cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Greenwich

Greenwich  is a district of London. It is the main part of the Borough of Greenwich, about 8.9 km east south-east of Charing Cross.

The Royal Greenwich Observatory is in Greenwich. It was originally built for the Astronomer Royal. The Oservatory created the Greenwich Meridian (0° longitude) and Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).

Greenwich is a town with a long history. It became the site of a royal palace, the Palace of Placentia, from the 15th century. This was the birthplace of many members of the Tudor dynasty, including Henry VIII and Elizabeth I. The palace became ruined during the English Civil War. It was rebuilt as a hospital by Sir Christopher Wren. These buildings became the a military college in 1873, which lasted until 1998. The town became a popular resort in the 17th century. Many rich houses were built there, such as Vanbrugh Castle (1717). Estates were built above the town centre.

Greenwich was part of Kent until 1889 when the County of London was created.

World heritage site 

Maritime Greenwich is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is on the River Thames. The site includes buildings along the riverfront, and surrounding the 17th century Queen's House. The group include the complex of the Royal Hospital for Seamen, the Royal Observatory and the Royal Park.

The Royal Hospital was laid out to a master plan created by Christopher Wren.  The hospital complex was built over many decades. Other architects who added to this long-term project included Nicholas Hawksmoor.

The core of this group of buildings is the Queen's House which was designed by Inigo Jones.  This was the first Palladian building in Britain.

The Royal Observatory is now the baseline for the world's time zone system and for the measurement of longitude around the globe.

The Royal Park is a symmetrical design in an irregular landscape around the buildings of the World Heritage Site.  The park was created by André Le Nôtre.

The park and grounds behind the buildings on the river held the competitions for the horse-related events of the 2012 Summer Olympics.

Public transport
National Rail and Docklands Light Railway services call at Greenwich station.

Gallery

References

Other websites

 Your Online Guide to Greenwich 
 Greenwich World Heritage Site — official website 
 Greenwich Tourist Information Centre 
 Greenwich Guide
 Map 

London Borough of Greenwich
World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom
Catch Me If You Can (movie)

Catch Me If You Can is a 2002 American biographical crime drama movie. It stars Leonardo DiCaprio and Tom Hanks. The movie was directed by Steven Spielberg. It is based on the 1980 book by Frank Abagnale.

Catch Me if You Can is set in 1963. Frank Abagnale is played by Leonardo DiCaprio. Frank is sixteen years old. Carl Hanratty is played by Tom Hanks. Carl is an FBI investigator. When Frank's parents get divorced, Frank decides to leave his house change his name. He buys a pilot uniform and forges (makes a fake copy of) a pilot licence. He travels with PanAm airlines to many countries. He pays with forged cheques in the USA.

Then Frank decides to work as a doctor. He again forges the documents. In the hospital he meets a girl. He works as a lawyer, so that he can marry the girl from the hospital. Carl Hanratty is at the wedding. Carl reveals to the girls' father who Frank is. In the meantime, Frank tells his wife the truth about his life and what he has done. Carl searches the house, but Frank has already left. Frank escapes and moves to Mont-de Marson, France where he tries to escape. Carl Hanratty finds him and convinces Frank to come quietly to face his crime. Frank goes quietly with Carl. When Frank leaves jail, he works with Carl Hanratty, helping Carl to catch criminals who forge cheques and other documents.

References

Other websites 
 

2002 crime movies
2002 drama movies
2000s biographical movies
2000s crime drama movies
American biographical movies
American crime drama movies
English-language movies
Movies based on books
Movies composed by John Williams
Movies directed by Steven Spielberg
Movies set in the 1960s
Armorica

Armorica or Aremorica is the name given in ancient times to the part of Gaul that includes the Brittany peninsula and the territory between the Seine and Loire rivers

Other websites 
 An Tour Tan- Dorioù Breizh – Breton culture and traditions
 Gouelioù Breizh - Breton events 
 Sevenadur ha gizioù Breizh e saozneg - Breton culture and traditions in English
 Skol uhel ar vro – High Institute of Brittany - Ti Istor Breizh – The house for the History of Brittany
 Personelezh Breizh e saozneg - Breton identity in English

Ancient history
Geography of France
Gaul

Gaul () was the name given in ancient times to the area of Western Europe that included northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. Many Celtic tribes lived in the region and were known by the Romans simply as "Gauls". 

In English, the word Gaul () may mean a Celtic inhabitant of that region or for all ancient speakers of the Gaulish language.  In this way, "Gaul" and "Celt" are sometimes used in the same sense.

Gauls under Brennus attacked Rome with the Battle of the Allia (390 BC).

Trivia
In Greek, modern-day France is called Γαλλία (same as the Latin Gallia) and the term for a Gaulish person is  Γαλατία (Galatia).

Other websites 
The Gallic Wars

History of Europe
Former countries in Europe
Danelaw

The Danelaw (from the Old English Dena lagu, Danish: Danelagen ) is an 11th-century name for an area of northern and eastern England. This area was under the administrative control of the Danish Viking empire (or Danes, or Norsemen) from the late 9th century until the early 11th century.

As can be seen from the map, Danelaw at its height was about a third the territory of England. Textbooks say correctly that the history left us with place-names which reflect the old languages.

