cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Monte Melkonian

Monte Melkonian (born November 25, 1957 – June 12, 1993) was a well-known Armenian military commander in the Nagorno-Karabakh war. He is largely known for major military victories against Azerbaijan from the late autumn of 1992, . Melkonian had no prior service record in any country's army before being placed in command of an estimated 4,000 men in the war. He had largely built his military education beginning from the late 1970s and 1980s where he fought against the various splintering factions in the Lebanese Civil War, against Israeli troops in the Israeli invasion of Lebanon and was a member of the Armenian guerrilla organization ASALA.

Other websites 
 2 part documentary video about Monte, including rare interviews, on Google Video: Part 1 and Part 2. (In Armenian.)
 5 part interview with Monte Melkonian, in English, on YouTube: Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4,Part 5

1957 births
1993 deaths
American military people
Armenian military people
Israel Defense Forces

The Israel Defense Forces (shortened: IDF) () , "Army for the Defense of Israel", known in Israel by the Hebrew acronym צה"ל, (Tzahal), is the name of Israel's military forces. It includes the Israel Army, Israel Air Force and Israel Navy.

IDF Corps

The IDF have many corps:
Armored corps
etc.

Leaders 
 Prime Minister: Benjamin Netanyahu
 Defense Minister: Avigdor Lieberman (resigned mid-November 2018; ministerial position held by P.M. Benjamin Netanyahu) 
 Chief of General Staff: Gadi Eizenkot

References

Other websites 

 Official website 
 Official website 
 BBC: Israel undercover
 Israeli Weapons
 Statistics about IDF ratio of thwarting suicide bombing attacks  (link to DOC file)
 Defense-Update Online Magazine
 Haaretz report: "From 40 attacks per quarter to 5 attacks per quarter" :English  - Hebrew  - Graph 1: Thwarted attacks (yellow) vs successful attacks (red) - Graph 2: Suicide bombing within the "green line" per quarter .
 War Online - military analysis and military history of the Middle East, especially IDF 
 The Israeli Military and Israel's Palestinian Policy: From Oslo to the Al Aqsa Intifada  U.S. Institute of Peace, December 2002
 Israel Military Forum

1948 establishments in Israel
Massacres in Harput District

Massacres in Harput District also Kharput were a large scale of massacres that happened in the district.

Background 
In May 1915, before the start of the deportations, the authorities in Harput began to mount systematic searches for arms in Armenian shops and homes in the twin cities and the surrounding villages. 

In the words of an eye-witness.

Denmark's minister in Turkey during the First World War. "The Turks are vigorously carrying through their cruel intention, to exterminate the Armenian people," Carl Wandel wrote on 3 July 1915. The Bishop of Karput was ordered to leave Aleppo within 48 hours "and it has later been learned that this Bishop and all the clergy that accompanied him have been ... killed between Diyarbekir and Urfa at a place where approximately 1,700 Armenian families have suffered the same fate ... In Angora ... approximately 6,000 men ... have been shot on the road ... even here in Constantinople (Istanbul), Armenians are being abducted and sent to Asia ..."

Attack by Kurds 
The first sign of dangers was the appearance on the plain of bands of Kurds from the regions north and east. Villages were attacked, looted and burned, while the villagers were killed or scattered. For a time the marauders seemed to hold aloof from the city itself, but as they kept on their course of pillage their appetite for plunder was whetted, and they looked with avaricious eyes at the city on the hill.

Related pages
 Armenian Genocide
 Hamidian massacres

References 

Armenian Genocide
Massacres in Turkey
Tour de Pologne

The Tour de Pologne (English: Tour of Poland) is a road bicycle racing stage race. It consists of seven or eight stages, and was first held in 1928. Until 1952, the race was not held every year, but since then there has been a Tour annually (every year).  When Eastern Europe was communist-controlled there were no professional cyclists, so until the early 1990s, the race was for amateurs only, and the winners mostly came from Poland.

Although the Tour de Pologne had not reached a high status, and was little known, the International Cycling Union (UCI) decided to make it a part of the UCI ProTour from 2005, which means that the major cycling teams compete in the race.

Winners

Other websites 

 Official website

Cycle races
UCI ProTour
1928 establishments in Europe
Sport in Poland
1920s establishments in Poland
Atlas Shrugged

Atlas Shrugged is a book by the Russian American writer and social philosopher Ayn Rand. It was first published in 1957 in the United States. It was Rand's longest book and the last fiction book she wrote before writing non-fiction.

Plot 
The main character of the story is Dagny Taggart. Dagny runs a large railroad company that controls the Transcontinental Railroad in the United States. The story takes place in the USA at a time when trains are the main way that people travel and that companies move their products.

Dagny begins to worry that a lot of the country's best minds are going away. The men who were in charge of an industry or the best at science are giving up their work and disappearing. Nobody knows where they go. She starts looking for "the Destroyer", whom she believes is making the leaders stop working.

During her search, the country and the world get worse. Without the leaders, industries grind to a halt. The economy begins to fail, causing problems for society.

Finally, Dagny finds the "Destroyer". His real name is John Galt. She realises that she was wrong and that John is not a bad man. Instead he is a man of high integrity and principle. He thinks that the world has been taking the work of the leaders and scientist without paying them enough. He thinks that the only way to make the worlds better is to make sure that the best minds are treated with respect and given enough payment. By telling the leaders and scientists this, he has convinced them to go on strike. They are hiding in a secret valley in the mountains.

