cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Komodo National Park

The Komodo National Park is a national park in Indonesia. It is on several islands in the Lesser Sunda Islands. The park is in the area between the East Nusa Tenggara and West Nusa Tenggara provinces. The park includes three larger islands: Komodo, Padar and Rincah. It also includes 26 smaller ones for a total area of 1,733 km² (603 km² of it land). The national park was founded in 1980 to protect the Komodo dragon. This animal is the world's largest lizard. Later it began protecting other species, including some in the ocean.  In 1991 the national park was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Geography and climate
The park is spread over several islands. It includes part of western coast of Flores, the three larger islands of Komodo, Padar, Rincah, and 26 smaller islands. It also includes ocean areas such as the Sape Straights. The islands of the national park are volcanic. The land is generally rugged, with some rounded hills to 735m. The climate is one of the driest of Indonesia. Each year between 800mm and 1000mm of rain falls in the park area. Temperatures in the dry season from May to October are around 40 °C.

Plants and animals
The Park is hot and dry. There are many savannah plants that make it a good place for the Komodo dragon.

Cloud forests are in only a few areas above 500 metres.  These forests are good places for some local plants. There are mangrove forests in some of the quiet bays of the three larger islands.

Large and complex coral reefs are along the north-east coast of Komodo. The park has many animals that live in the ocean, including whale sharks, ocean sunfish, manta rays, eagle rays, pygmy seahorse, false pipefish, clown frogfish, nudibranchs, blue-ringed octopus, sponges, tunicates, and coral.

Conservation
The island of Padar and part of Rinca were made nature reserves in 1938. Komodo Island became a nature reserve in 1965. UNESCO also began to protect the island in 1977. The three islands were named a national park in 1980,. The park was extended to include the nearby parts of the ocean and a part of Flores in 1984. In 1991 the national park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Since 1995, the national park authority has been supported by an American environmental organization called The Nature Conservancy (TNC).

Komodo National Park has been selected as one of 28 finalists to become one of the New7Wonders of Nature.

People living in the park and tourism
About 4,000 people live within the park. Scuba diving is popular because of the many different kinds of life living in the water. Ecotourism in the ocean is the main way to get money to support the park

However, several fishermen died since the 1980s. People disagree about what happened to them. Park patrol and military said they needed to protect themselves. Fishermen living in the area say the park management killed the fishermen on purpose.

References

Other websites

 Komodo National Park website 
 Official UNESCO website
 Komodo Island 
 New7Wonders of Nature 

World Heritage Sites in Asia
National parks in Asia
Lesser Sunda Islands
1980s establishments in Indonesia
Biosphere reserves
1980 establishments in Asia
Hōtō

is a noodle from Yamanashi, Japan. It is made by stewing flat udon noodles and vegetables in miso soup. Though hōtō is a type of udon, locals do not consider it to be an udon dish because the dough is prepared like dumplings rather than noodles.

Hoto of other prefectures
The adjoining prefectures, Nagano, Shizuoka and Gunma have similar noodle dishes with soy sauce. They are called "Okkirikomi", "Niboutou" etc. More recently, such Hoto culture has been promoted to encourage profit from tourism.

History
There are many different stories about the history of Hoto. In the old days, in Yamanashi, rice fields were replaced by mulberry fields, to grow silkworms. Then, cultivation of wheat become popular and dishes which use flour developed. In all of the dishes, Hoto was economical because it used many vegetables and stock. Also, its taste was good. Therefore, Hoto spread throughout Yamanashi.

How to cook
First, knead flour with a little water in a bowl. Then spread the dough with a stick. Fold the dough and cut widely. You do not need to let it sit, or add salt. Nowadays, you can buy Hoto noodles around Yamanashi prefecture. The soup tastes like soybean paste. Adding pumpkin paste into the soup is popular. The stock is made from dried small sardines. The main ingredient is vegetables. In summer, leeks, onions, potatoes and so on are used. In winter, pumpkins, taro, carrots, napa cabbage and so on are used. Sometimes pork or chicken are used.

Noodles
Labyrinthodont

Labyrinthodont is a term which was used for fossil amphibia. Although it is no longer a formal term in taxonomy, it is still useful as an evolutionary grade, a kind of catch-all term. Labyrinth mean a maze and dont means tooth.