References 

History of England
History of Denmark
Jorvik

Jórvík was the Viking name for the English city of York and the kingdom centred there.

York had been founded as the Roman legionary fortress of Eboracum and revived as the Anglo-Saxon trading port of Eoforwic. It was first captured in November 866 by a large army of Danish Vikings.

Other websites 
 Brenda Ralph Lewis & David Nash Ford, "York: Viking Times" 
Timeline of Anglo-Saxon England 
 Jorvik Viking Centre
 York Archaeological Trust
 Welcome to Jorvik : links on on-line resources

History of the British Isles
Prion

A prion (pronounced pree-on) is an infectious protein. The word is short for "proteinaceous infectious particles". 

All known prion diseases in mammals affect the structure of the brain or other neural tissue. Right now, they cannot be treated and always end in death.

Prions cause many forms of encephalitis, or brain disease, such as scrapie, chronic wasting disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy) and kuru. Prions work by changing the shape of proteins in the infected animals. While normal proteins have lots of alpha helices, or twisted parts, changed proteins have lots of beta sheets, or flat parts.

Because prions are proteins, and proteins cannot reproduce themselves, it is a mystery how prions work. A lot of molecular biology research is going on to find out how they reproduce themselves, with no clear result so far.

Related pages
 Prion disease

References 

Biochemistry
William Pitt the Younger

William Pitt the Younger (28 May 1759 — 23 January 1806) was a British politician of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. He was Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1782—1783, 1783—1801 and 1804—1806. He was prime minister of the United Kingdom from 1783 to 1801, and again from 1804 until his death. He is known as "William Pitt the Younger" to distinguish him from his father, William Pitt the Elder, who also served as prime minster. He became the youngest prime minister in 1783 at the age of 24. During his time as prime minister, the kingdom of Ireland joined with Great Britain and both kingdoms became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801. Pitt continued to be prime minister in the new Parliament of the United Kingdom. Known as "William Pitt Jr.", unlike his father and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, William Pitt Sr.

The period of William Pitt Jr.'s presidency was during the reign of King George III and was accompanied by significant events in Europe, such as the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.

Pitt is often considered a Conservative party, but he considered himself non-partisan and generally opposed a strict party political system.

Value 
William Pitt was the youngest Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and died at the age of 46, leaving no children or wife. He was an influential and talented politician of the country, enjoyed the support of voters and especially the support of the monarch. In the then political system of Great Britain, the king still played a significant role in the political life of the country, and the king's commitment to Pitt allowed him to remain at the head of government for a long time. Pitt's main credit is his financial reforms, reduction of government debt after the war with the United States, and changes in the tax system. Despite some setbacks, especially with regard to parliamentary reform, William Pitt is considered one of the country's great prime ministers, primarily for his political acumen and ability to pursue his own policies despite opposition protests.

References

Notes

Other websites 
 1791 Caricature of William Pitt by James Gillray

1759 births
1806 deaths
Chancellors of the Exchequer
People buried in Westminster Abbey
Politicians from Kent
Prime Ministers of Great Britain
Jean-Paul Sartre

Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a French existentialist philosopher, novelist, playwright, screenwriter,  and critic. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature for 1964, but refused it, saying "a writer should not allow himself to be turned into an institution". He was a Marxist and an atheist.

Sartre's life 
Sartre was born in Paris, France. He studied philosophy at the École Normale Supérieure, an élite (high quality) education establishment. In 1929, Sartre graduated with a doctorate in philosophy. Sartre served in the French Army from 1929 to 1931.

In 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who studied at the Sorbonne. She went on to become a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist. The two became inseparable and lifelong companions. In 1938, Sartre wrote the novel called La Nausée (Nausea). This story explains the way of thinking of existentialism. Existentialism is a way of thinking about human freedom.

Draft to the army
In 1939 Sartre was drafted into the French army. France was at war with Germany, because Germany had invaded France (World War II) Sartre was captured by German troops in 1940, and Sartre spent nine months as a prisoner of war in a camp. Sartre was released from the prison camp (jail) in 1941. He then began working as a teacher again. He made friends with other writers and thinkers such as Merleau-Ponty, Jean-Toussaint and Dominique Desanti, and Jean Kanapa.

1940s
In 1943, Sartre wrote a book about philosophy (ways of thinking) called L'Être et le Néant, which means Being and Nothingness. In this book, Sartre said that when people tried too hard to conform to the rules of society (or of their country), then people did not really make their own decisions. And he concluded that life is useless disaster.

In 1945, Sartre started a newspaper called Les Temps Modernes (Modern Times), which had articles about politics, art and literature. He also began writing a group of novels (stories) called Les Chemins de la Liberté (The Roads to Freedom). In 1946 Sartre wrote a book about philosophy (ways of thinking) called Existentialism is a Humanism, which explains existentialism.

After 1950s
In the 1950s and 1960s, Sartre became involved in politics. Sartre said that France should leave Algeria, a country where France had many soldiers. In the 1960s, Sartre said that the Vietnam War was bad. In 1960, he wrote the Critique de la raison dialectique (Critique of Dialectical Reason). In the 1960s, Sartre had many arguments with Louis Althusser, a man who also believed in communism.

