cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Suga Mama

Suga Mama is a song written by Beyoncé Knowles, Rich Harrison, and Makeba, and produced by Knowles and Harrison for Knowles' second solo album, B'Day (2006). It features a sample of Jake Wade and the Soul Searchers' song "Searching for Soul", which was written by Chuck Middleton. The music video for the song was released on television in the United Kingdom in April 2007.

Music video and other promotion 
The "Suga Mama" music video was released to UK music channels in April 2007. It is black-and-white and was co-directed by Melina and Knowles for the B'Day Anthology Video Album, which was released the same month; it was one of eight videos shot in two weeks for the album. It begins with Knowles sitting in a chair, wearing men's clothing and smoking a cigar. She gets up and begins to pole dance. The remainder of the video presents Knowles dancing on top of a sugar cube, dancing with backing dancers whose faces are partially concealed, lying in a circle of light and riding a mechanical bull. Knowles said she is meant to "slowly become a woman" during the video, adding "Well, a sexier woman — I'm always a woman."

Knowles rehearsed the pole dancing using two ballet bars, which was when it was decided to add a pole above her head to form an arc. Though Knowles is from Texas, she had never previously been on mechanical bull. There were no problems during warm-ups, but the man operating the bull during the video shoot programmed it to go faster, causing Knowles to fall off when she tried to perform tricks such as lifting up her foot, leaning back and turning around. To minimise the time Knowles spent on the bull, the director shot the sequence at twelve frames per second (see frame rate) and Knowles sang twice as quickly, but it was not until 4:00 a.m. that they completed work.

"Suga Mama" was included on the set list of Knowles's 2007 tour, The Beyoncé Experience, and The Tennessean wrote that the song "was even sexier and more gutbucket than on record". A remix of the song features rapper Consequence.

References 

2007 songs
Beyoncé songs
Funk songs
R&B songs
I Got That

"I Got That" is a single by rapper Amil featuring Beyoncé Knowles of Destiny's Child. It was the first single by Beyoncé and also it is currently the last solo single by Amil. Eve makes a cameo appearance in the video.

CD single 
 "I Got That (Radio Edit)" (Whitehead, A./Barnes, Samuel/Lewis, LeShan/Smith, Tamy/Carter, Shawn/Olivier, Jean Claude "Poke"/Davis, Makeda) – 3:21
 "I Got That (Instrumental)" – 3:19

Beyoncé songs
2000 songs
Jumpin' Jumpin'

"Jumpin', Jumpin'" is a song recorded by Destiny's Child. It was the fourth and final single from the group's second album, The Writing's on the Wall. The single achieved success in various charts.

Byron Rittenhouse's voice is on the song saying "Uh huh, I ain't worried 'bout my girl a'ight" in response to Beyonce's line "I ain't thinking 'bout my man tonight".

Formats and remixes 
Two official urban remixes for this song exist. One, known as the Nitro remix features rapper Nitro, while the other is known as the So So Def Remix with Lil' Bow Wow, Da Brat and Jermaine Dupri. A video was filmed for the So So Def Remix later. Also, appearing as a second half of the So So Def Remix on the This Is the Remix (Destiny's Child album), Azza's Remix of Jumpin', Jumpin'. This version was a newly recorded version with slower singing and Kelly doing lead on chorus and high notes during break, and one of few remix songs from Writing's On The Wall that Farrah Franklin and Michelle are singing; the other being the WMBA version of the song.

"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (A Capella)
"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (Instrumental)
"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (Azza's Remix)
"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (Digital Black 'N Groove Club Mix)
"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (Hammerhouse Remix)
"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (Maurice's Radio Mix)
"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (Maurice's Jumpin' Retro Mix)
"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (Mike Moore Remix)
"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (Nitro Remix) (feat Mr Nitro)
"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (Disney Party Remix) (feat Solange)
"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (So So Def Remix) (feat Lil' Bow Wow, Jermaine Dupri & Da Brat)
"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (So Far So Def Remix)
"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (So So Dub)
"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (Jameson Drum & Bass Mix)
"Jumpin', Jumpin'" (WNBA Version)

Destiny's Child songs
2000 songs
Beyoncé The Ultimate Performer

Beyoncé The Ultimate Performer is a DVD by R&B artist Beyoncé Knowles. It was released in the US on November 24, 2006. It features some of her exclusive footages in France, Japan, United Kingdom, New York among other places during her worldwide tour, the makings and music video.

Tracklisting
Footage
Making of Ring the Alarm
Ring the Alarm – Music Video

References

Beyoncé albums
Fighting Temptation

Fighting Temptation is a single released by R&B singer Beyoncé and female rappers Missy Elliott, MC Lyte, and Free in 2003 to promote the film The Fighting Temptations, in which Beyoncé has a part. The song is part of the official soundtrack.

As it was released just one month after the second single from Beyoncé's Dangerously in Love, "Baby Boy", the song did not become a big hit and failed to enter the Billboard Hot 100 and other important U.S. charts. However, the single received some attention from European countries, eventually peaking at number thirteen in the Netherlands. The film was also an instant success, mainly due to Beyoncé's success in Europe at that time.

Track listing 
"Fighting Temptation" (Album Version)
Destiny's Child – "I Know" (Album Version)

Other versions
"Fighting Temptation" (Acapella)
"Fighting Temptation" (Instrumental)
"Fighting Temptation" (Radio Edit)

Beyoncé songs
2003 songs
Slaithwaite

Slaithwaite is a large village in the Colne Valley in Kirklees, West Yorkshire, England. It is placed alongside the Colne River.

