cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Conifer

The Conifers are cone-bearing seed plants. Most are trees; some are shrubs. They are formally the Division Pinophyta or Coniferophyta.

Conifers are Gymnosperms. They are cone-bearing seed plants with vascular tissue. All living conifers are woody plants, and most are trees.

Living conifers are all in the order Pinales. Typical examples include cedars, cypresses, firs, junipers, kauris, larches, pines, redwoods, spruces, and yews.

Species of conifers can be found in almost all parts of the world, and are often the most common plants in their habitats, as in  the taiga. Conifers are of great economic value, and their wood is mainly used for timber and  paper making The wood of conifers is known as softwood, though yew wood is actually quite hard. The division Coniferae contains about 700 living species.

Evolution 
The earliest conifers were in the late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) period (about 300 million years ago), Pinophytes, Cycads, and Ginkgos all developed at this time. These plants live without being so dependent on water. Other adaptations are pollen (so fertilisation can occur without water) and the seed, which allows the embryo to be transported and developed elsewhere.

Conifers appear to be one of the taxa that benefited from the Permian–Triassic extinction event. They were the dominant land plants of the Mesozoic era. Conifers were eventually overtaken by the flowering plants, which first appeared in the Cretaceous. Flowering plants became dominant in the Cainozoic era.

Conifers were a main food of herbivorous dinosaurs, and their resins and poisons no doubt gave them some protection against herbivores. All the reproductive features of modern conifers had evolved by the end of the Mesozoic era.

Related pages 
 Gymnosperm
 Conifer cones

References
Amanda Michalka

Amanda Joy "AJ" Michalka (born April 10, 1991) is an American singer and actress from Torrance, California. Her parents are Carrey Begley-Michalka and Mark Michalka. Her older sister is actress Alyson Michalka. She and her sister are in the band 78violet. She starred with her sister in the Disney movie Cow Belles. She is of German-American ancestry.

Biography
Amanda Michalka was born in Torrance, California in 1991. Her older sister, Alyson "Aly" Michalka and their parents moved to Seattle, Washington. There her parents made sure they were exposed to all varieties of music. They then moved back to Southern California, where they still live.

Career
Michalka was in a number of WORD Music Productions at her church in Southern California as a young child. Michalka plays a variety of instruments such as acoustic guitar, electric guitar, piano, and bongos. She used to be a model for catalogs. In March 2006, she made her first appearance on the Disney Channel in the Disney Channel Original Movie Cow Belles, as "Courtney Callum", along with sister Aly, as "Taylor Callum". She has also made appearances on shows such as Oliver Beene, Six Feet Under, The Guardian, and General Hospital. She also appeared with her sister in the MTV movie, Super Sweet 16: The Movie.

Albums
 Insomniatic (2007)
 Acoustic Hearts of Winter (2006)
 Into The Rush (2005)

Filmography

Feature movies
 The Lovely Bones (2009) - Clarissa, Susie’s best friend.

Television movies
 Super Sweet 16: The Movie (2007) - Sara Conners
 Cow Belles (2006) - Courtney Callum

Television series
 Aly & AJ: Sister Act (2007) - Herself
 Kitty's Dish (2005) - Kitty
 Six Feet Under (2004) - Ashley
 General Hospital (2004) - Ashley B.
 Oliver Beene (2003-2004) - Bonnie
 The Guardian (2002-2004) - Shannon Gressler
 Birds of Prey (2002-2003) - Young Dinah

Guest appearances
 Fox & Friends (2007) - Herself
 Live with Regis and Kelly (2007) - Herself
 Punk'd (2007) -  Herself
 Total Request Live (2006) - Herself
 Live with Regis and Kelly (2006) - Herself
 Good Morning America (2006) - Herself
 America's Got Talent (2006) - Herself
 MTV Cribs (2006) - Herself
 The Megan Mullally Show (2006) - Herself

References

Other websites 
 
 Hollywood Records's Aly & AJ Bio 

American television actors
American rock guitarists
Actors from Los Angeles County, California
Musicians from Los Angeles County, California
Singers from Los Angeles County, California
American pop musicians
1991 births
Living people
People from Torrance, California
Adolf von Henselt

Adolf von Henselt (born Schwabach, Bavaria, May 9 1814; died Warmbrunn (now Cieplice), Silesia, October 10 1889) was a German pianist and composer.  He had piano lessons from Hummel in Weimar.  When he was a young man he played in concerts all over Germany.  Then he went to Russia where he was very successful and he settled there to live.  He became pianist at the court of the tsar and taught the tsar’s children how to play the piano.

Henselt was known for his beautiful playing of the music of Chopin.  He was very good at playing widely spaced arpeggios and could make them sound very smooth (legato) even if he was not using the pedal.

As a composer he is mostly remembered today for a few of his short works which are often quite sentimental, e.g. Frühlingslied (Spring Song) and Si oiseau j’étais (If I were a bird).

German composers
Romantic composers
German pianists
1814 births
1889 deaths
Cherry tomato

The cherry tomato is a type of tomato that is a fruit. This type of tomato was originally developed in Israel.

Tomatoes

de:Kirschtomate
Imperial units

The Imperial units or the Imperial system is a collection of measurement units. An Act of Parliament in 1824 created it from traditional English units. Commonwealth countries used this system from 1824 until they changed to the metric system. The imperial system is very similar to the American system but there are some differences.

