cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Louise Michel Battalions

Two battalions (made up of volunteer troops) of French-speaking people in the International Brigades of the Spanish Civil War against fascism, were named after Louise Michel, a heroine of the 1871 Paris Commune.

 The first battalion was an existing group of volunteers (see Centuria) who had been operating in Barcelona. This joined with battalions being formed for the XI International Brigade.
 The second was a group of Albacete from French-speaking volunteers. At the end of January 1938, it was put into the Henri Vuilleman Battalion of the XIV International Brigade.

Sources and notes
Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War, 4th Rev. Ed. 2001.
Antony Beevor, The Battle for Spain, 2006.
 Order of Battle website 
 	Associació Catalana Website 

1936 establishments
Spanish Civil War
Idol

An idol is a religious item that represents a god. It can also mean someone who is admired by many people, like a pop idol. Idolatry refers to the worship of idols.

Christians disagree about what idolatry is. Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy see Christian art and icons as good, because they see Christ's Incarnation as having made images of God lawful.  However many Protestants regard much Catholic art as idolatry.

This is due to differences in the understanding of the Ten Commandments. "You shall have no other gods before me. You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third and the fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing steadfast love to thousands of those who love me and keep my commandments." (RSV Exodus 20:3-6)

Islamic art is often based on Geometric abstraction or calligraphy to avoid idolatry, but Jewish art is somewhat broader. Hindus have murtis, a term often translated as “idols”.

References 

Religious objects
Gods and goddesses
Worship
Catholic Encyclopedia

The Catholic Encyclopedia, or the Old Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English language encyclopedia. It was published by The Encyclopedia Press. The first volume appeared in March 1907. It was completed in April 1914.

The encyclopedia was designed for the Roman Catholic Church. It does not include information which has nothing to do with the Church. It explains matters from the point of view of the official Catholic doctrine, as it was during the time of Pope Pius X. It tells the accomplishments of Catholics and some others in nearly all intellectual and professional pursuits. These include artists, educators, poets and scientists.

Encyclopedias
Roman Catholicism
Stanley, Falkland Islands

Stanley (also known as Port Stanley) is the capital city of the Falkland Islands. It is found on the island of East Falkland and has a population of 2,000. Stanley was the sight of fighting in the 1982 Falklands War, where Argentinian forces captured Government House, the seat of the Falklands Government. Today, Stanley is the biggest town in the Falkland Islands. It has an airport and a seaport. Cruise ships going through the South Atlantic often make a stop in Stanley, which has a small tourism industry to serve cruise ship passengers and others visiting the islands.

Falkland Islands
Numismatics

Numismatics is the study and collecting of coins and the history behind the coins. A Numismatist is either a collector of coins or a scholar who studies the history of coins.

Origin of Word
The term comes from a word meaning "of coins." The original word is French (numismatique), which itself is from a Latin origin (numismatis).

History of Numismatics
Coin collectors may have existed in ancient times. Caesar Augustus may have been an example. The first known book about coin collecting was in 1514, "De Asse et Partibus", by Guillaume Budé. However, only royalty really enjoyed coin collecting until the 19th century. That's when professional organizations started to sprout, like the American Numismatic Society in 1858.

Modern Numismatics
Modern numismatics is a sub-field that focuses on when coins started being stamped by machines (around 17th century on). Because of its focus, modern numismatics is more popular with collectors than with historians. Other subfields/variants include exonumia (focus on coin-like objects), notaphily (focus on paper money instead of coins), and scripophily (focus on stocks and bonds instead of coins).

References

Hobbies
Philately

Philately is the study and collection of postage stamps and postal history.

Types of Philately 

 Thematic philately, also known as topical philately, is the study of art shown on stamps. This can be pictures of many things on a stamp, like people, animals, boats, insects, and vehicles. Interesting parts of thematic philately also include mistakes in the art of a stamp. For example, the removal of cigarettes from United States stamps.
 Postal history studies the history of how mail and stamps were processed. This relates to post offices, postmarks, and how mail is taken from place to place.
 Aerophilately studies airmail (mail that travels on planes).
 Astrophilately studies stamps that are related to outer space, and objects like the Moon.

Organizations 
In the United Kingdom
 National Philatelic Society UK
 Philatelic Traders Society (London)
 Royal Philatelic Society London
 Welsh Philatelic Society 

In the United States
 American First Day Cover Society
 American Philatelic Society
 American Revenue Association
 American Topical Association
 National Postal Museum (USA)
 Precancel Stamp Society
  Old World Archaeological Study Unit

Other places
 Académie Européenne de Philatélie
 Fédération Internationale de Philatélie
 Scouts on Stamps Society International
 GEOPHILA Association of collectors of stamp territories around the world
 Wreck & Crash Mail Society
 Europe: Small European Postal Administration Cooperation
 Argentina: Féderación Argentina de Entidades Filatélicas
 Australia: Australian Philatelic Federation
 Canada: British North American Philatelic Society
 Cyprus: Cyprus Philatelic Society
 India: Indian Postal Service
 New Zealand: Royal Philatelic Society of New Zealand Inc 
 Russia: The Rossica Society of Russian Philately
 South Africa: Thematic Collecting Group in South Africa
 Ukraine: Odessa City Collectors' Society

Related pages 
 All-Russian Society of Philatelists
 Organisation of the Commissioner for Philately and Scripophily
 Philatelic International
 Soviet Philatelic Association
 Stamp collector
 Soviet Philatelist

Other websites

 

 
Collecting
Charles of Valois

Charles of Valois (March 12, 1270 – December 16, 1325) started the House of Valois as the first Count of Valois. He was the third son of Philip III of France and Isabella of Aragon. His mother was a daughter of James I of Aragon and Yolande of Hungary. He was part the Capetian dynasty.

