cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Johannes Gutenberg

Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg (more commonly known as Johannes Gutenberg) (1390s – 3 February 1468), was a German metal-worker and inventor. He is famous for his work in printing in the 1450s, and is specifically known for inventing typography.

Gutenberg was born in Mainz, Germany, as the son of a merchant, Friele Gensfleisch zur Laden. Gutenberg's father took the surname "zum Gutenberg" after the name of the place they now lived.

Gutenberg invented a sort of metal alloy for printing; inks; a way to fix type (metal letters) very accurately; and a new sort of printing press. He took the idea for his printing press from the presses wine-makers used. Many people say Gutenberg invented printing with moveable type, but it was already invented in China before that: see printing.

Before movable type, people used block printing, where the printer prints a whole page from one piece of metal or wood. With movable type, the printer makes a letter (A, B, C ...) from a piece of metal or wood, and can use it again and again in different words. Together, all Gutenberg's inventions made printing fast. In Renaissance Europe, the improved information technology made an information explosion – in a short time, people printed many new books about many topics.

The high number of new books was partly because of the popular Bible Gutenberg printed – the Gutenberg Bible. This was the first Bible people made in large numbers; Gutenberg started on 23 February 1455. Gutenberg was not a clever businessman, and did not get much money from his system. He had legal problems, and lost his machines to his partner, Johann Fust. The Archbishop at the time sympathized with Gutenberg because of his contributions to society, so told him that he would receive a pension each year with clothes, wine, and grain.  Gutenberg died in Mainz, Germany, in 1468.

In his lifetime Gutenberg was not successful, but his invention was very important. In a short time, news and books were traveling around Europe very fast. Scientists could communicate better, which helped bring the scientific revolution and new technology. More Europeans, not just priests, scribes and scholars, learned to read.

Today, there are still 60 Gutenberg Bibles. They are probably the oldest books that printers made with moveable type.

The Gutenberg Galaxy and Project Gutenberg use Gutenberg's name. The city of Guttenberg, Iowa in the United States is named after him.

References 

1390s births
1468 deaths
German inventors
People from Mainz
Publishers
Cate Blanchett

Catherine Elise Blanchett  (; born 14 May 1969) is an Australian actress, producer, and theatre director. She was born in Ivanhoe, Victoria, Australia. 

In 1998 she won an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress for playing Elizabeth I in Elizabeth. In 2005 she won Best Supporting Actress for playing Katharine Hepburn in Martin Scorsese's The Aviator. 

Regarded as one of the greatest actresses of her generation, she is noted for her versatile roles in blockbusters, independent films, and in her stage work in various theatre productions. She has received  numerous accolades, including two Academy Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, and three British Academy Film Awards.

Filmography

References 

Satellite Award winners
1969 births
Living people
Actors from Melbourne
Australian movie actors
Australian stage actors
Australian television actors
Best Actress Academy Award winners
Best Supporting Actress Academy Award winners
BAFTA Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Kylie Minogue

Kylie Ann Minogue,  (; born 28 May 1968) is an Australian singer, songwriter and actress, sometimes known simply as Kylie. She became popular in the late 1980s, because of her role in the Australian television soap opera Neighbours, before becoming a dance-pop singer.

Early life
Minogue was born in Melbourne to a Welsh immigrant mother and Irish-Australian father. Her sister Dannii Minogue is also a singer and actress, and her brother Brendan works as a cameraman.

Career
She was signed to a contract by British songwriters and producers Stock, Aitken & Waterman, she got hit records throughout the world. Her popularity began to decline by the early 1990s and she left Stock, Aitken & Waterman in 1992. For years she tried to become an independent performer and songwriter. Her projects were widely talked about, but her albums resulted in the lowest sales of her career.

In 2000, Minogue became popular again as a dance-pop singer and became well known for her sexual music videos and elaborate concerts. She has one of the longest and most successful careers in pop music, and she has become one of the most recognisable celebrities and sex symbols. In Australia, she holds the record for the highest concert ticket sales for a woman, and has had nine singles at number one on the ARIA Singles Chart.

Personal life

Breast cancer
On 17 May 2005, Minogue was diagnosed with breast cancer. She was on tour at the time, and the rest of it had to be cancelled. Minogue had surgery for it on 21 May 2005 at a hospital in Malvern, Victoria, and started chemotherapy soon afterwards. She finished her chemotherapy treatment in January 2006 but still needed six more weeks of radiotherapy to stop any new cancerous tumours from growing.

Relationships
Minogue was in a relationship with Andres Velencoso from 2008 until 2013. 

Minogue began a relationship with Joshua Sasse in 2015. The couple became engaged in February 2016. They said in February 2017 that they had split up.

