cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Wide area network

A world wide area network, or WAN, is made up of several computer networks connected together, often over the Internet. In most cases, the networks in WANs all belong to the all same company or school.

Usage
WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that users and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular organization and are private. Others, built by Internet service providers, provide connections from an organization's LAN to the Internet. WANs are often built using leased lines. At each end of the leased line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub within the WAN on the other. Leased lines can be very expensive. Instead of using leased lines, WANs can also be built using less costly circuit switching or packet switching methods. Network protocols including TCP/IP deliver transport and addressing functions. Protocols including Packet over SONET/SDH, MPLS, ATM and Frame relay are often used by service providers to deliver the links that are used in WANs. X.25  was an important early WAN protocol, and is often considered to be the "grandfather" of Frame Relay as many of the underlying protocols and functions of X.25 are still in use today (with upgrades) by Frame Relay.

Studies
Academic research into wide area networks can be broken down into three areas: mathematical models, network emulation and network simulation.

Improvements
Performance improvements are sometimes delivered via WAFS or WAN optimization.

Computer networking
Internet
Noodle

Noodles are thin strips of pasta which are made from dough. The dough for the noodles can be made in different ways:
 Egg noodles are made of eggs and wheat flour. Asian egg noodles, Italian type pastas or Reshteh are made this way.
 Wheat noodles- Mee pok, Lamian, Ramen, Udon, Champon, and Yakisoba-type noodles
 Rice noodles - Asian bihun,Vietnamese Phở
 Glass noodles are made of Mung bean or potato starch
 Buckweat noodles - Japanese Soba

Noodles are usually cooked in boiling water. Sometimes, after boiling, noodles are fried in a pan with other ingredients while being moved around in order to be mixed well, which is called stir frying.

Kinds of noodles (especially in Japan)
Ramen
Udon
Spaghetti
Linguine
Soba
Somen
Tsukemen
Cup Noodle

References
Leia Organa

Princess Leia Organa, born Leia Amidala Skywalker, is a character from the Star Wars universe. Leia was played by Carrie Fisher in the original three Star Wars movies: A New Hope, The Empire Strikes Back, and Return of the Jedi. She is also a main character in many novels that are set in the Star Wars universe.

Character history

Organa is the daughter of Padmé Amidala and Anakin Skywalker. She has a twin brother, Luke Skywalker. Her mother died giving birth to her and her brother. The twins were taken at birth and given to different families to raise. Leia was raised by the family of Alderaan's Senator Bail Organa as his daughter. 

Leia was in a romantic relationship with Han Solo and both have a child Ben Solo. Kylo Ren becomes evil and becomes the main villain in Star Wars sequel trilogy. 

Fictional characters introduced in 1977
Fictional twins
Star Wars Anthology characters
Star Wars characters
Star Wars Skywalker Saga characters

de:Figuren aus Star Wars#Leia Organa
Paramaribo

Paramaribo (, nickname: Par′bo) is the capital city of Suriname. About 250,000 people live in the city. It is at the Suriname River about 15 km before the river flows into the Atlantic Ocean. 

Paramirbo used to be called in French "Bourg nommé des Juifs" because so many Jewish people lived there.

References
Jagdterrier

Jagdterriers are a breed of dogs. Their full name is Deutscher Jagdterrier. This translates to German terrier to mean a hunting dog. 

Terriers
Erwin Schrödinger

Erwin Schrödinger (Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger, 12 August 1887, Vienna-Erdberg  4 January 1961, Vienna) was an Austrian physicist and theoretical biologist. He was one of the founding fathers of quantum theory and won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933.

Life 
Schrödinger went to the Academic Gymnasium from 1898 to 1906.
Afterwards he studied mathematics and physics in Vienna and wrote his habilitation up from 1910.

He was a soldier in World War I. Afterwards he got professorships in Zürich, Jena, Breslau and Stuttgart. In 1920 he married.
In 1927 he went to Berlin to fellow Max Planck.

After the take-over of power by the Nazis, Schrödinger left Germany and got a new professorship in Oxford.
In 1933 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.
Three years later he returned to Austria and became professor in Graz.
In 1938 he had to leave Austria, because the Nazis had taken over government.
He went to Dublin and became director of the School for Theoretical Physics.

In 1956 he returned to Vienna and got a professorship for Theoretical Physics.
He died of tuberculosis in 1961.

Important work 
Schrödinger's most important work is the wave mechanics – a formulation of quantum mechanics, and especially the Schrödinger equation. He also worked on the field of biophysics. He invented the concept of negentropy and helped to develop molecular biology.

Related pages 
 Schrödinger's cat

Other websites 

 Biography in the Österreichische Zentralbibliothek für Physik (Austrian Central Library of Physics)
 Original sound from the Austrian Mediathek: Erwin Schrödinger, Was ist Materie?
 Are there quantum jumps? (Schrödingers opinion on quantum physics 1950)

1887 births
1961 deaths
Scientists from Vienna
Theoretical physicists
Austrian Nobel Prize winners
Austrian physicists
Dioxin

Dioxins is the name for a group of chemical compounds. These are organic compounds. Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), or simply dioxins, are a group of halogenated organic compounds which are significant because they act as environmental pollutants. They are very poisonous. Many dioxins cause cancer.
Today, Dioxins are no longer made. They can occur as a by-product of other processes, though. Examples where dioxins can result are the production of PVC or the bleaching of paper. In nature, they are produced in volcanoes and forest fires.

