cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Gotha

Gotha is a town in Thuringia, in Germany. It is the capital of the District of Gotha. The population was 46,205 in 2004.

History 
The town has existed at least since the 8th century, when its name was mentioned in a document signed by Charlemagne, in which it appears as Villa Gotaha ("Good Waters"). In 1640 Gotha became the capital city of Saxe-Gotha. In the 18th century the French philosopher Voltaire stayed for a long time, and the Royal court became one of the centres of the Enlightenment in Germany. From 1826 to 1918, Gotha was one of the two capitals of the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.

Gotha has played an important role in the Germany's workers' movement: the German socialist party (SPD) was founded in Gotha in 1875, when the Social Democratic Workers' Party, led by August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht, and the General German Workers' Association, founded by Ferdinand Lassalle joined together. The compromise was known the Gotha Program and was opposed by Karl Marx.

Gotha has also been traditionally a centre of publishing. The firm of Justus Perthes (now called Hermann Haack) began publishing the Almanach de Gotha in 1763. The almanach was a very important directory of the world's major ruling dynasties and Europe's high nobility.

From 1949 to 1990 the city of Gotha was in the German Democratic Republic.

Sights 
 The main attraction in the town is the Schloß Friedenstein, the former ducal palace, built in 1643-1655. It is Germany’s oldest early Baroque palace. The palace also houses the Museum of Regional History including the historic Ekhof Theatre, the oldest preserved baroque theatre in the world.
 Town Hall, built between 1567 and 1577 in Renaissance style, noteworthy for a richly decorated façade in its north side.
 A Market place (Hauptmarkt) surrounded by restored patrician houses with Baroque doorways.
 Augustinian Church (Gothic, 13th century), with former abbey.
 St Margaret’s Church (Margarethenkirche), from the end of the 15th century.
 Gotha is host to the annual Freakstock Christian music festival.

Sister cities 
  Martin
  Gastonia, North Carolina
  Kielce Poland
  Martin
  Romilly-sur-Seine
  Salzgitter

References

Other websites 

 Official website 
 Official website 
 Tram in Gotha

Verwaltungsgemeinschaftfrei towns in Thuringia
Gotha Rural District
Palm Island, Queensland

Palm Island, also known as Great Palm Island, or by the Aboriginal name Bukaman, is an island with about 2,000 people living on it.

Names 
The small town on the island has many names such as Palm Island, the Mission, Palm Island Settlement or Palm Community.

Location 
The island is  north-west of Townsville, on the east coast of Queensland, Australia.  It is the biggest of the Greater Palm group of islands.  It has small bays, sandy beaches and steep forested mountains rising to  high.  Other close by islands outside the Palm group include Rattlesnake Island and Magnetic Island.

History 
Palm Island is often called a "tropical paradise" because of its natural beauty, but it has had a sad past since Europeans arrived in Australia.  For much of the 20th Century it was used by the Queensland Government as a town for Aboriginals thought to be guilty of such crimes as being "disruptive", being pregnant to a white man or being born with "mixed blood".

The community created by this history has had many problems and has often been debated about by political and social writers.  Of major concern is a lack of jobs and housing.  Since it became a Aboriginal reserve, Palm Island has been a symbol of aboriginal hardship and violence.  At the same time it has been at the centre of political campaigning to improve the lives and treatment of Australia's Indigenous peoples as well as seeking people to recognise the bad history which lead to the Palm Island of today.

References
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Footnotes

Other websites
Bwgcolmacom Community School website 
Local Council information 
Palm Island PCYC webpage 
Database of Agreements to which the Palm Island Aboriginal Shire Council are parties 
Joyce Palmer Health Service webpage
Dunn, Peter "WW2 Palm Island naval base" Australia @ War, 22 May 2004 (and updated since)
Queensland Government information webpage on Palm Island and alcohol management 
Queensland Government information webpage on Community Renewal on Palm Island 
Queensland Government map of alcohol restriction zone 
Australian Government Shared Responsibility Agreement - Palm Island our horses, our responsibility

Articles produced by The Brisbane Institute think tank

Professor Steffen Lehmann Lessons from Palm Island  The Brisbane Institute, 17 November 2005
Boe, Andrew Palm Island: something is very wrong  The Brisbane Institute, 21 April 2005
Boe, Andrew Palm Island Inquest findings – the unacceptable political inertia  The Brisbane Institute, 06 October 2006

Islands of Australia
Indigenous Australian communities
Geography of Queensland
100 Greatest Britons

100 Greatest Britons was a BBC programme broadcast in 2002. The list was the result of a poll. The top ten people on the list were:

 Sir Winston Churchill, (1874–1965), Prime Minister during the Second World War, politician, soldier, author, speaker, artist
 Isambard Kingdom Brunel, (1806–1859), engineer, creator of Great Western Railway and other significant works
 Diana, Princess of Wales (1961–1997), first wife of HRH Charles, Prince of Wales (1981–1996) and mother of Princes William and Harry of Wales
 Charles Darwin (1809-1882), naturalist, originator of the theory of evolution through natural selection and author of The Origin of Species
 William Shakespeare (1564–1616), English poet and playwright, thought of by many as the greatest of all writers in the English language
 Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, and alchemist, regarded by many as the greatest figure in the history of science
 Queen Elizabeth I of England (1533–1603), monarch, (reigned 1558–1603)
 John Lennon (1940–1980), musician with The Beatles, philanthropist, peace activist, artist
 Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson (1758–1805), naval commander
 Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658), Lord Protector

The complete list can be found on the BBC website.

