cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
United States Coast Guard

The United States Coast Guard is one of the 5 branches of the military of the United States.  It is a part of the United States Department of Homeland Security. The Coast Guard's purpose is to protect the people, environment, industry and security of the United States on seas, lakes and rivers.  To do this, the Coast Guard uses boats, ships, helicopters and airplanes to stop smuggling and other crime and terrorism, and to rescue ships and boats in danger.

The Coast Guard traces its roots back to the United States Revenue Cutter Service, which was created by Congress on 4 August 1790. As such, the Coast Guard is the oldest continuous seagoing service of the United States. 

The modern United States Coast Guard was started on January 28, 1915. This is when the U. S. Congress ordered the United States Revenue Cutter Service and the United States Life-Saving Service to merge into a single service. The Coast Guard can become part of the Department of the Navy during war, but it is not now. It became part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security in 2003.

History 
The U.S. Revenue Cutter Service (USRCS) was set up in 1790 when President George Washington signed an act allowing the building of 10 boats called "cutters". The service was first suggested in a letter by Alexander Hamilton as a way to collect tariffs which were being lost to smuggling. They were also tasked with making sure shipments of goods from the United States were getting through to markets in other countries. The first Coast Guard station was in Newburyport, Massachusetts. Until the re-establishment of the Navy in 1798, the Revenue Cutter Service was the only naval force of the early United States. 

The modern Coast Guard can be said to date to 1915, when the Revenue Cutter Service merged with the U.S. Life-Saving Service when Congress formalized the existence of the new organization. In 1939, the Lighthouse Service was brought under the Coast Guard's purview. In 1942, the Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation was transferred to the Coast Guard.
In 1967, the Coast Guard moved from the U.S. Department of the Treasury to the newly formed U.S. Department of Transportation, an arrangement that lasted until it was placed under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security in 2003 as part of legislation designed to more efficiently protect American interests following the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001.

In times of war, the Coast Guard or individual components of it can operate as a service of the Department of the Navy. This arrangement has a broad historical basis, as the Coast Guard has been involved in wars as diverse as the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, and the American Civil War, in which the cutter Harriet Lane fired the first naval shots attempting to relieve besieged Fort Sumter. The last time the Coast Guard operated as a whole within the Navy was in World War II. More often, military and combat units within the Coast Guard will operate under Navy or joint operational control while other Coast Guard units will remain under the Department of Homeland Security.

Notes

References 

 
1790 establishments in the United States
Sean Paul

Sean Paul Ryan Francis Henriques (born 9 January 1973), otherwise known as Sean Paul, is a Jamaican reggae and dancehall musician. Paul played himself in the 1998 movie Belly. In 2000 he released his first album, Stage One. In 2003 Paul had his first number one single. He rapped on Beyoncé Knowles' 2003 number one single "Baby Boy". In 2003 he also rapped on Blue Cantrell's UK number one single "Breathe". In 2006 Paul rapped in Rihanna's single "Break It Off". He rapped on Pitbull's 2011 single "Shake Señora" with T-Pain. Paul's sixth album Full Frequency will be released on February 18, 2014. The first single off the album, "Other Side of Love", was released to iTunes on September 10, 2013. It reached number one in the UK R&B Chart. Full Frequency includes songs with Nicki Minaj, 2 Chainz, Juicy J, and Iggy Azalea.

Discography 
 Stage One (2000)
 Dutty Rock (2002)
 The Trinity (2005)
 Imperial Blaze (2009)
 Tomahawk Technique (2012)
 Other Side of Love (2014)

Awards 
 2004: Grammy Award - Best Reggae Album (Dutty Rock)
 2005: Billboard Music Award - Best selling Reggae Artist of the Year
 2005: Billboard Music Award - Top Selling Reggae Album of the Year (The Trinity)
 2006: Priya Awards - Best Hardman
 2006: American Music Awards- Favorite Pop/Rock Male Artist
 2006: Billboard Music Awards - Hot 100 single of the year "Temperature"
 2007: Jamaican Awards - Best male reggae singer
 2012: MTV Video Music Awards Japan - Best Reggae Video
 2012: MOBO Awards - Best Reggae Act
 2013: MOBO Awards - Best reggae act

References

Other websites 
 Official site
 

Grammy Award winners
Jamaican singers
Reggae musicians
1973 births
Living people
Bamberg (district)

Bamberg (; Main-Franconian: ) is a district in Bavaria, Germany. About 145,000 people live there.

Coat of arms

Towns and municipalities 
(in 2007)

Towns

Market Towns

Municipalities

Verwaltungsgemeinschaften (Collective Municipalities)

References

Other websites 

Official website (German)
Links to municipalities

 
Districts of Bavaria
Theo Jörgensmann

Theo Jörgensmann (born Bottrop, 29 September 1948) is a German jazz clarinet player and composer.

Discography
 Contact 4tett Loud Enough To Rock The Kraut (2015)
 Cinemascope  Oriental Traces  (2010)
 Trio Hot Jink (2009)
 Oles Jörgensmann Oles Live in Poznan 2006 (2007)
 Theo Jörgensmann Fellowship (2005)
 Theo Jörgensmann Quartet Hybrid Identity (2002)

Other websites 
  Theo Jörgensmann Quartet 
Allmusic Guide

1948 births
Living people
Clarinetists
Jazz composers
Musicians from North Rhine-Westphalia
20th-century German composers
21st-century German composers
Italian Plague of 1629-1631

The Italian Plague of 1629-1631 was a group times when many people in northern Italy caught bubonic plague from 1629 to 1631. This epidemic, often called the Great Plague of Milan, killed about 280,000 people. Very many people died in the cities in Lombardy. This was one of the last outbreaks of the pandemic of bubonic plague that began with the Black Death.