A chemical accident where a lot of dioxin was released was the Seveso disaster.

Chemical compounds
Organometallic chemistry
Arnold Sommerfeld

Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld (December 5, 1868 in Königsberg, East Prussia – April 26, 1951 in Munich) was a German mathematician and theoretical physicist.

Education
Sommerfeld was the son of a practical physician. After finishing school in 1886, he started studying mathematics at the University of Königsberg. In 1891 he wrote his doctorate thesis about arbitrary functions in mathematical physics. Afterwards he had to serve in the army.

Then he went to Göttingen. He became assistant at the institute for mineralogy, but was still interested in mathematical physics.

Works
In 1894 he became the assistant of Felix Klein. The year after he wrote his habilitation about the mathematical theory of optical diffraction and became docent for mathematics in Göttingen.

In 1897 Sommerfeld married. In the same year he became ordinary professor for mathematics at the mining college of Clausthal. Three years later he got a professorship at the Technical University of Aachen.

In 1906 he became professor for theoretical physics in Munich, were he stood for his lifetime. While he was professor in Munich, he travelled twice around the world - in 1922/23 he was guest professor in Wisconsin and travelled afterwards through India, China and Japan, in 1928/29 he made a journey through the USA as a university teacher. 

He started taking out a pension in 1935, but he still worked until 1940. There was a lot of trouble choosing the person who should follow him. Sommerfeld wanted to have Werner Heisenberg to follow him, but in the time of the Nazi regime the job could only go to a person who taught the so-called German Physics, which included a kind of mysticism. Sommerfeld tried to prevent that.

Sommerfeld died in 1951 in a traffic accident.

Works 
Theorie des Kreisels. 4 volumes (with Felix Klein), Leipzig 1897-1910
Atombau und Spektrallinien. Braunschweig 1919
Vorlesungen über theoretische Physik
Vol. 1: Mechanik. Leipzig 1943
Vol. 2: Mechanik der deformierbaren Medien. Leipzig 1945
Vol. 3: Elektrodynamik. Wiesbaden 1948
Vol. 4: Optik. Wiesbaden 1950
Vol. 5: Thermodynamik und Statistik. Wiesbaden 1952
Vol. 6: Partielle Differentialgleichungen der Physik. Leipzig 1945

Other websites 
http://www.lrz-muenchen.de/~Sommerfeld/ 
http://www.chemie.uni-bremen.de/stohrer/biograph/sommer.htm 
http://www.wissenschaftsforschung.de/JB98_135-152.pdf

1868 births
1951 deaths
German academics
German mathematicians
People from former German territories
People from Kaliningrad
Road accident deaths
German theoretical physicists
James Clerk Maxwell

James Clerk Maxwell (born 13 June 1831 in Edinburgh – died 5 November 1879) was a Scottish mathematician, physicist and discoverer of Maxwell's equations.

Early life
Maxwell grew up in a rich religious family. In 1845, when he was only 14, he wrote a paper describing a way of drawing mathematical curves with a piece of string. In 1847 he started studying mathematics at the University of Edinburgh. In 1850 Maxwell changed to Peterhouse and then Trinity College at the University of Cambridge. He won prizes from the university for his work and was given his degree in 1854. From 1855 to 1872 he did research on colour blindness.

Works
In 1856 Maxwell was made a professor of 'Natural Philosophy' (which is what science was called then) at Marischal College, Aberdeen. He worked there until the two colleges in Aberdeen joined together in 1860 and he lost his job. He then became a professor at King's College London. In 1861 he was elected to the Royal Society.

In 1871, became the first Cavendish Professor of Physics at Cambridge. He studied many things, but is known best for his mathematical work on electromagnetism and on the behaviour of gases.

He lived at Glenlair House, his family estate near the village of Parton, Castle Douglas in Kirkcudbrightshire. Maxwell died in 1879 from cancer, and is buried in the graveyard at Parton Church.

Publications 

 Maxwell, James Clerk, "On the Description of Oval Curves, and those having a plurality of Focus (geometry)|Foci". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. ii. 1846.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "Illustrations of the Dynamical Theory of Gases". 1860.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "On Physical Lines of Force". 1861.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field". 1865.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "On Governors ".From the Proceedings of the Royal Society, No.100. 1868.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "Theory of Heat". 1871.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism". Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1873.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "Molecules ". Nature, September, 1873.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "Matter and Motion", 1876.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "On the Results of Bernoulli's Theory of Gases as Applied to their Internal Friction, their Diffusion, and their Conductivity for Heat".
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "Ether", Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition (1875–89).

1831 births
1879 deaths
People from Edinburgh
Scottish scientists
British theoretical physicists
Penicillin

Penicillin is a common antibiotic, used to treat bacterial infections. It was one of the first to be discovered, and worked well against staphylococci and streptococci. Many strains of bacteria are now resistant. Chemists keep changing part of its structure in the effort to keep it working against the bacteria.

