cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty

An Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) is an area of countryside considered to have significant landscape value in England, Wales or Northern Ireland. Natural England designates them on behalf of the United Kingdom government. Natural Resources Wales designates them on behalf of the Welsh Government. The Northern Ireland Environment Agency designates them on behalf of the Northern Ireland Executive.

The chief purpose of the AONB designation is to conserve and enhance the natural beauty of the landscape, with two secondary aims: meeting the need for quiet enjoyment of the countryside and having regard for the interests of those who live and work there. To achieve these aims, AONBs rely on planning controls and practical countryside management.

As they have the same landscape quality, AONBs may be compared to the national parks of England and Wales. AONBs are created under the same legislation as the national parks, the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. Unlike AONBs, national parks have their own authorities, have special legal powers to prevent unsympathetic development, and are well known to many inhabitants of England, Wales and Northern Ireland. 

There are 35 AONBs in England, four in Wales, one (Wye Valley) that is in both England and Wales and nine in Northern Ireland. The first AONB was awarded in 1956 to the Gower Peninsula, south Wales. The most recently confirmed is the Tamar Valley AONB in 1994. The smallest AONB is the Isles of Scilly (1976), , and the largest AONB is the Cotswolds (1966), . The AONBs of England and Wales together cover around 18% of the countryside in the two countries.

Other websites
 National Association for AONBs
 Interactive map of AONBs
Chaturanga

Chaturanga is the earliest known form of chess, 6th century AD.

This precursor of modern chess originated in the northern Indian subcontinent during the Gupta empire. 'Chaturanga' translates as 'the four divisions', meaning infantry, cavalry, elephantry, and chariotry. They were the four divisions of an Indian army at the time, and no doubt the game was thought of as a war-game. At that time the game had no female piece: what we now call the queen was called Mantri, meaning a minister or advisor.

The game eventually spread to the rest of the world after the Muslim conquest of Persia. It was then called Shatranj.

From the beginning until the end of the 15th century the pieces we call bishops and queens had limited movement, and it took longer to get the pieces into action. In modern chess, the original pieces evolved into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively.p173; p74

References 

Chess variants
Shatranj

Chatrang, or Shatranj, was the name given to the early game of chess when it travelled to Persia and then to the Arab world.

In Sassanid Persia around 600 the name became Chatrang and the rules were developed further, and players started calling Shāh! (Persian for 'King') when threatening the opponent's king, and Shāh māt! (Persian for 'the king is finished') when the king could not escape from attack. These exclamations persisted in chess as it traveled to other lands.

The game was taken up by the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of Persia, with the pieces largely retaining their Persian names; in Arabic "māt" or "māta" مَاتَ means "died", "is dead". In Arabic, the game became Shatranj. In all other languages, the name of the game is derived either from shatranj or from shah.

One interesting fact is that the Arabs divided their game into the same three stages which we do today: opening, middlegame and endgame.p234

Tabiyat 
At the start of a game, the Arabic masters took a number of moves before the pieces were in contact with the other side.
"The result of this was that... the final position of the opening was the important one to memorise. Hence in almost all older Muslim chess-works we find... a collection of type-positions, each with its own distinctive name. [These] are recommended to the player as models for his imitation. Diagrams of these type-positions were a regular feature of Arabic chess-works down to the 17th century. These positions were called ta'biya (plural: ta'biyat or ta'abi)... which may be translated as battle-array".p234-5

The following table provides a glimpse of the changes in the names and character of chess pieces, as they passed from one culture to another, from India through Persia to Europe:p221

References 

Chess variants
Ice cap

An  ice cap is a large mass of ice. 

Ice caps cover less than 50 000 km² of land area. Sheets of ice covering more than 50 000 km² are called ice sheets. 

Ice caps are usually in high areas, but they are not limited to them.

References

Landforms

es:Campos de hielo
Egyptian literature

Egyptian literature is some of the earliest known literature. The Egyptians were the first culture to develop the book.

Ancient Egyptian literature

The ancient Egyptians wrote on papyrus. They also wrote on walls, tombs, pyramids, obelisks, and more. A well-known example of ancient Egyptian literature is the Story of Sinuhe;

Christian Egyptian literature
Alexandria became an important center of early Christianity from around the 1st to 4th century CE. Writing by Coptic Christians was important to Christian literature at that time.The Nag Hammadi library protected some books from being lost or destroyed.

Islamic Egyptian literature
Muslim Arabs controlled Egypt by the eighth century. Libraries and literature were important in Arab Egypt. Several important changes for writers happened at this time. Cloth paper replaced papyrus. Writers began using calligraphy. Also, writers began to write mostly about Islam. The earliest novel written in Egypt was Ibn al-Nafis' Theologus Autodidactus. It was an early science fiction and religious novel.

Modern Egyptian literature
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Arab world experienced a cultural change like the Renaissance. This was called al-Nahda movement. It touched nearly all areas of life, including literature. One of the most important people from this time was Naguib Mahfouz. He was first Egyptian to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Another important modern writer was Muhammad Husayn Haykal. He wrote Zaynab in 1914. It is an Islamic novel and is called the first modern Egyptian novel.