German and French soldiers carried the plague to the city of Mantua in 1629 because of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). Venetian troops, infected with the disease, retreated into northern and central Italy, spreading the disease to more people.  

In October 1629, the plague reached Milan, Lombardy's commercial center. In the city Milan, it killed about 64,000 people, which was 25% of Milan's people.  It killed between 12% and 60% of all the people in Italy. The papal city of Bologna lost an estimated 15,000 citizens to the plague, with neighboring smaller cities of Modena and Parma also being heavily affected. This outbreak of plague also spread north into Tyrol, an alpine region of western Austria and northern Italy. 

Later outbreaks of bubonic plague in Italy include the city of Florence in 1630-1633 and the areas surrounding Naples, Rome and Genoa in 1656-1657.

References
 Cipolla, Carlo M. Fighting the Plague in Seventeenth Century Italy.  Madison:  University of Wisconsin Press, 1981.
 Prinzing, Freidrich. Epidemics Resulting from Wars.  Oxford:  Clarendon Press, 1916.

1620s in Europe
History of Italy
Plague pandemics
1630s in Europe
1629
1630
1631

it:Peste#La peste del Nord Italia del 1630
Zama

Zama can be:

Places
Zama, Kanagawa, a city of Kanagawa prefecture, Japan
Zama City is a hamlet in Alberta, Canada

Other places
Camp Zama, a United States Army base in Kanagawa prefecture, Japan
Other name of Tulum, a Maya site in Mexico
Zama Lake is a large lake in northern Alberta, Canada

Other meanings
Battle of Zama fought in Zama Minor
Zama alloy is a name for an alloy made of zinc, aluminium, copper and magnesium
Zama, a Spanish/Argentinean film
Norwich

Norwich is the county city of Norfolk, a county in the East of England. In 2005, 127,600 people lived in Norwich. It is one of the oldest cities in England.

Norwich International Airport provides many flights out of the city, internationally to places such as Amsterdam, Spain and also other locations within the United Kingdom.

Norwich is the biggest settlement in East Anglia, after Ipswich, located in Suffolk.

 
County towns in England
Pir Sultan Abdal

Pir Sultan Abdal (ca. 1480 - 1550) was an Alevit poet. Alevits are the members of the Alevitism, a faith community in Islam. He lived in Turkey and wrote his poems in Turkish. In his poems, he used a direct and clear language. The richness of his thoughts and the beauty of his writing made him very popular to the Turks and Kurds and also the members of the Suni sect of Islam. Pir Sultan Abdal wrote about the social, cultural and religious life of the people. He was a humanist, and wrote about love, peace, death and God. He was also rebellious against Ottoman Empire.

Poetry

References 

1480 births
1550 deaths
Poets
Cuneiform

Cuneiform script is one of the earliest known systems of writing. It used wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets, made by a reed stylus. The name cuneiform itself means "wedge shaped", from the Latin cuneus "wedge" and forma "shape". It came into English usage probably from the Old French cunéiforme.

It was first used in Sumer in the late 4th millennium BC (the 'Uruk IV' period). Cuneiform writing began as a system of pictographs. In the third millennium, the signs became simplified and more abstract. Fewer characters were used, from about 1,000 in the early Bronze Age to about 400 in late Bronze Age (Hittite cuneiform). The system  used a combination of phonetic, consonantal alphabetic (no vowels) and syllabic signs.

The original Sumerian script was adapted for the writing of the Akkadian, Eblaite, Elamite, Hittite, Luwian, Hattic, Hurrian, and Urartian languages, and it inspired the Ugaritic and Old Persian alphabets. Cuneiform writing was gradually replaced by the Phoenician alphabet during the Neo-Assyrian Empire. By the 2nd century BC, the script was extinct. All knowledge of how to read it was lost until it began to be deciphered in the 19th century.

References 

Writing systems
Mesopotamia
Menes

Menes was a pharaoh of the first dynasty of ancient Egypt. He lived ca. 3100-3000 BC. He brought together Upper and Lower Egypt to make an empire. He wore the Pschent or double crown: the white crown of Upper Egypt and the red crown of Lower Egypt. He built the city of Memphis and made it the capital.

There is extensive archeological evidence that there was a pharaoh named Narmer, but little evidence for Menes.  It is now believed that Menes was either Narmer, his predecessor, or Hor-Aha who ruled after him.

More than 2000 years later Manetho, an Egyptian historian, wrote that Menes ruled for 62 years and was killed by a hippopotamus.

An image of Menes holding an ankh is on the frieze on the south wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building.

References 
 Kinnaer, Jacques. What is Really Known About the Narmer Palette?, KMT: A Modern Journal of Ancient Egypt, Spring 2004.
Toby A. H. Wilkinson, Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge, London/New York 1999, , 70-71

Notes

Other websites 
Narmer: Titulary

Pharaohs
Jim Morrison

James Douglas (Jim) Morrison (December 8, 1943 - July 3, 1971) was an American musician. He was the lead singer of rock band The Doors.

Early years 
Morrison was of English, Scottish and Irish descent. His father was an officer for the United States Navy. This meant that he moved around very often. Morrison did not have many friends and read many books. When he went to high school in 1962, his teacher was amazed by his culture. In 1964 he went to the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA).