Length 

The British nautical mile used to be 6080 feet. In 1970 the UK adopted the international definition of 1852 metres.

Measures of area

Volume 

The full table of British apothecaries’ measure is:

For a comparison to the United States customary units see the article on Comparison of the Imperial and US customary systems.

Mass and weight

Related pages
 International System of Units

Other websites 
 Canada - Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72 
 British Weights And Measures Association 
 Jacques J. Proot's Anglo-Saxon weights & measures  page.
Maccabi Haifa F.C.

Maccabi Haifa Football Club (, Moadon HaKaduregel Maccabi Haifa) is an Israeli football team from the city of Haifa, a section of Maccabi Haifa sports club. The club has won 11 championships, five State Cups and four Toto Cups. The club was founded in 1913, and it is one of the country's most successful teams in Europe, being the first Israeli club to qualify for the group stage of the UEFA Champions League.

History

First seventy years of obscurity
Maccabi Haifa Football Club was established in 1913 in the port city of Haifa. It was a small, struggling club that spent most of its time between the Liga Leumit and the lower leagues. 

The club was overshadowed by their city rivals Hapoel Haifa, who were then the darling club of the city of Haifa and especially of then mayor Abba Hushi. But even in its first years the club adapted a very adventurous and offensive style of play based on technique and short passes. In 1942, the club reached the Israel State Cup final, but was humiliated 12-1 by Beitar Tel Aviv in the final, which is the club's worst defeat ever. In 1962, the club won its only honour until the 80s, when the team defeated Maccabi Tel Aviv 5-2 in the State Cup final. In 1963 they reached the final again, but failed to defend their title losing to arch-rivals Hapoel Haifa 1-0.

Maccabi Haifa F. C. is a professional football (soccer) club in Israel. Founded in 1913, it is Israel's most successful club both domestically and in European competitions.

Club Titles
Leagues Won
 Israeli Premier League - 12 Times Won
Cups Won
 Israeli Cup - 6 Times Won
 Toto Cup - 4 Times Won

Famous Players ever in Maccabi Haifa F.C.
Avi Ran, 
Adoram Keisi, 
Eyal Berkovic,
Yaniv Katan,
Yossi Benayoun,
Reuven Atar and
Alon Mizrahi

Best Club Records 
Most Goals in season - 1993/1994

Most Games played without losing strike - 46 Games (From Seasons 1993-1995)

Most Away Undefeated Strike - 30

Most Points in a Year - 96 Points

Fan Organization 
Maccabi Haifa has three  fan organizations. One of them and the biggest one, is the Green Apes, founded in 2002. Second, is Inferno Verde, which means The Green Hell, founded in 2010. Third, is Ultra Boys.

The Green Apes (aka: The Ultras) consist of 2,400 people, while Inferno Verde includes 100.

Squad
As of September 1 2009.

References 

Israeli football clubs
Haifa
1913 establishments in Asia
1910s establishments in Israel
Tundra

In physical geography, tundra is where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. The term "tundra" comes from tūndâr which means 'uplands, tundra, treeless mountains.

There are three types of tundra: Arctic tundra, Antarctic tundra, and alpine tundra. In all of these types, the plants are mostly grass, moss, and lichens. Trees grow in some of the tundra. The boundary between the tundra and the forest is known as the tree line or timberline.The area itself encircles the Arctic Ocean of the Northern Hemisphere. The climate in a tundra biome consists of freezing cold and dryness in the winter and cold summers. The tundra ground is a barren place, often covered with rocks.

Most water on the tundra is frozen within the soil. The permanent frozen soil is called permafrost. Permafrost and fierce winds prevent large trees from growing deep roots. Plants in the tundra are small and grow close to the ground. Plants called cushions grow in tight clumps in the tundra, but lichens are the dominant plants. Lichens cover the rocks. The few trees that do grow on the tundra are dwarf willows and birch.

The deep and cold snow makes life in the tundra very difficult. Every animal must adapt in order to survive. Some have thick fur that turns white during the winter. Others find places to hibernate during the winter months. Some examples of animals that live in the tundra are: rodents, hares, sables, caribou, wolves, arctic foxes, bears, walruses, seals, and snowy owls.

References

Other websites 

WWF Tundra Ecoregions 
The Arctic biome at Classroom of the Future
British Antarctica Survey
Antarctica: West of the Transantarctic Mountains
Tundra Food Chain | How The Tundra Food Chain Works?

Biomes
Lift (force)

The lift force, lifting force or simply lift is the sum of all the forces on a body that force it to move perpendicular to the direction of flow. 

The most common type of lift is that of a wing of an aircraft.  But there are many other common uses such as propellers on both aircraft and boats, rotors on helicopters, fan blades, sails on sailboats, and wind turbines.

While the common meaning of the term "lift" suggests an "upwards" action, lift can be in any direction. For instance, for a sail the lift is horizontal, and for the wing on a race car the lift is down.

There are a number of ways of explaining the production of lift; some are more complicated than others, some have been shown to be false. The simplest explanation is that the wing deflects air downward, and the reaction pushes the wing up. 

 Other websites 
 How Airplanes Fly: A Physical Description of Lift
 NASA tutorial, with animation, describing lift
 Description on one very common incorrect explanation of lift
 Discussion of the apparent "conflict" between the various explanations of lift
 Explanation of Lift with animation of fluid flow around an airfoil
 A treatment of why and how wings generate lift that focuses on pressure.

