cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Napoleon II of France

Napoléon François Charles Joseph Bonaparte (20 March 1811 – 22 July 1832) was the son of Napoleon and Marie Louise of Austria.

Biography

Early Life
Napoléon II was born in Paris in 1811. In 1814, Napoleon I was defeated by the Sixth Coalition and then forced to resign by his own officers. Napoleon I originally wanted Napoleon II to succeed him, but this was rejected by the coalition. Napoleon II and his mother went into exile in Austria, while Napoleon I was exiled to Elba. In 1815, Napoleon I escaped and retook control of France, but was forced to resign again after his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo.

Emperor of the French
Napoleon was arguably the Emperor of the French in late June and early July 1815.

Life in Austria

Napoleon spent most of his life in Austria, where he was known as Franz. He became the Duke of Reichstadt at the age of 7 and joined the Austrian Army at the age of 12.

Napoleon enjoyed a close relationship with Princess Sophie of Bavaria. It has been claimed that he was the father of Sophie's son, the future Maximilian I of Mexico, but this is widely rejected by historians.

Death
Napoleon died of tuberculosis on July 22, 1832.

Remains
In 1940, Adolf Hitler had Napoleon's remains moved from Vienna to the dome of Les Invalides in Paris. His remains were buried next to his father's for some time, but were later moved to the lower church.

Legacy

 Napoleon II was also known as "The Eaglet" (L'Aiglon). Edmond Rostand wrote a play, L'Aiglon, about his life. 
 Serbian composer Petar Stojanović composed an operetta about him in the 1920s. 
 Arthur Honegger and Jacques Ibert worked together on an opera, L'Aiglon, which premiered in 1937. 
 The journalist Henri Rochefort joked that Napoleon II, having never really governed, was France's best leader, since he brought no war, taxes or tyranny.

Sources 
 Welschinger, Le roi de Rome, 1811-32, (Paris, 1897)
 Wertheimer, The Duke of Reichstadt, (London, 1905)

1811 births
1832 deaths

French people
Princes of Andorra
House of Bonaparte
Cristian Chivu

Cristian Chivu (born 26 October 1980) is a Romanian football player. He plays for Internazionale Milano and Romania national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1996/97||rowspan="2"|Reşiţa||Divizia B||1||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||1||0
|-
|1997/98||Divizia A||23||2||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||23||2
|-
|1998/99||rowspan="2"|Universitatea Craiova||rowspan="2"|Divizia A||26||3||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||26||3
|-
|1999/00||6||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||6||0

|-
|1999/00||rowspan="4"|Ajax||rowspan="4"|Eredivisie||23||1||colspan="2"|-||4||0||27||1
|-
|2000/01||26||5||colspan="2"|-||4||0||30||5
|-
|2001/02||32||1||colspan="2"|-||6||0||38||1
|-
|2002/03||26||6||colspan="2"|-||12||0||38||6

|-
|2003/04||rowspan="4"|Roma||rowspan="4"|Serie A||22||2||2||0||4||0||28||2
|-
|2004/05||10||2||4||0||1||0||15||2
|-
|2005/06||27||2||7||0||4||0||38||2
|-
|2006/07||26||0||7||0||8||0||41||0
|-
|2007/08||rowspan="3"|Internazionale Milano||rowspan="3"|Serie A||26||0||4||0||6||0||36||0
|-
|2008/09||21||0||2||0||2||0||25||0
|-
|2009/10||||||||||||||||
56||5||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||56||5
107||13||colspan="2"|-||26||0||133||13
132||6||26||0||25||0||183||6
295||24||26||0||51||0||372||24
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1999||1||0
|-
|2000||10||1
|-
|2001||8||0
|-
|2002||6||1
|-
|2003||9||0
|-
|2004||2||1
|-
|2005||6||0
|-
|2006||6||0
|-
|2007||8||0
|-
|2008||7||0
|-
|2009||6||0
|-
!Total||69||3
|}

References

1980 births
Living people
Romanian footballers
Cesare Bovo

Cesare Bovo (born 14 January 1983) is an Italian football player. He plays for Città di Palermo.

Club career statistics 

|-
|2001/02||Roma||Serie A||0||0||1||0||0||0||1||0
|-
|2002/03||rowspan="2"|Lecce||Serie B||11||0||2||0||colspan="2"|-||13||0
|-
|2003/04||Serie A||19||2||0||0||colspan="2"|-||19||2
|-
|2004/05||Parma||Serie A||31||2||1||0||8||0||40||2
|-
|2005/06||Roma||Serie A||22||0||5||0||7||1||34||1
|-
|2006/07||Città di Palermo||Serie A||1||0||1||0||0||0||2||0
|-
|2006/07||Torino||Serie A||7||1||0||0||colspan="2"|-||7||1
|-
|2007/08||Genoa||Serie A||27||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||27||0
|-
|2008/09||rowspan="2"|Città di Palermo||rowspan="2"|Serie A||28||1||1||0||colspan="2"|-||29||1
|-
|2009/10||||||||||||||||
146||6||12||0||15||1||173||7
146||6||12||0||15||1||173||7

1983 births
Living people
Italian footballers
Sportspeople from Rome
Edgar Álvarez

Edgar Álvarez (born 9 January 1980) is a Honduran football player. He plays for Bari and Honduras national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1996/97||rowspan="7"|Platense||rowspan="7"|Liga Nacional||0||0
|-
|1997/98||0||0
|-
|1998/99||0||0
|-
|1999/00||21||2
|-
|2000/01||39||4
|-
|2001/02||32||2
|-
|2002/03||0||0

|-
|2003||rowspan="2"|Peñarol||rowspan="2"|Primera División||15||0
|-
|2004||11||0

|-
|2004/05||Cagliari||Serie A||15||1
|-
|2005/06||Roma||Serie A||20||0
|-
|2006/07||Messina Peloro||Serie A||32||2
|-
|2007/08||Roma||Serie A||1||0
|-
|2007/08||Livorno||Serie A||8||0
|-
|2008/09||Pisa||Serie B||27||5
|-
|2009/10||Bari||Serie A||||
92||8
26||0
103||8
221||16
|}

International career statistics

|-
|2001||3||0
|-
|2002||4||0
|-
|2003||16||2
|-
|2004||9||1
|-
|2005||0||0
|-
|2006||0||0
|-
|2007||8||0
|-
|2008||1||0
|-
|2009||3||0
|-
|2010||||
|-
!Total||44||3
|}

References

1980 births
Living people
Honduran footballers
Shosuke Katayama

Shosuke Katayama (born 8 September 1983) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Yokohama.