The Doors of Perception 
One day in Venice Beach, Morrison saw Ray Manzarek. Manzarek had also gone to UCLA. Morrison sang some verses of Moonlight Drive. Manzarek liked the intensity of the words to the song and asked Morrison to form a rock band with him. Morrison agreed and came up with the name "The Doors". The name was a reference of the Aldous Huxley book The Doors of Perception whose name came from a verse of the famous poet William Blake; "If the doors of perception were cleansed everything would appear to man as it is, infinite."). The Doors was formed by Jim Morrison, Ray Manzarek, John Densmore and Robby Krieger. In the beginning, Morrison would sing without looking the audience. After a while, he learned the play with them instead. He would jump and fall at stage with screams and jokes, inspired by rock idol Nick Serven.

The Lizard King 
Morrison became very famous all over the world as a poet, singer and sex symbol. Morrison had a problem with alcohol. He drank a lot and later albums were not as good as the first one. He wrote more poems and thought about stopping his career with The Doors. He took some drugs (mainly LSD) and become an addict. In 1969, in Miami, it was said that he was drunk and "exposed" himself.

My only friend, the end 
The last album, L.A. Woman was released in 1971. It is thought to be one of the band's best albums. That year Morrison decided to take a break and go to Paris. The July 3, he was found dead in his bathroom. The cause of his death is still not clear. Some believe that his heart failed or it was an overdose. Other people think it could have been a murder. His grave is at the Père-Lachaise, at the same place as Oscar Wilde, Molière and many other great poets and authors.

Other websites 

 The Doors Official Webpage
 MusicChain - Jim Morrison
 Earliest film of Jim Morrison
 Morrison interviewed at the Miami trial (video) 

American rock singers
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
American musicians
Singers from Florida
1943 births
1971 deaths
Ian Thorpe

Ian Thorpe (born 13 October 1982 in Sydney, New South Wales) is an Australian swimmer. He won five gold medals at Olympic Games. He was the only swimmer who has won six gold medals in one World Championships (which he did in 2001) until Michael Phelps won seven in 2007.  He is known for having large feet. At the age of 14, he became the youngest male ever to represent Australia,

A large baby, Thorpe weighed 4.1 kg (9.02 lb) and measured 0.59 m (1 ft 11 in) in length at birth.

On 12 July 2014, Thorpe revealed he is gay.

References

Other websites

1982 births
Living people
Australian LGBT people
Australian Olympic bronze medalists
Australian Olympic gold medalists
Australian Olympic silver medalists
Australian swimmers
Gay men
LGBT Olympians
Sportspeople from Sydney
Cathy Freeman

Cathy Freeman, OAM (born 16 February 1973) is a retired Australian sprinter. She ran mostly in the 400 metres event. She became the Olympic champion for the women's 400 metres at the 2000 Summer Olympics. She lit the Olympic Flame at the beginning of the 2000 games. She has won several medals at the Commonwealth Games, the Olympics, and the IAAF World Championships. She retired from athletics in 2003.

Freeman was born in Slade Point, Mackay, Queensland. She is Aboriginal. Her mother was born in the Manbarra community on Palm Island. Freeman was raised as a Bahá'í.

In 1998, she was awarded Australian of the Year. In 2001, she was given both the World Sportswoman of the Year and the Medal of the Order of Australia.

References

Other websites

1973 births
Living people
Australian Olympic gold medalists
Australian Olympic silver medalists
Bahá'ís
Commonwealth Games medallists
Indigenous Australian sportspeople
Order of Australia
Sportspeople from Queensland
World champions
Australian athletes
Amun

Amun was one of the eight ancient Egyptian gods who formed the Ogdoad of Hermopolis. He was the god of the air and his consort was Ament (Amaunet).

In Egyptian mythology, Amun was a very powerful god. He was often combined with Ra to form the god Amun-Ra. At one point in Egyptian history, he was called the "King of the Gods".

Amun (also spelled Amon, Amoun, Amen, and sometimes Imen, Egyptian Yamanu) was the name of a deity, in Egyptian mythology, who became one of the most important deities in Ancient Egypt. In later years, bined with Horus into one god.

He began as a Theban wind and fertility god and ended up the supreme deity, with most of Egypt's vast wealth dedicated to his temple. Around the second millennium B.C.E., Thebes and its cult of Amun grew so powerful that it threatened worship of the sun god, Ra. The two deities merged. Amun-Ra was hailed as a national god, the creator of the universe, the pharaoh's personal protector, and the god of war.

Origin of name
Amun's name is first recorded as imn. That means "The hidden (one)". Vowels were not written in Egyptian hieroglyphics, but Egyptologists think the name survives into the Coptic language as Amoun.

Creator

It was thought that he had created himself and then created everything else while remaining distant from the rest of the world. In that sense, he was the original inscrutable and indivisible creator.  

Amun was shown in human form, seated on a throne, wearing on his head a plain deep circlet from which rise two straight parallel plumes, maybe meant as had no father  

 the tail feathers of a bird. That would remind of his earlier status as a wind god. 

When Amun had become more important than Menthu, the local war god of Thebes, Menthu was called the son of Amun. However, as Mut was infertile, it was believed that she, and thus Amun, had adopted Menthu instead.