References

BBC
Lists of people
Igrejinha

Igrejinha is a Brazilian city of the state of Rio Grande do Sul. It has 31 389 inhabitants and an area of 136.816 km².

Sources

Cities in Rio Grande do Sul
1964 establishments in Brazil
Arroyo Barril, Samaná

Arroyo Barril is a Municipal district of Santa Bárbara de Samaná, Samaná province in the Dominican Republic.  It is on the south coast of the Samaná Peninsula, on the coast of Samaná Bay.

It was made a municipal district on May 1, 2003.

Population
In the last national census (2010), the district had a total population of 11,007: 5,591 men and 5,416 women. The urban population was 22% of the total population.

Economy
The most important economic activities of Arroyo Barril are the same of the province: agriculture, fishing and tourism.

The Arroyo Barril Airport is in this place; it is a national airport with flights to other airports in the country.

References

Settlements in the Dominican Republic
2003 establishments
21st-century establishments in the Dominican Republic
Intolerable Acts

The Intolerable Acts are laws passed by the Parliament of Great Britain in 1774.

The British Parliament passed these laws to punish the Massachusetts colony for the Boston Tea Party.
 One of the laws closed Boston Harbor until the colonists paid for the destroyed tea.  
 The Quartering Act allowed Britain to house troops wherever it wanted.  This one was for all the colonies, not just Massachusetts.
 The Administration of Justice Act allowed the trials of accused royal officials to take place in Great Britain if the Governor decided that the defendant could not get a fair trial in Massachusetts. 
 The Quebec Act gave the Ohio country to Canada.

These laws were so harsh that the colonists called them the Intolerable Acts.

Other colonies offered Massachusetts their support. They sent supplies to Boston. The Committees of Correspondence also called for a meeting of all colonies. This meeting would decide what to do about their problems with Britain, which led to the Continental Congress.

Other websites

Text of the Quartering Act
Text of the Quebec Act
1774
Law
1770s in the United States
1770s in the Kingdom of Great Britain
Mike Zambidis

"Iron" Mike Zambidis (born July 15, 1980) is a Greek kickboxer.  He is known in the kickboxing community as K.O. artist and for his explosive fighting style.

Greek sportspeople
Martial artists
1980 births
Living people
Indo-Greek Kingdom

The Indo-Greek Kingdom was a part of the Greek Empire. It ruled in parts of northwest and northern Indian subcontinent (present-day Pakistan) from 180 BCE to around 10 CE, and was ruled by a succession of more than thirty Hellenic kings.

References

Other websites 
 News story of the latest archaeological discovery of artefacts dated back to Indo-Greek period
 Indo-Greek history and coins 
 Ancient coinage of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms
 Text of Prof. Nicholas Sims-Williams (University of London) mentioning the arrival of the Kushans and the replacement of Greek Language. 
 Wargame reconstitution of Indo-Greek armies 

Ancient Greece
History of Pakistan
Dassault Mirage 2000

The Mirage 2000 is a French-built multirole fighter jet manufactured by Dassault Aviation. It first flew in 1978, and was introduced in 1984. Originally designed in the late seventies as a lightweight fighter for the Armée de l'Air, it evolved into a successful multirole aircraft now in service in 9 countries with more than 600 airplanes built.

Related pages
Mirage III

French military aircraft
Mirage 2000
Helensburgh, New South Wales

Helensburgh is a small town in New South Wales, Australia. It has  more than 5000 people. It is about half-way between Sydney and Wollongong, at the southern end of the Royal National Park. The area was first settled by Europeans in 1815, when farmers began to move their cattle to graze on the grasslands around Wollongong.

References

Towns in New South Wales
Hugo Award

The Hugo Award is an award given each year for the best science fiction or fantasy works of the previous year. The award is named after Hugo Gernsback, the founder of the science fiction magazine Amazing Stories. Hugo Awards have been given out every year since 1953, except 1954. Hugo Award winners are chosen by members of the Worldcon convention each year. The ceremony where the awards are given out is a main part of the convention. 

The Hugo Award trophy was co-designed by Benedict Jablonski. 

The 2006 Hugo Awards ceremony was held at the 64th World Science Fiction Convention (Worldcon) on Saturday, August 26 in Anaheim, California. The 2007 Awards were presented at the 65th World Science Fiction Convention in Yokohama, Japan on 1 September.

Other websites 
 Official site
 Most honored Hugo Award nominees
 Hugo Award Gallery 
 Hugo history at a glance  – graphical overview of when individual persons were nominated; until 2004
 Excerpts and summaries of all Hugo winning and nominated novels
Schlenkerla

Schlenkerla is a famous old brewery and tavern in Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany. It is known for its smoked beer which is called "Aecht Schlenkerla Rauchbier" ("real Schlenkerla smoked beer").  It is a strong, darkish beer with a slightly smokey taste which is rather like bacon.  The alcohol content is 5.1%.  There is another speciality which is called "Urbock" ("Ur" means "original" and "Bock" is actually a male goat).  The Urbock is stronger: 6.5% alcohol and is only served in the season known as the "Starkbierzeit" ("Strong beer time") which is from October to 6 January.  The beer is served from oak barrels.  This is a very old tradition which is not often found nowadays.