Force
Aviation
Tropics

The tropics are the region of the Earth near to the equator and between the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere. This region is also referred to as the tropical zone and the torrid zone.

This area includes all the areas of the Earth where the sun reaches a point directly overhead at least once a year. The word "tropics" comes from Greek tropos meaning "turn", because the apparent position of the Sun moves between the two tropics within a year.

The word Tropical specifically means places near the equator. The word is also sometimes used in a general sense for a tropical climate, a climate that is warm to hot and moist year-round. This includes tropical rainforests with lush vegetation. However, there are mountains in the tropics that are anything but "tropical" in this sense, with even alpine tundra and snow-capped peaks, including Mauna Kea, Mt. Kilimanjaro, and the Andes as far south as the northernmost parts of Chile and Argentina. Places in the tropics which are hot and dry include the Atacama Desert, Sahara Desert, Central Africa, most parts of Western Africa and Northern Australian Outback.

Some parts of Eurasia are also in the torrid zone.

People in some tropical places call their seasons "dry"/"hot" and "rainy"/"wet", especially where the seasons are made by monsoons. Tropical cyclones form in tropical ocean areas, and some move from there into the temperate zone. Tropical plants and animals are native to the tropics or the Torrid zone.

Regions
Tropical climate

A tropical climate is a type of climate typical in the tropics. It is a damp climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures above 18°C (64.4 °F). Some tropical areas have rainfall throughout the year, usually in the afternoon. Others have a wet season and a dry season, for example because of monsoon. The usual Tropical climate is humid and wet. One famous area of tropical climate is the Amazon rainforest. 

Some tropical areas are dry, which makes them savannas. A few places near the equator, such as Mount Kilimanjaro, are high mountains and cold for that reason.

Examples of tropical climates 
 Rainforests
 Savanna
 Semi-arid

Ecology
Köppen climate classifications
Köppen climate classification

The Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems.  It was developed by Wladimir Köppen, a German climatologist, around 1900 (with several further modifications by himself, notably in 1918 and 1936).  It is based on the concept that native vegetation is the best expression of climate, thus climate zone boundaries have been selected with vegetation distribution in mind.

System
Group A is tropical. The average temperature in the coolest month must be at least 18° C.
Group B is arid - desert and steppe/semi-arid. The average precipitation must be less than a certain amount that depends on the temperature.
Group C is mesothermal, the subtropical and temperate climates. The warmest months must have an average greater than 10° C and the coldest month must have a temperature between 0 or -3° C and 18° C. This group includes humid subtropical, Mediterranean, highland and oceanic.
Group D is microthermal or continental (hot/warm summers and cold winters) and subarctic (short warm summers and cold winters). The warmest months must have an average greater than 10° C and the coldest months must have an average of less than 0 or -3° C.
Group E is polar and alpine. The warmest month must have an average temperature less than 10° C.

Related pages 
 Climatology

References

Climate
Walk

Walk or walking is the way people or animals travel on their legs.  It is slower than running, and only one foot is off the ground at any time.  If a person goes out walking, it is said that he or she 'went for a walk'.  Walking quickly or for a long time is known as a healthy exercise.

Related pages
Race walking
Hiking

Notes

Basic English 850 words
Land transport
Sports
Fitness
Magnoliopsida

Magnoliopsida or dicotyledons is the name of  a class of plants in taxonomy. They are also called dicots. It is the biggest group of flowering plants. Seedlings in this group have two seed leaves. Monocots have one seed leaf.

Examples of the group
Oaks
Sunflowers
Roses
Blackberries
 Blueberry
 Bilberry

 

tr:Çift çenekliler
William Penn

William Penn (14 October 1644-30 July 1718) was an English colonial leader. He was very wealthy and owned slaves who he forced to work on his plantation. He was given what would become the US state of Pennsylvania by King Charles II as a debt to his father. Penn was a member of the Religious Society of Friends, who are known as Quakers.

Penn and his wife were made honorary United States citizens in 1984 by US President Ronald Reagan. He was friends with George Fox.

References

1644 births
1718 deaths
People from London
Pennsylvania
People from Pennsylvania
Quakers
Slavers
Babe Ruth

George Herman "Babe" Ruth, Jr.  (February 6, 1895 – August 16, 1948) was a famous baseball player during the 1910s and 1930s in Major League Baseball. He played with the Boston Red Sox, New York Yankees, and the Boston Braves, and hit 714 home runs in his career. Only two players, Hank Aaron and Barry Bonds, have hit more. At the beginning of his career, he was a pitcher. He is widely considered the greatest baseball player of all time.

Nicknames
Babe Ruth has been called by many nicknames. Some of the most common are: "The Great Bambino",  "The Sultan of Swat", "The  of Clout", "The Titan of Terror", and "The King Of Crash" .

Early career
Ruth learned to play baseball while growing up in Baltimore, Maryland.His first Major League Baseball (MLB) team was the Boston Red Sox. Ruth began playing as a pitcher. He had some of the best pitching statistics in baseball. The Red Sox won the World Series in 1915, 1916, and 1918.

