cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Johnston County, North Carolina

Johnston County is a county in the U.S. state of North Carolina.  In 2000, 121,965 people lived there. In 2006, population was 152,143. Its county seat is Smithfield.

History 
The county was made in 1746 from Craven County.  It was named for Gabriel Johnston, who used to be the governor of North Carolina.

In 1752 parts of Johnston County, Bladen County, and Granville County were combined to form Orange County.  In 1758 the eastern part of Johnston County became Dobbs County.  In 1770 parts of Johnston County, Cumberland County, and Orange County were combined to form Wake County.  And in 1855 parts of Johnston County, Edgecombe County, Nash County, and Wayne County were combined to form Wilson County.

Government 
Johnston County is a member of the regional Triangle J Council of Governments.

Connected Counties 
These counties are connected to Johnston County:
Nash County, North Carolina - north-northeast
Wilson County, North Carolina - northeast
Wayne County, North Carolina - southeast
Sampson County, North Carolina - south
Harnett County, North Carolina - southwest
Wake County, North Carolina - northwest

Major Roads
 Interstate 40
 Interstate 95
 U.S. Highway 70
 U.S. Highway 301
 U.S. Highway 701

Cities and towns 
These cities and towns are in Johnston County:
Benson
Clayton
Four Oaks
Kenly
Micro
Pine Level
Princeton
Selma
Smithfield
West Smithfield
Wilson's Mills
Zebulon

Newspapers in Johnston County 
Clayton News-Star
Kenly News
The Four Oaks-Benson News in Review
Princeton News Leader
The Selma News
The Smithfield Herald
The Cleveland Post
The News & Observer
The Goldsboro News-Argus

References

Other websites
Johnston County government official website
Johnston County Visitors Bureau, the official site for visitor information for Johnston County

North Carolina counties
18th-century establishments in North Carolina
1746 establishments
1740s establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
Felinae

The Felinae is a subfamily of the Felidae family. It includes small cats and a few medium-large cats, especially the cougar (Puma concolor) and the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus).

Genetic classification
There is now a precise classification for the living members of the subfamily based on genetic research.  These genetic lineages have been identified:

Lineage 1A: Pardofelis (marbled cat) and Catopuma (Bornean bay cat, and Asian golden cat) 
Lineage 1B: Leptailurus (serval), Caracal, Profelis (African golden cat)
Lineage 2: Leopardus: small spotted cats of Central and South America. Best known is the ocelot; also the guigna, margay, and Andean mountain cat
Lineage 3: Lynx
Lineage 4: Puma, Acinonyx (the cheetah)
Lineage 5: Prionailurus (spotted Asian wildcats), Otocolobus (Pallas's cat), leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), marbled cat (Pardofelis marmorata), rusty-spotted cat (Prionailurus rubiginosus), fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), flat-headed cat (Prionailurus planiceps)
Lineage 6: Felis: the domestic cat and its nearest relatives. Widespread in Africa, Asia and Europe, notably the jungle cat, sand cat,  and the wildcat. African wildcat (Felis silvestris lybica), black-footed cat (Felis negripes), Chinese mountain cat (Felis bieti)

References
The Quibbler

The Quibbler is a fictional magazine of the Harry Potter world. 
The Quibbler is written by Xenophilius Lovegood, father of Luna Lovegood. The magazine is meant to cause shock, and contains the strange opinions of Xenophilius. Luna believes in everything her father says and during the "Order of the Phoenix" she had lots of arguments with Hermione Granger about it.

The Quibbler often has articles about creatures that other characters believe to not exist. In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, it published an interview between Rita Skeeter and Harry Potter. In this interview, Harry said that he had seen Lord Voldemort.

For most of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, The Quibbler writes positive views on Harry, and tells people to support him. However, after Luna is taken by the "Death Eaters" (supporters of Voldemort), Xenophilius turns against Harry and begins posting wanted signs for him in The Quibbler. When Harry visits him for information on the Deathly Hallows, Xenophilius turns him in to the Death Eaters. Harry narrowly escapes.

Harry Potter
Magazines

en:Harry Potter universe#The Quibbler
Pinhole camera

A pinhole camera is a camera without a conventional glass lens.  An extremely small hole in a thin material can create an image when all light rays from a scene go through a single point. In order to produce a reasonably clear image, the aperture has to be about 1/100th the distance to the screen, or less.  The shutter of a pinhole camera usually consists of a hand operated flap of some light-proof material to cover and uncover the pinhole.  

A common use of a pinhole camera is to capture the movement of sunlight over a long period of time. This type of photography is called Solargraphy. 
Pinhole cameras require much longer exposure times than conventional cameras because of the small aperture; typical exposure times can range from 5 seconds to hours or days.  

The image may be projected on a translucent screen for real-time viewing (popular for viewing solar eclipses; see also camera obscura).

Like other cameras, pinhole cameras make the picture upside-down.

Invention of pinhole camera  
Very early in history (as far back as 500 B.C.), Greeks such as Aristotle and Euclid wrote on naturally-occurring rudimentary pinhole cameras, for example light may travel through the slits of wicker baskets and the crossing of leaves  The ancient Greeks, however, believed that our eye emitted rays which enabled us to see. What enabled a much better understanding of the pinhole camera was the discovery that light enters the eye rather than leaving it. It was the 10th-century Muslim mathematician, astronomer and physicist Ibn al-Haytham who published this idea.

