cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Alexandre Guilmant

Alexandre Guilmant (born Boulogne-sur-Mer, 12 March 1837; died Meudon 29 March 1911) was a French organist and composer.

Life

Early life and career
Alexandre Guilmant was born in Boulogne-sur-Mer. His father was an organist and organ builder, and gave young Alexandre lessons. Otherwise Alexandre was largely self-taught. He did study with Belgian teacher Jacques-Nicolas Lemmens, but by that time he was already a very good organist. From the 1860s he travelled widely in Europe, playing organs and becoming famous. Later he also visited the United States. In 1871 he became organist of the Trinité church in Paris. He kept this job until 1901.

His teaching
Guilmant became well known in France as a teacher. Together with two other musicians, Charles Bordes and Vincent d’Indy, he started the Schola Cantorum, a private college where students could study music. He taught the organ there. Earlier he had succeeded Charles-Marie Widor as organ teacher at the Paris Conservatoire. His Conservatoire pupils included Joseph Bonnet, Nadia Boulanger and Marcel Dupré.

Influence as organist
Guilmant did not just play the organ for church services. He became very famous for giving organ recitals. Often he played on organs which had been constructed by the brilliant organ builder Aristide Cavaillé-Coll. He helped to make these organs popular in France, and they were a very important influence on the way that organists composed music for their instrument.

Both Guilmant and Widor produced large works for the organ which they called “symphonies”. These usually had at least four movements each, and gave the player opportunities to use many different sound effects.

His compositions

Guilmant wrote eight organ symphonies, as well as a symphony for organ and orchestra, and several shorter works for the same combination. He composed a great many miniatures, not just for organ but also for harmonium. This was useful for musicians in smaller churches which had a harmonium instead of a big organ. He wrote a book on how to play the organ, and for many years he edited collections of organ music which had been written by earlier composers.

References
The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; 1980; 

1837 births
1911 deaths
20th-century French composers
French organists
New International Version

The New International Version or NIV is an English translation of the Christian Bible.  It is made by the Zondervan Company. It became one of the most popular modern translations made in the twentieth century. The NIV was last updated in 2011.

References

Bible versions
New American Bible

The New American Bible is a Roman Catholic translation of the Bible into English. It was translated from the Bible's original languages and first made in 1970.

Other websites
The New American Bible  online edition

Bible versions
TED (conference)

TED is short for "Technology, Entertainment, Design". It is a conference that began in 1984 and met every year at Long Beach, California until 2014. Since then, it has met in Vancouver. People give talks about many things, for example, science, art, and business. Famous people like Bill Clinton, Al Gore, Ray Kurzweil, Aubrey de Grey, Elon Musk, and Bill Gates have all talked at TED. The talks have been online for people to watch for free since 2006.

Other websites
 Official website
 YouTube page

1984 establishments in the United States
Technology
Plutoid

A plutoid or ice dwarf is a dwarf planet that orbits the sun farther than Neptune. Four objects are now classified as plutoids:

Pluto
Haumea
Makemake
Eris

Others might be included in the same class someday:
Sedna
Quaoar
2007 OR10

Dwarf planets
Radcliffe Line

The Radcliffe Line became the international border between India and Pakistan (which also included what is now Bangladesh) during the partition of India. The line divided Bengal into Indian held West Bengal and East Bengal which became East Pakistan in 1956. The line was decided by the Border Commissions headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, who was to divide equitably  of territory with 88 million people.
The line took effect on 17 August 1947 after the Partition of India. When the partition was implemented, there were some problems:
The Chittagong Hill Tracts had a moslty Buddhist population, but they were given to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).
To counterbalance the relatively small share of Gurdaspur district awarded to Pakistan, Radcliffe attempted to instead transfer Ferozpur and Zira tehsils in Muslim-Majority Ferozpur District to Pakistan. This was opposed by the Maharaja of Bikaner because Harike headworks on the confluence of the Sutlej and the Beas rivers, from where a canal originated, was the only source of water for his desert state was in Ferozepore. It was only after he threatened Lord Louis Mountbatten, that he would accede his princely state to Pakistan if Firozpur was awarded to West Punjab province, that the award was changed at the last minute and all of Firozpur District was awarded to East Punjab in the Republic of India.
The Gurdaspur District was moslty Muslim, but was given to India.
Sometimes the line  divided villages, so one part of the village was in each country. At other instances, it went through houses, different rooms of the same house were in different countries.

Related pages
 Punjab (India)
 Bengal (India)

Geography of Pakistan
Geography of India
Geography of Bangladesh
Pakistan Movement
Partition of India
Wind power in the United Kingdom

These are some of the largest onshore wind farms in the UK:

Wind energy
United Kingdom-related lists
Emission nebula

An emission nebula is a cloud of plasma emitting light in many colors. The glowing is caused by a star being near the nebula. There are many types of emission nebula. H II regions are caused when stars are forming and are very hot, causing the plasma to heat up. Planetary nebulae are made when where a dying star has thrown off its outer layers. This causes the core of the star to heat up the plasma.

General information
A nebula's color depends on what chemicals are in it, and how ionized it is. Because most of the universe is made of hydrogen, many emission nebulae appear red. Hydrogen glows red when it is hot. If the nebula is very hot, other types of gas will be heated and the it might also glow blue and green. By looking at which colors are glowing in a nebula, one can figure out what it is made of.

