cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Vexillology

Vexillology is the study of flags.  The word comes from both the Latin word vexilla "little sail" for flag plus the Greek suffix-ology that means "study of".  The vexillum was a particular kind of flag used by the Roman legions.  Vexillology is a kind of study of symbols related to heraldry.  A person who studies flags is a vexillologist, and a person who designs flags is a vexillographer.

Because they are flown outside, where they move with the wind, flags are usually designed with bold images and bright, basic colors.  Flag design also follows a historical process, where later flag designs are based on earlier flag designs.  This means that many flags in an area may look similar because they are all based on one historical flag.  Examples include the Pan-African colors, Pan-Arab colors, and the Nordic Cross.

Flag Identification System (FIS)

The Flag Identification System was created by Whitney Smith and adopted by Fédération internationale des associations vexillologiques (FIAV).

The first row is for use on land and the second row is for use on water, each divided into private (civil), government (state), and military (war) use.

There are 63 symbols that can describe the flag, including:
 

Other symbols are used to describe other uses of the flag, such as official status and which side of the flag is shown. The symbols in common use are:

 Normal or de jure version of flag, or obverse (front) side
 Design proposed but not officially adopted
 Design is a reconstruction
 Reverse (back) side of flag
 Design is a variant (a different form of the same flag)
 Alternative (different) version of flag
 De facto (unofficial but in actual use) version of flag
 Flag has different designs on its front and back
 Obverse (front) side meant to be hoisted (raised) with pole on the right
 Design approved by the government to represent a nation
 Design used in the past, but now abandoned (This symbol was not part of Smith's original set.)
 Reverse side is mirror image of obverse side
 Reverse side is the obverse side flipped
 Information about the reverse side is not known
 Flag can be hung vertically by hoisting on a normal pole and then turning the pole 90°
 Flag can be hung vertically by rotating the design first
 Vertical hoist method is unknown
 Design has no element that can be rotated
 Flag can only be hoisted vertically

Heraldry
Southern Tenant Farmers Union

The Southern Tenant Farmers' Union (STFU) was founded as a trade union to help organize the farmers in the Southern United States. 

It was started in the Great Depression to improve money problems and work conditions for farmers in the United States.

At this time, landowners were being paid not to farm by the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, but they were not all sharing the money with farmers.

Sources
Cobb, William H. "The Southern Tenant Farmers' Union". The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture.

Unions
Fjuckby

Fjuckby is a village in Uppsala Municipality, Uppsala County, Sweden.

It is known as a place for runestones, the village's unusual name has generated international interest.  Prior to the 1930s, the village was known as Fjukeby.  In the 1930s, the spelling of the name of this small historic town was changed to Fjuckby.

References

Other websites
 Maps, Weather, and Airports for Fjuckby, Sweden
 Uppsala County Administrative Board

Settlements in Uppsala County
Copa del Rey

The Copa del Rey is an annual football competition in Spain. The competition was founded in 1903, which makes it the oldest Spanish football competition.

Top goalscorers

Bold indicates an active player.

References

Football competitions in Europe
1903 establishments in Europe
Football in Spain
1900s establishments in Spain
Kobuk River

The Kobuk River (also Kooak, Kowak, Kubuk, Kuvuk, or Putnam)
 is a river in the Arctic region of Alaska, in the United States. The river is about  long, and receives water from about 12,300 square miles (31,850 km2) of land. It is among the largest rivers in Alaska. It flows from the southernmost part of the Brooks Range, a mountain range 700 miles (1,100 km) long.
 Its mouth is at the Kobuk River Delta, which is about  long.

Its watershed, ranging from 0 to 11,400 feet (0 to 3,475 m) above sea level, has a wide variety of landforms, including mountains, plateaus, and plains. The average elevation is . The river's name, in the native Inuit language, means "big river".

The river has been an important part of the lives of nearby people. Native people (the Inuit, Koyukans and others) have used the river as a source of food and transport for over 12,000 years.
 
In 1898, a gold rush called the "Kobuk River Stampede" happened. In 1980, 110 miles (177 km) of the river were deemed the Kobuk WIld and Scenic River.

References 

Rivers of Alaska
Reichstag (institution)

The Reichstag was the German parliament during the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, the German Empire, the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich until 1945.  They met in the Reichstag building from 1894 to 1933.  The Reichstag is now called Bundestag. 

Parliaments
Superparamagnetism

Superparamagnetism is a form of magnetism. A superparamagnetic material has many small clusters of magnetic things in its structure, but they are not all pointed the same way, so the material is not magnetic by itself. If a magnetic field is applied to the material, then the clusters change direction to match the magnetic field and the material becomes magnetic. Superparamagnetism is like paramagnetism, except it can happen at near room temperature. It happens when materials are made up of very small parts (1-10 nm).

Magnetism
Safety

Safety is a feeling that no bad things will happen. Security avoids things to happen that you don't want to. The police keep public safety, which stops crimes happen. Safety hats protect the head from injury. Houses provide safety from the weather.

Measures 
Safety measures are activities and precautions taken to improve safety. Here are list of common safety measures include:

 Chemical analysis
 Geological surveys to determine whether land or water sources are polluted, how firm the ground is at a potential building site, etc.
 Destructive testing of samples
 Road safety measures

Related pages
Security

Safety
Heidi

Heidi is a book written by Johanna Spyri, published between 1880 and 1881. It is about a young orphan girl who grows up in the Swiss Alps (mountains in Switzerland) with her grandfather.

