cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Hindi

Hindi is an Indo-Iranian language. It is the main language in India. About 800 million people speak Hindi in India. The Devanāgarī script is used to write Hindi. Previously Hindi was known as Hindui.  

Hindi is widely written, spoken and understood in North India and some other places in India. In 1997, a survey found that 45% of Indians can speak Hindi. It has taken words from the Dravidian languages of South India, as well as the Arabic, Persian, Chagatai, English and Portuguese languages.   

Hindi and Urdu were considered the same language but have evolved into separate dialects. However, to this day, both languages are mutually intelligible, meaning their speakers can understand each other without knowing the other language. Urdu, however, is written in the completely different Arabic alphabet. 

Hindi developed from Sanskrit, the ancient language of India. Hindi started to develop in the 7th century as "Apabhramsha" and became stable by the 10th century. Some famous Hindi poets are Tulsidas and Kabir.  

Dialects of Hindi include: Avadhi, Braj, Bhojpuri, Bundeli, Bagheli, Chhattisgarhi, Dogri and Marwari. 

Hindi is also spoken with regional accents like Haryanvi and Rajasthani.  Bombay Hindi is spreading because Bollywood films use it.

Hindi Diwas is an annual celebration on 14th September. It commemorates the law of 1949 that made Hindi the legal language of the Republic.

References
1871



Events 
 January 2 – Amadeus I becomes King of Spain.
 January 18 – Germany becomes a country when states of the North German Confederation unite. The King of Prussia becomes the first German Emperor as Wilhelm I of Germany.
 January 10 – France surrenders (gives up) to end the Franco-Prussian War
 March 22 – In North Carolina, William Holden is the first American governor (leader of a U.S. state) to be impeached (removed from office)
 March 26 – The Paris Commune takes power in Paris.
 March 29 – The Royal Albert Hall is opened by Queen Victoria.
 April – Stockholms Handelsbank is formed.

Births 
 January 17 – David Earl Betty of the North Sea and of Brooksby, British admiral (navy leader) (d. 1936)
 January 30 – Wilfred Lucas, actor (d. 1940)
 February 4 – Friedrich Ebert, president of the Weimar Republic (d. 1925)
 March 5 – Rosa Luxemburg, politician (d. 1919)
 March 27 – Heinrich Mann, speaker and writer (d. 1950)
 May 6 – Christian Morgenstern, writer (d. 1914)
 May 27 – Georges Rouault, painter and artist (d. 1958).
 July 23 – Tsunesaburō Makiguchi (Japanese old Lunar calendar 6 June was an incorrect date using in Gregorian calendar), First president of Soka Gakkai International (SGI) (d. 1944).
 August 19 – Orville Wright of the Wright brothers, Americans who invented the airplane.
 August 29 – Albert Lebrun, French politician (d. 1950)
 September 27 – Grazia Deledda, Sardinian writer – Nobel prize (d. 1936)
 December 13 – Emily Carr, Canadian artist and writer.
 Richard Turner, Canadian soldier with the Royal Canadian Dragoons, who got the Victoria Cross for bravery during the Second Boer War.
 Guangxu, Emperor of the Qing Dynasty in China.

Deaths 
 February 20 – Paul Kane, painter
 September 23 – Louis-Joseph Papineau, aged 85, Canadian politician and leader of the Patriotes Rebellion.
 October 10 - Octavius Catto, aged 32, American black educator.
 October 18 – Charles Babbage, aged 79, English mathematician and inventor of computing machines.

References
1882



Events 
 May 20 – Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
 March 29 – The Knights of Columbus are set up.
 Edison builds first power station in the United States.

Births 
 January 6 – Fan S. Noli, Albanian poet and political figure (d. 1965)
 January 18 – A. A. Milne, British writer (d. 1956)
 January 25 – Virginia Woolf, writer (d. 1941)
 January 30 – Franklin Delano Roosevelt, President of the United States
 February 1 – Louis Stephen St. Laurent, twelfth Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1973)
 February 2 – James Joyce, writer (d. 1941)
 February 11 – Gheorghe Cucu composer (d. 1932)
 February 15 – John Barrymore, actor (d. 1942)
 March 14 – Waclaw Sierpinski Polish mathematician (d. 1969)
 March 15 – Jim Lightbody, American middle-distance runner
 March 21 – Gilbert M. 'Broncho Billy' Anderson, actor (d. 1971)
 March 23 – Emmy Noether, mathematician (d. 1935)
 April 17 – Artur Schnabel, pianist (d. 1951)
 April 18 – Isabel J. Cox, future spouse of Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1985)
 May 6 – Crown Prince Wilhelm of Germany, heir of Kaiser Wilhelm II (d. 1951)
 May 9 – Henry J. Kaiser, industrialist (d. 1967)
 May 9 – George Barker, United States painter (d. 1965)
 May 13 – Georges Braque, painter (d. 1963)
 May 16 – Anne McCormick, journalist, Pulitzer Prize winner (d. 1954)
 May 19 – Mohammed Mossadegh, Iranian prime minister (d. 1967)
 May 20 – Sigrid Undset, Norwegian writer (d. 1949)
 May 30 – Wyndham Halswelle, British runner
 June 9 – Bobby Kerr, Canadian sprinter
 June 17 – Igor Stravinsky, composer (d. 1971)
 August 14 – Gisela Richter, art historian (d. 1972)
 August 25 – Sean T. O'Kelly, second President of Ireland (d. 1966)
 October 5 – Robert Goddard, rocket scientist (d. 1945)
 October 6 – Karol Szymanowski, composer (d. 1937)
 October 14 – Éamon de Valera, Taoiseach and third President of Ireland (d. 1975)
 October 22 – N.C. Wyeth, artist
 December 9 – Joaquín Turina, composer (d. 1949)
 November 11 – King Gustav VI Adolf of Sweden (d. 1973)
 December 16 – Zoltán Kodály, composer (d. 1967)