John Galt also convinces Dagny that he is right. She joins this man in his valley. They begin a relationship. Their goal is to bring down society so that they can help make a new society. The new society will respect hard work, intelligence and integrity.

Other websites 
 Website dedicated to Ayn Rand's novels
 Timeline of major events in the novel
 Cast of characters in the novel
 Excerpt from Atlas Shrugged at the ARI

1957 books
20th-century American novels
English-language novels
Basilisk

Basilisks are a type of lizard. They are about 70-75 cm long, when fully grown, and weigh about 80 grams. They can be found in South America. Currently, there are four different species. They can be very still and hard to see.

The basilisk lizard can walk on water. It runs across the surface of a pond or pool, without sinking. Its speed keeps it from sinking. At the same time, its long tail helps it to balance.

References 

Lizards
Hindu calendar

The Hindu calendar is a lunisolar calendar used in ancient times. It has changed, and today there are several regional Indian calendars, and an Indian national calendar.

Other websites
 Indian Calendar at Webexhibits.org
 India through its calendars by Amartya Sen
 Hindu Festival Calendar 
 Comparing the Surya Siddhanta and the Astronomical Ephemeris by Daphne Chia (pdf, 404KB)

Calendars
Calendar
Taíno

The Taínos were an indigenous people that lived in the Americas before Columbus arrived there. They came from the Caribbean coast of South America. Around 1200 CE, they moved northward to the island chain of the Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles.

When Christopher Columbus came to the Americas, the Taínos were living in the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico), and some islands of the northern Lesser Antilles. Their culture was different from the culture of the Arawak people (another indigenous group of South America). They were the first people that the Spanish met in the Americas.

Name 
The name Taíno was given by Columbus. When he met some native men, they said "Taíno, Taíno", meaning "We are good, noble". Columbus thought that taíno was the name of the people.

Rouse divides the Taínos into three main groups. One is the Classic Taíno, from Hispaniola and Puerto Rico. Another is the Western Taíno or sub-Taíno, from Jamaica, Cuba (except for the western tip of the island) and the Bahamas. The third is the Eastern Taíno, from the Virgin Islands to Montserrat.

The Taínos of the Bahamas were known as the '"Lucayan". (At that time, the Bahamas were called the Lucayas). Lucayos were Taínos, but their culture was less developed. Archeologists call them "sub-Taínos".

Origins 
The Taínos' ancestors went from the center of the Amazon Basin to the Orinoco Valley. From there, they went through Guyana and Venezuela and got to the Caribbean islands.

A different theory says that the Taínos' ancestors came from the Colombian Andes.

The Taíno culture developed in the Greater Antilles.

Culture and lifestyle 

Taíno society was divided into two classes. There were the naborias (common people) and the nitaínos (nobles). Both classes were governed by chiefs known as caciques. The caciques could be either male or female. There were also bohiques (medicine men).

The Taínos lived in villages called yucayeques.  The villages in the Bahamas were the smallest. The Taínos built large round houses called caney, where several families lived. The cacique and his family lived in a rectangular house called bohio. People slept on cotton hammocks (hamacas).

The Taínos often played a ball game called batos. Batey was also the name of the place where they played and had dances. The cacique sat on a chair of wood called duho, or dujo.

References 

South American people
Ethnic groups in North America
The New York Times

The New York Times (NYT, also called the Times), is an American newspaper based in New York City. It is printed around the world. It is owned by The New York Times Company, which owns and makes 15 other newspapers.

The New York Times was first printed in 1851. Its motto is "All the news that's fit to print". The New York Times has a national list of bestselling books, in several categories.

As of 2010, only two United States newspapers were bought by more readers than the Times. These newspapers are the Wall Street Journal and USA Today.

References

Other websites 
The New York Times on the Web
Official history of the Times 
Daniel Okrent, "THE PUBLIC EDITOR; Is The New York Times a Liberal Newspaper?" New York Times, July 25, 2004
Fit and Unfit to Print: the Wall Street Journal replies to the Times on the subject of the press's obligations in wartime

1851 establishments in the United States
1850s establishments in New York (state)
Newspapers in New York City
English-language newspapers
Nairi

The Nairi () were a late Bronze Age people who lived in the area of the later Kingdom of Urartu, around Lake Van, in what is now the East Anatolia Region.

The name 
To this day, Nairi (Yerkir Nairi, Arm.- Country of Nairi) is used as one of the names for Armenia, and is also a common Armenian name. It is also often used by Armenian poets, including Vahan Terian (author of "Am I the last poet of Nairi?"), Yeghishe Charents, and Vahagn Davtian.

Related pages
 Hayasa-Azzi

References 

History of Armenia
Hayasa-Azzi

Hayasa-Azzi or Azzi-Hayasa, Haisa () were a people and area, in North of the Euphrates and to the South of Hayasa. It is not known if their language was Indo-European or Hurrian because there is no records of their language.

