cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Flip-flop (electronics)

For the type of shoes (sandals), see Flip-flop

In electronics, a flip-flop or latch is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store information. Signals applied to control inputs can change the circuit’s state. It is the basic storage element in sequential logic. Flip-flops and latches are fundamental building blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other types of systems.

Flip-flops are mainly used as static RAM to store data in a computer. That data is represented in binary. Binary is represented in a 1 (“high state”) and 0 (“low state”). The structure of flip flops vary, but the general characteristic is that two branches affect each other's state by putting the current resulting state of one branch and using that as input for the next iteration of the other branch.

History
The first electronic flip-flop, originally called the Eccles-Jordan trigger circuit, was invented in 1918 by the British physicists William Eccles and F. W. Jordan. The initial design’s only active elements were two vacuum tubes. While working at Hughes Aircraft, Eldred Nelson coined the term JK for a flip-flop which changed states when both inputs were on (a logical "one").

Implementation
Flip-flops can be either simple or clocked. A simple flip-flop changes state as soon as the input changes. A clocked flip-flop changes state only when an extra pulse occurs. This pulse is called the clock signal. Commonly, flip-flop only refers to clocked circuits; the simple ones are commonly called latches.

Types

The two common types of flip-flops are SR ("set-reset"), D ("data" or "delay").

SR flip-flop
The most fundamental flip-flop is the simple SR flip-flop. In the SR flip-flop, the S and R stand for set and reset. The stored bit is present on the output marked Q.

If S is pulsed high while R is held low, then the Q output is forced high. Conversely, if R is pulsed high while S is held low, then the Q output is forced low. When the R and S inputs are both low, the Q outputs are in a constant state. However, when the R and S inputs are both high, the Q outputs are in a forbidden state.

Since high and low mean logical '1' and '0', respectively, the SR flip-flop can have four combinations showing below:

(A) S = 1, R = 0: set

(B) S = 0, R = 0: hold

(C) S = 0, R = 1: reset

(D) S = 1, R = 1: not allowed

The restricted combination (D) leads to an unstable state.

D Flip-flop

A D Flip-Flop prevents an SR flip-flop from receiving the forbidden combination. It takes only one input for data, called D. It splits this data down two paths. On one path it flips the data to the opposite value. This is the “NOT” box in the animation. That way, S = 1, R = 1 is never fed to the internal SR latch.

References
 
Electronic components
Electronic circuits
King of Arms

A King of arms is a government officer in countries like England, Scotland, and Wales. He grants coats of arms to other people. King of Arms is the highest rank of officer of arms. Some countries do not have a King of Arms, but have another person that grants coats of arms.

Heraldic jobs
In England, Wales and Northern Ireland two of the three Kings of Arms gives coats of arms to people after the Earl Marshal approves. 
In Scotland the Lord Lyon gives coats of arms without needing any other permission.
In the Republic of Ireland the coats of arms are given by chief herald. 
Canada also has a chief herald,  who is in charge of the Canadian Heraldic Authority 
In South Africa the State Herald is in charge of the Bureau of Heraldry
In the Kingdom of Spain, a Cronista de Armas (Chronicler of Arms) has the power to give people coats of arms.

A King of Arms is also usually in charge of special ceremonies for a country.

British Kings of Arms

English Kings of Arms
Garter Principal King of Arms
Clarenceux King of Arms
Norroy and Ulster King of Arms

Scottish King of Arms
Lord Lyon King of Arms

Chief Heralds
The Chief Herald of Canada
Chief Herald of Ireland
The State Herald of South Africa

Cronistas de Armas
Cronista de Armas de Castille and Leon

Related pages
 Heraldry
 Officer of Arms
 College of Arms
 Court of the Lord Lyon
 Canadian Heraldic Authority

Other websites
The Court of the Lord Lyon 
The College of Arms
The Canadian Heraldic Authority 
The Office of the Chief Herald of Ireland

Heraldry
Occupations
Psychokinesis

Psychokinesis or telekinesis is the supposed ability to change matter, energy, space or time by using your mind.  It is often mentioned and performed in science fiction movies and video games.

Abilities 
Psychokinesis is the word used to describe many different abilities. These abilities include:
 moving objects (this is called telekinesis; see below)
 changing the shape of objects (this includes melting or bending metal) 
 influencing events
 healing
 teleportation (disappearing and reappearing in a different place)
 traveling through objects, like a wall
 changing an object into something else
 changing oneself into something else
 putting an energy field around oneself
 control of magnetism
 control of photons (light waves/particles)

Telekinetic abilities 
 moving objects (move, lift, shake, vibrate, spin, bend, or break large and small objects)
 lifting oneself up off of the ground (including flying)

Parapsychology
Science fiction
List of international Cartoon Network channels

Cartoon Network is an international cartoon television channel for children owned by Turner Broadcasting.