The name Schlenkerla comes from the word "schlenken" which means: "to dangle" ("to hang loosely", or "swing").

Other websites
 Brauereiausschank Schlenkerla  - Official website of the Schlenkerla historical brewery and tavern
 Bamberger-Bier.de - everything you have to know about Bambergs brewing tradition (German, English)

Beer
Buildings and structures in Bamberg
Taverns
Gabelmann

The Gabelmann ("Fork man") is a statue with a fountain in Bamberg, Germany. It is a Baroque statue of Neptune, the ancient Roman god of the sea, who is holding his three-pronged fork. This is why he has the name Gabelmann.

The Gabelmann stands in the part of the pedestrian precinct called "Grüner Markt" ("Green Market"). In the local Franconian dialect he is called Goblmoo. There is a well-known poem about him written in the dialect.

The Gabelmann is a favourite place for people to meet in Bamberg.

Buildings and structures in Bamberg
Statues
Bamberg Symphony Orchestra

The Bamberger Symphoniker (Bamberg Symphony Orchestra) is a world-famous orchestra from the city of Bamberg, Germany. It was formed in 1946. Most of the musicians who formed the orchestra were Germans who had been forced to leave Czechoslovakia after the World War II. Most of them had previously been members of the German Philharmonic Orchestra of Prague.

The Bamberger Symphoniker have a large modern concert hall in Bamberg which was opened in 1993. They give many concerts there, but they also do a lot of touring to all parts of the world. Their conductor is Jonathan Nott who is an English conductor. Every three years the orchestra organize a "Gustav Mahler Conducting Prize". This is a competition for young conductors. The competition first took place in 2004.

The orchestra have made several CD recordings.

Principal conductors
 Jonathan Nott (2000-present)
 Horst Stein (1985-1996)
 Witold Rowicki (1983-1985)
 James Loughran (1979-1983)
 Eugen Jochum (1969-1973)
 Joseph Keilberth (1949-1968)

Other websites
 Bamberger Symphoniker official website 

German orchestras
Bamberg
Lübeck law

The Lübeck law () was one of a few charters for town privileges. The Lübeck law said there should be a city council (Rat). There should be 20 council members, which were usually elected for 2 years. 

Many cities in the Hanseatic League used this law.

History of Germany
Alfonso Daniel Rodríguez Castelao

Alfonso Daniel  (30 January 1886 – 7 January 1950), also known as Castelao, was a Spanish writer on Galician language and one of the main symbols of Galicia. As a politician, caricaturist, and writer, he is one of the leading figures of Galician culture and identity.

(1886–1929) Early life 
In 1886, Alfonso Daniel Rodríguez de Castelao was born on 30 January in Rianxo, Galicia, Spain.

Castelao spent his childhood and adolescence in Santa Rosa de Toay, Argentina. In 1900, the Castelao family returned to Rianxo. In 1908, he obtained his degree in Medicine from the University of Santiago de Compostela. The next year, he passed his doctorate in Madrid, where he started to become known as a caricaturist, and settled down in Rianxo, joining the political movement Action Galicia (Acción Gallega in Spanish). As a caricaturist, Castelao focussed on the everyday in a humorous way, although after the cruelty and tragedy of the Spanish Civil War, he turned to using his art to denounce the misery of Fascism.

In 1916, he moved to Pontevedra, where he joined the Irmandades da Fala and participated in the Asembleia Nazonalista de Lugo, signing an important national declaration. In 1920, he became editor of the magazine Nos and travelled through France, the Netherlands and Germany. In 1922, he wrote the novel Un Ollo de Vidro and in 1924 he joined the Seminario de Estudos Galegos and founded the Coral Polifonica de Pontevedra. Two years later he published Cousas, and in 1929 he travelled to Brittany to study its stone crosses and publish As Cruces de Pedra na Bretaña.

Spanish politicians
Spanish writers
Spanish Civil War
1886 births
1950 deaths
Galician people
Emilia Pardo Bazán

Emilia Pardo Bazán (16 September 1851 – 12 May 1921) (also known as Emilia, countess de Pardo Bazán) was a Spanish author and scholar.

Life
Bazán was born in A Coruña (also known as La Coruña or Corunna), part of the region of Galicia, and the culture of that area was incorporated into some of her most popular novels, including Los pazos de Ulloa (The Manors of Ulloa) and its sequel, La Madre Naturaleza (Mother Nature). She was also known for bringing naturalism to Spanish literature, for her detailed descriptions of reality, and for her role in feminist literature of her era. 

Married at eighteen to Sr D. Jos Quiroga, a Galician country gentleman, she interested herself in politics, and is believed to have taken an active part in the underground campaign against Amadeo of Spain and, later, against the republic. In 1876 she came into notice as the successful competitor for a literary prize offered by the municipality of Oviedo, the subject of her essay being the Benedictine monk, Benito Jerónimo Feijoo. This was followed by a series of articles inserted in La Ciencia cristiana, a magazine of the purest orthodoxy, edited by Juan M. Orti y plana.

Other websites 
Biography and list of works (Spanish language)

Spanish writers
1851 births
1921 deaths
People from A Coruña
Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a brain part at the base of the brain. It connects the endocrine system to the nervous system. The word hypothalamus is a Greek word which means "under the thalamus"; it is used because hypothalamus is below the thalamus, and above the brain stem.

