cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
South Carolina

South Carolina is a state in the southeast United States. Its capital city is Columbia and the largest city is Charleston. The population of the state is about 5.2 million people, ranked 23rd in the United States.  South Carolina has an area of 32,030 square miles, making it the 40th largest state in the United States.

Other important cities in South Carolina are Columbia, Greenville, Spartanburg, Anderson, Sumter, and Florence.

Major landforms include beaches, "barrier islands", salt marsh, sandhills, rolling piedmont, and the Blue Ridge Mountains.  Because of its natural beauty, the state attracts many tourists, especially to Myrtle Beach, Charleston, and Hilton Head Island.
South Carolina became a state in 1788.  The economy was agriculture-based, known for cotton, rice, indigo, and tobacco by African American slaves.  After the American Civil War, the state lost much of its political and economic power.  Towards the end of the 20th century, the state began to strengthen its economy and add population.  Today, the major industries are tourism, textiles (clothing materials), golf, and manufacturing.  South Carolina has the second highest number of workers employed by international companies per capita in the United States.

South Carolina is bounded to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia, located across the Savannah River, and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean.

Farming 
Before the Civil War, South Carolina grew a lot of rice. African slaves worked on slave plantations in the state.

Participation In The Civil War & 1876-1966 Segregation

The Civil War 
South Carolina became the first of eleven states to secede from the union, on December 20, 1860, to protest the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln. It joined the Confederacy. The first battle of the Civil War took place at Fort Sumter, in Charleston.

1876-1966 Segregation & Democratic Dominance 
After the Civil War, African-Americans in South Carolina got to vote for some time, but soon black codes were enacted, and white-supremacist groups like the KKK were reborn, restricting African-Americans from voting. South Carolina thus became a Democratic stronghold. In fact, in 1904, Republican Theodore Roosevelt, who was running for president, won less than 5% of the vote in the state. The Democratic candidate won over 95% of the vote. This cult of fear disabled most African-Americans in South  Carolina from voting till 1965, when President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act.

Confederate Flag 
For a long time, South Carolina had the Confederate flag hanging over its capital. This is no longer the case.

Famous People 
U.S. President Andrew Jackson was born in South Carolina.

Related pages
 Colleges and universities in South Carolina
 List of counties in South Carolina

References

 
1788 establishments in the United States
Rhode Island

Rhode Island is the smallest state in the United States by area. The capital and largest city is Providence. It is called the "Ocean state" because of its bays and waterways. It was founded by Roger Williams for religious freedom. The Narragansett people lived there before Europeans came, but people like Roger Williams didn't respect them and used the land for their own reasons. The colonists fought a war against the native people and many of them were killed or ran away from the colonists.

Rhode Island was one of the original Thirteen Colonies. It became very important to the economy because of the slave trade, and more slaves were taken to the thirteen colonies through Rhode Island than any of the others in the 18th century. Slavers would send ships from Newport to buy slaves from Africa and make money by trading goods with others involved in slavery. Rhode Island became a state (the last of the thirteen to agree to the new United States Constitution) in 1790.

Rhode Island is bordered on the north and east by Massachusetts, on the west by Connecticut, and on the south by Rhode Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean. It shares a water border with New York. It is named for a large island in Rhode Island Sound. Rhode Island   Some thought the island looked liked Rhodes, an island in Greece. Others didn´t.

An executive order was signed by Governor Gina Raimondo on June 22, 2020 to remove "Providence Plantations" from the official state name due to its ties to slavery.  Raimondo stated the change would go into effect "as soon as practicable."  In November 2020, the official name was voted to be changed to "State of Rhode Island".

Related pages
 Colleges and universities in Rhode Island
 List of counties in Rhode Island

References 

 
1790 establishments in the United States
New Jersey

New Jersey is one  of the 50 states of the United States of America. It is in the northeastern section of the country along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. It is a geographically small state, shaped like a letter [S], and bordered on the west by Pennsylvania and Delaware across the Delaware River, on the north by New York, on the northeast by the Hudson River and New York City, on the east and southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the southwest by Delaware Bay.

The capital of New Jersey is Trenton and the largest city is Newark, though New Jersey is better known for bordering the large cities of New York City and Philadelphia. The state nickname is "The Garden State". The current governor is Phil Murphy.

New Jersey is the fourth smallest state, but has the eleventh highest number of people. It therefore has the highest population density (number of people for the amount of land) in the United States. New Jersey is also well known for its beaches, industries, swamps, and pine forests.

The climate is hot and humid summers and cold winters, with about 1200 mm of precipitation every year. The average temperature in July is 25-30 degrees Celsius and in January around freezing point.

History
Before Europeans came, the land that is now New Jersey was inhabited by the Lenape (also known as Delaware Indians by the English), who were nomads, hunters, and farmers. The Dutch came to the northern area of the state in the 1630s, after Henry Hudson explored the area, thought it was a nice place, and claimed it for the Dutch. Towns quickly sprang up, occupied by the Dutch, Swedes, and Finns. People rushed in. The first towns, such as Bergen (now Jersey City), Trenton (the capitol), and Burlington developed. Many others started themselves upon the west bank of the Hudson. New Jersey was part of the area known at this time as New Netherland.