Channels

Current

Americas
Cartoon Network Canada
Cartoon Network South America

Europe
Cartoon Network Europe
Cartoon Network Central & Eastern Europe
Cartoon Network Russia and Southeastern Europe
Cartoon Network France
Cartoon Network Germany
Cartoon Network Italy
Cartoon Network Nordic
Cartoon Network Turkey
Cartoon Network United Kingdom

Asia
Cartoon Network Southeast Asia
Cartoon Network Japan
Cartoon Network Korea
Cartoon Network Pakistan
Cartoon Network Philippines
Cartoon Network Taiwan
Cartoon Network Thailand
Cartoon Network Vietnam

Pacific
Cartoon Network Australia
Cartoon Network New Zealand

Former

Cartoon Network Spain - closed in 2013 along with Cartoonito to make way for Boing

Other websites
Cartoon Network America
Cartoon Network South America
Cartoon Network Europe
Cartoon Network Asia

Cartoon Network
Television lists
Autobiography

An autobiography is a biography in which the author writes about his or her own life. It is a self-written account of one's own life.

It is one of the earliest forms of literature, but the word itself is quite modern.

The word comes from the Greek stems "auto" (meaning "self"), "bio“ (meaning "life"), and "graph" (meaning "write").

References

Related pages
 Biography

Literary terms
Condenser

Condenser may mean:

The old name for a capacitor
Condenser (laboratory), a device used in a chemistry laboratory
Strategy

Strategy is a word which was first used by the military. It comes from an ancient Greek word for the general officer commanding all the armed forces of  a state. A strategy is a long term plan on what to do to achieve a certain goal.  When talking about the near future, people often use the word tactics.  Military theorist Carl von Clausewitz said "tactics is the art of using troops in battle; strategy is the art of using battles to win the war". Today, the word "strategy" is in common use; people might talk about "business strategy", for example.

The distinction between strategy and tactics applies to any planning which might be done against an enemy or opponent. Strategy is what we broadly intend to do to reach our long-term goal or objective. Tactics is the detailed steps which are used as our progress is opposed by the opponent. For this reason, tactics are short-scale and flexible. Strategy, on the other hand, is changed as little as possible. It may be that our goal simply cannot be reached. In that case, a search goes on for a new goal and a new or adjusted strategy. Often, in war, chess or business, roughly the same tactics are still used to get to a different goal. Negotiation is another area where the distinction between strategy and tactics is especially clear.

References

Bibliography
Clausewitz, Carl von. 1989. On War, trans. Michael Howard and Peter Paret. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
Gray, Colin S. 1999. Modern Strategy. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
Liddell Hart, Basil. H. 1967. Strategy. New York: Praeger.
Luttwak, Edward. 2001. Strategy: the logic of war and peace. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
Sun Tzu. 1963. The Art of War. trans. Samuel B. Griffith. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
Watson, John 1998. Secrets of modern chess strategy: advances since Nimzowitsch. Gambit, London.

Military
Games
Lansdowne, Pennsylvania

Lansdowne is a suburb of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in the US.

Cities in Pennsylvania
Gillingham F.C.

Gillingham Football Club is an English football club. They are based in the town of Gillingham, Kent. They are currently in Football League One. They play home games at Priestfield Stadium.  Gillingham are managed by Steve Lovell and the chairman is Paul Scally. The club captain, Gabriel Zakuani, plays in defence.  They finished their last season (2017-18) in 17th.

1893 establishments in England
English football clubs
Gillingham, Kent
Addenbrooke's Hospital

Addenbrooke's Hospital is a large hospital in Cambridge, England. The hospital lets people in to look around, once every two years. You can visit the mortuary, the operating theatres and the hospital roof.

Buildings and structures in England
Cambridge
Hospitals in the United Kingdom
John Adams (composer)

John Coolidge Adams is an American composer. He was born in 1947.  His music often uses minimalism with large orchestras and lots of different sounds. He was named after John Adams, the 2nd President.

Life
He studied music at Harvard University.  After he had graduated he packed all his belongings into his Volkswagen and drove all the way across the United States to California where he got a job as a forklift operator.  Soon he became part of the musical scene of San Francisco.  He listened to the music of minimalist composers like John Cage, Terry Riley and Morton Feldman.  By the mid-1980s he was earning a living as composer and conductor.  The piece that made him famous was called Harmonium.  At times the music is made to sound like a harmonium instrument, but the title also refers to "harmony", showing that he is writing tonal music unlike some modern composers at the time whose music was getting harder and harder to understand because it was not in any key.

Adams wrote several short pieces such as Short Ride in a Fast Machine and The Chairman Dances.  This last piece is music from his opera Nixon in China which was widely performed but made some people angry because the Chinese leaders Chou En-lai and Mao Tse-tung are shown as human beings who deserve a certain amount of sympathy.

Adam's Violin Concerto has been performed over 100 times by many of the world's famous violinists. Adam's song "The Chairman Dances" appered in the game Civilization IV.

1947 births
Living people
20th-century American composers
21st-century American composers
Writers from Massachusetts
Flashlight

A flashlight (in North American English) or torch (in most Commonwealth countries) is a small, portable spotlight.
Its function is a beam of light which helps to see. It usually requires batteries.

