cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Food and Agriculture Organization

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger established on 16 October 1945.

It serves both developed and developing countries and acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals. FAO is also a source of knowledge and information, and helps developing countries and countries in transition modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and food security for all.

FAO offices

Regional offices 
 Regional Office for Africa in Accra, Ghana
 Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean  in Santiago, Chile
 Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific  in Bangkok, Thailand
 Regional Office for the Near East in Cairo, Egypt
 Regional Office for Europe at FAO headquarters, Rome, Italy

Subregional offices 
 Subregional Office for Southern and East Africa  in Harare, Zimbabwe
 Subregional Office for the Pacific Islands  in Apia, Samoa
 Subregional Office for Central and Eastern Europe in Budapest, Hungary
 Subregional Office for the Caribbean  in Bridgetown, Barbados
 Subregional Office For North Africa in Tunis, Tunisia

Liaison offices 
 Liaison Office with the United Nations in Geneva 
 Liaison Office for North America in Washington D.C.
 Liaison Office with the United Nations in New York
 Liaison Office with Japan in Yokohama 
 Liaison Office with the European Union and Belgium in Brussels

Related pages 
World Food Programme

Other websites 
 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
 Fact sheets / features / press releases
 FAO Statistics Division 
 FAOSTAT website
 TeleFood 
 World Food Day
 Avian Flu 

United Nations
Green politics
Colorimeter

A colorimeter is a device used for measuring colours, or colorimetry. It measures the absorbance of different wavelengths of light in a solution. It can be used to measure the concentration of a known solute.

Different chemical substances absorb different wavelengths of light. When the concentration of the solute is higher, it absorbs more light in a specific wavelength. This is known as the Beer-Lambert law.

Different parts 
The most important parts of a colorimeter are:
 a light source, which is usually an ordinary filament lamp
 an aperture, which can be adjusted
 a set of filters in different colors
 a detector that measures the light which has passed through the solution

Filters 
Different filters are used to select the wavelength of light which the solution absorbs the most. This makes the colorimeter more accurate. Solutions are usually placed in glass or plastic cuvettes. The usual wavelengths used are between 400 and 700 nanometers. If it is necessary to use ultraviolet light (below 400 nanometers) then the lamp and filters must be changed.

Output 
The output of the colorimeter may be shown in graphs or tables, by an analogue or digital meter. The data may be printed on paper, or stored in a computer. The output may be shown as transmittance (a linear scale from 0-100%) or as absorbance (a logarithmic scale from zero to infinity). The useful range of the absorbance scale is from 0-2 but it is desirable to keep within the range 0-1 because, above 1, the results become unreliable due to scattering of light. A Transmittance-Absorbance conversion table may be seen here.

Laboratory equipment
Valletta

Valletta is the capital city of Malta. It was founded by Jean Parisot de la Valette, the Grandmaster of the Order of Saint John on March 28, 1566. The city's population is 6,315 (in 2005) and it is currently decreasing as people move to the UK, Italy, or the newer areas of Malta.

National capitals in Europe
Cities in Malta
Basketball Bundesliga

The Basketball Bundesliga (BBL) is the highest level of basketball competition in Germany. The BBL determines the national champion.

Teams

Champions since 1939 

2008: Alba Berlin
2007: Brose Baskets Bamberg 
2006: RheinEnergie Cologne 
2005: GHP Bamberg 
2004: OPEL Skyliners Frankfurt am Main 
2003: Alba Berlin 
2002: Alba Berlin 
2001: Alba Berlin 
2000: Alba Berlin 
1999: Alba Berlin 
1998: Alba Berlin 
1997: Alba Berlin 
1996: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen 
1995: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen 
1994: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen 
1993: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen 
1992: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen 
1991: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen 
1990: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen 
1989: BG Steiner Bayreuth
1988: BSC Saturn Köln 
1987: BSC Saturn Köln 
1986: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen 
1985: TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen 
1984: ASC Göttingen
1983: ASC Göttingen 
1982: BSC Saturn Köln 
1981: BSC Saturn Köln 
1980: SSC Göttingen 
1979: TuS 04 Leverkusen 
1978: MTV 1846 Gießen 
1977: USC Heidelberg

1976: TuS 04 Leverkusen 
1975: MTV 1846 Gießen 
1974: SSV Hagen 
1973: USC Heidelberg 
1972: TuS 04 Leverkusen 
1971: TuS 04 Leverkusen 
1970: TuS 04 Leverkusen 
1969: VfL Osnabrück 
1968: MTV 1846 Gießen 
1967: MTV 1846 Gießen 
1966: USC Heidelberg 
1965: MTV 1846 Gießen 
1964: Alemannia Aachen
1963: Alemannia Aachen 
1962: USC Heidelberg 
1961: USC Heidelberg 
1960: USC Heidelberg 
1959: USC Heidelberg 
1958: USC Heidelberg 
1957: USC Heidelberg 
1956: ATV Düsseldorf
1955: FC Bayern München 
1954: FC Bayern München 
1953: Turnerbund Heidelberg 
1952: Turnerbund Heidelberg 
1951: Turnerbund Heidelberg 
1950: BC Stuttgart-Degerloch 
1949: MTSV Schwabing 
1948: Turnerbund Heidelberg 
1947: MTSV Schwabing
1939: LSV Spandau

Other websites
Basketball Bundesliga

Basketball leagues
Sport in Germany
1939 establishments
1930s establishments in Germany
Butterfield, Missouri

Butterfield, Missouri is a village in Missouri, United States.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.1 km² (0.4 mi²), all land.