Age Distribution

Slaithwaite has a younger mean population than the rest of England, with a mean age of 38.4, compared to a mean of 39.3 in the rest of England.

Villages in West Yorkshire
Five Pillars of Islam

The Five Pillars of Islam are five basic rules in Islam that all Muslims must follow.

The Five Pillars consist of :
 Shahadah. The shahadah means there is no other god except Allah(one God) and Prophet Muhammad is the messenger/prophet of Allah. The shahadah can be recited when a person chooses to revert to Islam as the words in the shahadah are the key fundamental beliefs in Islam.
 Prayer (Salat) - Praying five times a day, kneeling towards Mecca.  There are specific ritualistic movements and prayers that are said.
 Fasting during the month of Ramadan (Sawm) - Islamic Fasting is not eating or drinking beverages when the sun is out, only when the moon is out.
 Charity or alms-giving (zakat) - Each year a Muslim must give money to charity (Usually 2.5% of their savings). If a person does not have much money, they can give services to others instead.
 Hajj - Pilgrimage(journey) to Mecca.Mecca is a desert city in Asia.

Sources

Islam
Religious ethics
EUX.TV

EUX.TV, or the Europe channel, is an independent digital television station from Brussels that talks about European matters.

Other websites 
http://eux.tv/

Television stations
Awadhi language

Awadhi is an Indo-Aryan language. This language was spoken in a wide area including Lucknow and Ayoudhya (Awadh) earlier. Goswami Tulasidas wrote Ramcharitmanas, Geetavali, Kavitavali, and all his Shri Ram poems in this language.

Hindi is a much newer language mostly based on Awadhi and Braj Bhasha.

References

Other websites

Indo-Aryan languages
Languages of India
Westdeutscher Rundfunk

The Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR, official "Westdeutscher Rundfunk Köln") is a German public-broadcasting institution based in the Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia with its main office in Cologne.
WDR is a constituent member of  the consortium of German public-broadcasting institutions, ARD.
The WDR produces the regional television service WDR Fernsehen (formerly known as WDF and West3) and six regional radio channels.

Other websites 

 Official website

German broadcasting companies
Cologne
ARD (broadcaster)

ARD is a public broadcaster in Germany. The name is an abbreviation. It stands for Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. This can be translated as "Consortium of public-law broadcasting institutions of the Federal Republic of Germany". The company is made of different regional broadcasters. It provides one of the two (publicly-funded) television programmes in Germany, amongst other programmes. The other publicly funded TV program is called Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (ZDF, in short). 

It was founded in West Germany in 1950. It was made for common interests of the new, de-centralized post-war broadcasting services - in particular, the introduction of a joint television network.

ARD is made of the following regional broadcasters: BR, HR, MDR, NDR, Radio Bremen, RBB, SR, SWR, and WDR, as well as international broadcaster Deutsche Welle

They make a total of 54 regional and local radio stations and networks, two nationwide radio channels, and seven regional TV networks. During certain parts of the day some of these split even further.

German broadcasting companies
1950 establishments in Europe
1950s establishments in Germany
Deutsche Welle

The DW (Deutsche Welle) (until 5 February 2012: Deutsche Welle) is Germany's international broadcaster. It broadcasts news and information on shortwave, Internet and satellite radio in 29 languages (DW (RADIO)).

It has a satellite television service (DW (TV)) that is available in four languages, and there is also DW.DE, a 30-language online news site. DW, which in English means "German Wave", is similar to international broadcasters such as the BBC World Service, Radio Canada International, Voice of America, and Radio France Internationale.

On 6 February 2012 Deutsche Welle was completely relaunched and now operates only as DW.

Censorship 
Since October 28, 2021, the site of Deutsche Welle can't be opened in Belarus.

Notes and references

Other websites 

 Official site
 DW Livestream 
 The Bobs DW International Weblog Award
 DW on Satellite TV in the United States

German television networks
1953 establishments in Europe
1950s establishments in Germany
Censorship in Belarus
Guildford Dudley

Guildford Dudley (1536 - 12 February 1554) was the husband of Lady Jane Grey. He was executed along with Jane on February 12 1554.

Pre-Marriage
Guildford (also spelled as Guilford) was the son of John Dudley, the Earl of Warwick and later Duke of Northumberland and Jane Guildford (that was how he got his unusual name). He was very handsome, but arrogant and selfish because his mother spoiled him ever since he was a child.

Marriage
In 1553, Guildford was told by his father that he was to marry Lady Jane Grey. Like many other people in the sixteenth century, Guildford complied. However, Jane did not want to marry Guildford because she thought he was rude. Jane only agreed after her parents had beaten and whipped her. 
When Jane became queen, in July 1553, they got into an argument about Guildford becoming king. Guildford claimed than he should be king, but Jane did not believe that Guildford had the qualities to become king. She said she would make him duke, but Guildford was unhappy. Guildford and his mother attempted to leave the Tower of London, but Jane had him brought back. Jane lost the throne on July 19 1553.

Inprisonment and Death 
At first, Guildford and Jane were allowed to visit each other, but only in the garden. However, for the last few months of their lives, they were not allowed to visit each other anymore.
A few days before their execution, Guildford asked Jane if they could visit one last time, but Jane refused.
On February 12 1554, Guildford was executed and, unlike his wife, he was not very calm when he went to his death. Days before his death, he cried endlessly. However, on the day he was executed, he was calm. At the sight of the block, however, he lost his courage and cried again. He is said to have cried "Pray for me!" many times.