Notable Egyptian writers
Taha Husayn
Yūsuf Idrīs
Sonallah Ibrahim
Tawfiq al-Hakim
Gamal Abdel Nasser
Naguib Mahfouz
Nawal El Saadawi
Bahaa Taher
Alaa Al Aswany
Abdel Hakim Qasem
Miral al-Tahawy

Related pages
Wisdom literature
Culture of Egypt
Music of Egypt
Cairo Geniza

References

Other websites
 Literature in Ancient Egypt

Egypt
Literature by nationality
Asian literature
Phormium tenax

Phormium tenax (harakeke in Māori, New Zealand flax) is an evergreen perennial plant from New Zealand and Norfolk Island. It is an important fibre plant and also a popular garden plant.

The plant grows as a clump of long, straplike leaves up to two meters long. It grows a much taller flowering shoot, with dramatic yellow or red flowers.

The fibre from the plant was used by the Māori of New Zealand to make baskets. It was also used in rope and sail making. after the arrival of Europeans up until at least WWII

In other countries Phormium tenax is an invasive species. On Saint Helena it is taking over the land from the critically endangered species Elaphoglossum dimorphum.

Ecology
The jumping spider Trite planiceps lives in the rolled-up leaves of this species. Phormium tenax grows on the coast where it is important in the breeding habitat for the endangered Yellow-eyed Penguin.

Cultivars
Several forms of this species have been selected for cultivation as decorative garden plants including: The Royal Horticultural Society in England gave an Award of Garden Merit to the plant.

'Bronze Baby' - arching bronze leaves,  plant.
'Dazzler' - arching leaves that are bronze-maroon with red and pink stripes, plant reaches 3 feet in height.
'Sundowner' -  plant, leaves are striped with bronze, green and rose-pink.

References

Further reading
 James Hector 1889. Phormium tenax as a fibrous plant. 2nd ed,  Geological Survey Dept, New Zealand. G. Didsbury, Government Printer, 95 pages.

Medicinal plants
New Zealand
Extensive reading

Extensive reading is a way of learning a language, especially a second or foreign language, by reading large mount of texts.

First language and second language
Free voluntary reading is one name for extensive reading in first language education. Learners can choose a book that they like and to read it quickly or slowly. A free voluntary reading program is to help students to enjoy reading, so there are often no grades. In some schools this approach is also called Drop Everything and Read (DEAR).

In 1988, Day and Bamford described extensive reading for learning a second or foreign language. Students read as much as possible. Reading materials should use simple grammar and vocabulary so learners feel comfortable. Learners should read many different kinds of writing about different subjects.

Graded Readers
Many extensive reading programs use special series of books. These books use simplified grammar and vocabulary. They may be original stories, but many are shorter, easier versions of classic books.

Effectiveness
Many teachers and some learners believe that extensive reading alone is enough to improve vocabulary. McQuillan and Krashen also believe this.However, other researchers say that extensive reading alone is not enough. Cobb and Parry have done research to show that there is a limit. Extensive reading may not improve vocabulary as much as people thought, especially for less common words.

References

Learning
30 Minutes or Less

30 Minutes or Less is a 2011 action-comedy-crime movie that was produced by Stuart Cornfeld, Ben Stiller and Jeremy Kramer and was directed by Ruben Fleischer. 30 Minutes or Less was released on August 12, 2011 in North America. The movie received mixed reviews with a 45% rating on Rotten Tomatoes and a 51 out of 100 from Metacritic.

Cast 
 Jesse Eisenberg as Nick
 Danny McBride as Dwayne
 Aziz Ansari as Chet
 Nick Swardson as Travis
 Michael Peña as Chongo
 Fred Ward as The Major
 Dilshad Vadsaria as Katie
 Mya Rajah as Amelia
 Bianca Kajlich as Juici
 Brett Gelman as Nick's Boss

Other websites 
30 Minutes or Less Official website

2011 comedy movies
American action movies
American adventure movies
American criminal comedy movies
Multilingual movies
Chemical education

Chemistry education is the study of the teaching and learning of chemistry. Topics in chemistry education include understanding how students learn chemistry and how best to teach chemistry. Researchers in chemistry education try to improve learning results by improving teaching methods and training chemistry teachers. Researchers study many teaching modes, including: classroom lecture, demonstrations, and laboratory activities.

There is a world-wide shortage of chemistry teachers. This is because people with science training can get jobs that pay more outside of teaching. It is hard to keep science teachers. More than 45,000 math and science teachers left teaching in the United States just after the 1999–2000 school year.

Overview 

There are several different ways of thinking about chemistry education. One is a practitioner’s perspective. The people who teach chemistry define chemistry education by their actions.

Another is defined by a self-identified group of chemical educators (faculty members and instructors who focus on teaching rather than focus on chemical research). Dr. Robert L. Lichter, then-Executive Director of the Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation, speaking in a plenary session at the 16th Biennial Conference on Chemical Education (recent BCCE meetings:  ,), posed the question “why do terms like ‘chemical educator’ even exist in higher education, when there is a perfectly respectable term for this activity, namely, ‘chemistry professor.’"  One criticism of this view is that few professors bring any formal preparation in education or background about education to their jobs. Most chemistry professors do not have a professional perspective on teaching and learning efforts. They may not know about effective teaching methods and how students learn.

A third perspective is chemical education research (CER).  Following the example of physics education research (PER), CER tends to take the theories and methods developed in pre-college science education research and applies them to understanding comparable problems in post-secondary settings. (CER also tries to improve pre-college chemistry instruction). Like science education researchers, CER practitioners tend to study the teaching practices of others as opposed to focusing on their own classroom practices. Chemical education research is typically carried out in situ using human subjects from secondary and post-secondary schools. Chemical education research collects both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative methods typically involve collecting data that can then be analyzed using various statistical methods. Qualitative methods include interviews, observations, journaling, and other methods common to social science research.