Notes and references

Other websites

Worldwide Pinhole Photography Day website
Pinhole Photography and Camera Design Calculators
Illustrated history of cinematography
History and Pinhole Photography Resources 

Cameras
Shutter (photography)

In photography, a shutter is the part of a camera that opens for a controlled period of time to let light in during taking a picture.

A shutter can also be used to allow pulses of light to pass outwards, as in a movie projector or signal lamp.

Camera shutters
Camera shutters can be fitted in two positions:
Central shutters are mounted within a lens assembly, or more rarely behind or even in front of a lens and shut off the beam of light where it is narrow. A leaf mechanism is usually used.
Focal plane shutters are mounted near the focal plane and move to uncover the film or sensor.

Shutters immediately behind the lens were used in some cameras with limited lens interchangeability. Shutters in front of the lens were used in the early days of photography.

Related pages
 Photographic lens

Photography
Movie projector

A movie projector is a machine that shows moving pictures by projecting them on a projection screen. Most of the optical and mechanical elements, except for the illumination and sound devices, are present in movie cameras.

Other websites 

Collection of restored cinema projectors and lighting by Regal Group, UK. 
Film-Tech
American Wide Screen Museum
The story of the DP70 - The Todd-AO Projector
A Cinerama site 

Optics
Movie industry
List of craters on Puck

The following lists all of the craters on Puck. Puck is a moon of Uranus. Craters on Puck are named after spirits from European mythology.

Astronomy lists
Puck
Puck
Indigofera

Indigofera is a big genus of about 700 species of flowering plants. They mostly grow in tropical areas of the world. They were used to make Indigo dye.

Faboideae
Emmanuel College: Notre Dame Campus

The Emmanuel College: Notre Dame Campus is a Roman Catholic, secondary day school, located in Point Cook, a south-western suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It a branch of one of Emmanuel College's education facilities.

History

Establishment & Construction 
In 2006, the plans for Emmanuel College and the future school initiated. Construction of the education facility began in 2007 and was completed before the school's opening, ready for the school's first year of education.

Education 
The school only teaches year sevens, but will expand to educating years seven to twelve by the year 2013. It was planned for the school to expand one year level each year, so when the year sevens of 2008 become year eights, the school will teach both years seven and eight, and so on until 2013 when it would have finished this process.

Head Master and Current Staff 
The Notre Dame Campus currently enlists an unknown number of staff.

The incumbent principal is Mr. Christopher Stock (BSc DipEd MEd B.Theol).

Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) 

The VCE program will be implemented in 2012 at the Notre Dame Campus when it commences it's year 11 education.

Related pages
Emmanuel College, Melbourne
Emmanuel College: St. Paul's Campus
List of schools in Victoria

References

Other websites
Emmanuel College Website 

Schools in Australia
2008 establishments in Australia
Melbourne
Yekaterinburg

Yekaterinburg is a big city in  the Ural mountains in the Asian part of Russia. It has a population of 1,483,119 people. The city was started in 1723 by Vasily Tatischev and named after empress Catherine I who was the Peter the Great’s wife.

Geography

History

Economy

Transportation

Demography

Twin cities 

Yekaterinburg is a sister city of
  - Pilsen, Czech Republic
  - San Jose, California, U.S.A., since 1992
  - Guangzhou, the People's Republic of China, since July 10 2002
  - Genoa, Italy
  - Ferentino, Italy

Related pages 
List of cities and towns in Russia

References 

Capital cities in Russia
1723 establishments
18th-century establishments in Russia
Collingwood, Victoria

Collingwood is a suburb in Melbourne, Australia. It was named after Baron Cuthbert Collingwood (1748 - 1810), an admiral of the Royal Navy.

Sport 
The Collingwood Football Club was originally based in Collingwood, but has since moved to the Lexus Centre.

References 

Suburbs of Melbourne
George M. Dallas

George Mifflin Dallas (July 10, 1792 – December 31, 1864) was an American politician and diplomat. He was the 11th vice president of the United States from 1845 to 1849, under James K. Polk. Before becoming vice president, he was a senator from Pennsylvania.

Dallas was born in Philadelphia and graduated from the College of New Jersey (now the Princeton University) in 1810.

1792 births
1864 deaths
United States senators from Pennsylvania
Vice Presidents of the United States
Politicians from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
19th-century American politicians
William R. King

William Rufus deVane King (April 7, 1786 – April 18, 1853) was a U.S. representative from North Carolina, a senator from Alabama, and the thirteenth vice president of the United States. Excluding John Tyler and Andrew Johnson — both of whom ascended to the presidency — he was the shortest-serving person to occupy that office (45 days, see List of vice presidents of the United States by time in office).

1786 births
1853 deaths
Vice Presidents of the United States
United States senators from Alabama
Politicians from North Carolina
Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate
Deans of the United States Senate
19th-century American politicians
Harnett County, North Carolina

Harnett County is a county in the state of North Carolina, United States.  In 2000, 91,025 people lived there.  Its county seat is Lillington.

History 
The county was made in 1855 from Cumberland County.  It was named for Cornelius Harnett.

Government 
Harnett County is a member of the Mid-Carolina Council of Governments.

Connected Counties 
Wake County, North Carolina - north-northeast
Johnston County, North Carolina - east
Sampson County, North Carolina - southeast
Cumberland County, North Carolina - south
Moore County, North Carolina - southwest
Lee County, North Carolina - northwest
Chatham County, North Carolina - north-northwest

Cities and Towns 
These cities and towns are in Harnett County:
Angier
Coats
Dunn
Erwin
Lillington

Other websites
Harnett County official website

North Carolina counties
1850s establishments in North Carolina
1855 establishments in the United States
Chatham County, North Carolina

Chatham County is a county in the U.S. state of North Carolina.  In 2000, 49,329 people lived there.    Now the population is more than 60,000.  Its county seat is Pittsboro.