The light is made by a small light bulb.  In the 20th century, it was usually an incandescent bulb.  Nowadays most use LEDs, which work slightly differently.  In 1896, the first dry cell battery was invented. Unlike previous batteries, it used a paste electrolyte instead of a liquid. This was the first battery suitable for portable electrical devices, as it did not spill or break easily and worked in any orientation.  Sometimes the electricity comes from a small generator instead of a battery.

The torch can also refer to a flammable stick that is lit on fire to provide light and (or) heat.

Origin 

Hundreds of years ago, people used candles for all indoor light. This was expensive, and once the candle was gone, you would have to buy or make a new one or be stuck in the dark. When electricity was discovered and the light bulb was invented, David Misell, a British man working in Hubert's New York shop in 1898, came up with the idea of a light bulb that you could take with you, anywhere you wanted to go. Then, the torch was invented. The first flashlight has three D batteries which powered a small incandescent bulb. The bulbs would glow with a simple ON/OFF switch.

References 

Light sources
Discrimination

Discrimination is when someone is treated unfairly or differently. Discrimination is when a person is treated unfairly or badly because the person is one of a particular group. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirms that all persons must be protected against any kind of discrimination, or even its inciting.

A person might be discriminated against because of their race, age, sex, politics, sexual orientation, gender identity, religion, the way they look, a past criminal record, the person's lifestyle, their choice of clothing, their age or their disabilities whether they are a member of or fit in with a social clique (group), social class, social status or caste, and many other reasons.

Discrimination can take many forms. It can include being fired from a job, not being able to be hired for a job, being paid less money than others at the same job, being refused a home or apartment, teasing, harassment, or simply being treated differently than other people. Laws known as "equal opportunity legislation" protect people from discrimination. They say people should be employed whatever their race, age, sex or religion. There should be reasonable care for people with disabilities or accessibility. Two people in the same position must be paid the same wage if they have exactly the same job.

In some countries, discrimination against somebody on the basis of race, sex, religion, sexual orientation, age, or disability is illegal. Even in those countries where discrimination is unlawful, it still takes place for reasons not covered by the law. In some other countries, discrimination against somebody is legal or even official government policy. This especially takes place in countries in which there is an official religion, and people of other religions are discriminated against.

Related pages
 Ableism
 Ageism
 Antisemitism
 Homophobia - Transphobia
 Intersectionality
 Persecution 
 Political correctness
 Prejudice

 Racism
 Sexism
 Social stigma
 Speciesism
 Human rights
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Discrimination
Frédéric Chopin

Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin (1 March 1810 – 17 October 1849; pronounced SHOH-pen) was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist. He is considered one of the greatest Romantic piano composers. Chopin was born in Żelazowa Wola, a village in the Duchy of Warsaw. A famous child prodigy, he grew up in Warsaw where he completed his music education and composed many of his mature works before leaving Poland in 1830 at age 20, shortly before the November 1830 Uprising.

Early life 
After the Uprising, he lived in Paris as part of Poland's Great Emigration. During the last 19 years of his life, Chopin performed only about 30 times, usually in a salon. He supported himself by selling his compositions and teaching piano. After a romantic relationship with Polish women, including an abortive engagement, from 1837 to 1847 he carried on a relationship with the French writer Amandine Dupin, better known as George Sand.

Works 
Since he composed many piano pieces, he was called the poet of the piano. Most of Chopin's works are for solo piano, though he also wrote two piano concertos, a few chamber pieces and some songs to Polish lyrics. His piano works are often technically difficult, especially because deep expression is involved along with the importance of considering each detail in his music. Chopin also created the instrumental ballade, along with the addition of new ideas to the piano sonata, mazurka, waltz, nocturne, polonaise, étude, impromptu, scherzo and prélude. All of Chopin's works involve the piano, and for composing them he was using a number of them. While living in Warsaw, Chopin played on Buchholtz piano. Later in Paris he preferred an instrument from Pleyel. Both of these instruments were recreated in XXI century to help listeners to hear Chopin works played on pianos that they were written for.

Death 
Chopin suffered from poor health most of his life and died of tuberculosis in Paris in 1849 at age 39.

References

Other websites
Chopin biography 
Our Chopin

Deaths from tuberculosis
Infectious disease deaths in France
Polish pianists
Polish composers
Polish Roman Catholics
French composers
French Roman Catholics
Romantic composers
1810 births
1849 deaths
Ellipsoid

An ellipsoid is a shape like a sphere, but it may be longer in one or more directions, like an egg, or a rugby ball. It is the 3 dimensional analogue of an ellipse.

The Earth is shaped slightly like an ellipsoid. Its shape is called an oblate spheroid. An ellipsoid shaped like the Earth, called a reference ellipsoid, is often preferred to the geoid because it makes calculations simpler.

Related pages 
Ellipse

Three-dimensional shapes
Pentagram

A pentagram is a five-pointed star, with all lines the same length and all angles the same. A 'pentangle', 'star pentagon', or 'pentalpha' means the same thing. It is a type of pentagon.