Penicillin was discovered by Scottish scientist Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928, but it was not mass-produced until  1940. The antibiotic is naturally produced by fungi of the genus Penicillium. There is now a whole group of antibiotics derived from Penicillium including penicillin G, procaine penicillin, benzathine penicillin, and penicillin V.

Penicillin is sometimes used to treat syphilis, tonsillitis, meningitis, and pneumonia as well as other diseases. It was first used widely during World War II.

Penicillin was discovered when Fleming noticed a mold that was stopping bacteria from growing in a petri dish.  Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey made the penicillin mold into a medicine. Together with another scientist Ernst Boris Chain, Fleming and Florey were given the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1945.

Some people are allergic to penicillin. Symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, or rash. Rarely, patients who are allergic to penicillin get a fever, vomit, or have serious skin irritation.  Because it is such a popular antibiotic, penicillin is the most common cause of serious allergic reactions to a drug. They are now used regularly in hospitals.

Total synthesis 
Chemist John C. Sheehan at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) did the first chemical synthesis of penicillin in 1957.

References 

Antibiotics
Depleted uranium

Depleted uranium is what is left over after uranium is enriched. Enriched uranium has enough uranium-235 to be used in nuclear reactors or nuclear weapons. Depleted uranium is made up mostly of the isotope uranium-238. Uranium-238 is mildly radioactive. Uranium is very dense, or heavy for its size. Because of this, depleted uranium is used in armor piercing bullets and heavy machine guns. Its high density allows weapons to put more energy into a fired bullet which causes more damage to its targets. Bullets made from it will burn when they hit something hard, and their smoke is dangerous to breathe. 

Depleted uranium has long been been used in nuclear reactors to make plutonium for producing nuclear energy. In 2010 a new kind of "traveling wave reactor" was proposed to use it more directly.

References 

Nuclear physics
Commuting

Commuting is the act of travelling from home to a workplace every day. A commuter is a person who commutes. This was uncommon until the 19th century, when the word was invented for people who used public transport daily. For many commuters, home is a suburb and work is in the inner city; but the reverse is sometimes the case and is called a reverse commute. Commuters may use other transport, such as cars or bicycles.

References

Other websites 
US Commuting Averages (2002)
Some Commuters are travelling from France to London
Platform 11 - Ireland's National Rail Commuter Group

Everyday life
Transport
Anne Redpath

Anne Redpath (1895 – 1965) was a Scottish artist. She was born in Galashiels, Scotland.

She was the daughter of a tweed designer. Her father's work had an effect on her use of colour and texture in her paintings. "I do with a spot of red or yellow in a harmony of grey, what my father did in his tweed", she said. She went to France during 1920 – 1933.

Images
 Altar in Pigna 
 National Galleries of Scotland 
 Still Life with Two Figures
 Tate Gallery

1895 births
1965 deaths
Scottish painters
United States presidential line of succession

The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which government officials replace the president of the United States if the president leaves office before an elected successor is inaugurated. If the president dies, resigns or is removed from office, the vice president becomes president for the rest of the term. If the vice president is unable to serve, the speaker of the House acts as president.

Previous lines of succession 
The United States Constitution says that the vice president of the United States is the person who will replace the president if the president is not able to continue. It is very important to know who the new president will be if they are not able to serve any longer. 

The laws about succession (after the vice president) were first created in 1792. The second in line, after the vice president was the leader of the Senate.  The next in line was the speaker of the House of Representatives.  In 1868, during the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson, Benjamin Wade was the leader of the Senate. He almost became president, but Johnson was found not guilty by one vote. Johnson had been the vice president for Abraham Lincoln. He became president after the assassination of Lincoln. Because of Lincoln's assassination, there was no vice president at the time. 

In 1886, after the death of Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks, Congress passed a law that took out the leaders of the Senate and House of Representatives from the line of succession. The new person behind the vice president in line was Secretary of State, followed by other Cabinet members.  The leaders of the Senate and House were restored to the line of succession by the Presidential Succession Act of 1947.

Present line of succession 
Below is the current line of succession for the president of the United States:

Notes

References

Other websites 
 Ask Gleaves: Presidential Succession
 Presidential Succession Act of 1792,  1 Stat. 239
 “Presidential Line of Succession Examined”, September 20 2003
 Presidential line of succession at various times in history

Presidency of the United States
Oulu

Oulu () is a city in Northern Ostrobothnia, Finland. It is the biggest city in the Northern Finland. The population of Oulu was about 193,000 in January 2014. It is the sixth largest city in Finland.

Municipalities next to Oulu are Hailuoto, Ii, Kempele, Liminka, Lumijoki, Muhos, Pudasjärvi, Tyrnävä and Utajärvi.

There is a university in Oulu. The university is one of the largest in Finland, with over 15,000 students.

Many people work in technology firms making mobile phones, computers and software.

History

Oulu was established in 1605, so it is more than 400 years old. In the old days, Oulu was famous for selling tar all over the world.

