cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Plague of Athens

The Plague of Athens was an epidemic which hit the city-state of Athens in ancient Greece during the second year of the Peloponnesian War (430 BC), when an Athenian victory still seemed possible.  Many historians believe that it entered Athens through Piraeus, the city's port and sole source of food and supplies. The city-state of Sparta, and much of the eastern Mediterranean, was also struck by the disease.  The plague returned twice more, in 429 BC and in the winter of 427/6 BC.

References
 Gomme, A. W., edited by A. Andrewes and K. J. Dover.  An Historical Commentary on Thucydides, Volume 5. Book VIII  Oxford University Press, 1981.  .
 McNeill, William H. Plagues and People. New York: Anchor Books, 1976. .
 Papagrigorakis, Manolis J., Christos Yapijakis, Philippos N. Synodinos, and Effie Baziotopoulou-Valavani.  "DNA examination of ancient dental pulp incriminates typhoid fever as a probable cause of the Plague of Athens," International Journal of Infectious Diseases 10 (2006): 206-214.  ISSN 1201-9712.
 Pomeroy, Sarah B., Spartan Women Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. .
 Zinsser, Hans. Rats, Lice and History:  A Chronicle of Pestilence and Plagues.  Originally published in Boston in 1935, later edition in 1963.  Most recent edition 1996, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, New York.  .

Other websites 
Access to International Journal of Infectious Disease/Article
History of the Peloponnesian War ii, 47–55 .
 Live Science article Accessed January 23, 2006.
Women in Classical Athens 

Infectious diseases
Ancient Greece
430 BC



Events 
 Plague of Athens an epidemic which hit the city-state of Athens in ancient Greece during the second year of the Peloponnesian War.
 Euripides wrote the play Alcestis

Deaths 

 Zeno of Elea died about 430 BC
Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg

Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg () was a country in what is today Thuringia, Germany.

It was formed in 1672 when Frederick Wilhelm III, the last duke of Saxe-Altenburg died and Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (who had married Frederick Wilhelm's cousin, Elisabeth Sophie) inherited his possessions.

The duchy was split up again after Ernest’s death in 1675, and the Duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg officially came into existence in 1680 when his eldest son, Frederick, took control of the parts of the country Gotha and Altenburg.

When the royal house of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg became extinct in 1825, Saxe-Gotha was given to Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Saxe-Altenburg passed to the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen. After the abolition of German monarchies at the end of the First World War, both Saxe-Gotha and Saxe-Altenburg became part of the newly created state of Thuringia in 1920.

Dukes of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg 
 Ernest I the Pious (1640-1675), inherited Saxe-Altenburg in 1675
 Frederick I (1675-1691), son of Ernest the Pious and the first to be called Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.
 Frederick II (1691-1732), son
 Frederick III (1732-1772), son
 Ernest II (1772-1804), son
 Emil (1804-1822), son
 Frederick IV (1822-1825), brother
Divided between Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Saxe-Hildburghausen

House of Wettin
States of the Confederation of the Rhine
States of the German Confederation
States of the Holy Roman Empire
Thuringia
Thucydides

Thucydides (; ; born around 460 BC, died around 400 BC) was an ancient Greek historian best remembered for his work on the Peloponnesian War. He was the son of Olorus.

References

Further reading 
 Herodotus, Histories, A. D. Godley (translator), Cambridge: Harvard University Press (1920).   .
 Pausanias, Description of Greece, Books I-II, (Loeb Classical Library) translated by W. H. S. Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. (1918). . .
 Plutarch, Lives, Bernadotte Perrin (translator), Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. London. William Heinemann Ltd. (1914).   .
 Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War. London, J. M. Dent; New York, E. P. Dutton (1910). .

Other websites 

 
 Short Bibliography on Thucydides  Lowell Edmunds, Rutgers University
 Perseus Project Thucydides, Table of Contents
 Thomas Hobbes' Translation of Thucydides

460s BC births
390s BC deaths
Ancient Greek historians
Piraeus

Piraeus is a port and municipality in Athens, Attica, Greece, in the south of the center of Athens.

The population of Piraeus is 163,688 (2011).

Population

Sister cities 
 Marseille, France 
 Worcester, Massachusetts, USA 
 Ostrava, Czech republic 
 Baltimore, Maryland, USA 
 Galaţi, Romania  since 1985
 Varna, Bulgaria 
 Vilnius, Lithuania