Discography 
Kylie (1988)
Enjoy Yourself (1989)
Rhythm of Love (1990)
Let's Get to It (1991)
Kylie Minogue (1994)
Impossible Princess (1997)
Light Years (2000)
Fever (2001)
Body Language (2003)
X (2007)
Aphrodite (2010)
Kiss Me Once (2014)
Kylie Christmas (2015)
Kylie Christmas: Snow Queen Edition (2016)
Golden (2018)

References

Other websites 
 Official website

1968 births
Living people
Actors from Melbourne
Australian child actors
Australian movie actors
Australian pop singers
Australian singer-songwriters
Australian television actors
Australian voice actors
Breast cancer survivors
Musicians from Melbourne
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Officers of the Order of Australia
Mel Gibson

Mel Colm-Cille Gerard Gibson  (born January 3, 1956) is an American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter. He is mostly known for his roles in action movies. Some of his most famous roles are in Mad Max (1979), Gallipoli (1981), The Bounty  (1984), Lethal Weapon (1987), and Braveheart (1995). He directed The Passion of the Christ in 2004. He loosely based it on the visions of St. Catherine Emmerich.

Gibson was born in Peekskill, New York, United States. His father, Hutton Gibson, was a veteran soldier during World War II and was also a famous writer. His family moved to Australia in 1968, when he was 12. He studied acting at the National Institute of Dramatic Art in Sydney. He also has Irish citizenship.

Awards and accomplishments
 Australian Film Institute Awards: Best Actor in a Lead Role, for Tim (1979) and Gallipoli (1981)
 Academy Award: Best Picture, for Braveheart (1995)
 Academy Award: Best Director, for Braveheart (1995)
 People's Choice Awards: Favorite Motion Picture Actor (1991, 1997, 2001, 2003, 2004)
 People's Choice Awards: Favorite Motion Picture Star in a Comedy (2001)
 ShoWest Award: Male Star of the Year (1993)
 ShoWest Award: Director of the Year (1996)
 American Cinematheque Gala Tribute: American Cinematheque Award (1995)
 Hasty Pudding Theatricals: Man of the Year (1997)
 Australian Film Institute Awards: Global Achievement Award (2002)
 Honorary Doctorate Recipient and Undergraduate Commencement Speaker, Loyola Marymount University (2003)
 World's most powerful celebrity by US business magazine Forbes (2004)
 Hollywood Reporter Innovator of the Year (2004)
 Honorary fellowship in Performing Arts by Limkokwing University (2007)
 Outstanding Contribution to World Cinema Award at the Irish Film and Television Awards (2008)

References

Other websites 
 Gibson, Mel at the Open Directory Project

 
1956 births
Living people
Academy Award winning actors
Actors from New York
American movie actors
American television actors
Movie directors from New York
Movie producers from New York
Order of Australia
People from Peekskill, New York
People's Choice Award winners
Screenwriters from New York
Natalie Portman

Natalie Portman (born Neta-Lee Hershlag; ; June 9, 1981) is an Israeli-American actress and filmmaker. She was born in Jerusalem, Israel. Portman is an only child. She lived in Washington, D.C. and Connecticut before coming to Long Island, New York with her parents. In 1999, she graduated from Syosset High School. Portman attended Harvard University, studying Psychology. In 2010, She won the Academy, BAFTA and Golden Globe Awards for "Best Actress" for her acting in the movie Black Swan.

She is most famous for starring in Star Wars Episodes I, II and III as Padme in the early 21st century. She has also appeared on Saturday Night Live.

Movies
 Song to Song (2017)
 Planetarium (2016)
 Jackie (2016)
 Pride and Prejudice and Zombies (2016)
 Jane Got a Gun (2016)
 A Tale of Love and Darkness (2015)
 Knight of Cups (2015)
 The Seventh Fire (2015)
 Thor: The Dark World (2013)
 Thor (2011)
 Your Highness (2011)
 No Strings Attached (2011)
 Black Swan (2010)
 Hesher (2010)
 Brothers (2009)
 New York, I Love You (2009)
 The Other Woman (2009)
 The Other Boleyn Girl (2008)
 Mr. Magorium's Wonder Emporium (2007)
 The Darjeeling Limited (2007)
 My Blueberry Nights (2007)
 Goya's Ghosts (2006)
 Paris, je t'aime (2006)
 V for Vendetta (2005)
 Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith (2005)
 Closer (2004)
 Garden State (2004)
 Cold Mountain (2003)
 Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones (2002)
 Where the Heart Is (2000)
 Anywhere but Here (1999)
 Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace (1999)
 Mars Attacks! (1996)
 Everyone Says I Love You (1996)
 Beautiful Girls (1996)
 Heat (1995)
 Léon aka The Professional (1994)

Awards
 2002 - Teen Choice Awards, Choice Movie Actress: Drama/Action Adventure: Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones
 2005 - Golden Globe Awards, Best Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture: Closer
 2005 - National Board of Review Awards, Best Acting by an Ensemble: Closer
 2005 - San Diego Film Critics Society Awards, Best Supporting Actress: Closer
 2007 - The Constellation Awards, Best Female Performance in a 2006 Science Fiction Film, TV Movie, or Mini-Series: V for Vendetta
 2007 - Saturn Awards, Best Actress: V for Vendetta
 2010 - Academy Awards, Best Actress: Black Swan
 2010 - BAFTA Awards, Best Actress: Black Swan
 2010 - Golden Globe Awards, Best Actress - Motion Picture: Black Swan