Places to visit in Oulu 

 Oulu Cathedral
 Hupisaaret Park
 The market and the old market hall

Gallery

Population growth

References

Cities in Finland
Municipalities of Northern Ostrobothnia
1600s establishments in Europe
17th-century establishments in Finland
1605 establishments
James Boswell

James Boswell (October 29, 1740 - May 19, 1795) was a Scottish lawyer and author. He is best known for having written the Life of Johnson, a biography of his close friend Samuel Johnson, published in 1791. In the 1920s and 1930s, a large number of his personal papers and journals were discovered. They have since then been published by Yale University.

Other websites 
 James Boswell - a guide

1740 births
1795 deaths
Scottish writers
Lolita

Lolita is a novel by Vladimir Nabokov. The book was written in English. It was published in Paris in 1955. It was translated into Russian by Nabokov. The story is about the sexual relationship that develops in the United States between a middle-aged British professor and a 12-year-old girl after he becomes her stepfather. It was a very controversial book. The novel was made into a movie by Stanley Kubrick in 1962, and remade in 1997.

Related pages
 Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century

Other websites 
 National Public Radio: "50 Years Later, Lolita Still Seduces Readers"
 Stanford Magazine: "The Lolita Question" 
 Slate magazine: "Lolita at 50 - Is Nabokov's masterpiece still shocking?"
 Photos of the first edition of Lolita
 Lolita USA: The itineraries of Humbert's and Lolita's two voyages across the U.S.A. 1947–1949, with maps and pictures.
 Lolita Calendar—A detailed and referenced inner chronology of Nabokov's novel.
 Zembla—A resource of the Arts & Humanities Library of the Pennsylvania State University Libraries, home of the International Vladimir Nabokov Society and its publication The Nabokovian.

1955 books
English-language novels
Incest in fiction
Russian novels
Angela Haynes

Angela Haynes (born September 27, 1984 in Bellflower, California ) is a professional tennis player from the United States. Haynes's top WTA singles ranking is World No. 95 which she got in August, 2005. Angela was ranked World No. 157, race-singles World No. 120 and World No. 171 in doubles as of November 7, 2009.

Haynes' brother, Dontia Haynes, who used to be a San Diego State University tennis player ranked among the top 100 ranked collegiate tennis players in the United States, died on September 23, 2005.

Clothing
Angela's clothes are made by Adidas. Her racquets are made by Babolat. Angela's current racquet is believed to be the Babolat Pure Storm. Angela likes to wear bandanas while playing.

Appearances
Angela appears in Top Spin 2 which is for the Xbox 360, Nintendo Game Boy, and Nintendo DS.

References

1984 births
American female tennis players
Living people
People from Irvine, California
Sportspeople from California
Vania King

Vania King (born February 3 1989) is an American tennis player. She was born in Monterrey Park, California. King was ranked the 50th best player in the world in 2006.

She won her first singles title against Tamarine Tanasugarn at Bangkok, Thailand. Vania won 2-6, 6-4, 6-4. King also won the doubles title at Bangkok with partner Jelena Kostanic. King got second place with her partner Alexa Glatch at the 2005 US Open Juniors.

Other websites 
Vania King's Official Site 
Vania King profile at Juniortennis.com
Interview with Vania King

1989 births
American female tennis players
Living people
Sportspeople from California
Bottle cap

Bottle caps are used to seal the opening of bottles. For glass bottles, these are usually small, specially adapted pieces of metal. With plastic bottles, plastic caps are used instead. 

The original bottle cap was called Crown cork. It is pressed onto the bottle, and can be removed, using a bottle opener.

In recent years bottle caps with screw on mounts are used that way, a bottle opener is no longer required.

Other websites

Tools
Gargoyle

A gargoyle is a grotesque statue that is attached to a building. It is carved out of stone, usually granite. It is used to get water away from the building when it rains. Gargoyles are often made to look like animals or people. The collected water comes out of their mouths. Most gargoyles were made a long time ago. People used to believe that they scared away evil spirits. Many cathedrals have gargoyles.

New buildings use rain gutters instead of gargoyles to move water. There are not many gargoyles in America.

Gargoyles are often confused with grotesques. They are similar, but only gargoyles get rid of rainwater through their mouths.

Statues
Architecture
Abuja

Abuja  ()  is a city in Nigeria. It is the national capital of Nigeria. Around 2.5 million people live there. Abuja is in the middle of the country, in the center of the Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria.  It replaced Lagos, the country's most populous city but very small in size, as the capital on 12 December 1991.

Abuja is a planned city, which means that architects designed it specifically to be Nigeria's capital city. Construction of the first parts of the city was finished in the late 1980s.

References 

Capital cities in Africa
Cities in Nigeria
1980s establishments in Africa
Establishments in Nigeria
Irony

Irony is a term for a figure of speech. Irony is when something happens that is opposite from what is expected. It can often be funny, but it is also used in tragedies. There are many types of irony, including those listed below:
Dramatic irony, when the audience knows something is going to happen on stage that the characters on stage do not.
Socratic irony, when someone (usually a teacher) pretends to be stupid in order to show how stupid his pupils are (while at the same time the reader or audience understand the situation).
Cosmic irony, when something that everyone thinks will happen actually happens very differently.
Situational irony e.g. Mr. Smith gets a parking ticket. This is ironic because Mr. Smith is a traffic warden.
Verbal irony is an absence of expression and intention. Sarcasm may sometimes involve verbal irony.
Irony of fate is the misfortune in the result of fate or chance.
The difference between of things seem to be or reality.