References

Other websites
Welcome to ChemConnections

Education by subject
Chemistry
SC Rheindorf Altach

The SC Rheindorf Altach is a football club from Altach,Vorarlberg. The club is playing in the Austrian First league, the second division in Austrian football. The official name is Cashpoint Sportclub Rheindorf Altach, due to sponsorship of Austrian sports betting company Cashpoint.

The second team (SC Altach Juniors) is playing in the Vorarlbergliga (4th level).

History
The club was founded on 26 December 1929 as the football section of the gymnastics and sports club Turnerbund Altach. 1930 they started to play in Vorarlberg football. In 1937 the club was dissolved and started again in 1946 as  Sportvereinigung Altach . In 1949 this club was dissolved and the football section started under today's name SC Rheindorf Altach. 

In 1986 they won the Landesliga for the first time and were promoted to Regionalliga West (3rd division). After some up and downs they could establish themselfe in the first league at the beginning of the 2000s. 2005/06 they won the league and were promoted to the Bundesliga where they played till the 2008/09 season. Since then they played again in the first league where they always played for the champion title but they failed every time marginal . In the 2010/11 season they finished second only one point behind Admira/Wacker Mödling.

In the 2013–14 season they won the league and were promoted to the Bundesliga. 2014–15 they finished 3rd in and qualified to UEFA European League. In the 2015-16 season they finished 8th and avoided relegation by five points. 2018-19 and 2019-20 they finished 8th, 2020-21 10th. The 2021-22 season was not good. Due to the fact that Altach is at the end of the table headcoach Damir Canadi was dismissed in December 2021. In January 2022 Ludovic Magnin became new headcoach of the team.

Current squad 

The club has also a amateur team playing in the Vorarlbergliga (4th division). A football academy is also part of the club. ( AKA Hypo Vorarlberg).

Coaches
 Head coach: Ludovic Magnin
 Assistance coach: Jonas Hammerschmidt
 Assistance coach: Louis Ngwat-Mahop
 Assistance coach:Manu Hervás
 Goalkeeper coach: Sebastian Brandner

Ground
The team is playing in the Cashpoint Arena (Stadion Schnabelholz).

Honours
 1 x Champion 2nd division: 2006 (Erste Liga)
 3 x Champion third division: 1991, 1997, 2004 (Regionalliga West)
 1 x Champion fourth division: 1986 (Vorarlbergliga)
 5 x Vorarlberg Cup: 1987, 1988, 1993, 2002, 2003

Other websites

 Official Homepage

References

Austrian football clubs
Football clubs of Vorarlberg
Hurricane Irene

Hurricane Irene was a 2011 Atlantic hurricane, which reached Category 3 on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale, that struck the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola and the Bahamas, resulting in very serious damage. It also struck the East Coast of the United States and Canada. It formed on August 20 and dissolved on August 29. In summer/autumn 2011, the name Irene was retired from future use. It was replaced by Irma for 2017.

References 

2011 in weather
Hurricanes in the United States
2011 in the United States
21st century in Puerto Rico
2010s in the Bahamas
Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse

Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse (1741—1788) was a French navigator who explored the Pacific Ocean. He died when his ship was wrecked in the New Hebrides during 1788. He met the English when they arrived in Australia with the First Fleet in January 1788. After a short stay in Botany Bay, he sailed away into the Pacific.

References

1741 births
1788 deaths
French people
Simone Weil

Simone Weil (3 February 1909 in Paris, France – 24 August 1943 in Ashford, Kent, England), was a French philosopher, gnostic, Christian mystic, and activist for social justice and soteriology of Jewish descent.

Books
 Simone Weil, Œuvres complètes. (Paris: Gallimard, 1989–2006, 6 vols.) (complete works)
1947: La Pesanteur et la grâce (Gravity and grace)
1949: L'Enracinement (Rootedness)
1950 Attente de Dieu (Waiting for God)
1951: Lettre à un religieux (Letter to a monk)
1951: Les Intuitions pré-chrétiennes (Paris: Les Éditions de la Colombe) (Pre-Christian intuitions)
1952: La Source grecque (Paris: Gallimard) (The Greek source)
1955: Oppression et liberté (Oppression and liberty)
2006: Note sur la suppression générale des partis politiques (Paris: Climats) (Note on the general suppression of political parties)

Other websites 
Some texts from Simone Weil (translated to Catalan)

1909 births
1943 deaths
20th-century French philosophers
Jewish activists
Jewish philosophers
Jews who converted to Christianity
Nonviolence advocates
Scientists from Paris
BBC Knowledge Magazine

BBC Knowledge Magazine was a magazine made by the BBC. It had articles about science, nature and history. The magazine was launched in North America, in 2008. It closed in November 2012. It reprinted articles from BBC Focus Magazine, BBC History Magazine and BBC Wildlife Magazine. It was available in many countries and was edited by different people. A digital version of BBC Knowledge Magazine was available.

The magazine was chosen as one of the top ten magazines of 2008 by Library Journal.

