cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Fuzzy logic

Fuzzy logic is a sort of computer logic that is different from boolean algebra founded by Lotfi A. Zadeh. It is different in the way that it allows values to be more accurate than on or off. While boolean logic only allows true or false, fuzzy logic allows all things in between. An example of this could be a computer game: A person is standing in a doorway while a thing explodes. The character is hit or not hit if boolean logic is used, but the doorway protects him from the explosion. Therefore, he might only be hit 20%, and takes less damage.

To put it in  more precise mathematical terms, classical logic has two values. These values are usually called  false (0) or true (1). With fuzzy logic, a (calculated) value of 0.8 or 0.971 is possible. It is important to know the difference between fuzzy logic and chance. A coin that is thrown has a chance of 0.5 for landing heads up. If it is thrown 1000 times, it is expected that it will land with heads side up 500 times. With fuzzy logic, a thing with a "truth value" of 0.5 will have a value of 0.5 no matter how many times it is done. It is not a 50% chance of true or untrue, it is 50% true and 50% untrue at the same time.
Fuzzy logic is used a lot in expert systems and neural networks.

Humans tend to use a combination of predicate logic and fuzzy logic. If you are an outfielder catching a baseball hit into the air, then your precise logic will calculate trajectory and start you running to the point of intercept (catching). However, once close to the ball the eyes and brain of the outfielder lacks the ability to accurately estimate distance and speed because the ball is coming straight at the outfielder. The human brain switches to fuzzy logic that says "get me closer", "get me closer", and so on. That is why you see outfielders in baseball run to a spot and then move around as the ball gets closer.

Predicate logic says calculate the point to be at to catch the ball. Fuzzy logic says because of wind or other things you might not be in the correct place so just keep getting closer until you catch the ball. 

In predicate logic it is the mathematics of calculating the path of the ball that determines your action. In fuzzy logic it is the error of your calculations that determines your action.

In effect, it's like your brain trying to steady a drink in your hand while traveling down a bumpy road.

Artificial intelligence
Douala

Douala is the largest city in the African country of Cameroon. It is the capital city of Littoral Province.

The city is placed near the Wouri River. Its population is about 2,000,000 people. The first European people who came to Douala were from Portugal. They found Duala in about 1472. Before 1884 it was named Cameroons Town. In 1884 German people came to Duala and changed its name to Kamarunstadt ("Camaroon City") and made it the capital of German Kamerun. In 1907 its name was changed to Duala. It became the capital of French Cameroons in 1919. From 1940 to 1946, it was the capital of Cameroon.

Duala is an expensive city. It ranked 24th most expensive city of the world in 2007.

Transport 
Douala is linked by rail to Yaoundé, Ngaoundéré, Kumba and Nkongsamba. The largest port and the most important airport in Cameron are both in Douala.

References

Other websites 
 Image of Douala from Google Earth

Settlements in Cameroon
Cities in Africa
1472 establishments
Establishments in Portugal
Establishments in Africa
1843



Events 
 February 6 – The Virginia Minstrels perform the first minstrel show (Bowery Amphitheatre, New York City).
 February 8 – Earthquakes in Guadeloupe magnitude 8.5, 5000 people report  killed.
 February 11 – Giuseppe Verdi's opera I Lombardi premieres in Milan.
 May 18 – The Disruption of the Church of Scotland took place in Edinburgh.
 May 22 – The first major wagon train headed for the northwest sets out with one thousand pioneers from Elm Grove, Missouri, on the Oregon Trail.
 July 19 – The SS Great Britain is launched from Bristol.
 August 15  – Tivoli Gardens,  one of the oldest still intact amusement parks in the world, opened in Copenhagen, Denmark.
 October 13 – In New York City, Henry Jones and 11 others found B'nai B'rith (the oldest Jewish service organization in the world).
 November 28 – Ka La Ku'oko'a: Hawaiian Independence Day.  The Kingdom of Hawai`i was officially recognized by the United Kingdom and France as an independent nation.
 The world's first commercial Christmas cards are printed by Sir Henry Cole in London.
 December 17 – First publication of Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol.
 James Joule quantifies the conversion of work into heat.
 In Barbados, the first black man, Samuel Jackson Prescod, is elected to the House of Assembly.
 The Danish government re-establishes the althing in Iceland as an advisory body.
 The first tunnel under the Thames is finished.
 Argentina supports Rosas of Uruguay and begins a siege of Montevideo.
 Quaternions are discovered by William Rowan Hamilton. 
 The Economist is first published.
 Bishop's University is founded.
 Abbeville is founded by descendants of Acadians from Nova Scotia.

 January 1 – Francis Scott Key, American lawyer and lyricist (b. 1779)
1225



Births 
 Thomas Aquinas, Italian theologian (died 1274)
 Saint Isabel of France, daughter of Louis VIII of France
 David VI Narin, King of Georgia (died 1293)
 Michael VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (died 1282)
578



Events 
Tiberius II Constantine succeeds Justin II as Byzantine Emperor
Kongo Gumi, world's oldest (construction) company founded in Osaka, Japan
1584



Events 
 June 1 – With the death of the Duc d'Anjou, the Huguenot Henry of Navarre becomes heir-presumptive to the throne of France.
 July 5 – Maronite College established in Rome
 July 10 – William I of Orange assassinated
 Change to the new Gregorian Calendar in many countries. Dates between October 5 – 14 ignored.
 The first translation of the complete Bible into Slovenian language: Bibilija, tu je vse svetu pismu stariga inu noviga testamenta, slovenski tolmačena skuzi Jurija Dalmatina (Wittenberg), i.e. The Bible, it is a Complete Holy Scripture of the Old and of the New Testament, Translated into Slovenian by Jurij Dalmatin.
 Archangelsk is founded in northern Russia.
 Feodor I succeeds his father Ivan IV as Tsar of Russia
 Latin Book of Concord published in Germany
 Ghent falls to the Spanish.
193