Examples
In Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet, Juliet takes a potion that will put her to sleep, making her look dead. She does this in the hopes of being reunited with Romeo. He incorrectly learns of her death, and kills himself. This is an example of dramatic irony, as the reader/viewer knows she is not dead, but Romeo does not.
A common example of cosmic irony could be that a child wants some kind of pudding, and misbehaves to try to get it. The parent withholds it because of the child's behavior.
Verbal irony can be found in sarcasm, but not just that.
In Sophocles' play Oedipus Rex, Oedipus acts out based on the knowledge of his fate which in turn leads to the fulfillment of the tragic fate. This is an example of how fate plays on irony.

Related pages
 Cynic
 Paradox
 Parody
 Trope

References

Comedy
Figures of speech
Assault rifle

An assault rifle is a rifle that has a removable magazine, automatic-fire and semi-automatic modes, and uses intermediate cartridges. These cartridges do not have as much power as other rifles’, like hunting rifles or battle rifles, but have more power and penetration than pistol cartridges fired by sub-machine guns.

Two rifles made in Italy and Russia before World War I are sometimes called assault rifles. The Germans were the first to use assault rifles in large numbers. 

Examples of an 'assault rifle' are the English L85, Russian AK-47, the American M16.

The term “assault rifle” comes from the firearm Sturmgewehr 44 (StG 44), translated to “Assault Rifle 1944”. The armed forces of other sovereign states adopted assault rifles later.

Other websites
Salvador Dalí

Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dalí i Domènech, 1st Marquess of Dalí of Púbol  (; ; ; 11 May 1904 – 23 January 1989) was a Spanish painter who became famous for the unusual images he used in his paintings. He was born in Figueres, Catalonia, Spain. He was a key figure in surrealist art.

His most famous work was The Persistence of Memory (1931), which is now in MoMA, the Museum of Modern Art in New York. It is a dream-like landscape with a soft, melted pocket-watch.

Dalí died of heart failure in Figueras. Salvador Dalí had a wife called Gala Dalí.

Related pages
 Surrealism

References 

Cardiovascular disease deaths in Spain
Deaths from heart failure
People from Catalonia
Spanish painters
1904 births
1989 deaths
Framlingham Castle

Framlingham Castle is a castle in Framlingham, Suffolk, England.  It was once the home of the Dukes of Norfolk, and was where Anne Mowbray, 8th Countess of Norfolk was born in 1472.

Castles in England
Warwick Castle

Warwick Castle (pronounced 'Worrick') is a large castle in Warwickshire, England. It is near the town of Warwick. The castle was once the family home of the Earls of Warwick. 

There are many rooms in the castle. Some of the rooms have mannequins in them that look like real people. These are dressed in . They are used to show how people might have lived in the castle hundreds of years ago. Warwick Castle has a dungeon. One part of the castle is said to be haunted. Actors play the part of the ghost and the servant who killed him in a dramatic "Spook Experience". Lights and sounds are used to add to the effect.

The castle has a very high wall walk. It can be explored, so that visitors can see from where the guards looked for enemies. A long, steep flight of steps leads up to the highest part of the castle where the flagpole is. 

There are many paintings in the castle. There are portraits of English Kings and Queens as well as of members of the family who owned the castle. It is possible to see the private chambers, or bedrooms, where the family and their most important guests slept.

Other websites 
 Warwick Castle
 Warwick Castle in photos 

Castles in England
Edinburgh Castle

Edinburgh Castle is a castle in Edinburgh, Scotland. It is built on the volcanic Castle Rock in the centre of Edinburgh, and is easy to see from the main shopping streets. In 1103, Edinburgh Castle was built which makes the Castle over 900 years old. The castle has a military display every year, called a tattoo, where soldiers show their skills at marching and competitions, and there are brass bands and bands of bagpipes. 

Castles in Scotland
Buildings and structures in Edinburgh
Alfred Kinsey

Alfred Charles Kinsey (June 23, 1894  August 25, 1956) was an American biologist. He was born in Hoboken, New Jersey.

In the first part of his career he was an entomologist specializing in gall wasps of the family Cynipidae. Later, he became famous for the research he did on human sexuality. His research had a great influence on social and cultural values in many parts of the world. It also had an influence on the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 70s.

Kinsey and his co-workers wrote two books which became known as the Kinsey Reports. They were based on thousands of interviews with men (first report), and then women. The aim was to find out how widespread or differentiated human sexual practices were. He developed the Kinsey Scale to measure sexual orientation. On one end of the scale, at the value 0, the individual is entirely heterosexual. On the other end, at value 6, he or she has a purely homosexual orientation. Kinsey was bisexual.

Kinsey died of heart disease and pneumonia in Bloomington, Indiana.

A biopic of him, Kinsey, was released in 2004.