The word pentacle originally meant 'any symbol that protects against evil spirits'. There are many of such symbols, only a few of which include a pentagram. During the modern age of Wicca, the word 'pentacle' acquired a second definition, due to sounding similar to the word 'pentagram', and the fact that wiccan pentacles use a pentagram. That second definition of 'pentacle' is 'a circumscribed pentagram', which means 'a pentagram drawn inside a circle so that the points of the pentagram touch the circle'.

The pentagram means different things to different people. These meanings have changed over time.

Religious meanings
In ancient times, the pentagram was used as a Christian symbol. It stood for the five wounds that Jesus Christ received during his crucifixion (the nails in each hand and foot, and the spear wound in his side).

In the past, the pentagram was commonly seen as a symbol for good and for protection against evil.

In Taoism, a pentagram shows how the five classical oriental elements (earth, water, wood, fire, and metal) are related.

Today, the pentacle, commonly mistaken as a pentagram, is the most commonly used symbol of Wicca. Some post-Gardnerian wiccans, imitating Taoism, associate the five points of the pentagram with the four classical Greek elements (fire, water, earth, and air) and spirit.

Some Satanists, especially members of the Church of Satan, use an upside-down pentacle as a symbol for their religion. The Church of Satan's official symbol is an upside-down pentacle with a goat head inside, called the Sigil of Baphomet. (A 'sigil' is a symbol of a supernatural being). It was originally the influential 1800s French occultist Eliphas Levi who associated the pentagram with the goat-headed baphomet, by drawing a pentagram on the baphomet's forehead. Anton LaVey, who created the Church of Satan in 1966, took the idea from Levi.

The pentagram in literature
In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, a 14th century romance story, the pentagram is mentioned as a symbol for Gawain's good character and truth.

More recently, the meaning of the pentagram was discussed in The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown. According to the book, the pentagram actually belonged to the ancient religion of Pagan Sun Worship, and was tied to the female planet Venus: every 8 years Venus traces a perfect pentagram across the sky. The book says that the pentagram was a symbol for the sacred female, but was later taken by Christianity and said to mean the devil in order to destroy beliefs that females were sacred.

Other uses
A pentacle is on the flag of Morocco, as well as  Ethiopia's.

References

Symbols
Religious symbols
Joseph Haydn

Joseph Haydn (also known as Franz Joseph Haydn) was an Austrian composer. He was born on March 31 or April 1, 1732, and died on May 31, 1809. He was one of the most famous composers in the Classical music period. He is often called the "Father of the Symphony."

Life 
Haydn's father made wheels for a living, and had the skills of a blacksmith, stonemason, and carpenter. He used that skill in his spare time to make musical instruments for his family to play. The Haydn family would give informal weekend concerts. One of Joseph's relatives thought that Joseph had a great singing voice and should go with him to a boarding school where he would start studying to become a priest.

Haydn did not like it very much at the boarding school, but his voice developed to a point where he was selected to be a part of the Boy's Choir of the Vienna Cathedral. He stayed there until his voice changed. Haydn made a living teaching lessons and playing in the streets for handouts until he met Nicolai Porpora, who hired Haydn as an accompanist and general servant. 

Eventually Haydn got a job working for Nicholas Esterhazy. He worked for the Esterhazys for over 30 years. He wrote symphonies, string quartets, operas, piano sonatas, and other pieces.

After he was released from his duties with the Esterhazys, Haydn travelled to London. Even at the age of 60 he was still active and wrote some of his most famous symphonies there. While in London, he heard Handel's Messiah, and was inspired to write two oratorios of his own, The Seasons and The Creation. While working on these oratorios in Vienna, Haydn gave lessons to Ludwig van Beethoven. Beethoven had first wanted to study with Mozart, but by the time Beethoven was ready to study in Vienna, Mozart had died.

The house in Vienna where Haydn wrote his oratorios has been turned into a museum called 'Haydnhaus'. There visitors can see the piano by Anton Walter that composer was using for writing music. Haydn was so well-respected in Vienna that he was known as "Papa Haydn" and his influence on music was profound and great.

1732 births
1809 deaths
Austrian composers
Classical era composers
Orthology (language)

For the use in evolutionary biology, see Orthology (biology)
Orthology is the study of the right use of words in language. The word comes from Greek ortho- ("correct") and -logy ("science of"). This science is a place where psychology, philosophy, linguistics, and many other fields of learning come together. The most noted use of Orthology is for the selection of words 
for the language of Basic English by the Orthological Institute.

The book, The Meaning of Meaning, by C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards, is an important book dealing with orthology. The term Orthology comes from the book The Grammar of Science by Karl Pearson.

References 

Language
1712



Events 
 January 26 – Tuscarora War: More than half of the Native Americans in Colonel John Barnwell's Carolina militia desert during the crossing of the Cape Fear River.
 January 29 – Tuscarora War: Colonel John Barnwell's Carolina militia attack the sprawling Tuscarora farming community of Torhunta by focusing on Fort Narhantes. Many Tuscarora captives are enslaved.
Toei Company

Toei Company, Ltd. (東映株式会社 Tōei Kabushiki-gaisha (pronounced toe ay) is a Japanese film, television production, and  distribution corporation. Based in Tokyo, Toei owns and operates thirty-four movie theaters across Japan, studios at Tokyo and Kyoto; and is a shareholder in several television companies. It is notable for anime, live action dramas known as tokusatsu, and jidaigeki historical dramas.