Summary 
When her guardians die, Heidi must live in the mountains with her grandfather, Alm-Uncle, who does not like people. He slowly changes and becomes more caring because of Heidi. Then, Heidi must move to Frankfurt, Germany to be the friend of Clara, a girl who is sick and cannot walk. Clara’s grandmother encourages Heidi to learn to read, and she also learns about God. She becomes very homesick, and a kind doctor says that she must return home to her grandfather. Later, Clara visits Heidi in the Alps and becomes strong enough to walk.

Inspiration 
Johanna Spyri wrote this story for her son, Berhard Diethelm Spyri. People and places in the story come from Spyry's own life. Catherine Eayrs, a literary critic, thinks that the village of Dorfli may come from Jenins in Switzerland, a place that Spyri visited as a child, however Dorfli is an actual town in Switzerland. Also, the kindly doctor is similar to Spyri's own father, and Klara's grandmother is a good storyteller, just like Spyri's own mother.

Reception 
Immediately after the book was published, Heidi was popular, both with children and adults. It continues to be popular, and translations are available in more than fifty languages. About 50 million books have been sold. The story has also been told on movie and television. There is even a musical version.

Visitors to Switzerland can visit a tourist village called Heididorf in Maienfeld. The name means "Heidi's village" in German.

Criticism 
Some readers think that one problem of Heidi is that the book teaches the Christian religion. Malcolm Usrey, a literary critic, thinks that nature is as important as Christianity in helping people, because Klara’s paralysis and Heidi’s home sickness are both healed in the “clean air of the Swiss mountains”.

References

Related pages
 Johanna Spyri

Other websites 

 
  (illustrated)

1882 books
Children's books
Augustus d'Este

Sir Augustus Frederick d'Este, KCH (1794-1848) was the son of Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex and Lady Augusta Murray and the grandson of George III. His parents marriage was in contravention of the Royal Marriages Act 1772, which meant that Augustus d'Este was legally considered illegitimate.

1794 births
1848 deaths
British nobility
Michael Dennis Morgan

Michael Dennis Morgan (born December 19, 1946) is an Australian rower, who has competed in the Olympics. He attended Newington College (1957-1965).

References 

1946 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Sydney
Rowing
Australian Olympic silver medalists
Robert Trujillo

Roberto Agustín "Rob" Trujillo (born October 23, 1964) is an American musician who is most famous as the bass player for Metallica. He joined the band in 2003. Before that Trujillo played bass for Suicidal Tendencies, Infectious Grooves, Black Label Society, Jerry Cantrell and was a member of Ozzy Osbourne's band.

Trujillo has played bass on many albums. Some of them are:

By Black Label Society
2002 1919 Eternal
2002 Boozed, Broozed, and Broken-Boned (DVD)

 By Jerry Cantrell
2002 Degradation Trip
2002 Degradation Trip Volumes 1 & 2

By Infectious Grooves
1991 The Plague That Makes Your Booty Move...It's the Infectious Grooves
1993 Sarsippius' Ark
1994 Groove Family Cyco
2000 Mas Borracho

By Suicidal Tendencies
1989 Controlled By Hatred/Feel Like Shit...Déjà Vu
1990 Lights...Camera...Revolution!
1992 The Art of Rebellion
1993 Still Cyco After All These Years
1994 Suicidal for Life

By Glenn Tipton
1997 Baptizm of Fire

By Ozzy Osbourne
2001 Down to Earth
2002 Blizzard of Ozz-reissue
2002 Diary of a Madman-reissue
2002 Live at Budokan

By Metallica
2008 Death Magnetic

Notes

American guitarists
Musicians from California
1964 births
Living people
People from Santa Monica, California
President of Indonesia

The President of the Indonesia Republic is the head of state of Indonesia. The current President is Joko Widodo.

List of presidents

References
Sergiu Celibidache

Sergiu Celibidache (; 14 August 1996) was a Romanian conductor.  He was one of the great conductors of his time, living in Germany all his adult life.

His life
Celibidache was born in Romania.  He went to Berlin in 1936 and in 1939 studied there at the Hochschule für Musik.  He got a doctorate by writing about the Renaissance composer Josquin Desprez.  He was lucky very early in his career to be appointed as conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra.  He stayed with them until 1952 when Wilhelm Furtwängler returned.  He later worked with radio orchestras in Stockholm, Stuttgart and Paris. He also worked for a time in Britain, as well as touring in Europe and South America.   From 1979 until his death he was music director of the Munich Philharmonic.  He taught at Mainz University in Germany and in 1984 taught at the Curtis Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.  He liked teaching and often let students come to his lessons without having to pay.

Celibidache did not like making recordings, although there are a few recordings of his concerts which have survived.  He was well known for asking for lots of rehearsals, and he rehearsed his orchestras in great detail.  He often chose very slow speeds for the slow movements and very fast speeds for the fast movements.

In Munich he had a long argument with the trombone player Abbie Conant because he did not want her in the orchestra.  Conant thought it was because she was a woman that he did not want her.  The argument lasted for 12 years.

Celibidache died near Paris in 1996 at 84.

References 
New Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; 

1912 births
1996 deaths
Conductors
Ludwig von Brenner

Ludwig von Brenner (born Leipzig, 19 September 1833; died 9 February 1902) was a German conductor and composer.