Death
Sartre died of oedema of the lung in 1980 in Paris. His body is buried in Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris. His funeral was attended by 50,000 people.

References 

1905 births
1980 deaths
20th-century French philosophers
Continental philosophers
Disease-related deaths in Paris
French atheists
French military people
French Nobel Prize winners
French novelists
French people of World War II
French playwrights
Marxism
Writers from Paris
Akira Kurosawa

Akira Kurosawa (March 23, 1910 – September 6, 1998) was a Japanese movie director. Kurosawa's movies are liked in Japan. Kurosawa's movies are also liked by people in other countries. He made 30 movies in 50 years. He is thought to be one of the most important movie directors.

In many of his famous movies, including Rashomon and The Seven Samurai, he worked with the actor Toshiro Mifune.

Kurosawa started in the Japanese movie industry in 1936.  Before he worked a little bit as a painter. After years of working on many movies as an assistant director and scriptwriter, he became a director in 1943.  This was during World War II with the popular action movie Sanshiro Sugata (a.k.a. Judo Saga). 

Rashomon, was first shown in Tokyo in August 1950.  On September 10, 1951 it was the surprise winner of the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival.  It then was shown in Europe and North America. Because the movie was so well liked, it made people in the western world want to see more Japanese movies.  This helped make other Japanese movie makers become successful. In the 1950s and early 1960s, Kurosawa directed about one movie each year.

In 1990, he accepted the Academy Award for Lifetime Achievement. After he died, he was named "Asian of the Century" in the "Arts, Literature, and Culture" category by AsianWeek magazine and CNN.

Related pages 
 Mikio Naruse

References

Other websites 

 Akira Kurosawa's grave 

1910 births
1998 deaths
Japanese screenwriters
Movie directors from Tokyo
Movie editors
Japanese movie producers
Science fiction movie

Science fiction films are movies which tell stories about the future, outer space, robots, or aliens. Science fiction movies often use special effects to show images of alien worlds or other planets far away.

Science fiction movies are related to science fiction books. Some science fiction movies tell stories about strange or different ways of thinking or ways of living. Other science fiction movies tell stories about politics.

Important science fiction films
 A Trip to the Moon (French: Le Voyage dans la lune) was made by Georges Méliès in 1902. It was one of the first SF films.
 Metropolis is a silent film about a society in the future. That society has two groups: rich thinkers and poor workers. Fritz Lang made the film in 1927.
 2001: A Space Odyssey is a film by Stanley Kubrick. The film shows ideas about human evolution and artificial intelligence. It was released in 1968.
Star Wars movies are amongst the highest grossing science fiction movies of all time.

Science fiction movies and other genres
Some SF movies can also be another kind of movie, too. 
 Alien is also a horror movie.
 The Road Warrior is both a science fiction movie and an action movie.
 Men in Black is comedy and science fiction.

References

 

nl:Sciencefiction#Film en televisie
Reading, Pennsylvania

Reading is a city in the American state of Pennsylvania. It is the fifth largest city in Pennsylvania with 80,506 at the July 2008 mark. It is located in Berks County.  There were more jobs when it was more populated.  Yuengling is available as well.

Cities in Pennsylvania
County seats in Pennsylvania
Swanage

Swanage is a seaside town on the east-south coast of England. The town, in Dorset, has a population of around 10,001 people. The town has a wide range of tourist attractions: A steam Railway, Durlston Country Park (Nature reserve), Victorian Pier, two public swimming pools, tennis courts, Indoor & Outdoor bowling greens,and Corfe Castle.

There is a nudist  beach close to Swanage Bay
Towns in Dorset
Old English

The Old English language, often called Anglo-Saxon, was spoken in Anglo-Saxon England from 450 AD to 1100 AD. It was spoken by the Anglo-Saxons, who came to Great Britain from what is now Germany and Denmark. Different Anglo-Saxon kingdoms spoke different dialects, but a western dialect became the main literary version. Both modern languages of England and Scotland (English and Scots) came from the language of the Anglo-Saxons.

Old English is very different from Modern English and has many more Germanic words. In early centuries, it was rarely written down and even then was in runes. After the 9th century, the Latin alphabet was used more often. Old English grammar is difficult, with complex inflections, and close to Old German. Latin was used by churchmen like the venerable Bede. Old English gradually turned into Middle English after the Norman Conquest of 1066.

Beowulf is written in Old English in an alphabetic script.

Other websites 

 Old English -Citizendium

English language
5th-century establishments in Europe
11th-century disestablishments
450s establishments
Hungen

Hungen is a town in the district of Gießen, in the state of Hesse, Germany. It is  southeast of Gießen. It is  northeast of Friedberg. Other towns near Hungen are Laubach Nidda, Wölfersheim and Münzenberg.

The first documented mention of Hungen is in the year 782. In 1806 it became part of the Grand Duchy of Hessen.

Interesting buildings in Hungen are the Hungen Castle, the Evangelical Church, and the Hauptbahnhof, (the main railroad station). Also in Hungen can be seen parts of the town's medieval boundary wall.

