cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
EDVAC

EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was one of the first electronic computers. Unlike the computer before it, the ENIAC, EDVAC operated in binary and was able to store programs.

Functionally, EDVAC was a binary serial computer with automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication, programmed division and automatic checking with a capacity of 1,000 44-bit words. EDVAC's average addition time was 864 microseconds and its average multiplication time was 2,900 microseconds.

By 1960, EDVAC was running over 20 hours a day with error-free run time averaging eight hours. EDVAC ran until 1961 when it was replaced by BRLESC. During its operational life it proved to be reliable and productive for its time.

Computers
Naked singularity

In general relativity, a naked singularity is a gravitational singularity that is viewable from the outside. The event horizon is like a bubble which surrounds a black hole. Inside the event horizon, the pull of the light cannot escape, so we are unable to view objects inside the event horizon. This includes the event horizon itself. Naked singularities do not have an event horizon, hence the term 'naked'.

The existence of naked singularities is a very important topic in physics, because it would mean we could actually see phenomena made by black holes that we wouldn't be able to see otherwise. In addition, naked singularities would pose big problems for general relativity, since scientists still have not figured out a working idea for what happens to space-time in and around a black hole. Quantum mechanics, the main other scientific theory scientists turn to in physics, is also unable to explain how space-time would behave in such a situation.

Although the cosmic censorship hypothesis says that naked singularities cannot exist, some research says that if loop quantum gravity (a scientific theory that says the universe is made of small 'loops') is correct, naked singularities could exist in nature. Other calculations and arguments have been made to support this.

Possible formation

There are black holes known as Kerr black holes which have spin (they rotate). But, there is a maximum spin rate. If it spins faster than that maximum, its horizon disappears, leaving the singularity inside it wide open.

Mathematician Demetrios Christodoulou has shown that naked singularities also occur in nature. However, he then showed that such "naked singularities" are unstable.

References

Further reading 
 M. C. Werner and A. O. Peters, "Magnification relations for Kerr lensing and testing cosmic censorship", Physical Review D, Vol. 76, Issue 6 (2007).
 Marcus Chown, "Fast-spinning black holes might reveal all"  New Scientist, August 2009.

 Pankaj S. Joshi, "Naked Singularities" Scientific American, May 2013.

Black holes
Relativity
United States Statutes at Large

The United States Statutes at Large, commonly referred to as the Statutes at Large and abbreviated Stat., is the official record of Acts of Congress and concurrent resolutions passed by the United States Congress. Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law (abbreviated Pub.L.) or private law (Pvt.L.), and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws (now commonly called session laws) are compiled into Statutes at Large, which are numbered and organised by Congress session. They are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws (Statutes at Large), and codification (United States Code).

References 

Law
United States law
Civil Rights Act of 1875

The Civil Rights Act of 1875 (–337), sometimes called Enforcement Act or Force Act, was a United States federal law enacted during the Reconstruction era to guarantee African Americans equal treatment in public accommodations, public transportation, and to prevent being excluded from jury duty.  The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875.  Several years later, the Supreme Court ruled in Civil Rights Cases (1883) that sections of the act were unconstitutional.

History of Act

Legislative History
The drafting of the bill was done in early 1870 by Senator Charles Sumner. It was with the assistance of John Mercer Langston, a prominent African-American who established the law department at Howard University. The bill was proposed by Senator Sumner and co-sponsored by Representative Benjamin F. Butler, both Republicans from Massachusetts, in the 41st United States Congress in 1870. The act was eventually passed by the 43rd Congress in February 1875 and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875.

Constitutional challenge

The Supreme Court, in an 8 to 1 decision, declared the act unconstitutional in the Civil Rights Cases on October 15, 1883. Justice John Marshall Harlan provided the lone dissent. The Court held the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination by the state and local government, but it does not give the federal government the power to prohibit discrimination by private individuals and organizations. The Court also held that the Thirteenth Amendment was meant to eliminate "the badge of slavery," but not to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last civil rights bill to be signed into law in the United States until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957.

Legacy of law
The Civil Rights Act of 1875 is notable as one of the major pieces of legislation related to Reconstruction that were passed by Congress after the American Civil War.  These include the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the four Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and 1868, the three Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871, and the three Constitutional Amendments adopted between 1865 and 1870.

Provisions contained in the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later adopted by Congress during the Civil Rights Movement as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. This legislation relied on the Commerce Clause contained in Article One of the Constitution of the United States.

References

1875
1870s in the United States 
United States law
Garner v. Louisiana

Garner v. Louisiana, , was an important civil rights case argued by Thurgood Marshall before the Supreme Court. On December 11, 1961, the court unanimously ruled that Louisiana could not convict peaceful sit-in protesters who refused to leave dining establishments under the state's "disturbing the peace" laws.

Background
African-American students from Southern University sat at a "whites only" segregated lunch bar at Sitman's Drugstore in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The manager called the Police after the students quietly remained even though they were asked to move to another counter. After ordering the black patrons to leave, the Police arrested them and charged them with disturbing the peace. The claim was that their behavior could "foreseeably disturb or alarm the public," according to the state's "disturbing the peace" statute.

