, the Museum of Scotland, was designed by Benson and Forsyth in 1998. Holyrood Palace was once the home of the Scottish kings, and is open to the public.

Famous people from Edinburgh

Sir Walter Scott who wrote many historical stories.

Alexander Graham Bell, who invented the telephone, was born in Edinburgh.

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle who wrote the Sherlock Holmes stories.

Robert Louis Stevenson who wrote Kidnapped, Treasure Island, Doctor Jekyll and Mr Hyde and many other stories.

Muriel Spark who wrote The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie and many other stories.

Sean Connery who acted as James Bond in films.

References
2. Map of Edinburgh

 
Port cities and towns of the North Sea
Port cities and towns of Scotland
Head of state

The head of state is the figurehead of a state, who represents the unity of the state. However, the head of state may not have very much real power.

In a modern republic, the head of state is a president, usually elected by the people or by a parliament. In a monarchy, the head of state is the king or queen. Some countries have different systems - for example Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey is both the Head of State and Head of Government which is known as an executive system. 

In a modern monarchy, the head of state usually has little real power. Instead, the most powerful person is the head of government. This is usually the leader of the political party that wins the most seats in an election. In these cases, the king is considered to be the leader of the country, but must always take the decisions that the head of government advises them to make. The king or queen carries out national ceremonies. The United Kingdom works like this, with the Prime Minister heading the government.

A president may be the most powerful person in the country. This is true in the United States. However, sometimes there is a head of government, as well as a president. The president then acts very much like a king or queen, leaving the real decisions to the head of government. The Republic of Ireland works like this. 

In older times, and in some modern countries, the head of state has absolute power, this called an absolute monarchy which the Pope in the Vatican has.
Zaza language

Zaza language, also called Zazaki, Kirmanjki and Dimli, is an Indo-European language spoken in eastern Anatolia above the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. It belongs to the northwest-Iranian group of Iranian language. The Zaza language is related to Sangsarī, Māzandarānī, Tātī (Herzendī), Semnānī, Tāleshī, Kurdish, Persian and Balōchi. The number of Zaza speakers is not known exactly.

Other websites 
 Zaza-Gorani | Ethnologue Ethnologue on Zazaki (language)
   (Weblinks of Zaza people)
 Zazaki.de zazaki dimili zaza  Academic Research Center of Zazaki
   Only Zazaki news
   Zazaki Institute

References 

 
Iranian languages
Chemical reaction

A chemical reaction happens when one or more chemicals are changed into one or more other chemicals. Examples:

 iron and oxygen combining to make rust
 vinegar and baking soda combining to make sodium acetate, carbon dioxide and water
 things burning or exploding
 many reactions that happen inside living things, such as photosynthesis
 electrochemical reactions when discharging or recharging batteries

Some reactions are fast, and others are slow. Some happen at different speeds, depending on temperature or other things. For example, wood does not react with air when it is cold, but if it is made hot enough, it will start to burn. Some reactions give out energy. These are exothermic reactions. In other reactions, energy is taken in. These are endothermic reactions.

Nuclear reactions are not chemical reactions. Chemical reactions involve only the electrons of atoms; nuclear reactions involve the protons and neutrons in the atomic nuclei.

Four basic types

Synthesis 
In a synthesis reaction, two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex substance. 

"Two or more reactants giving one product" is another way to identify a synthesis reaction. One example of a synthesis reaction is the combination of iron and sulfur to form iron(II) sulfide:

Another example is simple hydrogen gas combined with simple oxygen gas to produce a more complex substance, such as water.