1270 births
1325 deaths

House of Valois
House of Bourbon

The House of Bourbon is an important royal house of Europe.  Kings from the House of Bourbon ruled France from 1589 to 1792 and again from 1815 to 1848.  This is a younger branch of the Capetian dynasty.  Members of the House of Bourbon also ruled Naples, Sicily, and Parma in the past.  Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg and King Felipe VI of Spain are both part of the House of Bourbon.

Branches 

All of these branches descended from three legitimate grandsons of Louis XIV.

 Bourbons of France, such as King Louis XV.
 House of Bourbon–Anjou, Bourbons of Spain, such as the present King.
 Bourbons of Parma, Dukes of Parma
 Bourbons of the Two Sicilies, Kings of the Two Sicilies
Camelot

In the legends of King Arthur, Camelot is Arthur's castle. In fiction about the Middle Ages, Arthur rules scotland from Camelot and holds feasts at his round table. The round table, which has no legs or head, symbolized the idea of a good king because every knight who sat at it had an equal place. Since Camelot's original place is still uncertain, the truth about it, if it ever existed, is still unknown. Camelot once held many great things such as The Holy Grail, The Holy Sword Excalibur and The Round Table which brought Arthur's best knights together. 

The end of Camelot was caused by Sir Lancelot's and Queen Guinevere's love affair, which forced Camelot to plunge into civil-war.

Arthurian legend
University of Hawaii

The University of Hawaii is a group of public colleges and universities in Hawaii. There are three universities, seven community colleges, an employment training center, four education centers and some research laboratories:

Universities
University of Hawaii at Hilo, doctoral university in Hilo
University of Hawaii at Manoa, doctoral university in Honolulu
University of Hawaii-West Oahu, baccalaureate university in Kapolei

Community Colleges
Hawaii Community College, Hilo
Honolulu Community College, Honolulu
Kapiolani Community College, Honolulu
Kauai Community College, Līhu'e
Leeward Community College, Pearl City
Windward Community College, Kāne'ohe
University of Hawaii Maui College, Kahului

References

Hawaii
Cowlitz River

Cowlitz River is a river in the state of Washington in the United States. The river is a tributary of the larger Columbia River. There are several mountains near the river including Mount St. Helens, Mount Rainier, and Mount Adams.

Other websites
 USGS Cowlitz River Basin map
 Cowlitz Falls Project 
 http://www.energy-northwest.com/generation/packwood 

Rivers of Washington (U.S. state)
Leonidas I

Leonidas I (Greek: Λεωνίδας) (c. 530–480 B.C.) was a king of the Greek city-state of Sparta from about 490 BC until his death in 480. The Spartans and associates defended the pass at Thermopylae against the Persian army. Although Leonidas lost the battle, his death at Thermopylae was seen as a heroic sacrifice. Leonidas sent most of his army away when he realized that the Persians had outmaneuvered him. Three hundred of his fellow Spartans stayed with him to fight and die. Almost everything that is known about Leonidas comes from the work of the Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484–c. 425 BC)

Thermopylae

Invasion of Greece 
In 480 BC, the Persians with their king Xerxes attacked Greece. When the Greeks asked the Spartans to join their army against the Persians, the Spartans went to the Oracle at Delphi. The Oracle gave a prophecy. It said that either Sparta would fall or the Spartans would lose a king.

Fighting back 
In August 480 BC, Leonidas went to Thermopylae with 300 of his bodyguards. Other Greek forces joined him there and formed an army of 4,000 soldiers. This army would try to hold the pass of Thermopylae against the great army of Xerxes I, King of Persia.

Siege 
Leonidas and his men held Thermopylae for three days. On the third day, a Greek traitor named Ephialtes led the Persian army behind the Spartans. It was then that Leonidas sent away all the Greek troops except 700 Thespians, who refused to leave. The small Greek force was attacked from both sides. They fought hard but finally they were all killed. Xerxes told his men to remove Leonidas' head and put it on a stake. He also told them to crucify his body. Now, there is a monument near Leonidas’ death site. It has the following inscription:

After the battle 
Only two Spartans survived that battle. One was Kirtanian. He was injured and sent behind the rest of the soldiers. The other was Pantites. He was sent by Leonidas to get help in Thessaly. He did not get back to Thermopylae until after the battle was done. At the end, he hanged himself because he was harassed and often referred as a coward.

Year of birth unknown
5th-century BC deaths
Ancient Greeks

Kings of Sparta
Shrapnel

Shrapnel is small chunks of broken objects, such as concrete and metal, that is around an explosive, usually as part of a container. When the explosive goes off, the shrapnel flies out in all directions with a similar effect to a bullet. Nail bombs work like this.