At that time, there was no designated hitter rule in the American League, where the Red Sox played, so Ruth got chances to hit as a pitcher. The team realized that he was also good at hitting. In 1918, Ruth began hitting more and pitching less. Later in his career, he became an outfielder.

Ruth was becoming a star player. However, by 1919, Red Sox owner Harry Frazee was having problems with money. In 1920, the Red Sox sold Ruth to the New York Yankees for cash. Even though the Red Sox had won several World Series in the years before this, they would not win another one until 2004. Many baseball fans believed that the Red Sox had become "cursed" by trading Ruth, and called this the "Curse of the Bambino". (When the Red Sox finally did win a World Series in 2004, they beat the Yankees in the American League Championship to get there.)

After the trade
Ruth spent most of the rest of his career with the Yankees, where he became one of the most famous players in baseball history. Ruth helped the Yankees win World Series championships in 1923, 1927, 1928, and 1932. He left the Yankees after the 1934 season and played one last season with the Boston Braves in 1935.

In 1927, Ruth hit 60 home runs, which was then a record for the most home runs in one season. The record was broken by Roger Maris in 1961 with 61 home runs.

Death
Ruth died of throat cancer August 16, 1948.

Honors
In November 2018, Ruth posthumously received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Donald Trump.

Career batting statistics 

He also had a .474 career on-base percentage, which is second all-time to Ted Williams' .482.

References

Other websites 

 
 baberuth.com - Official site
 baberuthmuseum.com  Ruth Museum
 Photo of Babe Ruth as a member of the 1916 Red Sox

Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
1895 births
1948 deaths
Deaths from throat cancer
American baseball players
Boston Braves players
Boston Red Sox players
New York Yankees players
American Roman Catholics
Sportspeople from Baltimore
National Baseball Hall of Fame members
Aspirin

Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is a drug. It is most commonly used as a pain killer, or to reduce fever or inflammation.  It also has an anti-platelet effect - it reduces the number of platelets in the blood which reduces blood clotting- in that function it is used to prevent heart attacks.  Aspirin is one of the most-used medical drugs in the world.

There are some possible side-effects to this drug. For example, large amounts can damage the kidneys. Children taking aspirin can develop Reye's syndrome which causes the liver to become fatty and not work properly and also the brain to become enlarged. Reyes syndrome can be fatal, but most children survive it with treatment.

People with lung, kidney disease, gout, hyperuricemia (high amounts of uric acid in the blood), hemophilia (a blood clotting disorder), diabetes or high blood pressure should not take aspirin except on the advice of a qualified medical professional. Nor should people who are allergic to it, to ibuprofen or to naproxen. People with asthma where attacks are brought about by aspirin should avoid using any anti-inflammatory drugs based on it.

Aspirin was invented in Germany in 1897. Bayer has a trademark on the brand name "aspirin" in 80 countries. But in other countries, "aspirin" is the common name for the drug.

References

Analgesics
WWE

World Wrestling Entertainment, Inc., doing business as WWE, is a big company that produces professional wrestling shows. It is now the most popular company in the wrestling business. Vince J. McMahon started the company in 1963. His son, Vince K. McMahon is currently the chairman and CEO of the company and runs the company along with his daughter Stephanie McMahon and her husband Paul Levesque, better known as Triple H.

The company used to be known as the World Wrestling Federation or the WWF. They changed their name to World Wrestling Entertainment after a lawsuit filed by the World Wide Fund for Nature, formerly known as the World Wildlife Fund, which uses the "WWF" initials in the United States. In 2011, the company rebranded itself as WWE, although its legal name is still World Wrestling Entertainment.

Shows

Weekly shows

Pay-per-view events

Championships and accomplishments 

At the top of WWE's championship hierarchy is the WWE Universal Championship on WWE Raw and the WWE Championship on WWE SmackDown. There are two championships available for female wrestlers: the Raw Women's Championship and the SmackDown Women's Championship. There are two tag team championships: the Raw Tag Team Championship and the SmackDown Tag Team Championship. There are three secondary titles in WWE, the WWE Intercontinental Championship and the WWE Cruiserweight Championship on WWE Raw and the WWE United States Championship on WWE SmackDown.

WWE's developmental brand NXT features its own set of championships.
There is the NXT Championship, the NXT Women's Championship and the NXT Tag Team Championship.

Champions

Other accomplishments
Greatest Royal Rumble

Retired championships

Related pages
 World Wrestling Entertainment roster

References
Scutellosaurus

Scutellosaurus was a small bipedal herbivorous dinosaur from the Lower Jurassic period, 200–196 million years ago. It was about a metre long.

Its back was armoured, and it is placed in the Thyreophora with the other armoured dinosaurs. It was one of the earliest members of this group, and the most basal (primitive) form so far known. Its closest relatives may have been Emausaurus and Scelidosaurus. These, and the larger armoured dinosaurs Ankylosaurus, Stegosaurus and Huayangosaurus, were all quadrupedal. The lightly built bipedal Scutellosaurus is similar in form to the ancestral dinosaurs, which were bipedal.

Description
Scutellosaurus was around  long,  tall at the hips, and weighed . The fossil evidence includes two partial skeletons recovered from Arizona, although of the skull only the lower jaw has been recovered. There were also several hundred scutes running along its neck to its back and as far down as its tail. Some of these shields were flat, while others were pitted. It had an unusually long tail, possibly a counterbalance to the weight of the armoured body, and long arms that suggest it may have browsed on all fours.