Deaths 
 February 11 – Gustav Schmidt, composer
 March 24 – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, writer
 April 3 – Jesse James, outlaw
 April 10 – Dante Gabriel Rossetti, poet, painter
 April 19 – Charles Darwin, British naturalist
 July 16 – Mary Todd Lincoln, former First Lady of the United States
 Charles A. Alexander, Victorian architect

Heads of State 
 China – Guāngxù Emperor of China, Qing Dynasty (1875-1908)
 Denmark – Christian IX, King of Denmark (1863-1906)
 France – Jules Grévy, President of France (1879-1887)
 Germany – Wilhelm I, German Kaiser (1871-1888)
 Holy See – Pope Leo XIII, Bishop of Rome (1878-1903)
 Japan – Mutsuhito, Meiji emperor (1867-1912)
 Norway – Oscar II, King of Sweden and Norway (1872-1905)
 Ottoman Empire – Abdul Hamid II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (1876-1909)
 Russia – Alexander III, Tsar of Russia (1881-1894)
 Spain – Alfonso XII of Spain, King of Spain (1875-1885)
 United States – Chester A. Arthur, President of the United States (1881-1885)
Roald Amundsen

Roald Amundsen was a Norwegian explorer who focused on the poles. He led the first expedition to reach the South Pole and the first that could prove it made it to the North Pole. Amundsen was also the first man known to travel the Northwest Passage.

Life
When Amundsen was young, he decided he would use his life to explore the wilderness. He was inspired by the lives of Fridtjof Nansen and John Franklin. While his mother was alive he did not go to sea, to keep a promise to her. After her death, he quit university to begin exploring the world at 21 years old.

In 1897, he went on the Belgian Antarctic Expedition as first mate. This was the first expedition to stay over winter at Antartica, since their ship got stuck in the ice preventing them from leaving.  

In 1903, Amundsen led the first expedition to make it through the Northwest Passage.

In October 1911, he began his expedition to Antarctica with four other men in attempt to be the first man to reach the South Pole.  Robert Falcon Scott, an explorer from Britain, arrived in Antarctica with his own team only days after Amundsen. Both explorers raced to the South Pole, but Amundsen and his men used skis and dog sleds for transportation. This was more efficient. On 14 December 1911, Amundsen successfully became the first man to reach the South Pole.

In 1926, Amundsen and his men made it to the North Pole. Three other expeditions claimed to make it before then, but their claims have not been verified. Two of them have been considered fraud. This may make Amundsen and his men the first to reach the North Pole.

He disappeared in June 1928 while taking part in a rescue mission.

Gallery

Related pages

List of people who disappeared mysteriously: 1910–1990

References

Other websites

The Fram Museum (Frammuseet) (Named after one of Amundsen's ships)
DIO vol.10 2000 Amundsen's record of polar firsts
 
 
 

1872 births
1928 deaths
Norwegian people
Norwegian explorers
People with foods named after them
Missing people
Meat

Meat is animal tissue used as food. Most often is used to describe skeletal muscle and fat that is found with it. Types of meat include beef and veal from cattle, pork, ham and bacon from pigs, mutton from sheep, venison from deer, fish, insects, and poultry from chickens, ducks and turkeys. The word meat is also used for sausages and for non-muscle organs which are used for food, for example liver, brain, and kidneys.

In the meat processing industry, (in some countries) the word "meat" is to mean only the flesh of mammalian species such as pigs, cattle, etc. but does not include fish, insects and poultry. 

Animals such as members of the cat family that mainly eat animals are called carnivores.

Health 
Meat is an important part of the diet of many people because it has protein. Protein helps the growth and healing of a body and gives energy. Meat is a "high-protein" food, but costs more than other foods like bread and vegetables. Meat is also a source of B vitamins. People who cannot afford meat, or who do not like to eat it need to find other ways to get enough protein in their diet. Beans and certain nuts are also high in protein, but plant protein might not be as easy to absorb as animal protein. People that choose not to eat meat are called vegetarians, and those who do not eat any animal products are known as vegans.

Red meat is darker-coloured meat (usually form mammals), different from white meat such as chicken or fish. There is a greater risk of diseases and parasites when eating raw meat, but there are some special dishes which are made from raw meat. Examples are steak tartare, sushi, oysters. The meat used in these dishes are usually of high quality.

In religion 
Due to religious dietary law, halal (حلال) meaning permissible in Arabic is used as a visual marker for Muslims on shops and on products. Likewise kosher for food sourced and prepared according to Jewish tradition.

References

Meat
Tuvalu

Tuvalu is a small island country in the Pacific Ocean. In the past, it was the Ellice Islands. It was part of Gilbert and Ellice Islands. It is a monarchy.

Tuvalu is getting smaller. If the sea level keeps rising at the same rate, this country will be covered by water in about 50 years.

The most important language spoken in Tuvalu is Tuvaluan, although Nuian is spoken on the island of Nui.