He studied at the Leipzig conservatory. He went to Saint Petersburg to play in the Saint Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra. In 1872 he returned to Germany and conducted an orchestra called the Berlin Symphony Orchestra.  He then started an orchestra called Neue Berliner Symphoniekapelle.   In 1882 he became the first conductor of a new orchestra, the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, which was soon to become one of the world's best orchestras. 

1833 births
1902 deaths

German composers
German conductors
Vernier scale

A Vernier scale is a way to get a much better result when measuring how long something is or the size of an angle.

Sometimes when measuring things we need to get our measurement as accurate as possible. Accuracy is important in surveying the land, navigation of ships, making parts for machines like car engines, looking at stars and planets in astronomy and when doing experiments in science.

The working of Vernier scale
Length has been measured with a straight ruler for hundreds of years. It measures up to 0.01cm. If the object we are measuring is somewhere in between two of the marks on our ruler then we would have to estimate where between the two marks to take the measurement. A Vernier scale on our ruler does this last fine piece of measuring between the two marks for us. 

So , for example if the measurement with our eye said it was between 1.5 and 1.6 centimeters, we would look at the Vernier and we would be able to say the measure is actually 1.57, something it would be vary hard to see with the eye alone.

When measuring angles the same problem occurs and a vernier may be part of a device to measure fine angles in between two of the marks on the scale.

We don't need to be sharp eyed to read the Vernier scale because its marks are almost as big as our main measuring scale. We just count how many marks there are to the next place where there is a mark on both the main and vernier scales that are exactly lined up. That number of marks tells us the size of the small extra measurement.

Tools
Project AWARE

Project AWARE Foundation (or Project A.W.A.R.E.) is a nonprofit, worldwide, organization dedicated to "Conserving underwater environments through education, advocacy and action."

Other websites 
 Project AWARE Foundation website

International environmental organizations
1989 establishments in the United States
EarthEcho International

EarthEcho International is an environmental nonprofit organization founded in honor of Philippe Cousteau, by his children and widow. It is based in Washington, D.C..

Other websites 
"EarthEcho International"

International environmental organizations
Non-profit organizations of Washington, D.C.
Adhan

The adhān (also Athaan: IPA: [ʔæˈðæːn]) (أَذَان) is the Islamic call to prayer. The muezzin reads it out aloud. The root of the word is  "to permit", and another derivative of this word is , meaning "ear."

The muezzin reads Adhan in the mosque, sometimes from a minaret. He usually does this five times a day. Adhan is used to call other Muslims to do the prayers. There is a second call, known as iqama (set up) that is used to tell Muslims to line up for the start of the prayers. Sometimes, loudspeakers are used on the minarets. 

Sunni and Shi'a use versions of adhan which are slightly different from each other.

Other websites 

Islam
Tiger quoll

The tiger quoll (Dasyurus maculatus) is a carnivorous marsupial of the order of Dasyuromorphia. It is also known as the spotted-tail quoll or the spotted quoll. It is mainland Australia's largest, and the world's longest carnivorous marsupial. 

Mammals of Australia
Dasyuromorphia
Louisa Maria Teresa Stuart

Louisa Maria Teresa Stuart was the last child of James II of England and Mary of Modena. She was born in 1692 and died in 1712.

1692 births
1712 deaths
House of Stuart
Casa Colorada

Casa Colorada (translated into English as Red House) is a colonial house in Santiago, Chile.  [red ochre House] is raised with ashlar stone, his roof was mounted on beech beams, and the mezzanine on canelo wood. Timber framing is made of native bamboo. The constructor was Joseph de la Vega in 1769. This building served as home of Mateo de Toro y Zambrano and now is a Museum, managed by Santiago's Municipality. Kept there the collections, and scale models of the colony life.

Casa Colorada was the place were the Chilean Declaration of Independence was signed on September 18th, 1810.

The building consists of two storeys.

Buildings and structures in Chile
Al-Masjid al-Nabawi

Al-Masjid an-Nabawī (; Prophet's Mosque) is a mosque established and originally built by the Prophet of Islam Muhammad. It is in the city of Medina in Saudi Arabia. Al-Masjid an-Nabawi was the third mosque built in the history of Islam and is now one of the largest mosques in the world. It is the second-holiest site in Islam, after Masjid al-Haram in Mecca.

The site was originally adjacent to Muhammad's house; he settled there after his Hijra (emigration) to Medina in 622 CE. He shared in the heavy work of building. The original mosque was an open-air building. The mosque served as a community center, a court, and a religious school. There was a raised platform for the people who taught the Quran. Subsequent Islamic rulers greatly expanded and decorated it. In 1909, it became the first place in the Arabian Peninsula to be provided with electrical lights. The mosque is under the control of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The mosque is located in what was traditionally the center of Medina, with many hotels and old markets nearby. It is a major pilgrimage site. Many pilgrims who perform the Hajj go on to Medina to visit the mosque due to its connections to the life of Muhammad.

After an expansion during the reign of the Umayyad caliph al-Walid I, it now incorporates the final resting place of Muhammad and the first two Rashidun caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar. One of the most notable features of the site is the Green Dome in the south-east corner of the mosque, originally Aisha's house, where the tomb of Muhammad is located. In 1279, a wooden cupola was built over the tomb which was later rebuilt and renovated multiple times in late 15th century and once in 1817. The current dome was added in 1818 by the Ottoman sultan Mahmud II, and it was first painted green in 1837, hence becoming known as the "Green Dome".