Famous residents 
 Polychronis Lembesis (1848-1913) painter
 Ioannis Koutsis (18601953) painter
 Gerasimos Vokos (1868-1927) journalist and writer
 Alexandros Christofis (1875-1957) painter
 Stylianos Miliadis (1881-1965) writer
 Yiorgos Batis (1885-1967) rebetiko musician
 Dimitris Pikionis (1887-1968) architect
 Michalis Oikonomou (1888-1933) painter
 Katina Paxinou (1900–1973) actress
 Markos Vamvakaris (1905-1972) musician and composer
 Emmanuel Kriaras (1906) philologist and lexicographer
 Yannis Tsarouchis (1910-1989) painter
 Dimitrios Gavriilidis (1914) artist
 Michalis Genitsaris (1917-2005) singer and composer
 Andreas Krystallis (1919-1951) painter
 Ektor Kaknavatos (1920) poet
 Nicola Zaccaria (1923-2007) opera singer
 Thanasis Veggos (1926) actor and film director
 Andreas Mouratis (1926) footballer
 John S. Romanides (1927-2001) priest and theologian
 Archbishop Anastasios of Albania (1929)
 Dimitris Papamichael (1931-2004)
 Costas Simitis (1936) economist and politician, Prime Minister of Greece
 Jannis Kounellis (1936) sculptor
 Tolis Voskopoulos (1940) singer and actor
 Thodoris Dritsas (1947) politician
 George Dalaras (1949) singer
 Yiannis Kyrastas (1952-2004) footballer and football manager
 Eleftheria Arvanitaki (1956) singer
 Mando (1966) singer
 Grigoris Georgatos (1973) footballer 
 Spyros Paliouras (1957-1975) writer
 Nikolaos Pavlopoulos (1909-1990) sculptor and writer
 The Andrianopoulos brothers, founders of the Olympiacos sporting club

Mayors of Piraeus 

 Christos Agrapidis (1999-2006)
 Panagiotis Fasoulas (2007- )

Universities and technological institutes 
 University of Piraeus

References

Other websites 

 Municipality of Pireas 
 Piraeus Port Authority
 The Marble Lion of Piraeus 

Settlements in Greece
Rhône

The Rhône is a river in France and Switzerland. It is 812 kilometers long. The river starts in Rhône Glacier, which is in Switzerland. Then, the Rhône River joints the Saône, in France (and other rivers) and ends in the Mediterranean Sea.

The River Rhône empties into the Mediterranean. Only the Nile brings more water into the Mediterranean. The river drains an area of 95.5500 m2. The usual amount of water is about 1.700 m3 per second (at Tarrascon). During floods, this value has reached over 12.000 m3 per second.

This river splits into two smaller rivers before it flows into the Mediterranean Sea.  The space between those rivers is named the Camargue, and many types of animals live there.

References

Rivers of France
Rivers of Switzerland
Occitanie
Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes
Luis Egidio Meléndez

Luis Egidio Meléndez (Naples, 1716-Madrid, 1780) was a Spanish painter. Although he received little acclaim or praise during his lifetime and died in poverty, Meléndez is recognized today as the greatest Spanish still life painter of the eighteenth century. His mastery of composition and light, and his remarkable ability to convey the volume and texture of individual objects enabled him to transform the most mundane (ordinary) of kitchen fare into powerful images.

1716 births
1780 deaths
Spanish painters
People from Naples
Saxe-Hildburghausen

Saxe-Hildburghausen was one of the Ernestine duchies of the House of Wettin.

History 
Although it was very small, Saxe-Hildburghausen was an independent duchy from 1680 to 1826. In 1684 the duchy changed its capital from Heldburg to Hildburghausen, and changed its name to Saxe-Hildburghausen.

In 1810, a Princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen married Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, who became king of Bavaria 15 years later. The marriage is the reason for the Oktoberfest, held annually in Munich.

In 1826, the Ernestine duchies were reorganised after the last ruler of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg died without an heir. The duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen gave up his duchy in return for becoming Duke of Saxe-Altenburg. Hildburghausen was given to Saxe-Meiningen. Hildburghausen was not one of the duchies in the Imperial circle, Altenburg was, so by swapping his land the duke gained in social rank, even though the Holy Roman Empire no longer existed

In 1868, four districts were established in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen. Hildburghausen was one of these districts, with boundaries very similar to those of the former duchy. It remained almost unchanged until 1993, when the former district of Suhl was dissolved and most of its municipalities joined the district.

Dukes of Saxe-Hildburghausen 
 Ernst II (1675 – 1715)
 Ernst Frederick I (1715 – 24)
 Ernst Frederick II (1724 – 45)
 Ernst Frederick III (1745 – 80)
 Frederick (1780 – 1825)
Incorporated into Saxe-Meiningen

House of Wettin
States of the Confederation of the Rhine
States of the German Confederation
States of the Holy Roman Empire
Thuringia
Angelic Upstarts

The Angelic Upstarts are an anti-fascist Oi! punk rock band who started in South Shields, North-East England in 1977.

Other websites 
 Official website

English punk bands
Anti-fascism

Anti-fascism is the opposition to fascist ideologies, organizations, governments and people. Anti-fascism started in Europe in the 1920s. At the same time, fascist political parties were getting popular in Europe. Anti-fascism was most popular during and after World War II, when fascist governments were very powerful in Europe. Many different kinds of political parties have believed in anti-fascism. Some of these parties have been Marxist, nationalist, anarchist, socialist, pacifist, social democratic, conservative, and liberal.

Related pages 
Antifa (United States)

Discrimination
Political movements
Fascism
Historical method

The historical method are the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history.

Guidelines 

Following Garraghan (in: A Guide to Historical Method, 168) puts six questions that should be answered as minimal standard for a sound historical method:

 When was the source, written or unwritten, produced (date)?
 Where was it produced (localization)?
 By whom was it produced (authorship)?
 From what pre-existing material was it produced (analysis)?
In what original form was it produced (integrity)?
 What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?