Hungen in the media
My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner: The railroad station of Hungen can be seen in this 2007 Canadian documentary. Robert Scott Kellner came to Hungen in 1960 to search for his grandfather, Friedrich Kellner. Friedrich Kellner was the chief justice inspector of Laubach. He wrote the Friedrich Kellner Diary. Robert Scott Kellner is the English translator of the diary.

References

Other websites

Giessen (district)
Towns in Hesse
Duchy

A duchy is a territory or domain ruled by a duke or duchess.  Historically, some duchies in Continental Europe were sovereign, while others (especially in France and Britain) were subordinate districts of a kingdom. 

Traditionally, a grand duchy, such as Luxembourg, was generally independent and sovereign. Sovereign duchies were common in the Holy Roman Empire and German-speaking areas. In France, a number of duchies existed in the medieval period. Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom still holds the medieval French title of Duke of Normandy; the only lands still attached to the Duchy of Normandy are the Channel Islands. 

In medieval England, the territories of Lancashire and Cornwall were made duchies, with certain powers given to their Dukes.

Other websites 
The Duchy of Cornwall - On the Prince of Wales' official web-site
Tyr Gwyr Gweryn The Duchy charters, Cornish foreshore case and much more in full

Forms of government
Langues d'oïl

Langues d'oïl (which literally means in English: "languages of yes") is the linguistic and historical name for the Gallo-Romance languages which developed from Latin in the northern territories of Roman Gaul that now are occupied by northern France, part of Belgium and the Channel Islands.

 Romance languages
 Gallo-Romance languages
 Langue d'oïl or Oïl languages
 Langue d'oc or Occitan language

Meanings and disambiguation 

Langue d'oïl (in the singular), Oïl dialects and Oïl languages (in the plural) refer to all the ancient northern Gallo-Romance languages as well as their modern-day descendants. The most widely spoken modern Oïl language is French, and others include Norman, Walloon, Picard, Gallo, Poitevin-Saintongeais, Champenois.

They share many common linguistic features. One of these is that Oïl (pronounced [wil], or [wi] as in modern French oui), was the ancestor of the word for yes used in all the Oïl languages (oc was and still is the word used in territories to the south, and that is why the Occitan language is also called langue d'oc (literal English translation: "language of yes")).

Romance languages
Descendant

The term descendant or descendent has several meanings, some of which 

Primary meaning:

The progeny of a previous generation; the product of reproduction. Descendants are offspring.
A later evolutionary type in the same line.

It can also mean, by extension:
A type of object that developed from another object existing before it.
descendant (astrology), the point directly opposite from the ascendant, or Rising Sign

wikt:descendant
Gallo-Romance languages

The Gallo-Romance are a branch of Romance languages. It includes French and several other languages spoken in modern France and northern Italy and Spain. According to certain linguists, it also includes Occitan and Catalan; others group these two together as a separate Occitano-Romance branch, or place Catalan within the Ibero-Romance group.  The Gallo-Romance languages, along with the Ibero-Romance and Rhaeto-Romance groups, form Western Romance.

Examples of Gallo-Romance languages 
Lombard
Piedmontese
Emilian-Romagnol  
Venetian
Ligurian  
Franco-Provençal
Investment

Investment or investing means that an asset is bought, or that money is put into a bank to get a future interest from it. Investment is total amount of money spent by a shareholder in buying shares of a company. In economic management sciences, investments means longer-term savings.

It is a term used in business management, finance and economics, related to saving or deferring consumption. Literally, the word means the "action of putting something in to somewhere else" (perhaps originally related to a person's garment or 'vestment').

Types of investment
There are two major uses of the term investment between the economics field and the finance field. Economists refer to a real investment (such as a machine or a house), while financial economists refer to a financial asset, such as money that is put into a bank or the market which may then be used to buy a real asset. Advisors, who tell people how to manage their investments, might say that even when an investment is losing money because of bad times, not to give up and withdraw it.  Instead, wait for the situation to improve. This is a risk for each person to decide.

Business management 
The investment decision (also known as capital budgeting) is one of the fundamental decisions of business management.

Related pages
Stock exchange
Social Investment

Other websites 

Financial Times
Wall Street Journal
NASDAQ
Good books on investing and value investing 

Business
Finance
My Opposition: The Diaries of Friedrich Kellner

My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner is a 2007 documentary movie by Abella Entertainment Ltd. of Toronto, Canada.  It is produced and directed by Fern Levitt and Arnie Zipursky.  Leonard Asper is an executive producer.  The movie is distributed by CCI Entertainment.

Subject matter

The documentary tells the story of Chief Justice Inspector Friedrich Kellner  ( ) who wrote a secret diary during World War II.  The diary records the crimes of the Nazis. The movie uses interviews, historical footage, and re-enactments of events to tell how Friedrich Kellner risked his life to write the diary.  The story is also about Kellner’s American grandson, Robert Scott Kellner, who was abandoned as a child but later found his grandfather in Germany.  Part of the movie is about the grandson’s attempt to bring the Friedrich Kellner diary to the attention of the public.