History 
Tokyo-Yokohama Films (東横映画 Tō-Yoko Eiga, incorporated in 1938, had previously erected its facilities immediately east of the Tōkyū Tōyoko Line, they managed the Tōkyū Shibuya Yokohama studio system prior to V-J Day. From 1945 through the Toei merger, Tokyo-Yokohama Films leased from the Daiei Motion Picture Company a second studio in Kyoto. Through the merger, they gained the combined talents and experience of different actors. On October 1, 1950, the Tokyo Film Distribution Company was incorporated; in 1951 the company purchased Ōizumi Films.

In 1956, Toei established an animation division, Toei Animation at the former Tokyo-Ōizumi animation studio, purchasing the assets of Japan Animated Films (originally founded in 1948)

Toei was a pioneer in the use of transformation in live-action martial-arts dramas, a technique developed for the Kamen Rider, Metal Heroes and Super Sentai series; The genre currently continues with Kamen Rider and Super Sentai.

In April 6, 2020, Toei create their official Youtube Channel and uploading some of the oldest tokusatsu series (from the 50s to 90s).

Other websites 
toei.co.jp - Company webpage

Animation studios in Asia
Kimi Ga Yo

Kimigayo (きみ が よ; Kanji: 君が代) is the national anthem of Japan. The name of the song roughly means 'Imperial Reign' in English. The anthem is based on a poem written by an unknown poet from Japan about one thousand years ago. The music was written more recently (about two hundred years ago) and was then rewritten shortly afterwards because the original tune was unpopular.

Although popular for a long period and sung in situations where people from other countries would usually sing their country's national anthem, Kimi Ga Yo was only considered as Japan's official national anthem in 1999. The law that stated this also defined the Flag of Japan in a similar way.

Kimigayo is one of the shortest known national anthems of any country. It is only 56 seconds long.

Lyrics

References

Other websites 

 Listen to Kimi ga yo (.ra format)

Japanese culture
National anthems
April Fools' Day

April Fools' Day (also known as April Fool's Day) is celebrated in many countries on April 1 every year. On this day, practical jokes (or April Fools) are played on friends and family. The jokes are done to embarrass them. In some countries, April Fools only last until noon, and if someone plays a joke after, they are an April Fool.

Origins
People have set aside a special day for playing jokes for centuries. The ancient Romans had a holiday called Hilaria.

In the Middle Ages, New Year's Day was celebrated on March 25 in most European towns. In some areas of France, New Year's was a week-long holiday ending on April 1. Some people think that April Fools' started because those who celebrated on January 1 made fun of those who celebrated on other dates.

Long standing customs

United Kingdom
In the U.K., a person playing a joke would yell "April Fool!" at the recipient. According to tradition, the joking was supposed to stop at midday.

Nordic countries
In the Nordic countries, many news outlets would publish or broadcast a fake news story on April 1.

France
In France, an April fools joke is called a "Poisson d'Avril'. One tradition there is to try and stick a paper fish on one's friends back, and shout "Poisson d'Avril!' when it is discovered.

Media outlets
Sometimes a large media corporation would broadcast or publish a fake news story on April 1. For example, in 1957 the BBC broadcast a story about spaghetti trees. According to the story, people in Switzerland grew spaghetti on trees. Later, many people called the BBC asking how they could get a spaghetti tree.

Notes

Other websites

Observances
Pattern language

Pattern language is used to mean a system of patterns that have a certain meaning other than just the pattern.

Method 
The pattern can be a pattern which has a hidden meaning shown through any sense like sight, sound, touch, taste and smell.

Sight
The most obvious form of sight-based pattern language comes in the form of writing. Nearly every language has a unique written form, which grammatically follows the spoken form.

Language
Computer science
National Maritime Day

In the United States, National Maritime Day is held every May 22 to honor people who have served in the United States Merchant Marine service.

The first National Maritime Day was May 22, 1933, based on a joint resolution passed by the United States Congress on May 20, 1933. Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first President to issue a proclamation about the day.

The biggest National Maritime Day celebration was in 1946, the first National Maritime Day after the Allied Powers won World War II. That year, governors of many U.S. states also officially named the day National Maritime Day or Maritime Day for their state. The first National Maritime Day after the end of the Korean War, in 1954, was also more widely celebrated than most.

In the 2006 annual proclamation by president George W. Bush, he made special mention of the Merchant Marine service's hurricane aid work following Hurricane Katrina and the other hurricanes of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season.

References
Joint Resolution of Congress text
List of 1946 state and city proclamations
Text of Bush proclamation

holidays
Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion is the process of making a single heavy nucleus (part of an atom) from two lighter nuclei. This process is called a nuclear reaction. It releases a large amount of energy. 

The nucleus made by fusion is heavier than either of the starting nuclei. However, it is not as heavy as the combination of the original mass of the starting nuclei (atoms). This lost mass is changed into lots of energy. This is shown in Einstein's famous E=mc2 equation.