References 

Gilbert J. Garraghan, A Guide to Historical Method, Fordham University Press: New York (1946).   .
Louis Gottschalk, Understanding History: A Primer of Historical Method, Alfred A. Knopf: New York (1950). .
Martha Howell and Walter Prevenier, From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods, Cornell University Press: Ithaca (2001). .
C. Behan McCullagh, Justifying Historical Descriptions, Cambridge University Press: New York (1984). .
R. J. Shafer, A Guide to Historical Method, The Dorsey Press: Illinois (1974). .

Related pages
Historiography
Scientific method

Other websites 
Historical Sources Online by Marc Comtois
Philosophy of History  by Paul Newall
The Historian's Sources, online lesson by the Library of Congress
Federal Rules of Evidence in United States law
Primary source

A primary source is an original document or other material that has not been changed in any way. It is a reliable first-hand account usually written at or near the time the event(s) occurred. Usually it was produced by someone with direct personal knowledge of the events that are described. It is used as an original source of information about the topic. Primary sources are distinguished from secondary sources. Secondary sources are documents based on primary sources. Thus, a memoir of a participant in an event is a primary source, whilst a history of that event based on several memoirs is a secondary source. Different kinds of work have slightly different definitions of a primary source. In journalism, for example, a primary source can also be a person.

Related pages 

Historiography
Secondary source
Tertiary source

References

Bibliography 
 Jules R. Benjamin. A Student's Guide to History (2003)
 Kathleen W. Craver. Using Internet Primary Sources to Teach Critical Thinking Skills in History (1999)
  Thomas Cripps, "Historical Truth: An Interview with Ken Burns", American Historical Review 100 (1995), 741-64. online at JSTOR
  Michael Drake and Ruth Finnegan (Eds), Sources and Methods for Family and Community Historians: A Handbook, (Cambridge University Press in conjunction with the Open University, 1997)
 Wood Gray, Historian's handbook, a key to the study and writing of history (Houghton Mifflin, 1964).
 Martha C. Howell and Walter Prevenier. From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods (2001)
 Library of Congress, " Analysis of Primary Sources" online 2007
 Richard A. Marius and Melvin E. Page. A Short Guide to Writing About History (5th Edition) (2004)
 Barbara W. Sommer and Mary Kay Quinlan, The Oral History Manual (2002)

Other websites
- to primary sources repositories
A listing of over 5000 websites describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources
 Find primary sources  in the collections of major research libraries using ArchiveGrid

- to all sources repositories
Wikisource – The Free Library – is the Wikimedia project that collects, edits, and catalogs all source texts.

- to essays and descriptions of primary, secondary and other sources
Ithaca College Library - Primary and secondary sources
"How to distinguish between primary and secondary sources" from the University of California, Santa Cruz Library
"Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary sources"  from James Cook University Library
 Joan of Arc: Primary Sources Series -- Example of a publication focusing on primary source documents.
 Finding primary sources from the University of California, Berkeley library
 "Primary versus secondary sources"  from the Bowling Green State University library
 Finding primary sources in world history

Science
Secondary source

A secondary source is a document or recording that writes or speaks about information that is one step removed from the original source. 

The secondary source depends on the  primary source or original source of the information. Secondary sources interpret, evaluate or discuss information found in primary sources. In historiography, a secondary source is a study written by a scholar about a topic. Secondary sources frequently cite primary sources and other secondary sources. They rarely cite tertiary sources.

Example 
A secondary source would be a book on 13th century politics, while the Magna Carta itself would be a primary source.
Many secondary sources use extensive citations in the form of footnotes or endnotes.

Legal use 
The main use of secondary sources in law is to explain the law. They also explain legal concepts. They are used to analyze and describe laws as well as comment on them. Judicial decisions and opinions by qualified experts are secondary sources.

Related pages
Source text
Primary source
Tertiary source

References

Further reading
Primary and secondary sources

Science
Breinigerberg

Breinigerberg is a small village in the West of Germany, the state of North Rhine-Westphalia About 972 people live at the place. It is close to the Naturpark Nordeifel, a large forest area in Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands.

The road L12 passes through Breinigerberg splitting it into two parts. 

In the last two centuries, Breinigerberg was famous for mining. Even the ancient Romans dug for ore in the area. It was used for the production of brass in the city of Stolberg. Today there is no more mining but the remains are still present. Big holes in the Schlangenberg area prove what had been left from the past. Today the Schlangenberg is a natural reserve protecting rare flowers and insects.

Other websites 
 Webside of Breinig and Breinigerberg

Villages in North Rhine-Westphalia
Object

Object could mean:

 Object (philosophy), a thing, being or concept
 Physical entity, something that is tangible and within the grasp of the senses
 Object (grammar), a sentence element, such as a direct object or an indirect object
 Object (task), an aim, target or objective
 The intended result of an action
 Object (physics), a collection of masses
 Object, an entity treated by mathematical category theory
 3D model, a representation of a physical object
 Object (National Register of Historic Places), a classification used by the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.
 (As a verb, pronounced: ob-JECT): to make an objection, to say that one disagrees with something. 

Computing
 Object (computer science), a language mechanism for binding data with methods that operate on that data
 Object-oriented programming (OOP), an object is an instance of a class
 Object file, the output of a compiler or other translator program (also known as "object code")
 Object (Information Processing), an information source for an Information Processor
 HTML object tag

Popular culture
 "Object", a song by The Cure from their 1979 album Three Imaginary Boys
 Objects from the 2006 television series The Lost Room
Recording

Recording means to capture data to store it on a storage medium or record as a video format.