The movie begins with Friedrich Kellner as a political activist for the Social Democratic Party of Germany before the war.  He campaigns against Adolf Hitler and the Nazis.  The re-enactments show Kellner trying to stop the riots against the Jews during Kristallnacht.  Kellner is brought before a tribunal, and he is threatened with imprisonment in a concentration camp.  The movie shows Kellner’s active and passive resistance against the Third Reich.  One scene shows him distributing leaflets that had been dropped from American planes.  When World War II comes to an end, Kellner helps to restore the SPD.  He  becomes the chairman of the party in his region.  Interwoven in the story about Friedrich Kellner is the story of his grandson.

The documentary was filmed on location in Mainz and in  Laubach, Germany, and in Texas.

Background information
 The Kellner diary was on exhibit at the George Bush Presidential Library in College Station, Texas.
 It was also exhibited in Germany.
 The University of Giessen is the home of the Kellner Project.

Other websites 

 My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner  at Telefilm Canada movie catalog.
 Diary Entries in German and English
 George Bush Presidential Library - Kellner exhibit
 Justus Liebig University - Kellner Project
 University of Massachusetts, A Promise To Keep 
 Holocaust Museum Houston - Kellner exhibit
 Heimat Museum, Laubach, Germany - Kellner exhibit 
 

2007 movies
2000s biographical movies
Documentary movies
Canadian movies
World War II movies
Multilingual movies
List of Nobel Prize winners in Economics

The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, informally called the Nobel Prize in Economics, is a prize awarded each year for outstanding contributions in the field of economics. The prize was not one of the awards set out in the will of Alfred Nobel. The winners of the prize receive their diploma and gold medal from the Swedish monarch at the same December 10 ceremony in Stockholm as the Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature. The amount of money awarded to the economics laureates is also equal to that of the other prizes.

Winners

Related pages 
 List of Nobel Prize winners by country
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Chemistry
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Physics
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Physiology or Medicine
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Literature
 List of Nobel Peace Prize winners

References

Other websites 
 Laureates  at the Nobel foundation
 Winners of the Prize in Economics
 History of the prize and its controversy 

Economics
Lindsey Jacobellis

Lindsey Jacobellis (born August 19, 1985 in Danbury, Connecticut) is an American snowboarder.  She competed in the 2006 Winter Olympics and won the silver medal.

References

Other websites
 
 Lindsey Jacobellis  at NBC Olympics
 Lindsey Jacobellis at ESPN XGames
 
 Lindsey Jacobellis at ESPN XGames

1985 births
Living people
American Olympic silver medalists
Sportspeople from Connecticut
Axis of Evil

Axis of Evil is a term first used by US President George W. Bush in his State of the Union speech on January 29, 2002 to describe the governments of Iraq, Iran, and North Korea and later Cuba, Libya, and Syria. He used this term because he believed that they backed terrorism and were trying to buy weapons of mass destruction.

References

Politics
USS Arizona Memorial

The USS Arizona Memorial is in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. It is to remember the sailors killed when Pearl Harbor was attacked on December 7, 1941 by the Japanese. During the attack 1,177 sailors were killed on the USS Arizona. The memorial is located on top of the sunken USS Arizona. People can walk over the ship to look at it.

United States Navy
Buildings and structures in Hawaii
Military monuments and memorials in the United States
National Memorials of the United States
Kano

Kano is a city in Nigeria. It is the center of the Kano State. Kano is the third largest city in Nigeria, after Ibadan and Lagos. About 3,626,204 people live in Kano.

It has long been the economic centre of northern Nigeria, and a centre for the sale of groundnuts. Kano is known for the Bayero University and a railway station with trains to Lagos, moving through Kaduna, while Kano International Airport can be found nearby. Kano has long been a centre for Nigeria's Islamic culture; one of the country's finest mosques lies in the city.

It is also the site where the Kano river project was developed.  This is a large irrigation scheme.

History
The city of Kano was founded around A.D. 1000 as an Hausa city of its own. Kano remained a big emirate, or Muslim kingdom, until the making of the country, Nigeria, in 1903. Kano became known for its trade in gold, leather, ivory, salt and slaves within the area. This perhaps is the reason for the city's wealth and power in the 14th century, when Islam gained a growing following. By the 15th century, the first Central Mosque had been built in the city.

References

Other websites 
 Kano Online

Cities in Nigeria
10th-century establishments in Africa
Establishments in Nigeria
1000 establishments

ha:Kano#Tarihin Kano
Battle of Bosworth Field

The Battle of Bosworth or Bosworth Field was an important battle during the Wars of the Roses in 15th century England. It was fought on 22 August 1485 between the Yorkist King Richard III, the last of the Plantagenet dynasty, and the Lancastrian Henry Tudor, 2nd Earl of Richmond, who wanted to become king. It ended in the defeat and death of Richard and the beginning of the Tudor dynasty. Historically, the battle is thought to have marked the end of the Wars of the Roses, although smaller battles were fought in the years that followed as Yorkists unsuccessfully tried to become king again.

The place of the battle is not precisely known. Memorials have been built in some of the possible locations.

Shakespearian dramatization 

The Battle of Bosworth is an important part of William Shakespeare's play Richard III. The action of the play ends with this battle.