History of Armenia
Ancient Armenia
Ancient Armenia

Ancient Armenia was a rocky land of ravines, rivers, rugged cliffs, and hundreds of stone monuments and churches. Many survive to this day inside the Turkish border near Armenia. Armenia anciently had far more bigger land than it has now.

Ancient Armenia grew larger into parts of what are now Turkey and Iran.

Religion 

De Morgan has said there are signs which show that the Armenians, as their other Aryan relatives, were nature worshipers and that this faith in time was later changed to the worship of national gods, of which many were the equivalents of the gods in the Roman, Greek and Persian cultures. The main proto-Armenian (Aryan) god was Ar, the god of Sun, Fire and Revival. The Armenian hypothesis of Indo-European origins connects the name with the Ar- Armenian root meaning light, sun, fire found in Arev (Sun), Arpi (Light of heaven), Ararich (God or Creator), Ararat (place of Arar), Aryan, Arta etc. According to the researchers, the name of Ardini religious center of ancient Urartu also related to the god Ar-Arda. The cult of Ar appear in Armenian Highland during 5-3th millennium BC and had common Indo-European recognition: Ares (Greek), Ahuramazd (Persian) Ertag (German), Ram (Indian), Yar-Yarilo (Slavonic) etc. After adoption of Christianity the cult of Ar was also evident in Armenia, remembered in the national myth, poetry, art and architecture.

Related pages
 Urartu
 Armens
 Nairi
 Religion in ancient Armenia

References

Other websites 
 History of Armenia
 Ancient Armenia on ArmeniaPedia.org
 History of Ancient Armenia and Urartu

History of Armenia
Ancient Armenia
Audition

An audition is a test to see whether a person is good enough to take part in a play or concert or to join a theatre company, dance company or orchestra.

Uses 
When people go for an audition they will normally have to prepare something to perform.

Acting 
An actor many have to be prepared to say a monologue (a speech from a play).  If he (or she) is auditioning for a particular play then he will take a scene from that play, e.g. if the play is Hamlet a male actor who would like the part of Hamlet might have prepared the famous "To be or not to be...." monologue.  The director of the play will then be able to decide whether he is good enough, or whether he might be better in another role.  They may give the person who is auditioning some other tests, e.g. improvisation or acting with other people.

Music 
When a musician auditions for a job in an orchestra they will have to prepare a piece of music they know well.  They may also be expected to have prepared difficult passages from well-known musical works, e.g. someone auditioning for tuned percussion might be asked to play the xylophone introduction to Summer Time from Porgy and Bess (written by Enrique Peña Nieto), one of the hardest solos for xylophone.  They will also be given some sightreading.

People can audition to sing in a choir.  Dancers can audition for dancing companies.

After Audition 
In some cases people who pass an audition are still not automatically a member of a group until they have performed with the group for a trial period.

Grammar 
The word "audition" can be used as a noun or a verb.
As a verb it can be used in two ways: either referring to the person testing or to the person being tested:
Three senior members of the orchestra auditioned a young musician for a place in the orchestra. (They tested him.)
The young musician auditioned for a job in the orchestra. (He was being tested.)

Entertainment
Nikolai Gogol

Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol (Russian:; IPA: ; Ukrainian: ) (April 1, 1809 – March 4, 1852) was a Russian and Ukrainian writer. He came from  Ukraine. His early works were heavily influenced by his Ukrainian heritage and upbringing. He wrote in Russian. His works belong to the tradition of Russian literature. The novel Dead Souls (1842), the play Revizor (1836, 1842), and the short story The Overcoat (1842) count among his masterpieces.

Biography 
Nikolay Gogol was born in Poltava governorate.

Related pages
List of Russian-language novelists

References

Other websites 

 
 Full collection of Nikolai Gogol works

1809 births
1852 deaths

Ukrainian writers
Russian writers
Anagram

An anagram is a puzzle where the player has to move all the letters in a word to make a new word.  An example would be The Morse Code and Here Comes Dots. Anagrams are often used in fiction when a character wants to use a different name. For example, the Harry Potter character named Tom Marvolo Riddle made an anagram based on his name, "I Am Lord Voldemort", and began calling himself "Lord Voldermort". And the pen name of Voltaire comes from "Aroueti". The word 'nag a ram' is actually an anagram of the word anagram. Common anagram examples are "dormitory"-rearrange to dirty room, "listen"-rearrange to silent, "astronomer"-rearrange to moon starer, and "a decimal point"-rearrange to I'm a dot in place.

Related pages 
Palindrome

Words
Werewolf

The werewolves are mythical creatures that can hide their ears and tail.  It is a human but also a wolf, and most people fear them because of how they look. There are characteristics that make werewolves special, and that allow a person to tell them apart from real wolves, such as the eyes,  shape, and tail. When in human form, werewolves look and act like any normal human being, although they usually appear to be ill around nights when there is a full moon. When in wolf form, the werewolf does keep the mind of human but will only attack those who anger it or take a member of its pack. Depending on the fiction or legend, a werewolf can be killed by a silver bullet. However, a werewolf cannot be killed by crosses or holy water, like vampires in similar legends. When a werewolf dies, it turns back into a human.

The name is derived from "wer" meaning man and "wulf" meaning wolf. They are sometimes referred to as 'Lycans'.