In 1664, the English took New Netherland from the Dutch and added it to their colonies. This part was renamed New Jersey after an island in the English Channel known as Jersey.

New Jersey took part in the American Revolutionary War, and was a scene of battles. On Christmas in 1776, George Washington's army entered New Jersey to attack British soldiers at Trenton and Princeton. The American army won, in two small but famous battles that were important in boosting American morale.

Later, the rebels drove the British residents out of Princeton and for a time established a national capital there. New Jersey would be the third state to join the United States of America and the first to approve the Bill of Rights.

Counties
New Jersey has 21 counties:

References

 
1787 establishments in the United States
New Hampshire

New Hampshire is a state in northeast United States. It is one of six states in the New England region. The capital is Concord and its largest city is Manchester. The second largest city is Nashua. Other major cities include Keene, Dover, Portsmouth, and Merrimack.

The state motto is "Live Free or Die"  and the nickname is the Granite State.  The state flower is the lilac and the state bird is the purple finch.  New Hampshire is part of New England.  It is bordered by Maine in the East, Massachusetts to the South, Vermont to the West, and Quebec, a Canadian province, to the North.

Its population was estimated to be 1,359,711 in 2019, so it is the ninth smallest state in the United States by population.

New Hampshire's tourist attractions include the Lakes Region, the White Mountains, the autumn leaves, and the New Hampshire Motor Speedway in Loudon.  Some famous people from New Hampshire are Franklin Pierce, Adam Sandler, and members of the band Aerosmith. New Hampshire is also famous for being the first state to vote in the Presidential primaries.

New Hampshire was a British colony before the American War of Independence.  It became the ninth state on June 21, 1788 when it accepted the United States Constitution.

Related pages
 Colleges and universities in New Hampshire
 List of counties in New Hampshire

References 

 
1788 establishments in the United States
Former British colonies
Watch glass

A watch glass is used for temporary storage of solids and sometimes liquids (in small amounts).

Laboratory equipment
Constantinople

Constantinople (; ) was the capital city of the Roman Empire (which historians name the Byzantine Empire) and then the capital of the Ottoman Empire (14531922). The city was in the Balkans, on a peninsula in the Bosphorus, the strait between Europe and Asia Minor.

The Roman emperor, Constantine the Great, built the city in the same place as an older city: Byzantium. In Constantinople's place is now Istanbul, in Turkey.

History 
For centuries the city was not very large, and was called Byzantium. Constantine the Great renamed it for himself and made it his capital. In medieval times different sides tried to conquer it including Crusaders. Constantinople was the capital city of the Latin Empire (12041261). In 1453 the Ottoman sultan Mehmet the Conqueror took control of Constantinople.

Over time, the city's short name in  became the name Istanbul. This name became the city's official name in 1930, during the government of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.

Related pages
 Istanbul

Other websites 
 Monuments of Byzantium  - Pantokrator Monastery of Constantinople
 Mosaics of Hagia Sophia - The Deesis Mosaic from Hagia Sophia
 Constantinoupolis on the web Select internet resources on the history and culture of Constantinople
 Info on the name change from the Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture
 Welcome to Constantinople , documenting the monuments of Byzantine Constantinople, compiled by Robert Ousterhout, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
 Constantinople, from History of the Later Roman Empire, by J.B. Bury

Places of Ancient Rome
Istanbul
Ottoman Empire
Roman Empire
Byzantine Empire
Mohammad Khatami

Seyyed Mohammad Khatami (سید محمد خاتمی), (born October 14, 1943) is an Iranian politician who was President of Iran from August 2, 1997 to August 3, 2005 and was followed by Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. Khatami studied Islamic theology in Qom, and philosophy in Isfahan. Khatami built upon the idea of a lawful state, called Rechtsstaat, of democracy and of social equality. He was the first Iranian president to officially do so. These tenets led to conflicts with the government of Iran. Khatami is seen as a reformist. He is currently a prominent supporter of the Iranian Green Movement, and a critic of the government.

Other websites 
 Biography in I.R.I.B. Archive 
 Biography in Encyclopedia Britannica
 Web site of the International Center for Dialogue Among Civilizations

1943 births
Living people
Iranian politicians
Muslims
Bison

Bison are large, even-toed ungulates.  They are bovines, similar to cows.  They are often called buffalo, but are not closely related to African buffalo or water buffalo.  

Bison live in the northern part of the world.  The American bison lives in North America where they formerly wandered around the prairies in huge herds.  The wisent lives in Europe. Bison can also live in rugged areas.

American 
They are the biggest mammals in North America.   There used to be as many as 30 million bison in the United States, but because of hunting, by 1890, only 1,000 bison were left. Through conservation efforts, there are now more American bison than there used to be, but still far fewer than there were before the 1800s.

European 
European bison (wisent) tend to live in lightly wooded to fully wooded areas and areas with increased shrubs and bushes, though they can also live on grasslands and plains.