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People defended the student demonstrators as did the Kennedy administration's Justice Department, which filed a legal brief on their behalf.

Opinion of the Court 
In a 9-0 decision, the court ruled in the African-American students' favor, arguing the state violated due process of law under the Fourteenth Amendment and finding there was no evidence the students' behavior could have foreseeably disturbed the peace. In his written opinion, Justice John Marshall Harlan compared sit-in demonstrations to verbal expression as a form of free speech. 
Justice William O. Douglas in his concurring opinion said, “For the police are supposed to be on the side of the Constitution, not on the side of discrimination. Yet if all constitutional questions are to be put aside and the problem treated merely in terms of disturbing the peace, I would have difficulty in reversing these judgments. I think, however, the constitutional questions must be reached and that they make reversal necessary.” 

Garner v. Louisiana was an important case for the Civil Rights Movement, and one of many civil rights cases argued before the Warren Court (1953-69). 
Eventually, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 "outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce."

References

1961 in the United States
1960s in Louisiana
United States Supreme Court cases
Federal judiciary of the United States

The federal judiciary of the United States is one of the three co-equal branches of the Federal government of the United States organized under the United States Constitution. Article III of the Constitution requires the establishment of a Supreme Court and permits the Congress to create other federal courts, and place limitations on their jurisdiction. Article III United States federal judges are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate to serve until they resign, are impeached and convicted, retire, or die.

Courts
The federal courts are composed of three levels of courts. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court. It is generally an appellate court that operates under discretionary review, which means that the Court can choose which cases to hear, by granting of writs of certiorari. There is generally no right of appeal to the Supreme Court. In a few situations (like lawsuits between state governments or some cases between the federal government and a state) it sits as a court of original jurisdiction.

The United States courts of appeals are the intermediate federal appellate courts. There are 13 appellate courts that determine if the law was applied correctly in trial courts. In some cases, Congress has diverted appellate jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review.

There are 94 United States district courts. These are general federal trial courts, although in many cases Congress has diverted original jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Court of International Trade, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, the Alien Terrorist Removal Court, or to Article I or Article IV tribunals. The district courts usually have jurisdiction to hear appeals from such tribunals (unless, for example, appeals are to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit.)

References
Biological half-life

A half life of a substance is the amount of time it takes to decay into half of its activity. Usually, this refers to the body's getting rid of a substance. This happens by the function of kidneys and liver as well as excretion.

Related pages 
Half-life (element)

Physiology
Der Barbier von Bagdad

Der Barbier von Bagdad (The Barber of Baghdad), is an German comic opera with music and libretto by Peter Cornelius. It is based on "The Tale of the Tailor" and "The Barber's Stories of his Six Brothers" in One Thousand and One Nights. It was first performed in Weimar, on December 15, 1858. By far Cornelius' most successful work and his only opera still regularly performed.

Principal characters

 Nureddin - tenor
 Bostana - mezzo-soprano
 Abdul Hassan Ali Ebn Bekar, the barber - bass
 Margiana - soprano
 Baba Mustapha, the Cadi - tenor
 The Caliph - baritone

Discography
 1952: Rudolf Schock (Nureddin), Hilde Rössl-Majdan (Bostana), Gottlob Frick (Abdul Hassan), Sena Jurinac (Margiana); Chor und Orchester Radio Wien, Heinrich Hollreiser - (Melodram)
 1956: Nicolai Gedda (Nureddin), Grace Hoffmann (Bostana), Oskar Czerwenka (Abdul Hassan), Elisabeth Schwarzkopf (Margiana); Philharmonia Chorus and Orchestra, Erich Leinsdorf - (EMI Classics)
 1973: Adlabert Kraus (Nureddin), Trudeliese Schmidt (Bostana), Karl Ridderbusch (Abdul Hassan), Sylvia Geszty (Margiana); Chor des Bayerischen Rundfunks, Münchner Rundfunkorchester, Heinrich Hollreiser - (RCA Records)
 1974: Horst R. Laubenthal (Nureddin), Marga Schiml (Bostana), Hans Sotin (Abdul Hassan), Helen Donath (Margiana); Kölner Rundfunkchor, Kölner Rundfunk-Sinfonieorchester, Ferdinand Leitner - (Profil)

Sources

 The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993. 

operas
Marcelo Martins Moreno

Marcelo Martins Moreno (born 18 June 1987 in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia), known as Marcelo Martins or Marcelo Moreno, is a Bolivian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Cruzeiro and the Bolivia national football team.

Honours

Club
Vitória
Campeonato Baiano: 2005, 2007

Cruzeiro
Campeonato Mineiro: 2008, 2014
Campeonato Brasileiro Série A: 2014

Shakhtar Donetsk
UEFA Cup: 2008–09
Ukrainian Premier League: 2010–11

Flamengo
Copa do Brasil: 2013

Individual
Copa Libertadores de América Top Goalscorer: 2008

1987 births
Living people
Bolivian footballers
CRISPR

CRISPR is a term in DNA research. It stands for clustered regularly-interspaced short palindromic repeats. These are part of the genetic code in prokaryotes: most bacteria and archaea have it. It is their defence against attack by viruses. Its structure and function was discovered in the 21st century.