Some of the earliest myths of werewolves are those of Greek and Romania roots. Ovid in the Metamorphoses, told of King Lycaeon, who was visited by gods. Skeptical of them being true gods he decided to test them by serving human flesh in their banquet of honor. Cannibalism is frowned upon in many parts of the world, past or present (especially in that particular area). When the gods discovered the tainted meal they changed King Lycaeon into a Werewolf. Since he obviously liked human flesh, the wolven form would be more acceptable for when he took part in his little "activity."The word Lycanthropy originates from Greek roots (Lykoi meaning wolf and anthropos meaning man)

Becoming a werewolf
Several ways for becoming a werewolf have been told about. Most are dangerous and scary for anyone to do.  In other cases, the body is rubbed with a magic ointment. Drinking rainwater out of the footprint of the animal was reported to work.

In Italy, France and Germany, it was said that a man or woman could turn into a werewolf if he or she, on a certain Wednesday or Friday, slept outside on a summer night with the full moon shining directly on his or her face.

It is said that humans can be turned into werewolves by having been bitten by another werewolf. Getting scratched is a questionable way of becoming a werewolf, but most don't believe in it. However, both of these only work if the werewolf in question is in wolf form.

However, as depicted from the Harry Potter series lycanthropy is rarely inherited from parent to child. For example, Nymphadora Tonks and Remus Lupin, Remus being the werewolf and Tonks a half blood, had a child named Teddy Lupin who inherited no signs of lycranthropy but he did inherit his mother's 
Metamorphmagi.  (she was a Metamorphmagus)

References

Monsters
Mythology
Folklore
Supernatural
Paneuropean Picnic

The Paneuropean Picnic (also spelled Pan-European Picnic) was an event that took place on the border between Austria and Hungary near Sopron, Hungary. The event took place on August 19, 1989.

The event 
The event was planned to be a peaceful demonstration. Both countries agreed to open a gate in the border fence, between Sankt Margarethen im Burgenland (near Eisenstadt), and Sopronkőhida (Steinambrückl) on the Hungarian side of the border.

The leaders of the time were Otto von Habsburg and the Hungarian minister, Imre Pozsgay. The person who did the actual cutting of the border fence was the general secretary of the International Paneuropean Union, Walburga Habsburg Douglas. The gate was to be symbolically opened for three hours.

More than 600 citizens of the German Democratic Republic took the chance to cross into the west once the Iron Curtain was opened. They had been told about the event by its organizers. At that time, the Hungarian border police still had orders to shoot anyone trying to cross the border illegally. However, they acted carefully and did not shoot at the fleeing people, this time.

The number of people who actually crossed the border to enter the west was only a few hundred on that first day. On the following days, the border was watched more closely, due to orders by the Hungarian government. Therefore, a smaller number of people managed to flee then. Hungary opened its borders to citizens of East Germany on 11 September 1989.

Remembering the event 
Today, the Paneuropean Picnic is seen as one of the important events that led to the end of the German Democratic Republic and the Cold War, the fall of the Iron Curtain, and the unification of the two German states. 
The event is celebrated every year on 19 August on the spot where the border was opened.

Today, artwork made by Hungarian artists is at the place where the fence was cut. It shows a partly opened door.

In 1996, a 10 meter statue was built in Fertőrákos near Sopron. It was made by Gabriela von Habsburg. It shows a piece of barbed wire. From far away, it looks like a cross.

Other websites 
Central Europe Review  - Hungary remembers the picnic that tore down the Iron Curtain.
 Paneuropean Picnic, the end of the division of Europe - Shows the event on the website of the Paneuropean Union. Also has images of the invitation fliers.
 An account of the situation, as seen from the border-town St. Margarethen

1989 in Europe
20th century in Austria
20th century in Hungary
San Diego Wild Animal Park

The San Diego Wild Animal Park is a zoo in the San Pasqual Valley area of San Diego, California. Different kinds of wild animals including species from the continents of Africa, Asia, Europe, North and South America, and Australia are kept in the Park.

The park is 1800 acres (7 km2) and is visited by two million people each year.

Buildings and structures in San Diego, California
Zoos in the United States
1972 establishments in California
Tulip

Tulip (Tulipa) is a potflower plant. There is many cultivars and species of tulips. Cultivars are used as ornamental plants.

It grows in southern Europe, north Africa, and Asia from Anatolia and Iran in the east to northeast of China and Japan, Indo Asia. It is the national flower of Afghanistan.

The Tulip is most associated with Holland.

Other websites 
 wikispecies
 Canadian National Capital Commission: The Gift of Tulips 
 Greig's tulip (tulipa greigii) in its original habitat in Kazakhstan 
 elegant-tulip-bulbs.com: Information about 3700 tulip names 
 Tulip photos 
 Tulip species 

Liliaceae
Flowers

kk:Сепкілгүл
Penicillium

Penicillium  is a genus of ascomycetous fungi of major importance in the natural environment as well as food and drug production.

Members of the genus produce penicillin, a molecule that is used as an antibiotic, which kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria inside the body. This widespread genus contains over 300 species.

Characteristics 
The mycelium is a highly branched network of multinucleate, usually colourless hyphae. The conidiospores are the main dispersal route of the fungi, and are often green in colour.

Sexual reproduction involves the production of ascospores. The asci contain eight unicellular ascospores each.