Demographics
At the 2000 census, there were 397 people, 136 households, and 102 families living in the village. The population density was 365.0/km² (947.6/mi²). There were 149 houses at an average density of 137.0/km² (355.7/mi²). The racial mix of the village was 85.14% white, 0.50% African American, 0.50% Native American, 11.59% from other races, and 2.27% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 21.41% of the population.

There were 136 households out of which 43.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.6% were [married couples living together, 13.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.3% were non-families. 22.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.92 and the average family size was 3.44.

In the village the population was spread out with 34.0% under the age of 18, 11.8% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 20.2% from 45 to 64, and 5.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females there were 98.5 males.This is also the case for females over 18. 

The median income for a household in the village was $24,706, and the median income for a family was $28,000. Males had a median income of $20,417 versus $18,750 for females. The per citizen income for the village was $9,460. About 19.8% of families and 19.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.2% of those under age 18 and 28.6% of those age 65 or over.

Cities in Missouri
Andorra la Vella

Andorra la Vella is the capital city of the principality of Andorra and is one of the seven parishes of Andorra. It is in the southwestern part of the country.

Geography
The Andorra la Vella parish is in the southwestern part of the country at the confluence of two mountain streams, the Valira del Nord (Northern Valira) and the Valira de l'Orient (Eastern Valira), which join to form the Gran Valira that flows through the capital city.

The parish borders with the La Massana parish to the north, with the Escaldes-Engordany parish to the east, with the Sant Julià de Lòria parish to the south and with Spain to the west.

The highest mountain in the parish is Pic d'Os () with an elevation of  above sea level; it is on the border with the Sant Julià de Lòria parish and Spain.

At 1023 m (3,356 ft) above sea level, it is the highest capital in Europe.

Population
The parish had a population, in 2015,  of 22,886 inhabitants, for a population density of  persons/km².

Evolution of the population in Andorra la Vella

Villages
The urban areas in the parish are:

Economy
Andorra la Vella is the country's commercial centre. The city is also the centre for many banks and businesses. The state is not a member of the European Union, but has a customs arrangement with the EU, and uses the euro.

References

National capitals in Europe
Parishes of Andorra
Woodland

Woodland is a low-density forest with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. It forms an open habitat. 

Woodlands have an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses. Woodlands grade into shrubland in drier conditions or in early stages of plant succession. Higher densities and areas of trees, with largely closed canopy, and nearly continuous shade and are often called forests. 

Woodland in British forestry means any smaller area covered in trees, however dense. Forest in the British Isles means extensive wooded areas, regardless of density. Royal forests may not be wooded at all. The term ancient woodland is used in British conservation to mean any wooded land that has existed for a very long time (equivalent to the American term old growth forest).

Conservationist work hard to preserve woodlands. The woodlands in Northwest Indiana have been preserved as part of the Indiana Dunes.

References

Other websites 
The Woodland Trust

Forests
Limburg (Netherlands)

Other meanings are at Limburg
Limburg is the southernmost province of the Netherlands. Its capital is Maastricht. About 1,116,000 people are living in Limburg (2021).

It is the only province in the Netherlands which has hills. It is a very old province; the capital city, Maastricht, is over 2000 years old. The Limburgish people do speak Dutch, but they also speak their own dialects called Limburgish. These dialects - especially the ones in the South of Limburg, the normal Dutch people find difficult to understand. These dialects have many influences from German and French. The Limburgish are renowned for their famous vlaai. 

Limburger cheese comes from this region.

References

Other websites
Mount Cayley

Mount Cayley is an eroded stratovolcano. It is 11 km southeast of Callaghan Lake and 24 west of Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. It is part of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt which is a segment of the Cascade Volcanic Arc.

A scenario of an eruption of Mount Cayley shows how western Canada is vulnerable to an eruption. The scenario is based on past activity in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt and involves both effusive and explosive eruptions. The scenario impact is largely a result of the concentration of vulnerable infrastructure in valleys.

In 2003, Catherine Hickson, a scientist with the Geological Survey of Canada, was one of the three scientists to report on the hypothetical eruption at Mount Cayley. The first signs of activity at the volcano would probably be enlarged seismic activity in and close to the mountain. Flooding would turn out to be a huge issue for the community of Squamish and could eventually overrun parts of Highway 99.

The Mount Cayley volcanic field is named after Mount Cayley.

References

Volcanoes of British Columbia
Mountains of British Columbia
Limburg (Belgium)

Limburg is the easternmost of the five provinces of modern Flanders, which is one of the three main political and cultural sub-divisions of modern Belgium. Its capital is Hasselt.