CRISPR has a lot of short repeated sequences. These sequences are part of an adaptive immune system for prokaryotes. It allows them to remember and counter the bacteriophages which prey on them. They work as a kind of acquired immunity for bacteria.

They can modify the genes of almost any organism. They are used by researchers as a tool to cut and insert genes in genetic modification (GM). Work is under way to find how they can be used to attack virus diseases in humans (gene therapy).

How it works 
Each repetition is followed by short segments of "spacer DNA". These come from previous exposures to a bacterial virus or plasmid. CRISPR spacers recognize and cut up the foreign genetic elements in a manner like RNA interference in eukaryotic organisms.

In effect, the spacers are fragments of DNA from viruses that have previously tried to attack the cell line. The foreign source of the spacers was a sign to researchers that the CRISPR/cas system could have a role in adaptive immunity in bacteria.

The actual cutting is done by a nuclease called Cas9. Cas9 has two active cutting sites, one for each strand of the DNA's double helix. Cas9 does this by unwinding foreign DNA and checking whether it is complementary to the 20 basepair spacer region of the guide RNA (the spacer region RNA). If it is, the foreign DNA gets chopped up.

Applications 
CRISPR is an anti-viral defensive system which originated in bacteria and archaea. Gene editing is a human exploitation of CRISPR.

The technology has been used to switch off genes in human cell lines and cells, to study Candida albicans, to modify yeasts used to make biofuel and to genetically modify crop strains.

The CRISPR-Cas9 system cuts DNA, but can do more. It can turn gene expression on and off, and can be used to fluorescently tag particular sequences.

Nobel award 
The development of the CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing technique was recognized by the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 2020 which was awarded jointly to Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna.

References 

Genetic engineering
Immunology
Prokaryotes
DNA
Tayap

Tayap is a small village in Cameroon. It is  from Yaoundé, the capital city. It is  from Douala, the biggest city of the country.

The climate is equatorial. It is usually hot, . It is often wet. There are four different seasons.

In 2005, 272 people lived in Tayap. The village has a primary school. It has 4 classrooms.

Most people work in agriculture. They produce manioc, bananas, oranges, mangoes, vegetables, peanuts, cocoa and palm oil.

The village is surrounded by a large forest but deforestation is a major problem in this area.
 
Since 2011 Tayap focuses on biodiversity and ecology. It tries to develop new activities such as tourism.

References

Other websites 

 Agripo

Settlements in Cameroon
Villages in Africa
Ordinary least squares

Ordinary least squares or linear least squares is a method for estimating unknown parameters in statistics. It is a method used in linear regression. The goal of the method is to minimize the difference between the observed responses and the responses predicted by the linear approximation of the data. A smaller difference means that model fits the data better. Ordinary least squares is a special case of a method commonly called least squares.  The resulting estimator can be expressed by a simple formula.

Statistics
Mathematical approximation
Justice of the peace

A justice of the peace (JP) is a judicial officer, elected or appointed to a local court that has limited jurisdiction. In some locations a JP deals with traffic violations, parking tickets and may have the authority to perform marriages ceremonies. In many places they are the entry-level courts that most criminal cases pass through. JP courts were popular in early history, but are now found mostly in rural areas. Otherwise people would have to travel longer distances to other courts of law.

History 
In 1195, a proclamation of Richard I of England local knights were appointed to keep order. In 1264, "Keepers of the Peace were appointed in every county to serve the king. Such men were called "Justice of the Peace" beginning in about 1362. When colonists came to British North America they brought with them the common law system that included JPs. In France, "Lords of the Court" administered justice. After 1789, justices of the peace were elected.

Requirements 
While the requirements vary from one jurisdiction to another, generally, to become a JP there are few if any educational requirements. An application is filled out and usually there is a fee. Justices may be chosen by their qualifications and references. Many have law degrees while others may have taken a few law classes.

References

Other websites 
 Justice of the Peace, Texas Association of Counties
 How to Become a Justice of the Peace in Canada
 Justice of the Peace in Australia
 Becoming a Magistrate in England and Wales

Law
Garry Shandling

Garry Emmanuel Shandling (November 29, 1949 – March 24, 2016) was an American comedian, actor, writer, producer and director. He was best known for his work in It's Garry Shandling's Show and The Larry Sanders Show.

Early life
Shandling was born Garry Emmanuel Shandling in Chicago, Illinois on November 29, 1949. He was raised in Tucson, Arizona. He studied at the University of Arizona.

Career
Shandling began his career in 1975. He started writing for sitcoms such as Sanford and Son and Welcome Back, Kotter. He began his career in comedy when he was on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and was on the show many times. 

Shandling was for a thought to replace Carson (other hopefuls were Joan Rivers, David Letterman and David Brenner). In 1986, he created It's Garry Shandling's Show, for the pay cable channel Showtime. It was nominated for four Emmy Awards (including one for Shandling) and lasted until 1990. His second show, The Larry Sanders Show, which began airing on HBO in 1992, was even more successful. 