Related pages
Gunpowder
Weapon

Notes

Explosives
Nail bomb

A nail bomb is a weapon that is made of a bag of nails with an bomb inside. When the bomb goes off, the nails fly out in all directions, like bullets. They are usually used by suicide bombers and the IRA.

Explosives
Introduced species

An introduced species is an living thing that is not from to a given place. It has been brought there by human activities.  People may have brought the living thing by accident or on purpose.  The introduced species can cause problems when it becomes a pest in the new place.  It may damage the ecosystem of the new place.  This damage can be to other animals, plants and also human activity.

One introduced species is the tilapia.  It is a fish that comes from warm freshwater areas of Africa, North and South America, India and Sri Lanka.  It has been taken to other areas because it is good for fish farming, and it also is a good pet for an aquarium.  When the fish is released into other parts of the world, it quickly takes over from the native fish.  It can do this because it breeds quickly, eats all the available food, and eats the eggs and babies of native fish.  This can cause the water to become so muddy, that the native fish cannot live.  Tilapia has been listed as one of the 100 worst introduced species.  A person owning or selling one in Australia could be fined up to AU$11,000.

An introduced species may have a great advantage over the native species.  They usually come in without the predators and parasites which they suffer in their old environment.  This allows them to have young quickly. Fire ants and Africanized honeybees became invasive insects in the 20th century.

Examples

People brought rabbits to Australia because they wanted to raise and eat them.  The rabbits got into the wild and became pests.  Australians built the rabbit-proof fence to try to stop them from covering the whole country.
People put mosquitofish in rivers and lakes in western North America because they thought the fish would eat mosquito young.  Instead, the mosquitofish killed the other fish that had been eating the mosquitoes.  There were more mosquitoes than ever. 
People brought cats and stoats to islands.  When birds live on islands with no mammal predators, they sometimes do not build nests in trees.  Instead, they nest on the ground.  This makes it easy for the cats and stoats to eat the chicks and eggs.  Some birds, for example the kiwi and kakapo do not fly.  The animals that like to eat the kakapo were mostly birds of prey that flew high overhead.  They would find the kakapo by seeing it.  The kakapo would stand very still so the bird of prey would not find it.  But this does not work against a mammal predator that finds its prey by smelling it.  The kakapo would stand very still, and the introduced mammal would catch it.
Rats hid on human ships and got onto Easter Island.  Historians think the rats might have eaten palm tree seeds and could be what made the trees on the island die out.

Related pages 
 Invasive species
Feral

References 

Plants
Animals
Ecology
Bunker

A bunker is a military building for fortification. They are usually built below ground. Blockhouses are like bunkers, but are built above ground.  Bunkers were of big importance during World War I and World War II.  Bunkers were built during the Cold War for important political people and for the general public because of the scare of a nuclear war.

Types of bunkers
There are many different types of bunkers:

Trench 
A trench is long and narrow.  It may be part of a big system of trenches.  Soldiers often dig and use trenches.  When most of the front-line soldiers use trenches, it is called trench warfare.

Pillbox
A pillbox is a small building made of concrete that also has small windows that people can shoot guns out of.  The name came from the fact that they look like the boxes that pills came in.
Pillboxes were used a lot during World War I when defence in depth was being used.  Pillboxes are most often found camouflaged so that they are harder to spot.  They can also be part of a trench system, where the pillbox is a firing step that has been built to take grenade blasts and smaller mortar fire.  Pillboxes were also built to help protect strategic structures such as bridges or jetties.

Industrial
Industrial bunkers are built like regular bunkers and they can be mining sites, food storage areas, dumps for materials, data storage, and sometimes places that people live in.  They were built by nations during World War II to help protect the important industries from getting bombed.  Many mines in France and Germany were made into bunkers by both the Germans and the French in both World War I and World War II.

Famous bunkers
Famous bunkers include the World War II V-weapon buildings in Germany (e.g., Mittelwerk, La Coupole, and Éperlecques) and the Cold War buildings in the United States (Cheyenne Mountain, Site R, and The Greenbrier) and Canada (Diefenbunker).

Examples of bunkers
 Atlantic Wall, coasts of Western Europe, built by Nazi Germany during WWII
 Maginot Line, eastern France, built by France, pre-WWII

References

Other websites

 Europe WW2 bunkers in Europe (reference website about museums and sites of WW2 pillboxes, bunkers and other defensive structures with maps and photos)
 Great Britain  (image collection of WW2 coastal defences)
 Great Britain Pillboxes UK (reference website about WW2 pillboxes and other defensive structures)
 Great Britain UK Heritage: Pillboxes  (short article about "Miniature modern castles")
 Great Britain Subterranea Britannica: Cold War  (information on Cold War-era underground structures in Britain)

Fortification
Over-harvesting

Over-harvesting means taking more from the land (or sea) than it can replace. It includes extreme farming, grazing, fishing, and using fresh water. 

Over-harvesting is harmful in the long term. Forests or wetlands are hard to replace. Damage to nature hurts animals and humans. Most wetlands are damaged by overuse as a source of drinking water, and are sometimes drained to make farmland or land for building. A thriving and diverse ecosystem is destroyed. 