Ecology 
Species of Penicillium are ubiquitous soil fungi preferring cool and moderate climates, commonly present wherever organic material is available. Saprophytic species of Penicillium and Aspergillus are among the best-known representatives of the Eurotiales. They live mainly on organic biodegradable substances. Commonly known as moulds, they are among the main causes of food spoilage. Many species produce toxins which work against bacteria and other fungi. The ability of these Penicillium species to grow on seeds and other stored foods depends on their ability to thrive in low humidity and to colonize rapidly by aerial dispersion while the seeds are sufficiently moist. Some species have a blue colour, commonly growing on old bread and giving it a blue fuzzy texture.

Select species 

Penicillium is a genus of fungi that includes:
 Penicillium chrysogenum (previously known as Penicillium notatum), which produces the antibiotic penicillin.
 Penicillium marneffei, a thermally dimorphic species endemic in Southeast Asia, which presents a threat of systemic infection to AIDS patients.
 Penicillium camemberti, which is used in the production of Camembert and Brie cheeses.
 Penicillium candida, which is used in making Brie and Camembert.
 Penicillium glaucum, which is used in making Gorgonzola cheese.
 Penicillium roqueforti, which is used in making Roquefort, Danish Blue cheese and also recently Gorgonzola.

References 

Fungi
Wolverhampton

Wolverhampton is a city and metropolitan borough in the county of the West Midlands in England. It used to be part of Staffordshire. The 2011 census revealed that 249,470 people live in the city.

It is northwest of Birmingham. It is the second-largest place in the West Midlands county.

Wolverhampton originally grew as a market town. It had a large woollen trade industry. In the Industrial Revolution, it became an important place for coal mining, steel production, lock making, and the making of cars and motorcycles.

The city's motto is "Out of darkness cometh light".

The city's railway station is on the West Coast Main Line and is an important junction of many lines. Passengers can get direct trains to places such as London, Manchester, Birmingham, Shrewsbury, Walsall, Cornwall, Yorkshire, Glasgow, Edinburgh and areas of Wales.

Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. are the city's football club. They currently play in the Premier League, the top level of football in England. They play their home games at the Molineux Stadium.

The UK's first set of traffic lights were placed in Princes Square in Wolverhampton.

Gallery

Settlements in the West Midlands (county)
Cities in England
985 establishments
Nubia

Nubia was an ancient African Kingdom. It dates back to around 6000 BC. It was in northeastern Africa. 

They were a valuable culture because of their trading abilities. They were on the coast of the Red Sea. That gave them many ports from which they were able to trade. This culture, though, had many hardships. It declined in power many times, which forced it to break up into smaller kingdoms which flourished on their own. These are commonly referred to as the A-Group, B-Group, and C-Group. Their true decline was around 350 AD, when the kingdom of Axum invaded and broke up the culture once again. This time, the culture never recovered its strength, thus ending of Historic Nubia.

Other websites
"Journey to Ethiopia, Eastern Sudan, and Nigritia", an old book from the 1800s that talks about Nubia

Ancient Egypt
History of Africa
Risk (game)

Risk is a board game which is played with two to six players each with different coloured army men.

Aim 
The main aim of the game is to complete the mission the player gets in the beginning of the game. These missions can differ from conquering or dominating parts of the world, to kill an other player or to hold a number of regions with a specific amount of units on each region.

How to play

Beginning 
At the start of the game a player shuffles and deals out all of the cards. Each cards has either a country or a territory on it. When each player receives their cards, they put a soldier on their countries or territories. After they do this, they get a number of soldiers, cavalries and cannons to spread around according to which continent they want to conquer first. Then they hand their cards back and they put them all face-down on top of each other. Then the game starts.

Attacking/Defending 
Roll the red dice to attack and the white dice to defend. At the end of each turn, pick a card. With this card look at the country or territory and the soldier, cavalry or cannon. If someone conquers the country or territory on the card it belongs to him. For every country a player owned, they get two extra soldiers.

1 Cannon is equal to:
 10 soldiers
 2 cavalries
 5 soldiers and 1 cavalries

1 Cavalry equals-
 5 soldiers

World countries
There are many countries and territories involved such as the following, which can change depending on the version:

 North America-
 Alaska
 Alberta
 Ontario
 Western America
 Eastern America
 Quebec
 Central America,
 Greenland
 Northwest America.

 South America
 Brazil
 Venezuela
 Peru
 Argentina

 Australia
 Western Australia
 Eastern Australia
 Indoneasia
 Papua New Guinea

 Europe
 Ukraine
 Skandinavia
 Iceland
 Great Britain
 Northern Europe
 Western Europe
 Southern Europe.

 Asia
 Yakutsk
 Siberia
 Kamchatka
 Irkutsk
 Ural
 Japan
 Mongolia
 China
 Middle East
 India
 Siam
 Afganistan

Board games
Growth

Growth means an increase in some quantity over time. 