Events 
January 1 – Pertinax is proclaimed Roman Emperor.
 June 1 – Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is assassinated in his palace.
Pertinax is killed after 87 days as Roman emperor. Septimius Severus finally gains control of the Roman Empire, after eliminating Pescennius Niger and Didius Julianus. Clodius Albinus also claims the Empire.
Last (4th) year of Chuping era of the Chinese Han Dynasty
1243

1243 was a year in the 13th century

Events 
 Innocent IV was elected pope.
 Castile captures the city of Murcia from the Moors.
 City of Brno founded
 Battle of Köse Dag
1541



Events 
The first official translation of the entire Bible in Swedish
 February 12 – Pedro de Valdivia founds Santiago de Chile.
 May 8 – Hernando de Soto reaches the Mississippi River naming it Rio de Espiritu Santo.
 May 23 –  Jacques Cartier departs Saint-Malo France on his third voyage.
 July 9 – Estevão da Gama departs Massawa, leaving behind 400 matchlockmen and 150 slaves under his brother Christovão da Gama, with orders to assist the Emperor of Ethiopia defeat Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi who has invaded his Empire.
 August 29 – The Janissaries of Suleiman the Magnificent take Buda by ruse, hiding themselves as tourists.
 Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent seals off The Golden Gate in Jerusalem.
The Parliament of Ireland declares Henry VIII of England King of Ireland replacing the Lordship of Ireland with the Kingdom of Ireland.
 October – The unsuccessful Algerian campaign of Charles V of Spain Gabsurg
1354



Events 
 October 8 – Cola di Rienzo, self-proclaimed "tribune" of Rome, is killed by an angry mob
 End of reign of John VI Cantacuzenus, as Byzantine emperor.
 The Lao kingdom of Lan Xang is established.
1129



Deaths 
 March 8 – Queen Urraca of Castile (born 1082)
 July 24 – Emperor Shirakawa of Japan (born 1053)
 Prince Álmos, of Hungary
 Constantine II of Armenia
 Thoros I of Armenia
 Ranulph le Meschin, 1st Earl of Chester
 Symeon of Durham, English chronicler
 Margrave Leopold of Styria
1135



Deaths 
 June 4 – Emperor Huizong of China (b. 1082)
 December 1 – King Henry I of England
 Al-Mustarshid, Caliph of Baghdad
 Milarepa, Tibetan yogi and poet (born 1052)
1476



Events 
 March 2 – Battle of Grandson. A Swiss army defeats the Burgundians under Charles the Bold
 June 2 – Battle of Morat. The Swiss again defeat Charles.
 December – Vlad III Dracula manages to become reigning Prince of Wallachia for the third and last time before being assassinated by decapitation. His head is sent to his old enemy Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire.
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Stars

AFI's 100 Years... 100 Stars is a list of the top actors in Hollywood history. It was announced by the American Film Institute on June 16, 1999.

The list promised one hundred people on it, but in the end there were only fifty.

As of 2020, of the fifty stars listed, only two are still alive: one man (Sidney Poitier), and one woman (Sophia Loren). At the time the list was unveiled Katharine Hepburn, Elizabeth Taylor, Shirley Temple, Lauren Bacall, Marlon Brando, Gregory Peck and Kirk Douglas were also still living.

The list 

American Film Institute
Lists of entertainers
Havana

Havana () is the capital city of Cuba. Its population was 2.1 million in 2012. It is at 23°8′N 82°23′W and is a little more than 100 miles south-southwest of Key West, Florida in the United States.

Havana is a very old city. It was created in 1515 by Spanish explorers. Due to its important location it became a springboard for the Spanish conquest of the Americas. Also, it became a stopping point for Spanish ships returning to Spain filled with treasure. King Philip II of Spain granted Havana the title of City in 1592. Walls as well as forts were built to protect the old city. The sinking of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana's harbor in 1898 was the immediate cause of the Spanish–American War.

References

Other websites 

Provinces of Cuba
1515 establishments
 
Establishments in Cuba
Bismarck

Bismarck is a German family name. Bismark is an incorrect spelling.

Otto von Bismarck
The name Bismarck is usually associated with the famous Otto von Bismarck, a German statesman of the 19th century.

Ships

Battlecruiser class
 Fürst Bismarck, a Mackensen class battlecruiser of the German navy, still under construction at the time of the 1918 Armistice and never completed.

Battleship
The Bismarck was a battleship of the German navy during WWII
 The Bismarck Chase
 Sink the Bismarck!, a 1960 movie about the sinking of the Bismarck
 Sink the Bismarck, a 1960 Johnny Horton song inspired by the movie
 Expedition: Bismarck, a 2002 documentary about the battleship Bismarck.

Ocean liners
 The SS Bismarck of 1914 became the RMS Majestic as a part of World War I war reparations.