Geography
Limburg is located west of the Meuse (Dutch Maas) river, upon which it borders the similarly named province Limburg of the Netherlands. It also borders on the Walloon province of Liège to the south, with which it also has historical ties. To the north and west are the old territories of the Duchy of Brabant, the Flemish provinces of Flemish Brabant and Antwerp to the west, and the Dutch province of North Brabant to the north.

The province of Limburg has an area of  with a population of  and a density of  inhabitants per km². The province is divided into three arrondissements (arrondissementen in Dutch) with 44 municipalities. Among these municipalities are the current capital Hasselt, the early medieval capital Borgloon, Genk, Diepenbeek (home to Hasselt University), and Tongeren, the only Roman city in the province and regarded as the oldest city of Belgium.

The municipality of Voeren is geographically detached  (an exclave) from Limburg and the rest of Flanders, with the Netherlands to the north and the Walloon province of Liège to the south. This municipality was established by the municipal reform of 1977.

The highest point of the province, , is in the town of Remersdaal, Voeren municipality.

The centre of Belgian Limburg is crossed east to west by the Demer river and the Albert Canal, which run similar paths. The Demer river's drainage basin covers most of the central and southern part of the province, except for the southeastern corner, where the Jeker (in French: (le) Geer) runs past Tongeren and into the Maas river (in French: (la) Meuse) at Maastricht.

The eastern border of the province corresponds to the western side of the Maas, which originates in France. It's drainage basin includes not only the Jeker but most of the northern part of Belgian Limburg.

Administrative divisions
The province of Limber is divided into 3 arrondissements (Hasselt, Maaseik and Tongeren) and a total of 44 municipalities.

Population by arrondissement
Population on 1 January or on 1 July of each year.

References

Related pages
 Limburg (Netherlands), a province in southeastern Netherlands.

Other websites

  
  Toerisme Limburg
Limbourg

Other meanings are at Limburg

Limbourg or Limburg is a medieval city in the Belgian province of Liège. It was founded in the 11th century.

In 2007 its population was 5644.

It is located at 50° 37 North, 05° 56 East.

References

Municipalities of Liège
Limburg an der Lahn

Other meanings are at Limburg
Limburg an der Lahn (Limburg on the Lahn river) is a German town and the capital of the Kreis Limburg-Weilburg in the west of Hesse.

References
Illusion

An illusion is a distortion  of perception. The brain arranges, sorts, and organises data from the senses. Normally the system works well. Sometimes it does not, and we see illusions. In general, they are shared by most people in the same situation.

Illusions can happen with all five senses (taste, touch, sight, smell, and hearing), and some involve the way information from two senses is put together. Some illusions happen because of disorders, but generally, all normal people can sense the same illusion. An illusion is different from a hallucination; a halucination is sensing something which is not real, but an illusion is interpreting what we sense wrongly.

Optical illusions 
Optical illusions are the best known and understood. Because they are illusions common to most people, it follows that they are a product of the visual system. The visual system, from the retina to the visual cortex, is what is common to most humans.

Auditory illusions 
These are illusions which are heard. The person listening hears sounds that aren’t really there, or sounds that can’t really happen.  A Shepard tone is an auditory illusion.

Touch illusion 
They are when a person feels something that is not there, or something that should not be there but feels like it is. This happens sometimes when a person loses their arm.  The person still feels like the arm is there.  They might want to scratch the arm, or the arm might hurt them.  This can happen with any limb of the body, and it is called the phantom limb.
Charcoal

Charcoal is a carbon-containing substance made from wood, naturally black and powdery. Charcoal is made from wood by heating it in an "airless" (minimal oxygen) space at a high temperature. The wood will not burn, but instead turn into charcoal. The by-product of making charcoal is tar and turpentine.

People use it for different things such as cooking on a barbecue grill, and in painting.

Fuel
Biofuels
Brose Baskets

Brose Baskets Bamberg (also Brose Baskets) is a basketball club in Bamberg, Germany. In 2005 (as GHP Bamberg), 2007, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 it won the BBL. In 1992, 2010, 2011, and 2012 it won the German Cup.

Bamberg
Basketball teams
Sports clubs
Sport in Bavaria
Armenian Revolutionary Federation

The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF or ՀՅԴ) (Armenian:  – Hay Heghapokhakan Dashnaktsutiun, Dashnaktsutiun,  – Dashnak or Tashnag) is an Armenian political party founded in Tiflis (Tbilisi in modern-day Georgia) in 1890 by Christapor Mikaelian, Stepan Zorian, and Simon Zavarian. The party works in Armenia and in countries where the Armenian diaspora is active, notably in Lebanon and the ethnically Armenian-dominated de facto Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh.

Museum
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation History Museum was created during an official ceremony Friday 2007 at Yerevan's Kristapor Mikaelian Center, with the party's leaders and supporters on hand to mark this momentous occasion.

Opened in 1946, the ARF History Museum was in Paris and during the years has collected more than 3,000 artifacts describing the party's history. After the ARF's return to Armenia, the museum and the ARF archives have been sent to Armenia.

Giro Manoyan is one of the leaders of ARF.