Historical records of events have been made for thousands of years. Amongst the earliest are cave painting, runic alphabets and ideograms. Technology continues to provide and expand means for human beings to record their thoughts, feelings and experiences.

References

Related pages 
 Writing
 Sound recording
 Record
 RecordingWiki offers you more information about recording. 

Engineering
Pedro Santana, Elías Piña

Pedro Santana is a municipality in the Dominican Republic, in the Elías Piña Province, on the border with Haiti, along the left side of the Artibonite river.

Origin of the name
The town, and municipality, was named after Pedro Santana, a general of the Independence wars and first president of the Dominican Republic. He was born in Hincha, now a Haitian city ("Hinche") near the border.

Population
The municipality had, in 2010, a total population of 3,917: 2,120 men and 1,797 women. The urban population was  of the total population.

History
The old small town of Los Cercadillos was elevated, with the present name, to the category of municipal district of Bánica on 16 September 1942 and to the category of municipality by the Law 3208 of 3 March 1952.

Geography
Pedro Santana has an area of  and is at  to the north of Bánica and at  to the north of Comendador.

The limits of the municipality are the Dajabón province to the northwest, the Santiago Rodríguez province to the northeast, the San Juan province to the east, the municipality of Bánica to the south and Haiti to the west.

Administrative division
The municipality of Pedro Santana has only one municipal district; this is:

Economy
The main economic activity of the municipality is farming.

References 

Settlements in the Dominican Republic
1952 establishments in the Dominican Republic
Visual system

The visual system is the part of the nervous system which allows organisms to see.
It interprets the information from visible light to build a representation of the world surrounding the body. The visual system has the complex task of (re)constructing a three dimensional world from a two dimensional projection of that world. The psychological manifestation of visual information is known as visual perception.

Introduction
This article mostly describes the visual system of mammals, although other "higher" animals have similar visual systems. In this case, the visual system consists of:

 The eye, especially the retina
 The optic nerve
 The optic chiasma
 The optic tract
 The lateral geniculate nucleus
 The optic tectum (superior colliculus)
 The optic radiation
 The visual cortex
 The visual association cortex

Different species are able to see different parts of the light spectrum; for example, bees can see into the ultraviolet, while pit vipers can accurately target prey with their infrared imaging sensors.<ref>	     AB Safer and MS Grace (2004),   "Infrared imaging in vipers: differential responses of crotaline and viperine snakes to paired thermal targets". Behav Brain Res. 154(1):55-61. 2004 Sep 23. </ref>

References

David H. Hubel 1989. Eye, Brain and Vision. New York: Scientific American Library.
David Marr 1982. Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information. San Francisco: Freeman.
R.W. Rodiek 1988. The Primate Retina. In Comparative Primate Biology. vol 4 of Neurosciences. eds H.D. Steklis and J. Erwin. pp. 203–278. New York: A.R. Liss.
Matthew Schmolesky, The Primary Visual Cortex 
Martin J. Tovée 1996. An introduction to the visual system. Cambridge University Press. 
Andreas Vesalius 1543. De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body)
Torsten Wiesel and David H. Hubel 1963. The effects of visual deprivation on the morphology and physiology of cell's lateral geniculate body. Journal of Neurophysiology'' 26, 978-993.

Other websites
"Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System" - John Moran Eye Center at University of Utah
VisionScience.com - An online resource for researchers in vision science.
Journal of Vision - An online, open access journal of vision science.

Vision
Microform

Microform is a name given to special photographic films. Microforms contain reduced images of documents. Usually, documents stored on microform are reduced about 25 times. Microform is mainly used for archival purposes.

There are three common formats:
Microfilm, which comes in reels of film.
Aperture card, This contains additional digital data (as a punch card).
Microfiche, a flat sheet with many pages.

Properly stored (room temperature, 50% humidity), microform should be able to last up to 500 years.

Images

Photography
Storage devices
Analog signal

An analog or analogue signal is any continuous signal. 

The difference from a digital signal is that also very small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful. When one speaks of analog one often means an electrical context, however mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey analog signals.

An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information. 
Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal, often such a signal is a measured change in physical phenomena, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure.

For example, in sound recording, changes in air pressure (that is to say, sound) strike the diaphragm of a microphone which causes related changes in a voltage or the current in an electric circuit.  The voltage or the current is said to be an "analog" of the sound.

See digital for a discussion of digital vs. analog.

Physics
Electronics
Microphone

A microphone, sometimes referred to as a mike or mic (both IPA pronunciation: ), converts sound into an electrical signal.

Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones, tape recorders, hearing aids, motion picture production, live and recorded audio engineering, in radio and television broadcasting and in computers for recording voice.

Kinds of Microphones 
Sound passes through the air in waves, and as was said above, the microphone turns the sound wave into an electrical wave.  Different kinds of microphones will turn the sound waves into electricity in different ways.