Other websites
 More on Guildford Dudley  Guildford's biography

1536 births
1554 deaths
English people
Medical papyri

The medical papyri (or medical papyruses) are a set of ancient Egyptian texts that give background info on medical practices from ancient Egyptian times. The papyri give details on disease, diagnostics, and remedies of disease, which also have traditional methods and with magical spells. 

It is thought there were more medical papyri, but many have been lost due to grave robbing. The largest study of the medical papyri to date has was undertaken by Berlin University and was titled "Medizin der alten Agypter" (Medicine of ancient Egypt).

Early Egyptian medicine was based on a mixture of magic and religious spells. Most commonly "cured" by use of amulets or magical spells, the illnesses were thought to be caused by spiteful acts or actions. Afterwards, doctors did various medical treatments if needed. The instructions for these medical rituals were later inscribed on papyrus scrolls by the priests performing the actions.

Related pages
 Medicine
 Ancient Egypt

Other websites 
 The History and Treatment of the Papyrus Collection at The Brooklyn Museum

Manuscripts
Ancient Egypt
Tibetan Book of the Dead

The Tibetan Book of the Dead is a religious text from Tibet, written as a guide for persons attending someone who is dying or recently dead, to bring comfort and " ". It includes prayers, instructions for both dying persons and their attendants, and descriptions of the afterlife. (Roman Catholicism has comparable rituals, called  or Last Rites.) The book has been translated into many languages, including English.

Adaptations 
In the 1960s, professors Timothy Leary, Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert (later known as Baba Ram Dass) collaborated on a book titled The Psychedelic Experience, which adapted portions of the Book of the Dead as a guide for use in LSD experiences. They hoped to give users of LSD a simulation of death and , to "liberate" them from past problems or mistakes in their lives. Many persons did have positive results from their book. Others pursued it like a , and were not helped or changed for the better.

John Lennon of The Beatles adapted the adaptation in turn, using many of the book's ideas for his song "Tomorrow Never Knows". He later  The Psychedelic Experience, calling it "that stupid book of Leary's," but his song spread its influence. This book has real life experiences between life and death situations.

Related pages 
 Book of the Dead

Afterlife
Tibet
Buddhist texts
ChalkZone

ChalkZone is an American animated television series. It is about a boy named Rudy. Rudy has magic chalk. When Rudy draws on the board with the magic chalk, it lets him go to a chalk world called Chalk Zone. Whatever he draws on the chalk board, or in Chalk Zone, comes to life.

Characters 
Rudy (8-11 years old)- the main character of the series
Penny (10-11 years old) - a friend of Rudy that is a female
Snap (7-10 years old) - another friend of Rudy from Chalk Zone,
Skrawl - an evil villain that wants to take over Chalk Zone and destroy Rudy

Other websites 
 ChalkZone area on nick.com (leads to TV Show list)
 ChalkZone at the Big Cartoon DataBase
 

Animated television series
Nickelodeon television series
2002 American television series debuts
2004 American television series endings
English-language television programs
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor

The F-22 Raptor is a fighter plane made by Lockheed Martin. It first flew in 1990, and entered service in the United States Air Force in 2005. Because it is expensive, there will not be as many of them as earlier fighter planes. It uses stealth, which means it cannot be seen on radar. It can hold 6 radar-guided medium-range AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles and 2 heat-seeking, short-range AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles. Its top speed is 2.4 times the speed of sound and it features thrust vectoring, where the plane's thrust nozzles turn to help turn it faster.

The plane is a 5th generation fighter and is a very expensive plane to produce, and the USAF say they will provide the plane to other countries but in a "watered down state"

Simulacrum of Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor 
Su-57 - Simulacrum of the F-22.
  - on UAC Official YouTube Channnel
 	

United States Air Force aircraft
F-22
Edom

Edom is a name given to Esau, the brother of Jacob, in the Hebrew Bible. It also means the nation that came from him.  The nation's name in Assyrian was Udumi. In Syriac it was . In Greek, it was  (Idoumaía). In Latin, it was  or .

The Edomite people were a Semitic-speaking tribal people. They lived in the Negev Desert and the Arabah valley. The Arabah valley is now the south of Dead Sea and next to the Jordan. The area has much red sandstone. This may have made the name "Edom".  The nation of Edom is known to have existed back to the 8th or 9th century BC. The Bible dates it back several centuries further. Recent archaeological proof may show an Edomite nation as long ago as the 11th century BC. However, people are not completely sure. Others argue that the 8th or 9th century dates are right.  The nation stopped being a settled state after the Jewish-Roman Wars.

References 

Ancient history
Hollywood (song)

Hollywood is the fourth single from Jay-Z's latest solo album Kingdom Come. The song features Jay-Z's longtime girlfriend, R&B singer Beyoncé. The song is also featured on Beyoncé's B'Day Deluxe Edition with more of Beyoncé's vocals and less of Jay-Z's under the title "Welcome To Hollywood".

Music video 
A video for Jay-Z's album version does not exist but an official video was created for "Welcome to Hollywood" using clips of different Beyoncé videos (much like the "Lose My Breath" megamix on the Destiny's Child Fan Pack II). The video is played as an interlude on Beyoncé's B'Day Tour, The Beyoncé Experience.

Charts 

Jay-Z songs
Beyoncé songs
2007 songs
Summertime (song)

Summertime is a single released by R&B singer Beyoncé featuring rapper P. Diddy in 2003. The song was the second and final single released to promote the movie The Fighting Temptations, in which Knowles plays the leading lady. The song is not featured in the movie but is part of the official soundtrack. It first appeared as a B-side to Knowles' 2003 smash hit "Crazy in love".