References 

Thyreophora
Jurassic dinosaurs
London Eye

The London Eye is a large metal Ferris wheel. It is also known as the Millennium Wheel and is one of the largest observation wheels in the world. Since mid-January 2015 it has been known in branding as the Coca-Cola London Eye, after an agreement signed in September 2014. The London Eye is at the western end of Jubilee Garden, on the South Bank of the river Thames, between Westminster Bridge and Hungerford Bridge.

The Eye was opened in 2000.  It is 135 metres high(442ft). At the time it was built, in 1999, it was the tallest giant wheel in the world, and at present it is Europe's tallest Ferris wheel. It offered the highest public viewing point in London. The  observation deck on the 72nd floor of The Shard is now the highest public view of London. 
 
It is the most popular paid tourist attraction in the United Kingdom: there are over 2.2 million visitors annually, and the Eye has made many appearances in popular culture.

The London Eye was overtaken in height by the Star of Nanchang, which is 160 meters high. On the 11th February 2008, the Singapore Flyer overtook the Star of Nanchang with 165 meters:)

References

Other websites 

Official web site

Buildings and structures in London
Ferris wheels
Finlandia (Symphonic Poem)

For other uses, see Finlandia.
Finlandia is a symphonic poem by the Finnish composer Jean Sibelius. He wrote it in 1899 and made some changes to it the next year. "Finlandia" is the Latin name for Finland. At the time Sibelius wrote it, Finland was called the "Grand Duchy of Finland". This was because it was being ruled by Russia. The Finnish people wanted to rule Finland for themselves. The music was composed for a pageant to encourage the Finnish people to work for freedom.

The music of Finlandia is exciting and dramatic. It sounds like the Finnish people struggling to be free. Towards the end the music becomes calm and a lovely tune is played. It is a hymn tune which became known as Finlandia. Many years later Sibelius set some words to this hymn and it is often sung as a separate piece by a choir. The words were written by Veikko Antero Koskenniemi. It has become Finland's best known song and almost feels like a second Finnish national anthem. It is often sung as a hymn in Christian churches to the words "Be still, my soul: the Lord is on your side". The tune was also used as the national anthem of the short-lived African country Biafra.
 

Compositions by Jean Sibelius
19th-century songs
Stomata

In botany, a stoma (plural = stomata) is a tiny opening or pore. It is found on plant leaves and stems, and any other green parts of the plant. It is used for gas exchange. Stomata are mostly found on the under-surface of plant leaves. Almost all land plants have stomata.

Stomata have two main functions. First is gaseous exchange i.e. intake of carbon dioxide and release of oxygen. The second is the process of transpiration in plants.

Air enters  the plant through these openings.  The carbon dioxide is used in photosynthesis.  Some of the oxygen produced is used in respiration.  Surplus oxygen exits through these same openings.  Also, water vapor goes into the atmosphere through these pores in transpiration.

The pore is formed by a pair of cells known as guard cells. These adjust the size of the opening by opening or closing. To open a guard cell, protons  (hydrogen ions, H+) are pumped into the guard cells. Water enters into them, the cells gets filled, and they open.

References 

Plant anatomy
Cells
Plant physiology
Leopold Mozart

Johann Georg Leopold Mozart (November 14, 1719 – May 28, 1787; pronounced MOHT-sart) was a composer, music teacher and violinist. He was the father and teacher of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.

1719 births
1787 deaths
Mozart, Leopold
Mozart, Leopold
Austrian Roman Catholics
Famine

Famine is a situation where most people do not have enough food to eat. Without food, the human body grows weaker and weaker until the person becomes very sick or dies (see malnutrition). In poor countries with much subsistence farming such as in parts of Africa and Latin America, famine can be common.

Famous famines 

 1816, the Year without a Summer was caused by Mount Tambora erupting. Tens of thousands died.
 The Irish Potato Famine lasted from 1846 to 1849.  It was caused by a potato blight.
 In the Holodomor, about 7 million of people starved to death in Ukraine in 1932 and 1933.
 The Great Leap Forward killed a few tens of millions of Chinese, in what was probably the biggest famine in history.

Other websites

Famine Early Warning System monitors agricultural production and other warning signs worldwide
United Nations World Food Programme Hunger relief against poverty and famine
International Food Policy Research Institute Sustainable solutions for ending hunger
In Depth: Africa's Food Crisis, BBC News

Social sciences
Disasters
Agriculture
Monty Hall problem

The Monty Hall problem is a famous problem in probability (chance). The problem is based on a television game show from the United States, Let's Make a Deal. It is named for this show's host, Monty Hall.

In the problem, there are three doors. A car (prize of high value) is behind one door and goats (booby prizes of low value) are behind the other two doors. First, the player chooses a door but does not open it. Then the host opens a different door. The host knows what is behind every door, and always chooses a door with a goat behind it. (If there are goats behind both other doors, one is chosen at random.) Last, the player choose whether to keep what is behind the first door or to change to the third door (the one the host did not open).

The rules of the problem are that the host has to open a door with a goat behind it and the player has the opportunity to switch. The question is whether changing choices increases the chances of getting the car.

Most people feel that the car is equally likely to behind either of the two doors that are still closed, so that changing doors does not affect the chance of getting the car. The true answer is that changing choices increases the chances of getting the car from 1/3 (one out of three) to 2/3 (two out of three).