The hypothalamus controls body temperature, hunger, thirst and circadian cycles.
It is the control system which regulates the pituitary gland, the 'master gland' of the body. It is also involved in regulating sex drive.

The thalamus sits above the hypothalamus, and the hypothalamus sits above the pituitary gland. That area at the base of the brain down to the pituitary is the centre of neurosecretion. Some neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus produce hormones such as oxytocin and vasopressin. These hormones are released into the blood in the posterior pituitary. It is the main way the nervous system controls the hormones in our bodies.

References 

Glands
Endocrine system
Square yard

A square yard (sometimes written yd² ) is the United States and British unit of measurement for area. It is the area inside a square that has each side equal to one yard (3 feet or 36 inches). This measurement can be found by squaring the measure of one side of the square.

It was formerly used in most of the English-speaking world, but now is generally replaced by the square metre. However, it is still  used in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Pakistan and India.

Imperial units
Units of area
Ahmednagar

Ahmednagar is a city of Ahmednagar District in the state of Maharashtra, India, on the left bank of the Sina river, about 120 kilometres northeast of Pune and 120 kilometres from Aurangabad.

References

Other websites
 
 

Cities in India
Settlements in Maharashtra
1490 establishments
15th-century establishments in Asia
Steering wheel (ship)

The wheel of a ship is the modern method of changing the angle of the rudder to change the direction of the boat or ship. It is also called the galver, together with the rest of the steering mechanism. 

The wheel is typically connected to a mechanical or hydraulic system.

The idea of tractors, automobiles, and similar land vehicles having a steering wheel probably evolved directly from the ship's wheel.

Gallery

Ship building
Grumman F-14 Tomcat

The F-14 Tomcat is a fighter plane made for the American Navy. It first flew in 1970 and started to replace the F-4 Phantom II in 1973. It could carry 6 of AIM-54 Phoenix missiles and two AIM-9 Sidewinders. The plane is supersonic. In 2006, the Navy stopped using it. Iran uses the F-14, but they are rumored to be in bad condition.

Related pages
F/A-18 Hornet
F-15 Eagle
F-16 Fighting Falcon
F-4 Phantom II

United States Navy aircraft
Iran
F-14
Military aircraft
General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon

The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a one-engine multirole combat aircraft. It was originally designed and built by General Dynamics, which is now part of Lockheed Martin. The United States Air Force (USAF) ordered the F-16 in 1972. The airplane first flew four years later in 1976. Over 4,600 F-16s have been built since then. The airplane has been used by more than 25 air forces around the world. It is also used by the Thunderbirds, the USAF's aerobatics team. As of 2015, there are more F-16s in military use than any other fixed-wing aircraft.

Capabilities 
The F-16 is able to fly at twice the speed of sound. It is armed with a M61 Vulcan Gatling gun and has eleven places where weapons or other equipment can be attached. It was the first production combat airplane to be designed to be unstable to be easier to turn, and has easier controls to make it highly agile in the air. Its designers also used many other new ideas such as a bubble canopy to help the pilot see better and a control stick on the side of the cockpit to make it easier to steer during tight turns and high g-forces.

The F-16's official name is "Fighting Falcon", but it is often called the "Viper" by its pilots and crews. The nickname came from the fact that the viper snake is known for its deadly fangs and venom, and because the Colonial Viper spacecraft from Battlestar Galactica was popular when the airplane was introduced to the USAF.

Users

Past users
  – Italian Air Force leased up to 30 F-16As and 4 F-16Bs from the US Air Force from 2001 until 2012.

Related pages
 F-15 Eagle
 F-14 Tomcat

References

United States Air Force aircraft
Military aircraft
M1 Garand

The M1 Garand is a semi-automatic rifle that was mostly used by the US Army during World War II and the Korean War. It replaced the M1903 Springfield rifle in 1936 as the main US service rifle. It has an internal eight-bullet box magazine, which is loaded with clips of 8 bullets. When the last round is shot, the empty clip is ejected, making a "ping" sound. A common misconception (seen in video games such as Call of Duty) is that the clip can only be removed by shooting all the bullets, but the clip may be removed at any time (but it is hard to do). General George Patton described it as the greatest battle implement ever designed. It was replaced by the M14 rifle in the late 1950's.

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: Captured from South Korean Army and U.S.Army during Korean War.
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Other websites 
 WW2DB: M1 Garand
 M1 Garand - Encyc 

7.62 mm rifles
Rifles of the Cold War
Hydrogen atom

A hydrogen atom is an atom of the chemical element hydrogen.

Its parts are a single negatively-charged electron that circles a single positively-charged nucleus of the hydrogen atom. The nucleus of hydrogen consists of only a single proton (in the case of hydrogen-1 or protium), or it may also include one or more neutrons (giving deuterium, tritium, and other isotopes). The electron is bound to the nucleus by the Coulomb force. Hydrogen-1, also known as protium or "light hydrogen" is the main component of natural hydrogen.

Related pages
Hydrogen
quantum mechanics

References

Section 4.2 deals with the hydrogen atom specifically, but all of Chapter 4 is relevant.

Other websites
Physics of hydrogen atom on Scienceworld
Visualizing Atomic Orbitals
Applet which allows viewing of all sorts of hydrogenic orbitals
The Hydrogen Atom: Wave Functions, Probability Density "pictures"
Basic Quantum Mechanics of the Hydrogen Atom

Physics
Live at Wembley (album)

Live at Wembley is a DVD/CD by American R&B singer Beyoncé Knowles. It was released on April 27, 2004.