Taxonomy 
They are classified in the subfamily Bovinae of the family Bovidae.
 Genus Bison
 American bison (Bison bison)
 Wisent or European bison (Bison bonasus)

Life 
They live to be about 20 years old and are born without their "hump" or horns, which both males and females have. After shedding their light colored hair, and with their horns, they are grown at 2 to 3 years of age, but the males keep growing slowly until about age seven. Adult bulls are very dominant in mating season. Adult bison usually have one or two baby bison.

References 

Bovines
Mammals of North America
Mammals of Europe
Baseball cap

A baseball cap is a type of hat worn by baseball players when they play as part of their team's uniform, but other people wear them as well.

Cap
Headgear
Windows 95

'Windows 95' is an operating system by Microsoft. It was released in August of 1995. It is the first version to be part of Windows 9x. Windows 95 added new features to the last Microsoft Windows. which was Windows 3.x. Windows 95 was the first Windows with the "Start" menu. Since then, the Start menu has been used in all Windows operating systems except Windows 8 and Windows 11. It was also the first Windows that included ways to connect to the [Internet]. Although Windows 95 is thought of as an operating system by itself, it works over MS-DOS. Windows 95 is like a visual version of MS-DOS. This means that Windows 95 can run both MS-DOS programs and Windows ones, but programs made just for Windows 95 will not work in MS-DOS. 

Windows 95 was Microsoft's first operating system to support long file names. Before that, file names could only be eight characters (letters, numbers, or symbols) long, plus the file extension. Windows 95 was also Microsoft's first operating system to fully support CD-ROMs, though Windows 3.x could also access CD-ROMs.

It was popular from 1995 until 1998, when Microsoft replaced it with Windows 98. Microsoft ended extended support for Windows 95 on December 31, 2001.

Editions 
Windows 95 Retail
Windows 95 OSR 1 and SP1
Windows 95 OSR 2.0
Windows 95 OSR 2.1
Windows 95 OSR 2.5

References

Microsoft operating systems
Otto von Bismarck

Prince Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg (1 April 1815 – 30 July 1898) was an aristocrat and statesman of the 19th century in Europe. As Prime Minister of Prussia from 1862 to 1890, he was most responsible for the uniting most of the many independent German countries into the new German Empire in 1871 and became its first chancellor.

He was Graf von Bismarck-Schönhausen (Count Bismarck-Schönhausen) in 1865. In 1871, he eas Fürst von Bismarck (Prince Bismarck). In 1890, he became the Herzog von Lauenburg (Duke of Lauenburg). At first, he did not want to become a duke, but he accepted the title later.

Unification of Germany 
In the 1860s, he engineered a series of wars that lasted until 1871 and unified most of the German states except Austria into a powerful German Empire, which was led by Prussia. He "remained undisputed world champion at the game of multilateral diplomatic chess for almost twenty years after 1871, [and] devoted himself exclusively, and successfully, to maintaining peace between the powers".

Bismarck conducted wars against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866) and France (1871) to make Prussia more powerful. The Franco-Prussian War was very significant in the long run. France lost AlsaceLorraine during the German victory, led by the brilliant Helmuth von Moltke, and the war made Germany the most important country in Central Europe.

After the death of Kaiser Wilhelm I and that of his son, Frederick III, who briefly replaced him in 1888, a new era began without Bismarck and Moltke, and Wilhelm II was now on the throne.

Policy at home 
Bismarck was very conservative, was strongly connected to the monarchy, and disliked democracy. His most important goal was to make Prussia stronger, and he did so by the unification of Germany. Bismarck tried to stop the rise of socialism and to reduce the power of the Catholic Church.

One way to stop socialism was to make the working class happy. He did so by introducing many social reforms like public health and accident insurance, as well as pensions for old people. Bismarck's pension scheme was the forerunner of the modern welfare state in Germany, and many other countries started similar systems.

References 

1815 births
1898 deaths
Chancellors of the German Empire
Ambassadors of Germany
German generals
German nobility
Members of the Reichstag (German Empire)
Prime Ministers of Prussia
People from Prussia
People with foods named after them
Politicians from Saxony-Anhalt
Socialist country

A socialist country is a sovereign state in which everyone in society equally owns the factors of production.  

The four factors of production are labor, capital goods, natural resources and entrepreneurship. 

In a socialist country, people account for individual needs and social needs. The resources of the country go to both types of needs. Social needs include things like education, healthcare, defense, transportation and the preservation of natural resources, as well as caring for people who can't contribute to production (such as children, the elderly and the disabled).

Everyone in a socialist society receives a share of the production based on their individual needs and most things aren’t bought with money because they are distributed based on needs and not on means. If a person wishes to have more goods, they need to find a way for that to become one of their basic needs.

The most socialist countries in the world include:
 China
 North Korea
 Cuba
 Laos
 Vietnam
 Venezuela

Former socialist countries include:
 Soviet Union
 Yugoslavia
 East Germany
 Democratic Kampuchea

A socialist country is vastly different from countries that practice capitalism.