Major Donation
The 7th Nizam of Hyderabad had built more than thirty grand buildings around Masjid al-Haraam in Makkah Mukarramah and Masjid un-Nabavii in Madinah Munawarrah, for the pilgrims visiting these sacred places for Hajj and Umrah.

References

Medina
Mosques in Saudi Arabia
Religion in Saudi Arabia
1817 establishments
1810s establishments in Asia
Sarvestan palace

Sarvestan Palace is a monument of the Sassanid era (226-651). It was built during the reign of Bahram "Gur" (The Zebra-Hunter, 420-438 A.D.) as a leisure mansion. Its excavation revealed that the area was inhabited 6,000 years ago, 4,500 years older than previous estimates.

References

Buildings and structures in Iran
5th-century establishments in Asia
Establishments in Iran
Hypostyle

In architecture, a hypostyle hall has a flat ceiling supported by columns. 

Architecture
Sacred architecture

Sacred architecture (also known as religious architecture) is concerned with the design and construction of places of worship and buildings such as churches, mosques, stupas, synagogues, and temples. 

Architecture
Iwan

An iwan ( eyvān) is defined as a vaulted hall or space, walled on three sides, with one end open.
Iwans were a trademark of the Sassanid architecture of Persia. They then found their way into Islamic architecture. 

Typically, iwans open on to a central courtyard, and have been used in both public and residential architecture.

Architecture
Hassan II Mosque

The Hassan II Mosque () is in Casablanca. It is the largest mosque in Morocco and the third largest mosque in the world after the Masjid al-Haram (Grand Mosque) of Mecca and the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (Prophet's Mosque) in Medina. It was designed by the French architect Michel Pinseau. It was built by Bouygues. it stands on a promontory looking out to the Atlantic, which can be seen through a glass floor with room for 25,000 worshippers. A further 80,000 can fit in the mosque's adjoining grounds. Its minaret is the world's tallest at .

References

Buildings and structures in Morocco
Casablanca
Mosques
1993 establishments in Africa
20th-century establishments in Morocco
Missa in angustiis

The Missa in Angustiis (Mass for troubled times) is one of fourteen masses written by Joseph Haydn. It is also called Nelson mass, because it was first performed after Lord Horatio Nelson won a battle against Napoleon Bonaparte. It was written in 1798. It is one of the six masses Haydn wrote towards the end of his life. 

Masses (music)
Compositions by Joseph Haydn
Victoria, Princess Royal

The Princess Victoria, Princess Royal (Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa; 21 November 1840 – 5 August 1901) was the eldest child and daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. She was created Princess Royal of the United Kingdom in 1841.  She became queen of Prussia and Empress of Germany in 1888 until her husband's Friedrich's death a few months later.  Her son Wilhelm II became German Emperor then.  Her daughter Sophia of Prussia became Queen Consort of Greece Queen Consort of the Hellene.   

Empress Victoria died of breast cancer in Kronberg im Taunus, Germany, on 5 August 1901, a few months after her mother's death on 22 January 1901 .

Cancer deaths in Germany
Deaths from breast cancer
Kings and Queens of Prussia
Princesses Royal
Royalty from London
1840 births
1901 deaths
Kings and Queens consort
Crown Princes and Princesses of Prussia
Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn

The Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn KG, KT, KP, PC, GCMG, GCSI, GCIE, GCVO, GCB, GCStJ, (Arthur William Patrick Albert; 1 May 1850 – 16 January 1942) was a member of the British Royal Family, the third son and seventh child of Queen Victoria. Arthur served as the Governor General of Canada from 1911 to 1916. He was created Duke of Connaught and Strathearn and Earl of Sussex in 1874. He was the longest lived issue of Queen Victoria.He died in 1942.He lived to age 91. He was the father of the Crown Princess of Sweden. 

1850 births
1942 deaths
House of Windsor
Connaught
United Kingdom Earls
Knights of the Garter
Knights of the Thistle
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John
Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany

The Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (Leopold George Duncan Albert; 7 April 1853 – 28 March 1884) was a member of the British Royal Family, a son of Queen Victoria and Albert, Prince Consort.  Leopold was later created the Duke of Albany, Earl of Clarence and Baron Arklow. He was diagnosed with haemophilia as a baby, which later led to his death as an adult after slipping on the floor.

1853 births
1884 deaths
British royalty
House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Mother Goose

Mother Goose is thought to be the most famous author of nursery rhymes. Some people say that the real "Mother Goose" lived in New England or France 300 years ago. A book of poems for children entitled Mother Goose's Melody was published in England in 1781, and the name "Mother Goose" has been associated with children's poetry ever since.

Related pages
 Poetry

References 

Poetry
Tripe

Tripe is part of an animal's stomach often served as food.

References 

Animal anatomy
Offal
Fruiterer

A fruiterer is a fruit seller. Fruiterer known also as "greengrocer"

References

Food-related occupations
Jig

A jig is a lively dance.

References

Dances
Flemish

Flemish might mean:

Anything related to the Flemish Region in Belgium (often called Flanders)
Flemish language
Flemish people, an ethnic group in Europe, mostly from the Flemish Region

Related pages
Flemish Brabant
Ischaemia

In medicine, ischaemia is when the blood supply is blocked or restricted. This is usually caused by problems in the blood vessels, and causes damage to the body.  It may also be spelled ischemia or ischæmia. It comes from the Greek words, isch- to restrict and hema or haema meaning blood.