As it was released just seven days after the third single from Knowles' Dangerously in Love, "Me, Myself and I", the song did not become a big hit and an official music video was never shot for it. The song however was part of the set list on Knowles' Dangerously in Love World Tour.

Official versions
Summertime (A Cappella featuring Diddy)
Summertime (featuring Diddy)
Summertime (movie Version)
Summertime (Instrumental)
Summertime (Remix - A Cappella featuring  Ghostface Killah)
Summertime (Remix featuring Ghostface Killah)
Summertime (Without Rap)

Charts

Beyoncé songs
2003 songs
Hip hop songs
Hip hop soul songs
R&B songs
Fabaceae

Fabaceae is the systematic name of the plant family that is commonly known as the Pea family. It consists of three subgroups: Caesalpinioideae, Mimosoideae and Papilionoideae (or better Faboideae). In modern systems like APG II this family Fabaceae is closely related to Quillajaceae, Polygalaceae or milkworts (including the families Diclidantheraceae, Moutabeaceae, and Xanthophyllaceae), and Surianaceae.

Description 
The leaves are usually alternate and compound, in the Mimosoideae and the Caesalpinioideae commonly bipinnate (e.g. Acacia, Mimosa). In many species the leaves have structures evolved to attract ants, that, being predatory, protect the plant from herbivore insects. Extrafloral nectaries -a gland secreting nectar -are common among the Mimosoideae and the Caesalpinioideae and are also found in some Faboideae (e.g. vetches Vicia sativa). Fabaceae are typically entomophilous plants (i.e. they are pollinated by insects) and the flower are usually showy to attract the pollinators.

In the Mimosoideae the flowers are radial symmetric or actinomorphic. In the Caesalpinioideae and Faboideae (see diagram) are most often zygomorphic or bilateral in simmetry.

Related pages 
 Senna (herb)
 Broom (shrub)
Lupin
Sophora

Other websites 

List of genera

References
Federal Convention (Germany)

The Bundesversammlung, or Federal Convention, is a special federal body in Germany.

It is made up of all of the members of the Bundestag, plus an equal number of delegates elected by the parliaments of the Länder. Those delegates don't have to be memebers of the Länder parliaments; sometimes celebrities are chosen.

The convention usually has for about 1200 members. The only task of the Bundesversammlung is to elect the Federal President.

Meeting 

The Bundesversammlung is called to meet by the President of the Bundestag, and the President of the Bundestag acts as Chairman of the Bundesversammlung.

The Bundesversammlung meets at least thirty days before the end of the Federal President's term of office ends, in order to elect the next president.  If the Federal President dies or is impeached, the Bundesversammlung meets within 30 days.

Electing the President 
The Bundesversammlung does not hold debates or question any of the candidates for president.
It chooses the next Federal President by an absolute majority vote.  If no-one has an absolute majority on the first and second ballot, then they hold a third ballot, and the winner is the person who has the highest number of votes.

German Bundestag 
Government of Germany
President of Germany
Friedrich Ebert

This article is about Friedrich Ebert Senior. For his son, who helped to found the GDR see Friedrich Ebert Jr.

Friedrich Ebert (4 February 1871 in Heidelberg – 28 February 1925 in Berlin) was a German politician (SPD). He was Chancellor of Germany and its first president during the Weimar period.

Ebert was a social democrat. He became leader of the SPD in 1913, when the last leader August Bebel died. He was a big part of the German Revolution of 1918–19, and when Germany became a republic he became the first Chancellor. His goal was to make Germany more peaceful. He did this by putting down the left, working with the right-wing Freikorps.

He was Chancellor until he died on 28 February 1925 from Septic Shock.

References

Other websites

1871 births
1925 deaths
Chancellors of the Weimar Republic
German people of World War I
Members of the Reichstag (German Empire)
Members of the Reichstag (Weimar Republic)
People from Heidelberg
Politicians from Baden-Württemberg
Politicians of the Social Democratic Party of Germany
Presidents of the Weimar Republic
Presidents of Germany
Prussian politicians
Walter Simons

Walter Simons (24 September 1861 in Elberfeld - 14 July 1937 in Nowawes) was a German politician. He was president of the German Supreme Court from 1922 to 1929. After the death of Friedrich Ebert in February 1925 he was the second acting president of the Weimar Republic from 12 March 1925 to 12 May 1925 (the first acting president was Hans Luther) when the next president, Paul von Hindenburg, was elected and assumed office.

1861 births
1937 deaths
Chief justices
German academics
German judges
Government ministers of the Weimar Republic
Politicians from North Rhine-Westphalia
Presidents of the Weimar Republic
Full Moon (album)

Full Moon is the third studio album by R&B singer Brandy Norwood. It contains the hit songs like "What About Us", "Another Day In Paradise" and "Full Moon".

2002 albums
Brandy albums
U Don't Know Me (Like U Used To)

U Don't Know Me (Like U Used To) – The Remix EP is the first EP by American R&B singer Brandy Norwood, released in 1999 (see 1999 in music). It was released for promotional use only.

Release
During 1999, her record company, Atlantic Records, released a 9-track remix EP entitled U Don't Know Me... Like U Used To – The Remix EP. The album contains remix versions with Da Brat, Ma$e, Fat Joe, Big Pun, Darkchild, DJ Premier and many other artists and producers. The album is seen as a maxi-single so the peak positions are the same as the peak positions of the single. The songs on U Don't Know Me did not have much success with a peak position of #79 on the U.S. Hot 100, 50 in Canada and 25 in the UK. The album's lead single was "U Don't Know Me (Like U Used To) [Remix]".