Emission nebulae sometimes look like they have dark areas in them. This is because clouds of dust block the light when it is traveling between the nebula and the Earth.

Related pages
Reflection nebula
Planetary nebula

Nebulae
Reflection nebula

In astronomy, a reflection nebula is a cloud of dust which reflects the light of a star or many stars. The light from the nearby stars is not hot enough to ionize the gas of the nebula to make an emission nebula. However, is enough to make the dust visible because the light reflects off of the dust. 

Reflection nebulae are usually blue because the scattering works better for blue light than red (this is the same reason that the sky is blue and sunsets are red).

Reflection nebulae and emission nebulae are usually seen together and sometimes are called 'diffuse nebulae'. A good example of this is the Orion nebula.

Reflection nebulae may also be the site of star formation.

Related pages
 Variable nebula

References 
 James B. Kaler (1998). Kosmische Wolken. Materie-Kreisläufe in der Milchstraße. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag.

Nebulae
Variable nebula

A Variable nebula is a reflection nebula that gets brighter and darker because of changes in its star.

Nebulae
Ionization

Ionization is the physical process of giving or taking away electrons from an atom. That makes the atom into an ion, because ions have electrical charge. 

In the process of ionization, an electrically neutral atom becomes either positively or negatively charged. Some substances are easier to ionize than others. This depends on the ionization energy. Ionizing radiation is a common cause, but ionization can also be done artificially.

References 

Physics
Nucleosynthesis

Nucleosynthesis is the physical process where lighter elements are changed into heavier elements. This usually happens in the center of a star, both during its life and especially during its violent death. It is also thought that this happened at the beginning of the universe, in the big bang.

Astrophysics
Stellar wind

Stellar wind is gas being thrown off from the upper atmosphere of a star.  Different types of stars have different types of stellar winds.  The Sun's stellar wind is called solar wind.  Most stars, especially very bright ones, show continuous outflows of gas from their surfaces making the stellar wind.  Radiation pressure is thought to be the main force that pushes the gas away, but modern research uses computer simulations and observations with the most powerful telescopes to understand it further.

References

Astrophysics
Dumbbell nebula

The Dumbbell nebula (sometimes called Messier 27, M 27, or NGC 6853) is a planetary nebula in the constellation Vulpecula. It is about 1,360 light years away from earth. The Dumbbell nebula was the first planetary nebula to be discovered; by Charles Messier in 1764.

Other websites
 SEDS Messier page on M27 
 M27 Dumbbell Nebula
 M27 image taken by Stargazer Observatory 

Nebulae
Charles Messier

Charles Messier (June 26, 1730 – April 12, 1817) was a French astronomer who is remembered for publishing a list of famous objects in space that came to be called the 103 "Messier objects".

Messier's life
Messier was born in Badonviller in the Lorraine region of France. Six of his brothers and sisters died as children and in 1741, his father died. Charles became interested in astronomy after he saw the great six-tailed comet in 1744 and by a solar eclipse on July 25, 1748.

In 1751 he started working for Joseph Nicolas Delisle, the astronomer of the French Navy, who told him to write down everything he saw.

Messier discovered thirteen comets :

 C/1760 B1 (Messier)
 C/1763 S1 (Messier)
 C/1764 A1 (Messier)
 C/1766 E1 (Messier)
 C/1769 P1 (Messier)
 D/1770 L1 (Lexell)
 C/1771 G1 (Messier)
 C/1773 T1 (Messier)
 C/1780 U2 (Messier)
 C/1788 W1 (Messier)
 C/1793 S2 (Messier)
 C/1798 G1 (Messier)
 C/1785 A1 (Messier-Mechain)

Related pages
 Messier object
 List of Messier objects
 Messier marathon

References

Other websites
 Amateur Photos of Charles Messier Objects 
 Messier Marathon  Tries to find as many Messier objects as possible in one night.
 New General Catalog and Index Catalog revisions
 Clickable table of Messier objects 

1730 births
1817 deaths
French astronomers
Astronomical spectroscopy

Astronomical spectroscopy is the science of using spectroscopy to figure out what elements astronomical bodies, such as stars, planets and nebulae, are made of. It can also be used to work out how those objects are moving, using doppler shift.

The study of spectroscopy and spectra is used in astronomy to help scientists study the whole spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, which radiates from stars and other hot celestial objects. Spectroscopy can be used to find properties of distant stars and galaxies. It can find out their chemical composition, temperature, density, mass, distance, luminosity, and relative motion using doppler effect measurements.

Chemical properties of stars 

Isaac Newton used a prism to split white light into a spectrum of color, and Fraunhofer's high-quality prisms allowed scientists to see dark lines of an unknown origin.

It was not until the 1850s that Gustav Kirchoff and Robert Bunsen explained the dark lines. Hot solid objects produce light with a continuous spectrum, and hot gasses emit light at specific wavelengths. However, hot solid objects surrounded by cooler gasses show a near-continuous spectrum with dark lines corresponding to the emission lines of the gasses. By comparing the absorption lines of the
Sun with emission spectra of known gasses, the chemical composition of stars can be discovered.

References 

Astrophysics
Spectroscopy
William Huggins

Sir William Huggins, KCB, OM, FRS, (7 February 1824–12 May 1910) was an English astronomer best known for his work in astronomical spectroscopy.