That 2/3 (two out of three) chance comes from the fact in the initial door choice, the player has a 1/3 (one out of three) chance of picking the door with the car. There is a 2/3 (two out of three) chance if the car is behind one of the other two doors. If the player could switch from their one door to the other two doors this would improve their chances. The fact that the host reveals that one of the other doors contains a goat does not change this probability. The player is still effectively swapping their one door for the other two (even though one of them has been opened).

These are the options:

1. (Lose): If the player picks the car, then the host will show a goat. Then if the player changes their choice, they will get a goat .

2. (Win) : If the player picks a goat, then the host will show the other goat. Then if the player changes their choice, they will get a car.

3. (Win) : If the player picks the other goat, then the host will show the first goat. Then if the player changes their choice, they will get a car.

So, it is true that if the player changes (switches) then the player will win a car two times out of three.

Other websites 

 Monty Hall Problem at Wolfram MathWorld
 Graphical Proof of the Monty Hall Problem
 A Monty Hall Simulator in Javascript  
 Monty Hall Simulation Online
 Making the Monty Hall Obvious
 A tree-diagram of the Monty Hall problem under the Marilyn vos Savant assumptions
 The Game Show Problem 

Mathematical problems
Satellite city

Satellite cities are smaller cities that are near to a large city that is the center of a metropolitan area. They are different from suburbs, subdivisions and bedroom communities because they have their own centre. Satellite cities could be separate cities outside of the larger metropolitan areas. However, working as part of a metropolis, a satellite city gets "cross-commuting" (people living in the city working outside of the city and people from other places working in the city). For example, London has several satellite cities, like Brentwood, Crawley and Chelmsford. New Haven and Bridgeport are among the satellites of New York City. Ipswich, Queensland, is a satellite to Brisbane (Australia) and Kitchener and Guelph, to Toronto (Canada). 

Cities
Social sciences
Satellite cities are almost self sufficient in terms of amenities and facilities. They usually have all of the things to term them as a separate city but they rely on the parent city or the nearby larger metropolitan area for some of their needs like education or employment.
Shanty town

Shanty towns are slums on the outskirts of many cities – especially in third world countries. Normally there are not many shanty towns in more economically developed countries. Often of low cost, with houses badly built with plywood, corrugated metal, sheets of plastic, cardboard or any available material. Often irregular structures good enough to keep the rain away or to protect from the summer sun. Pets and animals are often left to roam for food and water.

Lack of clean water, sanitation and toilets often make people, especially children, more exposed to illnesses such as hepatitis and cholera.

Many are built on land without a permit and often have no roads,  numbered street, electricity or telephone lines. Some homes in shanty towns have some services but they are unkept and pose health and fire hazards. Sometimes shanty towns can take up whole parts of a city and may include millions of dwellers  – such as in the cities of Brazil- see Favelas.

Many shanty town settlements are built on the banks of rivers and as a result the residents suffer the effect of floods or from industrial toxins in the water. Some are built close to rubbish dumps.
 
Residents of shanty towns often have poor health, lack education, suffer from high levels of crime and suicide, and have a shorter life expectancy. 

Social sciences
Michael Praetorius

Michael Praetorius (born Creuzburg an der Werra, near Eisenach 15 February 1571? ; died Wolfenbüttel, 15 February 1621) was a German composer, organist and music theorist. He was one of the most important composers of his day and he wrote lots of different kinds of music. A lot of his music is based on hymns of the Protestant church.

We are not quite certain about the date of his birth. He was born at a time when there was a lot of argument about religion in Germany. His father was a strict Lutheran and lost his job more than once because of his beliefs. We know very little about the life of Praetorius. He seems to have gone to the Lateinschule (“Latin School”) in Torgau where he had music lessons from Michael Voigt. He probably never had music lessons after he left school. Then he went to the University of Frankfurt an der Oder. There Praetorius graduated in divinity. Afterwards he found a job as organist to the Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. He soon earned a good salary. He married in 1603 and had two sons.

Although he had his job in Wolfenbüttel for many years he also worked a lot in Dresden where he met Heinrich Schütz and in Magdeburg where he met Samuel Scheidt. His health was not good, possibly because he worked so hard. When he died he left a lot of money to the poor.

His music 

Praetorius wrote a very large amount of music. Much of it has been lost. He wrote a collection of French dances called Terpsichore for a small group of instruments. These are very happy pieces and are very popular today. A lot of his music is based on Protestant hymns, written for the services in the Lutheran church. He liked to write music in which two groups of singers or instrumentalists alternate (take it in turns to sing/play). His music for choir, which includes many motets, shows him to be one of the best composers of his time. He liked to write music for two, three or four choirs (all singing different parts). The tune would be in the top part so that the congregation could join in.

His theory works 

Praetorius wrote a book about music theory called Syntagma Musicum. Part One talks about religious music. It is very interesting for us today because it tells us a lot about the way that Martin Luther wanted to change music in the church services. In Part Two he described the musical instruments of his day. Part Three talks about musical forms: this included discussions about things like music notation (the way music was written), transposition (music), solmization and how to write for large choirs. He was going to write a Part Four in which he wanted to discuss the technique of musical composition, but he died before he could write it.