Track listing

CD 
 What's It Gonna Be (Album Version)
 My First Time (Album Version)
 Krazy In Luv (Maurice's Nu Soul Remix)
 Baby Boy (Junior's World Mixshow Beyonce)
 Naughty Girl (Calderone Quayle Club Mix)

DVD 
 Baby Boy
 Naughty Girl
 Fever
 Hip Hop Star
 Yes
 Work It Out
 Gift From Virgo
 Be With You
 Speechless
 Destiny`s Child's Medley
 Me, Myself and I
 Summertime
 Dangerously in Love 2
 Crazy In Love

References

2004 albums
Beyoncé albums
Hip hop soul albums
R&B albums
Leo von Caprivi

Georg Leo von Caprivi, later Georg Leo Graf von Caprivi de Caprara de Montecuccoli (), (24 February 1831–6 February 1899) was a German major general and politician, who succeeded Otto von Bismarck as Chancellor of Germany. Caprivi was German Chancellor from March 1890 to October 1894.

Biography
Born in Charlottenburg, Berlin to a family of Italian and Slovenian origin, Caprivi joined the army in 1849 and fought in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.

He liked Bismarck, and once said "What jackass would dare to succeed Bismarck?". Kaiser Wilhelm II was arguing with Bismarck about changes to the government. In February 1890 the Kaiser told Caprivi to come back to Berlin. Caprivi was told that he would take over from Bismarck if Bismarck did not do what the Kaiser wanted. Caprivi became chancellor on 18 March 1890.

Caprivi's government was friendlier to the Social Democrats and to the United Kingdom. The Zanzibar treaty of July 1890, meant Germany gave control of Zanzibar, an island near German East Africa to Britain in return for the island of Heligoland in the North Sea . Caprivi also got the Caprivi Strip added to German South West Africa. This is a narrow strip of land that links German South West Africa (now called Namibia), to the Zambezi River.

In 1892 Caprivi resigned as Prussian Minister President and was replaced by Count Botho zu Eulenburg. Prussia was so powerful in the German Empire that having different people as Imperial Chancellor and Minister President made it hard to govern the country. Caprivi and Eulenburg were dismissed in 1894 and Prince Chlodwig of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst took both jobs.

Other websites
 Die Reden des Grafen von Caprivi im deutschen Reichstage, preussischen Landtage und besondern Anllasen "Speeches of Count von Caprivi in the German Reichstag, Prissian Landtag, and other places" in German at google Books.

1831 births
1899 deaths
Admirals
Chancellors of Germany
German generals
German nobility
German Empire politicians
Politicians from Berlin
German Protestants
Prussian politicians
Columbia, Missouri

Columbia is a city in the U.S. state of Missouri. The University of Missouri is located there.

References 

1821 establishments in Missouri
Cities in Missouri
County seats in Missouri
Santa Bárbara de Samaná

The Dominican city of Santa Bárbara de Samaná, or simply Samaná, is the head municipality of the Samaná province, on the south coast of the peninsula of Samaná. The people from this city, and of the province, are called samanés or samanense, in Spanish.

Name
Santa Bárbara de Samaná is named Santa Bárbara after the Queen Bárbara de Braganza, wife of King Ferdinand VI of Spain. Samaná was the Taíno name of the region.

History
The city was founded in 1756 as Santa Bárbara de Samaná, by the Spanish governor Francisco Rubio y Peñaranda. This was during the period when the area of Santo Domingo was a Spanish colony. Its first European inhabitants were families from the Canary Islands.

When the Maritime District (an old division similar to a province) of Samaná was created in 1865, the city was elevated to the category of municipality.

Population
The municipality had, in , a total population of 33,196: 17,034 men and 16,162 women. The urban population was  of the total population.

Geography
Santa Bárbara de Samaná has a total area of  (without including its municipal districts), about  of the total area of the province of Samaná. The city is an elevation of  above sea level, and at  to the northeast of Santo Domingo.

The city is surrounded by mountains of the Sierra de Samaná, a small mountain range that covers most of the Samaná peninsula.

The municipality of Santa Bárbara de Samaná has the Atlantic Ocean to the north and the east, the Samaná Bay to the south, the municipality of Las Terrenas to the northwest and the municipality of Sánchez to the southwest.

Climate
Samaná has a tropical wet climate (Köppen-Geiger classification: Af) with no dry or cold season as it is constantly moist (rainfalls during the whole year).

The average amount of rainfall for the year in the city is . The month with the most precipitation on average is November with  of rainfall, followed by October with .

The driest season is winter. The month with the least rainfall on average is February with an average of  and the second is March with .

Samaná is in a warm region; the average temperature for the year is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

Administrative division
The municipality of Santa Bárbara de Samaná has 3 municipal districts:

Gallery

References

Settlements in the Dominican Republic
1756 establishments
18th-century establishments in the Spanish Empire
1750s establishments in North America
Amateur

The word amateur is normally used to mean: somebody who does something (e.g. a job) without being paid for it, or without having had training or education for it.

The opposite of an amateur is a professional. He (or she) will expect to be paid a professional fee for the job.