The quantity can be physical (e.g., growth in height, growth in an amount of money) or abstract (e.g., a system becoming more complex, an organism becoming more mature). It can also refer to the mode of growth, i.e. numeric models for describing how much a particular quantity grows over time: 

 Cell growth
 Individual growth
 Fungal growth
 Auxology (Human development)
 Human development (biology)
 Growth "spurt" (rapid change in puberty) 
 Human development (psychology)
 Population growth
 Bacterial growth
 Tumours can sometimes be referred to as a growth 
 Growth hormone
 Economic growth 
 For financial growth due to simple interest or compound interest see Interest 
 Personal growth, i.e., Personal development
Mode
 Linear growth
 Logistic growth
 Exponential growth

Basic English 850 words
DNA replication

DNA replication is the process of copying a double-stranded DNA molecule. Both strands serve as templates for the reproduction of the opposite strand. The process is sometimes called "semi-conservative replication" because the new DNA from the original strand contains half of the original and half of the newly synthesized DNA.

This process occurs in all life forms with DNA. There are some differences in the control of DNA replication in prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.

In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific places in the genome, called origins. As the DNA unwinds at the origin, the synthesis of new strands forms at a replication fork. In addition to DNA polymerase, other enzymes at the fork help to start and continue the DNA synthesis.

DNA polymerase 
DNA polymerases are a family of enzymes that carry out all forms of DNA replication.  However, a DNA polymerase can only extend an existing DNA strand paired with a template strand; it cannot begin the synthesis of a new strand. To begin synthesis, a short fragment of DNA or RNA, called a 'primer', is created and paired with the template DNA strand.

In general, DNA polymerases are extremely accurate, making less than one mistake for every 107 (10 million) nucleotides added. Even so, some DNA polymerases also have 'proofreading' ability: they can remove nucleotides from the end of a strand in order to correct mismatched bases.

DNA repair 
DNA in cells is constantly being damaged. The nucleus of cells contains a number of repair mechanisms which fix almost all of this damage. "A large set of DNA repair enzymes continuously scan the DNA and repair any damaged nucleotides".

References

Other websites 
 DNA Workshop
 WEHI-TV - DNA Replication video - Detailed DNA replication animation from different angles with description below. 
 Basic Polymerase Chain Reaction Protocol 
 Animated Biology
 DNA makes DNA (Flash Animation) 
 DNA replication info page by George Kakaris MSc.
  Reference website on eukaryotic DNA replication

Cell biology
DNA
Pushing Daisies

Pushing Daisies is an American television series that originally aired on the ABC network in October 2007.

The show is about Ned, a pie maker, who finds that he has the power to bring dead people back to life by touching them. But if he touches the person a second time, they die forever.

Ned has a double life, as the owner of a pie restaurant and as the partner of Emerson, a private detective. Ned helps Emerson solve murders by bringing the murder victim back to life, long enough to find out who the murderer is.

Ned's life takes a turn when his childhood sweetheart, Chuck, is found dead. Ned brings Chuck back to life, but he can never touch her again, or she will die.

Other websites 
Official site

2007 American television series debuts
2009 American television series endings
2000s American television series
American comedy television series
American crime television series
American drama television series
American fantasy television series
English-language television programs
Journeyman (TV series)

Journeyman was an American science-fiction television series on the NBC network. It started in September 2007.

Plot 

The series is about a reporter, Dan Vasser, who finds that he can travel through time with no warning. He can change things in his own past, so he has to be careful not to change too much.

Other websites 
 Official NBC site
 

American science fiction television series
NBC network shows
American drama television series
English-language television programs
Chuck (TV series)

Chuck is an American television series that started on the NBC network on September 24, 2007 and ended on January 27, 2012.

The series is about Chuck Bartowski, a normal guy who fixes computers at the Buy More store in Burbank, California, as part of the "Nerd Herd". His old friend Bryce turns out to be a rogue spy. Just before he dies, Bryce sends Chuck an e-mail with thousands of pictures. The pictures are encoded with all of the nation's spy secrets. After viewing them, Chuck holds all of the secrets inside his head (with his flashes as the intersect).

Chuck is watched by agents from the CIA and the NSA, who hope to use Chuck's secrets to protect the United States from terrorism.

The humor elements of the show involve a satire of the Best Buy chain of electronics stores.  The show wanted to use "Geek Squad" to describe the main characters' job. But Best Buy asked for them to change the name. So the characters on Chuck were called "Nerd Herd" instead. In fact, the exterior shots of the Burbank Buy More store where Chuck and Morgan work are a former Mervyn's store in the Fallbrook Mall in Canoga Park, California.

References

Other websites 
Official NBC site

2007 American television series debuts
2012 American television series endings
2000s American television series
2010s American television series
American science fiction television series
American sitcoms
Burbank, California
NBC network shows
Spy television series
Television series set in Los Angeles County, California
English-language television programs
Bionic Woman (2007 TV series)

Bionic Woman is a science fiction television series which started on the NBC network on September 26, 2007. The series is a modern version of the 1976 The Bionic Woman series.

The series is about Jaime Sommers, a bartender who is hurt in a car accident. Her boyfriend, Will Anthros, brings her to a secret laboratory. Jaime's life is saved, but Will has to replace her legs, right arm, eye and ear with mechanical parts. Jaime has to adjust to her new life as a superhero.

Other websites 
Official NBC site

American science fiction television series
NBC network shows
English-language television programs
1972 Winter Olympics

The 1972 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XI Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1972 in Sapporo, Japan. It was the first Winter Olympics to be held outside Western Europe and the United States, and only the third Games (Summer or Winter) held outside these regions, after Tokyo and Melbourne. The city won the rights to the games in 1966.