Club career statistics

|-
|2002||rowspan="3"|Kokushikan University||rowspan="3"|Football League||4||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||5||0
|-
|2003||3||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||3||0
|-
|2004||5||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||5||0
|-
|2006||rowspan="3"|Nagoya Grampus Eight||rowspan="3"|J. League 1||9||0||0||0||3||0||12||0
|-
|2007||15||1||1||0||5||1||21||2
|-
|2008||1||0||0||0||1||0||2||0
|-
|2009||rowspan="2"|Yokohama||rowspan="2"|J. League 2||46||0||2||0||colspan="2"|-||48||0
|-
|2010||||||||||||||||
83||1||4||0||9||1||96||2
83||1||4||0||9||1||96||2
|}

References

1983 births
Living people
Footballers from Nara Prefecture
Eusebio Sacristán

Eusebio Sacristán (born 13 April 1964) is a former Spanish football player. He has played for Spain national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1983/84||rowspan="4"|Real Valladolid||rowspan="4"|La Liga||11||0
|-
|1984/85||32||2
|-
|1985/86||33||4
|-
|1986/87||41||7
|-
|1987/88||Atlético Madrid||La Liga||27||3
|-
|1988/89||rowspan="7"|Barcelona||rowspan="7"|La Liga||37||4
|-
|1989/90||36||3
|-
|1990/91||32||2
|-
|1991/92||30||4
|-
|1992/93||32||1
|-
|1993/94||20||0
|-
|1994/95||16||0
|-
|1995/96||rowspan="2"|Celta Vigo||rowspan="2"|La Liga||35||1
|-
|1996/97||32||0
|-
|1997/98||rowspan="5"|Real Valladolid||rowspan="5"|La Liga||26||1
|-
|1998/99||21||0
|-
|1999/00||28||1
|-
|2000/01||28||3
|-
|2001/02||26||0
543||36
543||36

International career statistics

|-
|1986||1||0
|-
|1987||0||0
|-
|1988||1||0
|-
|1989||6||0
|-
|1990||0||0
|-
|1991||5||0
|-
|1992||2||0
|-
!Total||15||0
|}

References

1964 births
Living people
Spanish footballers
Spanish football managers
Naoki Urata

Naoki Urata (born 27 June 1974) is a former Japanese football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|1997||rowspan="5"|Kawasaki Frontale||rowspan="2"|Football League||4||2||0||0||colspan="2"|-||4||2
|-
|1998||13||0||1||1||2||2||16||3
|-
|1999||J. League 2||28||6||2||2||1||0||31||8
|-
|2000||J. League 1||13||2||0||0||2||0||15||2
|-
|2001||J. League 2||0||0||0||0||1||0||1||0
|-
|2002||Ventforet Kofu||J. League 2||10||1||0||0||colspan="2"|-||10||1
68||11||3||3||6||2||77||16
68||11||3||3||6||2||77||16
|}

References

1974 births
Living people
Footballers from Saitama Prefecture
Maximilian I of Mexico

Maximilian I of Mexico (1832 – 1867) was a member of the Imperial House of Habsburg-Lorraine. 
After a distinguished career in the Austrian Navy he was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico, during the Second Mexican Empire.

His father was Archduke Franz Karl, the second surviving son of Emperor Francis II of Austria, during whose reign he was born. Maximilian was thus a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, a female-line cadet branch of the House of Habsburg. His older brother was the reigning Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and their mother was Princess Sophie of Bavaria, a member of the House of Wittelsbach.

Many Europeans, and Viennese in particular, suspected that he was actually fathered by Napoleon II of France. There was a close relationship between Sophie and Napoleon II. It was said that Sophie never recovered after his death and that she blamed it on Metternich for the rest of her life.

Maximilian ruled as the Emperor of Mexico from 1864 to 1867. He was installed by occupying French forces under Napoleon III. When the French left in 1867, Maximilian refused to go with them, believing he had the support of the people.

Maximilian was shocked by the living conditions of the poor in contrast to the magnificent haciendas of the upper class. His wife Empress Carlota of Mexico began holding parties for the wealthy Mexicans to raise money for poor houses. One of Maximilian's first acts as Emperor was to restrict working hours and abolish child labour. He cancelled all debts for peasants over 10 pesos, restored communal property and forbade all forms of corporal punishment. He  supported land reforms, religious freedom, and extending the right to vote beyond the landholding class. These liberal policies caused opposition from the wealthy and the landowners, led by Benito Juárez under the banner of republicanism.

Maximilian was captured by Benito Juarez’s Republican forces and executed by firing squad on 19 June 1867.

References 

Emperors and empresses
History of Mexico
House of Habsburg-Lorraine
People executed by firearm
1832 births
1867 deaths
Initiation

Initiation is a ceremony at the entrance or acceptance into a group or society. It can also be a formal admission to adulthood in a community. Rites of passage such as Christian baptism or confirmation, or Jewish bar or bat mitzvah, or graduation from school, are initiations. Acceptance into a fraternal organization like the freemasons or religious order like the Benedictines is also an initiation. A person taking the initiation ceremony is called an initiate.