Over-harvesting also applies to animals. Population numbers may drop as a result, and species may become extinct. Overfishing is a typical example. Nowadays, you can only fish, shoot deer or birds at certain times of the year. The season when they mate, reproduce and lay eggs or have the young are protected. Areas of especial natural beauty or scientific interest are also protected. Taking bird eggs is also now against the law, at least in the United Kingdom.

One thing which acts against conservation is the overpopulation of the world. The greatest single reason why the world loses forests is that some people want the land for other purposes. A few people gain, but everyone shares the cost. This is called the tragedy of the commons.

References

Related pages 
Overfishing

Environmental issues
Ecology
Habitat fragmentation

Habitat fragmentation happens when large habitats are divided into smaller ones, separating all the species that lived there and depended on each other.

Causes 
Habitat fragmentation is not good because it involves some amount of habitat destruction. Plants and other organisms in these areas are destroyed and mobile animals escape from those places to find another habitat causing an excessive crowding and possible competitions among different animals.

Habitats
Cecil (band)

Cecil was a rock band from Liverpool, England.

History

Formation 
Cecil formed in Liverpool in 1993. The members were Ste Williams (vocals), Patrick Harrison (guitar), Ally Lambert (drums), Anthony Hughes (guitar and keyboards), and Jay Bennett (bass).

First concert 
The band took part in a "Battle of the Bands". It was sponsored by Liverpool Echo who later tried to stitch the band up by putting them on the front cover under the title "Bulger Band", a reference to their song No Excuses that they believed, incorrectly, to be about the murder of toddler James Bulger. The band never spoke to the Liverpool Echo again. The band signed a manangement contract with Raymond Coffer. They later signed with the record label Parlophone (EMI). They released their first single "No Excuses" with Parlophone in October 1995.

Tours 
The band spent the end of 1995 and most of 1996 playing concerts in much of the United Kingdom. They played with such bands as The Levellers, Skunk Anansie, and Paw. They also played in music festivals at Donnington and T in the Park. During this time, they released their second single "My Neck", which was backed with an acoustic track and a piano version of the single, giving a hint of the direction they were heading in for the recording of their 2nd record.

First album 
In 1996, their first album Bombar Diddlah was getting good reviews. It was produced by Barrett Jones of Foo Fighters.

Later history 
Cecil spent most of 1997 writing songs, touring with the band Mansun and making their music sound even better.  The changes could particularly be heard in the sound of Ste Williams' vocals. By the end of 1997, their new sound could be heard in their new release "Red Wine At Dead Time". They released a second album in 1998, "Subtitles". It did not sell as well as hoped. The band spent the next few years writing and touring sporadically, finally relocating to Seattle in 2001 to work on a third album with long time cohort Barrett Jones. After a productive 2-month stint, straight after the 9/11 bombings, the band went back home to write more songs and booked to go into Stone Gossard's (Pearl Jam) Studio Litho with Barrett to record the rest of the third record. This never happened after being dropped from their label.The band went their separate ways in March 2002 and remain firm friends, occasionally reuniting for off the cuff live shows in their native Liverpool.

Discography

Albums 
 Bombar Diddlah (1996)
 Subtitles (1998)

Singles 
 "No Excuses" (1995)
 "My Neck" (1996)
 "Measured" (1996)
 "Red Wine at Dead Time" (1997)
 "Hostage in a Frock" (1997)
 "The Most Tiring Day" (1998)

EPs 
 "Canyon EP" (2000)
 "Missile EP" (2001)

English rock bands
Musical groups from Liverpool
Christopher Marlowe

Christopher "Kit" Marlowe (1564–30 May 1593) was a major dramatist, poet, and translator of English Renaissance drama. Swinburne has written that: "Marlowe is a Father of English Tragedy and the creator of English blank verse and therefore also the teacher and guide of Shakespeare." He is the best Elizabethan tragedian. He was born the same year as Shakespeare, or at least baptised, but lived only to the age of 29, when he was murdered in a brawl.

Marlowe was the son of a shoemaker in Canterbury. His intelligence won him scholarships, to King's School in Canterbury at age 15, and two years later to the University of Cambridge. Marlowe was well-educated; he earned a bachelor's degree in 1584 and a master's degree in 1587. 

Marlowe's plays were both popular and controversial, in his own era and later. His plays deal with disturbing subjects like devil worship (Doctor Faustus), homosexuality (Edward II), and anti-Semitism (The Jew of Malta). Marlowe is generally regarded as master of blank verse.

In addition to seven plays, Marlowe wrote one long poem, Hero and Leander, and one famous shorter poem, "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love."

Marlowe's death was also highly controversial. He was killed in a tavern brawl, stabbed in the head. Yet there is some historical evidence that he was a secret agent. Marlowe also was, or sometimes claimed to be, an atheist, at a time when atheism was a crime that could be punished by death. Some people have wondered if his death was connected with these other issues.

Uncertainty about Marlowe's death has led some people to believe that Marlowe faked his death and continued to write plays using the name "William Shakespeare." This is called the "Marlovian theory." In modern times, the changes were attempted to rename the theory in  "Derogation of the king."