Places

Geography
 the Bismarck Sea, north of the island of New Guinea
 the Bismarck Archipelago, a part of Papua New Guinea
 Bismarck, North Dakota, the capital of the U.S. state of North Dakota
 Bismarck, Arkansas
 Bismarck, Illinois
 Bismarck, Missouri
 Bismark, Ontario, a hamlet at the junction of Highway 20 and Highway 57

Buildings and Structures
 "Bismarck towers"
 Bismarck Tower Stettin

Other people named Bismarck
 Herebord von Bismarck, the first verifiable holder of the name (from the 13th century)
 Ludolf August von Bismarck (1683-1750), a Russian General
 Levin Friedrich von Bismarck (1703-1774), a Prussian Attorney General
 August Wilhelm von Bismarck (1750-1783), a Prussian Finance Minister
 Friedrich Alexander Graf von Bismarck-Bohlen (1818-1894), a Prussian General
 Herbert von Bismarck (1849-1904), Secretary of State, son of Otto von Bismarck
 Gottfried von Bismarck (1881-1928)
 Bernhard von Bismarck
 Otto Fürst von Bismarck (1815-1898), a highly influential German politician of the 19th century. Prime Minister of Prussia, and Chancellor of the Second German Reich.
 Gottfried Graf von Bismarck-Schönhausen (1901-1949), a Nazi parliamentary representative, grandson of Otto von Bismarck
 Count Gottfried von Bismarck (1962-2007) son of Prince Ferdinand von Bismarck, great-great-grandson of the famous Otto von Bismarck
 Philipp von Bismarck (b. 1913), a German politician of the CDU party
 Prince Ferdinand von Bismarck
 Klaus von Bismarck, 1961-1976, and administrator of a German radio station
 Gunilla von Bismarck (b. 1949), great-granddaughter of Otto von Bismarck, a German philanthropist
 Carl-Eduard von Bismarck (b. 1961), great-great-grandson of Otto von Bismarck, a German politician
 Aurel von Bismarck, a musician and composer

Things
 Bismarck, a beer mix also known as a Black Velvet
 Bismarck herring, a variant of rollmops

Media
 Sei Jūshi Bismarck, a Japanese anime series released by Studio Pierrot in 1984.
Crusinallo

Crusinallo, with 4000 people, is the most populated district of the town of Omegna (in the Province of Verbano-Cusio-Ossola, in Piedmont, Italy). It was an independent town until 1928. The town of Crusinallo is located in the north part of the town of Omegna, at the border with the towns of Casale Corte Cerro, Gravellona Toce, and Germagno. The natural borders are: at north, the Saint Martino river; at east and south, the Strona river; at west, the forest of Alpe Colla.

Settlements in Piedmont
1752



Events 
 February 11 – Pennsylvania Hospital, the first hospital in the US, is opened.
 March 23 – The Halifax Gazette, the first Canadian newspaper
 June 6 – Fire destroys part of Moscow
 June 15 – Benjamin Franklin proves that lightning is electricity using a kite and a key.
 September 14, Gregorian Calendar – The British Empire adopts the Gregorian calendar, making it necessary to skip eleven days (September 2 being followed directly by September 14 this year)
 Adam Smith at the University of Glasgow transfers to professor of moral philosophy
 English Scientist Lord John Davies first observes what is later recognised as respiratory collapse
1071



Events 
 April — The last Byzantine-controlled city in southern Italy, Bari, is captured by Robert Guiscard. 
 August 26 — Byzantine Empire loses Battle of Manzikert to Turkish army under Alp Arslan. Control of much of Asia Minor passes to the Turks.
 Construction of Richmond Castle in North Yorkshire, England begins.
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals

People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA ) is one of the world's largest non-profit organisations about animal rights. The four main beliefs of PETA are that animals are not to be used for food, clothes, exploitation or testing. The headquarters of the organization is in Norfolk, Virginia in the United States. PETA was started by Ingrid Newkirk and Alex Pacheco in 1980.

PETA has protested fast food chain KFC for the way it kills chickens and also for jallikattu or sallikattu in Tamil Nadu (India). In the past, it has protested many corporations including Iams, which makes pet food. 

PETA's main website is made for adults and vegans. They also have another website called PETA2 which is made for teenagers who are vegetarian, vegan or still deciding. PETA says it has over five million members.

References

Other websites 

 PETA (General)
 PETA (UK)
 YouTube profile
 PETA UK on YouTube

Animal rights
Non-profit organizations of the United States
Ethics
Norfolk, Virginia
1728



Events 
 Astronomical aberration found by the astronomer James Bradley
 Swedish academy of sciences made at Uppsala
 The making of the University of Havana (Universidad de la Habana), Cuba's most set university.

Births 
 January 9 – Thomas Warton, English poet (d. 1790)
 February 21 – Emperor Peter III of Russia, husband of Catherine the Great (d. 1762)
 April 16 – Joseph Black, Scottish scientist (d. 1799)
 August 26 – Johann Heinrich Lambert, Swiss mathematician, physicist and astronomer (d. 1777) 
 August 28 – John Stark, American general (d. 1822)
 September 3 – Matthew Boulton, English metal-worker, inventor and partner of James Watt (d. 1809)
 September 14 – Mercy Otis Warren, American writer (d. 1814)
 October 7 – Caesar Rodney, American lawyer who signed the Declaration of Independence (d. 1784)
 October 27 – James Cook, British captain and explorer (d. 1779)
 November 10 – Oliver Goldsmith, Irish writer (d. 1774)

Deaths
 February 12 – Agostino Steffani, Italian diplomat and composer (b. 1654)
 February 13 – Cotton Mather, Puritan minister (b. 1663)
 March 4 – Anna Petrovna of Russia, oldest daughter of Peter the Great (b. 1708)
 April 3 – James Anderson, Scottish historian (b. 1662)
 August 15 – Marin Marais, French musician (b. 1656)
 September 23 – Christian Thomasius, German jurist (b. 1655)
 November 19 – Leopold of Anhalt-Cöthen, German Prince (b. 1694)
 date unknown – Serfoji I, Indian Ruler (b. 1675)
1614



Events 
 April 5 – In Virginia, Native American Pocahontas marries English colonist John Rolfe.
 October 11 – Adriaen Block and a group of Amsterdam merchants petition the States General for exclusive trading rights in the area he explored and named "New Netherland".
 The French Estates-General meets for the last time before the era of the French Revolution. In between, France will be governed as an absolute monarchy.
 John Napier publishes a paper outlining his discovery of logarithms.
 The University of Groningen is established.
 Institution of the Rosicrucian Order in Germany according to Fraternitas Rosae Crucis.
 Toyotomi Hideyori attempts to restore Osaka Castle. Tokugawa Ieyasu, father of the Shogun, is outraged at this act, and takes the castle by storm.