Notes

Further reading 
 Bosworth 1485: A Battlefield Rediscovered by Glenn Foard and Anne Curry (2013:  forthcoming) - The archaeology of the battle
 Bosworth: The Birth of the Tudors by Chris Skidmore (2013) - Overview of the battle in its historical context
 Battle Story: Bosworth 1485 by Mike Ingram (2011) - Analysis of the battle by a military expert

Other websites 
 Bosworth Battlefield visitor info
 Richard III Society, American Branch  with maps, photos, articles presenting several competing theories situating the battle
 The Battle of Bosworth 
 Bosworth Roll Call  Officers there on the day.

Bosworth
Bosworth
House of Tudor
1485
August events
1480s in England
Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli or E. coli is a bacterium that lives in the intestines of people and other warm-blooded animals. Scientists have studied E. coli a lot, and know more about how E. coli cells work than any other organism. E. coli is usually not harmful. In fact, the only known harmful strain is O157. E.coli is a prokaryotic organism.

E. coli normally grow in soil and in the large intestines of many mammals, including humans. Most strains of E. coli do not cause disease, but instead help animals get vitamins and digest food. Some strains of E. coli cause sickness in people. E. coli are not usually in food or water. When food has not been prepared with clean equipment, E. coli can grow in the food. When E. coli are found in water, this may mean that the water has touched sewage. 

It is named after Theodor Escherich, who discovered it in 1885. It was officially named after him in 1919.

Signs and symptoms of E. coli infection
The following signs and symptoms of an E. coli infection normally happen within three days; however, some people may carry the infection and show no signs at all.
 Pain in the abdomen
 Diarrhea
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Fever
 Fatigue

The best treatment for E. coli is plenty of fluids to avoid dehydration.

References

Gram-negative bacteria
Model organisms
Borg (Star Trek)

The Borg are a fictional race of cyborgs in the Star Trek universe. The Borg use nanoprobes to assimilate others, like humans or vulcans, into their group consciousness. The Borg's group consciousness is led by the Borg queen, who's role is similar to that of a queen bee in a bee hive.

Defeating the Borg
Despite their abilty to adapt to various attempts to destroy them, the Borg can be defeated several ways:
1.) Commander Data linked with the assimilated "Loctus of Borg" (Jean-Luc Picard) and sends a command that starts the Borg regeneration sequence and effectively put them all to sleep;the command caused the Borg power net to feed back on itself and has triggered a self-destruct sequence in The Best of Both Worlds, 	
2.) Data and La Forge came up with an invasive program designed as a geometric form that could not actually exist in physical space; the result of it in the Borg collective memory-which would continue to attempt to analyze the shape. Each step taken by the Borg to understand the program would spawn a series of anomalous solutions that would interact with each other, resulting in an endless, unsolvable puzzle. Eventually, the Borg neural network would collapse under the strain of attempting to solve the paradox, resulting in a total systems failure across the entire Collective in I Borg, 
3.) Species 6339 developed a synthetic pathogen so that when they were assimilated by the Borg, so that it would be spread to the Borg vinculum. From there, it caused all drones within range to experience the Borg equivalent of multiple personality disorder, eventually leading to their self-destruction. The process would be repeated when another Borg vessel retrieved the vinculum, and so on in Infinate Regress,
4.) Future Admiral Kathryn Janeway had herself injected with a neurolytic pathogen and allowed herself to be assimilated by the Borg Queen who in turn selfdestruted " along with The Borg transwarp complex and many Borg Spheres. Endgame",

How many Spieces assimiliated?
By the time of Voyeger  Borg have assimilated 10,026 Species

Related pages 
 Seven of Nine
 Star Trek: First Contact

Star Trek
Fictional races

de:Völker und Gruppierungen im Star-Trek-Universum#Borg
sv:Lista över utomjordiska raser i Star Trek#Borgerna
Angevin

Angevin is the name of the residents of Anjou, a former province of the Kingdom of France, as well as to the residents of Angers. It is also used for three different medieval dynasties which go back to counts (from 1360, dukes) of the western French province of Anjou (of which angevin is the adjectival form), but later came to rule far greater areas including England, Ireland, Hungary, Croatia, Poland, Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, and Kingdom of Jerusalem (see Angevin Empire).  

The first of these Angevin dynasties, the House of Plantagenet, ruled England in some form or another from the reign of Henry II, beginning in 1154, until the House of Tudor came to power when Richard III fell at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. 

History of Europe
Count

A count is a nobleman in most of European countries, equivalent in rank to a British earl, whose wife is also still a "countess" (for lack of an Anglo-Saxon term). The word count comes from French comte which in turn comes from the Latin comitas, "companion" (of the emperor). In feudalism the territory ruled by a count was a county.

A woman having this title or the wife of a count is called countess.

Other websites 

Heraldica.org - here the French peerage
Italian Titles of Nobility
Webster's 1828 Dictionary 

History of Europe
Royalty and nobility
Budgerigar

The budgerigar (nicknamed budgie) is a small parrot. It belongs to the family of old-world parrots and parakeets (Psittaculidae). Budgerigars are often called parakeets, especially in American English. The term Parakeet refers to many types of small parrots with long flat tails. The budgerigar is found in the drier parts of Australia. It has lived there for over 5 million years. It is commonly kept as a pet. Budgies are intelligent birds and can be taught to mimic human speech.