The United States and Tuvalu signed a treaty of friendship in 1979, when the US  gave up their claim to Tuvalu for the islands of Funafuti, Nukefetau, Nukulaelae, and Nurakita.

Tuvalu is made up of 9 islands: 
 Funafuti (the capital city island)
 Nanumea
 Nanumaga
 Niutao
 Nui
 Niulakita
 Nukufetau
 Nukulaelae
 Vaitupu

Internet Domain name .tv

Following Tuvalu being allocated two-letter top-level Internet domain suffix, .tv, the Government of Tuvalu worked with the International Telecommunications Union and established a process to select a management partner for the domain suffix.

On 6 August 1998 a licensing agreement was signed with Information.CA of Toronto under which it agreed to pay an up-front payment of US$50 million for exclusive marketing rights to Tuvalu's domain until 2048, with the country manager/delegee of the Government of Tuvalu for the .tv extension being The .tv Corporation International, which was established in 1998. Subsequent negotiations with Information.CA followed from the delays in payment of US$50 million. Idealab, a Californian company, became involved in 1999 and assumed the $50 million obligation to be paid over 10 years. With the first $1 million payment, Tuvalu was finally able to afford to join the United Nations. Lou Kerner became the first employee of .tv when he joined as CEO in January 2000. .tv grew to over 100 employees, with offices in Los Angeles, London, and Hong Kong, before being acquired in a nine figure transaction in December, 2001.

Geography 

Tuvalu has four reef islands and five true atolls. The atolls have only 26 km of land. Tuvalu is the fourth smallest country in the world. The land is very low lying and the coral atolls are narrow. Funafuti is the largest atoll of the islands and atolls. It has many islets around a central lagoon. This is about 25.1 kilometres (15.6 mi) (N–S) by 18.4 kilometres (11.4 mi) (W-E), centered on 179°7’E and 8°30’S. A

The highest height is  above sea level, which gives Tuvalu the second-lowest highest elevation of any country (after the Maldives). Because of this, the islands that make up Tuvalu are threatened by any sea level rise. If this happens, the people will have to go to New Zealand, Niue or the Fijian island of Kioa. Tuvalu is also affected by what is known as a king tide, which can raise the sea level higher than a normal high tide.

References 

 
Current monarchies
Commonwealth realms
Least developed countries
1978 establishments in Oceania
Java

Java () is one of the islands of Indonesia.

Geography 
The area is 132,000 square km. It is the world's 13th largest island. Around 140 million people live there, which is half the people in Indonesia and more than on any other island in the world. Most of them speak the Javanese language and many also speak other languages. 

The Java Sea is to the north, the Indian Ocean south. The capital city of Indonesia, Jakarta, is in Java.

Climate 
Most of Java has a tropical monsoon climate (Am in the Koeppen climate classification). The northern coast of the island is low-lying. The soil is fertile, because the island was made by volcanoes. It is an important area for growing crops in Indonesia.

Gallery

Related pages 
 List of monarchs of java
 List of Javanese people

Sources
1902

1902 (MCMII) was a common year starting on Wednesday in the Gregorian calendar.

Events 
 July 11 – Arthur Balfour becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
 Marie and Pierre Curie discover radium
 The Real Madrid football club starts in Spain
 Statue of Boudica unveiled in Westminster, London

Births 
 February 4 – Charles Lindbergh, American pilot (d. 1974)
 February 27 – John Steinbeck, American writer (d. 1968)
 July 10 – Kurt Alder, German chemist (d. 1958)
 August 8 – Paul Dirac, English physicist (d. 1984)
 September 21 – Ruhollah Khomeini, revolutionary leader (d. 1989)
 November 9 - Anthony Asquith, British director (d. 1968)
 December 5 – Strom Thurmond, American politician (d. 2003)
 December 9 – Margaret Hamilton, American actress (d. 1985)

Deaths 
 April 30 - Swami Vivekananda - Indian social reformer (b. 1863)
 December 14 – Julia Grant – former First Lady of the United States (b. 1826)
 September 16 – Levi Strauss, American business person (b. 1829)

Hits songs 
 "The Entertainer" m. Scott Joplin
1895



Events 
 Roentgen discovers X-rays
 Marconi invents the wireless telegraph
 China and Japan sign the Treaty of Shimonoseki

Births 
 January 5 – Michel Velleman
 September 30 - Lewis Milestone
1796



Events 
 An English doctor invents a vaccination against smallpox.

Births 
January 7-Princess Charlotte Augusta of Wales
July 26 - George Catlin, American painter
December 27 – Mirza Ghalib, poet of Urdu
1879



Events 
 Thomas Edison invents the light bulb.
 Rutherford B. Hayes State of the Union Address.

Births 
 August 8 – Emiliano Zapata
 November 7– Leon Trotsky, Ukrainian revolutionary and Marxist (d. 1940)
 Albert Einstein, scientist.
 Samuel Goldwyn, movie producer.
 Simon Rodia, creator of the Watts Towers

Deaths 
 February 11 – Honoré Daumier, French caricaturist and painter (b. 1808)
 February 23 – Albrecht Graf von Roon, Prime Minister of Prussia (b. 1803)
 February 25 – Charles Peace, British criminal (executed) (b. 1832)
 March 1 – Joachim Heer, Swiss politician (b. 1825)
 March 30 – Thomas Couture, French painter and teacher (b. 1815)
 April 30 – Sarah Josepha Hale, American writer (b. 1788)
 June 1 – Napoleon Eugene, Prince Imperial, son of French Emperor Napoleon III (b. 1856)
 June 27 - Sir John Lawrence, British Indian administrator (b. 1811)
 August 30 – John Bell Hood, America Confederate general (b. 1831)
 November 5 – James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish physicist (b. 1831)
 August 11 – George Willison Adams, Ohio abolitionist (b.1799)
1769



Events 
 James Watt invents an engine driven by steam

Births 
 August 15 – Napoleon
1837



Events 
 Samuel Morse invents the electric telegraph.
 Michigan becomes the 26th state.
Platinum

Platinum is a soft, heavy, white metal. It is a precious metal. It usually costs more than gold.
In chemistry, platinum is element number 78, and its atoms have an atomic weight of 195 a.m.u.. The symbol for platinum is Pt, from Spanish platina meaning "little silver".