 Carbon button - This is the first kind to become commonplace, being used in most 20th century telephones. Sound waves, by compressing and decompressing a piece of carbon, change the amount of electric current flowing in the wire, thus creating electrical waves. This kind became rarer late in the century, due in part to lack of high fidelity. 
 Dynamic - This uses a round plastic or rubber disk connected to a wire coil in order to turn sound into electricity.  The sound wave hits the disk which vibrates as a result.  This vibration moves the coil back and forth near a magnet very quickly in order to create an electrical current.  The dynamic microphone is the exact opposite of a speaker which uses an electrical current to move the coil, which moves the disk.  Then the disk makes sound.
 Ribbon - This is similar to a Dynamic microphone.  A thin, small sheet of metal (tin or aluminum usually) hangs between two magnets.  When sound hits the thin piece of metal, the metal vibrates.  That vibration creates an electrical signal in the metal.
 Condenser - This uses two small metal plates to create an electrical current.  Basically two  small metal plates are placed very near to each other and electricity is run through the plates.  This creates an electric field between the two plates.  When sound hits these plates, the plates vibrate.  The vibration makes small changes in the electric field.  These changes create the electrical signal.
 Crystal or ceramic microphones use piezoelectricity.

Equipment 
A pop filter (or pop shield) is often used in recording studios.  It is an electronic filter that reduces or eliminates 'popping' sounds caused by fast moving air (such as air from the mouth).

History
The first microphones were invented as telephone transmitters. They included liquid and dynamic designs. Carbon transmitters were later used in this and other applications.

Related pages
 Loudspeaker — The inverse of a dynamic microphone

Other websites 

 Info, Pictures and Soundbytes from vintage microphones
 Microphone construction and basic placement advice 
 History of the Microphone 
 Microphone sensitivity conversion — dB re 1 V/Pa and transfer factor mV/Pa
 Large vs. Small Diaphragms in Omnidirectional Microphones

References

Sound
Engineering
Data input
Audio technology
Digital signal

Digital signal can mean two different things: 
 discrete-time signals that are digitized.
 the waveform signals in a digital system.

Discrete-time signals 

Digital signals are digital representations of discrete-time signals, which are often produced by changing an analog signal.

An analog signal is a datum that changes over time (for instance the temperature at a given place; the depth of a certain point in a pond; or the amplitude of the voltage at some node in a circuit). A discrete-time signal is a sampled version of an analog signal: the value of the datum is noted at fixed intervals (for example, every microsecond) rather than continuously.

In short, a digital signal is a quantized discrete-time signal; a discrete-time signal is a sampled analog signal.

In the digital revolution the usage of digital signals has increased significantly.
Many modern media devices, especially the ones that connect with computers use digital signals to represent signals that were traditionally represented as analog signals; cell phones, music and video players, personal video recorders, and digital cameras are examples.

In most applications, digital signals are represented as binary numbers, so their precision of quantization is measured in bits.

Waveforms in digital systems

In computer architecture and other digital systems, a waveform that switches between two voltage levels representing the two states of a Boolean value (0 and 1) is referred to as a digital signal.

The clock signal is a special digital signal that is used to synchronize digital circuits.
The image shown can be considered the waveform of a clock signal.
Logic changes are triggered either by the rising edge or the falling edge.

Engineering
Telecommunications
Pneumatics

Pneumatics is the use of compressed air for mechanical motion.  It has many uses. 

Pneumatic transfer systems are employed in many industries to move powders and devices. Pneumatic devices are also used where electric motors cannot be used for safety reasons, such as deep in a mine where explosive dust or gases may be present.

Examples of pneumatic tools 

 Pneumatic drill (jackhammer) used by road workers
 Pneumatic nailgun
 Pneumatic switches
 Pneumatic actuators
 Air compressors
 Vacuum pumps
 Barostat systems used in Neurogastroenterology and for researching
electricity
 Cable Jetting - a way to install cables in ducts
 Pneumatic mail systems
 Air brakes on buses, trains, and trucks

Comparison to Hydraulics

Both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Pneumatics uses air, which is compressible, while hydraulics uses relatively incompressible liquid media such as oil or water.

Advantages of pneumatics 

 The working fluid is very light in weight so supply hoses are not heavy.

 Because the working fluid is (mostly) just air, there is usually no need for a return line for the working fluid and leaks of the working fluid tend not to be messy.

 Because air is compressible, the equipment is less likely to be damaged by shock.  The air in pneumatics absorbs excessive force, whereas the fluid of hydraulics directly transfers force.

Advantages of hydraulics 

 Higher energy density owing to the much higher working pressures usually employed.

 The hydraulic working fluid is basically incompressible, leading to a minimum of spring action. When hydraulic fluid flow is stopped, the slightest motion of the load releases the pressure on the load; there is no need to "bleed off" pressurised air to release the pressure on the load...

References

Other websites 

 www.pneumatics.be - didactic website - for students - how pneumatics works
 U.S. Department of Energy  - Improving Compressed Air System Performance
 Fluid Power Educational Foundation  - Advancing and Supporting Hydraulic & Pneumatic Education
 Pneumatics Glossary  - Glossary of Pneumatic Terms

Mechanics
Duchy of Saxe-Gotha

Saxe-Gotha () was a state in today's Thuringia, Germany.

It was created in 1640 for Duke Ernest I and ended in 1680 when his lands were divided after his death in 1675. The area around Gotha passed to Ernest's eldest surviving son, Frederick of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, who also inherited Altenburg (which Ernest had inherited through his wife Elisabeth Sophie) and became Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.