Decomposition 
A decomposition reaction is when a more complex substance breaks down into its more simple parts. It is thus the opposite of a synthesis reaction, and can be written as:

One example of a decomposition reaction is the electrolysis of water to make oxygen and hydrogen gas:

Another example of a decomposition reaction is calcium carbonate breaking down into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide under high temperatures:

CaCO3 —> CaO + CO2

Single replacement 
In a single replacement reaction, a single uncombined element replaces another in a compound; in other words, one element trades places with another element in a compound These reactions come in the general form of:

One example of a single displacement reaction is when magnesium replaces hydrogen in water to make magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas:

Double replacement 
In a double replacement reaction, the anions and cations of two compounds switch places and form two entirely different compounds. These reactions are in the general form:

For example, when barium chloride (BaCl2) and magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) react, the SO42− anion switches places with the 2Cl− anion, giving the compounds BaSO4 and MgCl2.

Another example of a double displacement reaction is the reaction of lead(II) nitrate with potassium iodide to form lead(II) iodide and potassium nitrate:

Equations 
A chemical reaction is being displayed by an equation:

Here, A and B react to C and D in a chemical reaction.

 This is an example of a combustion reaction.

 
 carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide

Related pages 
 Catalysis
 Organic reaction
 Redox

Other websites 
 Rates of reaction 
 Online chemical equation balancer Balances equation of any chemical reaction (full or half-cell) in one click.

References

Chemistry
Rectangle

In geometry, a rectangle is a shape with four sides and four corners. The corners are all right angles. It follows that the pairs of sides opposite each other must be parallel and of the same length.

People make many rectangular things, including most tables, boxes, books, and papers. The word comes from Latin words meaning "right" and angle".

A rectangle whose four sides have the same length is called a square.

Formulas 

If a rectangle has length  and width w, then:
 It has area .
 it has perimeter .
 Each diagonal has length .
 it has an aspect ratio of  : w.
 When , the rectangle is a square.
 When  is equal to the golden ratio, the rectangle is called a golden rectangle.

Related pages 

 Matrix (mathematics)
 Quadrilateral
 Rhombus

References 

Polygons
Trafalgar Square

Trafalgar Square is in the heart of London.  It is a large pedestrian square, bounded on three sides by roads. It serves as a refuge, and a major traffic intersection. Important roads go from the square: Whitehall goes to Parliament, the Mall goes to Buckingham Palace, and the Strand goes to the City of London. The square is also close to Covent Garden and Charing Cross station.

More than 15 million people go to visit there every year. It contains a large statue of Admiral Lord Nelson. The square celebrates the Battle of Trafalgar, fought in 1805. It contains Nelson's Column, a statue of Nelson mounted on a tall column, with four statues of lions around it. The column is 56 meters tall while the statue is 5 meters tall. The National Art Gallery is one of several important buildings facing the Square.

Use of the Square 
The square is visited by many tourists. Mainly, it is used for pleasure and relaxation, but sometimes there are meetings and demonstrations in Trafalgar Square. 

When the square was first built, demonstrations were banned. The ban lasted until the 1880s, when the new Labour movement start to hold demonstrations. One group that did this was the Social Democratic Federation. On "Black Monday", 6 February 1886, there was a major demonstration about unemployment which led to a riot in Pall Mall. There were demonstrations in the 1980s against South African apartheid. In 1990 there were riots against the Poll tax. In the 2000s there have been demonstrations against the Iraq war.

In recent years the square has become a gathering place for celebrations. When England won the Rugby World Cup in 2003 thousands of fans gathered in the square. This public festivities again happened when London won its bid to hold the 2012 Summer Olympic Games.

The square was also the scene of a large gathering after the terrorist bombings in London on 7 July 2005.

References

Roads in London
National squares
Cake

A cake is a type of (usually) sweet dessert which is baked. Originally, it was a bread-like food, but no longer. Cakes are often made to celebrate special occasions like birthdays or weddings. There are many kinds of cakes. It can be baked in an oven. Some savory cakes are made on a griddle or a frying pan.

Construction 

Cakes are baked from a batter. Batter is made by mixing wet ingredients (like milk and eggs) with dry ingredients (like sugar and flour). The batter is baked in an oven. This way of baking is known as the muffin method, because muffins are made this way.

Vegan versions of the same cake abstain from using animal products such as dairy or eggs and instead substitute them with plant derived products such as nut milk and alginate-lecithin gel.