Births 
 January 1 – John Wilkins, English clergyman (d. 1672)
 January 5 – Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria, Governor of the Spanish Netherlands (d. 1662)
 July 10 – Arthur Annesley, 1st Earl of Anglesey, English royalist statesman (d. 1686)
 December 16 – Eberhard III, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1674)
 Franciscus Sylvius, German scientist (d. 1672)

Deaths
1588



Events 
 May 12 – Day of the Barricades in Paris.  Duke Henry of Guise seizes the city, forcing King Henry III to flee.
 May 28 – The Spanish Armada, with 130 ships and 30,000 men, begins to set sail from Lisbon heading for the English Channel (it will take until May 30 for all ships to leave port).
 July – King Henry III of France capitulates to the Duke of Guise and returns to Paris.
 July 31 – First engagement between the English and Spanish fleets off Plymouth. The English have the better of it.
 August 2 – The English and Spanish fleets meet again off Dorset. (The English fleet is led by Lord Howard of Effingham and Sir Francis Drake.) The English again have the better of it.
 August 6 – Battle of Gravelines: The Spanish Armada is defeated by an English naval force under command of Lord Charles Howard and Sir Francis Drake off the coast of Gravelines, now in France.
 August 7 – The English and Spanish fleets again engage off the coast of Flanders. The English again are more successful.
 August 8 – August 9 – The Spanish are unable to reach the coast of Flanders to meet up with the army of the Duke of Parma. Medina Sidonia decides to return to Spain.
 August 12 – The Spanish fleet sails past the Firth of Forth, and the English cease their pursuit. Much of the Spanish fleet is destroyed as it sails around Scotland and Ireland.
 December 23 – Henry III of France strikes his ultra-Catholic enemies, having the Duke of Guise and his brother, Cardinal Louis of Guise, killed, and holding the Cardinal de Bourbon a prisoner.
 Ahmad al-Mansur, sultan of Morocco, demands that the king of Songhay give a heavy tribute in exchange of a Saharan salt, probably in an intentional provocation. When Songhay's answer is defiant, he declares war and marches his army through Sahara to Songhay
 Russia, regency of Boris Godunov
 William Morgan's Welsh translation of the Bible published.
1012



Events 
 Mael Morda starts a rebellion against Brian Boru in Ireland, which would eventually end in 1014 at the Battle of Clontarf.
 Sulayman is restored as Umayyad caliph of Cordoba, succeeding Hisham II.
 Benedict VIII becomes pope. Gregory is antipope.
 Archbishop Alphege of Canterbury is murdered by his Danish captors.
 King Aethelred of England pays Danegeld.
 Oldrich succeeds Jaromir as duke of Bohemia.
 Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim orders the destruction of all Jewish and Christian places of worship.
1746



Events 
 January 8 – Bonnie Prince Charlie occupies Stirling
 April 16 – Battle of Culloden brings an end to the Jacobite Risings
 August 18 – Two of the four rebellious Scottish lords, Earl of Kilmarnock and Lord Balmeniro beheaded in the Tower (Lord Lovat executed 1747)
 October 22 – The College of New Jersey is founded (it becomes Princeton University in 1896)
 October 28 – An earthquake demolishes Lima and Callao, in Peru
 Catharine de Ricci (born 1522) canonized.
 Town of Vilkovo (Odes'ka oblast', Ukraine) is founded.

Births 
 Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles-November 12, 1746
1734



Events 
 January 8 – Premiere of George Frideric Handel's opera Ariodante at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden.
 June 17 – French troops take Philippsburg, but the Duke of Berwick is killed
 June 21 – In Montreal in New France, a black slave known by the French name of Marie-Joseph Angélique, was tortured then hanged by the French authorities in a public ceremony that involved her disgrace and the amputation of a hand.
 June 30 – Russian troops take Gdańsk (German: Danzig) which had been besieged since October 1733. Gdańsk is captured after the failure of a French expedition to relieve the city
222



Events 
Pope Urban I succeeds Pope Callixtus I
Roman Emperor Alexander Severus succeeds Heliogabalus
Kingdom of Wu is established in China
Sun Quan defeats Liu Bei at the Battle of Yi Ling

References
477



Events
 Huneric becomes king of Vandals
 Aelle, king of the South Saxons, arrives in England, with his three sons, near Cymenshore. (According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle)
 Song Shun Di succeeds Song Hou Fei Di as ruler of the Chinese Song Dynasty
509



Births
 Emperor Kimmei, 29th emperor of Japan (d. 571, traditional date)
 Adi Sankara

Deaths

References
571



Events
The Monophysites again reject the Council of Chalcedon, causing another schism.

Deaths
 Emperor Kimmei, 29th emperor of Japan (b. 509, traditional date)

References
609



Events 
 The Pantheon is consecrated to the Virgin Mary and all saints (or 610).
 Edessa is taken by the Sassanids.
Lake Baikal

Lake Baikal is a huge lake in Siberia, Russia. It is the biggest fresh water reservoir in the world. The lake is near Irkutsk. 