Life and work 
William Huggins was born at Cornhill, Middlesex in 1824.  He married Margaret Lindsay, who was also an astronomer. 
Huggins built his own observatory from where he and his wife looked at spectral emission lines and absorption lines of astronomical objects.  He was the first person to figure out the difference between nebulae and galaxies. 
Huggins was president of the Royal Society between 1900 and 1905.

1824 births
1910 deaths
English astronomers
Order of Merit
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Presidents of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Royal Society
Emission spectrum

The emission spectrum of an element or compound is how bright certain frequencies are when energy is added to the atoms or molecules.

Each atom's emission spectrum has different spectral lines and can be used to figure out if that atom is part of a compound

Physics
Luminosity

Luminosity is the amount of power given off by an astronomical object.

Stars, galaxies and other objects emit energy in the form of radiation. It is measured in joules per second, which are equal to watts. A watt is one unit of power. Just as a light bulb is measured in watts, the Sun can also be measured in watts. The sun gives off . This amount of power is known as 1 sol, the symbol for which is .  

There are other ways to describe luminosity. The most common is apparent magnitude, which is how bright an object looks to an observer on Earth. It only applies to light, that is, visible wavelengths. Apparent magnitude is contrasted with absolute magnitude, which is an object's intrinsic brightness at visible wavelengths, irrespective of distance.  The apparent magnitude is the less, for objects more than 32.6 light years away.

When talking about the total power output across all wavelengths, that is called bolometric magnitude.  

Laws of physics
Solar mass

Solar mass is a unit of measurement of mass. It is equal to the mass of the Sun, about 332,950 times the mass of the Earth, or 1,048 times the mass of Jupiter. Masses of other stars and groups of stars are listed in terms of solar masses. Its mathematical symbol and value are:

 (kg being kilograms)

Astronomy
Units of measurement
Interstellar medium

In astronomy, the interstellar medium (sometimes called the ISM) is the tenuous gas and dust that fills the void between stellar systems in galaxies, that consisting mainly of huge clouds of ionized, neutral, or molecular hydrogen. This gas and dust not distributed uniformly in interstellar space, but displays significant variations in density, temperature, and ionisation state.

Various gases exist in outer space. Most common are hydrogen and helium. Interstellar cosmic dust makes nebulae.

References 

Astronomy
Myopia

Myopia, also called near-sightedness or short-sightedness, is a problem with the focusing ability of the eye. It is when the eye is not able to focus properly on objects in the distance. This condition is very common and it often occurs with many members of the same family. It happens when the lens becomes a different shape (too curved) from usual, or when the eye is longer than normal, so light entering the eye focuses on a point in front of the retina, rather than right on it. This makes distant objects look blurry. People with myopia often squint while watching television or trying to see distant objects. Sudden myopia can often be the first symptom of Type II Diabetes. 

In most cases, it can be fixed easily using glasses, contact lenses, or surgery. 

Diseases and disorders of the eye
Luster (mineralogy)

Luster (or lustre) is a description of the way light interacts with the surface of a crystal, rock, or mineral. For example, a diamond has an adamantine lustre and pyrite has a metallic lustre. The term is also used to describe other items with some kind of sheen (for example, fabric, especially silk and satin, or metals).

The word lustre comes from the Latin word lux, meaning "light", and generally implies radiance, gloss, or brilliance.

Minerals
Carbonation

Carbonation is the process of carbon dioxide dissolving in a liquid. For example, carbon dioxide is added to flavored water under pressure to make it "fizz" as a carbonated water soft drink.

Geology
When rain passes through the atmosphere, it takes in or mixes with carbon dioxide, turning it into a weak carbonic acid.  When the rain falls in limestone, it dissolves the calcium carbonate in the rock, turning it into calcium bicarbonate and taking it away.  Holes and large cracks can form in the rock.  Such a place is called karst.  If a stream or river passes through it, it could be swallowed up by a hole called a swallow hole.  It  can go through a series of underground caves and may appear on the surface again.  An example of a karst area is the Burren National Park, in County Clare, Ireland.

Chemistry

Carbon dioxide is weakly soluble in water, therefore it separates into a gas. The process of carbon dioxide bubbling out (effervescing) from a solution is represented by the following chemical reaction. This shows aqueous carbonic acid converts to carbon dioxide and water:

Biochemistry

Carbonation also describes the incorporation of carbon dioxide into chemical compounds. Carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO. This carbonation process is so important that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme.

References

Matter
Physics
Geochemistry
Feynman diagram

A Feynman diagram is a diagram that shows what happens when elementary particles collide.

Feynman diagrams are used in quantum mechanics. A Feynman diagram has lines in different shapes—straight, dotted, and squiggly—which meet up at points called vertices. The vertices are where the lines begin and end. The points in Feynman diagrams where the lines meet represent two or more particles that happen to be at the same point in space at the same time. The lines in a Feynman diagram represent the probability amplitude for a particle to go from one place to another.

In Feynman diagrams, the particles are allowed to go both forward and backward in time. When a particle is going backward in time, it is called an antiparticle. The meeting points for the lines can also be interpreted forward or backwards in time, so that if a particle disappears into a meeting point, that means that the particle was either created or destroyed, depending on the direction in time that the particle came in from.