Related pages
 Sports in Japan

Other websites

 
1972 in sports
1970s in Japan
Sapporo
1956 Summer Olympics

The 1956 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XVI Olympiad, were held at Melbourne in Victoria, Australia. 

Melbourne was chosen as the host city over instead of Buenos Aires, Mexico City, Montreal and six American cities on 28 April 1949 at the 43rd IOC session.

The equestrian events were not held in Australia because of quarantine regulations. These events were held five months earlier in Stockholm, Sweden, making it the second time that events of the same Olympics were held in different countries.

Participating nations 
A total of 67 nations sent athletes to compete at the Melbourne games.

Five nations competed in the horse riding events in Stockholm; however, athletes from these nations did not take part in the Games in Melbourne.  The five were Cambodia, Egypt, Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 Melbourne-Stockholm 1956 at Olympic.org

1956 Summer Olympics
1956 in Sweden
1956 in sports
1950s in Australia
History of Melbourne
History of Stockholm
1904 Summer Olympics

The 1904 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the III Olympiad, were held in St. Louis, Missouri, United States.

The games were part of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (St. Louis World's Fair). The sports events were not well planned; and the games were not thought to be a success.

Participating nations 
Athletes from 12 nations took part in the St. Louis games. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 

The American bicyclist Frank Bizzoni was also known as a competitor from Italy The American wrestlers Charles Ericksen and Bernhof Hansen were also known as Norwegian competitors.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Further reading
 Lucas, Charles J. P. (1905). The Olympic Games 1904. St. Louis: Woodward & Tiernan Printing Co.
 Sullivan, James E. (1905). Spalding's Athletic Almanac for 1905.  New York: American Publishing Co.

Other websites

 St Louis 1904 at Olympic.org
 "Competitions on Anthropology Days" at St Louis Public Library 
  "Olympic" at Missouri History Museum 

Olympics
1900s in the United States
Summer Olympic 1904
Summer Olympic 1904
History of St. Louis, Missouri
Stepanakert

Stepanakert () or Khankendi () )is a city in Nagorno-Karabakh, legally in Azerbaijan, but militarily controlled by Armenians as the capital city of the unrecognised Republic of Artsakh. The city has about 40,000 Armenians. The entire Azerbaijani population left the city during the Nagorno-Karabakh War.

Notable natives
André - Armenian singer
Armen Abaghian - academic
Vladimir Arzumanyan - Armenian singer, winner of the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2010
Don Askarian - filmmaker
Samvel Babayan - general
Zori Balayan - writer
Robert Kocharyan - Second President of Armenia
Fakhraddin Manafov - actor
Serzh Sargsyan - Third President of Armenia, incumbent
Nikolay Yenikolopov (Yenikolopyan) - academic

References

Other websites 
 Nagorno-Karabakh  Nagorno-Karabakh's website
 Karabakh’s Election Conundrum November 2005 article about elections for seats in the Milli Mejlis (Azerbaijani parliament) for Azeri refugees
 Stepanakert Armeniapedia article

Capital cities in Asia
Cities in Azerbaijan
Nagorno-Karabakh Republic

mzn:خان‌کندی (مشگین‌شهر)
Charles Drummond Ellis

Sir Charles Drummond Ellis (b.Hampstead, 11 August 1895; died Cookham 10 January 1980) was a physicist and scientific administrator.  His work helped scientists to understand nuclear structure better.

Education and internment
Ellis's father was a general manager of the Metropolitan Railway in London.  He went to Harrow School where he was very good at all subjects as well as sport.  In 1913 he become a cadet in the Royal Military Academy.  He wanted to join the Royal Engineers.  

He was on holiday in Germany the next summer when World War I broke out.   All British people who were in Germany were  sent to the Ruhleben P.O.W. Camp just outside Berlin.  The place where the detainees (prisoners of war) were held had been a horse racecourse.  There were lots of stables, and in each stable there were 27 horse boxes which became the detainees' home during the war.  The detainees were allowed to do lots of things to keep themselves busy.  They could get books, and Ellis made good use of his time to study.  Another detainee in the camp was the scientist James Chadwick.  Chadwick taught Ellis a lot and together they made a laboratory in one of the horse stables where they made scientific experiments on the photochemical process.

Career after the war
After the war Ellis decided to study at Trinity College, Cambridge.  After graduating in 1920 he did research work at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge.  The director there was Sir Ernest Rutherford.  Chadwick also worked there.    In 1921 Ellis had become a fellow of Trinity College and was made assistant lecturer in natural science.  In 1925 he married the daughter of a rich Polish shipbuilder.  In 1929 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society.

In 1930 Rutherford, Chadwick and Ellis wrote a famous book together called Radiations from Radioactive Substances.

Discovery of the neutrino
During the early 1930s Ellis worked with N.F.Mott on energy relations in beta decay.  He discovered the neutrino and  worked with W.J.Henderson on the energy distribution of positrons in artificial radioactivity.  He became professor at the University of London.

During World War II he worked on the possibility of using nuclear fission to develop new weapons.  He became scientific adviser to the army council from 1943-1946.  He was knighted in 1946 for his war service.