References

Other page
Anoxia

Diseases and disorders of the cardiovascular system
Angina pectoris

Angina pectoris (angina of the heart) is pain which is due to ischaemia of the heart muscle.  A common cause of angina pectoris is when the heart is working harder than normal e.g. during exercise.

Heart disease
Wahhabi

Wahhabi (الوهابية) or Wahhabism is the conservative form of Sunni Islam practised in Saudi Arabia and Qatar. People think Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab, an 18th century scholar, started this belief. He wanted to see a return to the practices of the first three generations of Islamic history.

Some definitions or uses of the term Wahhabi Islam include:
 "a corpus of doctrines, but also a set of attitudes and behavior, derived from the teachings of a particularly severe religious reformist who lived in central Arabia in the mid-eighteenth century". Gilles Kepel. 
 "pure Islam that does not deviate from Sharia law in any way and should be called Islam and not Wahhabism". Prince Salman bin Abdul Aziz, the governor of the Saudi capital Riyadh.
 "a misguided creed that fosters intolerance, promotes simplistic theology, and restricts Islam's capacity for adaption to diverse and shifting circumstances". David Commins, paraphrasing opponents' definition.

Related pages 
 Salafi

Other websites 
 Wahhabism -Citizendium

References 

Islamic denominations
Muawiyah I

Muawiyah I (602-680) was a deeply controversial figure in Islam. He was the nephew of Uthman, and founded the Umayyad dynasty. He was also the rival of Ali.

References 

Muslims
602 births
680 deaths
Bell tower

A bell tower (also belfry or campanile) is a tower which contains one or more bells, or which is designed to hold bells, even if it has none. They are usually built at a height that allows the sound to be heard at some distance. 

There are different ways to make the bells in a bell tower ring. In many cases, the bell is rung by pulling on a rope that is joined to the bell, making it swing on a hinge and the clapper hit the bell. Another way is to use a keyboard called a carillon. Sometimes, the bells are controlled by a clock mechanism or a computer. This lets them ring at certain times without the need for a human to do it.

History 
There are no examples of bell towers in antiquity. The first to use a bell tower in a church was Paulinus of Nola, about the start of the 5th century. Bell towers in Italy have almost always been plain vertical towers not attached to a building (). From the beginning, bell towers in northern Europe have been attached to churches. They were known of in England at least by the time of Bede. When Hilda, Abbess of Whitby died (680 AD), a nun reported hearing the sound of a bell. Bell towers are repeatedly mentioned during the 8th century. One was the campanile of St. Peter's Basilica at Rome.

Bernini's bell towers 
Gian Lorenzo Bernini was Pope Urban XIII's choice to design and build twin bell towers on the front of St. Peter's. His first tower shifted and large cracks appeared. Work on the second tower stopped. Bernini was blamed and called incompetent. When Pope Urban died in 1644 it was not decided what to do about the tower disaster. It was a major setback for Bernini's career and for the future of church bell towers. It was later discovered the ground under the towers was not stable. The towers were torn down. Bernini went on to have an otherwise brilliant career.

References 

Bells
Towers
Muezzin

A muezzin is a man who calls muslims to prayer from the minaret of a mosque. 

He leads the call (adhan) to Friday service and the five daily prayers (also known as the salat) from one of the mosque's minarets. Blind people often got the position; this is so that they could not see the places where women gathered. Today, many mosques have electronic amplification, and the muezzin no longer needs to be on the minaret. 

In the city of Abu Dhabi, the call to prayer is coordinated, all mosques transmit the call of the muezzin of Sheikh Zayed Mosque. The idea for a similar system in Cairo failed in 2004.

References

Islam
Religious occupations
Iqama

Iqama () is the second call to Islamic Prayer. It is given immediately before the prayer begins.

Islam
Aleppo

Aleppo ( ['ħalab], , ) is a city in northern Syria.  From 2012 to 2016 it was a battlefield in the Syrian civil war.  

In 2010 it had an official population of 4.6 million. Then, Aleppo was the largest Syrian city. After 2010, however, Aleppo is probably the second-largest city in Syria after the capital Damascus.

Aleppo is one of the oldest continuously lived in (lived in all the time) cities in the world. People may have arrived in the 6th millennium BC. 

There was a large earthquake near Aleppo in 1138.

References
Mihrab

The Mihrab () is a niche in the wall of a mosque. It indicates the qibla (the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca, the direction that Muslims should face when praying). The wall in which a mihrab appears is the "qibla wall."

Islamic architecture
Culver City, California

Culver City is a city in western Los Angeles County, California. It is known for being the headquarters of NPR West and Sony Pictures and was at one time home to studios for NFL Network.

References
Majority rule

Majority rule is a way of making decisions in government or in voting. A decision is made if it gets more than half of the votes. Majority rule is often used in referendums, which is when voters decide if they want to make a law by voting yes or no.

Majority rule is not the same as a plurality vote. In Plurality voting, which is often used in elections, whoever gets the most votes wins. With a plurality vote, the winner can have fewer than half of the votes if there are more than two choices. Elections for the house of Commons and many similar parliamentary bodies are done by plurality.

The U.S uses a plurality rule in their presidential elections.

Some people have criticized majority rule because it can lead to the tyranny of the majority which is not true democracy, where people who are the majority might vote for something that helps them but hurts the people in the minority or may even cause the negation of universal human rights, like Enabling Act. To prevent them, limit of constitutionalism and rule of law are established by German Constitution, as well as Council of Europe and European Union. This was also used in Greek voting.