References

Other websites 
Official web site - Armenian Revolutionary Federation
Armenian Revolutionary Federation Shant Student Association
History of the Armenian Socialist Party 

Politics of Armenia
Socialist International
Political parties in Europe
Nationalist organizations in Europe
Tbilisi
1890 establishments
Christapor Mikaelian

Christapor Mikaelian (Armenian: ) also known by his noms de guerre Hellen (), Topal (), and Edward (), (1859-1905) was one of the three founders of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation along Stepan Zorian and Simon Zavarian, also part of Armenian national liberation movement.

Early life 
Rosdom was born in the village of Agulis in Goghtn, now part of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. He graduated from the Professorial academy of Tiflis and also attended the University of Moscow, where he met Simon Vratsian, another co-founder of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation.

References 

 Translated from the Armenian: Mihran Kurdoghlian, Badmoutioun Hayots, C. hador [Armenian History, volume III], Athens, Greece, 1996, pg. 34.

Armenian politicians
1859 births
1905 deaths
Varazdat

Varasdates or Varazdat (, Varazdat) was an Armenian prince who succeeded his uncle King Papes as King of Armenia in 374.

Following the murder of King Papes, Valens sent Varazdat, a nephew of Pap, a young man highly reputed for his mental and physical gifts, to hold the Armenian throne.  Shapur II, having failed on the battlefield, now proposed to Valens in 375 that Armenia be divided between the two powers. The Emperor rejected the proposal, but sent Victor Magistrianus to the Persian King to discuss the question. This emissary was cozened into exceeding the bounds of his authority and agreeing to the Persian proposal. In the meantime, the internal condition of Armenia was imperiled through friction between King Varazdat and the nakharars, culminating in the assassination of Musel Mamikonian, the leader of the latters' party. Manuel, the son of Musel, took up arms against the King and compelled him to flee from Armenia in 378, after four years of reign.  Varazdat's life was saved, but the country was thrown into confusion. The Persians took advantage of the turmoil and invaded Armenia; but their occupation was a short-lived one. Shapur II died in 379, and the Persians evacuated in haste. Manuel, the dynamic Mamikonian, had rallied a formidable national force for action.

Related pages
 List of Armenian Kings

Monarchs of Armenia
Adana massacre

The Adana massacre happened in Adana Province, in the Ottoman Empire, in April 1909. A religious-ethnic clash in the city of Adana amidst governmental upheaval resulted in a series of anti-Armenian pogroms throughout the district. Reports estimated that the massacres in Adana Province resulted in 20,000 to 30,000 deaths.

References

Other websites 

 The Red Rugs Of Tarsus - A Woman’s Record of the Armenian Massacre of 1909
 Adana Massacre

Anti-Armenianism
Massacres in Turkey
Armenian Genocide
April events
1909
20th century in Turkey
Adana

Adana (Greek Άδανα) (the ancient Antioch in Cilicia or Antioch on the Sarus) is the capital of Adana Province in Turkey. According to the 2000 census, with 1,130,710 inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous city of Turkey (after İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir and Bursa). The 2006 estimate of Adana's population is 1,271,894. 

For most Turkish people, the word 'Adana' associates with Kebab, şalgam, cotton, oranges and very hot weather, in the awareness that Adana also embodies more than just these. 

Adana is also named among the 25 European Regions of the Future for 2006/2007 by Foreign Direct Investment Magazine. Chosen alongside Kocaeli for Turkey, Adana scored the most points for cost effectiveness against Kocaeli's points for infrastructure development, while Adana and Kocaeli tied on points for the categories of human resources and quality of life. 

Adana has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa in the Koeppen climate classification).

Related pages
Adana massacre

References

Other websites 

 Governorship of Adana
 Municipality of Adana 

Cities in Turkey
Parsley Massacre

In October 1937, Dominican dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina ordered the execution of the Haitian population living within the borderlands with Haiti. The violence resulted in the killing of 17,000 to 35,000 Haitian civilians over a span of approximately five days. This would later become known as the Parsley Massacre.

Events
Trujillo had made his actions for the Haitian community clear in a short speech given at a dance held in his honor on October 2, 1937 in Dajabón, stating:

Endnotes

20th century in the Dominican Republic
Massacres
20th centuy in Haiti
1937 in North America
Heat pump

A heat pump is a machine that moves heat from a cold place to a hot place. Examples include:

 Refrigerator. It moves heat from the inside to the outside. This keeps the food inside cold, so it will not spoil.
 Air conditioner. It moves heat from the inside of a building to the outside.
 Peltier device. It moves heat from one side to the other by means of an electric current.
 Some buildings are heated with heat pumps, also. In the winter, the heat pump moves heat from the outside to the inside. Sometimes this works better than heating with a radiator.

How it works 

Usually, heat flows from a hot place to a cold place, according to the second law of thermodynamics. Heat will not move from a cold place to a warmer place by itself. Because of this, a heat pump must use extra energy to move the heat. This is sort of like pumping water uphill.

Most heat pumps use electric motors to provide energy. Some heat pumps use heat energy, supplied by a flame or an electric heater.

Most heat pumps have a refrigeration cycle using a compressor. A refrigeration cycle uses a fluid which moves through tubes and carries the heat. The fluid is called a refrigerant. During the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant changes from a liquid to a gas and back to a liquid.