The word “amateur” comes from a French word meaning: "lover of". An amateur is someone who does something (e.g. play the piano, football) because they enjoy doing it. They are not doing it in order to be paid. It is not how they earn money to live.

People often forget the real meaning of the word “amateur”.  It is often mistakenly used to mean: someone who is not good at something.  On the other hand, an amateur might be described as having done a very “professional” job, i.e. done it as well as someone who is paid.

Although one might expect a professional to be better than an amateur, this is not always the case. Someone might be a very good amateur pianist, possibly better than some professionals.

In some jobs it would be impossible for amateurs to be allowed to work. One cannot have amateur doctors or lawyers. In some areas, however, amateurs have been very useful, e.g. in computer programming or astronomy or birdwatching. For example,Wikipedia is written by amateurs.

Sport 
In some sporting events, all players are professional or all are amateur. Many events mix professional and amateur participants. 

In some sports (e.g. tennis or football) in the past, amateurs and professionals would not compete against one another. This was not always because amateurs were thought to be not as good as professionals. In some countries, such as Great Britain in Victorian times, this was because of social class distinction. Amateur cricketers were rich gentlemen from the upper classes who did not want to associate with people from lower classes.  This attitude slowly changed during the 20th century.  

Until the 1970s most Olympic events were for amateurs. Athletes were disqualified if they received money for the event, or in some cases even if they had been paid for sporting events outside the Olympics.

Related pages 
 Hobby
 Amateur radio
Volunteering

References 

Everyday life
Württemberg-Baden

Württemberg-Baden was one of the original states of the Federal Republic of Germany.

In 1952 it joined with Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern to make the state of Baden-Württemberg.

Baden-Württemberg
Former states in Germany
1950s disestablishments in Germany
Württemberg-Hohenzollern

Württemberg-Hohenzollern was one of the original states of the Federal Republic of Germany. Its capital was Tübingen.

It was part of the French Zone of Occupation. After a referendum on 16 December 1951 it joined with Württemberg-Baden, which had been in the American Zone, and Baden which had also been in the French Zone, and formed the present state of Baden-Württemberg on 25 April 1952

After World War the Kingdom of Württemberg became the Free Peoples' State of Württemberg. After World War II the part of the Free Peoples' State of Württemberg and the old Principality of Hohenzollern were joined to make Württemberg-Hohenzollern. The name of the Royal family of Prussia was Hohenzollern because they came from this area. This is also why it was always part of Prussia until Prussia was abolished after World War II.

List of heads of government 

 1945 - 1947: Carlo Schmid (SPD)
 1947 - 1948: Lorenz Bock (CDU)
 1948 - 1952: Gebhard Müller (CDU)

Baden-Württemberg
Former states in Germany
1945 establishments in Europe
1950s disestablishments in Germany
Noraduz cemetery

Noraduz cemetery () is a medieval cemetery with many ancient khachkars in the village of Noraduz, Gegharkunik marz near Gavar and Lake Sevan, 90 km north of Yerevan. Many tombstones in the cemetery show carved scenes of weddings and farm life.

Khachkars
The oldest khachkars in the cemetery go back to the late 10th century. During the revival of the khachkar tradition in the 16-17th centuries many khachkars were built under the yoke of the Safavid Empire when oriental influences seeped into Armenian art. Three master carvers from this period carved khachkars in Noraduz, the most notable of whom was Kiram Kazmogh (1551-1610), his contemporaries were Arakel and Meliset.

Folklore
A popular folktale involving the cemetery concerns the invading army of Tamerlane. According to one story the villagers placed helmets on top of the khachkars and leaned swords against them. From a distance the khachkars looked like armed soldiers holding a defensive position as a result of which Tamerlane’s army retreated.

Related pages
Khachkar

Other websites 
Noratus Cemetery at ArmeniaPedia.org

Buildings and structures in Armenia
Cemeteries
Establishments in Armenia
Safavid dynasty

The Safavid state (Azerbaijani: Səfəvilər dövləti) ruled Iran from 1501 to 1736.  At times it covered the territories of present-day Azerbaijan, Armenia, Iraq, Afghanistan, western Pakistan, Turkmenistan, eastern Turkey, northeastern India and Uzbekistan and Russia.  It was was inherited by historical Iran and Azerbaijan.

The state was founded by Ismail I in July 1501 in Tabriz, declaring himself shah.  The core of the Red Army, consisting of Ismail's supporters, was the Turkic tribes. The Gizilbash tribes that supported the establishment of the Safavid state were: Shamli, Rumlu, Mosullu,  Pornak, Sheykhavand, Chapni, Bayat, Khinisli, Takali,  Baharli, Garamanli,  Sadlu, Bayburtlu, Varsaq, Evoglu, Garajadagli,  Ustajli, Zulgadar, Afshar,  Qajar.  The Safavid state also played a great historical role in the formation of the national and religious identity of modern Azerbaijan. Safavid was Turkic ( Azerbaijani ) origins and spoke turkic

References

History of Iran
History of Azerbaijan
History of Islam
Azerbaijani dynasties
Royal dynasties
1500s establishments
18th-century disestablishments in Asia
16th-century establishments in Asia
1722 disestablishments
Hyde Park

Hyde Park could mean any of the following:

Places

In England
 Hyde Park, London
 Hyde Park, Leeds, inner-city area of north-west Leeds
 Hyde Park, South Yorkshire, district of Sheffield
 Hyde Park, in Hyde, Greater Manchester