Etymology
The English word comes from the Latin, initium: "entrance" or "beginning. The related English verb, initiate, means to begin or start a particular action.

Tribal initiations
Tribes often have initiations. In many African tribes, initiation means circumcision of males and sometimes circumcision/genital mutilation of females.  Initiation is thought to be necessary for the individual to be regarded as a full member of the tribe. Otherwise, the individual may not be allowed to take part in ceremonies or even in social ritual such as marriage. A man will not be allowed to marry or have any special relationship with a woman who didn't go to an initiation, because she is not considered as a woman.

Initiation may be thought of as an event which may help teens prepare themselves to be good husbands and wives. Because of modernization initiation is not taken so seriously as before, but there are still certain areas which still perform initiations.

In some African tribes, boys have initiation rites for 3–4 months and girls for 1–2 months.

Australian Aboriginal tribes usually had long periods of time to help prepare adolescent boys, teaching them the Law before they were ready to attend large elaborate ceremonies at the time of initiation when they were finally recognized as men in their society. Most tribes had circumcision and scarification as part of the male initiation rituals, while many Central Australian tribes also practiced subincision.

Notes

Literature 

Mircea Eliade, Rites and Symbols of Initiation, first edition, New York, NY Harper and Row, 1958.

Culture
Bar and Bat Mitzvah

In Judaism, a Bar Mitzvah is a Jewish boy, and a Bat Mitzvah a Jewish girl, who has turned 13 years old (or for a girl in the Orthodox movement, 12 years old). They go through a rite of passage which symbolizes the young person's responsibility for themselves. 
 
Before the bar mitzvah, the child's parents hold the responsibility for the child's actions. After this age, the boys and girls bear their own responsibility, and are able to participate in all areas of Jewish community life. It marks their coming of age. The terms are also used for the ceremony celebrating this event. 

 Bar Mitzvah (pl. B'nai Mitzvah) comes from the Aramaic , "one (m.) to whom the commandments apply". (If it were Hebrew it would be  (ben) not  (bar).  is "son" in Aramaic, and  (ben) is son in Hebrew.).
 Bat Mitzvah (pl. B'not Mitzvah) is , "one (f.) to whom the commandments apply" (Ashkenazi: Bas Mitzvah).

According to Jewish law, when Jewish children reach the age of majority (generally thirteen years for boys and twelve for girls.) Then they become responsible for their actions, and "become a Bar or Bat Mitzvah". This is also the time when physical puberty normally begins. Before this the child's parents have the responsibility that the child follows Jewish law and tradition and, after this age, children have their own responsibility for Jewish ritual law, tradition, and ethics and have the right to take part in all areas of Jewish community life.

References

Further reading 
Oppenheimer, Mark.  Thirteen and a Day: The Bar and Bat Mitzvah across America.  New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2005.

Other websites 
 Schauss, Hayyim. History of Bar Mitzvah 
 "Bar Mitzvah, Bat Mitzvah and Confirmation"
 The Official Israeli Ministry of Tourism Website with information about celebrating Bar/Bat Mitzvah in Jerusalem
 Secular Humanistic Bar/Bat Mitzvah 

Judaism
Joseph Bonaparte

Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte was an elder brother of Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1806, he crowned him as King of Naples and Sicily and later King of Spain in 1808.

Early Life 
He was born Giuseppe Buonaparte to Carlo Buonaparte, representative to King Louis XVI's court. He was educated in Corsica and France and studied law at Pisa. In the Corsican civil war, which marked the early years of the French Revolution, he sided with the French, as did his brother Napoleon. When the anti-French forces were victorious, he and the entire Bonaparte family fled to the Continent.As a lawyer, politician, and diplomat, he served in the Cinq-Cents (lower house) and was the French ambassador to Rome.In 1795 Joseph was a member of the Council of Ancients where he used his position to help his brother overthrow the Directory.

King of Naples and Sicily 
In 1806, Joseph Bonaparte was given military command of Naples, and shortly afterward was made king by Napoleon I, to be replaced after two years by his sister's husband, Joachim Murat, when Joseph was made king of Spain in August 1808, soon after the French invasion.

King of Spain 

Joseph Bonaparte reluctantly left Naples and arrived in Spain just in time for the Spanish revolt against French rule, and the beginning of the Peninsular War, in which the French were eventually expelled by Spanish guerrilla fighters and by an Anglo-Portuguese army. The Spanish remain loyal to their former king, Ferdinand VII.Bonaparte abdicated and returned to France after defeat at the Battle of Vitoria. He was seen by Bonapartists (supporters of Napoleon I) as the rightful Emperor of the French after the death of Napoleon's own son Napoleon II in 1832.

Head of the House of Bonaparte 

As the eldest in the family Bonaparte, he became its head in 1832, although he did little to advance his claim. Joseph Bonaparte lived primarily in the United States from 1817 to 1832, initially in New York City and Philadelphia. He was also reputed to have encountered the Jersey Devil while hunting there. Bonaparte returned to Europe, where he died in Florence, Italy and was buried in the Les Invalides building in Paris, He was succeeded by his younger brother Louis Bonaparte as head of the family, and is survived by his great great grandson Frederick Joseph Benton.

Other websites 

 Joseph Bonaparte at Point Breeze
 Joseph Bonaparte and the Jersey Devil 

1768 births
1844 deaths
Kings and Queens of Spain
House of Bonaparte
Marcos Alberto Skavinski

Marcos Alberto Skavinski (born 28 March 1975) is a Brazilian football player. He plays for Goiás.