Forms of government
Hamster

Hamsters are rodents belonging to the subfamily Cricetinae. The subfamily contains about 25 species in six or seven genera. They have become established as popular small house pets. They are a bit like a mouse. Wild hamsters live in the desert, but people all over the world keep domesticated hamsters as pets.

In the wild, hamsters are crepuscular and stay underground during the day. They feed on seeds, fruits, and vegetation, and occasionally eat burrowing insects. Hamsters are distinguished by their large cheek pouches, and relatively short tail. They use their long cheek pouches (extending to their shoulders) to carry food back to their burrows.

Hamsters as pets 
There are six main types of hamsters: the Syrian hamster (the kind most people have as pets), winter whites, campbells, the Russian dwarf hamster (a hybrid of winter white and Campbell's dwarf hamsters), the Chinese hamster, and the Roborovski hamster. Unlike other species, the Chinese hamster has a long tail. All Syrian hamsters are the descendants of 12 baby hamsters found in Syria in 1930.

Pet hamsters should live in cages with wood shavings or recycled newspaper (pine or cedar shavings are toxic to hamsters). Plain toilet paper is also a cheap, safe option, but straw should only be given in small amounts. Hamsters eat mostly hamster food sold at a pet shop, but they can also eat many vegetables and fruits in small portions. Hamsters store food in natural pouches in the sides of their mouths.

Because they are rodents, hamster incisors grow constantly. They need wooden blocks and hard food to wear the teeth down and prevent them from getting too long. Most hamsters also have a wheel to run on for exercise. A 6 inch (15 cm) wheel is recommended for most dwarf hamsters, and at least an eight-inch (20 cm) wheel for Syrians. If the wheel is too small, the hamster's spine can become bent. Some people get other kinds of exercise equipment for their hamsters, like a "hamster ball" in which the hamster can roll around the floor (though these are not recommended by some animal welfare groups), or a long network of tubes with air holes for hamsters to crawl through. They should live in a tank or cage. Hamsters are not recommended for young children.

References
Agnosticism

Agnosticism is the philosophical view that it is unknown (or even, unknowable) whether any deities (god or gods) exist or not. Some people who call themselves "agnostic" say that it is not possible for anyone ever to know if there are any deities or not. Other agnostics, though, say only that they themselves currently do not know if there are any deities.

Thomas Henry Huxley, the English biologist, coined the word "agnostic" in 1869. In 1889 he wrote "Agnosticism... is not a creed, but a method... the fundamental axiom of modern science...  In matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable".

There are several different kinds of agnosticism:
 Absolute agnosticism (also called hard agnosticism, closed agnosticism, strict agnosticism, strong agnosticism) is the belief that it is not possible to know whether a god/gods exists or not.
 Empirical agnosticism (also called soft agnosticism, open agnosticism, weak agnosticism, temporal agnosticism) is the belief that at present there is  not enough information to know whether any god/gods exists or not, but that we might find out someday.
 Apathetic agnosticism is the belief that it does not matter whether any god/gods exists or not.

People often have difficulty telling agnosticism and atheism apart. Atheists do not believe in the existence of deities, and some say that they are sure that no deity exists. Some (perhaps most) atheists, though, say that it is up to theists (people who believe in a deity) to give the evidence for a god or to show why someone should believe in a god. They state that there is neither enough evidence nor a strong enough argument to believe any gods exist, and so they reject belief that any exist. While agnostics think we cannot know for sure whether any deities exist, some agnostics do believe at least one deity exists.  These people are both agnostic and theistic—they believe at least one deity exists, but do not claim to know that to be true. Some people are both atheist and agnostic—they reject belief in any deities without claiming to know that deities do not exist. Some agnostics just cannot themselves decide whether to believe any deities exist or not.

Beliefs related to agnosticism 

 Ignosticism is the belief that the idea of god/gods does not have a good enough definition, so saying "god exists" or "god does not exist" does not mean anything. Some people think ignosticism is a kind of agnosticism, some people think it is a kind of atheism, and some people think it is different from both. 
 Agnostic theism is when people mostly believe in god/gods but are not completely certain.
 Agnostic atheism is the view that a god/gods may or may not exist, but there is no good reason to believe they do.
 Post-theism is the view that religion used to be important, but is not anymore.

Related pages
 Atheism
 Religion
 Humanism
 Skepticism

References 

Religion
Grunge music

Grunge music or Seattle sound (as it is called sometimes) is a style of rock music that has elements of punk rock and heavy metal. It started in the mid- 1980s in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, especially in the states of Washington and Oregon. It became more popular in the early 1990s. Grunge songs often had lyrics with nihilism, depression, unhappiness, or apathy as themes. The widespread use of heroin as a recreational drug found its way into the lyrics and careers of numerous grunge rockers, notably Kurt Cobain and Layne Staley of "Alice in Chains".

The songs often had light (or clean) guitar sounds in the verses, and the high energy boost of distorted (or dirty) guitars in the choruses. The line-up for these bands was the typical rock band of guitars, bass, drums and vocal.

Although grunge as a movement became less popular by the last 1990s, its influence is still heard in many bands. Grunge musical sounds were copied by post-grunge bands such as Foo Fighters and Nickelback and nu metal bands such as Korn and Limp Bizkit.