History 
The county was made in 1771 from Orange County.

In 1907 parts of Chatham County and Moore County were combined to form Lee County.

Government 
Chatham County is part of the regional Triangle J Council of Governments.

Schools 
Chatham County has its own public school system for grades kindergarten to 12.  Central Carolina Community College also has two campuses in the county.

Coal Mines 
Chatham County has the only coal mines in North Carolina.  Coal mining used to be very important to the county, but in the 1920s a bad accident in one of the mines killed many workers.  By the 1940s all the mines had closed.  Some people have tried to open the mines back up, but the mines are too dangerous.  Right now none of the mines are open.

New Houses 
Many builders are building new houses in Chatham County right now.  Some people in the county do not like this because they do not want Chatham County to have a lot of people.  A lot of people want to live in Chatham County because they do not have to pay as much tax as people in other North Carolina counties do.  But other people think it is good that a lot of people want to live in the county because then the county will make more money from taxes.

Connected Counties 
Orange County, North Carolina - north
Durham County, North Carolina - northeast
Wake County, North Carolina - east
Harnett County, North Carolina - southeast
Lee County, North Carolina - south
Moore County, North Carolina - southwest
Randolph County, North Carolina - west
Alamance County, North Carolina - northwest

Cities and Towns 
These cities and towns are in Chatham County:
Fearrington
Goldston
Pittsboro
Siler City

Roads 
These are the most important roads in Chatham County:
 U.S. Highway 64
 U.S. Highway 421
  U.S. Highway 15-501

Other websites
Chatham County Government
Chatham County Travel Website
Chatham Journal Newspaper
Chatham Online Bulletin Board 

 
1771 establishments
1770s establishments in North Carolina
Carteret County, North Carolina

Carteret County is a county in the U.S. state of North Carolina.  In 2000, 59,383 people lived there.  Its county seat is Beaufort. Most of the county is part of the Crystal Coast.

Government 
Carteret County is part of the Eastern Carolina Council of Governments.

Connected Counties
Craven County (north)
Pamlico County (north)
Onslow County (west-southwest)
Jones County (west-northwest)

Cities and Towns 
These cities and towns are in Carteret County:
Atlantic Beach
Beaufort
Bogue
Cape Carteret
Cedar Point
Emerald Isle
Indian Beach
Morehead City
Newport
Peletier
Pine Knoll Shores

Schools
The county has its own public school system called Carteret County Schools.

References

Other websites
 Official website
 Carteret County News-Times

 
1739 establishments
1730s establishments in North Carolina
Doctor (Doctor Who)

The Doctor is the central character in the long-running BBC science fiction television series Doctor Who. 

She is an alien, a Time Lord from the planet Gallifrey. The Doctor travels in his space-time-ship, the TARDIS, (Time And Relative Dimensions In Space) with which she can go anywhere in time and space. Because the TARDIS's chameleon circuit is broken, it looks like an old British police-call box permanently. The Doctor often takes other people with him, who are usually called "companions" or "assistants". They are always 21st century humans in the modern series, however the classic series often had human-looking aliens or people from the past or future. The most recent companions are Yaz and Dan.

Biography
The Doctor did not want to stay on Gallifrey any longer, so he "borrowed" an old Type 40 TARDIS. In the TARDIS he and his granddaughter Susan Foreman left their home planet Gallifrey. They stayed for a time on Earth in the 1960s, where Susan also went to school. Her teachers, Barbara Wright and Ian Chesterton, discovered the TARDIS. They traveled for a while with the Doctor, and returned to Earth two years later. After them the Doctor often took other people with him on his travels.

Anatomy and regeneration
As a Gallifreyan the Doctor looks like a human on the surface, but there are differences. One well-known difference is that he has two hearts. As a Time Lord the Doctor can also regenerate, if his body is badly hurt and he dies. During the regeneration, the body is healed and renewed, which includes a different appearance and personality. The regenerated person is the same person, with the same memories and basic personality traits; but the person also looks different and a changed personality. Because of this the Doctor could be played by different actors. This made it possible for the series to be filmed over a time of nearly fifty years without having to actually "change" the character.

Incarnations and actors of the Doctor
Up until now, the Doctor has regenerated twelve times, and each "incarnation" was played by a different actor.
First Doctor – William Hartnell (1963–1966)
Second Doctor – Patrick Troughton (1966–1969)
Third Doctor – Jon Pertwee (1970–1974)
Fourth Doctor – Tom Baker (1974–1981)
Fifth Doctor – Peter Davison (1981–1984)
Sixth Doctor – Colin Baker (1984–1986)
Seventh Doctor – Sylvester McCoy (1987–1989, 1996)
Eighth Doctor – Paul McGann (1996)
War Doctor – John Hurt (2013)
Ninth Doctor – Christopher Eccleston (2005)
Tenth Doctor – David Tennant (2005–2010)
Eleventh Doctor – Matt Smith (2010–2013)
Twelfth Doctor – Peter Capaldi (2013–2017)
Thirteenth Doctor – Jodie Whittaker (2017–present)

The Doctor has been played by other actors in other media, in theatre plays, parodies, etc. But these are not officially part of the Doctor Who storyline. Notable among them are:
 Dr. Who and the Daleks and Daleks - Invasion Earth 2150 AD – Peter Cushing (1965/1966)
 Scream of the Shalka and The Feast of the Stone – Richard E. Grant (2003)

References

Other websites 
 The Doctor on the TARDIS Index File

Doctor Who characters

de:Doctor Who#Der Doktor
Roger Penrose

Sir Roger Penrose Kt OM FRS (born 8 August 1931) is an English mathematical physicist. He is Emeritus Rouse Ball Professor of Mathematics at the Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford and Emeritus Fellow of Wadham College.