References
David Klotz, Adoration of the Ram: five hymns to Amun-Re from Hibis Temple (New Haven, 2006therwebAnint gypt: th Myth Clasical Dictionary: 

Egyptian gods and goddesses
Aten

Aten is the disk of the Sun in ancient Egyptian mythology, and an aspect of the Sun-god Ra. Aten was pictured as a sun with rays that ended in hands.

The deified Aten is the focus of the  monotheistic religion of Atenism established by Amenhotep IV, who later took the name Akhenaten in worship and recognition of the Aten. In his poem Great Hymn to the Aten, Akhenaten praises Aten as the creator, and giver of life. Akhenaten was the first person to attempt to make a monotheistic religion.

The worship of Aten was eradicated by Horemheb.

References 

Collier, Mark and Manley, Bill.  How to read Egyptian hieroglyphs. 2nd ed, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.

Egyptian gods and goddesses
Clam

A clam is a type of shellfish. Clams can be found in saltwater and freshwater. This is a common usage term, and so includes quite a variety of shellfish. Clams are a fairly common form of bivalve, therefore making it part of the phylum Mollusc. There are many clams in the ocean, but some can also be found in some lakes, streams, and rivers.

The word 'clam' is often applied to those that are edible and live almost of their lives halfway buried in the seafloor. Clams have two shells of equal size connected by two aductor muscles and have a powerful burrowing foot. 

Clams for cooking do not live attached to rocks (whereas oysters and mussels do). Clams are often got by digging and cooked and served as clam chowder. They may be found on menus in restaurants that serve seafood.

Clams eat plankton, and are eaten by small sharks and squid. 
Clams have a burrowing foot that they use to dig down into the sand or mud to hide.

The shell has three layers. The top one is called mother-of-pearl because it is a coating of pearl material.  

A living freshwater clam can work like a filter in fish tanks to keep the water clean.

Life span 
Some clams have life cycles of only one year, while at least one may be over 500 years old. All clams have two calcareous shells or valves joined near a hinge with a flexible ligament, and all are filter feeders.

References

Other websites

Bivalves
Seafood
Hokkaido Wolf

The Hokkaido wolf (Canis lupus hattai) is a subspecies of Gray Wolf. Scientists believe it became extinct in 1889. There are people who said to have seen some Hokkaido wolves after that year, but there is no proof that they actually did.

In the Meiji Restoration in Japan, Japanese farmers wanted to have American-style ranches for raising livestock. A US farmer named Edwin Dun started to import livestock to Japan. When the wolves began attacking the livestock, the farmers started to kill them, by using poison.

Related pages
 Werewolf

References

Wolves
Sting (disambiguation)

A sting is an injury which a person receives from a stinger. Animals such as bees have them. They tend to hurt a lot and have several different cures.

Sting may also refer to:
Sting, English singer
Sting (wrestler), American professional wrestler

fr:Dard
Type O Negative

Type O Negative was a doom metal band from Brooklyn, New York. The band was started in 1989 and ended in 2010.

Members 
Josh Silver – Keyboards, synthesizer, sound effects, programming and backing vocals
Kenny Hickey – Lead guitars, rhythm guitars and backing vocals
Johnny Kelly – Drums, percussion and backing vocals

Past members
Peter Steele – Lead vocals, bass guitar, guitar and keyboards (died 14 April 2010)
Sal Abruscasto - Drums, persussion and backing vocals

Albums 
Slow, Deep And Hard (1991)
The Origin Of The Feces (1992)
Bloody Kisses (1993)
October Rust (1996)
World Coming Down (1999)
Life Is Killing Me (2003)
Dead Again (2007)

Other websites 
The Official Type O Negative Website 

1980s American music groups
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American heavy metal bands
Doom metal bands
Gothic metal bands
Thrash metal bands
Doom metal

Doom metal is a form of heavy metal. The music sounds heavy and it is slower than other metal genres. Lyrics play a very important part in this genre. They are normally about sad subjects like pain, death and pessimism.

Doom metal bands 
Candlemass
My Dying Bride
Type O Negative
Saint Vitus
Trouble
Pentagram
The Obsessed
Solitude Aeturnus

Heavy metal subgenres
Candlemass

Candlemass is a doom metal band from Sweden. The band was formed in 1984 in Stockholm.

Other websites 
Candlemass Official Website

Swedish heavy metal bands
Doom metal bands
Split album

A split album is a music album which includes tracks by two or three separate artists.
Dividend

Dividends are payments made by a company to its shareholders. When a company earns more money than it spends, the extra money can either be spent on making the company better or it can be given to the people who own stock in the company as a dividend.

Stock market
Income
Camille Dalmais

Camille Dalmais (born 1978, Paris, France) is a French singer. She is famous in France. Her first album was made in 2002.

References

1978 births
Living people
French singers
Age of Mythology: The Titans

Age of Mythology: The Titans is a 2003 computer game made by Ensemble Studios. It is an expansion pack to Age of Mythology.

Real-time strategy video games
2003 video games

pl:Age of Mythology#Age of Mythology: The Titans
Germanicus

Germanicus Caesar (24 May 15 BC – 10 October 19 AD) was a Roman general. He was the son of the general Nero Claudius Drusus, and nephew of Emperor Tiberius.

Germanicus commanded the Roman forces in their campaign of 14/16 AD against the Germanic tribes. Three whole Roman legions had been wiped out in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. It was the greatest disaster in Roman military history.