Dukes of Saxe-Gotha 
 Ernest I the Pious (1640 – 75, also Duke of Saxe-Altenburg from 1672)
 Divided into Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Römhild, Saxe-Eisenberg, Saxe-Hildburghausen and Saxe-Saalfeld in 1680

When the house of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg became extinct in 1825, Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg was split. Saxe-Gotha passed to the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld who in turn gave Saalfeld to Saxe-Meiningen. The Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen became Duke of Saxe-Altenburg, and gave Saxe-Hildburghausen to Saxe-Meiningen.

After the abolition of German monarchies at the end of the First World War it became a part of the newly created state of Thuringia in 1920.

References 
 Saxe-Gotha , Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, Columbia University Press (2001 – 05), accessed January 27 2007

1572 disestablishments
1640 establishments
House of Wettin
States of the Holy Roman Empire
Thuringia
1640s establishments in Europe
Comendador, Elías Piña

The Dominican city of Comendador is the head municipality of the Elías Piña province, on the border with Haiti.

Population
The municipality had, in 2010, a total population of 19,344: 9,675 men and 9,669 women. The urban population was  of the total population.

History
The city was founded in 1868, and named after Nicolás de Ovando, the "Comendador of Lares" (Comendador was the chief of a military or religious order). It was founded where there was a military post close to the border with Haiti. The Taíno name of the region was Duan.

There was several fights between Haitian and Dominican soldiers during the Dominican-Haitian War after 1844. The most important fight was the La Estrelleta Battle in a savanna near Comendador.

The old military post was made a Cantón (now called Municipal District) of the Azua province in 1907. The next year, in 1908, it was elevated to the category of municipality of the same province.

Its name was changed to Villa Elías Piña on 29 November 1930. In 1972, its name was changed back to Comendador..

Geography
Comendador is at  to the west of Santo Domingo and    of San Juan de la Maguana. The limits of the municipality are the municipality of Bánica to the north, the San Juan province to the east, the municipality of El Llano to the south and Haiti to the west.

The average daily temperature in the city is  and the average rainfall for the year is .

Administrative division
The municipality of Comendador has two municipal districts; these are:

Economy
The main economic activity of the municipality is agriculture. Commerce with Haiti is also an important economic activity in the city.

References 

Settlements in the Dominican Republic
1868 establishments
1860s establishments in the Dominican Republic
Emily Greene Balch

Emily Greene Balch (1867-1961) shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1946 with John Raleigh Mott (1865-1955). Both laureates were American.

1867 births
1961 deaths
Writers from Massachusetts
American Nobel Prize winners
Antoni Lange

Antoni Lange (1861 or 1863 – March 17, 1929), was a Polish poet, translator and mystic philosopher of the Symbolism and Parnassianism movements. He was regarded as a "great master of reflective poetry". He spoke 15 languages. His pen-names were Antoni Wrzesień and Napierski. Although Lange was not a particularly famed author, many people call him "a magican of lyrical form" because of his unquestionable mastery in using rare poetic forms and innovation,s which makes him a pioneer of modern collage and even imagism movement.

As a religious thinker Lange was one of the first to make people interested in Indian philosophy and literature in Poland. His existential reflection of "universal pain" (wszechcierpienie) unites Christian mysticism with traditions of Buddhism.

Lange was also an uncle of the poet Bolesław Leśmian.

Life 
He was born in 1861 or 1863 into a patriotic Jewish family who were heavily influenced by the messianic ideals of Romantic Polish poets, especially Adam Mickiewicz. In 1830, his father Henri Lange took part in the November Uprising.

"Lange's own poems did not win him recognition, and the last phase of his life was poisoned by feelings of bitterness". He never married and had no children.

Works 
Eternal solitaries - human souls,
Solitaries blown astray;
Each wanders through the Milky Way,
Each in her finite circle rolls.

Like wandering planets they gaze
At one another in the sky's blue halls;
Each in her finite circle rolls,
But never from her orbit sways.

Bibliography

Poems 
 Sonety wedyckie (1887)
 Pogrzeb Shelleya (1890)
 Wenus żebracza (1890)
 Ballady pijackie (1895)
 Księgi proroków (1895)
 Logos (1895)
 Poezje (I – 1895; II – 1898)
 Pogrobowcom (1901)
 Świat (1901)
 Fragmenta. Poezje wybrane (1901)
 Pocałunki (1902)
 Deuteronomion (1902)
 Akteon (1903)
 Księgi bogów (1903)
 Rozmyślania (1906)
 Pierwszy dzień stworzenia (1907)
 XXVII sonetów (1914)
 Ilia Muromiec (1916)
 Trzeci dzień (1925)
 Groteski. Wiersze ironiczne (1927)
 Rozmyślania. Z nowej serii (1928)
 Gdziekolwiek jesteś (1931)
 Ostatni zbiór poezji (1931)

Novels and short stories 
 Godzina (1894)
 Elfryda: nowele i fantazje(1895)
 Zbrodnia (1907)
 Dwie bajki (1910)
 Czterdzieści cztery (1910)
 Stypa (1911)
 W czwartym wymiarze (1912)
 Miranda (1924)
 Nowy Tarzan (1925)
 Róża polna (1926)
 Michałki (1926)