Works
He is renowned for his work in Astrophysics with Stephen Hawking, in particular his contributions to general relativity and cosmology. He is also a recreational mathematician and philosopher.

Roger Penrose is the brother of mathematician Oliver Penrose and chess grandmaster Jonathan Penrose. His sister, now Shirley Hodgson, is a notable geneticist. He was born in Colchester, Essex, England. He was awarded the Copley Medal in 2008. 

In 2020, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics alongside Reinhard Genzel and Andrea M. Ghez.

Penrose has a Jewish background (his mother is Jewish).

Works
Techniques of Differential Topology in Relativity (1972, )
Spinors and Space-Time, volume 1: Two-spinor calculus and relativistic fields (with Wolfgang Rindler, 1987)  (paperback)
Spinors and Space-Time, volume 2: Spinor and twistor methods in space-time geometry (with Wolfgang Rindler, 1988)  (reprint),  (paperback)
The Emperor's New Mind: concerning computers, minds, and the laws of physics (1989,  (paperback); it received the Rhone-Poulenc science book prize in 1990)
Shadows of the Mind: a search for the missing science of consciousness (1994,  (hardback)
The nature of space and time (with Stephen Hawking, 1996,  (hardback),  (paperback))
The large, the small, and the human mind  (with Abner Shimony, Nancy Cartwright, and Stephen Hawking, 1997,  (hardback),  (paperback), Canto edition: )
White Mars or, the mind set free (with Brian W. Aldiss, 1999,  (hardback))
The Road to Reality: a complete guide to the laws of the Universe (2004,  (hardcover),  (paperback))
Cycles of Time: an extraordinary new view of the Universe (Bodley Head (23 Sep 2010) )

References

1931 births
Living people
Academics of the University of Oxford
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Alumni of University College London
British Nobel Prize winners
English mathematicians
English physicists
English science writers
Fellows of the Royal Society
Jewish British academics
Jewish British scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Jewish Wolf Prize winners
Order of Merit
People from Essex
British theoretical physicists
Langur

The Gray langur or Hanuman langur (Semnopithecus) is a genus of colobine monkey. They are found in southeast Asia. The word "langur" means 'having a long tail'. It is commonly called the leaf monkey. They usually live in small groups of between 2 and 10 individuals. They mainly eat leaves, as well as some fruit. Langur spend most of their time in trees. They have white fur and black faces. They are considered sacred animals therefore the "National social mammal of India".

References 

Old World monkeys
Mammals of Asia
National symbols of India
Moomba

The Moomba Waterfest is a yearly  in Melbourne, Australia. It takes place over the Labor Day weekend.

Festivals
Melbourne
Australian culture
Wittgenstein (disambiguation)

Wittgenstein may refer to:

Place names 

 Kreis Wittgenstein, a former district in North Rhine-Westphalia, now incorporated into Kreis Siegen-Wittgenstein
 Wittgenstein Castle, near Bad Laasphe
 Haus Wittgenstein, a building in Vienna

Surnames 
 Karl Wittgenstein, Austrian entrepreneur, father of:
 Ludwig Wittgenstein, philosopher; and
 Paul Wittgenstein, pianist

 Heinrich von Wittgenstein, German entrepreneur and politician

 Members of the German noble family Sayn-Wittgenstein
 Heinrich Prinz zu Sayn-Wittgenstein, World War II German flying ace 
 Prince Peter Wittgenstein, Russian Field Marshal
 Ludwig zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg, Russian aristocrat
 Botho Prinz zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Hohenstein, German politician
 Casimir Graf zu Sayn-Wittgenstein, German politician
 Princess (Fürstin) Carolyne von Sayn-Wittgenstein (Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein, or Marie zu Sayn-Wittgenstein) (1819–1887), Russian nobility, Franz Liszt's mistress and patron, and a close friend of Berlioz (She is not Marie Catherine Sophie de Flavigny, Comtesse (Gräfin) Marie d'Agoult, known by her pen name, "Daniel Stern")  

Surnames
John C. Breckinridge

John Cabell Breckinridge (January 16, 1821 – May 17, 1875) was a lawyer, U.S. representative, U.S. senator from Kentucky and the 14th vice president of the United States. He was from Kentucky. He served in the House from 1851 to 1855. He served as Vice-President from 1857 to 1861, under President James Buchanan. Breckinridge was the youngest vice president in U.S. history.

Breckinridge was also a Southern Democratic candidate for President in 1860. In the election of 1860, the Democratic Party split, with Southerners voting for Breckinridge and Northerners voting for Stephen Douglas. He carried most of the Southern states, but lost to Abraham Lincoln.

When the South seceded, Breckinridge was briefly a U.S. Senator from Kentucky, but was kicked out of the Senate. After that, he became active in the Confederacy. During the American Civil War, he was a general in the Confederate States Army. He fought in Tennessee and the Shenandoah Valley. He was the Confederate commander at the Battle of New Market. Breckinridge was the last Confederate Secretary of War. After the war, Breckinridge left the country for four years. He returned to Kentucky in 1869 and died in 1875.