References 

Magazines of the United Kingdom
BBC
Norman Manley International Airport

Norman Manley International Airport , formerly Palisadoes Airport, is an airport in Kingston in Jamaica. It is operated by NMIA Airports Limited. It is one of Air Jamaica's hubs, Sangster International Airport being the other. It is also one of Caribbean Airline's hubs, and is the hub for Skylan Airways. It was named in honour of Norman Washington Manley, one of Jamaica's national heroes. More than 130 international flights leave Norman Manley International Airport each week. The airport is on the Palisadoes tombolo in outer Kingston Harbour; it fronts the city on one side and the Caribbean Sea on the other.

References

Other websites 
The official website

Airports in North America
Jamaica
Song Jin-woo

Song Jin-woo ( Hanja 宋鎭禹, May 8 1889-December 30 1945), the Republic of Korean (대한민국; 大韓民國) politician, educationist, journalist, and founder of Korean Democratic party (한국민주당; 韓國民主黨), the Dong-A Ilbo(동아일보; 東亞日報). He is also known by his pen name Goha (고하; 古下).

when 1945, He was assassinated Provisional Government of Republic of Koreas(대한민국 임시정부; 大韓民國임시정부) Guard a terrorist organizations Baekuisa(백의사; 白衣社), aged 56. After he died he was given the Order of Merit for National Foundation(건국훈장; 建國勳章) in 1962.

Related pages

 Kim Seong-su
 Dong-A Ilbo
 Jungang high School
 Korean Democratic Party
 Rhee Syng-man
 Kim Gu
 Kim Kyusik
 Shin Ik-hye
 Chang Myon
 Yun Chi-Young
 Yun Chi-Ho
 Yun Posun

referens

Other websites 
 송진우 (Song Jin-woo on Doopedia
 Goha Song Jin-woo Memorial Conference
 http://koreandb.nate.com/history/people/detail?sn=5449 
 Song Jin-woo 

1889 births
1945 deaths
Anti-Communists
South Korean politicians
South Korean journalists
Karl Decker

Karl Decker  (September 5, 1921 - September 27, 2005) was an Austrian footballer and football coach. He played most of his active time for First Vienna FC as midfielder.

Career
He started with minor clubs in Vienna and came to First Vienna FC in 1937. He played in this team until 1952. During the occupation of Austria by Nazi-Germany he and his team were very successful. They won three times the Gauliga Donau-Alpenland of the Ostmark, as Austria was called at this time (1942, 1943, 1944), and the Tschammer-Pokal (German Cup) in 1943. 8 times he played for the German football national team. After the end of the war he played 25 matches for the Austrian team between 1945 and 1952. 1944 and 1950 he was the top scorer of the league. He also played for S.K. Sturm Graz, then for Sochaux in France and  for Grenchen in Swizerland.

Coach
He was coach of Sturm Graz (1952–1954),FC Grenchen (1956–1958) and SK Rapid Wien (1968–1970). With Rapid he reached the Quarterfinals of the European Champion Cup and won in the third round against Real Madrid. In the quarterfinals they lost versus Manchester United.

Between 1958 and 1964 he was coach of the Austrian national football team. In this time the team was very successful. They won versus Scotland(4:1), UdSSR (3:1 and 1:0), Spain(3:0 in front of 90.726 visitors-this is the record in Austria), Italy(2:1), England (3:1)  and Hungary(2:1 and 2:1).  They qualified for the 1962 FIFA World Cup in Chile but the ÖFB had not enough money to send the team to the competition. Nevertheless the era Decker was one of the best for Austria's national football team.

References

1921 births
2005 deaths
Austrian footballers
Players of the Austrian national football team
Austrian football managers
Austria national football team managers
Mohammed bin Hammam

Mohammed bin Hammam (Arabic: محمد بن همّام; born 8 May 1949) is a Qatari who used to be a football administrator and the AFC President (1 August 2002 to 14 June 2011).

During the 2022 FIFA World Cup bidding, Mohammed bin Hammam was rumored to have bribed officials, so that Qatar can host.

References 

Qatari people
Doha
Asian sportspeople
Joe Clark

Charles Joseph "Joe" Clark  (born June 5, 1939) is a politician from Canada. He served as Canada's Prime Minister from 1979-1980. He was elected Prime Minister when he was 40 years old, making him the youngest Prime Minister in Canadian history.

References

Other websites
 

1939 births
Living people
Canadian diplomats
Roman Catholics
Canadian writers
Politicians from Alberta
Privy Councillors (Canada)
Leaders of the Opposition (Canada)
Members of the House of Commons of Canada
Norfolk Broads

The Broads are a network of mostly navigable rivers and lakes in the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. The Broads, and some nearby land were made into a special protected area (like a national park) by The Norfolk and Suffolk Broads Act of 1988. The Broads Authority has managed the area since 1989.

The total area is , mostly in Norfolk, with over  of navigable waterways. There are seven rivers and 63 broads, mostly less than  deep.  Thirteen broads are generally open to navigation, with a further three having navigable channels.  

Although the terms Norfolk Broads and Suffolk Broads are used to identify specific areas within the two counties respectively, the whole area is frequently referred to as the "Norfolk Broads".