Platinum is very malleable and ductile, which means it can be hammered into thin sheets and it can be pulled into wire. Platinum is very stable. Acids do not affect platinum.

The most common use of Platinum is in a vehicle's catalytic converter.

Chemical elements
Kim Jong-il

Kim Jong-il, birth name Yuri Irsenovich Kim (according to the Soviet Union's records) (, 16 February 1941 – 17 December 2011) was the Supreme Leader of Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) from the time of his father's death in 1994 until his own death in 2011. He was the son of Kim Il-Sŏng. Official North Korean propaganda said that Jong-il was born on Mount Paektu (a holy mountain in Korea); but most historians think that he was born near Chabarowsk in the Soviet Union. The North Korean laws made him permanent ruler of North Korea for life. He was sometimes referred to as the "Dear Leader", but this was not an official title. His official title was "Chairman of the National Defense Commission of North Korea", "Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army" and "General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea". Many people in North Korea were imprisoned or killed for speaking out against the Kim regime. Almost everyone in North Korea wore a small pin with a picture of Kim Jŏng-Il or Kim Il-Sŏng on it.

The North Korean government told people of his death through the state media on 19 December 2011. It was said that he had died two days earlier of "physical and mental over-work".

Early life
Jong-il was born Yuri Irsenovich Kim on 16 February 1941.

Personal life
Jong-il was a Stalinist. He believed in the North Korean Communist philosophy of Juche (self-reliance). He was afraid to travel on aeroplanes and traveled only on trains. He was well known for his love of movies and luxury goods, especially caviar and Hennessey brand cognac, even though North Korea was one of the poorest countries in the world. Former United States Secretary of State Madeleine Albright once gave Jong-il a present of a basketball signed by Michael Jordan when he visited North Korea because Jong-il was a fan of the National Basketball Association and of Michael Jordan.

Death
On the morning of 17 December 2011, at the age of 69 or 70,  Jong-il died of a heart attack while traveling. His funeral was held on 28 December, and as a result, Kim Jong-un was then elected as the new leader of North Korea. On 13 April 2012, Kim Jong-il was made Eternal Chairman of the National Defence Commission and Eternal General Secretary of the Workers Party of Korea.

References

Other websites

  – Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang DPR Korea (1998)
 Born in the USSR – Kim Jong-il's childhood.
 The many family secrets of Kim Jong Il 
 "Hidden Daughter" Visits Kim Jong-il Every Year (also includes photos of Kim during his youth)
 Kim's family tree  

1941 births
2011 deaths
Former dictators
North Korean military people
North Korean politicians
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Pope

This article is about Popes in general. For the current Pope, see Pope Francis.

The Pope is the head of the Catholic Church.

Popes are elected by Cardinals of the Catholic Church. Once they are elected they hold the position until they die or resign. Usually they do not resign, though; Pope Benedict XVI is the only Pope to resign in the last 500 years.  A newly elected Pope chooses a regnal name.  Everyone is told this new name when the Habemus Papam is read out. The current pope (Francis) was called Jorge Bergoglio before he became a pope.

The name Pope comes from the Greek word pappas, meaning "father". Catholics believe that when making statements ex cathedra, that is official statements teaching about faith and morals, the Pope is infallible - which means God will not allow his followers to be misled by allowing their leader to make a wrong statement. Only two of any Pope's statements have been ex cathedra. 

Popes today travel to many countries around the world preaching. The Pope is the only person in the world who both leads the church and government. Like other bishops he wears a big hat called a mitre and holds a staff called a crosier.

Recent popes 
Some recent Popes, and the time they were Pope:
 Pope John XXIII, 1958-1963
 Pope Paul VI, 1963-1978
 Pope John Paul I, 1978
 Pope John Paul II, 1978-2005
 Pope Benedict XVI, 2005-2013
 Pope Francis, current pope

The Popes in Avignon 
During parts of the Middle Ages, the French kings had a lot of influence in Europe. For this reason, seven popes (and two anti-popes) lived in Avignon, rather than Rome. The Avignon Papacy was from 1309 to 1377. During that time, the popes were known for their greed and corruption. These popes were allies of France; the enemies of France were also their enemies.