Fusion happens in the middle of stars, like the Sun. Hydrogen atoms are fused together to make helium. This releases lots of energy. This energy powers the heat and light of the star.
Not all elements can be joined. Heavier elements are less easily joined than lighter ones. Iron (a metal) cannot fuse with other atoms. This is what causes stars to die. Stars join all of their atoms together to make heavier atoms of different types, until they start to make iron. The iron nucleus cannot fuse with other nuclei. The reactions stop. The star eventually will cool down and die. 

On Earth it is very difficult to start nuclear fusion reactions that release more energy than is needed to start the reaction.  The reason is that fusion reactions only happen at high temperature and pressure, like in the Sun, because both nuclei have a positive charge, and positive repels positive.  The only way to stop the repulsion is to make the nuclei hit each other at very high speeds.  They only do that at high pressure and temperature.  The only successful approach so far has been in nuclear weapons.  The hydrogen bomb uses an atomic (fission) bomb to start fusion reactions.  Scientists and engineers have been trying for decades to find a safe and working way of controlling and containing fusion reactions to generate electricity.  They still have many challenges to overcome before fusion power can be used as a clean source of energy.

Notes 

Astrophysics
Nuclear energy
Concertmaster

The Concertmaster (American English) or leader (British English) is the most important violinist in an orchestra.  He or she will sit in the front seat, by the conductor's left.  The word concertmaster comes from the German Konzertmeister.

The leader will be the highest paid member of the orchestra.  He has to decide how the violins will play the music and write in the bowing.  He will decide where each member of the violins should sit.  He will probably also interview them and offer them the job in the orchestra.  He will talk to the conductor about anything the orchestra are not happy about (he may have to remind the conductor when it is time to stop the rehearsal!).  If part of the music is marked "solo" then he will play it as a solo while the other violins stop playing.

In the United States it is usual for the concertmaster to be on the platform before the concert and to tell the orchestra to tune their instruments, playing on his A string to give them the correct pitch.  In European orchestras it is usually the oboe that gives an A for tuning.  In Britain the leader usually comes on stage after the orchestra have tuned, and gets an applause.

Some famous orchestral leaders
of the past:
Arnold Rosé (Vienna Philharmonic)

of today:
Gordan Nikolitch (London Symphony Orchestra)
Glenn Dicterow (New York Philharmonic Orchestra)
Peter Manning ( Royal Opera House Orchestra Covent Garden  )

Musicians
Stairway to Heaven

Stairway to Heaven was a 1971 song by Led Zeppelin. It was on the album Led Zeppelin IV.

Hidden Satanic message 
Some listeners claim that by reversing the song, a hidden Satanic message is revealed. The message is:

Oh, here's to my sweet Satan
The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan
He'll give, he'll give you 666
There was a little toolshed where he made us suffer, sad Satan

Other websites 
 Stairway to Heaven songfacts, tabs, videos and audio , at the Stairway to Heaven website.

1971 songs
Led Zeppelin
10s BC



Significant people 
 Caesar Augustus, Roman Emperor (27 BC – 14).
40s



Events
 The Roman emperor Caligula assassinated (41), succeeded by his uncle Claudius
 Roman conquest of Britain begins under Aulus Plautius, 43
Pontiac Silverdome

The Pontiac Silverdome is a domed stadium in the town of Pontiac, Michigan, near Detroit. It opened in 1975 and closed in 2007. The largest crowds to come to the stadium were for WrestleMania III on March 29, 1987, where the main event was a match between Hulk Hogan and André the Giant. The crowd attendance for that night reached 93,173, which is also the record for indoor attendance. The Detroit Lions NFL team played at the stadium from 1975 until 2001.

References

Sports in Detroit, Michigan
Sports buildings in the United States
WrestleMania host
Buildings and structures in Michigan
1975 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Michigan
2007 disestablishments in the United States
Disestablishments in Michigan
List of decades

Time
Lists
Chromosome

The chromosomes of a cell are in the cell nucleus. They carry the genetic information. Chromosomes are made up of DNA and protein combined as chromatin. Each chromosome contains many genes. Chromosomes come in pairs: one set from the mother; the other set from the father. Cytologists label chromosomes with numbers.

Chromosomes are present in every cell nucleus with very few and special exceptions. This means they are found in all eukaryotes, since only eukaryotes have cell nuclei. When eukaryote cells divide, the chromosomes also divide. 

When a somatic (body) cell (such as a muscle cell) divides, the process is called mitosis. Before mitosis, the cell copies all the chromosomes and then it can divide. When they duplicate, chromosomes look like the letter "X". When they are doubled, the two halves are called chromatids (see diagram). The chromatids are joined at the centromere.

There are 46 chromosomes in a human, 23 pairs. Everyone has a set of chromosomes from their father and a matching set from their mother. They include a pair of sex chromosomes. The mother's eggs always contain an X chromosome, while the father's sperm contains either a Y chromosome or an X chromosome. That determines the sex of the child. To produce sex cells (gametes), the stem cells go through a different division process called meiosis. This reduces the 23 pairs (diploid) to 23 singles (haploid). These, when combined by fertilisation, produce the new set of 23 pairs.