References

Norfolk
Suffolk
Waterways
Boko Haram

Boko Haram is a branch of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The name of the group means "Western" or "non-Islamic" education is a sin. The group is centred in Borno State in northeastern Nigeria. It wants to make Islamic law the only law in Nigeria. It also wants to outlaw education that is not based on Islam. The group sees itself as similar to the Taliban, which are active in Afghanistan. Locally, the group is known as the "Taliban". The official name of the group is Jama'atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awati wal-Jihad, which in Arabic means "People Committed to the Propagation of the Prophet's Teachings and Jihad."  They also call themselves 'Islamic State West Africa Province (ISWAP).

The group was formed in Maiduguri, Borno State, in 2002. Its insurgency began in 2009. They follow an extreme version of Sunni Islam. Local residents of the area soon called the group Boko Haram. Loosely translated from the local Hausa language, this means Western education is forbidden. Residents gave it the name because of its strong opposition to Western education, which it sees as corrupting Muslims.  The term "Boko Haram" comes from the Hausa word 'boko' meaning "Animist, western or otherwise non-Islamic education" and the Arabic word 'haram' figuratively meaning "sin" (literally, "forbidden").

Boko Haram opposes not only Western education, but Western culture and science as well. The group also forbids the wearing of shirts and trousers and the act of voting in elections.  In its view, the Nigerian state is run by non-believers.

In a 2009 BBC interview, Mohammed Yusuf, the group's leader at the time, said he rejects the fact that the earth is a sphere and views it as contrary to Islam, along with Darwinism and the fact that rain comes from water evaporated by the sun.

Boko Haram often carry out bombings, kidnappings and shootings, as well as arson and looting. They have killed thousands of people in Africa, attacking civilian and military targets. There are many terrorist activities for which Boko Haram have claimed responsibility: 
 In December 2010, the group stormed and released hundreds of inmates from Bauchi prison.
 In the same month, there was a bombing in Jos (Plateau state) that saw 80 people dead followed by an attack on Abuja barracks.
 2010-2011 was a year in which dozens of civilians were killed in various shootings that took place in Maiduguri and in addition, the Abuja Police Headquarters and the United Nations Headquarters.

Boko Haram is not associated with the group Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta which fights against the oil industry in the Niger Delta, since 2006.

On 14 April 2014, Boko Haram kidnapped 276 teenagers from a secondary school in Chibok, Borno. Boko Haram killed at least 100 people in Baga, Borno, in January 2015. About 620 buildings were damaged or destroyed by fire.

In the mid-2010s, Boko Haram extended its activities into Cameroon, Chad and Niger. It became part of Islamic State in March 2015.

References

2002 establishments
21st century in Nigeria
Crime in Nigeria
Islamic State
Rebel militia groups in Africa
Sunni organizations
Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta

The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta is one of the largest militant groups in the Niger delta. Many people in the delta are poor. The Nigerian government has contracts that allow international companies to extract crude oil in the delta. This extraction causes massive damage to the environment. According to the magazine The Economist, the organization wants more of the profit of the oil extraction to go to the poor region, where the oil is extracted. 
According to the magazine, the organisation is used by several armed groups; these groups are sometimes paid to launch attacks. The payment is done  either with weapons or with money.
MEND has been linked to attacks on petroleum operations in Nigeria as part of the Conflict in the Niger Delta, engaging in actions including sabotage, theft, property destruction, guerrilla warfare, and kidnapping.

MEND's stated goals are to localize control of Nigeria's oil and to secure reparations from the federal government for pollution caused by the oil industry. In an interview with one of the group's leaders, who used the alias Major-General Godswill Tamuno, the BBC reported that MEND was fighting for "total control" of the Niger Delta's oil wealth, saying local people had not gained from the riches under the ground and the region's creeks and swamps."  

In a January 2006 email, MEND warned the oil industry, "It must be clear that the Nigerian government cannot protect your workers or assets. Leave our land while you can or die in it....  Our aim is to totally destroy the capacity of the Nigerian government to export oil." Additionally MEND has called upon President Olusegun Obasanjo to free two jailed Ijaw leaders — Mujahid Dokubo-Asari, who is jailed and charged with treason, and Diepreye Alamieyeseigha, a former governor of Bayelsa State convicted of corruption. Obasanjo's successor, President Umaru Musa Yar'Adua authorised the release of Dokubo-Asari and Alamieyeseigha in 2007.

References

History of Nigeria
Nationalist organizations in Africa
National liberation movements
Rebel militia groups in Africa
Urbanization

Urbanization (or urbanisation) is a term from geography. The base of the word is the Latin urbs, which means city. The term urbanisation means that lifestyle that is common in a city becomes prevalent. This can happen in two different ways:
Through the growth of cities; called physical urbanization
Through the change of behaviour of people living in rural areas; called functional urbanization
Physical urbanization has been observed for centuries. In developing countries this is the main form of urbanization. In developed countries, functional urbanization is the main form of urbanization. With functional urbanization, people living in the city center move to the countryside, next to the city; this is known as suburbanization.

Environmental effects 

Environmental scientists are studying the urban heat island. The urban heat island is made when industrial and urban areas are developed and heat becomes plentiful. 
Environmental impacts also include reducing soil moisture and intensification of carbon dioxide emissions.

Stewart Brand's book Whole Earth Discipline argues that urbanization helps the environment overall. First, the birth rate of new urban dwellers falls immediately to replacement rate, and keeps falling. This can prevent overpopulation in the future. Secondly, it puts a stop to destructive subsistence farming methods, like slash and burn agriculture. Finally, it reduces land use by humans, leaving more for nature.