Sound
Grunge music uses music from punk rock and heavy metal. Grunge guitar players use distorted electric guitar. Like punk and heavy metal, grunge bands use electric guitar, bass guitar, a drummer and a singer.

Grunge artists

Some well known grunge artists were:
 Alice in Chains
 Bush
 Smashing Pumpkins
 Hole
 Melvins, The
 Mother Love Bone
 Mudhoney
 Nirvana
 Pearl Jam
 Screaming Trees
 Soundgarden
 Stone Temple Pilots
 Tad
 Temple of the Dog

References 

Rock music
Alternative music
Music in Seattle, Washington
Punk rock
Carly Simon

Carly Simon (born June 25, 1945) is an American singer-songwriter and occasional children's book author. She was born in New York City to businessman Richard L. Simon (1899-1960) and Andrea Heinemann Simon (1909-1994). She was raised in Riverdale, The Bronx. She has two sisters: singer Joanna Simon (born 1940) and composer Lucy Simon (born 1943). She also has a brother, photographer Peter Simon. 

Simon's songs include: "You're So Vain", "Nobody Does It Better", "Coming Around Again" and "Let the River Run".

Other websites 

1945 births
Living people
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters
Singer-songwriters from New York
Golden Globe Award winners
Grammy Award winners
Singers from New York City
Warner Bros. Records artists
Saludemos la Patria orgullosos

"Saludemos la Patria orgullosos" ("Salute the Motherland Proudly") is the national anthem of El Salvador.

English Translation 

CHORUS:
Let us salute the motherland,
Proud to be called her children.
To her well-being let us swear
Boldly and unceasingly to devote our lives.

Devote our lives! (repeat 4 times)
Of peace enjoyed in perfect happiness,
El Salvador has always nobly dreamed.
To achieve this has been her eternal proposition,
To keep it, her greatest glory.
With inviolable faith, she eagerly follows
The way of progress
In order to fulfil her high destiny
And achieve a happy future.
A stern barrier protects her
Against the clash of vile disloyalty,
Ever since the day when her lofty banner,
In letters of blood, wrote "Freedom",
Wrote "Freedom", wrote "Freedom". 

CHORUS 

Freedom is her dogma and her guide;
A thousand times she has defended it,
And as many times has she repelled
The hateful power of atrocious tyranny.
Her history has been bloody and sad,
Yet at the same time sublime and brilliant,
A source of legitimate glory
And a great lesson in Spartan pride.
Her innate bravery shall not waver:
In every man there is an immortal hero
Who knows how to maintain the level
Of the proverbial valour of old.

CHORUS

All are self-denying and faithful
To the tradition of warlike ardour
With which they have always reaped fame
By saving the motherland's honour.
To respect the rights of others
And base her actions on right and justice
Is for her, without infamous intrigue,
The constant and most firm ambition.
And in following this line she persists,
Dedicating her tenacious efforts
In giving hard battle for battle;
Her happiness is found in peace.

CHORUS

Other websites 
 http://saludemos-la-patria-orgullosos.ask.dyndns.dk/

National anthems
El Salvador
Sanford Dole

Sanford Dole (April 23, 1844 – June 9, 1926) was an American politician. Dole was a part of a group of businessmen who first forced a new Hawaiian national constitution on the country during King David Kalakaua's reign and then after his death removed Queen Liliuokalani from the throne and took control of the country in 1893. They removed the queen by threatening to use the warships of the U.S. Navy had in Honolulu harbor. 

Queen Liliuokalani did not want her people to be harmed so she agreed to do what the revolutionists wanted.  The Queen went to Washington and talked to the American President, Grover Cleveland.  Cleveland decided that this had been an act of war against the Hawaiian Kingdom.  Cleveland ordered Sanford Dole, the President of the newly formed republic, to make Liliuokalani the queen again.  

Dole refused to do this. He said that President Cleveland was interfering.  Dole remained the president of Hawaii from 1894 until 1900 after Cleveland was elected out of office.  The newly elected American president William McKinley signed the Newsland Resolution. The Newsland Resolution made Hawaii a territory of the United States.  This ended any legal or military chance of restoring the Queen and the Hawaiian Kingdom.

Dole served as governor of Hawaii from 1900 until 1903, he was the first when he accepted a position as United States District Court judge. He remained a judge until 1915.

Governors of Hawaii
Hawaii
1844 births
1926 deaths
Brisbane

Brisbane (local nickname Brissie) is the seaport capital city and biggest city of Queensland in Australia. It has a population of 2.2 million people and is the third biggest city in Australia, after Sydney and Melbourne.

The central city is on the Brisbane River,  inland from Moreton Bay.

Brisbane is named after the Brisbane River, which is named after Sir Thomas Brisbane who was Governor of New South Wales from 1821 - 1825.

A penal colony was founded at Redcliffe,  to the north, in 1824. It was moved to North Quay in 1825. The first free settlers moved to Brisbane in 1842. Brisbane became the capital city when Queensland became a separate colony from New South Wales in 1859.

Brisbane has more than 50 skyscrapers more than  tall.