Baikal is about  long. It is  wide. At it’s deepest point, it is  deep. With this depth it is the deepest lake on Earth. The lake is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It holds about 20% of the world's unfrozen surface fresh water,

The lake has fish that exist only here and nowhere else. It is home to more than 1,700 species of plants and animals, two-thirds of which can be found nowhere else in the world.

Geology 

Lake Baikal fills an ancient rift valley, just as Lake Tanganyika does in East Africa. 

At the Baikal Rift Zone, the Earth's crust pulls apart. It is the deepest lake in the world at . The bottom of the lake is  below sea level, but below this lies some  of sediment. This means the rift floor is  below the surface: the deepest continental rift on Earth. 

In geological terms, the rift is young and active  it widens about two cm per year. The fault zone is also seismically active; there are hot springs in the area and notable earthquakes every few years. 

Baikal's age is 25–30 million years: it is one of the oldest lakes. It is unique among large, high-latitude lakes, because its sediments have not been scoured by overriding continental ice sheets. U.S. and Russian studies of core sediment in the 1990s gave a detailed record of climatic variation over the past 250,000 years. Longer and deeper sediment cores are expected soon. Lake Baikal is the only confined freshwater lake in which evidence of gas hydrates exists.

The lake is completely surrounded by mountains. The Baikal Mountains on the north shore and the taiga are protected as a national park. It has 27 islands; the largest, Olkhon, is  long and is the third-largest lake-bound island in the world. The lake is fed by as many as 330 inflowing rivers. It is drained through a single outlet, the Angara River.

Despite its great depth, the lake's waters are well-mixed and well-oxygenated throughout the water column, compared to the stratification that occurs in such bodies of water as Lake Tanganyika and the Black Sea.

Wildlife 

Lake Baikal has over 1000 species of plants and 1550 species and varieties of animals. Over 60% of animals are endemic; that means of 52 species of fish 27 are endemic.

The omul fish (Coregonus autumnalis migratorius) is local to Lake Baikal. It is fished, smoked, and sold on all markets around the lake. For many travellers on the Trans-Siberian railway, purchasing smoked omul is one of the highlights of the long journey.

Baikal also hosts a species of seals, Baikal seal or nerpa.

Bears and deer can be watched and hunted by Baikal coasts.

Ecosystem 
In 1986, Baikalskyi and Barguzinskyi became Biosphere Reserves. The ecosystems are part of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme.

Related pages 
 List of World Heritage Sites in Russia
 Marina Rikhvanova, an ecologist who works to protect Lake Baikal

References

Other websites 

  List of biosphere reserves which are wholly or partially world heritage sites

Lakes of Russia
Biosphere reserves
Siberia
World Heritage Sites in Russia
Omul

The omul is a kind of fish. It belongs to the same family as the trout and the salmon. It only lives in Lake Baikal and the rivers around it (the Angara for example. It is very typical for that region of Siberia).

Omul considered a food delicacy and can be eaten n many ways. Local people consume it boiled, fried smoked, and freshly  salted.

The Omul normally fished using seine nets and fishing nets, yet during early spring, it can be caught using a fishing road.

References

Bony fish
Siberia
Salmon

Salmon is a kind of teleost fish. There are many different kinds of salmon. Salmon belong to the same family of fish as the trout. Most kinds of salmon live in salt water, or migrate between rivers and the sea. Many people like to eat salmon, so the fish is also grown in fish farms. Usual ways to make food out of salmon are smoking, cold smoking and graving. Salmon are killed by people, other fish and their environment.

Coloring
Salmons get their pink color from a pigment called astaxanthin. Wild salmon get it from the krill and shrimp they eat, while farmed salmon gets traces of it in kibble. If they don't have the pigment, they get a gray color.

Major species

Atlantic salmon
Australian salmon
Chinook salmon
Chum salmon
Coho salmon
Indian Salmon
Pink salmon
Sockeye salmon

References

Other websites

Salmon Nation A place and idea for "reliable prosperity."
Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission
Seafood Watch from the Monterey Bay Aquarium
Is Something Fishy Going On? (red dyes in farmed fish) 

Edible fish
Teleosts
Ocellated Turkey

An ocellated turkey (Meleagris ocellata) is a turkey (a large bird) that is named for the eye-like spots on the tail feathers (ocellated means having eye-like spots). It is similar to the wild turkey that is found more to the north in North America.

Turkeys
Birds of North America
D-Day (military term)

D-Day is a term used in military planning to mean the actual day a major operation or event is to begin. The days leading up to a D-Day are called D-1, D-2, D-3, etc. This allows scheduling a sequence of events before the start date is chosen. The days after a D-Day are D+1, D+2, D+3, and so on.    

Several different days in military history were named D-Day. However, the most famous D-Day was the Normandy landings during Operation Overlord. This was on the morning of June 6, 1944, when the largest naval attack in military history took place. It was in France during World War II. Operation Overlord was led by American General Dwight D. Eisenhower.  The Allies (Britain, Canada, and America in this case), breached the Normandy coastline. They broke through the German fortification chain, the Atlantic Wall.  It was a turning point in World War II, though over 3,500 men were lost.   

The invasion started with airborne landings at 3:30 AM, and the seaborne invasion started at 6:30 AM and took 19 hours. Operation Overlord was planned for months, and was scheduled for June 5, but was delayed due to bad weather. In the next several months the Allies fought in France and took various useful ports such as Caen, and later Paris. After less than a year, the Allies entered Nazi Germany, and Germany surrendered.

An invasion of southern France was intended to start at the same time, but there were not enough landing craft for both. Its actual D-Day was August 15.