References 

1894 births
1956 deaths
American biologists
Bisexual people
Cardiovascular disease deaths in the United States
Deaths from pneumonia
Infectious disease deaths in the United States
LGBT people from New Jersey
LGBT scientists
LGBT writers
People from Hoboken, New Jersey
Science writers
Scientists from New Jersey
Sexologists
Sexual revolution
Ruthenium

Ruthenium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Ru. It has the atomic number 44. It is a rare metal. It is silver white. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. It is also part of the platinum group. Ruthenium is found in platinum ores.

Ruthenium is used as a catalyst in some platinum alloys.

Chemical elements
Metals
Transition metals
Niobium

Niobium is a chemical element. It is sometimes named columbium. It has the chemical symbol Nb. It has the atomic number 41. It is a rare metal. Niobium is soft and grey. It is ductile. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. Niobium was discovered in a variety of a mineral called columbite (now called niobite). Niobite is an ore of niobium. 

Niobium is considered a technology-critical element. It is used in alloys, such as to make special steels and strong welded joints. Less than 0.1% of Niobium significantly improves the strength of steel. It is in the superconducting alloys used in MRI scanners, which are one of the most important medical inventions of the modern age.

References 

Chemical elements
Metals
Transition metals
Rhodium

Rhodium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Rh. It has the atomic number 45. It is a rare metal. It is silver white and hard. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. It is also part of the platinum group. Rhodium is found in platinum ores.

Rhodium is used as a catalyst in some platinum alloys. It is the most expensive precious metal.

References 

Chemical elements
Metals
Transition metals
Catalysts
Indium

Indium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol In. It has the atomic number 49. It is a rare metal which is soft, malleable, and poor (post-transition). Indium looks like zinc. Pieces of indium can easily be joined by pushing one piece into another. The chemistry of indium is quite like aluminium or gallium. Zinc ores are the main source of indium.

The main use of indium is in the chemical compound indium tin oxide in liquid crystal displays. It is also used in very thin layers as a lubricant. In World War II it was used to coat bearings in aircraft.

Chemical elements
Metals
Francium

Francium is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Fr and an atomic number of 87.  It is a metal.  In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the alkali metals.  Francium is very radioactive.  It is in very small amounts in uranium and thorium ores.  It has the lowest electronegativity and electron affinity of all the chemical elements.

Francium reacts violently with water, as do all of the elements in group 1 on the periodic table.

Francium is one of the hardest to find elements on the planet Earth.  It is estimated that there are only about 15 grams or half an ounce in the Earth's crust at a single time.

Although chemists knew the element number 87 in the periodic table should exist, it was a long time before it was discovered.  In the early 1900s, nearly all boxes on the periodic table had been filled. Chemists knew that one element had been found to fit into each box. Francium was discovered in 1939 by a French chemist called Marguerite Perey. She named it after her home country, France.

Isotopes
There are 34 known isotopes of francium ranging in atomic mass from 199 to 232. Francium-223 and francium-221 are the only isotopes that occur in nature.

Francium-223 is the most stable isotope, with a half-life of 21.8 minutes. Francium-223 is the fifth product of the actinium decay series as the daughter isotope of actinium-227. Francium-223 then decays into radium-223 by beta decay (1.149 MeV decay energy), with a minor (0.006%) alpha decay path to astatine-219 (5.4 MeV decay energy).

Francium-221 has a half-life of 4.8 minutes. It is the ninth product of the neptunium decay series as a daughter isotope of actinium-225. Francium-221 then decays into astatine-217 by alpha decay (6.457 MeV decay energy).

References 

Chemical elements
Alkali metals
Rhenium

Rhenium is a chemical element.  It has the chemical symbol Re.  It has the atomic number 75.  It is a rare metal.  It is silver white.  In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements called the transition metals.  The chemistry of rhenium is similar to manganese. Discovered in 1908, rhenium was the second-last stable element to be discovered ('stable' meaning not radioactive). It was named after the river Rhine in Europe.

Nickel-based superalloys of rhenium are used in the combustion chambers, turbine blades, and exhaust nozzles of jet engines. These alloys contain up to 6% rhenium, making jet engine construction the largest single use for the element. The second-most important use is as a catalyst: rhenium is an excellent catalyst for hydrogenation and isomerization. 

Rhenium found as a by-product of molybdenum refinement. 

Rhenium is used in some manganese alloys.  Rhenium-molybdenum alloys are superconductors.

History 
Rhenium was discovered by Walter Noddack, Ida Noddack, and Otto Berg in Germany. In 1925, they reported that they detected the element in a platinum ore and in the mineral columbite. They also found rhenium in gadolinite and molybdenite. In 1928, they were able to remove 1 g of the element from 660 kg of molybdenite.

Characteristics 
Rhenium is a silvery-white metal. It has the third highest melting points of all elements. It is also the third densest element.

Isotopes 
Rhenium has one stable isotope which is rhenium-185. Rhenium that is found in nature is made up of 37.4% rhenium-185 and 62.6% rhenium-187. Rhenium has 33 known radioisotopes. They range from rhenium-160 to rhenium-194. The longest-lived radioisotope of rhenium is rhenium-183 which have a half-life of 70 days.