Plays 
 Dido Queen of Carthage
 Tamburlaine, Parts 1 and 2
 The Jew of Malta
 Doctor Faustus
 Edward II
 The Massacre at Paris

Other possible works 
 The Contention of York and Lancaster (or The First Part of the Contention betwixt the Two Famous Houses of York and Lancaster) is an annoymous work that some people think may have been written by Marlowe. It was the basis for Shakespeare's play Henry VI, Part 2.

References 

1564 births
1593 deaths
Canterbury
English murder victims
English playwrights
English poets
Murders by blade weapons
People murdered in England
Spies
Writers from Kent
British translators
Plays by Christopher Marlowe
Neuhof an der Zenn

Neuhof an der Zenn is a municipality in Neustadt (Aisch)-Bad Windsheim in Bavaria in Germany.

References

Neustadt (Aisch)-Bad Windsheim
Bass clarinet

The bass clarinet is a type of clarinet, and is a woodwind single-reed instrument. The earliest record of a bass clarinet is called a 'bass tube' invented in Paris in 1772 by G. Lott. It usually has a B-flat pitch. It plays an octave lower than the normal clarinet. This means that when a Bass Clarinet makes a note, the note that actually sounds is an octave and a whole tone lower. There are some bass clarinets that have an A or C pitch as well as E flat, but there are not very many of these.

References

Other websites 
 

Woodwind instruments
Cornett

The cornett is a brass instrument from the Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque times. It is also called a zink, cornetto, or by its Italian name, cornetto curvo. It is different from the modern cornet, also a brass instrument. It has only one feature shared with the cornett.

Other websites

 A page about the cornett 
 Christopher Monk Instruments , one of the more well-known modern makers of cornetts
 The English Cornett and Sackbut Ensemble, a performance group that makes use of the cornett
 A possibility to build your own curved cornett 

Brass instruments
Snorri Sturluson

Snorri Sturluson (1179 – 23 September 1241) was an Icelandic historian, poet and politician. He was three-time elected lawspeaker at the Icelandic parliament, the Althing. He was the author of the Prose Edda or Younger Edda and the Heimskringla, a history of the Norwegian kings that begins with legendary material and moves through to early medieval Scandinavian history.

References

Snorri Sturluson, "Kringla leaf" (c. 1260), part of Heimskringla treasure 1  National Library of Iceland displayed via The European Library
. A reprint of the 1932 Cambridge edition by W. Heffer.
Enoksen, Lars Magnar. (1998). Runor : historia, tydning, tolkning. Historiska Media, Falun.

Notes

Other websites

Icelandic Medieval Manuscripts , site maintained by Unnur Valgeirsdóttir at the University of Iceland.
Snorri Sturluson , article by Jónas Kristjánsson at snorrastofa.is.
The Women in Snorri's Life .

1178 births
1241 deaths
Historians
Snorri Sturluson
Medieval literature
Mythology
Poets
Heimskringla

Heimskringla is the best known of the old Norse kings' sagas. It was written in Old Norse in Iceland by the poet and historian Snorri Sturluson (1179 – 1242) ca. 1230. The name Heimskringla was first used in the 17th century, it comes from the first two words of one of the manuscripts (kringla heimsins - the circle of the world).

Heimskringla is a collection of tales about the Norwegian kings, beginning with the legendary Swedish dynasty of the Ynglingas, followed by accounts of historical Norwegian rulers from Harald Fairhair of the 9th century up to 1177.

Bibliography
 . A reprint of the 1932 Cambridge edition by W. Heffer.

Other websites

 Heimskringla in Old Norse from "Kulturformidlingen norrøne tekster og kvad" Norway.
 Berkeley page on Snorri Sturluson's text 

Medieval literature
Norse mythology
County Mayo

County Mayo is a county in the province of Connacht, in Ireland.  Castlebar and Ballina are the two towns with the most people living in them in the county.  The highest point in Mayo and Connacht is Mweelrea.

Towns and villages
The following is a list of the towns and villages in County Mayo:
Achill Island
Balla, Ballina, Ballinrobe, Ballintober, Ballycastle, Ballyhaunis, Ballyglass, Ballyvary, Bangor, Belmullet, Bohola
Castlebar, Charlestown, Claremorris, Cong, Crossmolina
Derrew
Foxford
Geesala
Keel, Kilkelly, Killala, Kiltimagh, Knock
Louisburgh
Mayo, Mulrany
Newport
Swinford
Tourmakeady
Westport

Other websites
Mayo County Council's website
Map of Mayo 

 
Gaeltacht
Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy

Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy is a platform game made by Naughty Dog and published by Sony Computer Entertainment. It is the first video game in the Jak and Daxter series, and can only be bought for the Sony PlayStation 2. It was released in winter of 2001, and has two sequels, Jak II and Jak 3. It also has two spin-offs, Jak X: Combat Racing and Daxter. Many people think of Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy as the spiritual successor to Naughty Dog's Crash Bandicoot series.

2001 video games
3D platform games
Naughty Dog games
PlayStation 2 games
Jak and Daxter series
Copt

A copt is an Egyptian Christian. Today, more than 95% of the Copts belong to the Latin community of the Coptic Catholic Church, and other of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. They used the Coptic calendar and speak the Coptic language. Baptism and male Circumcision is done. There folk saint is Mark the Evangelist.