Other websites  
 WW2DB: Normandy Campaign
 Omaha-Beach.Org D-Day 7.6.1944

World War II
Dwight D. Eisenhower
655



Events 
November 15 – Northumbrian king Oswiu defeats the pagan Mercian king Penda in the Battle of the Winwaed
Empress Saimei ascends to the throne of Japan.
Clovis II succeeded by Clotaire III.
Peada succeeds his father Penda as king of Mercia
A Byzantine fleet is defeated by the Arabs at Finike.
Humphrey Bogart

Humphrey Bogart (December 25, 1895 - January 14, 1957) was an American actor. He is nominated for three Academy Awards on each movies, including Casablanca, The African Queen and The Caine Mutiny.

Movies 
 Bad Sister (1931)
 The Petrified Forest (1936)
 Kid Galahad (1937)
 San Quentin (1937)
 Angels with Dirty Faces (1938)
 Swing Your Lady (1938)
 You Can't Get Away with Murder (1939)
 The Roaring Twenties (1939)
 They Drive by Night (1940)
 Brother Orchid (1940)
 High Sierra (1941)
 The Maltese Falcon (1941)
 Across the Pacific (1942)
 Casablanca (1942)
 Action in the North Atlantic (1943)
 Sahara (1943)
 To Have and Have Not (1944)
 Passage to Marseille (1944)
 Conflict (1945)
 The Big Sleep (1946)
 Dark Passage (1947)
 Dead Reckoning (1947)
 The Two Mrs. Carrolls (1947)
 The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948)
 Key Largo (1948)
 In a Lonely Place (1950)
 The African Queen (1951)
 Beat the Devil (1953)
 The Barefoot Contessa (1954)
 The Caine Mutiny (1954)
 Sabrina (1954)
 The Desperate Hours (1955)
 We're No Angels (1955)
 The Harder They Fall (1956)

Other websites 

 
 Documentary 42': Humphrey Bogart... Behind the Legend  (Video)

Actors from New York City
American movie actors
Cancer deaths in San Francisco
Deaths from esophageal cancer
1899 births
1957 deaths
Cary Grant

Cary Grant (January 18, 1904 - November 29, 1986), born as Archibald Alexander Leach in Bristol, United Kingdom, was an actor in the United States. He starred in many movies, including 1959's North by Northwest.

Grant became an American citizen in 1942.  At that time, he legally changed his name to "Cary Grant." He died of a stroke on November 29, 1986. His body was cremated.

Sources

Other websites 
 

1904 births
1986 deaths
Actors from Bristol
American movie actors
Cardiovascular disease deaths in the United States
Deaths from cerebral hemorrhage
Kennedy Center honorees
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Academy Award winners
Emotion

Emotions are what people feel. They are very ancient, and can be seen in all mammals.

Emotions are caused by a complex mixture of hormones and the unconscious mind. Only with great difficulty can we control our emotions by conscious effort. They cause mammals to change behaviour according to changes in their situation. In our case they sometimes run against our attempt to live our lives in a logical way.

A scientific definition is not simple; over 90 definitions have been offered by experts. A definition of emotion needs to includes three things:
conscious experience (feelings)
expressions which can be seen by others
actions of the body ('physiological arousal')

Here  is one definition:
"Emotion is a complex psychological phenomenon which occurs as animals or people live their lives. Emotions involve physiological arousal, appraisal of the situation, expressive behaviours, and conscious experience. Emotion is associated with feeling, mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation".

In physical terms, emotions involve body systems which have operated for hundreds of millions of years. These are the hormone system, the autonomic nervous system and the 'lower' brain centres (hindbrain and midbrain).

Function of emotions 

The study of emotions became one of Darwin's books after The Descent of Man. He published The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals in 1873. He had discovered, by sending letters and a list of questions worldwide, that in different societies emotions were expressed in almost the same way.

If so, the mechanisms which made the expressions must be inherited. They must have been developed in the same way as all other features of man, evolution by natural selection. It was already known from anatomy that the muscles and nerves of the face were the same or similar in all humans.

Darwin illustrated the expression of the emotions with a series of photographs and woodcut illustrations. Ekman did the same thing on a research visit to New Guinea, where he asked villagers to identify the emotions shown in the photographs. This was part of a long-term effort to test and extend Darwin's insights into emotions. Some of Ekman's conclusions are:
Micro expressions last only a fraction of a second. They occur when people conceal their feelings. (p15, p222)
Emotions are autoappraisers, reactions to matters which seem to be very important to our welfare. (p21)
Emotions often begin so quickly that we are not aware of the processes in our mind which set them off. (p21)
Autoappraisers scan for events which are critical to our welfare and survival. (p23)
Our evolutionary heritage makes a major contribution to the shaping of our emotional responses. (p26)
The desire to experience or not to experience an emotion motivates much of our behaviour. (p217)
An efficient signal – clear, rapid and universal – informs others of how the emotional person is feeling. (p217)

Related pages 
 List of emotions

References
Dyslexia

Dyslexia is a learning disability, a condition that makes it difficult to learn and understand things in the same way others do. It is a very common problem.

It effects on the way the brain understands words. The most common signs of dyslexia are reading and writing problems. Estimates are that in the United States between 5 and 9% of school children have dyslexia, though estimates go as high as 50%. 

There are many dyslexia types.

Characteristics
A person can have dyslexia even if they are intelligent and educated. Recent studies show there are many small business owners that have dyslexia; between 35 and 50 percent of U.S. and British entrepreneurs are affected. Researchers think many dyslexic entrepreneurs are successful because they can delegate responsibilities (of writing letters) and still be good at speaking.