The Bishops of Rome who lived in Avignon were:
Pope Clement V: 1305–1314
Pope John XXII: 1316–1334
Pope Benedict XII: 1334–1342
Pope Clement VI: 1342–1352
Pope Innocent VI: 1352–1362
Pope Urban V: 1362–1370
Pope Gregory XI: 1370–1378

Two antipopes were based in Avignon as well:
Clement VII: 1378–1394
Benedict XIII: 1394–1423 (expelled from Avignon in 1403)

Antipopes were people that were elected by small groups who did not like the official choice. 
Catherine of Siena convinced pope Gregory XI to move back to Rome. Unfortunately, he died shortly after moving. The cardinals then elected Urban VI to be the next pope. The French cardinals did not recognise this election as legitimate. They declared the papal see as vacant; which led to the Western Schism. The schism lasted until the Council of Constance in 1417. During this time, there was a pope in Rome, an Antipope in Avignon, and for some time, a second antipope. Each of the three was recognised as legitimate pope by different European powers. This led to a big split in the church as a whole. The council elected Pope Martin V as a new pope, recognised by all parties.

Related pages
 Abdication
 Habemus Papam
 Papal name

References

Other websites

 
Christian religious occupations
San Andreas Fault

The San Andreas Fault is a right-moving ('dextral') strike-slip fault. It marks the boundary between the North American Plate on the east and the Pacific Plate on the west. The fault was the cause of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. It first appeared about 20 million years ago. 

The San Andreas Fault is a zone several miles wide with multiple strands. The main active strand runs both on and off-shore between Cape Mendocino and the Sea of Cortez. From Cape Mendocino, it runs offshore to Tomales Bay. Then it goes southward through Bolinas Lagoon, just west of the San Francisco Peninsula, to come onshore again at Daly City, through the hills of the Peninsula. Crystal Springs reservoir is formed by the fault itself. 

In the Santa Cruz mountains, it bends slightly eastward. This is the site of the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake. The fault continues south through the historic mission at San Juan Bautista and through the town of Hollister (where active creep can be seen to offset sidewalks and even houses). The Transverse Ranges north of Santa Barbara are formed by compression. Strands of the fault snake under the Los Angeles Basin. From there it connects into the active spreading under the Sea of Cortez.

The San Andreas fault was discovered by Andrew Lawson in 1895, who climbed into the faulted serpentinite well where the south tower of the Golden Gate Bridge was being poured. In spite of the extreme deformation of the serpentinite, Lawson declared the bridge perfectly safe. The events of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake would seem to support his conclusion: the ruptured strand was not the one he observed in the footprint of the bridge.

References 

Geography of California
Faults
San Francisco Bay Area
Void (astronomy)

In astronomy, voids are the empty spaces between filaments. Both filaments and Voids are one of the largest-scale structures in the Universe. There are no or few galaxies in voids. Most voids have a diameter of 11 to 150 Mpc. 
Especially large voids are the empty spaces without many superclusters. 
These voids are sometimes called supervoids.

A 1994 official counting ("The structure of the Universe traced by rich clusters of galaxies.", see References) lists a total of 27 supervoids with a distance of up to 740 Mpc. Some of supervoids chosen from the list are given below.

Other websites 
 Universe family tree: Void

References 
 U. Lindner, J. Einasto, M. Einasto, W. Freudling, K. Fricke, E. Tago: The structure of supervoids. I. Void hierarchy in the Northern Local Supervoid., Astron. Astrophys., v.301, p.329 (1995)
 M. Einasto, J. Einasto, E. Tago, G. B. Dalton, H Andernach: The structure of the Universe traced by rich clusters of galaxies., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 269, 301 (1994)

Astronomical objects
Aircraft

An aircraft is a flying machine. 

The word aircraft originally meant airships and balloons. It comes from the words air and craft,  a term from boating as were many early aviation words.

There are many different kinds of aircraft.

Some aircraft keep in the sky by moving air over their wings. Examples are aeroplanes, helicopters, and gliders. Some aircraft keep in the sky by floating.  Examples are balloons and airships.

Most aircraft use engine power. Examples are aeroplanes, helicopter, and airships. Gliders and balloons use no power.  A few aircraft use muscle power.

Big aeroplanes for transporting people are called airliners. Airliners are the quickest way to travel.  Airliners can fly over mountains and bad weather.  Airliners have complex technology to make them fly quickly, safely and for less money. 

A few fighter aircraft can fly at 3,200 km/h (2,000 mph). 

The person who drives an aircraft is called the pilot.

Scales, sizes and speeds

Sizes

Smallest
The smallest aircraft is a nano-aircraft.

Largest
These are the largest aircrafts. They are:
The largest aircraft by dimensions and volume is the British Airlander 10.
The largest aircraft by weight and largest regularly used fixed-wing aircraft is the Antonov An-225 Mriya.
The largest military aircraft and the second largest airplane is the Antonov An-124 Ruslan.

Related pages 
Flight recorder
 Aircraft videos

References

 
Aerospace engineering
Suez Canal

The Suez Canal (Arabic: قناة السويس, Qanā al-Suways, French: Le Canal de Suez) is a canal in Egypt. It lies west of the Sinai Peninsula. The canal is 163 km long (101 miles) and, at its narrowest point, 200 m wide (656 ft). It runs between Port Said (Būr Sa'īd) on the Mediterranean Sea, and Suez (al-Suways) on the Red Sea. It was built by a French company. The canal was started in 1859 and finished in 1869.

The canal allows ships to travel between Europe and Asia without having to go the way around Africa. This saves time and fuel. It was built for Europeans to go to and from the Indian Ocean.

History 

In 1859, the Suez Canal was built by Ferdinand de Lesseps of the Universal Suez Ship Canal Company, and took 10 years to build. The first ship passed through the canal 17 November, 1869; Giuseppe Verdi wrote the famous opera Aida for this ceremony .