References

Geography
Moliniana

Moliniana was a botanical journal issued between 1955 and 1966 in Santiago, Chile. Its contents were botany, phytochemistry and related topics. Gunckel, Looser and Navas were writers.

References

 

Journals
Botany
Santiago de Chile
You Suffer

"You Suffer" is a song by the British grindcore band Napalm Death. It is from their debut album, Scum. Guinness Book of Records has mentioned the song as the shortest recorded song ever.  It is precisely 1.316 seconds long.

The song was written by band members Nicholas Bullen and Justin Broadrick. This was during the sessions for the From Enslavement to Obliteration demo recording in March 1986. The song is featured on the album Scum, released in 1987.

According to Broadrick, "You Suffer" was meant as a joke. He called it "retarded", "ridiculous" but "hilarious". He added that they played the song "in front of 30 local kids, like, every weekend." for about thirty times.

Nic Bullen said that the short length of the song was inspired by Wehrmacht's 1985 song "E!"

Zak Smith quotes the lyrics to the song, which he describes as the "shortest punk song on the subject of suffering (or any subject)" at the conclusion of his memoir We Did Porn.

Video
A music video produced by Earache records was released for the song in March 2007. This was on the same day that the Scum dualdisc was released.

References

Other websites
"You Suffer" video at YouTube

1987 songs
Frankie Fredericks

Frank Frankie Fredericks (born 2 October, 1967) is a Namibian runner.

Biography
Fredericks was born in Windhoek. He went to college at Brigham Young University in the United States.  

Fredericks won silver medals in the 100m and 200m in the 1992 and 1996 Olympics.  He won gold medals at the World Championships and World Indoor Championships.  He used to be the 200m world record holder, and is still the 200m indoor record holder.  He finished 4th at the 2004 Olympics, even though he was 36 years old.  

After the 2004 Olympics, he retired and became a member of the International Olympic Committee.  He is the only person from Namibia to medal at the Olympics.  He has also ran the 200m in less than 20 seconds more times than anyone else.

References

1967 births
Living people
Male athletes
Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Olympic silver medalists
Sport in Namibia
Sprinters
People from Windhoek
Jagged Little Pill

Jagged Little Pill is the third studio album and the first to be released internationally by Canadian singer-songwriter Alanis Morissette. The album saw Morissette changing her style and genre. Morissette's sound in the album was rock, but her previous songs were dance pop. The title is a metaphor for lessons of life that are hard to accept. The album was Morissette's breakthrough album, and contained six hits, "You Oughta Know", "Ironic", "You Learn", "Hand in My Pocket", "Head over Feet", and "All I Really Want". The album spent twelve weeks at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart. By 2009, the album had sold 33 million units worldwide.  It was ranked by the Billboard 200 as the number one selling album of the 1990s.

During the three consecutive years in the late 1990s of Grammy Awards, Morissette received five wins out of nine nominations from the album. In 1996, she won the Album of the Year & Best Rock Album. Her 1997 nominations such as "Ironic" for Record of the Year & Best Music Video in Short Form did not win her an award. But in 1998, she won again for Best Music Video in Long Form from her release of Jagged Little Pill, Live. In October 2002, Rolling Stone ranked it number 31 on its Women In Rock - The 50 Essential Albums list, and in 2003 the magazine ranked it number 327 on its list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. The album also holds a title in The Definitive 200 Albums list, in which it is placed at number 26.

Chart precession and succession

Singles

Related pages
 List of best-selling albums worldwide

References

1995 albums
Alanis Morissette albums
Jack Layton

John Gilbert "Jack" Layton  (July 18, 1950 – August 22, 2011) was a Canadian politician and the Leader of the Official Opposition. He was the leader of the New Democratic Party from 2003 to 2011, and previously sat on Toronto City Council. He was the Member of Parliament for the riding of Toronto—Danforth from 2004 until his death.

He was a son of Progressive Conservative cabinet minister Robert Layton (1925-2002). He was born in Montreal and raised in Hudson, Quebec. He rose to prominence in Toronto municipal politics where he campaigned tirelessly for the needs of ordinary citizens and for environmental issues. Eventually, he became head of the Federation of Canadian Municipalities. In 2003, he was elected leader of the NDP on the first ballot of the convention, and the NDP almost doubled its popular vote in the 2004 election.

Thirty seven NDP MPs were elected under Layton in the 2008 election. In the 2011 federal election, he led the NDP to a historic total of 103 seats and formed the Official Opposition. Although recovering from illness, Layton campaigned tirelessly, and inspired many people. Importantly, the NDP had increased its number of Quebec MPs from one to fifty-nine seats, almost eliminating the previous Bloc Québécois MPs. 

Layton died at his home in Toronto on August 22, 2011, aged 61, after suffering from cancer of unknown primary origin. Layton's body had a lying-in-state before a state funeral was held in Toronto. He was married to fellow MP Olivia Chow.

References

Other websites
 

1950 births
2011 deaths
Deaths from cancer of unknown primary origin
Cancer deaths in Ontario
Politicians from Montreal
Politicians from Toronto
Leaders of the Opposition (Canada)
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
Privy Councillors (Canada)
Green politics

Green politics is a kind of politics that has been on the rise since the 1970s. The parties and movements that follow these ideas are usually called green:
 The most important idea is that whatever is done has an impact on ecology. The environment needs to be protected; technologies and means of production should therefore be sustainable and protect the environment.
 Environment politics must take into account the needs of the people. The ideas about social politics are mostly left-wing and support social justice.
 Many of these movements advocate greater democracy, oppose centralism and advocate grassroots democracy. If action is taken, it needs the support of most of the people.
 Advocacy for non-violence.