References

Voting systems
Jama Masjid

The Jama Masjid, also known as the Masjid-i Jahān-Numā (, which translates as the 'World-reflecting Mosque') is the principal mosque of Old Delhi in India.

Mosques in India
Mughal architecture
1656 establishments
17th-century establishments in India
2006 Jama Masjid explosions

The 2006 Jama Masjid explosions were two explosions that occurred in the courtyard of Jama Masjid, a 17th-century mosque in Old Delhi (India) on April 14, 2006.

Disasters in India
2006 in Asia
2000s in India
Babri Mosque

The Babri Mosque (, ), or Mosque of Babur was a mosque in Ayodhya, India. It was constructed by order of the first Mughal emperor of India, Babur, in Ayodhya in the 16th century. 

Statues of Hindu deities were kept in the mosque overnight and claimed by hindus as the birth place of lord Rama. 

Later, the site was declared disputed by the court. The mosque i destroyed in 1992 when a Rally of Hindus entered to the Ayodhya. 

After the demolition of the Babri Mosque there was violence between Muslims and Hindus. On 27 September 2010 an Indian High Court (Allahabad High Court) decided that the Mosque was built on the Shri Ramlala Temple which was destroyed by Babar. Allahabad High Court decided to split the site into three parts.

Other websites

Mosques in India
Mughal architecture
16th-century establishments in India
1992 disestablishments
1990s disestablishments in Asia
20th-century disestablishments in India
1527 establishments
1520s establishments in Asia
Wudu

Wudu ( al-wuū',  ābdast, ,  wazū') is the Islamic act of washing parts of the body using water. It is necessary to do this before one prays.

Wudu

Islamic culture
Maliki

The Maliki (Arabic مالكي) madhhab is one of the four schools of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam. It is the third-largest of the four schools. It is followed by about 15% of Muslims. Most of them are in North Africa and West Africa. 

Islamic denominations
Madh'hab

Madhhab or in Urdu Mazhab (Arabic مذهب [mæðhæb] pl. مذاهب [mæðæːhıb]) is an Islamic school of law, or fiqh (religious jurisprudence). Sunni Islam has four of them.

Islam
Masjid al-Haram

Al-Masjid al-Ḥarām (  "The Sacred Mosque"), is the largest mosque in the world. It is in the city of Mecca. It surrounds the Kaaba (the place which Muslims face while offering daily prayers). It is considered the holiest place on Earth by Muslims. The mosque is also known as the Grand Mosque. This mosque has nine minarets. Like Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina, it also has undergone many renovations and expansions. The latest expansion was during King Fahd's reign. Further expansion was planned by the former ruler, King Abdullah.

References 

Mecca
Mosques in Saudi Arabia
Religion in Saudi Arabia
7th-century establishments in Asia
1571 establishments
Islamic calligraphy

Islamic calligraphy, also known as Arabic calligraphy, is the art of artistic handwriting, and by extension, of bookmaking. It is both an art, and a practical way of writing.

Arabic calligraphy may be found on tiles and other ornaments. The text usually comes from the Koran (Qur'an).

Styles 
The different styles of Arabic writing mostly derive from early versions of the Koran. There are geometric styles such as Kufic, and cursive (flowing) styles like Naskh, Thuluth, and Muhaqqaq.

Gallery

References

Wolfgang Kosack: Islamische Schriftkunst des Kufischen. Geometrisches Kufi in 593 Schriftbeispielen. Deutsch – Kufi – Arabisch. Christoph Brunner, Basel 2014, .

Islamic culture
Writing
Decorum

Decorum (from the Latin: "proper, fit, becoming") was a principle of classical rhetoric, poetry and theatrical theory. 

Poetry
Carsten Niebuhr

Carsten Niebuhr or Karsten Niebuhr (March 17, 1733 – April 26, 1815) was a German mathematician, surveyor, cartographer, and explorer.

Niebuhr was the son of a Hanoverian farmer. He was self-educated. He travelled throughout the Middle East including Arabia, Persia (Iran), Syria and India. He was the only surviving member of a Danish/German team after the others died from illness and malaria. He wrote at least two books on his trips to the region which were later translated in to English and published in two volumes in the 1790s. Later editions were published around 1825.

Niebuhr’s maps of the region including Sinus Persicus,  made about 1765 of the Persian Gulf is considered one of the most accurate of his time and was used for nearly 100 years.

Other websites
Travels in Arabia is an old book from 1892 that talks about Carsten Neibuhr's travels

1733 births
German mathematicians
1815 deaths
Madrasa

Madrasa (, madrasa pl. , madāris) is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, secular or religious (of any religion). It is variously transliterated as madrasah, madarasaa, medresa, madrassa, madraza, madarsa, madrasseh, etc.

Educational institutions
Umar

The Kaaba March () was held towards the Kaaba in Mecca in the year 616 CE, led by Umar ibn al-Khattab. The purpose of the march was to advocate the permission for the Muslims to openly pray at the Kaaba.

Background 
In 616, Umar went to assassinate the Islamic prophet Muhammad. On his way to murder the leader, Umar met his close friend Nu'aym ibn Abd Allah, who had become a Muslim. Nu'aym warned Umar not to attack Muhammad. Nua'ym also informed Umar that the latter's sister Fatima and her husband Sa'id ibn Zayd had secretly converted to Islam. Umar arrived at his sister's house and heard her reciting the Quran. He physically attacked Fatima and then later went towards the House of Arqam, where Muhammad had resided. According to Sunni Islamic tradition, Muhammad had prayed to God that Islam be strengthened either with Umar ibn al-Khattab or Amr ibn Hisham, better known as Abu Jahl to Muslims.