References

1999 albums
Brandy albums
The Boy Is Mine

The Boy Is Mine is an R&B song by singers Brandy and Monica. It was written by LaShawn Daniels, Fred Jerkins III, Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins and Brandy Norwood for Norwood's second studio album Never Say Never (1998) but eventually released as the lead single off of both singers' second albums during the second quarter of 1998 (see 1998 in music). Co-produced by Darkchild, Brandy and Dallas Austin, "The Boy Is Mine" has become one of the most successful R&B singles of all time. The song's lyrics tell a story about two women disputing the love of a man and were inspired by Paul McCartney and Michael Jackson's 1982 duet "The Girl Is Mine."

The song was number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 for 13 weeks in a row.  It finished as the second-best performing song of 1998 on that chart.

References

1998 songs
Brandy songs
Petr Eben

Petr Eben (Žamberk, 22 January 1929; died Prague 24 October 2007) was a Czech composer and organist. Many musicians think of him as the most important Czech composer of the late 20th century. He was known world wide for his organ playing. He was especially good at improvisation.

His Life 

Eben grew up in Český Krumlov in south Bohemia. He learned to play the piano, and later the cello and organ. Because his father was a Jew he had to leave school in 1943 and spent the rest of the war years in concentration camp in Buchenwald. In the camp he saw many terrible things, including graves into which the Nazis were throwing lots of murdered Jews. These terrible things influenced his music in later years. He had a strong faith and this helped him to survive during 40 years of living in Czechoslovakia under communist rule.

After the war he went to Prague Academy for Music where he studied the piano with František Rauch and composition with Pavel Bořkovec. In 1955 he got a job as lecturer at Charles University in Prague. He stayed there until 1990. He was the country’s best composer, and he should have had promotion, but the communist politicians did not allow this. He went to church every Sunday with his family. This did not help his career in a communist state.

After the Velvet Revolution in 1989, when his country became free from the Soviet Union, he started to become a national hero. He was made Professor of Composition and president of the Prague Spring Music Festival. Many music festivals performed his compositions, and he traveled to hear the concerts in spite of the fact that he was starting to become ill. His music was often played in England, where he had spent two years as professor of composition at the Royal Northern College of Music in Manchester from 1978 to 1979. In March 2007 the BBC Symphony Orchestra under their Czech conductor Jiří Bělohlávek performed his Vox Clamantis, a work he had written in 1968 which shows the Czech people’s longing to be free.

His compositions 

Eben continued during his lifetime to develop the style of music in which he wrote. He was interested in Czech folk music and he wrote down many folk songs that he heard in Moravia. He listened to plainchant in church music. All this helped him to develop his own style of composition. He is best-known abroad for his organ music, especially works such as Musica Dominicalis (Sunday Music) which includes a popular piece called Moto Ostinato. Other organ works include Faust (1980), Job (1987) and A Festive Voluntary which is a set of variations on the tune of Good King Wenceslas, written for the reopening in 1986 of the organ at Chichester Cathedral which had just been restored. He also wrote a lot of music for orchestra as well as chamber music. He composed some beautiful music for children’s choir, including church music called Liturgical Songs.

References

1929 births
2007 deaths
Czech composers
Organists
20th-century composers
Totalitarianism

Totalitarianism is when regimes (political systems) control all public behaviour and as much of private behaviour as they can. No elections are held, or if they are, candidates must be approved by the ruling group. Physical force and/or arrests and detentions are used on people who protest against the regime. There are events such as parades or rallies. These suggest to the people that the ruling group is in complete control.

For some, totalitarianism is as old as history.  However, their main examples in modern times are Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, North Korea, the Soviet Union, Eritrea and China. 

There are other countries which had dictatorships, but never reached full totalitarianism. Italian fascism under Benito Mussolini, Spain under General Franco, Portugal under Dr. Salazar, China under Mao Zedong, and many Latin American countries for periods were dictatorships with some aspects of totalitarianism.  Some African countries have been dictatorships for long periods (e.g. Zimbabwe).  The Empire of Japan (predecessor state of the modern nation-state of Japan) was a well-known example of a totalitarian military dictatorship during World War II. The satire Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell was about such a society taken to extremes.

The list is long: it is not true that most countries today are democratic.

According to some, authoritarianism "does not attempt to change the world and human nature". In contrast, a totalitarian regime attempts to control virtually all aspects of the social life, including the economy, education, art, science, private life and morals of citizens.

Related pages
 Dictatorship
 Fascism
 Nazism
 Stalinism

References 

Forms of government
Gothic metal

Gothic metal is a heavy metal genre. It is fusion of gothic rock, doom metal and death metal.

Notable bands 
 Type O Negative
 Moonspell
 Tristania
 Tiamat
 Paradise Lost
 Within Temptation
Lüneburg

Lüneburg is a city in Lower Saxony in north Germany.  It is about 50 km southeast of Hamburg. It is the capital of the District of Lüneburg.  About 102,660 people live there.

The Ilmenau River, a tributary of the Elbe, flows through Lüneburg.

In medieval times the town was very rich due to the salt trade.  Salt used to be transported along the Old Salt Route to the Baltic Sea from where it was sent by ship to other countries.   There were salt mines near the town for a thousand years.  Salt mining stopped in 1980.  The salt mining caused a lot of deforestation.  The countryside changed into heathland which is called the Lüneburger Heide (Lüneburg Heath).