Greens have been most successful in Germany.

Other page
Environmentalism
QRpedia

QRpedia is a web system for mobile devices, like mobile phones. It uses QR codes to show  Wikipedia articles to people. The articles are shown in the user's own language.

Process 
A user uses their mobile device to scan a QRpedia QR code. The device decodes the QR code into a web address. The address has the domain name "qrwp.org". The last part of the web address is the title of a Wikipedia article.

The device sends a request for the article to the QRpedia web server. It also transmits the name of the language used by the device.

The QRpedia server then uses Wikipedia's API to find out if there is a version of the specified Wikipedia article in the language used by the device. If there is, it sends back the article in a mobile-friendly format. If there is no translation of the requested article, then the QRpedia server offers a choice of the available languages. It also offers a Google translation.

In this way, a single QRcode can be used to find the same article, in many languages. QRpedia also records usage statistics.

Origins 

QRpedia was invented by Roger Bamkin, then chairman of Wikimedia UK, and Terence Eden. who is a mobile web consultant. It was unveiled on 9 April 2011 It was unveiled at Derby Museum's Backstage Pass event. The event was part of the GLAM/Derby collaboration between Derby Museum and Art Gallery and Wikipedia. During the collaboration, over 500 Wikipedia articles were also created. The articles were in several languages. The project's name is a made-up word, using the initials "QR" from "QR (Quick Response) code" and "pedia" from "Wikipedia".

The project's source code is has a MIT License. This means that anyone can use it, free.

Uses 

QRpedia is used at:
 The Children's Museum of Indianapolis
 Derby Museum and Art Gallery
 Fundació Joan Miró,  including a travelling exhibit shown at The Tate
 The National Archives, United Kingdom 
 The National Museum of Computing (UK)
 Sofia Zoo, Bulgaria
 The Welsh town of Monmouth, as part of Wikipedia's MonmouthpediA project.
 The New Art Gallery Walsall
QRpedia is also used in other kinds of places. For example, the Occupy movement uses it on their posters.

References

Other websites 

 QRpedia - this site makes QR codes which convert to QRpedia URLs
 

Free software
Encodings
Gun Hägglund

Karin Gunvor Sjöblom Hägglund (2 March 1932–19 August 2011) was Swedish television star. She is better known as Gun Hägglund. Hägglund is the first female in Sweden who presented news on television. She was the news presenter of Aktuellt in 1958.

Hägglund was born in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden and died in Visby. She was married to the Swedish news editor Karl-Axel Sjöblom. Both hosted and moderated the popular Swedish TV show Halv sju. Her husband died in 1982. Hägglund died in 2011 after a short illness.

Her career started in 1955 when she started working for the Swedish radio. She was a secretary and program announcer. In 1958, she moved to television shows and became the first female in Sweden to present the news. Hägglund presented the national news show Aktuellt. Furthermore, she worked as a translator. She translated movies and TV shows.

For 30 years, until 1997, Hägglund was involved in the Swedish National Association of Promotion of Cycling. First she was Secretary-General and later Executive Chairman. In that position, she published some books about cycling.

References 

1932 births
2011 deaths
Swedish television presenters
Translators
Conrotatory and disrotatory

These terms describe two classes of an electrocyclic reaction (a type of organic chemical reactions). In a conrotatory mode, the substituents located at the ends of a conjugated double bond system move in the same (clockwise or counterclockwise) direction during ring opening or ring closure.  In a disrotatory mode, they move in opposite directions.

An example is the conversion of trans-cis-trans-2,4,6-octatriene to cis-dimethylcyclohexadiene (top of figure).  The orbital mechanics of the reaction needs a disrotatory mode.  The orbital symmetry of the octatriene's highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) requires for the end pi orbitals to move in opposite directions to form the correct symmetry found in the sigma bond.

Thermal rearrangements of all conjugated systems containing 4n + 2 pi electron are stereospecific. This is based on preservation of orbital symmetry in the highest occupied molecular orbital. Systems containing 4n pi electrons show the opposite conrotatory mode. This is also true for rearrangements of 4n + 2 pi (where n is a whole number) electrons driven by light (photoinduced).  Photoinduced rearrangements of 4n pi electron systems (where the number of electrons is divisible by 4) follow the disrotatory rule.

The Woodward–Hoffmann rules summarize the above different reactions.

The following picture also shows the difference between conrotatory and disrotatory reactions:

References

 Carey, Francis A.; Sundberg, Richard J.; (1984). Advanced Organic Chemistry Part A Structure and Mechanisms (2nd ed.). New York N.Y.: Plenum Press. .
 March Jerry; (1985). Advanced Organic Chemistry reactions, mechanisms and structure (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, inc. 

Chemical reactions
Catherine Deneuve

Catherine Deneuve (born 22 October 1943) is a French actress. She is the daughter of two well-known actors. She has two sisters; Françoise Dorléac (1942-1967) and Sylvie (born 1946), also both actresses, the former was killed in a car accident. She has a maternal half-sister, Danielle (born 1937).