1571 births
1621 deaths
Baroque composers
German composers
German organists
Music theorists
People from Thuringia
Denver Broncos

The Denver Broncos are an American football team in the National Football League (NFL). They play their home games in Denver, Colorado, U.S. at Sports Authority Field at Mile High.  The Broncos play in the West Division of the American Football Conference (AFC). The Broncos won Super Bowl XXXII, Super Bowl XXXIII, and Super Bowl 50.

Their current head coach is Gary Kubiak. In 2015, they had the NFL's best defense led by defensive coordinator Wade Phillips.

Hall of Fame players

Five players who have played for the Broncos are in the Pro Football Hall of Fame: John Elway, Shannon Sharpe, Terrell Davis, Floyd Little, and Gary Zimmerman.

Other websites 
 Official Website
 The Orange Mane - Denver Broncos News and Discussion
 2005 Team Statistics at NFL.com 

1960 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Colorado
Prometheus

Prometheus, is a  Titan in Greek mythology. He is the son of Iapetus and Clymene. He created humans, originally made out of gold. He also stole fire from Zeus and gave it to humans. As punishment, Zeus had Prometheus chained to a mountain. Every day an eagle (symbol of Zeus) would come and eat his liver. Prometheus is immortal, so he never died, and his liver grew back every night. But he still felt great pain.

After a long time, Zeus sent his son Heracles to free Prometheus by breaking the chains which held him.

Aeschylus wrote a play about Prometheus.

Gallery

Other websites 

 Theoi Text, Theogony
 Theoi Text, Works and Days
 Theoi Text, Prometheus Bound
 Theoi Mythology, Prometheus
 Theoi Mythology, Pronoea
 GML, Prometheus 
 Encyclopedia Mythica, Prometheus 
 Messagenet, Prometheus 
 Prometheus, a poem by Noevel (French) 
 Prometheus, a poem by Byron 

Titans
Pitch (music)

In music, the pitch of a note means how high or low the note is. In physics, it is measured in a unit called Hertz.  A note that is vibrating at 261 Hz will be caused by sound waves that vibrate at 261 times a second.  This will be Middle C on the piano. 

Not all musical instruments make notes of a certain pitch.  Many percussion instruments like drums, triangles and cymbals are instruments used for rhythms.  They do not play tunes because they have no definite pitch (although often a definite pitch can just be heard when listening carefully.)

Some musicians have a sense of absolute pitch or pitch perfect.  This means that they always know what note is being played, even without comparing it to another note.  Having a sense of absolute pitch does not necessarily make someone a good musician, although it can be very useful.

There is evidence to suggest that well-known composers of classical music, such as Haydn, Beethoven, Mozart, and Bach, had developed and perhaps even mastered their sense of pitch.

Pitch is often confused with frequency. Frequency is used as a scientific means for measuring and changing sound and its possible pitches, though pitch is used to describe a more psychological.

Related pages
note (music)
musical notation
scale (music)
wave (physics)

Other websites 
 Pitch (music) Citizendium

Sound
Musical terminology
Congregation

A congregation is a group of people who have come together (congregated) for something, usually for religious worship.  In Christian churches the word “congregation” is often used to mean all the people in the main part of the church, but not the choir or the priests. This term came from long ago after the church was first formed. For example: the order of service might say that the choir will sing verse 1 of a hymn and "the congregation are asked to join in at verse 2".

Religion

en:Congregation (worship)
Vegetation

Vegetation means the plant life of a region or the plant community. It means all ground cover by plants, and is the main element of the biosphere. When you say vegetation you do not think of any species composition, life forms, structure, spatial extent, "naturalness", or any other specific botanical or geographic characteristics. That is meant by flora which refers exclusively to species composition.

Vegetation can refer to a wide range of spatial scales. Primeval redwood forests, coastal mangrove stands, sphagnum bogs, desert soil crusts, roadside weed patches, wheat fields, cultivated gardens and lawns; all are meant by the term vegetation.

Other websites

Classification
Terrestrial Vegetation of the United States Volume I – The National Vegetation Classification System: Development, Status, and Applications  (PDF)
Federal Geographic Data Committee Vegetation Subcommittee 
Vegetation Classification Standard  [FGDC-STD-005, June 1997] (PDF)

Mapping-related
USGS - NPS Vegetation Mapping Program 
Checklist of Online Vegetation and Plant Distribution Maps
Free Vegetation Distribution Site – "free access to almost the entire Spot Vegetation ten daily synthesis archive"

Climate Diagrams 
 Climate Diagrams Explained 
 WBCS Worldwide Climate Diagrams 

Botany
Ecology
Amoeba

Amoeba (plural = amoebae) is a well known genus of unicellular organism, a protist. One of its most common species, the Amoeba Proteus, is about 0.2 to 0.3 mm large. The amoeba was first discovered by August Von Rosenhof in 1757.  It is a genus of protozoa that moves with false feet, called pseudopodia.

The amoeba is a member of a whole group of amoeboid eukaryotic protists called Amoebozoa. They are heterotrophs, eating bacteria and other protists.

The pseudopodia (false feet) are extensions of the organism's cell membrane. They are used by the amoeba for phagocytosis (active food/nutrient intake) and motility (self-propelled movement).

Life 
Amoebae are often found within freshwater, typically on vegetation in decay in still or slow moving water, or in the benthic zone of some lakes. However, they are common organisms of study because it is easy to keep them in a laboratory. They are used to study protozoa and to demonstrate cell structure and function.