Different animals have different numbers of chromosomes. If a person does not have the usual number of chromosomes, they may die or have one or more peculiarities. For example, they might get a genetic disorder like Down syndrome (extra chromosome 21) and Klinefelter syndrome (a male with two X chromosomes). Some genetic disorders are more common than others.

Polytene chromosomes 

Polytene chromosomes are over-sized chromosomes which have developed from standard chromosomes. Specialized cells undergo repeated rounds of DNA replication without cell division (endomitosis). Polytene chromosomes form when multiple rounds of replication produce many sister chromatids that are stuck together in parallel.

Polytene chromosomes are found in Drosophila species and in nonbiting midges. They also occur in arthropods of the class Collembola,  Ciliate protozoa, early stages of mammalian embryos, and suspensor cells in plants.

Polytene cells have a metabolic function. Multiple copies of genes allows a high level of gene expression. In Drosophila, for example, the chromosomes of the larval salivary glands undergo many rounds of endoreduplication. This produces large amounts of glue-like mucous (“glue”) before pupation. 

Chromosome puffs (seen in diagram) are diffused uncoiled regions of the polytene chromosome. They are sites of active  transcription.

Related pages 
Karyotype
Cell division
Homologous chromosome
Mutation#Chromosome mutations
Genetics#Between Mendel and modern genetics

References
Giovanni Gabrieli

Giovanni Gabrieli (probably born Venice (date unknown), about 1553 - 57; died 21 August 1612, in Venice) was an Italian organist and composer. 

He was very famous in his day and composed a great deal of church music; motets and madrigals. He lived at the end of the Renaissance period and beginning of the Baroque.

About 1575, Giovanni began working for Orlando di Lasso at the Bavarian court, as his uncle Andres Gabrieli had before him. Little is known of his time in Munich, and he left in 1579 after the death of his patron, Duke Albrecht. There is no record of Gabrieli's activities until 1584 when he'd returned to Venice. That year he replaced organist Claudio Merulo at Basilica di San Marco, church of Venice's patron saint. Due to Merulo's resignation, a contest was eventually held January 1, 1585 to fill his post, which Gabrieli won, having already occupied the position anyway. Giovanni and his uncle, who had raised him and taught him music, worked together only a short time at the church before Andres died in August 1585. Giovanni held his post until he died in 1612.

Also in 1585 Giovanni had been appointed as organist of Scuola Grande di San Rocco, where he composed ceremonial music.

During all this, he was also a music teacher. Heinrich Schutz was one of his students.

Giovanni is well known for being one of the first composers who specified volume markings and instrumentation in music.

Other websites
http://www.goldbergweb.com/en/history/composers/10946.php 
http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/appendix/composers/G/GiovanniGabrieli.html 

1557 births
1612 deaths
Italian composers
Baroque composers
Organists
Arcangelo Corelli

Arcangelo Corelli (b.Fusignano, Imola, 17 Feb.1653; d.Rome, 8 Jan.1713) was an Italian violinist and composer.  He composed some of the most important Italian music of the Baroque period.  He was also very famous as a player.  Other violinists learned from his style of playing and developed the art of playing the violin.  His works include sonatas and concerti grossi. Perhaps his most famous is the La Folia sonata for Violin.

Italian composers
Baroque composers
Violinists
1653 births
1713 deaths
François Couperin

François Couperin (born in Paris on 10 November 1668; died in Paris, on 12 September 1733) was a French composer who lived in the Baroque period. Many of his relatives were composers. He is often called François Couperin le Grand (The Great) because he was the most famous of the Couperin family. He is best known today for his harpsichord music. He wrote several pieces which he called Ordres meaning the same as the word suite i.e. a collection of dance movements. Sometimes these movements have strange titles and we cannot always be sure what they mean. Some of them may have been nicknames of people he knew. He also wrote important organ music. He never had a family of his own before he died.

1668 births
1733 deaths
French composers
Baroque composers
Christoph Willibald von Gluck

Christoph Willibald Ritter von Gluck (b.Erasbach nr. Berching, July 2, 1714; d.Vienna, November 15, 1787) was a German composer.    He is famous for his operas which were written in a new and exciting way.  He was not interested in writing operas which were just a series of songs for singers to show off.  He wanted to make his operas into good pieces of drama.  His operas had a big influence on later composers like Mozart, Weber and Wagner.  He wrote Italian operas and French operas.   Orfeo ed Euridice includes song “Che farò senza Euridice” which is one of the best-known opera songs ever written.

Gluck,Christoph W.
Gluck,Christoph W.
1714 births
1787 deaths
Jan Ladislav Dussek

Jan Ladislav Dussek (b. Ĉáslav, Bohemia, 12 Feb.1760; d.Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 20 March 1812) was a Bohemian composer of the Classical period.  He travelled a lot, living in Holland, Lithuania, Italy, France and England.  He lived nearly twelve years in London where he was a fashionable teacher and famous composer.  He is best remembered now for his piano music.