Plans for the revenge were started by the Emperor Augustus, and put into effect by his successor Tiberius. Germanicus had command of eight legions, one-third of the Roman Army. He destroyed the opposing German tribes, and recovered two of the three symbolic legionary eagles which had been lost. He was called back by Tiberius after he crossed the Rhine. The reasons for the recall are not agreed, but Augustus had set the Rhine as the limit of Rome's ambitions in Germany.

Germanicus was given an official triumph. A contemporary calendar gives 26 May as the day in which "Germanicus Caesar was borne into the city in triumph". Coins issued under his son Gaius (Caligula) depicted him on a triumphal chariot, with the reverse reading "Standards Recovered. Germans Defeated".

In AD 18 he was given charge of the eastern part of the empire. Germanicus died in Syria for unknown reasons.

References 

Roman generals
15 BC births
19 deaths
PS10 solar power plant

The PS10 Solar Power Plant () is a solar power plant in Sanlucar la Mayor, Spain.

The plant is made up of a tower in the center of a large field covered in many mirrors. Each of the 624 moveable mirrors has an area of 120 m2 (1290 ft2). The mirrors reflect the light from the Sun to the top of the tower. The heat warms water within pipes in the central tower turning it into steam. The steam drives turbines which, at their peak, put out 11 MW of electricity.

The planet is good for providing electricity during the hottest parts of the day when air conditioning demand is the highest.

Related pages
Solar power
Power station
Electricity

References 

Buildings and structures in Spain
Solar power plants
2007 establishments in Europe
2000s establishments in Spain
Feyenoord

Feyenoord Rotterdam is a Dutch football team from Rotterdam. They play their home matches in the Feijenoord Stadium, also called De Kuip.  Feyenoord is created on July 19,1908. Their home uniform is a red and white shirt with black shorts and black socks. Their away colours for the 2007/2008 season are a black, red and white shirt with black shorts and black socks. They play in the Eredivisie, which is the highest football competition in The Netherlands. Everytime Feyenoord scores at home, the song I Will Survive by The Hermes House band is played.

Name 
 1908-1909 Wilhelmina
 1909-1909 HFC
 1909-1912 Celeritas
 1912-1973 Feijenoord Rotterdam
 1973-present Feyenoord Rotterdam

League position

Former position

Other websites 

 Feyenoord.com - Official website 
 Official Feyenoord YouTube website 
 Official Feyenoord Live.com website  
 Official website on the club's 100th anniversary 

Dutch football clubs
Rotterdam
1908 establishments in Europe
1900s establishments in the Netherlands
Headquarters

Headquarters is a name given to the main building of an organization where most of its functions are done. All large companies have headquarters which control the business. A large non-governmental organization also has a headquarter from where its activities are controlled. The term is also used regarding military organizations.

Business
Military
Administrative buildings
Estates Theatre

The Estates Theatre or Stavovské divadlo in Prague is one of the oldest and most beautiful opera houses in Europe.

The Estates Theatre became part of the National Theatre in 1948. People from three different groups perform opera, ballet, and drama there. The same people also perform at the National Theatre (Národní divadlo), and the Theatre Kolowrat (Divadlo Kolowrat).

History 

The Estates Theatre was built during the late 18th century. At first it was known as Count Nostitz’s Theatre. The theatre opened in 1783 with a performance of the tragedy Emilia Galotti by the German playwright Gotthold Lessing. It was built in the Neoclassical style. Today it is one of the very few theatres that have hardly changed since it was built.

Although the building is almost the same it always was, the organisation of the Estates Theatre has changed several times in its history. In 1798 it was called the Estates Theatre when it was bought by the Czech Estates. When the Provisional Theatre opened in 1862 the Estates Theatre started to put on German plays and the name was changed to the Royal Provincial German Theatre. From 1920 and 1948 it got its name (Estates Theatre) back again. In 1948 the organization became part of the National Theatre and was called Tyl Theatre (after dramatist J.K. Tyl). In 1990, after some restoration, it became known again as the Estates Theatre.

Productions and artistes 

Many of the greatest artists worked or had their music or plays performed in the Estates Theatre. In 1787 the first performance took place of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's opera Don Giovanni. Mozart's opera La Clemenza di Tito was also staged there for the first time in celebration of the coronation of Emperor Leopold II. Other famous people who conducted there were Carl Maria von Weber and Gustav Mahler. 

Czech plays were often performed there. This made people interested in performing in Czech and so, in 1848, the National Theatre was built.

Today the Estates Theatre is still famous for dramas, ballets and operas. The opera company especially perform the operas of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The movie about Mozart which was called Amadeus was filmed in the Estates Theatre.

Other websites 
 Estates Theatre web site

Opera houses
Theatres
Buildings and structures in Prague
18th-century establishments in Europe
National Theatre (Prague)

The Národní Divadlo or the National Theatre in Prague is a very famous building which has been very important for more than 150 years for the culture of Czech history.

In the middle of the 19th century there were a lot of political changes in Europe.  Prague had been part of the Austrian Empire.  The official language was German.  Bohemia (which included Prague) and Moravia now form the area of the Czech Republic.  In the 19th century the Czechs in these areas wanted to be able to put on plays and operas in the Czech language.  The National Theatre was built at a time when this was starting to become possible.

The National Theatre was built because the Czech people wanted their own national identity. The first stone was laid on May 16, 1868.  It was opened  on June 11 1881 to honour the visit of Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria. Another 11 performances were given after that. Then the theatre was closed down to finish the building.  While people were working to finish it  a fire broke out on August 12 1881 which destroyed most of it.  However, a lot of money was found and it was built again and opened on November 18 1883 with a performance of Smetana’s opera Libuše which he had composed for this occasion.  The story of the opera is based on a mythological story about how Prague began.