All the lines and vertices have an amplitude. When you multiply the probability amplitude for the lines, the amplitude for the particles to go from wherever they start to wherever they meet, and to the next meeting point, and so on, and also multiply by the amplitude for each meeting point, you get a number that tells you the total amplitude for the particles to do what the diagram says they do. If you add up all these probability amplitudes over all the possible meeting points, and over all the starting and ending points with an appropriate weight, you get the total probability amplitude for a collision in a particle accelerator, which tells you the total probability of these particles to bounce off one another in any particular direction.

Feynman diagrams are named after Richard Feynman, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics. His diagrams are very simple in the case of quantum electrodynamics (QED), where there are only two kinds of particles: electrons (little particles inside atoms) and photons (particles of light). In QED, the only thing that can happen is that an electron (or its antiparticle) can emit (or absorb) a photon, so there is only one building block for any collision. The probability amplitude for the emission is very simple—it has no real part, and the imaginary part is the charge of the electron.

References 

Nuclear physics
Diagrams
Raymond VII, Count of Toulouse

Raymond VII of Saint-Gilles (July 1197 – 27 September 1249) was Count of Toulouse, Duke of Narbonne and Marquis of Provence from 1222 until his death.

He was the son of Raymond VI of Toulouse and Joan of England. During the Albigensian Crusade in May of 1216, he set out from Marseille and besieged Beaucaire, which he captured on August 24. He fought to get the county of Toulouse back from Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester and later Simon's son Amaury VI of Montfort.

When Raymond died, Alphonse became count of Toulouse, and after Alphonse's death the county was captured by France. Raymond VII was buried beside his mother Joan in Fontevrault Abbey.

1197 births
1249 deaths
Nobility
Rival

A rival is a  person or group of people who are trying to do the same thing as someone else, and trying to do it better.  They are "competing" against one another.  Usually they are about equally good.

Competing in this way is called rivalry.

Two (or more) businesses may be rivals.  For example: they may be selling ice creams in the same area.

Brothers and sisters may be rivals.  For example: they may both be trying to get their mother's attention.

Countries may be rivals.  For example: they may be trying to have power over the same thing.  This can be a dangerous thing which, in some cases, can lead to war.

In sport, two teams may be rivals.  This is a more friendly kind of rivalry.

Human behavior
Seneschal

A seneschal was an officer in the houses of important nobles in the Middle Ages. In the French administrative system of the Middle Ages, the sénéchal was also a royal officer in charge of justice and control of the administration in southern provinces, equal to the northern French bailli.

Related pages
Grand maître de France - the Great Officer of the Crown of France in charge of the Royal Household (the "Maison du Roi")

Middle Ages
510s BC



Events
February 25, 516 BC — The Temple in Jerusalem is completed.
Trimbach, Switzerland

Trimbach is a municipality in the district of Gösgen.  It is in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 

 Official website 

Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn
Stoke

Stoke may refer to the following:

Place names

United Kingdom
Stoke is one of the most common place names in the United Kingdom and in historical documents.

Originally from the Old English  'stoc' meaning 'place', it came to be used in two special senses, i) a religious place and ii) a secondary settlement (see Roome )

It can refer to any of the following places:
Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire
Stoke-upon-Trent, a town in the city of Stoke-on-Trent
Stoke, Chester, Cheshire
Stoke, Crewe and Nantwich, Cheshire
Stoke, Devon
Stoke, Hampshire
Stoke, Hayling Island, Hampshire
Stoke, Kent
Stoke, Suffolk in Ipswich
Stoke Abbott, Dorset
Stoke Ash, Suffolk
Stoke Bardolph, Nottinghamshire
Stoke Bishop, Bristol
Stoke Bliss, Herefordshire
Stoke Bruerne, Northamptonshire
Stoke by Clare, Suffolk
Stoke-by-Nayland, Suffolk
Stoke Canon, Devon
Stoke Charity, Hampshire
Stoke Climsland, Cornwall
Stoke d'Abernon, Surrey
Stoke Doyle, Northamptonshire
Stoke Dry, Rutland
Stoke Edith, Herefordshire
Stoke Ferry, Norfolk
Stoke Fleming, Devon
Stoke Gabriel, Devon
Stoke Gifford, Bristol
Stoke Golding, Leicestershire
Stoke Goldington, Milton Keynes
Stoke next Guildford, Surrey
Stoke Hammond, Buckinghamshire
Stoke Heath, Shropshire
Stoke Heath, Worcestershire
Stoke Holy Cross, Norfolk
Stoke Lacy, Herefordshire
Stoke Lyne, Oxfordshire
Stoke Mandeville, Buckinghamshire
Stoke Newington, London
Stoke on Tern, Shropshire
Stoke Orchard, Gloucestershire
Stoke Poges, Buckinghamshire
Stoke Pound, Worcestershire
Stoke Prior, Herefordshire
Stoke Prior, Worcestershire
Stoke Rivers, Devon
Stoke Rochford, Lincolnshire
Stoke Row, Berkshire
Stoke Row, Oxfordshire
Stoke St Gregory, Somerset
Stoke St Mary, Somerset
Stoke St Michael, Somerset
Stoke St. Milborough, Shropshire
Stoke-sub-Hamdon, Somerset
Stoke Talmage, Oxfordshire
Stoke Trister, Somerset

New Zealand
Stoke, New Zealand

Sports
Stoke City F.C.

Related pages
Stokes (in particular, stoke is an erroneous singular of stokes (sing. and pl), a unit of kinematic viscosity)
Stoked, a film
Human T-lymphotropic virus

Human T-lymphotropic virus is a virus. It is a kind of retrovirus. Human T-lymphotropic virus causes leukemia as well as other diseases. Currently, four kinds are known (labelled I to IV).