The canal made it possible to easily transport goods across the world. The canal also allowed Europeans to travel to East Africa, and this area was soon controlled by European powers. The British tried to stop it, fearing that it would increase French power in the Indian Ocean. Later, they bought shares in the company.

The success of the Suez Canal encouraged the French to try to build the Panama Canal. But they did not finish it. The Panama Canal was finished later.

The canal was a central point during the Six Day War in 1967. A UN peacekeeping force has been stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1974, to avoid more wars. The canal reopened in 1975.

About 15,000 ships pass through the canal each year, which is about 14% of world shipping. Each ship takes up to 16 hours to cross the canal. In 2015 a central part of the canal was expanded so more ships can go through and go faster.

The canal was blocked for part of late March 2021 by the Ever Given, a container ship, which became stuck diagonally.

References 

1869 establishments
19th-century establishments in Egypt
Canals
Buildings and structures in Egypt
Transport in Egypt
Canal

A canal is a waterway made by humans. For many centuries, canals have been built as a way of transporting heavy goods in barges or boats. Canals usually connect lakes, rivers, or oceans. The Panama Canal is a famous canal that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. Many canals are reinforced with clay or concrete on the sides.

Other canals are used for irrigation or hydropower.

References
Cessna

Cessna is a company that makes airplanes. They are in Wichita, Kansas in the United States. They make small aircraft that can hold 2 to 4 people.

Cessna aircraft 
 Cessna 172
 Cessna 152
 Cessna 182

Other websites 
 Cessna website

Aircraft companies
Wichita, Kansas
Clothing

Clothing is an item or fabric, usually sewn together to cover part of the human body.  Humans are the only animals which wear clothing, and all people do wear suitable clothing.

The torso (body) can be covered by shirts, arms by sleeves, legs by pants or skirts, hands by gloves, feet by footwear, and head by headgear or masks.  In cold climates, people also wear heavy, thick coats such as trenchcoats.

Clothing protects the human body from the hot sun and high temperatures in warm tropical countries.  Clothing such as thick wool coats and boots keeps the human body warm in very cold temperatures (such as in the arctic). To some extent, clothing protects people from damage to their body.

Clothing is also worn for decoration, as a fashion (clothing). People from different cultures wear different clothing, and have different beliefs and customs about what type of clothing should be worn.
For many people, clothing is a status symbol. It helps people project an image. Often, clothing is a form of self-expression. Adults in different social or work situations present different views of themselves by the clothes they wear. Young people have an entirely different form of dress to express their personalities. Often people will simply follow popular fashion styles so that they will fit in. Clothing is far more than just a means to protect our bodies.

Origin of clothing
There is no easy way to be sure when clothing was first developed, because it was prehistoric and clothing is perishable. Some information comes from studying lice. The body louse lives in clothing, and diverged from head lice about 107,000 years ago. This suggests that clothing existed at that time. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42,000–72,000 BC.

A cloak made of the fur of squirrels, from a cave in Italy, has been dated to 23.000 years BP, and may be among the oldest items of clothing. In September 2021, scientists reported evidence of clothes being made 120,000 years ago based on findings in deposits in Morocco, a country in the northwestern part of Africa.

Things that are not clothing 
People often decorate their bodies with makeup or perfume, and they also cut or change the hair on their heads and faces. They might also go in for body modification: tattoos, scarifications, and body piercings. But makeup and tattoos are not kinds of clothing.

Things that are carried and not worn, like wallets, purses, canes, and umbrellas, are called accessories, but they are not kinds of clothing, either. Jewelry and eyeglasses are also accessories that are put on the body. Nail polish is also put on the fingertips and can be interpreted as makeup.

What clothing is made of 
Clothing is often made of:
 Cloth
Natural fibres, such as cotton, flax, wool, hemp, ramie, silk  
Synthetic fabric, such as nylon, polyester, acrylic 
 Fur
 Leather

Needed to make clothing 
 Cloth
 Scissors or knives.
 Needles and thread.
 Sewing machine or weaving wheel

Related pages 
 Fashion
 Fashion design
 Human timeline

References
Shoe

A shoe is a type of footwear. It is an item of clothing. Shoes come in pairs, with one shoe for each foot.

There are many different types of shoes. Athletic shoes, for example, are lightweight to make running, walking or jogging easier. The sole of the shoe is also softer. Shoes for formal wear are made of leather. They are worn for business and ceremonial functions. They are also worn for fashion. Slippers are a kind of indoor shoe. They are often worn when it is cold. Shoes with a high heel are called high heels. Tall shoes are boots. Rubber boots are used in wet places.

People usually wear shoes in public. They are worn for hygiene, style, and comfort.

They are usually worn with socks

Other websites 
 

Basic English 850 words
Footwear
Café

A café is a type of restaurant which typically serves coffee and tea, in addition to light refreshments such as baked goods or snacks. The term "café" comes from the French word meaning "coffee".

A café setting is known as a casual social environment where you can find people reading newspapers and magazines, playing board games, studying or chatting with others about current events. It is also regarded as a place where information can be exchanged.

A café is sometimes called a coffeehouse or a coffee shop or tea shop in English, a café in French and a bar in Italian (cafe or café is the common spelling used in English, French, Spanish, Portuguese et al. however the word is spelled "caffè" in Italian). It shares some characteristics of a bar and some characteristics of a restaurant given its selection of foods and beverages served, but is distinct from a cafeteria which is a type of restaurant where customers can choose from many dishes displayed on a serving line. In some countries, cafés are designed to more closely resemble restaurants whereby offering a range of hot meals and possibly licensed to serve alcohol. Most British cafés however, do not sell alcohol likely due to the prominent pub culture.