Club career statistics

|-
|2006||Kawasaki Frontale||J. League 1||28||2||2||0||9||1||39||3
28||2||2||0||9||1||39||3
28||2||2||0||9||1||39||3
|}

1975 births
Living people
Brazilian footballers
People from Curitiba
Ferydoon Zandi

Ferydoon Zandi (born 26 April 1979) is a former Iranian-German football player. He played for Steel Azin and Iran national team. He is currently a football manager.

Club career statistics

|-
|1998/99||rowspan="2"|Meppen||rowspan="2"|Regionalliga||29||5
|-
|1999/00||31||10
|-
|2000/01||rowspan="2"|Freiburg||rowspan="2"|Bundesliga||7||0
|-
|2001/02||3||0
|-
|2002/03||rowspan="2"|Lübeck||rowspan="2"|2. Bundesliga||25||6
|-
|2003/04||29||14
|-
|2004/05||rowspan="2"|Kaiserslautern||rowspan="2"|Bundesliga||26||6
|-
|2005/06||19||0
|-
|2006/07||Koblenz||2. Bundesliga||8||0

|-
|2006/07||Apollon Limassol||First Division||10||2
|-
|2007/08||Olympiakos Nicosia||First Division||10||4
|-
|2008/09||Alki Larnaca||First Division||23||12

|-
|2009/10||Steel Azin||Pro League||||
177||41
43||18
0||0
220||59
|}

International career statistics

|-
|2005||8||1
|-
|2006||4||0
|-
|2007||6||1
|-
|2008||6||1
|-
|2009||5||2
|-
!Total||29||5
|}

References

1979 births
Living people
German football managers
German footballers
Iranian footballers
People from Emden
Sportspeople from Lower Saxony
Hiroshi Aso

Hiroshi Aso (born 8 April 1974) is a former Japanese football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|1993||rowspan="2"|Nagoya Grampus Eight||rowspan="2"|J. League 1||0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|1994||0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
|}

1974 births
Living people
Footballers from Gunma Prefecture
F.C. Matera

F.C. Matera is a football club which plays in Italy in Terza Categoria Matera group D.

Italian football clubs
1930 establishments in Europe
1930s establishments in Italy
Jun Sunaga

Jun Sunaga (born 27 April 1975) is a former Japanese football player.

1975 births
Living people
Footballers from Gunma Prefecture
Takeshi Suda

Takeshi Suda (born 14 April 1983) is a former Japanese football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|2002||rowspan="2"|Sanfrecce Hiroshima||J. League 1||0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|2003||J. League 2||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||0||0
0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
|}

1983 births
Living people
Footballers from Gunma Prefecture
Sota Kasahara

Sota Kasahara (born 9 May 1976) is a former Japanese football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|1999||Otsuka Pharmaceuticals||Football League||18||0
|-
|2000||rowspan="2"|Mito Hollyhock||rowspan="2"|J. League 2||30||3
|-
|2001||0||0
48||3
48||3
|}

1976 births
Living people
Footballers from Gunma Prefecture
Keita Kasahara

Keita Kasahara (born 14 June 1973) is a former Japanese football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|1996||Consadole Sapporo||Football League||0||0||0||0||0||0
0||0||0||0||0||0
0||0||0||0||0||0
|}

1973 births
Living people
Footballers from Gunma Prefecture
Yusaku Ueno

Yusaku Ueno (born 1 November 1973) is a former Japanese football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|1996||rowspan="4"|Avispa Fukuoka||rowspan="4"|J. League 1||27||7||2||0||11||0||40||7
|-
|1997||31||8||3||1||5||1||39||10
|-
|1998||24||1||2||0||2||1||28||2
|-
|1999||28||1||1||0||4||2||33||3
|-
|2000||Sanfrecce Hiroshima||J. League 1||5||1||0||0||2||0||7||1
|-
|2001||rowspan="2"|Kyoto Purple Sanga||J. League 2||42||10||4||2||2||0||48||12
|-
|2002||J. League 1||23||2||0||0||4||0||27||2
|-
|2003||rowspan="3"|Albirex Niigata||J. League 2||41||13||3||0||colspan="2"|-||44||13
|-
|2004||rowspan="2"|J. League 1||30||5||1||1||6||0||37||6
|-
|2005||34||2||1||1||3||0||38||3
|-
|2006||rowspan="2"|Sanfrecce Hiroshima||rowspan="2"|J. League 1||21||0||2||0||6||0||29||0
|-
|2007||0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|2007||rowspan="2"|Tochigi||rowspan="2"|Football League||19||2||0||0||colspan="2"|-||19||2
|-
|2008||16||4||2||0||colspan="2"|-||18||4
341||56||21||5||45||4||407||65
341||56||21||5||45||4||407||65
|}

References

1973 births
Living people
Footballers from Tochigi Prefecture
Sorrento Calcio

Sorrento Calcio is a football club which plays in Italy.  They were founded in 1945.

Noted players
  Giuseppe Bruscolotti
  Gennaro Ruotolo

References

Italian football clubs
1945 establishments in Italy
Takayoshi Ono

Takayoshi Ono (born 30 April 1978) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Primeiro.

Club career statistics

|-
|2001||rowspan="3"|Mito Hollyhock||rowspan="3"|J. League 2||28||2||2||0||1||0||31||2
|-
|2002||36||14||3||1||colspan="2"|-||39||15
|-
|2003||29||7||||||colspan="2"|-||29||7
92||23||5||1||1||0||98||24
92||23||5||1||1||0||98||24
|}

References

1978 births
Living people
Footballers from Fukushima Prefecture
Larissa F.C.

Larissa F.C. (official name is AE Larissas 1964) is a football club which plays in Greece. The club based in the city of Larissa. It has won three titles totally,  one Greek championship and two Greek cups. 

Greek football clubs
1964 establishments in Europe
20th century establishments in Greece
Swing vote

Swing voters are people who vote who do not always vote for the same party. Their vote is called a swing vote.