At the end of the 19th century, scientists did a lot of research about dyslexia and found some of the reasons that people are dyslexic. A professor who did research in the 1980s and 1990s looked at the brains of dyslexic people who had died.  He found that some parts of the brain were not connected very well, and that this happened during the fourth month of pregnancy. This problem has a big effect on the left half of the brain. The newest research shows that three genes are the reason for dyslexia.

One thing that causes dyslexia is a problem with the central hearing nerve. This problem can not be found with a normal hearing test, so a special doctor has to do special tests to find it. It means that people with heavy dyslexia are sensitive to loud noise, may have problems speaking, and may not be able to concentrate. It may also cause problems with rhythm and melody of music.

Many people who have dyslexia also have other mental disorders, especially attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Finding dyslexia
In order to tell if a child has dyslexia, they have to be seen by a doctor. A child can be called dyslexic if they cannot read or write well and there is no other reason for the problem. Doctors are trying to create early tests to help find out whether a child has dyslexia before they are old enough to go to school. If this happens, a child can start to be treated very early, and they may have fewer problems at school. Many well-known people have dyslexia, including: Stephen Hawking, Jamie Oliver, Whoopi Goldberg, Ozzy Osbourne, Jay Leno, John de Lancie, Keira Knightley, Susan Hampshire, Orlando Bloom, Keanu Reeves, Richard Branson, Henry Winkler, Patrick Dempsey, Albert Einstein, and Tom Cruise. These people though continue to thrive with their work.

Therapy
Children with dyslexia can be helped. One way teachers help dyslexic students is to break words into different sounds. The student must learn how to write the different sounds and create words. This helps with reading and writing. Some people think that dyslexic children can read and write better if they put pieces of colored paper on top of what they are reading.

References

Related pages
Dysgraphia
Neurodiversity

Disability
Disorders
AK-47

The AK-47 is a Russian assault rifle first used in 1949. It and an updated version called the AKM were used by the Soviet Union's military (which was called the Soviet Army). It was later replaced by the AK-74.

The AK-47 was designed in 1947 by Mikhail Kalashnikov.

The AK-47 quickly became famous and spread all around the world because it was simple to fire, clean and maintain, and also because of its reliability, meaning that it can be fired for a long time without jamming. The AK-47 and its successors continue to be used by many of the world's armies. Many terrorist and insurgent groups also use the AK-47. It is a cheap, reliable, and easy-to-use weapon. The AK-47 was also available with a folding stock, the AKS-47, and a shortened version with the AKS74 folding stock, the AKMSU (used by armoured vehicle crews), although this was soon replaced by the AKS74U, which fires the 5.45 cartridge of the AK-74. There was also a light machine gun variant with a longer barrel and different shaped stock called the RPK.

The Russian military liked the AK's design so much that it was even used to design other types of weapons as well, including the Dragunov sniper rifle and the Saiga-12 semi-automatic shotgun.

The AK-47 uses gas-operated reloading.  When the bullet is moved down the barrel, a little bit of the gas behind the bullet is made to go up a small tube that pushes away the bolt.  The shooter does not have to reload by hand for every shot - the gun reloads by itself.  When you pull the trigger, the bullet in the chamber fires.  You then release and then pull the trigger again to fire another round.  When used this way, it is called a semi-automatic firearm.  A few AK-47's are made to be used only this way but most are fully automatic firearms.

Spread in third world countries 
In the pro-communist states, the AK-47 became a symbol of the Third World revolution.

They were used in the Cambodian Civil War and the Cambodian–Vietnamese War. During the 1980s, the Soviet Union became the principal arms dealer to countries embargoed by Western nations. This included Middle Eastern nations such as Iran, Libya, and Syria, which welcomed Soviet Union backing against Israel. After the end of the Soviet Union (1989/90), AK-47s were sold openly and on the black market to any group with cash, including drug cartels and dictatorial states. More recently they have been seen in the hands of Islamic groups such as Al-Qaeda, ISIL, and the Taliban in Afghanistan and Iraq, and FARC, Ejército de Liberación Nacional guerrillas in Colombia.

The proliferation of this weapon is shown by more than just numbers. The AK-47 is included in the flag of Mozambique, an acknowledgment that the country gained its independence in large part through the effective use of their AK-47s. It is also found in the coats of arms of East Timor and the revolution era Burkina Faso, as well as in the flags of Hezbollah, FARC-EP, the New People's Army in the Phillipines, TKP/TIKKO and other "Revolutionary Peoples" groups.

Notes

References

Other websites 

 AK-47 Museum virtual tour 
 AK-47 - Encyc 

Assault rifles
Rifles of the Cold War
Military of Russia
7.62 mm rifles
1637



Events 
 February 3 – Tulip mania collapses in the United Provinces (now the Netherlands) by government order
 February 15 – Ferdinand III becomes Holy Roman Emperor
 December 17 – Shimabara Rebellion erupts in Japan
Pierre de Fermat makes a marginal claim to have proof of what would become known as Fermat's last theorem.
France places a few missionaries in the Côte d'Ivoire, a country it would come to rule more than 200 years later.
England wages war against the Mashantucket Pequots
 First opera house, Teatro San Cassiona, opens in Venice
 René Descartes – Discours de la Methode
Elizabeth Poole becomes the first woman to have founded a town (Taunton, Massachusetts) in the Americas.
Colima

Colima is a state in west Mexico.  About 760,000 people live there. Its capital is also called Colima.

 
States of Mexico
Valencia

Valencia is a city in Spain, on the Mediterranean coast. It is the capital of the Community of Valencia. It has 807,396 people, making it the third-largest city in Spain and the fifteenth in the European Union. 