Other websites 
 A True Ambassador: the Budgerigar  Referenced article on budgerigars
 List of Plants & Branches Hazardous to Birds Referenced list oriented toward pet birds
 Budgies Information about the budgerigar as a pet supplies

References 

Birds of Australia
Pets
Tetracycline

Tetracycline is a family of antibiotics discovered as natural products  in 1945. It is a broad-spectrum antibiotic because it works against a range of bacteria.

Tetracyclines was first prescribed in 1948. It is produced naturally by the Streptomyces genus of Actinobacteria. It is a protein synthesis inhibitor.

In 1950, Harvard University professor Robert Burns Woodward worked out the chemical structure of the related  oxytetracycline (Terramycin). The patent protection for its production was also first issued in 1950.

Tetracycline is an antibiotic used to treat a number of bacterial infections. It is commonly used to treat acne and rosacea. Historically it was important in reducing the number of deaths from cholera. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.

References 

Antibiotics
Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin (or haemoglobin) is a protein in red blood cells which contains iron. It is used to transport oxygen around the human body. Hemoglobin is found in the red blood cells of all vertebrates apart from white-blooded fish. It also occurs in some invertebrates. Some invertebrates use other chemicals, such as hemocyanin.

Hemoglobin is involved in the transport of other gases. It carries some of the body's respiratory carbon dioxide (about 20-25% of the total).

Red blood cells get their colour from hemoglobin, which is red. There are millions of hemoglobin molecules in each red blood cell and millions of red blood cells in the human body. When hemoglobin has oxygen attached, it is called oxyhemoglobin.

Structure
The most common type of hemoglobin in mammals contains four such subunits. Each subunit of hemoglobin is a globular protein (globin) with a heme group inside it. Each heme group has one iron atom. This binds one oxygen molecule. So the complete hemoglobin molecule has four globin chains, four heme molecules, and four iron atoms. When hemoglobin is in the lungs, it picks up oxygen in its hemes, and carries it to the rest of the body.

Its structure took years to work out. Max Perutz and John Kendrew worked out the structure of myoglobin first. That muscle globin is smaller, with only one heme group.

References

Proteins
Iron compounds
Blood
John Foxe

John Foxe (1516/1517 – 18 April 1587), is remembered as the author of Foxe's Book of Martyrs.

Education and Resignation from Oxford 
Foxe was born in Boston, Lincolnshire, England into a prominent family. In 1535 Foxe was admitted to Magdalen College School. He became  a fellow in July 1539. 
Foxe resigned from his college in 1545, after referring to it as "a prison." During his time at Oxford he became an evangelical, meaning that he converted to Protestant beliefs not accepted by the Church of England under Henry VIII. As he wanted to leave Oxford, Foxe looked to other evangelicals for help but received only advice and a little money. Foxe married Agnes Randall on February 3, 1547.

Life in London under Edward VI 
With the death of Henry VIII in January of 1547 Foxe's prospects (and those of the evangelical cause generally) changed for the better. Foxe was ordained deacon by Nicholas Ridley on June 24, 1550.

Marian Exile 
In the fall of 1554 Foxe moved to Frankfurt, where he lived with Anthony Gilby in the English colony of Protestant refugees. 
Foxe then removed to Basel where he lived and worked with John Bale and Lawrence Humphrey.

Return to England 
In 1559, when Mary I had died Foxe returned to England. He lived for some time at Aldgate, London, in the house of his former pupil, Thomas Howard. Foxe started publishing works of religious controversy and worked on a new martyrology, which would become the Foxe's Book of Martyrs. 
Foxe was ordained priest by Edmund Grindal, now Bishop of London, on January 25, 1560, and he moved to Norwich to live with its bishop, John Parkhurst. On March 23 of the following year the first edition of Foxe's Book of Martyrs was published.

Foxe was one of the earliest students of Anglo-Saxon, and he and Day published an edition of the Saxon gospels with the help of Archbishop Parker. 

Foxe died on 8 April 1587 and was buried at St. Giles's, Cripplegate.

References

Other websites 

 Foxe's Book of Martyrs (Actes and Monuments) Variorum Edition Online , from the Humanities Research Institute of The University of Sheffield
 Thomas Freeman, John Foxe: A Biography 

1516 births
1587 deaths
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Boston, Lincolnshire
English historians
British Protestants
Christian ministers
Writers from Lincolnshire
910s



Events
 construction begins on the first church at the monastery of Cluny
Oda of Canterbury

Saint Oda or Odo, called the Good or the Severe (d. 958) was a 10th century Archbishop of Canterbury in England.

950s deaths
Archbishops of Canterbury
Christian saints
English Roman Catholics
Roman Catholic archbishops
Edward V of England

Edward V (2 November 1470– 1483) was the King of England from 9 April 1483 until he was removed two months later, on 25 June 1483.

Early life
Edward was born at Westminster while his father, King Edward IV of England, was in exile in Burgundy. The King, Henry VI, said his mother and his sisters would be safe if they stayed at the abbey.  When Edward IV came back and took over the throne again, Edward became his heir and was given the title "Prince of Wales".  Edward IV thought it would be right for the Prince of Wales to rule Wales, so he sent little Prince Edward to live in Ludlow Castle, where the Council of Wales met.  The prince was helped by his uncle, Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers, and began to learn how to be a ruler. His mother, Queen Elizabeth, was often with him, and his father, the king, also visited.