References

Other websites
 Copts

Religion in Egypt
Pectus excavatum

Pectus excavatum is a congenital medical condition where the ribs and sternum grow abnormally, producing a sunken appearance to the chest. This makes the chest look  like it has caved in on itself.  It is also commonly referred to as "funnel chest" or "chest bowl". It is the most common form of pectus deformity, occurring in approximately 1 in 300-400 births, with a 3:1 male predominance ratio. While Pectus Excavatum occurs at birth, it often does not develop properly until early adolescence when growth is more rapid.

Causes
Doctors do not know why some people have the dent.  They think it might be caused by a bad gene from the parent.  It is also linked to syndromes (illnesses) that affect other parts of the body.

Numbers
Pectus excavatum happens in about 1 in every 300-400 children, with the 75% majority of cases being male.

Non-invasive treatment

Suction Cup

A vacuum bell, also called a suction cup, can be used to fix pectus excavatum.  The cup is placed on the chest and all the air is removed: this pulls up the chest. This non-invasive procedure shows promise to be a permanent cure for pectus excavatum. Treatment must continue for two years after the appearance of correction is made.

Surgery
The dent can be fixed by a doctor.  The following are alternate surgical ways of fixing the chest:

Nuss Procedure

The Nuss Prodcedure was created by Doctor Nuss from Norfolk in Virginia.  A metal bar is put into the chest; the bar holds the chest up.

Ravitch
The Ravitch technique is from the 1950s.  It involves cutting out part of the chest, placing a bar in the chest, and having the bone grow back.  Most doctors do not use the Ravitch because it causes much blood loss.

References

Health problems
Mark the Evangelist

Mark the Evangelist (מרקוס, ) was one of the followers of Jesus Christ. He is believed to be the writer of the Gospel of Mark. He is believed by some scholars to be the young man found in chapter 14, verses 51-52 of the gospel. The Copts think Mark brought Christianity to Egypt. It was his house where Jesus and his disciples ate the last supper.

מרקוס and Μάρκος are both pronounced as Markus which more consistent with Aramaic and Hebrew understanding of Roman names. Markus was a Roman who accepted Jesus Christ along with others.

New Testament people
Ancient Israeli people
Analects

The Analects was a book put together by the students of Confucius. It is about his thoughts on family, government and war. Also was the teachings of Kong Fuzi and was likely written by his followers.

See
MIT text

Non-fiction books
Confucianism
Ethylene

Ethylene or ethene is a chemical compound with two carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms in each molecule.  These molecules are put together with a double bond that makes it a hydrocarbon.  It is very important in industry and has even been used in biology as a hormone.  It is also the most made chemical. About 75 million tons of it have been made each year since 2005. Its biggest use is to make polyethylene.

History
Since 1795, ethylene was called an olefiant gas, or oil making gas.  This was because it came together with chlorine to make the oil of the Dutch chemists.

In 1866, the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann came up with a system for naming hydrocarbons. The suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine, -one, and -une were used to call the hydrocarbons with 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 fewer hydrogen atoms than the alkane it came from.  Because of this system, ethylene became ethene.

In 1979, the IUPAC decided that ethylene would stay ethylene.

How it is made
Ethylene is made in the chemical industry by steam cracking.  Some of the parts of an ethylene plant can be:

 The steam cracking furnaces;
 Heat recovery systems;
 A steam recycling system;
 A system to compress the cracked gas;
 A system to remove acid gas;

There are other systems in an ethylene plant.  The systems listed above were the most important systems in an ethylene plant.

Since making ethylene uses a lot of energy, the people making the ethylene try very hard to keep the heat from the gasses from leaving the furnaces.

References

Other websites
International Chemical Safety Card 0475

2
Skol

Skol is a brand of beer made by the Danish company Carlsberg Group. Skol was first brewed in 1959 for European customers. The beer's name comes from the Danish word skål which means "to your health", a common toast (a word or phrase said before drinking). Skol is available in a few different flavors.

Skol was started in 1964 in Europe. It became available in Brazil in 1967. In 1979, it was one of the first beers to be sold in aluminum cans. As of 2004, Skol was available in more than 20 countries.

In 2000, the first annual Skol Beats music festival was held in São Paulo, Brazil. The type of music featured at Skol Beats is electronic, including trance, techno, electro, drum and bass, house, and breakbeat. Skol's new "Beats" beer was revealed at the 2000 festival. Beats has a different flavor and alcohol content than the original Skol. It is marketed as the beer for people that like parties and excitement.

In October of 2006, the new Skol Lemon was released. Response to Skol Lemon has been divided. Some people really like it and others do not.

References

Beer
Fragmentation

Fragmentation can mean:

In biology
 Fragmentation (reproduction), a form of asexual reproduction
 Fragmentation (cell biology)
 Habitat fragmentation

Other
 Fragmentation (computer) a phenomenon of computer storage
 Fragmentation (economics), a process of globalisation
 Fragmentation (music), a compositional technique
 Fragmentation (sociology), in urban sociology
 Fragmentation (weaponry), a feature of explosive weaponry
 IP fragmentation, a process in computer networking
Chinrest

A chinrest is a part on a violin. It helps to hold the violin against the player's shoulder. A chinrest is usually made of wood. It is usually not glued on.  Instead, metal clasps are used. These clasps are put against the side of the violin. They are held on by the tension of the screws in them. Older violins do not often have chinrests.