The swing vote is often closely studied when there are elections because it often decides who wins the election. In many elections parties try to convince the swing voters and the people who vote for the first time to vote for them. In contrast to the swing voters, there are other voters who have always voted for the same party in the past. A campaign for a vote therefore often focuses less on keeping the people who will always vote for their party; the parties spend more effort and money on convincing new people to vote for them.

References

Voting
Volgograd

Volgograd, formerly called Tsaritsyn (1589–1925) and Stalingrad (1925–1961) is an industrial city of great importance, and the administrative center of Volgograd Oblast, Russia.  It is 80 km long, north to south, on the western bank of the Volga River and has a population of over 1.011 million people.  The city was made famous for its heroic resistance and bloody siege during the Battle of Stalingrad taking place during World War II.

History 

Volgograd developed from the fortress of Tsaritsyn in 1589. The fortress was at the meof the Tsaritsa and Volga Rivers. 
During the Russian Civil War the city was the scene of heavy fighting. Bolshevik forces occupied it during 1918, but were attacked by White forces. It was renamed as Stalingrad in 1925.

Under Stalin, the city became heavily industrialized as a centre of heavy industry and trans-shipment by rail and river. During World War II, Stalingrad became the center of the Battle of Stalingrad as well as a turning point in the war against Germany. Essentially, the German offensive was stopped at Stalingrad. The Battle of Stalingrad lasted from August 21, 1942 to February 2, 1943, where 1.7 million to 2 million Axis and Soviet soldiers were killed, wounded or captured, in addition to over 40,000 civilians killed. The city was reduced to rubble during the fierce fighting, but reconstruction began soon after the Germans were expelled from the city.

Nikita Khrushchev renamed the city in 1961.

International relations

Twin towns — Sister cities 
As of 2008, Volgograd has 21 sister cities:
  Coventry, England, United Kingdom (1943)
  Ostrava, Czech Republic (1948)
  Kemi, Finland (1953)
  Liège, Belgium (1959)
  Dijon, France (1959)
  Turin, Italy (1961)
  Port Said, Egypt (1962)
  Chennai, India (1966)
  Hiroshima, Japan (1972)
  Cologne, Germany (1988)
  Chemnitz, Germany (1988)
  Cleveland, Ohio, United States (1990)
  Toronto, Canada (1991)
  Jilin, China (1994)
  Yerevan, Armenia (1998)
  Chengdu, China (1998)
  Kruševac, Serbia (1999)
  Rousse, Bulgaria (2001)
  Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, United States (2003)
  Orlando, Florida, United States (2008)
  Baku, Azerbaijan (2008) 
A number of communities in France and Italy have streets or avenues named after Stalingrad, hence Place de Stalingrad in Paris and the Paris Métro station of Stalingrad.

Gallery

References

Other websites 
 Official website of Volgograd 
  Official website of Volgograd
  Volgograd.ru — City Web Portal, Local Business and Web Directory, News, Press, Webcams, 3D Mamayev Kurgan
 Over 2,000 original German WWII soldier photographs from the Eastern Front
 Sights of Volgograd 
 Photo Gallery from Volgograd 
 Stalingrad - Bilder einer erbitterten Schlacht (German)

 
Capital cities in Russia
Problem of evil

The problem of evil is the question whether evil exists, and if so does it disprove the existence of God. Certain religions say there is a god who is all-loving, all-knowing and all-powerful. In these religions, the question to answer is how an all-loving and all-powerful god could allow evil to exist. 

Responses include the argument that if there is free will, evil must necessarily exist; that humans cannot understand God; that evil is simply being without god; or that there is evil because the world is corrupted and fallen (from grace).

Logical problem of evil 
A version of the problem of evil, perhaps by Epicurus, goes as follows: 
 If a perfectly good god exists, then evil does not.
 There is evil in the world.
 Therefore, a perfectly good god does not exist.

Another argument goes: 
 God exists.
 God is all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good.
 A perfectly good being would want to prevent all evils.
 An all-knowing being knows every way in which evils can happen.
 An all-powerful being, who knows every way in which an evil can come into existence, has the power to prevent that evil from happening.
 A being who knows every way in which an evil can happen, who is able to prevent that evil from happening, and who wants to do so, would prevent it.
 If there exists an all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good being, then no evil exists.
 Evil exists (logical contradiction).

Arguments such as these are about the logical problem of evil. They attempt to show that the assumed propositions lead to a logical contradiction and cannot therefore all be correct. 

A common response is that God can exist with and allow evil in order to achieve a greater good. Some philosophers accept that arguments such as "God allows evil in order to achieve the greater good of free will" are logically possible and thus solve the logical problem of evil. Since the aim is only to defeat the assertion that God and evil are logically incompatible, even a highly implausible instance of God's coexistence with evil is sufficient for the purpose.

Philosophies of science have approached the problem from the angle of empiricism. For logical positivism the issue with God is the lack of any independent method of verification. In their view, this makes the proposition "God exists", not true or false, but meaningless. A similar position points to the lack of any way the proposition might be falsified.

Related pages
 Philosophy of religion
 Theodicy

References 

Theology
Logical fallacies
Philosophical problems
Argument from inconsistent revelations

The Argument from inconsistent revelations (also known as Avoiding the wrong hell problem) is an argument that says that God probably does not exist. There are many religions which are based on revelations. The problem with these revelations is that they contradict each other. A person must either accept or reject at least one of these revelations in order to be part of a religious group. That way, accepting one means rejecting some (if not all) of the others. Unless the revelation is personal, the follower must to some extent rely on the judgment or the stories of others. Assuming the revelation is personal, the follower is still ignoring the revelations of those before him.

Christians believe that Jesus is the savior of the world and the son of God; Jews believe just as strongly that he is not. Similarly, Muslims believe that the Qur'an was divinely authored, while Jews and Christians do not. There are many examples of such contrasting views. Positions where one religion contradicts another, or where one group of people contradicts another are common. There are many denominations in Christianity who do not agree about many things.