When the refrigerant changes from a (compressed) liquid to a gas, it absorbs heat energy from the environment. When the refrigerant changes from a gas back to a liquid, it loses heat energy.

The heat pump is set up so that the refrigerant gains heat from one place that will be cooled, and moves it to another place that will be warmed.

A heat pump forces the refrigerant to change from a gas to a liquid. It uses a compressor to do this. Often, an electric motor drives the compressor. The compressor compresses the refrigerant, and this makes it change from a gas to a liquid. Compressing will heat up the liquid extensively.

At the other end of the cycle, the refrigerant boils again, absorbing heat from its surroundings, it cools them down. So where the refrigerant is changing from a liquid to a gas, it feels cooler.

This is the complete cycle, from the cooling side to the heating side:
On the cooling side, heat is taken up to boil the refrigerant from a liquid to a gas. Then the fluid moves to the heating side.There, the compressor forces the refrigerant back to a liquid again. This makes it give up its heat. So heat has moved from the cooling side to the heating side. Then, the cycle repeats.

If the cooling side is the inside of a refrigerator, it gets cold.

If the cooling side is the inside of a building, and the warming side is the outside of the building, the inside of the building gets cold. This is how an air conditioner works.

If the cooling side is the outside of the building, and the warming side is the inside of the building, this is how a heat pump can heat a building during the winter.

Other websites 

Heating and Cooling with a Heat pump (PDF)
Heat pumps Long Awaited Way out of the Global Warming (PDF) - Information from Heat Pump & Thermal Storage Technology Center of Japan

Engineering
Second law of thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics says that when energy changes from one form to another form, or matter moves freely, entropy (disorder) in a closed system increases.

Differences in temperature, pressure, and density tend to even out horizontally after a while. Due to the force of gravity, density and pressure do not even out vertically. Density and pressure on the bottom will be more than at the top.

Entropy is a measure of spread of matter and energy to everywhere they have access.

The most common wording for the second law of thermodynamics is essentially due to Rudolf Clausius:

In other words, everything tries to maintain the same temperature over time.

There are many statements of the second law which use different terms, but all mean the same thing.   Another statement by Clausius is:

Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter body.
An equivalent statement by Lord Kelvin is:

A transformation whose only final result is to convert heat, extracted from a source at constant temperature, into work, is impossible. 

The second law only applies to large systems. The second law is about the likely behavior of a system where no energy or matter gets in or out. The bigger the system is, the more likely the second law will be true.

Overview 
In a general sense, the second law says that temperature differences between systems in contact with each other tend to even out and that work can be obtained from these non-equilibrium differences, but that loss of thermal energy occurs, when work is done and entropy increases. Pressure, density and temperature differences in an isolated system, all tend to equalize if given the opportunity; density and pressure, but not temperature, are affected by gravity.  A heat engine is a mechanical device that provides useful work from the difference in temperature of two bodies.

Quotes 

--Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World (1927)

--Greg Hill and Kerry Thornley, Principia Discordia (1965)

--Philosopher / Physicist P.W. Bridgman, (1941)

Miscellaneous 
 Flanders and Swann produced a setting of a statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics to music, called "First and Second Law.
 The economist Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen showed the significance of the Entropy Law in the field of economics (see his work The Entropy Law and the Economic Process (1971), Harvard University Press).

 References 

 

 Further reading 

 Goldstein, Martin, and Inge F., 1993. The Refrigerator and the Universe. Harvard Univ. Press. A gentle introduction, a bit less technical than this entry.
 Maxwell's demon 2 : entropy, classical and quantum information, computing. Edited by Harvey S. Leff and Andrew F. Rex. Bristol; Philadelphia : Institute of Physics, 2003

 Other websites 
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Philosophy of Statistical Mechanics." by Lawrence Sklar.
 The evolution of Carnot's principle, by E.T. Jaynes, in G. J. Erickson and C. R. Smith (eds.) Maximum-Entropy and Bayesian Methods in Science and Engineering'' vol. 1, p. 267 (1988).
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Thermodynamics
Laws of physics
Branch (disambiguation)

A branch is a part of a tree.

Branch or branching could also mean:

Computing
 Branch (computer science), a point in a computer program where program-flow may change depending on a condition.
Branch predictor, the part of a processor that determines whether a conditional branch in the instruction flow of a program is likely to be taken or not.
Branch table, a term used to describe an efficient method of transferring program control (branching) to another part of a program using a table of branch instructions.
 Indirect branch, a type of program control instruction.
 Branching (software), a way of duplicating an object under revision control.