String instrument construction
Rheinfelden (Baden)

Rheinfelden is a town in Germany that was started in 1922.  The name means the fields of the Rhine, like Rheinfelden in Switzerland.

References

Other websites
Stone circle

A stone circle is an ancient monument. It is made of several standing stones, usually menhirs that are arranged in a certain way. Very often those stones form circles or ellipses. The number of stones can vary between four and 60. Very often, burial sites are in the circle, or nearby. There are about 1,000 stone circles and 80 stone henges in the Great Britain and Ireland. Most likely stone circles were used for rituals. They might also have been used as calendars; some stone circles are arranged so that certain stones are lit on special dates, such as the summer solstice.

References
Standing stone

Standing stones or menhirs  are stones set into the ground vertically. They were put there by Neolithic people in the British Isles and Brittany, and they also occur elsewhere in the world.

There may be single standing stones, circles, lines or groups of them. Their dates are mostly from 4000 BC to 1,500 BC. Since Neolithic peoples did not have writing, we know little about their use. It is generally thought they had both practical (meeting place) and ceremonial or religious uses. Pottery that has been found near some of these stones suggest some of them in Europe belonged to the so-called 'Beaker culture'.

Their shape is generally uneven and squared, often tapering towards the top. Menhirs can be found across Europe, Africa and Asia, but they are most numerous in Western Europe; in particular in the British Isles (Great Britain and Ireland), and Brittany. There are about 50,000 megaliths in these areas. Standing stones are usually difficult to date, but pottery found underneath some in western Europe connects them with the Beaker people. They were erected as part of a megalithic culture which flourished in Europe and beyond.

Where they appear in groups, often in a circular, oval, henge or horseshoe formation, they are sometimes called megalithic monuments. These are sites of ancient religious ceremonies, sometimes containing burial chambers. The developments of radiocarbon dating and tree-ring calibration have added to our knowledge of their timing. In some archaeological sites, the remains of wooden henges can be found. Woodhenge was a henge and timber circle monument in the Stonehenge World Heritage Site in Wiltshire, England. It is 2 miles (3.2 km) north-east of Stonehenge.

History
Practically nothing is known of the social organization or religious beliefs of the people who erected the menhirs. There is not even any trace of their language. We do know that they buried their dead, and had the skills to grow cereal, farm and make pottery, stone tools and jewellery. Some recent research into the megaliths in Brittany suggests a much older origin, perhaps back to six to seven thousand years ago. This is not generally accepted at present.

Related pages 
Stonehenge
Avebury
Carnac stones

Further reading 
Malone, Caroline. 2005. Neolithic Britain and Ireland. Tempus, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

References 

Europe
Prehistoric buildings and structures
Buildings and structures
Archaeological sites
Neolithic
Rheinfelden

Rheinfelden is:

 the name of two towns on the banks of the Rhine:
 Rheinfelden (Baden) in the Lörrach Rural District of Baden-Württemberg, Germany
 Rheinfelden, Switzerland in the Canton of Aargau, Switzerland, also
 Rheinfelden (district), a district in Aargau Canton.

Other 
 Rudolf of Rheinfelden (or Rudolf of Swabia) (1025–1080), Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
 Rheinsfelden, eine suburg in the district of Glattfelden, in the Canton of Zürich, Switzerland
Feldspar

Feldspar is the name of a group of rock-forming tectosilicate minerals that make up as much as 60% of the Earth's crust.

Feldspar forms crystals from magma in both intrusive and extrusive rocks, and they can also happen as compact minerals, as veins, and are also present in many types of metamorphic rock. Rock formed entirely of plagioclase feldspar is known as anorthosite. Feldspar is also found in many types of sedimentary rock.

Feldspar is typically reddish or pale pink in color, and has a hardness of 6 on the Mohs scale, making it roughly as hard to scratch as glass.

There are two groups of feldspar, both made out of silica and aluminum:
Orthoclase or "alkali" feldspars: a group of minerals that all have the same formula (KAlSi3O8 with sodium sometimes replacing the potassium in some pieces), but are formed in different ways because of how different the times and places where they formed were. 
Plagioclase feldspars: A series of minerals that are made up of a series of two chemicals (Albite, NaAlSi3O8, and anorthite CaAl2Si2O8), with a given piece having its place on the series determined by the relative amounts of the two chemicals.

Minerals
Felisburgo

Felisburgo is a Brazilian municipality in the state of Minas Gerais.

Municipalities in Minas Gerais
Brazos Country, Texas

Brazos Country is a city in Austin County, Texas. It had a population was 289 people in 2006.

References

Cities in Texas
Arthur Rimbaud

Jean Nicolas Arthur Rimbaud  (20 October 1854 – 10 November 1891) was a French poet, born in Charleville. He wrote his best works when he was 15–18 years old.  He was  and moved around the world a lot. He was homosexual. He died of bone cancer just after his 37th birthday.