Shandling was nominated for 18 Emmy Awards for the show and won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series in 1998, along with Peter Tolan, for writing the series finale. In movies, Shandling had the same role as Senator Stern in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, appearing in Iron Man 2 and Captain America: The Winter Soldier, as well as a voice in DreamWorks Animation's Over the Hedge.

His last movies were Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2015) and The Jungle Book (2016).

Personal life
Shandling was in a relationship with Linda Doucett from 1987 through 1994. He lived in Los Angeles, California.

Death
Shandling died in Los Angeles from a pulmonary embolism caused by thrombosis in his leg on March 24, 2016. He was aged 66.

Awards
During his career, Shandling was nominated for 19 Primetime Emmy Awards and two Golden Globe Awards, along with many other awards and nominations. He served as host of the Grammy Awards four times and as host of the Emmy Awards three times.

References

Other websites

 
 
 
 Garry Shandling on Charlie Rose  via Google Video (2006)
  in 2002
 AllMovie.com: Garry Shandling
 Museum of Broadcasting: It's Garry Shandling's Show / The Larry Sanders Show 
 Filmbug.com: Garry Shandling

1949 births
2016 deaths
Actors from Chicago
Actors from Tucson, Arizona
American movie actors
American television actors
American television directors
American television presenters
American television producers
American television writers
American voice actors
Comedians from Arizona
Comedians from Chicago
Writers from Tucson, Arizona
Writers from Chicago
Emmy Award winners
Deaths from pulmonary embolism
Deaths from thrombosis
Mount Kenya

Mount Kenya is the highest mountain in Kenya. It is  high. It is the second highest mountain in Africa. It is an extinct volcano. It is on the equator. It is  northeast of Nairobi.

References

Geography of Kenya
Mountains of Africa
Flame fougasse

A flame fougasse (fougasse or foo gas) is a type of mine or improvised explosive device. It uses an explosive charge to put burning liquid onto a target.

The flame fougasse was developed in Britain as an anti-tank weapon in the World War II invasion crisis of 1940. During that period, about 50,000 flame fougasse barrels were put in some 7,000 batteries. Most were in southern England and some in Scotland. Although never used in combat in Britain, the design saw action later in Greece.

References 

Weapons
World War II
Case citation

Case citation is a system used by legal professionals to identify past court case decisions. These are found either in series of books called reporters or law reports, or in a neutral style that identifies a decision regardless of where it is reported. Case citations are formatted differently in different jurisdictions, but generally contain the same key information.

A legal citation is a "reference to a legal precedent or authority, such as a case, statute, or work, that either agrees with or contradicts a given position". Where cases are published on paper, the citation usually contains the following information:
 Report title
 Volume number
 Page, section, or paragraph number
 Publication year

In some report series, for example in England and Australia, volumes are not numbered independently of the year. So the year and volume number (usually no greater than 4) are required to identify which book of the series has the case reported within its covers. In such citations, it is usual in these jurisdictions to apply square brackets "" to the year (which may not be the year that the case was decided, For example, a case decided in December 2001 may have been reported in 2002).

The Internet brought with it the opportunity for courts to publish their decisions on websites. Decisions of many courts from all over the world can now be found through the website WorldLII and its member institutes.

Most court decisions are not published on paper. The large number of court decisions found online  resulted in a flood of information. The result was that a medium-neutral citation system was adopted.  This usually contains the following information:
 Year of decision
 Abbreviated title of the court
 Decision number (not the court file number)
Rather than utilizing page numbers for "pinpoint references", which would depend upon particular printers and browsers, pinpoint quotations refer to paragraph numbers.

The conjunction "versus" is abbreviated to "v" in Commonwealth countries and to "v." in  the United States.

Pronunciation of case titles

In common law countries with an adversarial system of justice, the names of the opposing parties are separated in the case title by the abbreviation v. The abbreviation represents the Latin word versus, which means against. When case titles are read out loud, the v. can be pronounced, depending on the context, as and, against, versus, or vee.

References 

Law
Barisal Zilla School

Barisal Zilla School is a boys school located in Barisal, Bangladesh. It is one of the oldest and top ranked high schools in the country and the first high school in Barisal Division.

It was founded by an Englishman, N. W. Garret, on 23 December 1829 with only 8 students. Now it has more than two thousand students.