Climate 
Brisbane has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa). Summers are hot and wet. Winters are warm and quite dry.

Thunderstorms happen a lot from November to March every year. Very heavy thunderstorms caused big floods and a lot of damage in February 1893, January 1974, January 2011 and January 2013.

The warmest recorded temperature in Brisbane was  on 26 January 1940 and the coldest was  on 2 July 1896.

Local government 

The City of Brisbane, run by Brisbane City Council, covers a big part of the suburbs close to the city. The outer suburbs are part of Logan City to the south, Moreton Bay Region to the north, the City of Ipswich to the south west, Redland City to the south east, with a small part in the Scenic Rim Region to the west.

Education 
Brisbane has many universities and colleges including University of Queensland, Queensland University of Technology and Griffith University. The Australian Catholic University, Central Queensland University, James Cook University, University of Southern Queensland and the University of the Sunshine Coast each have a campus in Brisbane.

There are three big vocational schools in Brisbane - Brisbane North Institute of TAFE, Metropolitan South Institute of TAFE and Southbank Institute of TAFE.

Most primary schools and secondary schools are run by the Queensland Government. There are also private, Catholic and other Christian schools.

Sport 

Brisbane hosted the 1982 Commonwealth Games, the 1988 World Exposition (called World Expo 88), and some games at the 1987 Rugby World Cup and 2001 Cricket World Cup.

Big sports stadiums include the Brisbane Cricket Ground, Lang Park, Ballymore Stadium and the Queensland Sport and Athletics Centre.

Brisbane has teams in all Australian sports competitions.

Related pages
 List of tallest buildings in Brisbane

References

Other websites 

 City of Brisbane
 Official tourism website of Brisbane

 
1825 establishments
1820s establishments in Australia
Skinhead

Skinheads, named after their short haircuts, are members of a subculture that originated in Britain in late 1960s, where they were closely tied to the Rude Boys and the Mods. They shave their heads, because originally most of them were workers in factories and they had to be bald, so their hair could not get caught in the machines. 

Traditional skinheads identify with the original skinhead movement ("The Spirit of '69") in music, style, and/or working class pride. Skinheads listen to ska, rocksteady, reggae, Oi! and punk music.

People who are not part of the group often see Skinheads as being politically close to the Neo-Nazi (or White Power) movement. Often Skinheads are seen as part of that movement. This is wrong, given that there are many young people in the movement who have no political views at all. Many Skinheads are also not violent, unless they are provoked.

Other websites 
 Libcom.org: A Brief History of Skinhead Culture
 Reggae, Reggae, Reggae  The Skinhead Movement and Reggae Music
 Papaskin American skinhead web site with news, images, forum, etc.
 Aussie Skins Australian skinhead web site with news, images, forum, etc.
 Oi! the Truth  History of Oi! according to Garry Bushell
 SHARP Skinheads  UK skinhead site with news, images, forum, etc.
 Skins and Punks in Indonesia! 1400 Photos

Lifestyles
Sudan

Sudan is a country in Africa. The official name of Sudan is The Republic of the Sudan. Its capital and largest city is Khartoum.

Geography 
Sudan borders by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, and Libya to the northwest. Sudan has a sea to the northeast called the Red Sea.

Sudan used to have the largest area of all the countries in Africa.  However, on July 9, 2011, the southern part of the country left and became a new country, South Sudan. Sudan now has an area of . It is the third largest country in Africa by area.  The Nile flows through Sudan, providing water to crops.  There are many different tribal and ethnic groups, though the country is mainly divided between the north, which has more Arabic people, and the south, which has more people of African descent.

Culture 
People from Sudan are called Sudanese. About 45 million people live in Sudan. About 4 million of these live in Khartoum or in towns that are joined to it.

Arabic is the official language of Sudan, but people also speak Nubian, Nilotic and English. Many other languages are spoken in different parts of the country as well.

Most Sudanese people have Islam as their religion. A small number are Christian. Some people have other religions that are called tribal (local) beliefs.

The currency of Sudan is called the Sudanese Pound (Jinneh).

The current leader of Sudan is Acting President Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf.

War 
For several years, the Darfur conflict has been going on in Sudan. Over 400,000 people have died in it.

Related pages 
List of rivers of Sudan
Sudan at the Olympics
Sudan national football team
Muhammed Ahmed, the Mahdi

References

Other websites

 
English-speaking countries
Least developed countries
Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
1956 establishments in Africa
OpenBSD

OpenBSD is a secure, free computer operating system. It can run on many types of computers, including Intel PCs and Apple Computer's PowerPCs.

Like the other open source BSDs and unlike with most Linux operating systems, the whole operating system is developed by the same group of people with OpenBSD. Programmes from other sources are available separately.

OpenBSD is often the first to add new security tools to make it harder to break, developers have also carefully read through the programming code to check for mistakes more than once. The project is led by Theo de Raadt from Calgary, Alberta, Canada and is released under conditions which put few restrictions on people that use the source code, the BSD licence.

OpenBSD releases new versions every six months, each version is supported for one year after release. OpenBSD 4.4 was released November 1, 2008.