Viruses
Bon Scott

Bon Scott (9 July 1946 – 19 February 1980) was a Scottish-Australian singer-songwriter. He was the lead singer of hard rock band AC/DC from 1974 until he died of alcohol poisoning in 1980.

Biography
Scott was born in Forfar, Scotland and brought up in Kirriemuir, Scotland. He and his family moved to Fremantle, Australia in 1952. He left school when he was 15 and spent a short time in a juvenile institution. In 1964, he formed a band called The Spektors. They later became a different band called The Valentines. When the Valentines broke up in 1970, Scott joined a band called Fraternity. Fraternity left Australia and went to Europe, but came back soon after. Scott then joined a band called the Mount Lofty Rangers. In 1974 he had a motorcycle accident and was in hospital for a few months. After he left hospital he joined AC/DC.

Career
AC/DC's first two albums were High Voltage and T.N.T.. They were only released in Australia. Their first worldwide album was released in 1976. It had songs from both High Voltage and T.N.T., and was also called High Voltage. They released another album that year called Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap. Their next albums were Let There Be Rock, Powerage, and a live album called If You Want Blood You've Got It. AC/DC's last album with Scott as their singer was Highway to Hell.

Death
Scott died of alcohol poisoning in London on 19 February 1980. He was 33 years old at the time. Brian Johnson became AC/DC's new lead singer. There is a bronze statue of Bon Scott in Fremantle. Shortly after his death, AC/DC released a tribute album to Scott, Back in Black.

References

Other websites
 Bon Scott story 
 Bon Scott's death

1946 births
1980 deaths
AC/DC
Accidental deaths in the United Kingdom
Australian drummers
Australian rock singers
Australian singer-songwriters
British rock drummers
British rock singers
Drug-related accidental deaths in the United Kingdom
Entertainers from Western Australia
Scottish rock musicians
Scottish singer-songwriters
Hubble Deep Field

The Hubble Deep Field, sometimes called the HDF, is an image of a small part of the night sky. The image was taken in the direction of the constellation Ursa Major by the Hubble Space Telescope in 1995.

It is important because it shows some of the earliest (farthest away) galaxies ever seen, over 3000 in total.

The area of the sky the HDF was taken in makes up less than 1/10th the width of a full Moon, yet it contains over 3,000 galaxies.

Because of the time it takes for light from these galaxies to reach Earth, many in the picture look exactly as they did over 10 billion (10,000,000,000) years ago. Because of this it allows scientists to look at what the Universe was like at that time, and how it changed to become what it is now. Add to this the cosmological principle, which suggests that on large scales the Universe is roughly the same no matter what direction you look, and the HDF becomes a very important tool for astronomers studying how the Universe has changed.

For these reasons the HDF is sometimes called 'the most important image ever taken'.

Related pages
 Hubble Ultra Deep Field
 Hubble Extreme Deep Field
 Hubble Space Telescope

References 

Cosmology
Galaxies
Space
Orem, Utah

Orem is a city in Utah County in the state of Utah, United States.  As of the year 2000, about 84,300 people live in Orem.

References 

Cities in Utah
838

Year 838 (DCCCXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.

Births 
Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari.
Acetonitrile

Acetonitrile (also known as ACN) is a kind of chemical compound with formula CH3CN. It is a clear liquid and is the simplest molecule in a group called nitriles. Acetonitrile is made when plastics are being made so is quite cheap. Chemists use it as a solvent for chemical reactions and in cromatography.

Acetonitrile is flammable and can hurt our eyes.

Related pages
Solvent

Other websites
Safety Data

Chemical compounds
Organic compounds
Ranunculaceae

Ranunculaceae is a family of flowering plants also known as the "buttercup family" or "crowfoot family". Members include Anemone (anemones), Ranunculus (buttercup), Aconitum (aconite), and Clematis. 

Ranunculales
Commitment scheme

In cryptography, a commitment scheme is a way for a someone to tell something to someone without letting other people know. Someone would do this to make sure they can prove who they are. Someone also might do this to make sure that someone does not cheat.

This is done by using a one-way function to change a string into a hash. This is called the commit phase. Later, if someone needs to prove that they were the one who made the commitment, then they can tell people the original string they used. This is called the reveal phase.

References

Cryptography
One-way function

In cryptography, a one-way function is a function that is very simple to compute (figure out) in one direction. There is a series of instructions that can be simply and easily applied to an input to give a complicated output. However the reverse of going from the output to the input is made to be as difficult as possible.

Cryptography
SHA hash functions

In cryptography, the Secure Hashing Algorithms are a group of cryptographic hash functions released by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The algorithms take an input and produce a hash value (often shown in hexadecimal). The length of the hash depends on the digest length of the algorithm.

Family 

 SHA-0: It was the name used for the original Secure Hashing Algorithm that was released in 1993. It was no longer used because it was not safe to use and was quickly replaced with SHA-1.
 SHA-1: It is the first name used for the official Secure Hashing Algorithm. It was released after a weakness in SHA-0. It was made by the National Security Agency (NSA). It was also found to be weak and unsafe.
 SHA-2: It is one the most popular type of SHA. There are options to set the length (by changing the digest size) of the hash to 256 or 512 bits. SHA256 and SHA512 refer to these algorithms. It was also made by the National Security Agency.
 SHA-3 (Keccak):  The latest type of SHA. It was made by Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters and Gilles Van Assche. It was selected after a competition held by the NIST.