It was an excellent theatre, and it was not until 1977 that any more re-building was necessary.  Then it was closed for six years, and opened again in time for the 100th anniversary of its opening: on November 18 1983. On that day again there was a performance of Smetana’s Libuše.

Today the National Theatre has three ensembles (groups of people): opera, ballet and drama.  These ensembles all perform in the National Theatre, the Estates Theatre and the Theatre Kolowrat. They put on a lot of Czech plays and operas, but also productions from other parts of the world.

Other websites 
 Prague National Theatre 

Opera houses
Theatres
Buildings and structures in Prague
1881 establishments in Europe
Drone

Drone can mean:

In nature:
 Drone (bee), a male bee
 A male wasp
 A male ant

In vehicles:
 A unmanned aerial vehicle, often used for target practice or surveillance
 A remotely operated vehicle (ROV), used for mine clearing or underwater exploration
 An unmanned ground vehicle (UGV), a robotic land vehicle often used to replace humans in hazardous situations

In fiction:
 Drone (2017 film)
 A member of the Drones Club in P. G. Wodehouse's novels
 A humanoid that has been assimilated by the Borg in the fictional Star Trek universe
 "Drone" (Voyager episode), an episode of Star Trek: Voyager
 Drone Weapon, similar to a guided missile, in the Stargate universe 
 Three robotic helpers in the movie Silent Running, named Huey, Dewey and Louie
 In the novel The Traveller, the term drones describes a class of citizens that have become exhausted 
 Detective Drone, the hero of Victorian crime stories
 A Zerg worker unit in Starcraft

In music:
 Drone (music), a continuous note or chord
 The part of various musical instruments (such as the bagpipe) that produce the drone sound
 A bumbass, a folk instrument sometimes called a drone
 Drone music, a music style or genre related to background music and ambient music
 Drone Records, a record label
 "Drones," a song by Rise Against
 The Drones, a rock group from Melbourne, Australia
Drone (music)

In music, a drone is a  note which sounds all the time while a piece of music is played.  Some folk instruments always make a drone when they are played: bagpipes and hurdy gurdies in European culture, sitars in Indian music, and many other instruments in Asian and African music.  Sometimes more than one drone is heard (often two notes which are a fifth apart).

Music with drones has to have simple harmonies because it is not possible to modulate to different keys.  Other things can make up for this, for example, Scottish bagpipe music has lots of little ornamental notes to make it interesting.

Some Western Composers  liked to use a drone (especially one in fifths) to make it sound like bagpipes or other folk instruments.  Bach, François Couperin and other Baroque composers often called such pieces "Musette" (the French for "bagpipes").  Sometimes they did this in orchestral music: Haydn used a drone in the last part of his Symphony No. 104 to accompany a folk tune.

Related pages
Pedal point

Musical terminology
Pedal point

A pedal point (or pedal note) is a note which keeps sounding for several bars, usually in the bass (the lowest notes).  They are often used towards the end of a piece of music to help to drive the music to a climax.  They are called "pedal" notes because they are often heard in organ music where the player puts one of his feet on a pedal note and holds it there.

Pedal points are usually on either the tonic (main key note) (tonic pedal) or the dominant (5th note of the scale) (dominant pedal) tones.

A good example of a dominant pedal can be seen in the Prelude in C major from Book I of the Well-Tempered Clavier by Bach.

An example of a tonic pedal can be seen in the third movement of Brahms's German Requiem, where the double basses play continuous D's in the last section.  Because this lasts for the whole section some people might prefer to call this a drone.

A double pedal is two pedal tones played at the same time.

An inverted pedal is a pedal that is not in the bass.  It is often in the highest part.

Related pages
Ostinato
Drone (music)
Pedal (music)

Musical terminology
Euclidean geometry

Euclidean geometry is a system in mathematics. People think Euclid was the first person who described it; therefore, it bears his name. He first described it in his textbook Elements. The book was the first systematic discussion of geometry as it was known at the time. In the book, Euclid first assumes a few axioms. These form the base for later work. They are intuitively clear. Starting from those axioms, other theorems can be proven. 

In the 19th century other forms of geometry were found. These are non-Euclidean geometry. Carl Friedrich Gauss, János Bolyai, and Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky were some people that developed such geometries. Very often, these do not use the parallel postulate, but the other four axioms.

The axioms
Euclid makes the following assumptions. These are axioms, and need not be proved.
Any two points can be joined by a straight line
Any straight line segment can be made longer (extended) to infinity, so it becomes a straight line.
With a straight line segment it is possible to draw a circle, so that one endpoint of the segment is the center of the circle, and the other endpoint lies on the circle. The line segment becomes the radius of the circle.
All right angles are congruent
 Parallel postulate. If two lines intersect a third in such a way that the sum of the inner angles on one side is less than two right angles, then the two lines inevitably must intersect each other on that side if extended far enough.

Status
Euclidean geometry is a first-order theory. With it, statements like For all triangles... can be made, and be proven. Statements like For all sets of triangles... are outside the scope of the theory.

Fields of geometry
János Bolyai

János Bolyai (December 15, 1802 – January 27, 1860) was a Hungarian mathematician, known for his work in non-Euclidean geometry.