OpenBSD's first mascot was a BSD daemon with a halo, it was replaced with Puffy, a pufferfish, on June 15th, 2000, with the release of OpenBSD 2.7.

The operating system's developers add in many new technologies to make the system more secure, technologies like W^X, Stack Protection, malloc reconfigurations and ssh to replace telnet and rlogin.

Because it is so secure, OpenBSD is often used as a firewall and for other security-related jobs. It is also usable for on a desktop computer, it can act and look like one of several other operating systems like Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows, and others.

Related pages
 NetBSD
 FreeBSD
 DragonFly BSD
 POSSE project
 KAME project

Other websites 

 The OpenBSD homepage
 OpenBSD journal
 O'Reilly Network: An Interview with OpenBSD's Marc Espie
 One floppy OpenBSD MP3 Player and router/NAT/Firewall
 mdoc.su — short manual page URLs, a URL shortener written in nginx
 OpenBSD ports — full-text search to find applications ported to OpenBSD and available to install as packages
 BXR.SU — OpenBSD source code search (can be useful to see if your new computer parts are supported)

BSD
Free software
Operating systems
Civil war

A civil war is a war that takes place between two or more groups in one country. While civil wars can take place for many of reasons, there are two common reasons.

The first is because the different groups disagree about who should be in charge, or how the country should be run. If two political parties disagree about the result of an election, this might lead to a war if the two sides cannot or would not come to an agreement.

The second is because one group of people does not want to be part of the country anymore. This is known as a war of secession. Lots of people living in a certain area might decide that they want independence to make their own country. Very few national leaders would be happy to give up land that is part of that country, and a war could result.

Sometimes the people who want to break away do not necessarily want to form a whole new country, but they might want more autonomy over their affairs. This happens sometimes when different ethnic groups belong to the same nation.

Civil wars can go on for many years and be just as destructive and damaging as international wars. Civil wars tend to become complicated very quickly. A civil war might start between two sides, but groups might break up and the new, different sides could start fighting each other. Groups who were not involved at the beginning can easily be sucked in, as they fight to defend themselves against both sides. Civil wars with many different sides all fighting each other have occurred. Sometimes foreign countries help one side, or different countries help different sides. This can become a proxy war.

Civil wars include:
 English Civil War (1642–1651)
 American Civil War (1861–1865)
 Chinese Civil War (1927–1949)
 Vietnam War (1955–1975)
 Mexican Revolution (1911–1920)
 Russian Civil War (1917–1921)
 Finnish Civil War (1918)
 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)
 Pakistan Civil War (1971)
 Sri Lankan Civil War (1983–2009)
 Syrian Civil War (2011–present)

References
1232



Events 
 In Korea, the printing press is invented.
1558



Events 
 November 17 – Elizabeth I becomes Queen of England.
Sea level

For the effects of global warming on sea levels, see global warming

The sea level is the average height of the ocean (informally called the sea). The word 'average' must be used because the height of the sea changes with the tides. The height of mountains, countries, and so on, is almost always given as "above sea level".

Technical details 
Sea level is generally used to refer to mean sea level (MSL). This is the average level for the surface of one or more of Earth's oceans. 

MSL is a type of standardised geodetic reference point. It is used, for example, as a geodetic datum in cartography and marine navigation. In aviation it is the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured. This is used to calibrate altitude, which influences aircraft flight levels. A common mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular place.

Sea levels can be affected by many factors. They have varied greatly over geological time scales. The careful measurement of variations in MSL offers insights into ongoing climate change. The present slight rise in sea levels is offered as proof of ongoing global warming.

Long-term changes in sea level 

In Earth's long history, the continents and sea floor have changed due to plate tectonics. This affects global sea level because it alters the depths of various ocean basins, and also changes the distribution of glaciers. 

Over most of geologic time, the long-term mean sea level has been higher than today (see graph). Only at the Permian-Triassic boundary ~250 million years ago was the long-term mean sea level lower than today. This included the PermianTriassic extinction event, though this may not be relevant to the concept of sea level.

Long term changes in the mean sea level are the result of changes in the oceanic crust, with a downward trend expected to continue in the very long term.

Rapid changes in sea level 
Rapid changes may happen by huge lakes breaking through into seas. This has happened on a number of occasions. When the latest ice age was ending, melting caused huge lakes in central North America. This eventually broke through into the Atlantic. Melting ice in the North Sea are also broke through into the English Channel. The largest known example of marine flooding was when the Atlantic breached the Strait of Gibraltar about 5.2 million years ago. This restored Mediterranean sea levels, which had dried up.

The present rise in sea level is taken from tide gauges. It is about 1.8 mm/yr. Active research continues in this field.

References

Other websites 
 Flooding, food and climate change in Bangladesh
 Sea level rise - How much and how fast will sea level rise over the coming centuries? Past 
 Sea level rise - How much and how fast will sea level rise over the coming centuries? Present 

Oceans
Seas
Climate change
Sublime

Sublime was a popular punk/ska rock band. The band was formed in 1988 in Long Beach, California. They have released popular hit singles like "Date Rape", "Doin' Time", "Santeria" and "What I Got".