References

Other websites 

1981 births
Living people
Academy Award winning actors
Actors from New York City
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
American voice actors
Movie producers from New York City
Movie directors from New York City
Screenwriters from New York City
BAFTA Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Israeli movie actors
Israeli television actors
Israeli stage actors
Israeli movie producers
Israeli movie directors
Israeli screenwriters
Israeli voice actors
Israeli Jews
Jewish American actors
Naturalized citizens of the United States
People from Jerusalem
Saturn Award winners
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Alyson Hannigan

Alyson Lee Hannigan is an American actress. She was born March 24, 1974 in Washington, D.C. She moved to Atlanta, Georgia when she was 2 years old to live with her mother. She started to act in commercials for McDonalds, Six Flags amusement parks and Oreo cookies when she was small. When she was 11, she went to Los Angeles with her mother to go to school and become famous. She started getting noticed with her roles in Buffy the Vampire Slayer as Willow Rosenberg and in the American Pie movies as Michelle Flaherty. She is currently on the television series How I Met Your Mother.

Other websites 

 
 The Indy Channel interview  (February 15, 2006)
 Sun Times interview  (July 21, 2005)

1974 births
Living people
Actors from Atlanta, Georgia
Actors from Washington, D.C.
American child actors
American movie actors
American television actors
American voice actors
Whedonverse
Brad Pitt

William Bradley "Brad" Pitt (born December 18, 1963) is an Academy Award-winning American actor and movie producer.

Early life
William Bradley Pitt was born in Shawnee, Oklahoma, to Jane Etta (née Hillhouse), a school counsellor, and William Alvin Pitt, who ran a trucking company. The family soon moved to Springfield, Missouri, where he lived together with his younger siblings, Doug (born 1966) and Julie Neal (born 1969). He was born into a conservative household. He was raised as Southern Baptist. Pitt has described Springfield as "Mark Twain country, Jesse James country", having grown up with "a lot of hills, a lot of lakes".

Career
Pitt's television debut came in May 1987 with a two-episode role on the NBC soap opera Another World. In 1995 Pitt won two MTV Movie Awards for his role in Interview with the Vampire. He played Tyler Durden in Fight Club. Pitt produced the 2013 movie 12 Years a Slave. He also played a small role in the movie. 

He starred in two Quentin Tarantino movies: Inglourious Basterds and Once Upon a Time in Hollywood.

In 2020, he won an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award for his role in Once Upon a Time in Hollywood.

References

Other websites 

People from Shawnee, Oklahoma
Saturn Award winners
Academy Award winning actors
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Golden Globe Award winning actors
1963 births
Living people
Actors from Oklahoma
Actors from Missouri
Movie producers from Missouri
American movie actors
People from Springfield, Missouri
American television actors
American voice actors
Sigourney Weaver

Sigourney Weaver (born as Susan Alexandra Weaver on October 8, 1949, in New York City) is an American actress.

Weaver played the role of Lieutenant Ellen Ripley in the movie series Alien, in the four movies Alien, Aliens, Alien³, and Alien: Resurrection. She is also well known for playing Dana Barrett in the movies Ghostbusters and Ghostbusters II or for the role Dian Fossey in the movie Gorillas in the Mist.

She was the first person to win two Golden Globe acting awards in the same year.

Filmography

References

Other websites 
 

1949 births
Living people
American movie actors
American stage actors
American television actors
BAFTA Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Actors from New York City
American voice actors
HuffPost writers and columnists
Audrey Hepburn

Audrey Hepburn (4 May 1929 – 20 January 1993) was a Belgian-born British actress admired for her charm and elegance.

Early life 
Born in Brussels, Belgium, to an English father and a Dutch mother who were divorced in 1935. She grew up in Arnhem municipality in the Netherlands during the war, with her mother and two maternal half-brothers. When World War II ended, she and her mother moved to England. There, she studied ballet, and began working as a model and appearing in bit parts in the theatre and in movies.

Career 
Hepburn got her first major break in 1951, when she was chosen by French writer Colette to play the lead role in the English version of her play Gigi on Broadway. 

This led to her being cast in the lead female part in the movie Roman Holiday (1953), opposite Gregory Peck. The movie  made her an instant international star. Her performance won her the Academy Award, the Golden Globe Award and the BAFTA for best actress. She then appeared in a string of successful romantic comedies, such as Sabrina (1954), Love in the Afternoon (1957), Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961), Charade (1963), How to Steal a Million (1967), etc. She also appeared in two musicals; Funny Face (1957) and My Fair Lady (1964) and tackled more dramatic roles in movies such as War and Peace (1956), The Nun's Story (1959), The Children's Hour (1961), Two for the Road (1967) and the thriller Wait Until Dark (1967). 

After an eight years absence from the screen to take care of her family, she returned with Robin and Marian (1976), opposite Sean Connery. She also appeared in Bloodline (1979) and They All Laughed (1981) but retired for good shortly after.

In later life, she worked as a Goodwill Ambassasor for UNICEF and hosted a television series The Gardens of the World with Audrey Hepburn. 

She was married twice; first to actor/director Mel Ferrer in 1954, with whom she had a son Sean (b. 1960), and second to Italian psychiatrist Doctor Andrea Dotti in 1969, with whom she had a second son Luca (b. 1970). Both marriages ended in divorce.