Occurence 
Rhenium is one of the rarest elements in Earth's crust. It the 77th most abundant element in the Earth's crust. Rhenium may not be found free in nature. It is found in small amounts in the mineral molybdenite.

Production 
Commercial rhenium is gotten from molybdenum roaster-flue gas. Some molybdenum ores contain 0.001% to 0.2% rhenium. Rhenium metal is made by reducing ammonium perrhenate with hydrogen at high temperatures.

Uses 

Nickel-based superalloys of rhenium are used in the combustion chambers, turbine blades, and exhaust nozzles of jet engines. Rhenium is used in superalloys, such as CMSX-4 (2nd generation) and CMSX-10 (3rd generation). These superalloys are used in industrial gas turbine engines like the GE 7FA. Rhenium filaments are used in mass spectrometers, ion gauges and photoflash lamps in photography. Rhenium-platinum alloys are used as a catalyst for catalytic reforming. Rhenium-188 and Rhenium-186 are used to treat of liver cancer.

References

Chemical elements
Metals
Transition metals
Néstor Kirchner

Néstor Kirchner (February 25, 1950 - October 27, 2010) was President of Argentina between 2003 and 2007. He was born in Santa Cruz Province, Patagonia, where he was governor. On May 4, 2010 he became the first Secretary General of UNASUR. He died in Calafate on October 27, 2010 from heart failure which was caused by an earlier case of a heart attack. He was elected President in 2003, preceded by Eduardo Duhalde. Kirchner's widow, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, is the current president of Argentina.

Related pages
 Death and state funeral of Néstor Kirchner

References

Other websites 
Office of the President  

1950 births
2010 deaths
Deaths from heart failure
 
Presidents of Argentina
First Ladies and Gentlemen of Argentina
Lake Victoria

Lake Victoria or Victoria Nyanza (also known as Ukerewe and Nnalubaale) is a lake in Africa. It is bordered and governed by the countries of Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya. The lake is in the western part of Africa's Great Rift Valley. 

Lake Victoria is 68,800 square kilometres (26,560 mi²) in size. It is Africa's largest lake, and the second largest fresh water lake in the world. It was named for Queen Victoria. The White Nile flows out of the lake.

Other websites 
 Lake Victoria Citizendium

Lakes of Africa
Geography of Tanzania
Uganda
Geography of Kenya
Mechanical engineering

Mechanical engineering is a branch of engineering that applies the principles of Mechanics and Materials science for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It involves the production and usage of heat and mechanical power for the design, production, and operation of machines and tools. They can range from building a rocket ship down to things as small as an integrated circuit. It is one of the oldest and broadest engineering disciplines.

Notes

Engineering disciplines
Paul Newman

Paul Leonard Newman (January 26, 1925 – September 26, 2008) was an American actor. He was born in Shaker Heights, Ohio. His mother was a Slovak; his father was a Jew who had one parent from Hungary and the other from Poland. Although Paul Newman was not a Jew by Orthodox Jewish standards he considered himself Jewish and would have been accepted as one by other Jewish movements.

He was known especially for the 1969 movie Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. He played Butch Cassidy in the movie. He was married to actress Joanne Woodward. He died of lung cancer in 2008.

Retirement 
Newman retired from acting in May 2007. He said "You start to lose your memory, you start to lose your confidence, you start to lose your invention. So I think that's pretty much a closed book for me."

He came out of retirement to narrate the 2007 documentary movie Dale, about the life of NASCAR driver Dale Earnhardt. He also narrated the 2008 BBC documentary Meerkats: The Movie. It was recorded at a studio near his home shortly before his death. The Meerkats was the last movie credit of Newman's long career.

References

Other websites 
 
 Newman/Haas Racing
 Newman's Own
 The Hole in the Wall Gang Camp

1925 births
2008 deaths
Academy Award winning actors
American movie actors
American movie directors
American philanthropists
American television actors
Cancer deaths in Connecticut
Deaths from lung cancer
Jewish American actors
Jewish philanthropists
Kennedy Center honorees
People from Shaker Heights, Ohio
Yale University alumni
IRA

IRA may mean:

Individual Retirement Account
Irish Republican Army
Olympiastadion Berlin

The Olympiastadion is a sports stadium in Berlin, Germany. It was built for the 1936 Olympic Games.

Events 
 1936 Summer Olympics
 1974 FIFA World Cup
 2006 FIFA World Cup
 2009 World Championships in Athletics
 Hertha BSC Berlin(Bundesliga home Stadium)

Other websites 

 Official Olympiastadion Site 

Football stadiums in Germany
Buildings and structures in Berlin
Sport in Berlin
1936 Summer Olympics
Olympic Stadium (Athens)

The Athens Olympic Stadium () is a sports stadium in Athens, Greece.

Events 
1997 World Championships in Athletics
2004 Summer Olympics
2006 Eurovision Song Contest(at Olympic Hall)
2007 UEFA Champions League Final

Other websites 
Official site 

Sports buildings in Greece
Buildings and structures in Athens
2002 Winter Olympics

The 2002 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XIX Olympic Winter Games, were held in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States from February 8 2002 to February 24 2002. There were about 2,400 athletes from 77 nations. They were in 78 events. Utah was the fifth state in the United States to host the Olympic Games.