Religion
Critical thinking
Deadlock

A deadlock  is a situation wherein two or more competing actions are waiting for the other to finish. As a consequence,  neither ever does. It is often seen in a paradox like the "chicken or the egg."

In computer science, deadlock  refers to a specific condition when two or more processes are each waiting for each other to release a resource. It can also be that more than two processes are waiting for a number of resources. Deadlock is a common problem in multiprocessing where many processes share a specific type of mutually exclusive resource known as a software lock or soft lock. Computers intended for the time-sharing or real-time markets often have a hardware lock (or hard lock) which guarantees exclusive access to processes. This forces the prforcing serialized access.  Deadlocks are particularly troubling because there is no general solution to avoid (soft) deadlocks.

A similar situation is when two people are drawing diagrams, but they have only one pencil and one ruler. If one person takes the pencil and the other takes the ruler, a deadlock occurs when the person with the pencil needs the ruler and the person with the ruler needs the pencil to finish his work with the ruler. Both requests can't be satisfied, so a deadlock occurs.

The telecommunications description of deadlock is a little stronger: deadlock occurs when none of the processes meet the condition to move to another state (as described in the process's finite state machine) and all the communication channels are empty. The second condition is often left out on other systems but is important in the telecommunication context.

References

Computer science
Dido

Dido Florian Cloud de Bounevialle O'Malley Armstrong (born 25 December 1971) is a female English singer who has released four albums. The singles "Here with Me", "Hunter", "Thank You", and "All You Want" came from No Angel (1999). "White Flag", "Life for Rent", "Don't Leave Home", and "Sand in My Shoes" came from Life for Rent (2003). "Don't Believe in Love", "Quiet Times", and "It Comes and It Goes" came from Safe Trip Home (2008). In 2013 Dido's fourth album Girl Who Got Away was released. She is of French descent.

Personal life
Dido is married to Rohan Gavin.

Other websites 

English pop musicians
English singer-songwriters
Brit Award winners
Musicians from London
1971 births
Living people
False analogy

A False analogy is an informal fallacy. It applies to inductive arguments. It is an informal fallacy because the error is about what the argument is about, and not the argument itself.

An analogy proposes that two concepts which are similar (A and B) have a common relationship to some property. A has property X, therefore B must also have property X. In a false analogy, the objects may have some similarities, but they do not both have property X. That way, both objects may have the same color, but this does not mean that they have the same size.  Even if bananas and the sun appear yellow, one could not conclude that they are the same size. One who makes an invalid analogy or comparison is often said to be "comparing apples and oranges".

Examples 

The following are examples of false analogies: 

 Love is like a spring shower. It brings refreshment to a person's body. (Does it also sometimes lead to thunderstorms and being hit by lightning?)

 Children are like dogs. They need to be strongly disciplined and housebroken. (Should they also eat from a bowl on the floor and see a vet regularly?)

 Tobacco smokers are like people who are sun dumb'. They need to improve their self-care to avoid cancer. (Should they never leave the house?)
 Procrastination on homework is bad. It's like waiting until the last minute to get cancer treatment. (Does not doing homework cause death?)
Failing to tip a waitress is like stealing money out of somebody's wallet.(Does that mean I need to get Bill Gates to give his life earnings to a waitress so I'm not stealing)

Related pages
 Moral equivalence

References 

Logical fallacies
Lord Berners

Lord Berners, whose full name was Gerald Hugh Tyrwhitt-Wilson, 14th Baron Berners,  (born Apley Hall, Shropshire, 18 September 1883; died Faringdon House, Berkshire, 19 April 1950), was a British composer of classical music, novelist and  painter. He is usually called Lord Berners.  He was an amateur composer who is remembered for his strange, eccentric behaviour.

Life
Berners was born in Apley Hall, Bridgnorth, England. The Berners family were related to King Edward III of England.  His father was a naval officer who was not often at home.  He was looked after by his mother and grandmother who was very religious and very strict.  Berners was very interested in lots of things, especially music, but his mother did nothing to help him.

At first he went to boarding school in Cheam.  Then he went to Eton.  He taught himself to compose.  He became a diplomat and travelled to Rome and Constantinople.  In 1919, when his uncle died, he became 14th Baron Berners and 5th Baronet.  He had already composed some music which had been published under the name Gerald Tyrwhitt.

Berners lived an eccentric life.  He lived in Berkshire but also had houses in London and Rome.  He had plenty of money, so that he did not have to work.  He had many friends, including the composers Stravinsky, Lambert and William Walton who dedicated his Belshazzar’s Feast to him.

His music
Berners’s music is full of Romantic feeling, irony and parody.  He wrote a lot for the theatre.  He composed The Triumph of Neptune in 1926 for Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes.  His music could often be described as light music.

His eccentricities

Berners started his strange behaviour when he was quite small.  He had heard that a dog could be taught to swim by throwing it into water, so he decided to teach his dog to fly by throwing it out of the window.  The dog was not hurt, but Berners was given a beating.

He was often naughty, making silly traps for people.  He was sent to boarding school in Cheam when he was nine.  There he had a gay relationship with an older boy.  He was then sent to Eton College.  Berners said that he learned nothing there.

Later, when he was grown up, he painted pigeons at his house and once he even had a giraffe as a pet so that he could have tea with it.  He travelled in a Rolls-Royce and kept a clavichord under the front seat.

Death
He died in 1950 at Faringdon House, leaving his estate to his partner Robert ('Mad Boy') Heber Percy, who lived with him at Faringdon.

His epitaph on his gravestone reads: 
"Here lies Lord Berners
One of life's learners
His great love of learning
May earn him a burning
Thanks be to the Lord
He never was bored".