Sublime broke up 1996, because singer, guitarist and songwriter Bradley Nowell died. He died in a hotel room in San Francisco, California on May 25th of the same year from a heroin overdose. He was 28 years old. Their third and final album Sublime was released two months after Nowell's death. The album's song "What I Got" was what made Sublime famous.

Sublime has sold over 8 million albums around the world.

Cultural references 
A few of Sublimes songs have been used in video games. "Santeria" was included in Guitar Hero World Tour. 
The song "Seed" was included in Tony Hawk's Underground and the song "What I Got" was included in Dave Mirra Freestyle BMX.

Discography

Albums

Compilations and live albums

Singles

References

Other websites 

 

1988 establishments in California
1996 disestablishments in the United States
American punk bands
Musical groups from Long Beach, California
1990s disestablishments in California
Black Flag

Black Flag was an American hardcore punk band. They formed in California in 1976 and broke up in 1986. There were many different members in the band, but the leader was Greg Ginn. Ginn was the guitarist and wrote many of the songs.

Black Flag was one of the groups that created the hardcore punk style. They toured the United States and Canada to play many live shows. They influenced many other musicians and fans to make their own hardcore bands. The band's first album, Damaged (1981), has been recognized as a classic punk album and one of the most influential punk records ever made.

After breaking up, the lead singer Henry Rollins formed a new band by himself, Rollins Band and guitarist Greg Ginn worked on a separate career in the early 90s.

1970s American music groups
1980s American music groups
American punk bands
Musical groups from Los Angeles
Musical groups established in 1976
1976 establishments in California
Musical groups disestablished in 1986
1980s disestablishments in California
Musical groups established in 2003
2003 establishments in California
Musical groups disestablished in 2003
2003 disestablishments in the United States
2000s disestablishments in California
Tarika

Tarika is the Arabic word for a Sufi order in Islam. The first Tarikas were founded in the 12th and 13th century and many of them still exist today. The head of a Tarika is called a sheikh, the disciples are called dervishes.

Islam
Crazy Frog

The Crazy Frog is a 3D animated creature, featured on music albums.

History
Before becoming a ringtone to download  onto mobile phones, The Crazy Frog started as a TruboForce 3D animated creature. It was called “The Annoying Thing” in 2003 by its creator, Erik Wernquist of Sweden. With big eyes and a bigger mouth, the high resolution anthropomorphic “thing” is dappled grey-blue and nude save for a helmet, goggles and biker vest. All original videos and images also show small male humanoid genital in a relaxed state that move realistically. Some sources pixel out or remove the genitals.

Music remixes
Members of Bass Bumpers had a dance remix of Harold Faltermeyer’s “Axel F”  in early-2005, the Beverly Hills Cop theme, adding Daniel Malmedahl’s impression of a moped engine (Ring-a-ding-dong) and a Max Headroom, “What’s going on?” (among other dubbed words). In the music video for that remix the “Thing” says featured bites from Daniel’s bit (Ding, ding.) and zooms around on a mimed bike to escape a robot minion on a hover bike. 

The internet and media dubbed it both a Frog and crazy. Erik went along with it.

First, it was simply a vocal imitation of a two stroke, internal combustion engine. Daniel Malmedahl of Sweden created a recording of his imitation in 1997 that eventually spread through peer to peer file sharing on the Internet.

Sales and revenue
The company that sells Crazy Frog ringtones (Jamba!) has made £14 million from it.

Animated characters
Edip Yuksel

Edip Yüksel (born December 20, 1957 in Güroymak, Turkey) is an American thinker and activist. He has written many books on the Qur'an and is very an influential figure in modern Islamic reform. Yüksel was a student of Rashad Khalifa and was a member of his group United Submitters International. He sometimes works as a legal researcher and a community college teacher, but is mostly a supporter to change the Islamic religion. He lives in Tucson, Arizona.

Some works in English 
 The Prime Argument/Asal Tartışma (1995). An argument with 2 "rounds", or parts, with Professor Carl Sagan on how the Qur'an is set up and what it means to the people who follow it.
 Running Like Zebras (1995). An Internet debate with Abdurrahman Lomax on how the Qur'an is set up.
 Unorthodox Essays (1994). A small book that has essays on loaning people money with unfair amounts to pay back, beating up wives, and abortion. One of the essays, "Distinguished usury from interest" suggested a new way to translate for the verse 4:34 in the Qur'an.
 Nineteen Questions for Christian Clergy/Hristiyan Din Adamlarına 19 Soru (1993–1999). A study about the Christian religion and what is taught to people who are Christians.
 Nineteen Questions for Muslim Clergy/Müslüman Din Adamlarına 19 Soru (1991). Some questions to the leaders of the Muslim faith about how much power they should have and if what they teach is biased, or narrow-minded.

Other websites 

 Edip Yüksel's official site
 Online Quran Project includes the Qur'an translation by Edip Yüksel.

1957 births
Living people
Turkish writers
Writers from Tucson, Arizona
Muslims
American activists
Quran
Naturalized citizens of the United States