Death and legacy 
Hepburn died of appendix cancer in January 1993. Her elder son, Sean Ferrer, later wrote a book about his mother, called Audrey Hepburn: an elegant spirit. The asteroid 4238 Audrey is named after her.

Other websites 

 
 
 
 Official web site by the Audrey Hepburn Children's Fund
 Audrey Hepburn's Gravesite
 

1929 births
1993 deaths
Deaths from appendix cancer
Actors from Brussels
BAFTA Award winning actors
Best Actress Academy Award winners
Cancer deaths in Switzerland
Deaths from colorectal cancer
English movie actors
English stage actors
English television actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Tony Award winning actors
Katharine Hepburn

Katharine Houghton Hepburn (May 12, 1907 – June 29, 2003) was an American actress. Her career lasted 66 years. She is thought of as one of the top screen actresses in movie history. She was nominated for 12 Academy Awards, winning four.

Hepburn was born in Hartford, Connecticut and went to Bryn Mawr College. She got her degree in 1928 and started on Broadway that same year.

In 1932 she got a role in the George Cukor movie A Bill of Divorcement, with John Barrymore. She was very successful in the early 1930s, but then she became unpopular. She became popular again with the movie The Philadelphia Story. In 1942 she starred in Woman of the Year with Spencer Tracy. They made eight more movies together, including Adam's Rib and Guess Who's Coming to Dinner. They also had an off-screen romance that lasted until Tracy's death in 1967, but they never married because Tracy did not want to divorce his wife. Before this, Hepburn was married to Ludlow Ogden Smith from 1928-1934, and also had relationships with Leland Hayward and Howard Hughes.

Her autobiography, Me: Stories of My Life, came out in 1991. She died on June 29, 2003 at 2:50 p.m., at Fenwick, the Hepburn family home, in Old Saybrook, Connecticut.  She was 96.

Stage work
 These Days - 1928
 Art and Mrs. Bottle - 1930
 The Warrior's Husband - 1932
 The Lake - 1933
 The Philadelphia Story - 1939
 Without Love - 1942
 As You Like It - 1950
 The Millionairess - 1952
 The Merchant of Venice; Measure for Measure; The Taming of the Shrew - 1955, On tour in Australia with the Old Vic
 The Merchant of Venice; Much Ado About Nothing - 1957, Stratford, Connecticut Shakespeare Theatre
 Antony and Cleopatra, Twelfth Night - 1960, Stratford, Connecticut Shakespeare Theatre
 Coco - 1969
 A Matter of Gravity - 1976
 The West Side Waltz - 1981

Filmography

Further reading

1907 births
2003 deaths
Actors from Hartford, Connecticut
American autobiographers
American LGBT people
American movie actors
American stage actors
American television actors
BAFTA Award winning actors
Best Actress Academy Award winners
Cancer deaths in Connecticut
Emmy Award winning actors 
LGBT actors
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Charles Kay Ogden

Charles Kay Ogden (1 June 1889 – 21 March 1957) was an English linguist, philosopher, psycholinguist and writer. He is a well-known book writer about the controlled language called Basic English. He is known for his work with I. A. Richards on The Meaning of Meaning (1923). He also translated Tractatus, a book by Ludwig Wittgenstein, into English.

Other websites
 C.K. Ogden biography

1889 births
1957 deaths
English writers
English philosophers
British linguists
God Save the Queen

"God Save the Queen" has been the national anthem of the United Kingdom since 1745. Its also the royal anthem of the Commonwealth realms, played alongside their official national anthems. Its composer remains unknown to this date.

When the ruling monarch is a king instead of a queen, the title of the anthem then becomes "God Save the King".

The tune for "God Save the Queen" was used in many countries as a national anthem. Apart from the German state, many of which were linked to Great Britain by marriage, Liechtenstein and Switzerland used the tune. Switzerland changed to a different tune in the 1960s. Liechtenstein still uses the tune.

The tune is both American and British. In the 1930s the United States chose an official anthem. "The Star-Spangled Banner" was chosen instead of the equally popular "My Country 'tis of Thee" which used the "God Save the Queen" tune.

Lyrics

Standard version
God save our gracious Queen,
Long live our noble Queen,
God save the Queen:
Send her victorious,
Happy and glorious,
Long to reign over us:
God save the Queen.

O Lord, our God, arise,
Scatter her enemies,
And make them fall.
Confound their politics,
Frustrate their knavish tricks,
On thee our hopes we fix:
God save us all.

Thy choicest gifts in store,
On her be pleased to pour;
Long may she reign:
May she defend our laws,
And ever give us cause
To sing with heart and voice
God save the Queen.

Original lyrics: "God Save the King"
God save great George our king
God save our noble king,
God save the king!
Send him victorious
Happy and glorious
Long to reign over us
God save the king!

Latin verse
O Deus optime
Salvum nunc facito
Regem nostrum
Sic laeta victoria
Comes et gloria
Salvum iam facito
Tu dominum.

French version used in Canada
Dieu protège la Reine
De sa main souveraine !
Vive la Reine !
Qu'un règne glorieux,
Long et victorieux
Rende son peuple heureux.
Vive la Reine !