In the United States
 Hyde Park, Los Angeles, California
 Hyde Park, Tampa, Florida
 Hyde Park, Boise, Idaho
 Hyde Park, Chicago, Illinois
 Hyde Park, Massachusetts, part of the city of Boston
 Hyde Park, Kansas City, Missouri
 Hyde Park, New York, town in Dutchess County, New York
 Hyde Park, Ohio, neighborhood of Cincinnati
 Hyde Park, Pennsylvania, borough in Westmoreland County
 Hyde Park, Berks County, Pennsylvania
 Hyde Park, Memphis, Tennessee
 Hyde Park, Austin, Texas
 Hyde Park, Utah
 Hyde Park (town), Vermont
 Hyde Park (village), Vermont
 Hyde Park Township, Cook County, Illinois, annexed by Chicago in 1889
 Hyde Park Township, Minnesota
 New Hyde Park, New York
 North Hyde Park, Tampa, Florida
 Woodbourne-Hyde Park, Ohio

In Australia

 Hyde Park, Sydney, park in New South Wales
 Hyde Park (Western Australia), park in Perth
 Hyde Park, South Australia, suburb of Adelaide

Elsewhere

 Hyde Park, Gauteng, South Africa
 Hajd park, Belgrade, Serbia

Grounds
 Dr. Hyde Park a Gaelic Games ground in Roscommon, Ireland

Other Uses
 Hyde Park (play), by James Shirley.
Roger Guillemin

Roger Charles Louis Guillemin (born 11 January 1924 in Dijon, Côte-d'Or, France) received the National Medal of Science in 1976, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1977 for his work on neurohormones.

Education 
Completing his undergraduate work at the University of Burgundy, Guillemin received his M.D. degree from the Medical Faculty at Lyon in 1949, and went to Montréal, Québec, Canada to work with Hans Selye at the Institute of Experimental Medicine and Surgery at the Université de Montréal where he received a Ph.D. in 1953. The same year he moved to the United States to join the faculty at Baylor College of Medicine at Houston. In 1965, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. In 1970 he started a laboratory, San Diego where he worked until retirement in 1989.

Guillemin and Andrew V. Schally discovered the structures of TRH and GnRH in separate laboratories.

Books
 Nicholas Wade (1981). The Nobel Duel, Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, NY.
 Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar (1979).  Laboratory Life, Sage, Los Angeles, USA.

Other websites
 Nobel autobiography
 Salk Institute faculty page 

1924 births
Living people
American Nobel Prize winners
American physicians
French Nobel Prize winners
French physicians
Naturalized citizens of the United States
French neuroscientists
People from Dijon
Scientists from San Diego, California
Andrew Schally

Andrzej Wiktor Schally, also known as Andrew W. Schally, born November 30, 1926 in Wilno, Poland (now Vilnius, Lithuania) is a Polish-born American endocrinologist. In 1977, He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. He is of Jewish descent.

Born in Poland, Andrew Schally received his education in Scotland and England. In 1952, he moved to Canada. He received his doctorate in endocrinology from McGill University in 1957.  That same year he left for a research career in the United States where he has worked mainly at Tulane University. A Canadian citizen when he left Canada, Schally became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1962. He was affiliated with the Baylor College of Medicine for some years in Houston, Texas.

He developed a whole new realm of knowledge concerning the brain’s control over the body chemistry. His works also addressed birth control methods and growth hormones. He - as well as Roger Guillemin- described the neurohormone GnRH that controls FSH and LH. He was awarded an honorary Doctoral Degree from Jagiellonian University at Kraków.

Books
 Aleksandra Ziółkowska "Korzenie są polskie", Warszawa 1992. 
 Aleksandra Ziolkowska-Boehm "The Roots Are Polish", Toronto 2004 (English language imprint). 
 Nicholas Wade (1981). The Nobel Duel, Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, NY.

References

1926 births
Living people
American Nobel Prize winners
American physicians
Jewish American academics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Naturalized citizens of the United States
People from Vilnius
Polish Jews
Refugees from Nazism
Hyde Park, London

Hyde Park is one of the largest parks in central London, England and one of the Royal Parks of London, famous for its Speakers' Corner. It is the largest of the eight Royal Parks.

The park is divided in two by the Serpentine Lake. Hyde Park is 350 acres (1.4 km²) large, together with Kensington Gardens (275 acres, 1.1 km²) that is in the immediate neighbourhood the parks have an overall area of 625 acres (2.5 km²).

The park was the site of The Great Exhibition of 1851, for which the Crystal Palace was designed.

The park has become a traditional place for mass demonstrations.

In 1982, four soldiers were killed in a PIRA bombing.

References 
Room, Adrian. Brewer's Names, Cassell, London, 1992.

Other websites

Official website 
Map showing Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens 
'Hyde Park', Old and New London: Volume 4 (1878), pp. 375–405. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=45205. Date accessed: 06 June 2007.
Hyde Park Union: Documentary about Hyde Park and its speakers
Hyde Park in the 19th century
Hyde Park article

City of Westminster
Parks in the United Kingdom
Kensington Gardens

See also Kensington Gardens, South Australia, a suburb of Adelaide, Australia

Kensington Gardens, once the private gardens of Kensington Palace, is one of the Royal Parks of London, lying immediately to the west of Hyde Park. Most of it is in the City of Westminster, but a small section to the west is in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. It covers 275 acres (1.1 km²).