References 
 
 M. J. Greenberg, Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometries: Development and History, 3rd edition, W. H. Freeman, 1994
 Elemér Kiss: Mathematical gems from the Bolyai chests. János Bolyai's discoveries in number theory and algebra as recently deciphered from his manuscripts. Translated by Anikó Csirmaz and Gábor Oláh. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest; TypoTeX, Budapest, 1999. 200 pp. .
 

1802 births
1860 deaths
Hungarian mathematicians
Deaths from disease
Geometers
Diana (mythology)

In Roman mythology, Diana was the goddess of hunting, and in later times, the moon and chastity. Cypress trees were sacred to her. She was the daughter of Jupiter and the Titan Latona (or Leto). In Greek mythology, Diana was called Artemis. She is also associated with fertility and nature. Artemis is her Greek equivalent.

According to mythology Diana was born with her twin brother Apollo on the island of Delos. Apollo was her only real brother but she had many half brothers and sisters from her father. Her half-siblings were Vulcan, Minerva, Mercury, Bacchus, Mars, and Proserpine. Diana made a group of three with two other Roman deities: Egeria the water nymph, her servant and midwife helper; and Virbius, the god of the woods. Diana is a maiden goddess which means she can't marry.

Other websites 

 Landscape with Diana and Callisto painting
 Diana and her Nymphs painting

Roman gods and goddesses
List of Germanic deities

This is a list of Germanic deities that are in Norse mythology.
Divided between the Æsir and the Vanir, and sometimes including the jötnar (giants), the dividing line between these groups is less than clear. However, it is usually accepted that the Æsir (including Óðinn, Þór and Týr) were warrior gods, while the Vanir (mainly Njörður, Freyja and Freyr) were fertility gods. Various other groups of beings, including elves, dwarves and jötnar were probably minor gods, and might have had small cults and sacred places devoted to them.

Gods

Goddesses

|Skadi, goddess of snow, and archery

References

 
Germanic
Dennis Kearney

Dennis Kearney (1847–1907) was an American politician who was himself an immigrant from Ireland. He is known for being racist towards Chinese people. His  fame comes from his strong support of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.

1847 births
1907 deaths
Politicians from California
People from County Cork
Cross of Gold speech

The Cross of Gold speech was a famous speech at the 1896 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, Illinois by William Jennings Bryan. He wanted silver and not gold to be America's bullion standard. It was his goal to create inflation to help those in debt. The end of the speech gives it its name when he says;

Having behind us the producing masses of this nation and the world, supported by the commercial interests, the laboring interests and the toilers everywhere, we will answer their demand for a gold standard by saying to them: You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.

Events in the United States
Speeches
1896
1890s in Illinois
19th century in Chicago
Fallen Leaves

"Fallen Leaves" is a song by the Canadian music group Billy Talent. It is the sixth track on the album Billy Talent II and is their third single to be released.

2006 songs
Songs about drugs
Sumer Is Icumen In

"Sumer Is Icumen In" is a very old English song which can be sung as a round.  It is the oldest example of a round that we know of.  The composer is unknown.  It was written down around the middle of the 13th century by a monk but we do not know whether that monk composed it, or whether it had been composed earlier.   

The title means "Summer has come in".  The round can be sung in six parts.  There are also two parts which can be repeated again and again (an ostinato) throughout the piece.  The language is Middle English and is based on the dialect spoken in Wessex, England at the time.

Music
This is the manuscript that the monk wrote:

To sing as a round, one singer (or group of singers) would begin at the beginning, a second singer would start at the beginning as the first got to the point marked with the red cross, then the third would join in when the second singer got to the red cross, and so on until all six were singing.  The repeated pattern is marked "Pes".  The instructions are written in Latin.

  
Here is the song in modern notation:

English lyrics (secular)
Here are the words with a modern English translation:

Medieval music
Kumquat

The kumquats or cumquats are a group of small fruit-bearing trees. The edible fruit (which is also called kumquat) is similar to other Citrus but is smaller.

Kumquats are slow-growing, evergreen shrubs or small trees, from 2.5–4.5 m tall, with dense branches. Sometimes they have small thorns. The leaves are dark glossy green, and the flowers pure white, similar to citrus flowers.

Kumquats came from China (they are known in literature of the 12th century), and have long been cultivated there and in Japan. They were introduced to Europe in 1846 by Robert Fortune, who was collector for the London Horticultural Society, and a short time later into North America. 

They are much hardier than citrus plants as oranges. The 'Nagami' kumquat needs a hot summer, ranging from 25 °C(77°F) to 38°C(100.4°F), but can withstand frost down to about -10 °C(14°F). It grows in the tea regions of China where the climate is too cold for other citrus fruits, even the Mikan (also known as the Satsuma) orange.

Etymology
The English name "kumquat" derives from the Cantonese pronunciation gam1 gwat1 (given in Jyutping romanization).  The alternate name 柑橘, also pronounced gam gwat in Cantonese (gān jú in Mandarin, literally "large tangerine orange") is now more commonly written by Cantonese speakers.

Names in other Asian languages include:
Japanese: kinkan (金柑)
Korean: geumgyul (금귤)
Mandarin: jīnjú (金橘)
Thai: somchíd (ส้มจี๊ด)
Vietnamese: cam quất (from the Cantonese) or, less commonly, (quả) kim quất (if transliterated from the characters 金橘 into Sino-Vietnamese; "quả" (果) is the Sino-Vietnamese prefix for "fruit")

Notes

References and other websites

Fruits of warm climates
Burkill, I. H. (1931). An enumeration of the species of Paramignya, Atalantia and Citrus, found in Malaya. Gard. Bull. Straits Settlem. 5: 212–220.
Mabberley, D. J. (1998). Australian Citreae with notes on other Aurantioideae (Rutaceae). Telopea 7 (4): 333-344. Available online  (pdf).