Māori version used in New Zealand
Me tohu e t'Atua
To matou Kuini pai:
Kia ora ia
Meinga kia maia ia,
Kia hari nui, kia koa,
Kia kuini tonu ia,
Tau tini noa.

References

National anthems
British music
British monarchy
Galatasaray S.K.

Galatasaray is a sports club in Istanbul, Turkey. They started in 1905.

In 2000, they became the first Turkish club to win both the UEFA Cup and the UEFA Super Cup in the same year.
The team's colors are red and yellow. Turkish people also call it "Cim Bom". Their mascot is a lion. The Turk Telecom Stadium is their stadium, and is also known as Aslantepe; Lion Hill. It is an all-seater stadium. It can hold 52,652 people.

Galatasaray is one of the "big five" clubs in Turkey. The other clubs are Fenerbahçe, Beşiktaş, Trabzonspor and Bursaspor. They have won the Spor Toto Super League 22 times and Ziraat Turkish Cup 18 times. As of January 2016, the Chairman is Mustafa Cengiz, and the coach is Domènec Torrent.

Squad

Out on loan

References

Other websites 
 Official website of Galatasaray

Turkish football clubs
B

B is the 2nd letter of the English alphabet. Its appearance depends on the writer's calligraphy. It has an uppercase and lowercase version like any other letters.

The letter B was already part of the Phoenician alphabet more than 3000 years ago in 1000 BCE. It's part of many alphabets today.

Meanings for B 
 In education, B is a passing grade.
 In music, B is a note.
 In medicine, B is one of the human blood types.
 In the game of bingo, B is a column.
 On the internet, B (or /b/) is any of a number of image boards that allow anonymous posts.
 In transport, B is the vehicle registration plate of Belgium.
 In chemistry, B is the chemical symbol for boron.
In the New York Stock Exchange, B is the symbol for the Barnes Group.
In particle physics, b is the symbol for the bottom quark.

Other websites
C

If you typed C# and arrived at this page, then see C-sharp.

C is the third (3rd) letter in the English alphabet and ISO basic latin alphabet.

Meanings for C 
 In temperature, °C means "degrees Celsius".
 In music, C is a note.
 In chemistry, C is the atom of carbon, as in C40H56.
 In physics, c is the speed of light, as in E=mc².
 In Roman numerals, C means "one hundred" (100).
 There is a programming language called C, see C programming language.
 In electronics, C is a type of battery.
C can also mean the copyright symbol

Pronunciation 
The letter "C" is  pronounced as /k/.We can also say the letter "C" as /s/.
The letter "C"'s name ,in english, is "Cee"(said as  /ˈsiː/).
D

D is the fourth (number 4) letter in the alphabet. It is derived from the Greek Delta and the Phoenician Dalet

Meanings for D 
 In education, D is a barely passing grade.
 In electronics, D is a standard size dry cell battery.
 In music, D is a note.
 In Roman numerals, D also means the number 500.
 In computer programming, D is a programming language.
E

For the drug sometimes referred to E, see Ecstasy.

E is the fifth (number 5) letter in the English alphabet. 

In English it has two main sounds when it is spoken. Usually it is a short E (ĕ), but sometimes it is a long E (ē). 

One more thing in English is the so-called magic E. That is when a silent e at the end of a word makes the previous e long. Example: morpheme, which is pronounced as morphēm.

Typographic variants of E 
The variants of E include (but may not be limited to)
capital E
lower-case e
é È è Ê ê Ë
É ë Ě ě Ē ē
Ĕ ĕ Ė ė Ę ę

None of these variants is used in English, except occasionally É/é  for some French words.

Meanings for E 
These meanings are for E/e as a separate letter.
 In computers, the letter e is often used to start other words to mean "electronic", like in e-mail or e-commerce.
 In money, e is commonly used as a symbol for the euro when the symbol € is not available.
 In music, E is a note.
 In mathematics, e is a constant about 2.718; see e (mathematical constant)
 In Wheel of Fortune, E is one of the six letters given to any contestant participating in the "Bonus Round."
 E! is an American television network

 

Vowel letters
F

F is the sixth letter in the English alphabet.

Meanings for F 
 In calendars, F is often an abbreviation for Friday, or for the month February.
 In chemistry, F is the symbol for fluorine.
 In education, F is a failing grade
 In music, F is a note.
 In temperature, °F is degrees Fahrenheit.
 In logic, F stands for False, as opposed to T for True
 In slang, F stands for the curse word
G

G is the 7th (number 7) letter in the English alphabet (or Latin alphabet).u

History 
The letter G was created in the third century BC by Spurius Carvilius Ruga. At the time, the letter C sounded like the "c" in "cat" and the "g" in "girl". To make the difference more clear, Ruga created the letter G.

Meanings for G 
 In movies, G is a rating given by the Motion Picture Association of America, meaning the movie is good to be viewed by all people ("general" audiences).
 In music, G is a note.
 In common speech, G is a slang word for 'gangsta' or 'gangster'.
 In the SI, g is the symbol for the gram.
 G is a unit of gravitational acceleration.
 Alternative case form of G grand: means thousand.
 Letter G stands for GPRS (General Packet Radio Service). It indicates the slowest speed of Internet data transfer in your mobile phone. When you see G near your signal strength indicator, it is certain that your net connection is working at the slowest speed. 2G, 3G and 4G indicates different speed of internet.
 In particle physics, lowercase G stands for the gluon.
 In particle physics, the uppercase G stands for the not yet discovered Graviton.
H

H () is the eighth (number 8) letter in the English alphabet.