On May 23, 1945 the Nazi war criminal Heinrich Himmler committed suicide in Lüneburg after he had been captured by the British Army. He swallowed a potassium cyanide capsule before his interrogation could begin.

Lüneburg is twinned with Scunthorpe, England.

References

Other websites
Sharon Osbourne

Sharon Rachel Osbourne ( Levy; born 9 October 1952) is a British-American music manager, television personality, and talent show judge. Osbourne first became famous on The Osbournes which was a reality show that showed Osbourne and her family in their daily lives. 

She has also been a judge on the talent shows The X Factor and America's Got Talent. Her autobiography, Extreme, which Osbourne wrote about her life, was very successful and has sold 2 million copies.

She has recovered from colorectal cancer. She is married to the rock singer Ozzy Osbourne and she has three children with him named Kelly Osbourne, Jack Osbourne and Aimee Osbourne.

References

Other websites
Sharon Osbourne  at itv.com/xfactor
Sharon Osbourne Website
Sharon Osbourne biography at mtv.com
The Osbournes at mtv.com

British autobiographers
Cancer survivors
Television personalities from London
1952 births
Living people
Summertime

Summertime means a time in Summer, one of the temperate seasons, and it could also mean:  

In music:
 "Summertime" (song), a popular song by George Gershwin from the 1935 opera Porgy and Bess
 "Summertime" (Beyoncé song)
 "Summertime" (DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince song)
 "Summertime" (Kenny Chesney song)
 "Summertime", a song by Diana Ross from her 1987 album Red Hot Rhythm & Blues
 "Summertime", a 1998 single by SKAMP
 "Summer Time", a song by The Pretty Things from the 2000 reissue of their 1970 album Parachute
 "Summertime", a song by Bon Jovi from their 2007 album Lost Highway
 Summertime EP, an EP by The Subways
 Summertime (Joe Locke & Geoffrey Keezer Quartet album)
 Summertime (Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass album), a 1971 album by Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass

In movie, television, and theatre:
 Summertime (movie), a 1955 movie starring Katharine Hepburn
 L'Heure D'été (movie) (English: Summertime), a 2007 French movie starring Juliette Binoche
 Summertime (TV), a 1997 Irish television movie short
 Summertime (cartoon), a 1934 cartoon by Ub Iwerks, featured on an episode of Pee-wee's Playhouse
 Summertime, a play by Ugo Betti

In timekeeping:
 Summer Time, advancing the clock one hour during summer, in American English known as daylight saving time
Listen

Listen could mean:
Listen Media Player
A listen server, a type of game server
Project LISTEN, developing speech recognition reading tutorial software

In music

Albums
 Listen (album) - by A Flock of Seagulls, 1983
 Listen (Jordan Rudess album) - by Jordan Rudess, 1993
 Listen  - by Michelle Tumes, 1998
 Listen: The Very Best Of - by Herbs, 2002
 Listen (TQ album) - by Terrance Quaites, 2004
 Listen (C21 album) - by C21, 2004
 Listen... - by Monkey Gone Mad, 2005

Songs
 Listen (song) - by Beyoncé, 2006 
 Listen!!! - by Talib Kweli, 2006
Brandenburg Gate

The Brandenburg Gate () is a structure in Berlin, Germany. It is the only remaining gate through which people used to enter Berlin. It was built between 1788 and 1791. It is located between the Platz des 18. März and the Pariser Platz. Nearby to the north is the Reichstag building. During the Cold War, the Reichstag was in West Berlin, and the Brandenburger Tor in East Berlin.

The Brandenburg Gate has twelve columns, six on the entrance side and six on the exit. The columns form five roadways, citizens originally were allowed to use only the outer two. This is rather like Admiralty Arch in London, the central roadway is reserved so that royal and important traffic is not delayed. On top of the gate is the Quadriga. This is Viktoria, the goddess of victory driving a Quadriga, a type of horse-drawn chariot.

After 1806, when Prussia was defeated at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, Napoleon stole the Quadriga and took it to Paris. When Napoleon was beaten in 1814 Prussian General Ernst von Pfuel occupied Pais and took the Quadriga back to Berlin, the olive wreath was changed to an Iron Cross. The Goddess Viktoria became Nike, goddess of victory.

When the Nazis came to power, they used the Gate as their symbol. The Gate was damaged but not destroyed during World War II. The governments of East Berlin and West Berlin restored it but it was closed when the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. The gate was in the middle of the death strip.

In 1963, U.S. President John F. Kennedy visited the Brandenburg Gate. The Soviets hung large banners across it to prevent him from looking into the East. In the 1980s West Berlin mayor Richard von Weizsäcker said: 

In 1987, U.S. President Ronald Reagan gave his famous speech "Tear down this wall!" outside of the gate.

Von Weizsäcker was the President of Germany at the reunification.

The Gate then symbolized the freedom to unite the City of Berlin. On the 22nd of December 1989, the Brandenburg Gate re-opened when Helmut Kohl, the West German Chancellor, walked through to be greeted by Hans Modrow, the East German Prime Minister.

On December 21, 2000, the Brandenburg Gate was privately refurbished at a cost of US$3 million.