Just like bread, cakes rise in the oven because they contain many small air bubbles. As cakes rise, the air bubbles expand. This is why the cake batter expands in the pan (often to twice its original size). There are two ways of forming the air bubbles, which create different types of cakes. Almost every kind of cake belongs to one of these families.

Creamed Fat 
These cakes are made with butter or another fat, like vegetable shortening. The common way is to mix the fat and sugar, then add eggs, and then add flour. The fat should be soft. It should not be hard or liquid. Mixing sugar with fat creates many very small air bubbles. Most birthday cakes are made this way. Cupcakes are also made this way.

Egg foam
These cakes are not made with solid butter or vegetable shortening. Some of these cakes are made with melted butter or vegetable oil. The common way is to mix the eggs and sugar, and then add flour. These cakes are often much taller, lighter and often spongier than creamed fat cakes. Angelfood cake and chiffon cakes are egg foam cakes. Most grocery stores with bakeries sell angelfood cakes. Angelfood cakes are made by beating egg whites with sugar. This traps a lot of tiny air bubbles. The eggs and sugar are mixed with other ingredients. Then, the cake is baked.

Decorations 
A cake can be decorated with icing (also called "frosting"), chocolate, fruit, and much more. A layer cake is made by stacking cakes with icing or filling between the layers. Birthday cakes are sometimes decorated with candles. Cakes can be served with berries or other kinds of fruit.

A large, rich cake is often called by the French word for "cake": "gâteau" (plural: "gâteaux", both singular and plural pronounced "GA-toe"). It may have a lot of cream. Some cakes can have edible paper on the top.

Gallery

References

 
Basic English 850 words
Gigabyte

A gigabyte (GB), sometimes abbreviated as a gig, is a unit of measurement in computers and similar electronic devices. At first it meant exactly 1 billion bytes, usually referring to the number of bytes in a computer hard drive. Its meaning gradually changed over time, so that today it is often used to mean 1,073,741,824 (230) bytes, especially when referring to the random access memory (RAM) of a modern computer. Now international standards bodies say a gigabyte should only be used to mean exactly 1 billion bytes, and that gibibyte is a better name for 1,073,741,824 bytes. In everyday use, people use gigabyte to mean 1,073,741,824 bytes when talking about computer memory and 1,000,000,000 bytes when talking about computer disk space.

One thousand gigabytes make one terabyte.

Uses 
This measurement is often used when measuring the capacity of computer memory, hard drives, or other storage devices.

Computing measurement
Sailor

A sailor (or seaman) is a person who works at sea on a boat or ship. The sailor works under a captain. The term is only used when the person is working professionally (earning money or make a living).

Sailor is also the lowest rank in a navy.

Occupations
Water transport
Sailing
Navy
Constellation

A constellation is a group of stars which make up imaginary outline or pattern in the night sky (the celestial sphere). Usually they are said to represent an animal, mythological person or creature in a shape. When seen, the group of stars seem to make a pattern. 

The word constellation comes from Latin: con-, meaning together and stella- meaning stars. Some examples of constellations are Ursa major, Orion, Leo, Draco, Cancer etc.  
People used constellations to tell the difference in the colors.  Constellations were also used to group stars.  Different places in the world may have different constellations, but today astronomy has a fixed set of 88 constellations.  This set is based on the Greek set and later some southern constellations were added, for example Antlia - the air pump.  Most constellations have names that come from Greek mythology, like Orion or Andromeda.

There are 12 constellations in the Zodiac. The Sun travels through the Zodiac once each year. There is also a thirteenth constellation Ophiuchus - the carrier of a serpent, which the Sun goes through. However, most people do not think that it is in the Zodiac.

History
No one knows who first saw the constellations. Ancient civilizations, like the Mayans, drew their own star maps of the skies with their constellations, very few of which we use today.
Ptolemy's 48 constellations are still recognized by the IAU today, and the rest of the constellations were added later