Meanings for H 
 In chemistry, H is the symbol for hydrogen.
 In music, H is a note in the German system, meaning "B natural".
 In particle physics, H is the symbol for the Higgs boson.
I

I is the ninth (9) letter in the English alphabet.

In English, I is a pronoun which means "me".
"I like you."
"You and I shall walk to the store."
"You and I are friends."

In Turkish, the letter I has two kinds, one with a dot (İ, i) and one without (I, ı).

Meanings for I 
In chemistry, I is the symbol for iodine.
In Roman numerals, I means the number one (1).
 is the mathematical symbol for the square root of negative one, also called the imaginary unit.
In physics, I refers to the moment of inertia.

Basic English 850 words
Vowel letters
K

K is the eleventh (number 11) letter in the English alphabet.

K or kappa is the tenth (number 10) letter in the Greek alphabet

Meanings for K 

 Degrees Kelvin. The kelvin (symbol: K) is the SI unit of temperature. 
 In chemistry, K is the symbol for potassium (from its German name kalium).
 in chess, K is a notation symbol for the king piece
 In a deck of playing cards, the letter K is used to mark each of the kings.
O

O is the fifteenth (number 15) letter in the English alphabet and it has a shape of a circle.

Meanings for O 
 On calendars, O sometimes means the month October.
 In chemistry, O is the symbol for oxygen.
 In medicine, O is one of the human blood types.

Vowel letters
Q

Q is the seventeenth (number 17) letter in the English alphabet.

Some people say that the letter Q is not needed, because the sound it makes can be made with "K" and "W" instead. The same sort of things are said about the letters "X" and "C".

Below are some ancient ways of writing "Q":

Meanings for Q 
 In chess, Q is used to mean the queen piece.
 In English, Q can be a short letter for 'question'.
 In a deck of playing cards, Q is used to mark each of the queens.
 In science fiction, Q is a character in several Star Trek television shows.
 Q is also the name of a character in the James Bond film series, who was played by Desmond Llewelyn (and John Cleese after Desmond Llewelyn died).
 In Internet slang, "q" is used for the Spanish word "que", which means "that", "which", or "what".
 In physics, q is used to mean charge

References
S

S is the nineteenth (number 19) letter in the English alphabet.

Meanings for S 

 On calendars, S is most times the short letter for Saturday or Sunday, or the month September.
 In chemistry, S is the symbol for sulphur.
 In Wheel of Fortune, S is one of the six letters given to any contestant participating in the "Bonus Round."
 S is the letter onomotopeiacally used to characterize the hissing noise known to be made by snakes, e.g. "sssssss..."
U

U (u) is the twenty-first (21) letter in the English alphabet (it is also used as a short form for 'you').

Meanings for U 
 On calendars, U is most times a short letter for Sunday, for use when S is being used for Saturday.
 In chemistry, U is the symbol for uranium.
 It is pronounced "you".

Vowel letters
V

V is the twenty-second (number 22) letter in the English alphabet.

Meanings for V 
 In electronics and electricity, V is the symbol for volts, the unit of voltage.
 In chemistry, V is the symbol for vanadium.
 In communication, V is the name of a hand gesture. Most of the time, it means "victory".
 In Roman numerals, V means the number five.
 V is a science fiction television show.
V is Maroon 5's fifth studio album, released in 2014.
 V (singer) is a Korean singer and member of BTS.
W

W is the twenty-third (number 23) letter in the Latin alphabet. It is sometimes considered a vowel. In words like away, what, write and women, the W is a consonant. In words like draw, few, and low, the W is a vowel

Meanings for W 
 On calendars, W is most times a short letter for Wednesday.
 In chemistry, W is the symbol for tungsten, after its German name, Wolfram.
 In news story writing, the "five W's" are who, what, when, where and why.
 In Electricity, W stands for watts
 It is pronounced as "double u".
 In particle physics, W stands for the W boson.

Notes
X

X is the twenty-fourth (number 24) letter in the English alphabet. It sometimes makes a sound like ks (for example: exit, next, fox), or if it is at the beginning of a word, it makes a sound like zzz (for example: xylophone). The language of origin is from the greek and latin language

Meanings for X
In a general sense, X means something is unknown or secret, as in project X.
X is also used often to show kisses, usually at the end of a letter or text message.
In clothing X is used as a short letter for extra, such as XXL for extra-extra-large.
In Roman numerals, X means ten.
In internet terms, XXX indicates adult material, as in an XXX site.
In x-ray, X stands for xero, which is short for xerographic.
Y

Y is the twenty-fifth (number 25) letter in the English alphabet. It is sometimes considered a vowel. In words like year, yell, and yes, the Y is a consonant. In words like cry, fly, and sky, the Y is considered a vowel.