Notable alumni 
Barisal Zilla School produced many leading local reformers, politicians, statesmen, educationists, philosophers, poets-writers, and sportsmen. Those notable persons include:

 Sher-e-Bangla A. K. Fazlul Huq, Bengali nationalist and statesman 
 Abdul Jabbar Khan, former speaker
 Abdur Rahman Biswas, former president of Bangladesh
 Altaf Mahmud, music composer
 Sardar Fazlul Karim, scholar, academic, philosopher and essayist
 Buddhadeb Guha, writer 
 Lieutenant General Hasan Mashhud Chowdhury, ex-chief of Army staff

References

Barisal
Education in Bangladesh
1829 establishments
Establishments in Bangladesh
19th-century establishments in Asia
Schools in Bangladesh
Boynton v. Virginia

Boynton v. Virginia, , was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. On December 20, 1958, Bruce Boynton, a senior at Howard Law School, left Washington, D.C. on a bus to go home for Christmas to Montgomery, Alabama. At the bus terminal in Richmond, Virginia he entered the restaurant and sat in the "white only" section.  For refusing to leave, he was arrested and convicted for violating a Virginia statute making it illegal for anyone "without authority of law" to remain after being forbidden to do so. He then appealed the conviction to the Supreme Court of Virginia. He maintained “that his conviction violated the Interstate Commerce Act and the Equal Protection, Due Process and Commerce Clauses of the Federal Constitution.” But the state Supreme Court upheld his conviction.He next petitioned the United States Supreme Court for certiorari. The U.S. Supreme Court reversed the conviction of the lower court. The Court held that Boynton “had a federal right to remain in the white portion of the restaurant” as the Interstate Commerce Act “forbids any interstate common carrier by motor vehicle to subject any person to unjust discrimination.” Justice Hugo Black delivered the majority opinion.

The decision 
The court ruled in a 7-2 decision in favor of Boynton. It held that interstate passengers were protected by the Interstate Commerce Act and the terminal's restaurant was a part of that facility. In part the decision read:

Effects of "Boynton" 
Justices Tom C. Clark and Charles Evans Whittaker dissented in the 7-2 decision. It was the first time since 1946 the court had split over matters of racial segregation. 

Boynton v. Virginia paved the way and inspired the Freedom Riders to test the new ruling. Black and white riders rode together on Southern racially segregated buses beginning in 1961. After six months of protests and press coverage of the Freedom Riders, The Interstate Commerce Commission outlawed racial discrimination in seating passengers on interstate busses. It ordered the removal of "whites only" signs from all interstate bus terminals.

References

Other websites 
 Boynton v. Virginia,  The 1961 Freedom Rides 
 The Freedom Rides of 1961, Testing Boynton v. Virginia

United States Supreme Court cases
United States law
1960 in the United States
American civil rights
20th century in Virginia
Proof-of-work system

A proof-of-work (POW) system is a system where finding a solution to a given problem is difficult and/or expensive, but verifying the solution to the given problem is simple and/or cheap.

Example

Find the positive integer whose sha256 hash value is:

 c75cb66ae28d8ebc6eded002c28a8ba0d06d3a78c6b5cbf9b2ade051f0775ac4

To find this integer, you must compute the sha256 value for every integer starting with zero until you find the right value. While each individual computation is trivial and cheap, cumulatively the work adds up and becomes time consuming and expensive. To successfully reproduce the given hash value, you must do some work.

Find some data whose sha256 hash value begins with at least 8 leading zeros:

 000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60a8ce26f

In the first example, the problem required the original value as proof that work had been done. In this example, it does not matter what the data is, only that it produces a hash value with the given constraints. Finding this data is difficult, but once found, it is trivial to verify by running it through sha256.

Cryptography
University of Barisal

University of Barisal (  also known as Barisal University or simply BU), is a public university located in Barisal, a city in southern Bangladesh. It is the only general public university in Barishal division and the country's 33rd public university. It was established in 2011 and started educational activities on 25 January 2012.

References

Barisal
Colleges and universities in Bangladesh
2011 establishments in Asia
21st-century establishments in Bangladesh
Barisal Sadar Upazila

Barisal Sadar () is an Upazila of Barisal District in the Division of Barisal, Bangladesh.

Population
The population of Barisal Sadar Upazila is 527,017. Males are 52.72% of the population, and females 47.28%. The population density is about 1625 people per km².

References

Subdivisions of Bangladesh
Peristalsis

Peristalsis is a process of contraction and relaxation of the muscle around parts of the alimentary canal.Or Peristalsis is a series of wave of contraction that Pass from one end to other

The most familiar example of this is in the oesophagus. In the oesophagus, peristalsis pushes the ball of food down the oesophagus. The smooth muscle of the oesophagus contracts and relaxes in sequence, and this pushes the ball of food down the oesophagus.

The muscle is worked by a nervous mechanism called the "migrating motor complex". This works in one direction only, and also works in the lower regions of the digestive system.

Digestive system
Institut supérieur de l'aéronautique et de l'espace

The Institut supérieur de l'aéronautique et de l'espace (ISAE-SUPAERO; ) is a renowned graduate engineering school in France. It is in a campus of the University of Toulouse (South France).

Its different curricula lead to the following French & European degrees :
 Ingénieur SUPAERO (SUPAERO Graduate engineer Masters level program)
 Master of Science & Doctorat (PhD doctorate studies )
 Mastères Spécialisés (MS) (In partnership with the French Civil Aviation University)
 Massive Online Open Course

Academic activities and industrial applied research are performed mainly in French and English languages. Students from a lot of nationalities participate to the different curricula at SUPAERO.

Most of the 1600 graduate engineer students at ISAE-SUPAERO live in dedicated residential buildings nearby research labs and metro public transports.