1883 births
1950 deaths
Berners, Lord
English Barons
Entertainers from Shropshire
Gay men
LGBT composers
LGBT novelists
Ang Lee

Ang Lee (born 23 October 1954) is a Taiwanese movie director. He has directed movies like Eat Drink Man Woman, Sense and Sensibility, Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, Hulk and Brokeback Mountain. He has won Academy Awards (Oscars) for Brokeback Mountain and 'Life of Pi'.

Biography
Ang Lee was born in 1954 in a town called Chaozhou, Pingtung in Taiwan. He went to the National Tainan First Senior High School where his father was the principal, and then to the National Arts School. He graduated in 1975. In 1979, he went to the United States and studied theater at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He got his Master's degree at New York University, and he worked there with another famous director called Spike Lee.

Films
1993: The Wedding Banquet
1994: Eat Drink Man Woman
1995: Sense and Sensibility
1997: The Ice Storm
2000: Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon
2003: Hulk
2005: Brokeback Mountain
2007: Lust, Caution
2012: Life of Pi

References

Other websites
 

Academy Award winning directors
Taiwanese people
Movie directors
1954 births
Living people
Gustav Klimt

Gustav Klimt (14 July 1862 – 6 February 1918) was an Austrian Symbolist painter. He was one of the most prominent members of the Vienna Secession movement. His major works include paintings, murals, sketches, and other art objects. Many of them are on display in the Vienna Secession gallery. Klimt's primary subject was the female body, and his works are marked by a frank eroticism — nowhere is this more apparent than in his numerous drawings in pencil (see Mulher sentada, below).

Klimt died of influenza in Vienna in 1918.

Pictures

References

1862 births
1918 deaths
Austrian painters
Deaths from infectious disease
Spike Lee

Spike Lee (born March 20, 1957) is an American movie director, producer, screenwriter, and actor. He also teaches movie at New York University and Columbia University. Lee has acted in many of his own movies.

Early life
Lee was born Shelton Jackson Lee in 1957 in Atlanta, Georgia. His mother was a teacher, and his father was a jazz musician. When Lee was very young, the family moved to live in Brooklyn, New York City. His mother gave him the nickname "Spike".

Career
The first movie Lee directed was She's Gotta Have It. Lee directed the two music videos for Michael Jackson's single "They Don't Care About Us". In 2002 Lee won the Special Award at the BAFTAs.

Films

Acting roles

References

Other websites

1957 births
Living people
Actors from Atlanta, Georgia
Actors from New York City
African American actors
African American movie directors
African American movie producers
African-American screenwriters
American movie actors
American television directors
American television producers
Movie directors from Georgia (U.S. state)
Movie directors from New York City
Movie producers from New York City
Screenwriters from New York City
 
Writers from Georgia (U.S. state)
Cuba Gooding, Jr.

Cuba Gooding, Jr. (born January 2, 1968) is an American actor who was born in New York City. He won an Academy Award for his performance in Jerry Maguire.

In 2016, he portrayed O.J. Simpson in the FX drama series The People v. O. J. Simpson: American Crime Story, and co-starred in the sixth season of the FX anthology series American Horror Story, subtitled Roanoke.

His father is singer Cuba Gooding, Sr. The family moved to Los Angeles in 1972. Gooding has been a born-again Christian since he was 13.

References

Other websites 

Actors from Los Angeles
Actors from New York City
African American actors
American movie actors
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Movie producers from New York City
American television actors
American voice actors
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Academy Award winning actors
Satellite Award winners
1968 births
Living people
Swift Current, Saskatchewan

Swift Current is a city in Saskatchewan. It is on the Trans Canada Highway 170 kilometers (107 mi) east of Moose Jaw. 14,946 people live there.

Schools 
 Cypress Hills College
 Great Plains College
 Swift Current Comprehensive High School
 Maverick High School
 Ashley Park School
 Central School
 École Oman School
 Fairview School
 O.M. Irwin School
 St. Patrick's Separate Catholic School
 St. Joseph's Separate Catholic School

Media

Print 
 Southwest Booster
 Prairie Post

Television 
 Channel 5 - CBKT-4, CBC (formerly CJFB)
 Channel 12 - CKMC, CTV

Radio 
 AM 540 - CBK, CBC Radio One
 AM 570 - CKSW, country music
 FM 94.1 - CIMG-FM, "The Eagle 94 One" classic hits
 FM 95.7 - CBK-FM-4, CBC Radio 2
 FM 97.1 - CKFI-FM, "Magic 97" adult contemporary

References

Other websites 
 City website
 Tourism Swift Current 

Cities in Saskatchewan
Richard Feynman

Richard Feynman (11 May 1918 – 15 February 1988) was an American physicist of Jewish descent. He was born in Far Rockaway, Queens, New York City. He was part of the Manhattan Project team that made the atomic bomb. Feynman won the Nobel Prize in Physics 1965. He was one of the first people to study quantum physics. Feynman added significantly to a branch of science called quantum electrodynamics and invented the Feynman diagram. He died of liposarcoma in Los Angeles, California.

His sister Joan Feynman (born 1927) is a retired astrophysicist.

Selected books 
Feynman wrote some best-selling autobiographies, and his lecture notes became popular with physics students and qualified professionals.

Feynman, Richard P. (1985). Ralph Leighton, ed. Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!: adventures of a curious character. W.W. Norton. .

 Classic Feynman: all the Adventures of a Curious Character, edited by Ralph Leighton, W.W. Norton, 2005, . Chronologically reordered omnibus volume of Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman! and What Do You Care What Other People Think?, with a bundled CD containing one of Feynman's signature lectures.
 No Ordinary Genius: the illustrated Richard Feynman, ed. Christopher Sykes, W.W. Norton, 1996, .
 Six Easy Pieces: essentials of physics explained by its most brilliant teacher, Perseus Books, 1994, .
 Six Not So Easy Pieces: Einstein's relativity, symmetry and space-time, Addison Wesley, 1997, .
Feynman: the graphic novel. Jim Ottaviani and Leland Myrick, .
 Includes Feynman's Tips on Physics (with Michael Gottlieb and Ralph Leighton), which includes four previously unreleased lectures on problem solving, exercises by Robert Leighton and Rochus Vogt, and a historical essay by Matthew Sands.