Café Variations 
In the Netherlands, cannabis-selling cafés face an uncertain future under a planned new law banning smoking in public places. The cafés, which attract millions of tourists each year, allow customers to buy marijuana over the counter and openly smoke it. The acronym CAFE, Cannabis and Fine Edibles is used in Canada to represent the largest retail chain in the Country, post-legalization.

A new type of café, known as the Internet café, was introduced in the 1990s and went hand in hand with the rising prevalence of computers in society. Computers and Internet access in a contemporary atmosphere created a youthful, modern public space compared to existing locales including traditional bars and old-fashioned diners. Nowadays, many cafés offer public wireless Internet or even have computers, telephones, and newspapers for customer use. Further integrating internet usage to the café atmosphere, some stores like Starbucks allow you to order directly from your smartphone, tablet, or other devices through their free store app or websites online.

More recently alongside the growing popularity of geek and gaming culture, gaming cafés have also begun to open in cities worldwide. These cafés offer a library of board games and tabletop games, from childhood classics such as Monopoly to indie games, for customers to play at their leisure for a nominal fee.

Cafe is a place of Work and Food. You can get a combination of work place as well as hotel.

Food and drink
Restaurants
Jazz

Jazz is a type of music which was invented in the United States. Jazz music combines African-American music with European music. Jazz first became popular in the 1910s. Some common jazz instruments include the saxophone, trumpet, guitar, piano, double bass, and drums.

What is jazz?
It is difficult to give an exact definition for "jazz". A singer Nina Simone said, "Jazz is not just music, it is a way of life, it is a way of being, a way of thinking". But when we talk about jazz as music, one important part of jazz is improvisation (improv), which means the person playing is making music up as they go along. If a jazz band is playing a song, the song may have several solos where one player will improvise while the rest of the band, except for the rhythm section (such as the piano, bass, or drums), does not play. Most jazz is very rhythmic, which is called "swing," and uses "blue" notes. Blue notes is referred as a musical term in blues.

History 
 
Jazz began in the United States in the early 20th century. Jazz music was first based on the music of African slaves who were forced to work in the plantations of the southern United States. This included call and response songs, spirituals, chants and blue notes. These characteristics are what developed blues, a sad song that slaves sung during their labor. These influences were indirect, through earlier musical forms such as ragtime. 

Jazz also has musical styles from European music, as well as the brass and stringed instruments and (sometimes) the use of musical notation.

There have been different types of jazz through time. New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s.  Dixieland jazz was also popular. In the 1930s, there was swing jazz, which was also called big band jazz. In the 1940s, bebop became a major type of jazz, with fast songs and complex harmony.

Large jazz bands, which are called big bands, were also popular in the 1940s. Big bands usually have 5 saxophone players, 4 or 5 trumpet players, 4 trombone players, a piano player or guitar player, an acoustic bass player, a drummer, and sometimes a singer. 

In the 1950s, there was hard bop jazz. In the 1960s, there was modern jazz and free jazz. In the 1970s, jazz fusion began to blend jazz music with rock music. Some jazz is still played with the same improv methods as it did at its beginning, except with modern electronic instruments.

International Jazz Day 
April 30 is an "International Jazz Day". Each year jazz concerts and educational events take place around the world. This is the day to increase understanding to jazz. The United Nations Education and Science Organization (UNESCO) also take part in this event. People celebrate the day, because they believe the history of jazz has something to do with peace, freedom and equality.

References

Other websites 
  Jazz — A documentary movie by Ken Burns on PBS
 Free 1920s Jazz Collection available for downloading at Archive.org
 Jazz Foundation of America
 Jazz at the Smithsonian Museum
 Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame website
 Smithsonian Jazz Oral History Program | National Museum of American History

 
African-American history
Table salt

Table salt is a mineral composed mainly of sodium chloride (NaCl). This is a chemical compound, one of many salts. Salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite. 

When salt (sodium chloride) is mixed with water, the salt dissolves into the water, creating a saline solution. Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about  of solids per litre, a salinity of 3.5%.

Salt can be made by either evaporation or can be mined. To get sea salt, man-made holes are built then filled with sea water. The water evaporates and leaves salt behind.

Salt
Sodium compounds
Chlorine compounds
EBay

eBay is a website. It is a place for online auctions. Anybody can sell almost anything they want there. People can buy many things there as well.

People have to send what they sell themselves, usually using mail. Some items may be collected by the buyer such as items to large or heavy to post. Buyers can transfer the money in any way they want as long as the sellers accept payments made that way. A lot of people use PayPal to transfer the money. PayPal was owned by the same people as eBay until 2015. Margaret Whitman was the CEO of eBay from 1998 to 2008.

History 
eBay was started in 1995 by Pierre Omidyar. It was first called Auctionweb. The name 'eBay' came later when he tried to register a domain name for his planned name EchoBay. It was already taken so he shortened the name to 'eBay'.

Statistics 
Millions of items are bought on eBay every day. It is often very cheap to list an item on eBay. Total costs are usually below ordinary auction house costs. Many people look at others' items because they are interested in them.

Other websites 
 eBay site
 eBay Resource Guide 
 Most watched items on eBay

Websites
Gerhard Schröder

Gerhard Schröder was Chancellor of Germany from 1998 to 2005.