Photo gallery

References

Other websites 

 Brandenburg Gate Website
 Street map of the Brandenburg Gate's location – GlobalGuide
 Brandenburg Gate described in its historic context 
 Panorama Brandenburg Gate - Panoramic view from the Pariser Platz
 Webcam: Live-View of the Street "Unter den Linden" with Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, Germany
 Germany, Berlin, Brandenburger Tor Virtual tour with map and compass effect by Tolomeus
 Panorama Brandenburg Gate 1945 - Panoramic view into the past, 60 years after WWII

Buildings and structures in Berlin
Monuments and memorials in Germany
Landmarks in Germany
Berlin Wall
Gates
1790s establishments in Europe
18th-century establishments in Germany
Languages of the Caucasus

The languages of the Caucasus are languages spoken by more than ten million people in the Caucasus region of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.

Some of those language families have no known members outside the Caucasus area. The term Caucasian languages can mean only these families or all languages historically spoken in that area.

Other websites 

 Comparative Notes on Hurro-Urartian, Northern Caucasian and Indo-European by V. V. Ivanov
 An overview of languages of the Caucasus
Giuseppe Piazzi

Giuseppe Piazzi (July 7, 1746 – July 22, 1826) was an Italian astronomer who was famous for discovering the asteroid, now dwarf planet Ceres.

Italian astronomers

1746 births
1826 deaths
Vesta (mythology)

Vesta was the virgin goddess of the hearth, home, and family in Roman mythology. She rarely appeared in art, as her presence was symbolized by the sacred fire that burned at her temple. The temple was forbidden to all except her priestesses, the Vestal Virgins. The Roman equivalent of the Greek Hestia, Vesta was seen to protect everything that was most important to people's survival. She was not a central figure of many myths. The Roman Empire was governed by men. Independent women would have threatened that system. Vesta was an example of what the Romans thought a woman should be. They thought that women should be modest and not share their views.

The asteroid 4 Vesta is named for her.

Other websites 

Roman gods and goddesses
Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers

Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers (October 11, 1758–March 2, 1840) was a German astronomer, physician and physicist.

References 
 
 

1758 births
1840 deaths
German astronomers
German physicists
Gnathostomata

Gnathostomata is the group of vertebrates with jaws.

The group was meant to include all jawed fish, but in modern fashion it also includes all the tetrapods as well, since they evolved from jawed fish. It is the sister group of the Agnatha, the jawless vertebrates.

The Gnathostomata first appeared in the Ordovician period and became diverse in the Devonian period, the 'Age of Fishes'. Land vertebrates appeared in the Carboniferous period.

Subgroups 
Chondrichthyes cartilaginous fish
Acanthodii† 'spiny sharks'
Placoderms† armoured fish
Osteichthyes bony fish
Actinopterygii ray-finned fish
Sarcopterygii lobe-finned fish

Fish
Flag of Mali

The flag of Mali has three equal vertical stripes.  Starting from the flagpole, the colours are green, gold, and red, which are the pan-African colours.

The flag became official on March 1, 1961.  The original flag became official on April 4, 1959, when Mali joined the Mali Federation.  This flag was the same, but the golden stripe had a human "stick figure", called a kanaga, in black, with its arms pointing to the sky.  The figure was removed because of an Islamic belief against making pictures of humans.  (Mali is about 90% Muslim.)

Mali
Mali
Coat of arms of Mali

On 20 October, 1973, the coat of arms of the Republic of Mali was made. The motto of the Republic of Mali is "Un Peuple, Un But, Une Foi" (One People, One Goal, One Faith).

The coat of arms of the Republic of Mali is a circle. There is a light blue background:
 in the middle, the Mosque of Djenné, in gold
 above the mosque, a flying vulture, in gold
 below, the rising sun, in gold
 in front of the sun, two bows bent by their arrow, in white
 in the surround, the writings "République du Mali" above and "Un Peuple, Un But, Une Foi" below, in black capital letters.

Mali
Mali
Pour l'Afrique et pour toi, Mali

"Pour l'Afrique et pour toi" (French: For Africa and for you, Mali) is the national song of Mali. Seydou Badian Kouyate wrote the words and Banzoumana Sissoko wrote the music. It became Mali's national song in 1962 and it is a normal song of love of the country. It is about how the people of Mali would sacrifice their lives for their nation and for freedom. A common theme in the song is wanting to unite Africa. The chorus is written below:

Pour l'Afrique et pour toi, Mali,
Notre drapeau sera liberté.
Pour l'Afrique et pour toi Mali
Notre combat sera unité.
Ô Mali d'aujourd'hui
Ô Mali de demain
Les champs fleurissent d'espérance
Les cœurs vibrent de confiance

In English::
For Africa and for you, Mali, 
Our banner shall be liberty. 
For Africa and for you, Mali, 
Our fight shall be for unity. 
Oh, Mali of today, 
Oh, Mali of tomorrow, 
The fields are flowering with hope 
And hearts are thrilling with confidence.

National anthems
Mali
List of heads of state of Mali

This is a list of heads of state of Mali since the country gained independence from France in 1960 to the present day.

A total of six people have served as head of state of Mali (not counting one Acting President). Additionally, one person, Amadou Toumani Touré, has served on two non-consecutive occasions.

The interim president is Assimi Goïta.

List

Notes

References

Mali
Mali

History of Mali
List of prime ministers of Mali

This is a list of prime ministers of Mali since the country gained independence from France in 1960 to the present day.

List of officeholders

Related pages
Heads of state of Mali

Notes

References

History of Mali
Mali
French Sudan

French Sudan (Fr.: Soudan) was a colony in French West Africa.

Existence 
It existed at two separate times. The first time was from 1890 to 1899, and the second was from 1920 to 1960. In 1960 it became the independent nation of Mali.

Beginning 
It was created as a French territory on September 9, 1880 and its name was "Upper Senegal".