The Secure Hashing Algorithms, being Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) compliant algorithms are subject to the Cryptographic Algorithm Validation Program

References 

Cryptography
Border Gateway Protocol

The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the main routing protocol of the Internet. It decides how data gets from one place to another on the Internet. It was made to get rid of the EGP routing protocol to make the Internet more independent.

Most Internet users don't use BGP. It is the ISPs who use it to talk to other ISPs so they can send and get data from each other. It is one of the most important protocols of the Internet.

Related pages
 Shortest Path Bridging
 Intermediate System to Intermediate System

Internet protocols
GPRS Tunneling Protocol

GPRS Tunneling Protocol (GTP) is a group of protocols to send and receive data over cellular phone networks.

Internet protocols
Power metal

Power metal is a type of heavy metal music that mixes traditional metal with thrash metal or speed metal. There are two types of power metal. One comes from North America that sounds more like speed metal, and a more popular one from Europe (especially Finland, Germany, Italy, Scandinavia) and Japan that usually sounds happier and usually uses keyboards.  It is usually characterized by high, clean, melodic vocals, fantasy based lyrics as well as complex and fast lead guitar solos.

Some of the most popular European style bands include:
Helloween (1984-Present) from Germany is one of the first, and most influential power metal bands.
Gamma Ray from Germany
Stratovarius from Finland
Sonata Arctica from Finland
Blind Guardian from Germany
Edguy/Avantasia from Germany
Kamelot from the U.S.A. but they are of a European style
HammerFall from Sweden
DragonForce from England
Power Quest from England, frequent use of keyboards

Power metal
Defense Support Program

The Defense Support Program (DSP) is a group of satellites that orbit the Earth. They are owned by the United States Air Force to run the Satellite Early Warning System used by the United States. DSP satellites are used to detect missile and spacecraft launches. DSP is also used to detect nuclear explosions. It does this by using infrared sensors on the satellite.

Satellites
United States Air Force
Blackheath, Surrey

Blackheath is a village in Surrey near Guildford.

Other websites
Blackheath village website

Villages in Surrey

en:Blackheath, Surrey
Bandipur National Park

Bandipur National Park is a national park in India. It contains Gaurs and Asian Elephants, as well as tigers. In 1973 it was decided that Bandipur National Park would be protected as a place for tigers to live safely, as part of a project called 'Project Tiger'. 

The national park has an area of 874.20 km2.

References 

National parks in India
Urban legend

An urban legend is an often circulated story that is not necessarily based on truth, but merely conjecture and rumor. However, there may or may not be a grain of truth from which the story originated.

Urban legends and the Internet
The Internet has made it easier for urban legends to spread, as people often spread them to their friends or family using e-mail. As a result, some websites such as Snopes.com and TruthOrFiction.com, among others, have been made that look at urban legends and try to see whether or not they are true.

An example of an urban legend is a report that years after the defeat of St Clair in 1791 at Ft Recovery Mercer Country Ohio - a skeleton of a Captain Roger Vanderberg was found in Miami County Ohio inside a tree along with a diary; in fact no one of this name was a casualty of the 1791 battle - it was a story that orginated in 1864 from a Scottish novel! Another example of a urban legend is a young woman and her mother going to visit the Paris Exposition; the mother falls ill, the daughter rushes off to get help only to find her mother gone! The woman either goes insane or is told the truth-her mother had the plague which was the reason for the coverup. This became the premise of a 1950s movie So Long at the Fair. In fact the basis for the legend was a story in 1897 in a Philadelphia newspaper...and no other sources in fact!

Other urban legends concern the Chase Burial Vault in Barbadoes although the lone account has no other basis in fact. Another urban legend concerns organized crime: In New York city at the turn of the century there was a "Murder Stable" where criminals killed one another. In fact, the report was exaggerated. Allegedly, an unknown killer named "Shotgun Man" committed dozens of murders with a shotgun in Chicago, Illinois after the turn of the century between 1910 and 1911 - although a check of a database of Chicago murders from that time period shows only one shotgun killings between 1900 and 1920.

References 

Folklore
Ashdown Forest

Ashdown Forest is a forest in the county of East Sussex, in South East England.

Other websites

East Sussex
Forests of England
Thuringian Forest

The Thuringian Forest is a forest in the German state of Thuringia. It is about  long and  wide. The highest elevation is the Großer Beerberg, at .

Biosphere reserves
Forests of Germany
Geography of Thuringia
Gertrude (crater)

Gertrude is the biggest crater on Uranus's moon Titania that we know about. It is nearly 326 kilometers across, which is about twenty percent of the moons' diameter.

References

Uranus' moons
Impact craters
Powell's Books

Powell's Books is a bookstore in Portland, Oregon, United States. It has seven locations. It says it is the world's largest independent new and used bookstore in the world with more than one million (1,000,000) books on its shelves.  The main store covers an entire city block between West Burnside Street, NW Couch Street, NW 10th and 11th avenues.

The bookstore began in 1971.
In 2002, USA Today said Powell's was one of America's ten best bookstores.

Powell's wants to add as much as two floors to the store's southeast corner—at least .  The plan was submitted to the City of Portland to be approved in November 2008.