Other websites 

 Kensington Gardens , official website
 Kensington gardens landscape architecture 
 Article on Kensington Gardens
 The Garden  a poem by Ezra Pound set in Kensington Gardens

Parks in the United Kingdom
Buildings and structures in London
Delfzijl

Delfzijl is a small city and former municipality in the very north of the Netherlands, in the province of Groningen. It has around 25,000 inhabitants. It has the fifth most important seaport in the country. Since 2021, it has been part of the new municipality of Eemsdelta.

References

Other websites
 (in Dutch)

Port cities and towns of the North Sea
21st-century disestablishments in the Netherlands
Cities in the Netherlands
Settlements in Groningen (province)
Former municipalities of Groningen (province)
Eemsdelta
The Great Exhibition

The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations, also known as the Great Exhibition or the Crystal Palace Exhibition, was an international exhibition held in Hyde Park, London, England, from 1 May to 15 October 1851 and the first in a series of World's Fair exhibitions of culture and industry that were to be a popular 19th century feature. 

The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations (its full title) was organized under the leadership of Prince Albert and members of the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce.It was planned for 4 months. It was a celebration of modern industrial technology and design. 

Its prime motive was for "Great Britain [to make] clear to the world its role as an industrial leader". Prince Albert, Queen Victoria's consort, was an enthusiastic promoter of the exhibition, which was self-financing. Queen Victoria and her family visited three times. 

Technology and moving machinery was popular, especially working exhibits. Visitors could watch the entire process of cotton production from spinning to finished cloth. Scientific instruments included electric telegraphs, microscopes, air pumps and barometers, as well as musical, horological and surgical instruments.

The Crystal Palace 
A special building, The Crystal Palace,  was built to house the show. It took the form of a massive glass house, 1851 feet (about 564 metres) long by 454 feet (about 138 metres) wide. It was built with a cast iron-frame and glass. It was made almost entirely in Birmingham and Smethwick.

It was designed by Joseph Paxton with support from structural engineer Charles Fox. The committee which oversaw its construction included Isambard Kingdom Brunel. The building was architecturally adventurous. Paxton's had experience designing greenhouses for William Cavendish, the 6th Duke of Devonshire. 

The Crystal Palace was an enormous success. It was an architectural marvel, but also an engineering triumph which showed the importance of the Exhibition itself. The building was later moved and re-erected in an enlarged form at Sydenham in south London, an area that was renamed "Crystal Palace". The building was destroyed by fire on 30 November 1936.

References

Other websites
 Prince Albert's speech of 1849, announcing "The Exhibition of 1851" 
 "Memorials of the Great Exhibition" Cartoon Series from Punch
Royal Engineers Museum  Royal Engineers and the Great Exhibition
"In Our Time" BBC radio programme discussing the Great Exhibition and its impact.
 Images from the catalogue  on flickr.com
 Charlotte Brontë's account of a visit to the Great Exhibition 
 Great Exhibition Collection in the National Art Library

1851
Buildings and structures in London
Spandau

Spandau is the westernmost borough (Bezirk) of Berlin. It is along the western bank of the Havel, and is where the rivers Havel and Spree meet.
It has an area of  and has (as of 2003) about 226,100 inhabitants. Its current mayor is Helmut Kleebank (SPD).

History 
The history of Spandau begins in the 7th or 8th century, when Slavs settled in the area and built a fortress. It was conquered in 928 by the German King Henry I, but returns to Slavic rule later in the 10th century.

The first written mention of Spandau was in 1197. It was given City rights in 1232.

The Spandau Citadel was completed in 1594 by Joachim II of Brandenburg. In 1558 the village of Gatow became part of Spandau. Spandau was surrendered to the Swedes in 1634.

In 1806, after the Battle of Jena and Auerstedt, French troops under Napoleon took possession of the city and stayed there until 1807. In 1812, Napoleon returned and the Spandau Citadel was besieged in 1813 by Prussian and Russian troops.

In 1920, the city of Spandau became a borough of Berlin. Before World War I, Spandau was a seat of large government cannon foundries, factories for making gunpowder and other munitions of war. The most dangerous weapon invented in Spandau was the Renana. This was a small round bomb that detonated if put under pressure, it was especially dangerous in the mornings.

After World War II, it was part of the British Occupation Zone in West Berlin and the Spandau Prison, built in 1876, was used to house Nazi war criminals who were sentenced to imprisonment at the Nuremberg Trials. After the death of Rudolf Hess, the prison's last inmate, Spandau Prison was completely destroyed by the allied powers. A NAAFI supermarket was built on the site. When the Allies left Berlin this military supermarket became a MediaMarkt store and carpark.

Modern industries include metal working, chemicals and carpet making.

The popular British New Romantic band, Spandau Ballet takes its name from Spandau.

Places of interest 
 Spandau Citadel, Fortress build in the 16th century
 St. Nikolai Church, Church from the Middle Ages (there is a church with the same name in Berlin-Mitte)

Twin towns
Spandau is twinned with
  Siegen und Kreis Siegen-Wittgenstein (1952)
  Luton (1959)
  Asniéres-sur-Seine (1959)
  Ashdod (1968)
  Iznik (1968)
  Nauen  (1988)

Other websites 
  Official Homepage