Other websites 
 Wikibooks: compare size of cells
 Amoeba info

References 

Protozoa
Id Software

id Software is an American video game company. They are most famous for their first-person shooter games. They started in 1991.

Games 
ID has made many games.

Early Work 
Wolfenstein 3D (1992)
Spear of Destiny (1992)
Doom (1993)
Doom 2 (1994)
Heretic (1995)

Full 3D Games 
Quake (1996)
Quake 2 (1998)
Quake 3 (1999)
Doom 3 (2004)
Quake 4 (2006)

Other websites 
Official id Software website
"A Chat With id Software ", a GameSpy interview with people at id Software

American video game companies
1991 establishments in the United States
Heretic (video game)

Heretic is a first-person shooter video game made by ID Software for computers. It is like Doom, but it takes place in a fantasy world. The monsters are mostly not human. The player has the ability to look up and down, which they could not do in Doom. The weapons are also fantasy weapons. It uses the same base as Doom and Doom 2. It has two sequels: Hexen and Heretic 2.

Other websites 
Official Heretic website from Raven
Official Heretic website from id Software 

Shooter video games
1994 video games
Worms (video game)

Worms is a video game where the player controls little cartoon worms who fight with weapons. There are many games in this series. It has guns and other weapons, but is not very violent because it is all cartoons.

References

Other websites 
 Worms series

 Official Worms 2 website 
 Official Worms Armageddon website 
 Official Worms World Party website 
 Official Worms 3D website 
 Official Worms Forts website 
 Official Worms 4: Mayhem website
 Official Worms website  – information on older releases

1994 video games
Sega Genesis games
Sega Saturn games
Therizinosaurus

Therizinosaurus was a huge herbivorous theropod dinosaur from the end of the Cretaceous period. 

New, well-preserved finds such as Alxasaurus in 1993 and Beipiaosaurus in 1996 provided details about the bird-like pelvis, feet and skulls of primitive members. This helped confirm they belonged to the same group of theropod dinosaurs as Therizinosaurus and that therizinosaurs were, more specifically, advanced, herbivorous maniraptoran theropods.

Their fossils were first found in the late 1940s in Asia. They were named in 1954 after more bones were found. It was a thought to be a carnivore and herbivore; it had very long claws - they were about 3 ft long.

Paleobiology
The feeding habits of Therizinosaurus are unknown, since no skull material has ever been found that could indicate its diet. However, like other therizinosaurs, it was probably primarily herbivorous. 

There are multiple possible functions that could have been served by the claws of Therizinosaurus, such as defense against predators (e.g. the contemporary Tarbosaurus) and in intraspecific fighting, such as fighting for territory or for mating, or to pull leafy tree branches towards its mouth. The claws may have served all these functions.

References 

Coelurosaurs
Prune

Prunes are dried plums. They look like very large raisins, but they are in the genus Prunus.

plums
Aamras

Aamras is the pulp of mangos that is usually eaten in India.

Other websites 
How to make aamras

Fruits
Hexen

Hexen is a first person shooter video game. It is a sequel to the computer game Heretic, created by ID Software and Raven Software. The player can choose to play as a fighter, a cleric (knight), or a mage (wizard). Each character can use 4 different weapons. The monsters are like the monsters in Heretic, but there are a few new ones. This game uses a better design and plays much better than Heretic. In Hexen, doors can open forward instead of just going up, you can jump, glass can break when you shoot it, and monsters can make things happen when they die, like making an item. There is also more of a story in Hexen.

Other websites 
 Official Hexen website from Raven
 Official Hexen website from id Software 
 Official website for the Deathkings of the Dark Citadel expansion

Shooter video games
1996 video games
Sega Saturn games
Ratchet & Clank (series)

Ratchet & Clank is a series of video games. As of 2013, there are 13 separate video games. In addition to the games, the characters are featured as action figures, in a manga, comic series and as cameo appearances in several other video games. An animated film has been announced for release in 2015. 

The main characters of the series are Ratchet and Clank. Ratchet is a lombax, a type of alien made up for the game. Clank is his robot friend. They travel in space ships through the universe on many adventures. In each game, Ratchet and Clank must work together to fight evil or bring cruel rulers to justice. The series is noted for using unique and extreme weapons and devices. Because of the popularity, the developer Insomniac Games added this feature to its other video games.

Games in the series 
Ratchet and Clank was released on November 4, 2002 in North America.

Ratchet & Clank (2002)
Ratchet & Clank: Going Commando (Ratchet & Clank 2: Locked and Loaded in Europe)
Ratchet & Clank: Up Your Arsenal (Ratchet & Clank 3 in Europe)
Ratchet Deadlocked (Ratchet Gladiator in Europe)
Ratchet & Clank: Size Matters 
Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction
Secret Agent Clank
Ratchet & Clank Future: Quest for Booty
Ratchet & Clank Future: A Crack in Time
Ratchet & Clank: All 4 One
Ratchet & Clank: Full Frontal Assault
Ratchet & Clank: Into the Nexus
Ratchet & Clank (2016)
Ratchet & Clank: Rift Apart

Other websites 

The Insomniac Games official website
Official page (redirects to Sony site)
The Ratchet & Clank series at NeoSeeker

3D platform games
Video game series
Ratchet & Clank