Works
 Le Soleil Était Encore Chaud (1866)
 Poésies (c. 1869–1873)
 Soleil et chair (1870)
 Le bateau ivre (1871)
 Proses Évangeliques (1872)
 Une Saison en Enfer (1873) – published by Rimbaud himself as a small booklet in Brussels. Although "a few copies were distributed to friends in Paris... Rimbaud almost immediately lost interest in the work."
 Illuminations (1874)
 Lettres (1870–1891)

References

Other websites 
  Arthur Rimbaud, his work in audio version 
 THE QUIET LIFE A collection of photos and drawings of Arthur RİMBAUD Edited by Beyaz Arif AKBAS Yalnizgoz BOOKS/Edirne 2011 USA 

Deaths from bone cancer
Cancer deaths in France
French poets
French LGBT people
LGBT writers
1854 births
1891 deaths
Elisée Reclus

Élisée Reclus (March 15 1830–July 4 1905), also known as Jean Jacques Élisée Reclus, was a French geographer and anarchist.

Biography
He was born at Sainte-Foy-la-Grande (Gironde). He was the second son of a Protestant priest, who had a family of fourteen children. His education, begun in Rhenish Prussia, was continued in the Protestant college of Montauban, and completed at the university of Berlin, where he followed a long course of geography under Karl Ritter.

After 1851, he spent the next six years (1852–1857) visiting the British Isles, the United States, Central America, and Colombia. On his return to Paris he contributed to the Revue des deux mondes, the Tour du monde and other papers, with a large number of articles about geography.

In 1867–1868 he published La Terre; description des phénomènes de la vie du globe, in two volumes.During the 1870 siege of Paris, he was in the National Guard, while as a member of the Association Nationale des Travailleurs he published in the Cri du Peuple an article against the government of Versailles in support of the Paris Commune of 1871.Continuing to serve in the National Guard, now in open revolt, he was taken prisoner on April 5, and on November 16 sentenced to transportation for life; but, after changed in an ban as an exile.

Reclus also visited Italy, and Switzerland, where he wrote many articles about geography.

In 1882 Reclus initiated the Anti-Marriage Movement. After this was followed by government prosecutions, instituted in the High Court of Lyon, against the anarchists, members of the International Association, of which Reclus and the other anarchist Kropotkin were designated as the two "leaders" of organization. Piotr Kropotkin was arrested and condemned to five years’ imprisonment, but Reclus, being resident in Switzerland, escaped.

After 1892 he taught in university of Brussels, and contributed in many journals about science and geography.

Some articles wrote by Reclus:
 Nouvelle Géographie Universelle - Nuova Geografia Universale (1875- 1894 ).
 La Terre, description des phénomènes de la vie du globe (1867-1868).
 Histoire d'une montagne (1872).
 Histoire d'une ruisseau (1876).
 L'Homme et la Terre - (postum) in (1905).

Reclus died at Torhout, near Bruges.

Related pages
 Anarchism in France
 Onésime Reclus, his brother

Other websites
 Élisée Reclus, le site 
 Reclus at the Anarchy Archive

1830 births
1925 deaths
French people
Anarchist communists
Skjaldbreiður

Skjaldbreiður(Skyald-bray-thur) is a volcano in Iceland. It is 1,060 metres tall, and its crater measures roughly 300 metres in diameter. Skjaldbreiður translated in English means broad shield and is the name for shield volcano.

Volcanoes of Iceland
Michael Emerson

Michael Emerson (born September 7, 1954) is an American theatre, television, and movie actor. He won an "Outstanding Guest Actor" Emmy in 2001 for a part on The Practice. He is best known for playing Zep Hindle in the 2004 movie Saw and Ben Linus in the television series Lost.

Biography

Early life 
Emerson was born in Cedar Rapids, Iowa and grew up in the nearby town of Toledo, Iowa. He studied theater and art at Drake University in Des Moines, Iowa, and graduated in 1976. He then moved to New York City. He had trouble finding work as an actor so he took retail jobs and worked as a freelance illustrator. In 1986, he moved with his first wife to Jacksonville, Florida. In Jacksonville, between 1986 to 1993, he was in local productions, and worked as a teacher and director.

Career 
Emerson thought about not being an actor and being a teacher instead, because it is a more stable job. He decided to go back to school and get a Master of Fine Arts. He thought it might help him meet theatre professionals and directors. 

Emerson's first big role was in 1997. He starred as Oscar Wilde in Moises Kaufman's play, Gross Indecency: The Trials of Oscar Wilde, and then was in many other plays. In 1998, he acted with Uma Thurman in the off-Broadway production of The Misanthrope. In 1999, he played the part of Willie Oban in The Iceman Cometh with Kevin Spacey. He co-starred with Kate Burton in both Give Me Your Answer, Do! and Hedda Gabler.

In movies and television, Emerson played somewhat dangerous, damaged characters. He played the roles so that the character would seem mysterious. In 2001, he won an Emmy Award as "Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series", for playing the (fictional) confessed serial killer William Hinks in several episodes of The Practice.

One of Emerson's most well-known works was in 2004, as the character Zep Hindle in the horror movie Saw. In 2006, Emerson began guest-starring on the television series Lost as Henry Gale/Ben Linus . He was originally planned to be in a small number of episodes, but he returned for season 3 as a main cast member. In 2007, he was nominated for another Emmy Award for his work on the series.

References 

1954 births
Living people
American movie actors
American stage actors
American television actors
Emmy Award winners
Actors from Cedar Rapids, Iowa