References 

1821 births
1875 deaths
American esotericists
Lawyers from Kentucky
Confederate Army generals
Deaths from cirrhosis
Freemasons
People from Lexington, Kentucky
United States representatives from Kentucky
United States senators from Kentucky
US Democratic Party politicians
19th-century American politicians
Michael Dante DiMartino

Michael Dante DiMartino (born July 18, 1974) is an American animation director. He is best known as the co-creator, executive producer, and story editor of the TV series Avatar: The Last Airbender on Nickelodeon.

Other websites 

 Interview with Mike and Bryan  at AvatarSpirit.Net 

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American animators
American editors
Barbara Meier

Barbara Meier (born 25 July 1986 in Amberg, Germany) is a model. She is the winner of the second cycle (season) of Germany's Next Topmodel (GNTM), presented by Heidi Klum.

Biography 
Meier was born in Amberg. Before GNTM she studied mathematics.

While shopping at a mall, she was invited by a model scout to a casting for GNTM. Out of 16,421 girls in the casting, she was chosen among 14 other girls to be on the TV show.
During the show she won a role alongside Heidi Klum in a TV commercial for McDonald's. 

In the last episode (the finale), she won the show and became "Germany's Next Topmodel".

After Germany's Next Topmodel Meier was in many magazines around the world such as Vogue (Taiwan), Madame Figaro (Russia) and L'Officiel (France) and worked for many brands such as Pantene.

Other websites 
Official website
Barbara Meier  at IMG Models - Milan
Barbara Meier in the Fashion Model Directory
Barbara Meier at the Internet Movie Database

1986 births
Living people
People from Bavaria
German models
Bryan Konietzko

Bryan Konietzko is the co-creator and executive producer of the animated series Avatar: The Last Airbender. He has also worked as a character designer for the animated series Family Guy. He was a storyboard artist and art director for the Nickelodeon animated series Invader Zim.

Other websites 
 
 
  Interview with Mike and Bryan at AvatarSpirit.Net

Living people
Animators
Hannibal Hamlin

Hannibal Hamlin (August 27, 1809–July 4, 1891) was a politician from Maine. Hamlin served as a lawmaker in Maine, governor of Maine, in the U.S. House of Representatives, and in the U.S. Senate. He began his career as a Democrat but later became a Republican. He was the first Republican to serve as Vice President of the United States, elected as Abraham Lincoln's vice president in the 1860 presidential election.

Early life 
Hamlin was born in Paris, Maine. He was a descendant of James Hamlin who had lived in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1639. He attended the area's schools, and later managed his father's farm. For the next few years he worked at several jobs. He studied law. He lived in Hampden, where he practiced law until 1848, when he moved away.

Political life 
Hamlin studied law. He was admitted to the legal profession in 1833, and quickly became known as a good lawyer and a good speaker. In politics, he began as an against slavery Democrat. He was a member of the state House of Representatives from 1836-1840, in charge of the House during the last four years. He was a representative in Congress from 1843 to 1847, and a Senator of the United States Senate from 1848 to 1856. From the very beginning of his service in Congress he was a well-known opponent of the extension of slavery; a notable supporter of the Wilmot Proviso, an opponent of the Missouri Compromise, and in 1856, he left the Democrats and joined the new Republican party. 

The Republicans in Maine supported him for governor in the same year, and he won a landslide victory. He was inaugurated as governor on the 8th of January 1857. In late February, however, he gave up the governorship, and was in the Senate from 1857 to 1861. From 1861 to 1865, during the Civil War, he was Vice-President of the United States. While in this office he gave a large amount of advice to then President Lincoln, and supported both the Emancipation Proclamation and the arming of the slaves. After the war he served in the Senate (1869-1881), was minister to Spain (1881-1883), and then left public life. He died at Bangor, Maine, on the 4th of July 1891.

References

1809 births
1891 deaths
Ambassadors of the United States
Lawyers from Maine
Governors of Maine
United States representatives from Maine
United States senators from Maine
US Democratic Party politicians
US Republican Party politicians
People from Bangor, Maine
19th-century American politicians
THU

Thu is most often an abbreviation for Thursday.

It can also mean"

 THU, Three-letter abbreviation for Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
 THU, IATA airport code for Thule Air Base
 early name for Sauron in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium
 Þu, an Old English Pronoun
 suggested gender neutral pronoun
A dog belonging to Claidi and Argul in The Claidi Journals
Thu (movie) - a 1961 Burmese movie
Thu, the abbreviation for the orchid genus Thunia
Bathymetry

Bathymetry is the study of the underwater terrain of lakes or ocean floors. It is the same as topography, except that it looks at the underwater topography. It is a field of oceanography. The name comes from Greek  (bathus), meaning "deep", and  (metron), meaning "measure". Bathymetric (or hydrographic) charts are often made to support the safety of underwater navigation and exploration. Most of these underwater topographic maps use contour lines (called depth contours or isobaths) to show the terrain of the sea floor, and how deep it is. They usually also give surface navigational information.

Originally, bathymetry involved the measurement of ocean depth through sounding. Early techniques used heavy rope or cable lowered over a ship's side. This method measures the depth of the water at a single location each time. It was not a very accurate method. The data used to make bathymetric maps today usually comes from an echosounder (sonar). This device is attached to the bottom or the side of a boat.

References

Other websites

 High resolution bathymetry for the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea 

Cartography
Oceanography
Cave painting

Cave paintings are paintings on cave walls and ceilings. Usually these paintings were made in prehistoric  times.

It is not known why these paintings were made. They may have had a function  for rituals. They may also have been a way to transit information; to tell other people about something. Most paintings are in caves that are difficult to get at.  