He was born on 7 April 1944 in Mossenberg, North Rhine-Westphalia.
After school he learned retail sales in a Lemgo from 1958 to 1961.
After that he made his abitur (highest school exam in Germany) in Bielefeld. Then he studied law in Göttingen. After that he worked as a lawyer.

He joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1963 and became chairman of its youth organisation in 1978.
In 1986 he became a member of the State Parliament of Lower Saxony.
In 1990 he was elected as Prime-Minister of Lower Saxony.

He became the chancellor of Germany in 1998. After elections in 2005, he was replaced by Angela Merkel. He is a member of the SPD (Social Democratic Party of Germany).

Other websites

1944 births
Living people
Chancellors of Germany
Former members of the German Bundestag
German lawyers
Ministers-President of Lower Saxony
Politicians from North Rhine-Westphalia
Victoria

Victoria might mean:
 Victoria (name), a female name
 Victoria (Australian state), a state in Australia
 Victoria, British Columbia, capital city of British Columbia, Canada
 Victoria, Seychelles, capital of Seychelles
 Queen Victoria, a former Queen of the United Kingdom.
 Roman version of the Greek goddess Nike (mythology)
Canberra

Canberra is the capital city of Australia. There are 403,468 people who live there. It doesn’t belong to a state but it is in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT).

Canberra was started in 1913 and in the middle of the city is Lake Burley-Griffin .  This lake was created especially for the city.  There was a competition to design the new capital city of Australia.  The competition was won by an architect from Chicago in the United States of America.  His name was Walter Burley Griffin.  Griffin designed his triangular town as a garden town, so its size expanded over a big area. But as Canberra grew larger and larger, the lake was no longer in the middle of the town, but the people who are in charge of planning the city make sure Canberra is as close to Griffin's original plan as possible. Canberra has a size in area nearly as big as Berlin, but the number of people who live there is much smaller.

Before Canberra was founded, Australia’s two most important cities, Sydney and Melbourne, were arguing which city should be the capital of the continent. First Melbourne was elected the capital, but in 1908 there was a vote. The result: an area of 2400 square kilometers was given to the country by New South Wales to build Canberra in. This was the place, 300 kilometers away from Sydney and with a distance of 650 kilometers to Melbourne, where a few years later Canberra was built.

The name Canberra is pronounced in various ways and most commonly now as "CAN-brugh" making it sound almost an English name - Canborough !  Some say "CAN-buh-ruh" ; a small number of people may pronounce it "can-BEAR-ruh" ; at an earlier time "can-BERR-a" was very common and that form is still heard although often looked down upon as ignorant and incorrect. But while now an uncommon pronunciation it may be closest to the original name and pronunciation. In the 19th century a farming property on the Limestone Plains was named "Canberry" (or "Camberry") and some think this name is derived in turn from the name of the local tribe - the Ngambri or Kamberra or Camberri people.  (Others have suggested the name is derived from an Aboriginal word meaning "meeting place").

Canberra has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification). Due to Canberra's inland location and fairly high altitude, summers are warm to hot with frequent heat waves and droughts and winters are fairly cold with frequent frosts during the nights. Snow is only common on the mountains.

Tourists who visit Canberra come to see the many national monuments and other famous sights. Some places to visit are the Government House, Parliament House, the High Court of Australia, the Australian War Memorial, the National Gallery of Australia, the Royal Australian Mint, Telstra Tower, the National Library of Australia, and the National Museum of Australia.

References 

 
1913 establishments
1910s establishments in Australia
Greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect occurs when certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere                                                        (the air around the Earth) trap infrared radiation. This makes the planet become warmer, similar to the way it makes a greenhouse become warmer. 

The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases; the most important greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are: water vapor, carbon dioxide(CO2), and methane. When there is more greenhouse gas in the air, the air holds more heat. This is why more greenhouse gases cause climate change and global warming.

The greenhouse effect is natural. It is important for life on Earth. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's average temperature would be around -18 or -19 degrees Celsius (0 or 1 degree Fahrenheit). Earth would be locked in an ice age. Because of the greenhouse effect, the Earth's actual average temperature is 14 degrees Celsius (57 degrees Fahrenheit). 

The problem is that recently, the greenhouse effect has become stronger. This is because humans have been using large amounts of fossil fuels, which release carbon dioxide when they are burned. Since carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, it has caused the planet to warm over the past 150 years.

About 10,000 years ago, before people started burning large amounts of fossil fuels, there were 260 to 280 parts per million (ppm) of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, but now there is over 400 ppm. Most scientists say that having 350 ppm or less is safe for the environment and that species on the planet can adapt to this level.  Higher levels can make severe problems for animal and marine life that are already being seen today, such as ocean acidification.

The greenhouse effect was first proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824. Mars, Venus and other planets with atmospheres also have greenhouse effects. The effect on Venus is especially strong because Venus has so much CO2. This is why Venus is hotter than Mercury, even though Mercury is closer to the sun. The first person to predict that carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels (and other combustion processes) could cause global warming was Svante Arrhenius.

Related pages
 Greenhouse gas
Global warming

References

Other websites 
 The Climate Change Guide easy-to-understand information on the greenhouse effect
 Study of Ice Age bolsters carbon and warming link February 28, 2013 The New York Times
 Rutgers University: Earth Radiation Budget 
 Greenhouse effect -Citizendium

Weather
Climate change
Greenhouse gases
Ecology