The prince spent most of his time at Ludlow until he was twelve, when his father the king suddenly died.  The prince had to go straight to London to take the throne, and his uncle, Earl Rivers, went with him.  On the way, they were met by another of his uncles, Richard, Duke of Gloucester.  The Duke was a younger brother of King Edward IV, and the king had given him the title of "Lord Protector" in the hope that he would look after Prince Edward until he was old enough to be the real king.

Prisoner
Instead of arranging a coronation for the new king, Duke Richard decided to take the throne for himself, and became King Richard III. He sent Prince Edward to live in the Tower of London and wait for his coronation. He also got Edward's younger brother, Prince Richard, Duke of York, to come and live at the Tower. Earl Rivers was executed by Richard. Gloucester was able to convince people that the two young princes were not the legal heirs to the throne. On 25 June 1483, the Parliament said that Richard, Duke of Gloucester, was the legal king. 
This was because Edward and his other brothers and sisters was declared illegitimate. After Edward IV had died, it was revealed that he had been engaged to a woman named Eleanor Butler, so Edward IV's marriage to his mother Elizabeth Woodville was seen as bigamy.

Missing
After a few months, the two boys disappeared, and what happened to them is still a mystery today.  Most people think that the two boys were murdered. They became known as the Princes in the Tower. It is most likely they were killed by their uncle, Richard III. It is also possible that they were killed by Henry VII, who became king two years later.

In 1674, during building work at the Tower, a wooden chest was found under a staircase in the White Tower. It contained the bones of two young boys. It has never been proved that these are the missing princes, but King Charles II had the bones buried in Westminster Abbey. In 1933 the bones were looked at again by scientists who believed that they were the two princes.

References

1470 births
1483 deaths
House of York
Lincolnshire

Lincolnshire  ( or ; abbreviated Lincs) is a county in the east of England. It borders Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Rutland, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, South Yorkshire, the East Riding of Yorkshire, and (for just 19 metres or 20 yd, England's shortest county boundary) Northamptonshire. Its county town is the ancient city of Lincoln.

Related pages
Grantham
Lincoln

Other websites 
 Lincolnshire County Council website
 Visitlincolnshire.com
 Official Lincolnshire Flag site 
 Lincolnshire Life magazine
 Extremehorizon a local resource for surfing in Lincolnshire
 Lincolnshire Show official website
 History of the Royal Air Force in Lincolnshire

Ceremonial counties of England
Earl

An Earl (or Jarl) was a title for nobility used by Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians. It originally meant "chieftain" and it referred especially to chieftains set to rule a territory in a king's stead. In Scandinavia, it stopped being used in the Middle Ages, whereas, in Britain, it became synonymous with the continental count.
In Anglo-Saxon times the title was similar to that of Ealdorman.

Today, an earl is a member of the British peerage, and is below a Marquess, but above a Viscount. A British Earl is the same as a continental Count. Since there is no feminine form of Earl, the wife of an Earl has the rank of Countess (the continental equivalent).
Cell theory

Cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction.With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, also known as cell biology. Over a century later
. Most of these debates involved the nature of cellular regeneration, and the idea of cells as a fundamental unit of life. Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1839. This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. However, many other scientists like Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory.

By the mid-century cells were identified as being the substance in a body part containing what's called germs in A cell just like a fungi.

Cell biology
Porphyria

Porphyria is the name for certain medical conditions or diseases, which have been known since the days of Hippocrates. Those who suffer from the disease can not make certain substances in the blood. They have disorders of certain enzymes which normally work in the production of porphyrins and heme. 

The condition is usually caused by a genetic deficiency, but chemicals which affect metabolism may also cause it. Arsenic is an example. It can be triggered by various drugs or by some environmental conditions. The disease causes skin problems, or some diseases of the nervous system, or both. Severe pain is often present. Drugs are available that can at least treat the symptoms. This disease is most common in European countries and often affects the skin. When someone is affected by porphyria they will start to lose their hair about two weeks after having an attack. There is no cure for the hair loss. However, there is medication available to help prevent attacks.

Diseases
Genetic disorders
Diatom

Diatoms ( = through +  temnein = to cut: "cut through") are a big group of eukaryotic algae. They are one of the most common types of phytoplankton. Most diatoms are unicellular, although some form chains or simple colonies. Diatom cells are encased within a unique cell wall made of silica (SiO2). These walls, called frustules, take many forms, some quite beautiful and ornate. They usually consist of two asymmetrical sides with a split between them, which gives the group its name.

Diatom chloroplasts were probably derived from those of red algae. The fossil record of diatoms starts in strata of the Lower Jurassic, ~185 million years ago. Molecular clock evidence suggests an earlier date for their origin. The entire genomes of two species of diatom have been analysed. The analysis reveals that hundreds of genes in both species came from bacteria.

Diatoms have some practical uses. Diatom communities are a popular tool for monitoring environmental conditions, past and present. They are commonly used in studies of water quality. They are also of interest to nanotechnology.

References 

Protista
Algae