Geography
 Branch, Arkansas, United States
 Branch, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada

Mathematics
 Branch (graph theory), a concept in mathematical logic
 Branch point, a point at which a multiple-valued function changes values
 Principal branch, a function which selects one branch of a multi-valued function

Religion
 Branch (Christ), the Branch Davidian new name of Christ
 Branch (Latter Day Saints), the Latter Day Saint equivalent of a congregation

Other
 Arthur Branch, a fictional character on the TV crime drama Law & Order
 Branch (academia), an academic sub-discipline
 Branch (banking), a retail location
 Branch (bridle), a crooked piece of iron in a bit shank
 Branch line, a relatively minor railway line
 Branching (chemistry), a concept in polymer chemistry
 Branching (linguistics), the general tendency towards a given order of words within sentences and smaller grammatical units within sentences
 Cadet branch, a family line of nobility not descending from the first born son
 Earthly Branches, one Chinese system for reckoning time
 Executive branch, the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the state
 Olive branch, a gesture of peace
 Post office branch, a type of postal facility that is not a main post office

People named Branch
 Branch, Christopher (circa 1600-1682), early American colonist
 Branch, Cliff (1948–2019), retired American football player
 Branch, David (born 1948), Commissioner of the Ontario Hockey League
 Branch, Emmett Forrest (1874-1932), governor of the U.S. state of Indiana
 Branch, Frank (born 1944), Canadian politician 
 Branch, John, Jr. (1782–1863), U.S. Senator, Secretary of the Navy, governor of North Carolina, and  territorial governor of Florida
 Branch, Lawrence O'Bryan (1820-1862), Confederate General and Representative from North Carolina
 Branch, Michael (born 1978), English professional footballer
 Branch, Michelle (born 1983), American singer, songwriter and guitarist
 Branch, Vanessa (born 1973), British actress and model
 McCracken, Branch (1908–1970), college men's basketball coach

Related pages
 Branch County
 Branch Township
 East Branch
 Fort Branch
 Long Branch
 North Branch
 South Branch
 West Branch
 USS Branch
First law of thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can change only from one form to another. The law forms the basis of the principle of conservation of energy. This means that anything that uses energy is changing the energy from one kind of energy to another. For example, exercising changes energy from food into kinetic (motion) energy.  Another example:  In the Sun (or any star), nuclear fusion changes mass into heat and light (electromagnetic radiation), which travels to Earth and is used by plants to create food (chemical energy) via photosynthesis, which can be eaten by animals allowing them to move (kinetic energy).  Energy only ever changes its form; it is neither created nor destroyed. This is why perpetual motion machines do not exist and could never exist; it would break a fundamental law of physics.

People can use the changes to do work that is useful. Examples of forms of energy in classical mechanics include heat, light, kinetic (movement) or potential energy. However, in modern physics it is considered that there are only two types of energy - mass and kinetic energy, although this may not be helpful to those not familiar with more complex physics.

The law means that the total energy of the universe (or any Closed system) is a constant. However, energy can be transferred from one part of the universe to another.

The most common wording of the first law of thermodynamics used by scientists is:

History
James Prescott Joule was the first person who found out by experiments that heat and work are convertible.

The first explicit statement of the first law of thermodynamics was given by Rudolf Clausius in 1850: "There is a state function E, called 'energy', whose differential equals the work exchanged with the surroundings during an adiabatic process."

Thermodynamics and Engineering 
In thermodynamics and engineering, it is natural to think of the system as a heat engine which does work on the surroundings, and to state that the total energy added by heating is equal to the sum of the increase in internal energy plus the work done by the system. Hence  is the amount of energy lost by the system due to work done by the system on its surroundings. During the portion of the thermodynamic cycle where the engine is doing work,  is positive, but there will always be a portion of the cycle where  is negative, e.g., when the working gas is being compressed. When  represents the work done by the system, the first law is written:

People disagree whether energy is a positive or a negative number. So that  is the flow of heat out of the system, and  is the work into the system:

Because of this ambiguity, it is very important in any discussion involving the first law to explicitly establish the sign convention in use.

dU = the change in internal energy

Q = heat

W = work

Related pages
 Second law of thermodynamics

References

 Goldstein, Martin, and Inge F., 1993. The Refrigerator and the Universe. Harvard Univ. Press. A gentle introduction.

Thermodynamics
Laws of physics
Monophyly

Monophyly means common descent from a single ancestor.
Biologists have introduced  a kind of taxonomy called cladistics. The aim of this is to make biological classification fit what we know about the way organisms evolved.

If there is a group made of a common ancestor, and all its descendants, that group is monophyletic.  (Greek: "of one race").

A group which contains organisms, without their common ancestor, is called polyphyletic. Convergent evolution is a usual cause of such groups. If a group contains the common ancestor, but leaves out some of its descendants, it is called paraphyletic. All living things on this planet are thought, on the basis of DNA analysis, to be monophyletic, that is, to have one origin, not many.

Example: all species in the genus Homo have come from the same ancestral form in the family Hominidae, and no other descendants are known. Thus the genus Homo is monophyletic.

If, on the other hand, it were discovered that Homo habilis had developed from a different ancestor from Homo sapiens, and this ancestor were not included in the genus, then the genus would be polyphyletic. Since biologists by and large tend to prefer monophyletic groups, in this case, they would likely either split the genus or broaden it to include the additional forms.

Example of polyphyletic group: Sea slugs.

Polyploidy 
Sometimes taxonomists are frustrated fitting plant species into a monophyletic group because of polyploidy. There is clear evidence that some polyploid plant species are of multiple origins (the species has arisen more than once). For example, Salsify, the hybrid goat's-beard, (Tragopogon miscellus) has formed as many as 20 times in eastern Washington.