History 
The school results from the École nationale supérieure de l'aéronautique et de l'espace (created In 1909) and the École nationale supérieure d'ingénieurs de construction aéronautique (created in 1946).

Admission 
Admission to the Supaero engineering Programme implemented at ISAE is possible after two/three year scientific undergraduate studies and requires success to either:
 an admission exam for Bachelors of Sciences ;
 a French nationwide selective exam with numerus clausus : concours Mines-Ponts (3-year curriculum including at least 2 years in France)
 a selective application as per Top Industrial Managers for Europe (TIME) double degrees procedures applicable in Europe (2+2-year curriculum, including 2 years in France)

The Supaero Programme typically lasts three years and results in a master's degree, augmented with international experience. Thus undergraduate studies + the Supaero Programme account for more than a cumulated 300 ECTS credits as applicable in the European education system.

However, graduate students enrolled in the TIME double degree procedure are required to spend two-years at ISAE and spend two years in the TIME-partner institute for a total of four years resulting in a double master's degree.

Research labs 
Research activities at ISAE relate to the following topics:
 Aerodynamics, energetics, propulsion
 Mechanics of structure and materials
 Electronics, optronics and signal
 Mathematics, computer science, automatics
 Languages, arts, cultures, societies
 Aeronautics and Space Centre

Notable graduate 
 Guy du Merle, French aerospace engineer, pilot and writer

References

Further reading 

 Official website

Technical colleges and universities in Toulouse
1909 establishments in France
Libertarian Party (Spain)

The Libertarian Party (Spanish: Partido Libertario or P-LIB) is a Spanish political party. It was formed in 2009. It is currently led by Juan Pina.

The party believes in classical liberalism and that government should stay out of economics. They also believe in objectivism. They believethat governments should only be able to protect people from violence, theft, fraud, and other actions that go against people's rights. The party is open to some more libertarian and anarcho-capitalism ideas. There are two groups within the party; the Objectivist and Radicals. Most party members aren't involved with these groups.

The party took part in the 2011 Spanish general election in Madrid and Zaragoza. They received about 7,000 votes to the Senate and over 2,000 (0.01 %) to the Congress.

Other websites 
Official website (in Spanish)

References 

Libertarian parties
Political parties in Spain
European Canadians

European Canadians (sometimes called Euro-Canadians) are Canadians with ancestry from Europe. As of 2011, there were 25,186,890 European Canadians in Canada.

The French were the first Europeans to live in Canada permanently. Hélène Desportes was the first "white" person born in New France. She was born in 1620.

In 2006, most European Canadians had English ancestry (21.03%). Other common ancestries were French (15.82%), Scottish (15.11%), Irish (13.94%), German (10.18%) then Italian (4.63%). However, 32.22% of people said they had Canadian ancestry. Because of this, some people think the numbers for the English and French ancestry are too low.

Most European Canadians are Christian. A small number of them are Jews, Deists, Agnostics, Atheists, Muslims, Bahá'ís, Paganists/Wiccas and Unitarian Universalists. Most also speak English and French.

References 

Ethnic groups in Canada
Latin American Canadians

Latin American Canadians are Canadians with ancestry from Latin America. They may also be called "Latino Canadian" and "Latin Canadian". As of 2011, there were 381,280 Latin American Canadians in Canada.

Most Latin American Canadians speak two or more languages. They usually speak Spanish and/or Portuguese along with English and French.

A lot of Latin American Canadians came to Canada in the late 20th century. They came to Canada because it has better economic opportunities than their native country. Some Cubans came to Canada to escape Fidel Castro's regime. Other Latino Americans left their country because Canada offered freedom from war.

In 2011, most Latin American Canadians had Mexican ancestry (18.6%). Other common ancestries were Colombian (16.2%), Salvadoran (11.7%), Peruvian (7.1%), Chilean (6.7%) and Brazilian (6.1%).

Almost all Latino American Canadians are Christian.

References 

Ethnic groups in Canada
Polearm

Polearms were long sticks that had a blade on the side. They were similar to an axe, but much longer. They were also used by women in ancient Japan.

Weapons
Sher-e-Bangla Medical College

Sher-e-Bangla Medical College (SBMC), is a government medical school in  Bangladesh, established in 1968. It is located in Barisal.

History
Construction began on the college on 6 November 1964, at that time it was known as Barisal Medical College.

Campus
There are three hostels for male students and two for the female students. Both male and female intern doctors have each one hostel for them.

Photo Gallery

References

Barisal
1968 establishments
Colleges and universities in Bangladesh
Diaeresis

The diaeresis (plural: diaereses) is also spelled diæresis or dieresis. It is a diacritical mark: two dots ( ¨ ) put over a letter, usually a vowel.

It is most often used in this way:

With a diacritic, one vowel is sounded separately from its neighbour. So, in the word zöology, it is pronounced as a long 'o' followed by a short 'o'. Without the diaeresis, it might be pronounced like the word 'zoo'. It is sometimes described as "two vowel sounds occurring in adjacent syllables". It is often used in names where the last vowel is sounded, as in Chloë or Brontë.