Plays 
 Atylla (1898)
 Wenedzi (1909)
 Malczewski (1931)

Essays 
 O sprzeczności sprawy żydowskiej (1890)
 Analfabetyzm i walka z ciemnotą w Królestwie Polskim (1892)
 O poezji współczesnej (1895)
 Studia z literatury francuskiej (1897)
 Studia i wrażenia (1900)
 Lord Byron (1905)
 Rzuty (1905)
 Panteon literatury wszechświatowej (1921)
 Pochodnie w mroku (1927)

References

1863 births
1929 deaths
Jewish writers
Polish novelists
20th-century Polish philosophers
Polish playwrights
Polish poets
Polish Jews
Polish translators
Writers from Warsaw
Curie (unit)

The curie (symbol Ci) is a unit of measurement. It measures  radioactivity. It is defined as

 1 Ci = 3.7×1010 decays per second.

This is roughly the activity of 1 gram of the radium isotope 226Ra. Radium was studied by the pioneers of radiology, Marie and Pierre Curie so the unit is named after them. The curie has since been replaced by an SI derived unit, the becquerel (Bq), which is decay per second. Therefore:

 1 Ci = 3.7×1010 Bq or 37 Gigabecquerel (Gbq)

and

 1 Bq = 2.70×10−11 Ci

In 1962, the International Commission on Radiological Units suggested the usage of this unit named after Marie Curie.

Old units of measurement
Fjord

A fjord or fiord is a type of gulf. Fjords are narrow with steep sides, and are created by large masses of snow moving over land. They can be found in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Canada, Germany, and Finland. In Germany, fiords are called Förde.

Cities 
Most cities near fiords are sea ports. Some cities near fjords are listed below:

 Lübeck, Germany;
 Kiel, Germany;
 Flensburg, Germany;
 Schleswig, Germany;
 Orebro, Denmark;
 Vaile, Denmark;
 Horsens, Denmark;
 Kungsbacka, Sweden;
 Nykarleby, Finland;
 Tornio, Finland
 Sangi, Sweden;
 Tore, Sweden;
 Hudiksval, Sweden
 Hopedale, Canada

Gulfs
Raccoon

The raccoon (Procyon lotor, common raccoon,) is a mammal. Raccoons are curious, clever, and solitary. They are originally from North America. They have spread through Central America, and live in various habitats. They have escaped in some parts of Eurasia (see map), and now live there as well. They are omnivorous. Raccoons are in the family Caniformia, and are related to the mustelids.

The raccoon has short legs, pointed nose, small ears, grayish-brown fur, and a bushy tail.

The raccoon's most distinctive features are its multi-purpose front paws, its facial 'mask', and its striped tail. moreover, Raccoons are noted for their intelligence. Studies show they are able to remember the solution to tasks for up to three years. Raccoons are usually nocturnal. Their food is about 40% invertebrates, 33% plant foods, and 27% vertebrates. Raccoons are omnivores. They eat mice, squirrels, rabbits, birds, fish, frogs, turtles, lizards, eggs, insects, worms, fruit, berries and nuts. Their predators include red foxes, wolves, coyotes, bears, eagles, owls, cougars, lynx and bobcats.

Most raccoons live in the wild. Being around humans does not bother them. They often nest in empty buildings, garages, sheds, and even the attics of houses. Raccoons do not hibernate in the winter. Those that live further north where it is colder, grow thick coats to keep them warm and spend long periods sleeping. Raccoons that live in captivity can survive up to 20 years. In the wild, they usually live only 1–3 years.

Two other species of raccoon, the crab-eating raccoon (P. cancrivorus) and the Cozumel Island raccoon (P. pygmaeus), are extremely similar to the common raccoon. The crab-eating raccoon is quite widespread in eastern South America.

After a gestation period (pregnancy) of about 65 days, two to five young are born in spring. Newborn raccoons are called "kits".

A raccoon climbed a building in Minnesota.

References

Other websites

Raccoons Removal

Procyonids
Mammals of North America
Omnivores
Sandy Robson

Sandy Wayne Robson (born November 6, 1973 in Peterborough, Ontario) is a Canadian actor. He is probably best known for hosting the game show Trash to Treasure and his role as "Dude" in The N's television series About a Girl.

Biography
A Toronto native, Robson's breakthrough role was in Crazy Canucks, the story of the 1974 World Cup ski champions. (His background as a giant slalom down hill skier was useful for the film.) More recently, he has acted in Cow Belles and The Cheetah Girls, and the television series Kevin Hill, Sue Thomas: F.B.Eye, and Instant Star. Sandy has starred in many theatrical productions, including the one man show Full Committed, in which he played 40 characters.

Television
 About a Girl (2007) - Dude.
 Trash to Treasure (2003) - Host.

Guest appearances
 Twice in a Lifetime (1999) - Handler #1.
 In a Heartbeat (2000) - Guttman.
 Sue Thomas: F.B.Eye (2004) - Justin.
 Kevin Hill (2005) - Major Paul Cahan.
 Instant Star (2006) - Ken.
 Psych (2008) - Logan.