Valencia's climate is on the boundary of hot semi-arid (Bsh in the Koeppen climate classification) and hot-summer Mediterranean (Csa in the Koeppen climate classification).

Other websites 
Valencia Tourism Offical Site

References 

Capital cities in Spain
Murcia

Murcia is the capital of the autonomous community of Murcia, in Spain, and its biggest city, with a population of 410,000 in the city and more than 740,000 in the metropolitan area. The municipality is the seventh largest in Spain. 

The city is in the Segura Valley, in an area called la Huerta de Murcia, which is a very important agricultural center with oranges, lemons, tomatoes, onions, etc.; the varied fruits and vegetables typical of the Mediterranean lands. It has a hot semi-arid climate (BSh in the Koeppen climate classification). The city has a Baroque cathedral and a university.

Capital cities in Spain
Zaragoza

Zaragoza (sometimes called Saragossa in English) is the capital of Aragon, in the Ebro Valley, in the crossroad from Barcelona, Valencia, Madrid, and Bilbao. The population is 643,000. The most important monument is the Nuestra Señora del Pilar (Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar).

Zaragoza has a semi-arid climate (BSh in the Köppen climate classification) with hot summers and cool winters.

Capital cities in Spain
Malaga

Malaga (Spanish: Málaga) is a Spanish city in Andalusia, Spain on the Mediterranean coast. The city has 560,000 people. There are more than 1,000,000 people in the surrounding area. It is the second biggest city in Andalusia after Sevilla, and the sixth biggest in Spain. The 20th century artist Pablo Picasso was born in Málaga.

Málaga is southernmost large city in Europe, it lies on the Costa del Sol (Coast of the Sun) of the Mediterranean, about 100 km (62.14 mi) east of the Strait of Gibraltar and about 130 km (80.78 mi) north of Africa.
Málaga enjoys a subtropical–mediterranean climate. It has one of the warmest winters in Europe, with average temperatures of 17 °C (62.6 °F) during the day and 7–8 °C (45–46 °F) at night in the period from December through February.

Climate

The climate is subtropical-Mediterranean (Köppen climate classification: Csa) with very mild winters and hot summers. Málaga enjoys plenty of sunshine throughout the year, with an average of about 300 days of sunshine and only about 40-45 with precipitation annually. Its coastal location with winds blowing from the Mediterranean Sea make the heat manageable during the summer.

Málaga experiences the warmest winters of any European city with a population over 500,000. The average temperature during the day in the period December through February is . During the winter, the Málaga Mountains (Montes de Málaga) block out the cold weather from the north. Generally, the summer season lasts about eight months, from April to November, although in the remaining four months temperatures sometimes surpass . Its average annual temperature is  during the day  and  at night. In the coldest month, January, the temperature ranges from  during the day,  at night and the average sea temperature is . In the warmest month, August, the temperature ranges from  during the day, above  at night and the average sea temperature is .

Large fluctuations in temperature are rare. The highest temperature ever recorded at the airport is  on 18 July 1978. In the month of August 1881, the average reported daytime maximum temperature was a record . The coldest temperature ever recorded was  on the night of 4 February 1954. The highest wind speed ever recorded was on 16 July 1980, measuring . Snowfall is virtually unknown; since the end of the XIX century, Málaga city has only recorded snow one day in the 20th century, on 2 February 1954.

Annual average relative humidity is 65%, ranging from 58% in June to 72% in December. Yearly sunshine hours is between 2,800 and 3,000 per year, from 5–6 hours of sunshine / day in December to average 11 hours of sunshine / day in July. Rain occurs mainly in winter, with summer being generally dry. Málaga is one of the few cities in Europe which are "green" all year round.

References

Other websites 

 Málaga.diwiki.org  Periódico digital 

 
Capital cities in Spain
Córdoba, Andalusia

Córdoba is a city in Andalusia, Spain. It is the capital of Córdoba province. It had a population of about 326,000 in 2017.

Córdoba was the capital of the Caliphate of Cordoba, an Islamic empire in the Middle Ages, when the city was the biggest in Europe, with 250,000 people.

Córdoba is 138 kilometers (86 miles) northeast of the city of Seville and is on the Guadalquivir river. Córdoba has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa in the Köppen climate classification) with the hottest summers of all European cities.

History
The Romans occupied Córdoba in 206 B.C. The city was very important in the 900s CE as a famous center of Moorish art and culture.  The Mezquita de Córdoba is the city's chief landmark. It was built as a mosque (Muslim house of worship) in the 700s and was made into a Roman Catholic cathedral in 1238.  More than 1,000 pillars of stone including granite, onyx, marble and jasper support its arches.

Economy
A soft, fine-grained leather called cordovan is made in Córdoba. Córdoba is the center of an agricultural region. Farms produce grain, grapes, olives, and vegetables.

 
Capital cities in Spain
Municipalities in Andalusia
1636

1636 was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar.

Events 
 March 26 – Utrecht University is founded in the Netherlands.
Harvard University founded.
 In the American colonies, Roger Williams (theologian) founds Rhode Island.
711

711 was a year in the 8th century.

Events 
The Moors begin to control Spain.
The Arabs begin to control Southern Pakistan.
Orihuela

Orihuela is a city on the coast in Spain in the Alicante province, on the Segura river in a district called Vega Baja. Oranges and lemons are grown. The city has a population of 75,000 with very important historical monuments like the Cathedral and the church of Santiago, the church of Santa Justa and Rufina and the Seminarium.

Cities in Valencia (autonomous community)
Municipalities in Valencia (autonomous community)
Alicante Province