References 

Companies based in Oregon
Portland, Oregon
1971 establishments in the United States
1970s establishments in Oregon
Orange-bellied Euphonia

The Orange-bellied euphonia (Euphonia xanthogaster) is a species of bird in the Fringillidae (finch) family.  It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.

Finches
Hurricane Floyd

Hurricane Floyd was the strongest, costliest, and deadliest hurricane of the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season. Floyd, at first looked as if it were headed for Florida as a category 4 hurricane. It was about twice as large as Hurricane Andrew, which if Floyd struck Florida it could have caused even more damage than Andrew. Instead of striking Florida, Floyd struck North Carolina and caused flooding from North Carolina up to some states in New England. Floyd left $4.5 billion in damage from Florida to Maine. Floyd also killed about 76-86 people in the United States. One person was also killed in the Bahamas.

Retirement

The name Floyd got retired in the Spring of 2000. The name Franklin was used in 2005 instead.

1999 Atlantic hurricane season
Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes
September events
1990s in the Bahamas
1999 in the United States
1999 in Canada
Hurricanes in North Carolina
1990s in Florida
20th century in Maine
1990s in North Carolina
Hurricane Gert (1999)

Hurricane Gert was the fourth of five major hurricanes in the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season. It formed on September 11 of the coast of Africa. It reached its greatest strength on September 15, when its winds were at 150 mph (240 km/h). It gradually curved northwest and then north, passing a short distance east of Burmuda. The hurricane's center did not make landfall, but it did cause many poweroutages.

On September 23, Gert became an extratropical storm as it turned northeast and became absorbed into another storm system. While it passed southeast of Atlantic Canada, strong waves hit Newfoundland which caused heavy marine damage.

1999 Atlantic hurricane season
Hurricane Irene (1999)

Hurricane Irene was an Atlantic tropical cyclone. The storm caused heavy damage across Florida and North Carolina in October 1999. Irene developed in the western Caribbean Sea on October 13 from a tropical wave.

Irene was a wet hurricane for Florida, similar to many hurricanes of the 1930s and 1940s. In North Carolina and Virginia, the storm produced heavy rainfall of more than 10 inches.

Irene caused 18 deaths and $800 million in damage in the United States.

References

Hurricanes
1999
Hurricanes in the United States
Tropical Storm Katrina (1999)

Tropical Storm Katrina was a short-lived, weak tropical cyclone that produced minor damage across areas previously devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998.

1999 Atlantic hurricane season
Atlantic tropical storms
Hurricane Lenny

Hurricane Lenny was the last major hurricane, hurricane, named storm and depression of the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season. There are three main reasons to remember Lenny. One, it was strongest November Atlantic hurricane; two, the damage it caused in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands and three, it moved the opposite way storms usually moved across the Caribbean Sea. Some people at the National Hurricane Center nicknamed it "Wrong Way Lenny". Lenny left $330 million in damage, this amount is likely not all the damage. This is because it was reported for U.S. territories only, such as Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

Retirement

Because the damage was high and likely higher, the name Lenny was retired. In 2005 the name Lee was used instead. The name Lee in 2005 was not retired, so Lee is on the list for 2011 and 2017.

Reference

1999 Atlantic hurricane season
November events
20th century in Colombia
20th century in Puerto Rico
1999 in the United States
1990s in South America
1980 Atlantic hurricane season

The 1980 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1, 1980, and ended on November 30, 1980. This season had about average activity with 15 storms, of which 11 got named. This season featured the very powerful Hurricane Allen.

Storms
Tropical Depression One 
Hurricane Allen 
Hurricane Bonnie 
Tropical Depression Four 
Hurricane Charley 
Tropical Depression Six 
Tropical Storm Danielle 
Hurricane Earl 
Hurricane Frances 
Hurricane Georges 
Tropical Storm Hermine 
Hurricane Ivan 
Hurricane Jeanne 
Tropical Depression Fourteen 
Hurricane Karl

Unused names

Retirement
In the spring of 1981 the name "Allen" was retired and replaced by Andrew in 1986.

Other websites
 Monthly Weather Review

1980
Atlantic hurricane season
Nitrile

A nitrile is a chemical compound with a -C=N functional group. It smells like a fruit, and can be a type of poison.

Functional groups
1981 Atlantic hurricane season

The 1981 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1, 1981 and ended on November 30, 1981. However this season a storm formed on May 6. This season was high in activity. The only notable storms of this season were Hurricane Dennis, Tropical Depression Eight, and Hurricane Katrina. Hurricane Dennis and Tropical Depression Eight caused the most damage. However, Hurricane Katrina was the only storm that killed people in 1981.

Storms
Tropical Storm Arlene 
Tropical Depression Two 
Tropical Storm Bret 
Tropical Depression Four 
Tropical Storm Cindy 
Hurricane Dennis 
Tropical Depression Seven 
Tropical Depression Eight 
Hurricane Emily 
Hurricane Floyd 
Hurricane Gert 
Hurricane Harvey 
Tropical Depression Thirteen 
Hurricane Irene 
Tropical Depression Fifteen 
Tropical Storm Jose 
Hurricane Katrina 
Subtropical Storm Three

Unused names

Retirement
No names retired in 1982. As a result, all names would be repeated in 1987.