She began acting on movies as a teenager. Her first major role is in Jacques Demy's 1964 movie Les Parapluies de Cherbourg. She has since then worked with some of the greatest movie directors, notably Roman Polanski's in Repulsion (1965), and Luis Buñuel's in Belle de Jour (1967) and Tristana (1970) and François Truffaut's in Le Dernier Métro (1982). She made a commercial for the perfume Chanel No 5. She is a close friend of fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent.

She married British photographer David Bailey from 1965 to 1972. She has had relationships with movie director Roger Vadim (1928-2000), with whom she had a son, Christian Vadim (born 1963), and Italian actor Marcello Mastroianni (1924-1996), with whom she had a daughter, Chiara Mastroianni (born 1972). Both her children are actors.

References

Other websites 
 

1943 births
Living people
Actors from Paris
French movie actors
Samir Bargachi

Samir Bargachi, ( , (born 10 September 1987) is a Moroccan LGBT rights activist. He is the founder and leader of Kifkif, the first LGBT organization in Morocco.

Bargachi is an atheist.

References 

1987 births
Living people
Atheists
LGBT people
LGBT rights activists
Moroccan people
Odontoceti

The Odontoceti is a suborder of the cetaceans. They are the toothed whales.

The Odontoceti includes  all the whales which eat prey larger than plankton. Examples are: sperm whales, beaked whales, dolphins, and others. As the name suggests, the suborder has teeth rather than the baleen of Mysticeti whales. This means they are predators of small to large sized prey. 

The Sperm Whale Physeter, the Killer Whale Orca and the Pilot Whale Globicephala all take large prey. By means of co-operation, Killer Whales can take prey larger than themselves, up to and including Blue Whale calves. Sperm Whales are specialist feeders on giant squid.

There are about 73 species.

Taxonomy
Superfamily Delphinoidea; Porpoises, Dolphins, Pilot Whales, Killer Whales, Narwhal
Superfamily Inioidea: some South American river dolphins
Superfamily Lipotoidea: Chinese River Dolphin
Superfamily Physeteroidea: Sperm Whales
Superfamily Platanistoidea: River Dolphins proper
Superfamily Ziphioidea: Bottlenose Whales, Beaked Whales

References 

Cetaceans
Allen Telescope Array

The Allen Telescope Array (ATA) was developed by the SETI Institute and the Radio Astronomy Laboratory (RAL) at the University of California, Berkeley to construct a radio interferometer that is dedicated to radio astronomy observations. At the same time, it is also used for the search for extraterrestrial intelligence.

The ATA is at the Hat Creek Radio Observatory,  northeast of San Francisco, California. The goal is to have 350 antennas. To start, 42 antennas (ATA-42) were put to work on 11 October 2007. However, a lack of money stopped operations in April 2011. In August 2011, ATA got short-term funding. In 2012 UC Berkeley quit the project.

It is named after Paul Allen, the co-founder of Microsoft. Its old name was the One Hectare Telescope (1hT).

References

Other websites
 Official site at seti.org 
 Radio Astronomy Laboratory's ATA site 
 The Search Continues with the Allen Telescope Array. Mountain View, CA: SETI Institute. March 25, 2004.
 Radio Astronomy Laboratory, Univ of Cal, Berkeley: NSF proposal, June 15, 2005.
	
Astronomical observatories in California
Telescopes
SETI
2007 establishments in California
2011 disestablishments in the United States
2010s disestablishments in California 
2011 establishments in California
2012 disestablishments in the United States
Herring gull

The herring gull (Larus argentatus or European herring gull) is a large gull (up to 26 inches or 66 cm long). It is the most abundant and best known of all gulls along the shores of western Europe. It breeds across Northern Europe, Western Europe, Scandinavia and the Baltic states. 

Some herring gulls, especially those resident in colder areas, migrate further south in winter, but many are permanent residents, e.g. in the British Isles, Iceland, or on the North Sea shores. European herring gulls are also abundant around inland garbage dumps, and some have even adapted to life in inland cities.

Taxonomy
The taxonomy of the herring gull / lesser black-backed gull group is very complicated, with different authorities recognising between two and eight species.

This group has a ring distribution around the northern hemisphere. Differences between adjacent forms in this ring are fairly small, but by the time the circuit is completed, the end members, herring gull and lesser black-backed gull, are clearly different species.

References 

Charadriiformes
Lesser black-backed gull

The lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus) is a large gull that breeds on the Atlantic coasts of Europe. It is migratory, wintering from the British Isles south to West Africa. It is a regular winter visitor to the east coast of North America, probably from the breeding population in Iceland.

This species breeds in colonies on coasts and lakes. It makes a lined nest on the ground or a cliff. Normally, three eggs are laid. In some cities the species nests in towns and cities, often with herring gulls.

They are similar in size but slightly smaller than the herring gull. The taxonomy of the herring gull / lesser black-backed gull group is very complicated. Different authorities recognise between two and eight species. This group has a ring distribution around the northern hemisphere. Differences between adjacent forms in this ring are fairly small, but by the time the circuit is completed, the end members, herring gull and lesser black-backed gull, are clearly different species.

The only species it might be confused with in Europe is the great black-backed gull. Lesser is a smaller bird, with slimmer build, yellow rather than pinkish legs, and smaller white "mirrors" at the wing tips. 

The bill is yellow with a red spot. When the young peck the red spot, The adults feed them by regurgitation. This is an inherited behaviour called a fixed action pattern or releaser.

References 

Charadriiformes