Umar knocked at the House of Arqam, whereupon Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib opened the door and asked permission from Muhammad to let Umar in. The Muslims were frightened, as Umar's fierceness was well-known in the society. Muhammad allowed Umar to enter and Umar declared his faith as a Muslim. On Umar's conversion, the Muslims celebrated and Muhammad said 'God is the Greatest' (Allah Hu Akbar). Umar suggested to Muhammad that the Muslims should pray publicly at the Kaaba, as the Muslims were prevented from the Meccan polytheists to do so. Muhammad accepted this advise and Umar then led the march towards the Kaaba.

March 
Few hours after his conversion, Umar led the march towards the Kaaba with a group of Muslims, including Muhammad, his relatives Ali and Hamza, close friend Abu Bakr, son in-law Uthman and others. When the Qurayshite polytheists saw Umar in the lead, they thought that Umar brought these Muslims as prisoners. However, Amr ibn Hisham told that Umar had embraced the new faith.

After arriving at the Kaaba, Umar announced that he had become a Muslim publicly in front of the polytheists. He recited the Shahada, which made the polytheists furious. Utba ibn Rabiah attacked Umar, though Umar severely beated and injured Utba, who then fled. According to some accounts, the polytheists assembled under Amr ibn Hisham and escaped from the Kaaba. Umar then openly prayed at the Kaaba, while Amr ibn Hisham and Abu Sufyan watched angrily. At this stage Umar even challenged anyone who dared to stop the Muslims from praying, although no one dared to interfere with Umar when he was openly praying. From that day, the Muslims started to openly pray at the Kaaba.

Aftermath and legacy 
In late 616, the Meccan polytheists, furious because of the event, declared a total boycott on the Banu Hashim (Muhammad's clan).

References

Bibliography
Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld

Prince Frederick Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (German Friedrich Josias von Sachsen-Coburg-Saalfeld) (26 December 1737 – 26 February 1815) , was a famous general of the Habsburg Emperors.

Born at Schloß Ehrenburg in Coburg, he was the youngest son of Duke Francis Josias, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Anna Sophie, Princess of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt.

Josias joined the Habsburg military as Colonel in 1759. After participating in the Seven Years' War, he rose to the rank of Lieutenant Field Marshal by 1773. In the Russo-Turkish-Austrian war of 1788, he commanded an army corps under Freiherr von Laudon, occupying Moldavia, capturing Khotyn in Bessarabia and sharing in Aleksandr Suvorov's success in the Battle of Focşani (August 1, 1789). Having completely beaten the main Ottoman army under Grand Vizier Koca Yusuf Pasha in the Battle of Rymnik, he captured the greater part of Wallachia, including Bucharest, being welcomed by the population after the flight of Prince Nicholas Mavrogenes. Soon after that, he became a Field General.

During the occupation of Moldavia, Josias met Therese Stroffeck, a regular person. On September 24, 1789, in the town of Roman, she gave birth to a son. The son's name was Frederick. Josias married Therese after their return to Coburg, on December 24. He then said that he was the father of Frederick. Frederick was ennobled by the Austrian Emperor on August 25, 1808. On February 17, 1853 the Duke Ernst II of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha created him Freiherr von Rohmann, named after the place of his birth. But Frederick, because he was born before his parents were married, did not inherit the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld.

In 1793 and 1794, Josias commanded the army in the Austrian Netherlands during the Flanders Campaign. Because of his victories in the French Revolutionary Wars (in the Battle of Neerwinden (1793) and the Battle of Aldenhoven (1794)), he returned the region to Austrian control. Entering France, he took Condé, Valenciennes, Quesnoy and Landrecies. However, due to poor positioning he suffered a string of minor setbacks. This poor positioning was caused by disunity amongst the Allied powers and their forces. His army than suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Fleurus (26 June).

After these losses, Josias left the Netherlands. Habsburg diplomats had already decided to give up the region, anyway. Upset by both this and  the policies of the Baron Thugut, Josias resigned as Field Marshal. The Count of Clerfayt took over the position. Josias then went to Coburg, where he later died.

1737 births
1815 deaths
2006 al-Askari mosque bombing

This article is about the bombing that took place in 2006. For the later bombing see 2007 al-Askari mosque bombing

The 2006 al-Askari mosque bombing occurred at the al-Askari mosque in the Iraqi city of Samarra, on February 22, 2006, at about 6:55 a.m. local time.

2006 crimes
2006 in Asia
2000s explosions
21st century in Iraq
Attacks on mosques
Attacks on religious buildings and structures in Asia

Explosions in Asia 
February 2006 events
Terrorist incidents in the 2000s
Jumu'ah

Jumu'ah () (also known as jum'ah, Friday prayer, etc.) is a congregational prayer (salat) that Muslims hold every Friday, just after noon in dhuhr.

Islam
Sunrise

Sunrise is the instant at which the upper edge of the Sun appears above the horizon in the east. It is the time when the twilight of night changes to morning. Its opposite is the sunset. 

Parts of a day
Hanafi

The Hanafi  (Arabic الحنفي) school is the oldest of the four schools of law (Madhhabs) or jurisprudence (Fiqh) within Sunni Islam.