Today, there are about 350 caves known which have paintings in them. Many are in France and Spain. The best known are probably the caves of Altamira (in Spain), Lascaux (in France), or Creswell Crags in England. Sometimes, paintings were also done on cliff faces. Fewer of those have survived though, because of erosion. One such example are the rock paintings of Astuvansalmi (in Finland).

Most often, animals or hunting scenes were painted. Sometimes hands are there too. Rarely, there are also more abstract patterns.

The paintings were drawn with red and yellow ochre, hematite, manganese oxide and charcoal. Sometimes the silhouette of the animal was put into the rock first.

Styles 
André Leroi-Gourhan (1911-1986) has classified the paintings into different styles:

Theories 
There are different theories about why people created cave paintings.  These are the most common explanations:
 Painting in caves could be a form of hunting magic, meant to make a hunt more successful.  A similar theory is based on studies of modern hunter-gatherer societies.  This theory says that shamans made cave paintings.  The shaman would retreat into the darkness of the caves, enter into a trance state, and then paint images of their visions, perhaps with some notion of drawing power out of the cave walls themselves.
 Cave paintings could be some form of graffiti, mostly done by teenage boys of the time.  Figurines have been found that show Venus at roughly the same age.  According to this theory, there were many adolescents in the society of the time. Most of the adolescents who painted were male, but some were female.
 The paintings may have been made for practical reasons: There is some hidden symbolism which may show the techniques of hunting, or the routes the animals took. 
 People may have painted what they wished for or what they had dreamt of. 
The paintings could have been seen as "art" at the time. There are several societies today who do not have a word for art, but who practice the same type of painting.

Oldest known 
A painting  on the wall of an Indonesian cave has is about 44,000 years old. It shows a buffalo being hunted. Last year another painting was found in Borneo.

Gallery

Related pages 
Rock art
Upper Palaeolithic

References

Painting
Caves
Ancient history
Stone Age
Radiocarbon dating

Radiocarbon dating, also known as the C14 dating method, is a way of telling how old an object is. It is a type of radiometric dating. 

The method uses the radioactive isotope carbon-14. Most organic matter contains carbon. Carbon has different isotopes, which are usually not radioactive. 14C is the radioactive one, its half-life  (time it takes to reduce its radioactivity by half)  is about 5,730 years. This makes it possible to tell the age of substances that contain carbon. The method works to about 60,000 years old. Dates obtained are usually written as before present ('present' is 1950). 

Plants take up atmospheric carbon dioxide by photosynthesis, and are eaten by animals, so every living thing is constantly exchanging carbon-14 with its environment as long as it lives. Once it dies, however, this exchange stops.

In 1958 Hessel de Vries showed that the concentration of carbon-14 in the atmosphere varies with time and locality. The relatively short-lived 14C is constantly renewed by cosmic ray bombardment on atmospheric nitrogen. Since the bombardment is slightly variable, and for other reasons, the 14C taken into organic matter is also slightly variable. That leads to errors in the chronology. However, under about 20,000 years the results can be compared with dendrochronology, based on tree rings. For the most accurate work, variations are compensated by means of calibration curves. 

The method was developed by Willard Libby and his colleagues at the University of Chicago in 1949. In 1960, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work. He first demonstrated the accuracy of radiocarbon dating by accurately estimating the age of wood from an ancient Egyptian royal barge of which the age was known from historical documents.

Other websites 
Radiocarbon - The main international journal of record for research articles and date lists relevant to 14C 
C14dating.com - General information on Radiocarbon dating
NOSAMS: National Ocean Sciences Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution  
Discussion of calibration 
Several calibration programs can be found at www.radiocarbon.org 
CalPal Online (Cologne Radiocarbon Calibration & Paleoclimate Research Package)
OxCal program (Oxford Calibration) 
Fairbanks' Radiocarbon Calibration program (for prior to 12400 BP) 
Further basic information on radiocarbon dating (PDF)

References

Archaeology
Carbon
Radiometric dating
Passage tomb

A passage tomb or passage grave is a tomb which can be reached through a (usually low) passage. Most of these tombs were constructed during prehistoric times. Most often, large stones, called Megaliths were used to construct them. These kinds of tombs can be found in large numbers in Ireland and Scotland.

Prehistoric buildings and structures
Burial monuments and structures
Hallstatt culture

The Hallstatt culture is named after Hallstatt, a city in Austria in which the first artifacts were found. It lasted from about 1200 BC to about 275 BC. 

There were different periods that are now told apart mainly by the kinds of brooches used. The brooches changed rather rapidly and permit a good estimate. Hallstatt culture sites have been found in the east of France, in Switzerland, in the south of Germany, in Austria, in Slovenia and Croatia, northwestern Hungary, southwestern Slovakia and southern Moravia.

In this time, the social structure developed into a hierarchy. That can be documented by various things that were added to graves, such as at Magdalenenberg. In the Bronze Age, people lived in big settlements. As iron became available, trade routes changed. A new upper class could establish itself. Unlike before, the upper class liked to live in big houses in the countryside to show their power.

Funerary cults also changed, from cremation burials, to burials with sarcophagi. The new upper class used its wealth for import goods, mostly from the Mediterranean. People started settling there around the 2nd millennium BC.

Other websites 
Hallstatt culture: the real thing.  

Ancient history
Archaeological sites in Europe
Austrian culture
La Tène culture

The La Tène culture existed from about 500 BC to about 100 AD. Named after a town in Switzerland near Neuchâtel, it was greatly influenced by the Roman and the Greek cultures. There are two sources for this:
 Things found
 Romans and Greeks came in contact with the culture and called them Celts, usually. They wrote about them, most notably Julius Caesar's "On the Gallic War" (De bello gallico).