Where it came from

Semitic, Phoenician, Greek and Latin

"Y" has appeared as the Semitic letter "waw". This was the first time it appeared in an alphabet. F, U, V, and W also come from the Semitic alphabet. The Greek and Latin alphabets used the Phoenician form of this early alphabet. There are similarities to the old English letter yogh (Ȝȝ). The table shows where the letter "y" came from.

Meanings for Y 
 In chemistry, Y is the symbol for yttrium.
 In Mathematics, y is another unknown variable, used as a second unknown variable ("x" is used as the first unknown variable)

References

Vowel letters
Z

Z is the twenty-sixth (number 26) and last letter in the English alphabet. The small letter, z, is used as a lowercase consonant. Z is not used much. It is the most rarely used letter in the English language. The same letter of the Greek alphabet is named zeta.

How it is said 
The letter is said as either zed  or zee. The first way of saying it comes from the Greek zeta. In American English, its name is zee , because it comes from a late 17th century English speech.

Where it came from

Semitic
The name of the Semitic symbol was zayin and was the seventh letter. It might have meant "weapon". It could have helped form English and French's z.

Greek
The Greek form of Z was a close copy of the Phoenician symbol I. It stayed like this for a long time. The Greeks called it zeta, a new name made from the Greek letters eta (η) and theta (θ).

Etruscan
In Etruscan, Z may have been .

Latin
In Old Latin,  (written s) became  and the symbol for  became useless. It was taken away from the alphabet by Appius Claudius Caecus, and a new letter, G, was put in.

In the 1st century BC, Z was put in the alphabet again at the end of the Latin alphabet. This was done to accurately represent the sound of the Greek zeta. The letter Z appeared only in Greek words, and is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took from Greek.

Meanings for Z 
 In cartoons, Z means the sound of sleeping or snoring, like in "ZZZzzzz...".
 In particle physics, Z stands for the Z boson.
 In chemistry, Z stands for the atomic number.

References
Fuck

Fuck is a common English language swear word. It can be used to either mean the act of sex or as an expression. However, the word fucking is used as an intensifier before a word (e.g I fucking hate this game).

Related pages 
 Arse
 Ass
 Bitch
 Cunt
 Motherfucker
 Shit

English profanity
Microprocessor

A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. 

Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems.  The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances.  Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when opened.  A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.

Microprocessor operation 
Like other central processing units, microprocessors use three steps commonly called Fetch, Decode, and Execute. In the Fetch step, an instruction is copied from the computer memory into the microprocessor. In the Decode step, the microprocessor figures out what operation the instruction is meant to do. In the Execute step, this operation is performed.  Different computers can have different instruction sets.

Facts and figures 
 Transistors in a microprocessor can be less than one micrometer wide—one millionth of a meter. By comparison, a single hair can be over 100 micrometers wide.
 The transistors are mostly MOSFETs
 Microprocessors are made from silicon, quartz, metals, and other chemicals. 
 From start to finish, it takes about 2 months to make a microprocessor.
 Microprocessors are classified by the size of their data bus or address bus. They are also grouped into CISC and RISC types.

Brief history 
 1823	Baron Jöns Jacob Berzelius discovers silicon (Si), which today is the basic component of electronics.
 1903	Nikola Tesla patents electrical logic circuits called "gates" or "switches".
 1947	John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley invent the first transistor at the Bell Laboratories on December 23, 1947.
 1956	John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley are awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for their work on the transistor.
 1958	The first integrated circuits are developed by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby. 
 1960	IBM develops the first automatic mass-production facility for transistors in New York.
 1971  Intel 4004, first commercially available microprocessor.

References

Other page 
Moore's law

Electronic components
Microprocessor design
Heat

Heat, or thermal energy is the sum of the kinetic energy of atoms or molecules. In thermodynamics, heat means energy which is moved between two things, when one of them has a higher temperature than the other thing. 

Adding heat to something increases its temperature, but heat is not the same as temperature. The temperature of an object is the measure of the average speed of the moving particles in it.  The energy of the particles is called the internal energy.  When an object is heated, its internal energy can increase to make the object hotter.  The first law of thermodynamics says that the increase in internal energy is equal to the heat added minus the work done on the surroundings.

Heat can also be defined as the amount of thermal energy in a system. Thermal energy is the type of energy that a thing has because of its temperature. In thermodynamics, thermal energy is the internal energy present in a system in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium because of its temperature.  That is, heat is defined as a spontaneous flow of energy (energy in transit) from one object to another, caused by a difference in temperature between two objects; therefore, objects do not possess heat.

Properties of Heat 
Heat is a form of energy and not a physical substance.  Heat has no mass.

Heat can move from one place to another in different ways:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation

The measure of how much heat is needed to cause a change in temperature for a material is the specific heat capacity of the material. If the particles in the material are hard to move, then more energy is needed to make them move quickly, so a lot of heat will cause a small change in temperature. A different particle that is easier to move will need less heat for the same change in temperature.

Specific heat capacities can be looked up in a table, like this one.

Unless some work is done, heat moves only from hot things to cold things.

Measuring heat 
Heat can be measured. That is, the amount of heat given out or taken in can be given a value. The calorie is one of the units of measurement for heat but the joule is also used for all kinds of energy including heat.