1760 births
1812 deaths
Dussek, Jan Ladislav
Sequel

A sequel is a story, book, play, video game, or movie that comes or takes place after another story, book, play, video game, or movie. The opposite is called a prequel. A combination of the two makes a midquel. When there are many sequels, this is called a film series.

A sequel has important parts of the first story like characters and places. Audiences like sequels because they have more of the characters and places they like. Storytellers and publishers like sequels because they are popular and people buy them. 

Sequel names are often similar to the name of a first story or other stories in a series. They often have a second title or a number to show that they are alike or different from a first story or other stories in a series. Sometimes sequels have different names in different countries because they mean different things to different audiences. 

Literary terms
Movie industry
Major League Soccer

Major League Soccer (MLS) is an American soccer league that started in 1996. As of the upcoming 2022 season, 28 teams will play in the league. One other team plans to join in 2023. The commissioner of the league (the person in charge) is Don Garber.

MLS, founded in the United States, is a fully professional league with 28 teams, three of which are based in Canada. The United States Soccer Federation (USSF or U.S. Soccer), which runs soccer in that country, considers MLS to be the country's top men's league. The Canadian Soccer Association (CSA), which runs soccer in Canada, considers the Canadian Premier League as its top men's league, but MLS has much greater Canadian media coverage and is seen as having a higher level of play. Referees are approved by U.S. Soccer and the CSA. In turn, both national governing bodies are members of FIFA, which governs all play between national teams and sets the rules for the sport along with the national governing bodies of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales.

MLS was formed in 1993 as a professional league, with play starting with 10 teams in 1996. The MLS regular season starts in late February and ends in November, with each team playing 34 games. The regular season is followed by a 14-team playoff tournament to decide the league champion.

Teams

Current

Former teams

Future teams

MLS Cup Winners

Related pages
 USL Championship

References 
 Best Players in Major league Soccer (MLS) in 2012. hub, n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.
 Major League Soccer.  Princeton, n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012. 
  An Overview of American Soccer History.  Dave Litterer, n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.
 Soccer Politics / The Politics of Football. Duke University, n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.

 
Soccer in the United States
Sports organizations of the United States
1996 establishments in the United States
Chicago Fire FC

Chicago Fire FC (officially Chicago Fire Football Club, and before 2020 Chicago Fire Soccer Club) is a soccer team that plays in Major League Soccer in Chicago.  They started in 1998 and won an MLS Cup in that year. The club is named after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.

League title 
 Major League Soccer : 1
 1998

League position

References 

American soccer teams
Sports in Chicago, Illinois
1997 establishments in the United States
1990s establishments in Illinois
New York Red Bulls

The New York Red Bulls are an American soccer team. They play in Major League Soccer in Harrison, New Jersey. Until 2006, they were known as the MetroStars. Their homeground is the Red Bull Arena in Harrison.

History
The club was founded in 1995 by John Werner Kluge  and  Stuart Subotnick, two managers for MetroMedia, under the name MetroStars. The club was a founding member of Major League Soccer. In 2006 the team was sold to the Austrian company Red Bull and renamed the New York Red Bulls. The team is the only one in the MLS which never reached a major title. There were a lot of well-known soccer players on the team from all over the world such as Roberto Donadoni, Lothar Matthäus (FIFA World Cup 1990, UEFA Champion 1980), Adolfo Valencia, Youri Djorkaeff, Amado Guevara, Juan Pablo Angel,Daniel Rodriguez, Thierry Henry, and  Rafael Márquez.

Current squad

Captains

International players 
Former players Tony Meola, Tab Ramos, Tim Howard, Alexi Lalas, Clint Mathis, Jozy Altidore, Michael Bradley, Claudio Reyna, Eddie Pope, and Tim Ream have all played for the U.S. national team. Current players Juan Agudelo,Daniel Rodriguez, Dax McCarty, and Kenny Cooper have also played for the USMNT.

Achievements
MLS Cup
Runners-up (1): 2008
Supporters' Shield (best regular-season record)
Winners (3): 2013, 2015, 2018
MLS Eastern Conference
Winners (Regular Season) (2): 2000, 2010
MLS Western Conference
Winners (Playoff) (1): 2008
Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup
Runners-up (1): 2003
Minor Trophies
Atlantic Cup (2): 2003, 2010
Walt Disney World Pro Soccer Classic (1): 2010

Head coaches
 Eddie Firmani (1996)
 Carlos Queiroz (1996)
 Carlos Alberto Parreira (1997)
 Alfonso Mondelo (1998)
Bora Milutinović (1998–99)
 Octavio Zambrano (2000–02)
 Bob Bradley (2003–05)
 Mo Johnston (2005–06)
 Richie Williams (2006), (Interim)
 Bruce Arena (2006–07)
 Juan Carlos Osorio (2008–09)
 Richie Williams (2009), (Interim)
 Hans Backe (2010–2012)
 Mike Petke (2013-2014)
 Jesse Marsch (2015-2017)
 Chris Armas (2018-2020)
 Bradley Carnell (2020)
 Gerhard Struber (2020- present)

Gallery

References

Other websites

American soccer teams
Football clubs owned by Red Bull
1995 establishments in the United States
1990s establishments in New Jersey