The Celts basically lived in clans, which were led by leaders, the druids and the bards. Women were much better off than under the Romans and were of a similar status to men. There were both polygyny  (a man could have several women) and polyandry (a woman could have several men).

Ancient history
Ringfort

A ringfort, ring fort or ring fortress is a fortified settlement. Ring forts were made to protect villages, mostly in the Middle Ages. In Ireland where many such forts can be found, they are also known as ráth, caiseal, cathair and dún in the early Irish sources.

A ráth (anglicised rath), was made of earth, caiseal (northwestern Ireland, anglicised cashel) and cathair (southwestern Ireland) were built of stone. A dun is a more prestigious site, the seat of some kind of ruler, the term is applied to promontory forts as well.

Buildings and structures in the Middle Ages
Fortification
Beowulf

Beowulf is an Old English heroic epic poem. It is not known who wrote it, and there is no agreement as to when it was written. Estimates for the date range from AD 608 right through to AD 1000, and there is no consensus. The poem has only one manuscript source, written about 1010. Beowulf is 3182 lines long.  Tolkien describes and illustrates many of the features of Old English poetry in his 1940 essay On translating Beowulf.

The protagonist of the poem is Beowulf. In the poem, Beowulf fights three monsters: Grendel and Grendel's mother, and later in his life an unnamed dragon.

Story 
Hrothgar, a Danish king, has built a big mead hall, which is called Heorot. Hrothgar and his people live a good life and celebrate in Heorot. But then they are attacked by Grendel, who comes to Heorot every night and kills some of Hrothgar's people.

Beowulf is a warrior from Geatland (modern southern Sweden). He hears of Hrothgar's troubles with Grendel. Beowulf and his men leave Geatland to help King Hrothgar.

Beowulf and his men stay the night in Heorot. When Grendel comes to kill them, Beowulf fights him. Beowulf tears Grendel's arm off from his body and sticks it on the wall as a trophy. Grendel runs to his home in the marshes, where he dies. Everyone is happy that Grendel is killed and celebrates. 
But the next night, Grendel's mother comes to Heorot and kills many people for revenge and grabs Grendel's arm. Beowulf then goes to the marshes where Grendel and his mother lived. Beowulf fights Grendel's mother and kills her.

Beowulf later becomes a king. He fights a dragon that was living in a barrow. With the help of the young man Wiglaf, Beowulf kills the dragon. Beowulf is wounded in the final battle and dies and crowns Wiglaf as his successor.

Adaptations 

The story of Beowulf has often been told in books, plays, and films. Sometimes the full story is told, sometimes just parts of the story. Sometimes the plot is altered. Sometimes only ideas or themes are taken from the story. 
Some examples are:
 Beowulf (1999 film)
 Beowulf and Grendel (2005 film)
 [[Grendel (movie)|Grendel]] (2007 film)
 Eaters of the Dead, a book by Michael Crichton (1976)
 Grendel, a book by John Gardner (1971)
 The Ring-givers, a book by W.H. Canaway (1958).

References 

Germanic mythology
Epic poems
Tegan Jovanka

Tegan Jovanka is a fictional character in the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who. She was played by Janet Fielding. Tegan Jovanka was an Australian airline stewardess who was a companion of the Fourth and Fifth Doctors, she was a regular in the programme from 1981 to 1984. Tegan was the longest-serving companion in terms of years on the series (3 years, 1 month), although Jamie McCrimmon was in the most episodes and stories.

Character history
Tegan first appears in the Fourth Doctor's last serial, Logopolis. On her way to Heathrow Airport to start her new job with Air Australia, her car suffers a flat tyre. She enters a roadside police box to seek help, but she enters and does not realise that it is the Doctor's Tardis. She is present when the Fourth Doctor falls from the Pharos Project radio telescope and regenerates into his fifth incarnation, and continues to travel with the doctor
Eventually, the chaos during the events of Resurrection of the Daleks prove too much and she chooses to leave the Doctor and Turlough and stay in 1984 London.

Trivia
According to David Tennant's video diary of filming Doctor Who Series 3, John Barrowman (who plays Captain Jack Harkness in the 21st century series of Doctor Who and its spinoff Torchwood) has a dog named Tegan, named after the companion.

List of appearances

Television
Season 18
 Logopolis
Season 19
 Castrovalva
 Four to Doomsday
 Kinda
 The Visitation
 Black Orchid
 Earthshock
 Time-Flight
Season 20
 Arc of Infinity
 Snakedance
 Mawdryn Undead
 Terminus
 Enlightenment
 The King's Demons
20th anniversary special
 The Five Doctors
Season 21
 Warriors of the Deep
 The Awakening
 Frontios
 Resurrection of the Daleks
 The Caves of Androzani (cameo)

References

Other websites
 Tegan Jovanka at The TARDIS Index File website
 Tegan Jovanka on the BBC's Doctor Who website

Doctor Who characters
Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles

Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles is a television series that appeared on the Fox Television Network from January 13, 2008 until 2009. It is a spin-off of Terminator 2: Judgment Day.

It is about Sarah Connor, her teenage son, and a good robot named Cameron trying to stop the evil computer Skynet from ever being created.