Name 
The name changed to the "French Sudan Territory" on August 18, 1890, and its capital was Kayes. On October 10, 1899, French Sudan was broken into pieces: 11 southern provinces became part of French Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Dahomey. However, two provinces were returned in 1900.

History 
In 1902 the parts of the colony which were not organised into military districts became Senegambia and Niger, then the name changed to Upper Senegal and Niger in 1904. Finally, the old name of French Sudan returned in a reorganisation in 1920.

In 1933, Upper Volta stopped existing (It began again in 1947.) and French Sudan gained some of its provinces.

Independence 
After the October 4, 1958 French vote about the constitution, the "République Soudanaise" joined the French Community, again with the name French Sudan, and it gained complete domestic control on 25 November, 1958.

On April 4, 1959, French Sudan was joined with Senegal to form the Mali Federation. This became fully independent but still inside the French Community on June 20, 1960. This union finished on August 20, 1960, when Senegal left. On 22 September, French Sudan changed its name to the Republic of Mali and left the French Community.

History of Mali
Cunnilingus

Cunnilingus is when a man or another woman has oral sex with a woman. He (or she) licks her sex organs with his (or her) lips and tongue. The word comes from a Latin word for the vulva (cunnus) and from the Latin word for tongue (lingua).

The clitoris is the main part of the woman's sex organs that brings the most feeling. Often, a woman reaches an orgasm during cunnilingus.

In the past, some thought cunnilingus to be taboo (bad). People in some countries still think of it as taboo. However, many people in western and other cultures have oral sex.

References 

Sexual acts

tr:Oral seks#Cunnilingus
Agnatha

The Agnatha (Greek = 'no jaws') are a superclass of vertebrates. They are jawless fish.

The Agnatha as a whole may be paraphyletic. This means it is a convenient holdall term, which does not follow the rules of cladistics. For example, most extinct agnathans belong to the stem group (ancestral group) of gnathostomes. But according to the rules, one sister group should not contain ancestors of another sister group,

The living Agnatha (lampreys and hagfish) are known as cyclostomes. Recent molecular data from rRNA, and from mtDNA, show that these living agnathans  are monophyletic. There are about 100 species. Hagfish are vertebrates but do not have vertebrae. It is believed that they lost their vertebrae during their lifestyle adaptations.

The lifestyle of the lamprey (an ectoparasite on other fish) and hagfish (a scavenger) means that they are not typical of the fossil groups, which were free-swimming and often armoured.

Classification 
 Agnatha: the jawless fish. Cambrian to present day.
 †Pteraspids: the head-shields
 Anaspids: gills opened as holes. Silurian to end-Devonian.
 †Cephalaspids: early jawless fish
 Cyclostomes: Lampreys and Hagfish
 †Osteostraci: bony-armoured jawless fish.

Characteristics

Anatomy 
Agnathans do not have jaws, and have a cartilaginous skeleton. There is a notochord in both larvae and adults. They do not have  paired fins. They have seven or more paired gill pouches.

Agnatha have no identifiable stomach and are cold-blooded. The heart is simple, with two chambers.

Physiology 
There is a light-sensitive pineal eye. Fertilization and development of young are both outside the body, and there is no parental care.

Fossil agnathans 
The oldest fossil agnathans are found in Cambrian deposits.

Many Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian agnathans were armoured with heavy bony-spiky plates. The first armoured agnathans were the Ostracoderms ("shell-skinned"). By the upper Silurian the agnathans had reached the high point of their evolution. They declined in the Devonian and never recovered.

References
Henry Cavendish

Henry Cavendish FRS (10 October 1731-24 February 1810) was a British scientist. He is famous for discovering hydrogen. Cavendish measured the Earth's mass, density and gravitational constant with the Cavendish experiment.  He studied at Peterhouse, which is part of the University of Cambridge, but he left without graduating.

He built a laboratory in his father's house in London, where he worked for nearly fifty years, but he only published about 20 scientific papers. Even so, he is regarded as one of the greatest scientists of his time.

Cavendish claimed that the force between the two electrical objects gets smaller as they get further apart. If the distance between them doubled, the force would be one quarter what it was before.  This was the basis of the inverse-square law. He explained the concept of electric potential, which he called "the degree of electrification". He developed the thought of all points on a good conductor's surface have the same potential energy beside a common reference point. Having no way to measure electric current, he used his body as a machine which measures strength of electric current. All Cavendish's explorations in his notebook was found and confirmed by James Clerk Maxwell.

Cavendish’s electrical papers from the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London have been reprinted, together with most of his electrical manuscripts, in The Scientific Papers of the Honourable Henry Cavendish, F.R.S. (1921).

References 

1731 births
1810 deaths

English physicists
English chemists
Sponge (tool)

More information about the animals can be found at sponge
A Sponge is a tool that is used for cleaning and washing. The sponge is made of a special material, with many holes. By rubbing the sponge against dirty surfaces, the dirt can be removed.

Today, there are also artificial sponges.

Natural sponges for cleaning
Most natural sponges used for cleaning today come from the Mediterranean and the Caribbean. Today Izmir and Tripolis are the main markets where natural sponges are sold.

Other qualities of natural sponges

Antibiotic compounds
Sponges have medicinal potential. This is because of antimicrobial compounds in either the sponge itself or their microbial symbionts.

Dolphin use sponges
Bottlenose dolphins have been seen using live sponges. This was in Shark Bay. Shark bay is in Western Australia. The behaviour has only been observed in the bay. Most likely adult dolphins teach it to their children. The only other marine mammals that use tools are Sea otters.

References 

Cleaning tools