Also, it can happen that hybrids between two close plant species undergo polyploidy, and the polyploids continue as a new and distinct species. Situations like this are outside the normal rules of descent, and are dealt with by special decisions, guided by the International Commission of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).

References

Cladistics
Lepidoptera

The order Lepidoptera is the second biggest order of  insects. It includes the moths and butterflies including the  skippers. There is no common word for the group: ordinary people talk of "butterflies and moths". 

The order has more than 180,000 species in 128 families and 47 superfamilies. They are 10% of all the described species of living organisms. The Coleoptera (the beetles) is the only order that has more species.

The name, Lepidoptera, comes from the Ancient Greek words λεπίδος (scale) and πτερόν (wing).

The earliest discovered fossils date to 200 mya or earlier. This early origin was long before flowering plants evolved. Earlier butterflies must have been adapted to a habitat of cycads and conifers, something which had not previously been suspected.

Characteristics of Lepidoptera 
Lepidopterans go through complete metamorphosis. This means that they have a four parts to their lives. The first part is the egg. The second part is the caterpillar or larva. The third part is the pupa. The last part is the adult or imago.

Larva 
The larvae have a tough head and a soft body. They have mouths that are made to chew. Some larvae are covered with hairs, or other body extensions. The larvae have three pairs of small legs on the thorax. These legs are called true legs. There are up to five pairs of bigger legs on the abdomen. These legs are called prolegs. Lepidopteran larvae can be confused with the larvae of sawflies. The difference between Lepidopteran larvae and sawfly larvae is that Lepidopteran larvae have tiny hooks on their prolegs. These hooks are called crochets. Most larvae are herbivores, but a few are carnivores and detritivores.

Adult 
Adults have two pairs of wings. They are covered by small scales. In some species, the adults have very small wings or no wings at all. This is more common in females. Adults have antennae. Some moths have antennae that look like feathers. These feather-like antennae are larger in males than females. Adults have a mouthpart called a proboscis. It  sucks nectar from flowers. Some adults do not have mouths and cannot feed. Others have different mouths that are made to pierce and suck blood or fruit juices.

Images

Related pages
 Differences between butterflies and moths

References

Other websites 

 Forum Lepidoptera
 Lepidopterology.com
 Lepidoptera  in online insect museum 
 Historic Moth illustrations
Diurnal

Animals that are active during the day are called diurnal. They hunt or feed during the day and sleep during the night. Nocturnal animals do it the other way round.

Scientists sometimes use the word crepuscular to describe nocturnal  animals that are not active when it is very dark at night; they are mostly active near dawn, dusk, and sometimes when the moon makes a lot of light.

Zoology
Skipper (butterfly)

The skippers are a family of butterflies, the Hesperiidae. They are named after their quick, darting flight. 

Skippers used to be classified in their own superfamily, Hesperioidea, because they have their antennae clubs hooked backward like a crochet while the other butterflies have club-like tips to their antennae. Skippers also have generally stockier bodies than regular butterflies, with stronger wing muscles.

Subfamilies 
There are about 3500 species of skippers.  They are usually classified in the following subfamilies:
 Coeliadinae: awls, awlets and policeman (butterfly) (about 75 species)
 Hesperiinae: grass skippers (over 2000 species)
 Heteropterinae: skipperlings (about 150 species)
 Megathyminae: giant skippers (about 100 species)
 Pyrginae: spread-winged skippers (about 1000 species)
 Pyrrhopyginae: firetips (about 150 species)
 Trapezitinae: Australian skippers (about 60 species)

Many species of skippers look frustratingly alike. For example, some species in the genera Erynnis, Hesperia, and Amblyscirtes cannot currently be distinguished in the field even by experts. The only reliable method of telling them apart involving dissection and examination of the genitalia.

Examples
Examples include:
Aaron's skipper - Poanes aaroni
Chequered skipper - Carterocephalus palaemon
Small skipper - Thymelicus sylvestris
Essex skipper - Thymelicus lineola
Lulworth skipper - Thymelicus acteon
Silver-spotted skipper - Hesperia comma
Large skipper - Ochlodes venata
Dingy skipper - Erynnis tages
Grizzled skipper - Pyrgus malvae
Dakota skipper - Hesperia dacotae

References

Other websites
Skippers of North America: Large format diagnostic photographs Cirrus Digital Imaging
 Tree of Life Hesperiidae
Dew point

The dew point is the temperature where water vapor condenses into liquid water.

All air holds different amounts of water vapor. The dew point shows the amount of moisture in the air. The higher the dew point is, the higher the level of moisture in the air at a given temperature. The dew point of humid air will be higher than the dew point of dry air.

Condensation of water vapor starts when the temperature of air is lowered to its dew point and beyond. The dew point, like other measures of humidity, can be found from measurement taken by a hygrometer.

Related pages
 Relative humidity

Other websites 
 What is the dew point? 
 NOAA Dew point
 dew point formula 
 Windows program for Heat Index, Dew Point, etc
 Dew point evaporates on KPRC newscast ("The dew point is absolutely worthless information")
 Often Needed Answers about Temp, Humidity & Dew Point from the sci.geo.meteorology Usenet newsgroup

Weather
Weather measurements
Podgorica

Podgorica () is the capital of Montenegro. In 2011, the population was 185,937.