Other websites
 Monthly Weather Review
 HPC Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Pages for 1981 

1981
Atlantic hurricane season
Willem Wissing

Willem Wissing, also known as William Wissing (1656, Amsterdam or The Hague - 10 Sep 1687 Burghley House), was a Dutch portrait artist. He painted many famous people of the day, including William III of England,Mary II of England,Anne of Great Britain.

References

1656 births
1687 deaths
Dutch painters
Teosinte

The teosintes are a group of large grasses of the genus Zea found in Mexico, Guatemala and Nicaragua. 

There are five recognized species of teosinte: Zea diploperennis, Zea perennis, Zea luxurians, Zea nicaraguensis and Zea mays. 

Poaceae
Burj Al Arab

The Burj Al Arab is a hotel in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It is the fourth largest hotel in the world. It is very expensive to stay at the Burj Al Arab.  It is known as the world's only 7 star hotel. On the top of the Burj Al-Arab there is a helipad which is sometimes used as a tennis court for high paying guests. The hotel was built by South African construction contractor Murray & Roberts. The hotel cost $650 million to build.

References 

Skyscrapers in the United Arab Emirates
Hotels in the United Arab Emirates
Buildings and structures in Dubai
El Toralín

The Bercian Association in Defense of the Leonese Language "El Toralín" (Asociación Berciana en defensa de la Llingua Llïonesa El Toralín, in Leonese language) was a Leonese association from El Bierzo that promoted Leonese language in that shire, born in 2006.

Activities 

This association developed two Leonese language courses in Ponferrada (Province of Llión), and some campaigns for promoting the knwoledge of Leonese language in the shire. They also participated in other activities as Leonese Language Day, Mother Language Day, and collaborated in publcations like "Cuentos del Sil", where writers from the shire wrote a collective book with simple stories in Leonese language.

Related pages
 Leonese language
 Cuentos del Sil
 APMLL

References

Other websites 
 Asociación Berciana en Defensa de la Llingua Llïonesa El Toralín
 Asociación Cultural de la Llingua Llïonesa El Fueyu
 Top Level Domain for Leonese Language
 Cuentos del Sil, Collective Leonese language book 

Leonese language associations
Cuentos del Sil

Cuentos del Sil (Tales of the Sil) is a Leonese language book written by nine leonese language writers. It was sponsored by the Provincial Government of León, and Leonese language associations "El Fueyu" and "El Toralín". The authors com from the Sil Valley, specially from El Bierzu and it is the collective book in the Leonese language where there are more authors.

The writers are from teenagers to those who are in their eighties:

 Severiano Álvarez
 Alejandro Díez
 Daniel Fernández
 Eva González
 Roberto González-Quevedo
 Xuasús González
 Félix Llópez
 Adrianu Martín
 Abel Pardo

Related pages

 Leonese language
 Leonese language writers
 Kingdom of León

References

Other websites 

 Cuentos del Sil website (in Leonese language) 
 Leonese Language Association from El Bierzu (in Leonese language)
 Leonese Language Association "El Fueyu" (in Leonese language and English)
 Top Level Domain for Leonese Language (Leonese language, English, Italian, Catalan, French Romanian, and other languages)

Leonese language
Books
List of Leonese language writers

This is a list of writers who have worked  in the Leonese language (Llingua Llïonesa in Leonese), a language developed from Vulgar Latin with contributions from the pre-Roman languages which were spoken in the territory of the Spanish provinces of León, Zamora, and Salamanca and in some villages in the District of Bragança, Portugal. The Leonese language belongs to Leonese or Astur-Leonese subgroup of Iberian languages.

 Abel Pardo (1974-)
 Adrianu Martín (1986-)
 Alejandro Díez (1985-)
 Amando Álvarez Cabeza
 Caitano Bardón (1881-1924)
 Daniel Fernández (writer) (1974-)
 Emilce Núñez
 Eva González (1918-2007)
 Félix Llópez (1988-)
 Germán Suárez Blanco
 Gumersindo Álvarez Cabeza
 José Aragón Escacena (1891-1945)
 Roberto González-Quevedo (1953-)
 Severiano Álvarez (1933-)
 Xuasús González (1981-)

Related pages
 Leonese language
 Cuentos del Sil

Other websites 
 http://www.eltoralin.com/cuentosdelsil  Cuentos del Sil website (in Leonese language)
 http://www.eltoralin.com Leonese Language Association from El Bierzo (in Leonese language)
 http://www.elfueyu.net Leonese Language Association "El Fueyu" (in Leonese language and English)
 http://www.puntuLLI.org Top Level Domain for Leonese Language (Leonese language, English, Italian, Catalan, French Romanian, and other languages)

Writers
Stockman

In Australia, a stockman is the name given to a person who looks after the livestock on large farms known as a station. Stations are owned by a  or a grazing company. A stockman can also be the persons employed at abattoirs, feedlots, on live export ships or with stock and station agencies.

People who work on station, including stockmen, are also known as “station hands”. Men learning how to become station managers are known as "jackaroos", while women are known as "jillaroos". Girls are often stockmen on farms. Some stations are now making it easier for women to work on stations by building female living quarters and putting in machinery to do some of the heavy work.

A related job is that of the drover, who, like the shearer may be an temporary seasonal worker. Drovers are employed in looking after the livestock while they are travelling on a stock route. 

The word stockman was used in the United States and Canada as meaning a person who raised livestock, mainly cattle. The word stockgrower is used now. This meaning is very different from the Australian use of the word stockman.

References 

Australian culture
Agriculture in Australia
Agricultural occupations