Filmography
 The Impossible Elephant (2001) - Lenny.
 Twas the Night (2001) - Harry.
 Out of the Ashes (2003) - Leiku's husband.
 The Cheetah Girls (2003) - Firefighter.
 Crazy Canucks (2004) - Jungle Jim Hunter.
 The Winning Season (2004) - Dots Miller.
 Cow Belles (2006) - Thomas.

Other websites
 
 

1973 births
Canadian television actors
Living people
People from Ontario
Canadian television presenters
Service (music)

In Anglican church music, a Service is a piece of music for the choir to sing during a service of worship.   It uses the words which are a traditional part of the service.  The choir is usually accompanied by the organ, but sometimes it can be just for choir without organ.

In Morning Prayer the words which are set to music for the choir are the words of the Venite (Psalm 95), the Te Deum and the Jubilate (Psalm 100) or Benedictus.

For a Holy Communion the set words will usually be the Gloria, sometimes the Creed, Sanctus, Agnus Dei as well as responses.

For Evening Prayer the words will be the Magnificat and the Nunc Dimittis.  Singers in the choir often call these "Mag and Nunc" for short.  Many composers have set these words.  They make them into a piece for choir which is like an anthem.

In the Tudor and early Stuart periods, services were described as "Short", "Great" or "Verse" services.  Short services were short, the words were only sung once and it was often unaccompanied (no organ).  A Great service was longer: some of the words were often sung many times.  William Byrd wrote a famous Great Service.  A Verse service was also long: there were several verses which need to be sung by a solo choir member.  In between each verse there is some music for the whole choir to sing.

Musical forms
Christian music
Space station

A space station is a artificial satellite in space that people can live at. All past and current space stations have been in low Earth orbit. Space stations can dock with other spacecraft. This allows transferring cargo and people. At present the International Space Station is the only space station in orbit. The first space station was Salyut 1. Prior stations were the seven Salyut stations, Skylab, Mir and the two Tiangong stations. The Chinese Space Station is planned for the future.

Space stations are used to learn about how being in space for a long time effects the human body. They also are a place for science experiments and research. Space stations have been designed for more than one crew. Each crew member may stay aboard the station for weeks or months, and then is replaced by others. Some have spent more than one year at a time on a space station. This includes Vladimir Titov, Musa Manarov, Sergei Avdeyev and Valeriy Polyakov aboard Mir.

List of successful stations 
The below list is of stations that made it to orbit and had at least one crew visit them. There have also been a few stations that have failed or were for testing. Those are not included on this list.

Notes

References
Van de Graaff Generator

A Van de Graaff generator is an electrostatic machine.  It uses a moving, nonmetallic belt to accumulate very high voltages on a hollow metal globe.  Voltage differences achieved in modern Van de Graaff generators can reach 5 megavolts.  Applications for these high voltage generators include driving X-ray tubes, accelerating electrons to sterilize food and process materials, and accelerating protons for nuclear physics experiments.  The Van de Graaff generator can be thought of as a constant-current source connected in parallel with a capacitor and a very large electrical resistance. It is named after the American physicist Robert Jemison Van de Graaff, who built the first generators of this style in 1929.

Machines
Electricity
Time server

A time server is a special computer in a computer network. 

It is important that computers on a network use the same time. Time servers use an atomic clock, or they ask other computers on the network about the time. They then tell this time to all the other computers in the same network. Common protocols to do this are the Daytime Protocol and the Network Time Protocol (NTP).

NTP calls the quality of a time server its stratum.  Stratum can be anything form 0 to 255 and lower is better. It is rare to see a network with a source worse than stratum 5.
Stratum 0 time sources are the actual clocks that track the time, usually an atomic clock or GPS receiver.
Stratum 1 time sources are what most people mean when they talk about a time server.  They get their timing information from a master clock and send it out to the network.
Stratum 2 time sources are computers that get their clock information from a stratum 1 time server.  They use NTP to talk to each other as well as their stratum 1 servers so they can have the best time information possible.

Every level that is added of time servers getting information from a source close to the master clock and passing it farther away from the master clock increases the stratum level.

computers
internet
Laura Prepon

Laura Prepon (born March 7, 1980) is an American actress. She is best known for her roles as Donna Pinciotti on the Fox television series That '70s Show and as Hannah Daniels on the ABC television series October Road. She plays Alex in Orange Is the New Black.

Other websites 
 Biography  from the That '70s Show website
 

1980 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
American voice actors
Actors from New Jersey
Scientologists
Ashley Massaro

Ashley Marie Massaro (May 26, 1979 – May 16, 2019), also known simply as Ashley, was an American pictorial model and professional wrestler. She is best known for her time with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) while wrestling on its Raw brand. 

She was the winner of the Raw Diva Search 2005 and was on the cover of the April 2007 issue of Playboy Magazine. She was a contestant on the fifteenth season of Survivor in China, but was the second contestant to be eliminated.

Massaro was found dead at her home on May 16, 2019 in Long Island, New York at the age of 39. The cause of death was suicide by hanging.

References

Other websites 
TheAshleyMassaro.com 

WWE.com Profile
Ashley Massaro in Maxim Magazine

Ashley's Survivor: China Profile

1979 births
2019 deaths
Sportspeople who committed suicide
Suicides by hanging in the United States
American professional wrestlers
Female professional wrestlers
Sportspeople from New York