References 

Cities in Montenegro
Municipalities of Montenegro
National capitals in Europe
Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur

The Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur is an independent part of Nicaragua. It is often simply known as RAAS. Its capital is Bluefields. It was made when new regions were formed in Nicaragua in 1989. The old region was turned into Atlántico Sur and Atlántico Norte. The capital of Atlántico Norte is Puerto Cabezas. There is also a popular tourist place called Corn Island, which is about 45 km from the capital Bluefields

Geography of Nicaragua
Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte

Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte is an autonomous region of Nicaragua. It was created in 1989. Its capital is Puerto Cabezas. Often the name is shotened to RAAN.

Geography of Nicaragua
Cash

Cash is a form of currency, such as banknotes or coins. There is usually different sorts in every country.

Bookkeeping and finance 
In bookkeeping and finance, cash can also refer to checks, money orders, cashier's checks, bank drafts, or traveler's checks. In all these forms, the term indicates the most liquid form of assets, which have a fixed value and can be easily converted to currency: "ready money".  For example, wages or salaries paid as "cash" (as opposed to, e.g., stock options) would in most countries normally be paid with checks or direct bank deposits, which are trivially convertible to currency.

Currency
Hemer

Hemer is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. About 35,000 people live there.

References

Other websites

Märkischer Rural District
Thermodynamic cycle

A thermodynamic cycle is a series of thermodynamic processes which returns a system to its initial state. Properties depend only on the thermodynamic state and thus do not change over a cycle. Variables such as heat and work are not zero over a cycle, but rather depend on the process. The first law of thermodynamics dictates that the net heat input is equal to the net work output over any cycle. The repeating nature of the process path allows for continuous operation, making the cycle an important concept in thermodynamics. 

If the cyclic process moves clockwise around the loop, then it represents a heat engine, and W will be positive.  If it moves counterclockwise then it represents a heat pump, and W will be negative.

Classes
Two primary classes of thermodynamic cycles are power cycles and heat pump cycles. Power cycles are cycles which convert some heat input into a mechanical work output, while heat pump cycles transfer heat from low to high temperatures using mechanical work input.

Thermodynamic power cycles

Thermodynamic power cycles are the basis for the operation of heat engines, which supply most of the world's electric power and run almost all motor vehicles. Power cycles can be divided according to the type of heat engine they seek to model. The most common cycles that model internal combustion engines are the Otto cycle, which models gasoline engines and the Diesel cycle, which models diesel engines. Cycles that model external combustion engines include the Brayton cycle, which models gas turbines, and the Rankine cycle, which models steam turbines.

Related pages
 Entropy
 Heat engine

References
 Halliday, Resnick & Walker. Fundamentals of Physics, 5th edition. John Wiley & Sons, 1997.  Chapter 21, Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Other websites

Educational software links:
Thermodynamic Cycle Simulation Software

Thermodynamics
Christoph Metzelder

Christoph Metzelder (born 5 November 1980 in Haltern, Germany) is a German football player. He plays for Real Madrid In the Germany national team he has played in 47 matches and scored no goal.

Club career statistics 

|-
|1999/00||Preußen Münster||Regionalliga||32||4||||||||||32||4
|-
|2000/01||rowspan="7"|Borussia Dortmund||rowspan="7"|Bundesliga||19||0||2||0||colspan="2"|-||21||0
|-
|2001/02||25||0||1||0||11||0||37||0
|-
|2002/03||24||0||1||0||10||0||35||0
|-
|2003/04||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||0||0
|-
|2004/05||16||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||16||0
|-
|2005/06||23||2||1||0||colspan="2"|-||24||2
|-
|2006/07||19||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||19||0

|-
|2007/08||rowspan="3"|Real Madrid||rowspan="3"|La Liga||9||0||1||0||3||0||13||0
|-
|2008/09||12||0||2||0||1||0||15||0
|-
|2009/10||||||||||||||||
158||6||5||0||21||0||184||6
21||0||3||0||4||0||28||0
179||6||8||0||25||0||212||6
|}

International career statistics 

|-
|2001||1||0
|-
|2002||14||0
|-
|2003||1||0
|-
|2004||0||0
|-
|2005||1||0
|-
|2006||11||0
|-
|2007||11||0
|-
|2008||8||0
|-
!Total||47||0
|}

Other websites 
Official Website  
FootballDatabase provides Christoph Metzelder's profile and stats

References 

1980 births
Living people
German footballers
Sportspeople from North Rhine-Westphalia
Thermodynamic system

In thermodynamics, a thermodynamic system, originally called a working substance, is defined as that part of the universe that is under consideration. A real or imaginary boundary separates the system from the rest of the universe, which is referred to as the environment or surroundings (sometimes called a reservoir.) A useful classification of thermodynamic systems is based on the nature of the boundary and the quantities flowing through it, such as matter, energy, work, heat, and entropy. A system can be anything, for example a cylinder, a solution in a test tube, a living organism, or a planet, etc. 

Thermodynamics
Systems
Systems theory