Other websites 

About Richard Feynman
14 minute talk about Dick Feynman by his friend Leonard Susskind
Gallery of Drawings by Richard P. Feynman
Biography and Bibliographic Resources, from the Office of Scientific and Technical Information, United States Department of Energy

1918 births
1988 deaths
American Nobel Prize winners
American people of World War II
Cancer deaths in Los Angeles
Deaths from liposarcoma
Jewish American scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from Queens
American theoretical physicists
Louis XVIII

Louis XVIII (1755– 1824), was King of France from April 1814 to March 1815 and again from July 1815 to September 1824.

He became king with the Bourbon Restoration of the monarchy after the overthrow of Napoleon I. He ruled a constitutional monarchy, meaning he was not the main leader of his government. However, unlike some constitutional monarchs, he did have some influence in politics.

Born in Versailles, he was the brother of Louis XVI of France and in early life was known as the Comte de Provence. He remained in Paris after the French Revolution began in 1789 but escaped to Belgium two years later. After Louis XVI's execution in 1793 and the death of Louis XVI's son in 1795, he called himself Louis XVIII. He lived as an exile in various European countries until he became king after Napoleon's first abdication in 1814. On Napoleon's return to power in 1815, however, Louis again fled to Belgium; later the same year he was restored to the throne after Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo. He remained on the throne until his death in 1824.

References

Other websites 
 Louis XVIII at NNDB.COM
 Quotes of Louis XVIII 

1755 births
1824 deaths
People from Versailles
Kings and Queens of France
Princes of Andorra
Louis XVII

Louis XVII of France (Louis Charles; 27 March 1785 - 8 June 1795) was the King of France and Navarre from 1793 to 1795. He never actually ruled. He is also known as Louis Charles, Duke of Normandy and Fils de France (son of France).

Louis Charles of France was born at the Palace of Versailles. He was the second son and the third child of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette of France. He became Dauphin of France after the death of his elder brother Louis Joseph in 1789.

As a child he and his parents took a trip to Normandy and in honour of the well received visit the young prince was given the title of Duke of Normandy. 

After his father's death, he became what they called "King of France" while exiled with his mother. In 1795, he died of an unknown causes during the French Revolution. An autopsy was carried out at the prison. Following a tradition of preserving royal hearts, his heart was taken out. It was kept by the one of the examining doctors, Philippe-Jean Pelletan. 

Louis Charles's body was buried in a mass grave. Dr. Pelletan was also shocked at all the scars from bad-treatment towards Louis, such as whipping, all over the front and back of him, as well as on his arms, legs, and feet.

Kings and Queens of France
House of Bourbon
1785 births
1795 deaths
People from Versailles
Dauphins and Dauphines of France
Race (sociology)

The term race or racial group refers to dividing the human species into groups. The most widely used human racial types are those based on visual traits (such as skin color, cranial, facial features, or type of hair). Modern biology says that there is only one human race. But the word race also has a meaning in sociology. Many people react in one way if they see a white person and in another way if they see a black person. That's why in the United States and other countries official forms sometimes ask people to describe their ethnic origin. This is a way of saying "what racial group do you think you are?".

History
In the 19th century and in the early 20th century, many scientists divided human beings into three races. White people were called "Caucasoid race", black people were called "Negroid race", and the people of East Asia and Southeast Asia  were called "Mongoloid race".

There was much prejudice based upon this way of looking at the world. The Europeans and Asians both regarded themselves as superior to the other skin colors. Racism, a non-scientific theory or ideology, was that a particular race was superior or inferior. It argued that in the races that make up the human race, there are deep, biologically determined differences. It also states races should live separately and not intermarry. A supporter of racism is called a racist. These attitudes in turn supported the horrors of African slavery, Apartheid, Segregation and the Jim Crow laws, Nazism and Japanese imperialism.

Social darwinism and race
Social darwinism refers to various ideologies based on a concept that competition is active among all individuals, or even whole nations as social evolution in human societies.

It is a social adaptation of the theory of natural selection as proposed by Charles Darwin. Natural selection explains success in various animal populations as the outcome of competition between individual organisms for limited resources. This idea is popularly known as "survival of the fittest", a term first used by Herbert Spencer, not Darwin.

Fascist movements have commonly held social Darwinist views of nations, races, and societies  In Nazi Germany, the Nazis used social Darwinism to promote their racialist idea of the German nation was part of the Aryan race and believed in the competition of races. The Nazis tried to strengthen the ‘Aryan race’ in Germany by murdering those they regarded as inferior. By this they meant Jews, Slavs, Roma, homosexuals and disabled people.

Pictures and maps

Related pages 
Eugenics
Discrimination
Race and ethnicity in the United States
Racism

Sources

Migration
World War II
History
Biology
Nazism
Anthropology
Sociology
Rube Goldberg machine

A Rube Goldberg machine is a machine that looks complicated but has a very simple function, such as ironing a shirt. It is an expression used to identify something that does very simple tasks in a very complex way. The expression was named after American inventor and cartoonist Rube Goldberg (1883–1970). Rube Goldberg machines are usually a set of simple mechanisms that are indirectly unrelated, which carry out a simple function, these are called chain reactions and initiate a series of events to produce a certain outcome. Although the Rube Goldberg machine creates a simple outcome, it is most likely impossible to replicate in real-life as it is often extremely complex and quirky.

Phrases
Mechanics