Citrus
Teton Mountains

The Teton Mountains are mountains on the border between Wyoming and Idaho in the United States of America. They are in a park called Grand Teton National Park. It is south of Yellowstone National Park, a park known for its hot springs.

Mountains of the United States
Geography of Wyoming
Geography of Idaho
Baunach

Baunach is a town in the German state (bundesland) of Bavaria. It is in the district of Bamberg in Upper Franconia. About 3,950 people live there (in year 2005).

References

Other websites

Bamberg (district)
Burgebrach

Burgebrach is a municipality in the district of Bamberg in Upper Franconia, Bavaria, Germany. About 6,500 people live in Burgebrach. There are 27 villages in the municipality.

Municipalities in Bavaria
Bamberg (district)
Ostinato

In music, an ostinato is a short pattern of notes which is repeated several times throughout a song or piece of music.  The word "ostinato" is related to the word obstinate.  It is like a musical idea which is being obstinate and will not go away.  The plural can be either "ostinati" or "ostinatos".

An ostinato can last for a section of a piece or it might last for the whole piece of music.

An ostinato can be a repeated group of notes or just a rhythm.  It is similar to a riff in jazz.  Many kinds of music use ostinati, e.g. classical music, jazz, boogie-woogie and African music.

A ground bass, or basso ostinato, is an ostinato pattern in the lowest notes, which keeps playing while the melodies in the higher notes change.  This was often used in baroque musical works. An example is the famous Canon in D by Pachelbel.

An example of a rhythmic ostinato is the first movement from the Planets Suite by Gustav Holst.  This is the movement in 5/4 time which describes Mars.  Boléro by Maurice Ravel also uses a repeated rhythm all the way through the piece.

An example from popular music is Pink Floyd's  Money.

Related pages
Pedal point
Riff
Tubular bells

Ostinato
Coffee system

A coffee system or hot beverage system is a special coffeemaker. Instead of using coffee beans or ground coffee, it uses special capsules. Each capsule has one serving of coffee, tea, milk, and other ingredients in it. This makes it easy to make coffee, espresso, etc. The process is very clean. The capsules with the coffee cost more money compared to normal coffee. There is also the problem that there is more waste because of the capsule.

Cooking appliances
Coffee
1492 Pictures

1492 Pictures is an American movie production company founded by director Chris Columbus in 1995. The name is a play on Columbus's more famous  namesake, Christopher Columbus. 	

In addition to various Columbus movies, 1492 Pictures has produced movies by other directors including Brian Levant (Jingle All the Way), Henry Selick (Monkeybone), Alfonso Cuarón (Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban), Joe Roth (Christmas with the Kranks), Tim Story (the Fantastic Four films), and Shawn Levy (the Night at the Museum films). The logo music was composed by Academy award winner Hans Zimmer.

Movies 
Nine Months (1995)
Jingle All the Way (1996)
Stepmom (1998)
Bicentennial Man (1999)
Monkeybone (2001)
Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (2001)
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2002)
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (2004)
Christmas with the Kranks (2004)
Rent (2005)
Fantastic Four (2005)
Night at the Museum (2006)
Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer (2007)
Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian (2009)
I Love You, Beth Cooper (2009)
Percy Jackson and the Olympians: The Lightning Thief (2010)

Upcoming movies 
 Fantastic Four (TBA)
 Night at the Museum 3 (TBA)
 Dilbert (2012)

Other websites 
 1492 Pictures at the Internet Movie Database

Movie studios
1995 establishments in the United States
Life in Hell

Life In Hell is a comic strip made by Matt Groening. Its characters are human-like rabbits and a pair of gay lovers named Akbar and Jeff. The comic was released in April 1980. The last comic ended in 2012.

Comic strips
Iraq War

The Iraq War was an  armed conflict that began in 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition that toppled the government of Saddam Hussein.

The conflict continued for much of the next ten years as an insurgency emerged to oppose the occupying forces and the post-invasion Iraqi government. An estimated 151,000 to 600,000 or more Iraqis were killed in the first 3–4 years of conflict. The United States officially withdrew from the country in 2011 but left private security contractors in its place to continue the war. In 2014 the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant conquered much of northern Iraq. An American-led new coalition sent troops to help the government of Iraq.

Australia, the United Kingdom, The Netherlands and Poland were also involved in the war with support from the Kurdish Peshmerga.

Background 
After the Gulf War of 1990-1991 during which a US-led coalition of 35 nations retook Kuwait after the Iraqi invasion, Iraq was severely damaged both economically and socially. Numerous penalties were imposed on the crumbling state of Iraq, including a no-fly zone (essentially barring any civilian and military planes from flying over Iraq), along with UN weapon inspections to ensure that Saddam was not stockpiling WMDs (Weapons of Mass Destruction). In 1998, the Iraqi government stopped allowing these inspections to continue after allegations that the inspectors were spying for the US.

Notes

References

2003 in the United States
21st century in Iraq
George W. Bush
Wars involving the United States
Wars involving the United Kingdom
Wars involving Australia
2000s conflicts