Heat is usually measured with a calorimeter, where the energy in a material is allowed to flow into nearby water, which has a known specific heat capacity.  The temperature of the water is then measured before and after, and heat can be found using a formula.

References

Related pages 
 Entropy
 Heat transfer
 Radiation
 Internal energy
 Temperature
 Power
 Heat capacity
 Waste heat

Other websites 
Plasma heat at 2 gigakelvins - Article about extremely high temperature generated by scientists (Foxnews.com)
Heat and Thermodynamics - Georgia State University
Correlations for Convective Heat Transfer - ChE Online Resources
An Introduction to the Quantitative Definition and Analysis of Heat written for High School Students 

Basic English 850 words
 
Basic physics ideas
Thermodynamics
Wellington

Wellington is the capital of New Zealand. It has been the capital since 1865. Before then Auckland was the capital. Wellington is the second largest city in New Zealand. It had about 448,000 people in 2006. Wellington is the southernmost capital city in the world.

Wellington is in the middle of New Zealand, at the south end of the North Island. South of Wellington is Cook Strait, the sea between the North Island and the South Island. The city has a lot of hills and a deep harbour. The middle of the city is busier than most small cities and is easy for people to walk around. 

It was named for Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. Wellington recently became famous because The Lord of the Rings movie trilogy was made there.

Climate
The city averages 2,068 hours of sunshine per year. The climate is a temperate marine one, (Köppen: Cfb ) is generally moderate all year round, and rarely sees temperatures above  or below . The hottest recorded temperature is , while  is the coldest. The city is notorious for its southerly blasts in winter, which may make the temperature feel much colder. It is generally very windy all year round with high rainfall; average annual rainfall is , June and July being the wettest months. Frosts are quite common in the hill suburbs and the Hutt Valley between May and September. Snow is very rare at low altitudes, although snow fell on the city and many other parts of the Wellington region during separate events in July and August 2011.

References 

Capital cities in Oceania
 
1865 establishments
1860s establishments in New Zealand
Sadness

Sadness is an emotion. It is the opposite of happiness. People feel sad when something bad has happened, for example, if their mother or father has died. 

In big letters, SAD, or S.A.D. is short for "Seasonal Affective Disorder". SAD is a sickness that some people have in the winter. They feel depressed as the nights become longer and there is less daylight.

When people are very sad, and for a long time, the person could have a serious mental illness called depression or Bipolar disorder.

Notes 
It is normally thought of as the opposite of happiness, but you can feel both happy and sad at the same time.

Related pages
 Happiness

Basic English 850 words
Emotions
Friday

Friday is a day of the week. In some countries, for example the United States, it is the sixth day of the week. In other parts of the world, for example the United Kingdom, it is said to be the fifth day of the week. Friday is the Sabbath for Muslims.

There is a superstition that a Friday on the 13th day of a month is unlucky. If the first day of a month is a Sunday, the month will have a Friday the 13th. 

Some people consider Friday to be the last day of the week before the weekend. Others see Friday night as part of the weekend, since work or school is over for the week. In some places, the weekend is Friday and Saturday. Because many people are happy to not have to go to work during the weekend, there are sayings like "Thank God it's Friday!".

Friday is named after Norse Goddess Frigg.

References

05
Laos

Lao People's Democratic Republic or Laos (ᝮᝢ), is a country in southeast Asia. The capital of Laos is Vientiane.

Laos is landlocked (it does not have a coast on a sea or ocean). It is bordered by Myanmar (used to be known in English as "Burma") and by China to the northwest, by Vietnam to the east, by Cambodia to the south and by Thailand to the west. The Mekong river forms a large part of the western boundary with Thailand. Boats from Laos cannot get to the ocean using the Mekong because of rapids and waterfalls in the south of the country.

The official language is Lao, a language belonging to the Tai language group. 98% of Lao people believe in Buddhism. The main crop in Laos is rice.

Geography
Laos is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia. The country is slightly smaller than Romania and Colorado. The landscape is mostly rugged mountains. The highest point is Phou Bia at . The Mekong River forms the border with Thailand. The mountains of the Annamite Range form the eastern border with Vietnam.  The climate is tropical. The rainy season is from May to November. The dry season is from December to April. Laos has three seasons (rainy, cold and hot).  The capital and largest city is Vientiane.

History
Fa Ngum created the first unified Lao Kingdom.

Lao became a French colony in 1893 and also became part of French Indochina. In 1949 it became independent from France, as the Kingdom of Laos. Later there was a civil war, and in 1975 it became a One-party state under the leadership of the communist party.

Provinces
Laos is divided in 16 provinces and one prefecture.

Government and politics
Laos is one of the world's five remaining communist states. The only legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP). The head of state is President Choummaly Sayasone. He is the General Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party.

Shortly after the end of the Vietnam War, the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) joined forces with the Pathet Lao, started a coup on December 2, 1975 to overthrow the royalist Lao government, and established a communist government that continues to run the country to this day.

The current head of government is Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith, as of 2016. The current President is Bounnhang Vorachith. Government policies are determined by the party. Important government decisions are checked by the Council of Ministers.

Related pages
Laos at the Olympics
Laos national football team
List of rivers of Laos

References

 
Least developed countries
1949 establishments in Asia