Umlauts: A diacritic above a vowel can mark a sound shift, forming a new letter (Ä, Ö, Ü).

Notes 

Punctuation
2015–16 La Liga - Results of first round

This is the Results of the first round of 2015–16 La Liga.

Results

2nd round

3rd round

5th round

7th round

8th round

9th round

11th round

12th round

13th round

14th round

16th round

19th round 

La Liga
Football in Spain
2015 in association football
2016 in association football
Château de Saint Cloud

The Château de Saint Cloud was a château in Paris, France. It was sometimes called the Palace of Saint Cloud. It was burned down during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. It was once a private property of Queen Marie Antoinette. Since December 2006, there has been a movement to rebuild the Château de Saint-Cloud.

Early history

The building was originally called the "he Hôtel d'Aulnay". In the 16h century, it was expanded into a château by the Gondi banking family. The estate was in the hands of the Gondi family till 1658. At that time it was bought by Philippe of France, Duke of Orléans, the only brother of Louis XIV of France. The estate remained the personal property of the descendants of Philippe of France. It was a country residence, as opposed to the Palais Royal in the center of Paris.

Queen Marie Antoinette
After negotiating for a long time, the Château de Saint-Cloud was bought in 1785 by Louis XVI. He bought it for Marie Antoinette. She thought that the air of Saint-Cloud would be good for her children. Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, who had not visited the château since his morganatic marriage to his mistress Madame de Montesson, sold it for 6,000,000 livres. Marie Antoinette started changing Saint-Cloud in 1787-1788. She used her preferred architect Richard Mique. He had also decorated parts of the Palace of Versailles for the queen.

Emperor Napoléon III

During the Second Empire, Emperor Napoléon III and Empress Eugénie held their imperial court at Saint-Cloud during the spring and the autumn. There was also a reception for Queen Victoria in honour of her 1855 visit to France. In 1859, a model railway was built in the private park. It was built for Napoléon, Prince Imperial, the 3-year-old son of emperor Napoléon III,.

Other websites

Napoléon III et la reine Victoria. Une visite à l’Exposition Universelle de 1855
 Official site of the Domaine National de Saint-Cloud

Buildings and structures in Paris
Essential oil

An essential oil is a liquid from a plant. Essential oils contain chemical compounds that are useful for their scent. They are used in aromatherapy. Perfumes are made with essential oils.

Around the world, essential oils are being studied in modern clinical trials to test ancient claims of healing. They are being studied for their effectiveness as antibacterial agents, fungicides, insecticides, pain relief, stress reduction, and skin problems.

Name

The name essential oil comes from theories in the Middle Ages of a fifth element. People than believed that there were four basic elements that everything was made of: fire, water, air and earth. The elusive "soul" of things was called the quintessential element or the fifth element. Over time, quintessential was shortened to essential. Alchemists said that this element could change iron to gold. Some believed it held the planets in their orbits.

Producing the essential oil
Most essential oils today are steam distilled. This process separates out the aromatic essential oils from the solid plant matter. With steam distillation, it can take thousands of pounds of plant matter to create just one liter of essential oil.

Other methods include expelling and solvent extraction. Expelling is using pressure to squeeze the essential oil out of the plant. This method is generally used for citrus oils. Solvent extraction uses substances such as carbon dioxide to extract the essential oil. This method is used for delicate plants such as rose and jasmine, which can be too fragile to go through the distillation process.

Plants
Chemical compounds
Oils
Birch

A birch tree is a thinleaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus Betula. They are in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams.

Betula contains 30 to 60 species of which 11 are on the IUCN 2011 Green List of Threatened Species. They are usually rather short-lived pioneer species widespread in the Northern Hemisphere.

References 

Trees
Betulaceae
Joseph Weizenbaum

Joseph Weizenbaum (8 January 1923 - 5 March 2008) was a German-American mathematician and computer scientist. He was born in Berlin. He became famous for writing the program ELIZA, which simulated a doctor, in the 1960s. He also became well-known for having a critical attitude to what computers can and should do. Weizenbaum died of a stroke at age 85, in 2008.

1923 births
2005 deaths
German mathematicians
Scientists from Berlin
Benjamin Franklin Tilley

Benjamin Franklin Tilley (March 29, 1848 in Bristol, Rhode Island – March 18, 1907 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) was an admiral in the US Navy who served in the American Civil War and the Spanish-American War. He was also governor of American Samoa.

1848 births
1907 deaths
Admirals
American military personnel of the Spanish-American War
Governors of American Samoa
Military personnel of the American Civil War
Politicians from Rhode Island
Deaths from pneumonia
Black Hills

The Black Hills are a small mountain range from the Great Plains of North America in South Dakota.

Native Americans have a long history in the Black Hills. After conquering the Cheyenne in 1776, the Lakota took over the territory of the Black Hills. 

In 1868, the U.S. government signed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868. This exempted the Black Hills from all white settlement forever. 