Other websites 
 Official site on Fox  (requires Flash)
 Official Wiki  (uses some Flash)
 

2008 American television series debuts
2009 American television series endings
2000s American television series
American science fiction television series
American time travel television series
Terminator (franchise)
English-language television programs
Stigma (botany)

A stigma is a part of a flower that gets pollen from pollinators such as bees.  The stigma is part of the female reproductive part of a flower, the pistil. The stigma is on top of the style. The stigma can be either hairy or sticky, or both to trap pollen. When the pollen lands on the stigma, the pollen will grow a pollen tube down the style, and into the ovary of the pistil.

Flowers
Plant anatomy
Empress Dowager Cixi

Empress Dowager Cixi  (November 29 1835 – November 15 1908), often known in China as the West Dowager Empress  was from the Manchu Yehe Nara Clan.

Cixi was a powerful and charismatic figure who became the de facto ruler of the Manchu Qing Dynasty and ruled over China for 47 years from 1861 to her death in 1908.She was one of the wives of Emperor Xianfeng and also the mother of Emperor Tongzhi.She quickly took over the power after the death of Emperor Xianfeng.Though her exact origins are unclear it is very likely that she came from an ordinary Manchu family. She was chosen by the Xianfeng Emperor as a concubine. She gained almost total control over the court when the rule of her son the Tongzhi Emperor started. He and her nephew the Guangxu Emperor attempted unsuccessfully to rule in their own right.

As the source tells it, Cixi had a partnership with the #1 concubine Zhin, who had been raised to Empress. The two women ruled together, with Cixi as the more dominant personality.

She was in charge during the Opium Wars, First Sino-Japanese War, and the Boxer Rebellion. She was largely conservative during her rule, and some historians consider her reign despotism, and think that she might be responsible for the fall of the Qing Dynasty, and therefore Imperial China, as a result of Cixi's rule.

References 

 Chung, Sue Fawn. 1979. The much maligned Empress Dowager: a revisionist study of the Empress Dowager Tz'u-Hsi (1835-1908). Modern Asian Studies 13, 2, 177-96.
 Hummel, Arthur William, ed. Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period (1644-1912). 2 vols. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1943.
 Warner, Marina. 1972. The Dragon Empress: life and times of Tz'u-his 1835-1908. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1972.

Other websites 

 https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/favourites/b03bdpl9
 http://womenshistory.about.com/library/bio/blbio_cixi.htm?terms=cixi
 http://www.royalty.nu/Asia/China/TzuHsi.html
 http://www.kings.edu/womens_history/tzuhsi.html 
 http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/eastasia/headland-courtlife.html
 Cixi: The Woman Behind the Throne -- Smithsonian.com

1835 births
1908 deaths
Emperors and Empresses of China
Controversy

A controversy is a  prolonged public dispute or debate, with people having different opinions. There may be several groups of people who have different opinions and who cannot agree. Examples for controversial topics are the question of whether abortion should be legal, or whether research on embryonic stem cells should be permitted. Controversies can happen when there is not a lot of understanding about a topic. A controversy may also happen when different people interpret the same information differently based on their own biases. 

Any opinion that has opposing sides or points of view can become a controversy. In the winter of 2015, consumers argued over the color and design of Starbucks Christmas cup. Some suggested a boycott of the coffee brand to protest.

References

Related pages
Dispute
Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund

Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund is a confederation of German trade unions. It was a national trade union center of Germany.

The DGB hat 8 German trade unions with more than 7 million people (31.12.2004). It was founded in Munich in 12 October 1949.

Trade unions 
 IG BAU - IG Bauen-Agrar-Umwelt (Construction, Agriculture, Environment) 424,808 members = 6.06%
 IG BCE - IG Bergbau, Chemie, Energie (Mining, Chemicals, Energy) 770,582 members = 10.99%
 GEW - Gewerkschaft Erziehung und Wissenschaft (Education and Science) 254,673 members = 3.63%
 IGM - IG Metall (Metalworkers) 2,425,005 members = 34.58%
 NGG - Gewerkschaft Nahrung-Genuss-Gaststätten (Food, Beverages and Catering) 225,328 members = 3.21%
 GdP - Gewerkschaft der Polizei (Police) 177,910 members = 2.54%
 TRANSNET Gewerkschaft (Railway Workers) 270,221 members = 3.85%
 ver.di - Vereinte Dienstleistungsgewerkschaft (United Services Union) 2,464,510 members = 35.14%

( DGB in total: 7,013,037 members = 100% // all values: 31 December 2004 )

Presidents 
 1949–1951: Hans Böckler
 1951–1952: Christian Fette
 1952–1956: Walter Freitag
 1956–1962: Willi Richter
 1962–1969: Ludwig Rosenberg
 1969–1982: Heinz-Oskar Vetter
 1982–1990: Ernst Breit
 1990–1994: Heinz-Werner Meyer
 1994–2002: Dieter Schulte
 2002–today: Michael Sommer

Other websites 
 DGB homepage

Trade unions in Germany
The Best Damn Thing (song)

The Best Damn Thing is the fourth single off the album The Best Damn Thing  by Avril Lavigne. The song was released June 13, 2008.

References

2007 songs
Avril Lavigne songs
Vereinte Dienstleistungsgewerkschaft

ver.di is a large German trade union. It is the largest trade union in the world, with 2.6 million members. "ver.di" is an abbreviation for Vereinte Dienstleistungsgewerkschaft, which means "United Services Union."

In 2001 ver.di was formed when the Deutsche Angestellten Gewerkschaft (DAG) (German Salaried Employees) merged with four unions of the Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (DGB) (DPG, HBV, ÖTV, IG Medien).

Other websites 
 ver.di homepage
 Introduction in English on the ver.di homepage

Trade unions in Germany