Schools of Islamic law
Baitul Mukarram

Baitul Mukarram (; The holy house) is the national mosque of Bangladesh.

References

Mosques in Bangladesh
Dhaka
National symbols of Bangladesh
Musalla

al-Musallā, Arabic:  (al-musallā) is the name for an open space outside a mosque that is mainly used for praying. The words is derived from the verb  (sallā) which means to pray.

References

Islam
Shafi`i

The Syafi'i (Arabic: الشافعي) or Shafi'i is one of the four schools of jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, third largest by population, and it was founded by Imam Syafi'i.

It is practiced in this Asian and African parts:

South Asia: Maldives, Sri Lanka and most of South Indian states including Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh comes with Maharashtra, along with the largest city Mumbai.

Southeast Asia: Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, southern Philippines and Thailand.

Western Asia: Eastern part of Turkey, large parts of Hadramawt, and Levant.

Africa: Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique.

Islam
Islamic denominations
Indonesia
Hanbali

Hanbali () is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam. It is based on the interpretation of Ahmad ibn Hanbal and is influential in Saudi Arabia. 

Schools of Islamic law
Minbar

A minbar (also called mimbar sometimes, ) is a special place in a mosque. It is used by the Imam to speak to the congregation, to deliver sermons. Usually, minbars are raised (to be higher than the crowd, much like pulpits); These sermons are usually called khutbah ( خطبه ). In a minbar, the speaker is standing while he is giving the lecture. An alternative to this is to have a Hussainia where the speaker can sit down while giving the lecture. 

Very often, the minbar is shaped like a small tower. The minbar is located to the right of the mihrab, the niche that indicates the direction of prayer (i.e. towards Mecca).

Other websites 

Islamic architecture
Iman (concept)

Not to be confused with Imam, a prayer leader in Islam
Iman () is an Islamic term usually translated as "belief or faith". It is often used to refer to the strength of conviction in a Muslim.

Islam
Maghrib

Maghrib () is the fourth daily salat in Islam, offered at sunset.

Islam
Voter registration

Voter registration is needed in some democracies for citizens and residents to check in with some central registry so that they will be allowed to vote in elections. In Australia, for example, everyone over the age of 18 must register with the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC). Their names are then added to the electoral roll, a list of all people able to vote in future elections. Part of the AEC's job is make sure everyone who is allowed to vote is listed on the roll. They also have to make sure that people who have died are removed from the lists.

References

Voting systems
Petition

A petition is a request to change some thing. They are often made to a government official or public entity.  Petitions to a deity are a form of prayer.

Legal
Petition can also be the title of a legal pleading that initiates a legal case.  The initial pleading in a civil lawsuit that seeks only money (damages) might be called (in most U.S. courts) a complaint. An initial pleading in a lawsuit that seeks non-monetary or "equitable" relief, such as a request for a writ of mandamus or habeas corpus, custody of a child, or probate of a will, is instead called a petition. A petitioner is a person who pleads with governmental institution for a legal remedy or a redress of grievances, through use of a petition.

Law
Religion
Texaco Cup

The Texaco Cup was an association football competition in England.

Winners 

Finals played over two legs except 1973-74, aggregate score given.

Football competitions in the United Kingdom
Rous Cup

The Rous Cup was an association football competition in the second half of the 1980s.  It was contested between England, Scotland and, in later years, a guest team from South America.

Football competitions in the United Kingdom
Taça de Portugal

The Taça de Portugal (Translation: Cup of Portugal) is an association football competition. It is the cup competition for teams from Portugal. S.L. Benfica is the most successful team in this cup. They have won 26 Taça de Portugals, with their most recent win happening in 2017. 

Football competitions in Europe
Football in Portugal
Finsbury Park Mosque

The Finsbury Park Mosque, also known as the North London Central Mosque, in Finsbury Park, London, is a mosque that was built in the 1990s to serve the large Muslim population in the area.

References

Buildings and structures in London
London Borough of Islington
Mosques
Primeira Liga

Primeira Liga is a football league which is top division in Portugal.

2020–21 clubs
Belenenses SAD
Benfica
Boavista
Braga
Famalicão
Farense
Gil Vicente
Marítimo
Moreirense
Nacional
Paços de Ferreira
Portimonense
Porto
Rio Ave
Santa Clara
Sporting CP
Tondela
Vitória de Guimarães

Football leagues
Football in Portugal
1934 establishments in Europe
20th-century establishments in Portugal
Peaceful coexistence

Peaceful coexistence was a theory developed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War that said that capitalist states could 'accept' each other. The idea of peaceful coexistence came from before the Communist leader Stalin’s death, as Georgy Malenkov called for it in 1952 but it was more clear after Stalin’s death in 1953 where destalinization (removing the personality and politics of Stalin) began.

References

Cold War
International relations
History of the People's Republic of China
Peace
UEFA Cup Winners' Cup

The UEFA Cup Winners' Cup was an association football club competition which took place every year between winners of all European domestic cup competitions. The first competition was held in the 1960–61 season, and the last in 1998–99.  The competition was then abolished to make way for a further expansion to the UEFA Champions League, with domestic cup winners now gaining entry into the UEFA Cup.

Football competitions in Europe
UEFA
1960 establishments in Europe
1999 disestablishments in Europe
Shiraz

Shiraz is an important city in Southern Iran. About 1.4 million people live there. Shiraz is the fourth biggest city in Iran by population, and is the capital of Fars Province.

Cities in Iran
Fars Province