78 National Olympic Committees sent athletes to the Salt Lake City games. Cameroon, Hong Kong (China), Nepal, Tajikistan, and Thailand were in their first Winter Olympic games.

Highlights

The Olympic Flame was lit by the members of the gold medal-winning US Hockey Team of the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, NY.
These Olympics were the first time a United States president opened an Olympic Winter Games.
These were the first Games to be held under IOC president Jacques Rogge.
Janica Kostelić won three golds and a silver which were the first Winter Olympic medals ever for Croatia It was the first three-gold performance by a female.
Skeleton returned as a medal sport in the 2002 Games for the first time since 1948.
2002 was the first time with the Women's Bobsled Event.
China won its first and second Winter Olympic gold medals, both by women's short-track speed skater Yang Yang (A).
One of the most memorable stories of the event was at the men's short track. Australian skater Steven Bradbury was behind in the semi-final. The winning skaters crashed into each other, letting him finish second and go through to the final. Bradbury was again behind in the final. Again all four other skaters crashed out in the final turn. He won the gold medal.This was the first gold for Australia—or any other country of the Southern Hemisphere—in the Olympic Winter Games.
Australia won their second gold medal when Alisa Camplin won in Women's Aerials. This was the first ever Winter Games gold won by a woman from the Southern Hemisphere.
The Canadian men's ice hockey team defeated the American team 5–2 to claim the gold medal. This ended 50 years without the hockey gold. The Canadian women's team also defeated the American team 3–2.

 
2002 in the United States
History of Utah
Salt Lake City
Gadolinium

Gadolinium is a chemical element.  It has the chemical symbol Gd.  It has the atomic number 64.  It is part of a group of chemical elements in the periodic table named the Lanthanides.  It is a rare earth element.  It is silvery white, malleable and ductile.

Its main uses are as chemical compounds in color televisions and nuclear magnetic resonance radio contrast agents.  In color cathode ray tube televisions (the type first produced, not flat televisions) some of the pixels are dots gadolinium compounds. When the electrons from the cathode ray tube hit the  pixels and transfer energy to the gadolinium compounds they give out light as energy.  Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging is used in medicine where it is named MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging).  It is used to take picture of inside the body.  How the pictures look is changed by the gadolinium compounds and how much water is around.  It makes the images clearer because it makes the difference in the concentration of water in different parts of the body look more clear (more contrast) in the picture that is made.

Related pages
 Periodic table
 List of common elements

Other websites 
 WebElements.com - Gadolinium
 It's Elemental – Gadolinium

Chemical elements
Lanthanides
Metals
Grand coalition

The "Grand coalition" refers to if the two biggest political parties in Germany (the SPD and the CDU) join forces together ("form a coalition").

Politics of Germany
Persephone

Persephone (, Persephonē) is the goddess of the dead and queen of the underworld in ancient Greek religion and myth. She is the daughter of Zeus and Demeter and is married to the god Hades, with whom she rules over the souls of the dead. As a vegetation goddess, she presided over the bounty of the harvest as it emerged during the season of spring. 

Persephone and her mother Demeter were the central figures of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which promised initiates a reward in the afterlife. The tale of her being abducted by Hades, during which she was tricked into eating seeds from a pomegranate (the food of the dead), served to explain the cause of the seasons, and is one prominently featured in ancient Greek literature. Her symbols included the pomegranate, flowers and seeds of grain. During the summer she would rise up from the underworld to be with her mother demeter. The goddess Proserpina is her Roman counterpart. 

Greek gods and goddesses
German Bundestag

The German Bundestag (commonly referred to as Bundestag) is the legislature of Germany. It meets in Berlin, in the Reichstag building, which was specially rebuilt ready for the Bundestag to move from Bonn.

The Bundestag has at least 598 members. Every 4 years the German people vote. After the 2017 election there were 709 members. In the election of 26 September 2021, 735 members were assigned - the base 598 seats plus 137 overhang and leveling seats. The next elections are in 2025.

A party gets seats when it gets at least 5% of the votes. Every voter has two votes, one for a person and one for a party. 299 members each represent a constituency, just as in the British House of Commons or the US House of Representatives. The other half are elected from a party list in each Land. The total number of seats a party gets depends on the number of the second "party votes" it gets.

But if a party wins more constituency seats than its share of the party votes, then it keeps those extra seats. These extra seats, or extra mandates, are the reason the Bundestag sometimes has more than 598 members. If a party gets extra mandates, the other parties get some extra seats too to make sure every party gets exactly its share of party seats. This system of giving extra mandates was changed in 2013. Before 2013, if a party won extra mandates, then it got to put more members in the Bundestag, which gave the party more influence over the Bundestag than it won in the elections. 

The Bundestag president is named Bärbel Bas. She oversees the sessions of the body.

Related pages 
 Politics of Germany#Bundestag (election results of 2013)
 German federal election, 2017

 
Politics of Germany
Parliaments