But, when European Americans discovered gold there in 1874, miners swept into the area in a gold rush. The US government reassigned the Lakota, against their wishes, to other reservations in western South Dakota. Unlike most of South Dakota, the Black Hills were settled by European Americans from population centers to the west and south. Miners flocked there from earlier gold boom places in Colorado and Montana.

As the economy shifted from mining and logging, the tourism industry has grown. The Black Hills have two areas: "The Southern Hills" and "The Northern Hills". The Southern Hills is home to Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Wind Cave National Park, Jewel Cave National Monument, Harney Peak (the highest point in the United States east of the Rockies), Custer State Park (the largest state park in South Dakota, and one of the largest in the US), the Crazy Horse Memorial (the largest Mountain sculpture in the world), and the Mammoth Site in Hot Springs, the world’s largest mammoth research facility.

Mountain ranges of the United States
Mountains of the United States
Corn Palace

The Corn Palace is an arena in Mitchell, South Dakota. The designs on the buildings are covered in corn and other grains.

The Corn Palace has concerts, sports events, exhibits and other community events. Each year, the Corn Palace is celebrated with a citywide festival, the Corn Palace Festival. Historically it was held at harvest time in September, but now it happens in August. Other popular annual events include the Corn Palace Stampede Rodeo in July and the Corn Palace Polka Festival in September. It is also where the Dakota Wesleyan University Tigers and the Mitchell High School Kernels basketball teams play their games.

References

Other websites 

 Corn Palace Convention & Visitors Bureau
 Corn Palace Stampede Rodeo
 Corn Palace Fan Site

South Dakota
Buildings and structures in the United States
Chaplain–Medic massacre

The Chaplain-Medic massacre was a crime in the Korean War. It happened on a mountain in South Korea. Thirty unarmed, and critically wounded United States Army soldiers and an unarmed chaplain were killed by people of the North Korean army during the Battle of Taejon.

Korean War
Knossos

Knossos is a Bronze Age archaeological site on the island of Crete. It is at modern Heraklion. It may be Europe's oldest city.

Many Roman coins found on the site had 'Knosion' or 'Knos' on one side, and an image of a Minotaur or Labyrinth on the reverse. These are symbols from the myth of King Minos, supposed to have reigned at Knossos.

The excavations at Knossos began in 1900 by the English archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans (1851–1941) and his team. They worked there for 35 years. The palace was excavated and partly restored. It was large. The team discovered two ancient scripts, called Linear A and Linear B. From the layering of the palace, Evans developed an idea of the civilization that used it, which he called Minoan. The palace was built over a previous Neolithic town. During the Bronze Age, the town surrounded the hill on which the palace was built.

The palace was abandoned at some unknown time at the end of the late Bronze Age, c. 1380–1100 BC, for reasons which are not known.

References 

Islands of Greece
Archaeological sites in Europe
Imre Nagy

Imre Nagy (7 June 1896 - 16 June 1958) was a Hungarian communist politician. He was born in Kaposvár. He was chairman on two occasions. He was executed by hanging in Budapest.

1896 births
1958 deaths
Communist politicians
Hungarian politicians
People executed by hanging
Lee Trevino

Lee Buck Trevino (born September 1, 1939) is a retired American professional golfer who was born in Dallas, Texas.

1939 births
Living people
American golfers
Sportspeople from Dallas, Texas
China National Space Administration

The China National Space Administration (CNSA) is the national space agency of China, and is based in the Haidian District. It is in charge of the national space program and of managing different space-related activities.

Space agencies
China
Magasa, Crete

Magasa, Crete is a settlement on Crete.

Crete
Settlements in Greece
Mamba

A mamba is a fast-moving venomous snakes of the genus Dendroaspis (means "tree asp"). It belongs to the Elapidae family.

They are native to Africa. The black mamba is one of the well-known species and is also the most feared. Other members include the eastern green mamba, western green mamba and Jameson's mamba.

Behavior 

Most mambas are arboreal, meaning they live in trees. The only exception is the black mamba, which lives on land. All mamba species hunt during the day. They prey on birds, lizards and small mammals.

There are many stories of mambas chasing humans, but these snakes usually prefer to avoid contact with humans. Humans are actually their main predators, rather than prey.

Because mambas and cobras are in the same family, they share some similarities. Like the cobra, a mamba might display a hood when threatened. However, a mamba's hood is more narrow and is longer. A mamba usually opens its mouth when threatened, so they lean forward unlike the cobra which usually stands erect.

Venom 

All mambas are very venomous. Their venom is mostly comprised of neurotoxins, which attack the nervous system. The venom can also contain cardiotoxins (which damage the heart muscle) and fasciculins (which cause muscle twitches).

The toxicity of the venom varies. Changes in the toxicity can even be caused by the weather or altitude.

All mamba species have similar venom, but the black mamba has the most toxic venom and is more aggressive. 

Untreated black mamba bites are fatal.

References 

Elapidae
Chanel

Chanel is a French fashion company created by  Coco Chanel (19 August 1883 – 10 January 1971).

It designs clothing, perfumes, luxury goods and jewellery, usually of simple design. It is widely known for the "little black dress" and Chanel No. 5 perfume.

1909 establishments in France
French fashion houses