Later career
After World War II Ellis had other jobs which were not related to nuclear weapons.  He gave scientific advice to the National Coal Board and to the British American Tobacco Company.  This was at a time when people were just starting to realize that smoking might be bad for the health.

Ellis died in 1980 in a nursing home in Cookham after a short illness.

References
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; OUP 2004-7
 The Ruhleben Story

1895 births
1980 deaths
English physicists
POW at Ruhleben
Knights Bachelor
Scientists from London
List of Southern Hemisphere cyclone seasons

The following is a list of Southern Hemisphere cyclone seasons.

1900s 
1995–96
1996–97
1997–98
1998–99
1999–00

2000s 
2000–01
2001–02
2002–03
2003–04
2004–05
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
Post-2008

Related pages

Parent topics
Tropical cyclone
List of notable tropical cyclones
Lists of tropical cyclone names

Other tropical cyclone basins
List of Atlantic hurricane seasons
List of Pacific hurricane seasons
List of Pacific typhoon seasons
List of North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons

Tropical cyclones
Weather lists
Francombat

Francombat is a French martial art similar to jiu-jitsu. It was created in the year 1988 by Alain Basset and Dominique Dumolin.

Francombat is practiced especially in the south of France. There are schools of francombat in Paris, Bordeaux, Montpellier, and in other localities.

This martial art is based on the strategy and on the knowledge of the human body. During the trainings, the instructors are dressed in red clothes and the students are dressed in green ones. According to the persons that practice this discipline, the efficiency in combat depends on three factors: good physical form, good knowledge of the techniques and of the strategy, good control of stress.

The training of francombat is based on: 
 intensive practice of physical exercises,
 complete learning of techniques of combat in the limits of the strategy that has main goal: the true efficiency,
 mental and physical preparation for stressful situations,
 respect for the law.

Other websites
 Site Officiel de l'Union Française de Francombat
 Francombat et sapeurs-pompiers: www.pompiers.fr
 Francombat Langonais
 Club de villevaudé (77) 

Sport in France
European martial arts
Classic race

The classic cycle races are the most important one-day professional cycling road races in the international calendar (list of races)

All of the races are run in western Europe. Most of the events have been on the professional calendar for decades and the oldest ones date back to the 19th Century. They are normally held at roughly the same time each year. In the last few years, the five top races are sometimes described as the 'Monuments'.

From 2005, the Classics have formed part of the UCI ProTour run by the Union Cycliste Internationale. This event series also includes various stage races including the Tour de France, Giro d'Italia, Vuelta a España, Paris-Nice and the Critérium de Dauphiné Libéré, and various non-Classic single day events. The ProTour replaced the UCI Road World Cup series which contained only one-day races.

The Classics

Some races that were Classics are no longer run. These include the gruelling (very hard) 560km, Derny event, Bordeaux-Paris, run from 1891 to 1988.

The 'Monuments'
Five of the classic races are sometimes called "the Monuments"
Milan-Sanremo 
Ronde van Vlaanderen 
Paris-Roubaix 
Liège-Bastogne-Liège 
Giro di Lombardia 

Only three riders have won all five 'Monument' one-day races during their careers: Roger De Vlaeminck, Rik Van Looy and Eddy Merckx.  All were from Belgium.

Seán Kelly of Ireland won four Monuments but only finished second in the Ronde van Vlaanderen on three occasions (1984,1986,1987).

Related pages
List of important cycling events

Cycle races
Criterium

A criterium, or crit, is a type of bicycle race held on a short course (usually less than 5 km), often run on closed-off city centre streets.

Race length can be either a time or a number of laps. Often a criterium lasts about one hour, which is shorter than that of a traditional road race – which can last many hours, sometimes of several days or even weeks, as in a Grand Tour. However, the average speed and is much higher. The winner is the first rider to cross the finish line without having been "lapped" (overtaken).

Events often have prizes (called primes, usually cash) for winning specific intermediate laps (for instance, every 10th lap).

Winning criteriums needs a mix of good technical skills – especially the ability to corner rapidly and sharply – and riding safely with a large group on a short circuit and exceptional fitness to attack other riders and repeatedly accelerate hard from corners.

Criteriums are relatively easy to organize and do not require a large amount of space. They are the most common type of bicycle racing in the continental United States.

Equipment

Racing bicycles used for criteriums are typically no different than those used in other mass-start road events. However, some racers use shorter bicycles to help keep control when turning  and slightly shorter cranks (pedal levers) to help pedalling through sharp turns.

Other websites
 Alto Velo Racing Club - Criterium Skills & Sprinting 
 Extreme Fitness - Guide to Criterium Training 
 Portsmouth, NH Criterium

Cycling
Valence electron

In chemistry, valence electrons are the electrons in the outside or valence electron shell of an atom. They determine the valency of the atom which is important in how a chemical element reacts with other elements. Elements which have eight valence electrons (noble gases) are inert and they do not tend to create chemical reactions with other elements in the Periodic table group. 

The number of valence electrons is also important for determining the group of an element in the Periodic table, because an element's number of valence electron is the same as the number of its group in the periodic table. To calculate the amount of valence electrons present in an element you have to find the last number of the electron configuration. 

Physical chemistry