Labyrinthodonts are often called Temnospondyls.
The Labyrinthodontia is not a clade, because it is not monophyletic. It has been replaced in the classification by more correct terms.

The labyrithodonts were some of the dominant animals from the Devonian to the Lower Triassic (about 390 to 210 million years ago). The group is an evolutionary grade (a polyphyletic or paraphyletic group) of species which look rather similar.

The name describes the pattern of infolding of the dentine and enamel of the teeth, which often fossilise. They are also have a heavily armoured skull roof (so they also have an even older name "Stegocephalia"), and complex vertebrae.

Characteristics 

The labyrinthodonts flourished for more than 200 million years. Although there was much variation, these traits make their fossils distinct and easy to recognise:

 Strongly folded tooth surface, so that a cross section resembles a classical labyrinth (or maze).
 Massive skull roof, with openings only for the nostrils, eyes and a parietal 'third eye'. The skull was rather flat with thick dermal armour, accounting for the older term for the group: Stegocephalia. The amniotes (Sauropsids and Synapsids) developed deeper skulls.
 Otic notch behind each eye at the back edge of the skull. In the primitive waterbound forms it may have formed an open spiracle, and may possibly have held an ear-drum in some advanced forms.
 Complex vertebrae made of 4 pieces.

What the term included 
 †Ichthyostegalia : term no longer used; see 'Fishapods', below.
 †Temnospondyli (possible ancestors of modern amphibians)
 †Lepospondyli (possible ancestors of modern amphibians)
 †Reptiliomorpha (ancestors of reptiles): now referred to the Amniote stem-group or the Sauropsida.

Specifically excluded 
 Lissamphibians: modern amphibia
 Amniotes: The terrestrial cleidoic egg-laying animals, the Sauropsida and Synapsida.

Fishapods 

Early tetropods are now classified as lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii). This is because we now know they were aquatic when the limbs first evolved (see Tetrapod).

The informal term fishapods is often used for this group of Devonian animals.

A more formal term, used by Clack, is "stem-group tetrapods".

References 

Fossils
Amphibians
Puntland

Puntland is a province of Somalia in the Horn of Africa. Officially it is called the Puntland State of Somalia. Its capital is Garowe. To the east of Puntland is Khatumo. To the south is Galmudug.

Overview
The economy is centered around Boosasso. The province covers about a third of Somalia, and about a third of the population of Somalia lives in the province.  Puntlanders want some degree of autonomy, but Puntlanders also want to stay within Somalia, and find a solution for the whole country.

Politics
Although it is a federal state, Puntland politicians often call themselves a government. The people inside Puntland are called Puntites or Puntlanders. The area of Puntland is part of the areas of Waqooyi meaning north or Bari meaning east. The president is usually Majeerteen and the vice-president is usually of the reer darawiish tribe.

References 

States of Somalia
Provinces
Khatumo
Frauzio

Frauzio was a comic book Brazil floor monthly, created in 2001 by Marcatti distributed by Publisher SCALE.

Was launched with a circulation of 30 thousand copies and distributed at newsstands around the Brazil, became the first magazine underground to be published in an industrial scale worldwide.

In 2003, published four editions of the magazine Misadventures of Frauzio by Publisher PRO-C. In the same year the album special edition is published by Frauzio Opera Graphica. The book, under the titleQuestion of paternity, brings a Frauzio adventure inspired by the book Lolita of Nabokov.

Sources 
 Site Marcatti

Other websites
 Mundo HQ  
 HQ maniacs  
 Universo HQ  

Comic books
Brazilian culture
Daddy G

Daddy G, (born Grantley Evan Marshall, ,  Bristol, UK), is an English musician and a founding member of the band,  Massive Attack.

Music
Marshall joined the Bristol music scene as a member of the DJ group The Wild Bunch in the 1980s, which included two other Massive Attack members, Robert Del Naja and Andrew Vowles. In 1986, The Wild Bunch dissolved. Del Naja, Vowles, and Marshall then formed the trip-hop group Massive Attack, which is considered to have pioneered the Bristol Sound along with Portishead and Tricky.

In addition to appearing on Massive Attack's albums, Marshall has also mixed a CD for the DJ-Kicks mix series.

Notes

1959 births
Living people
English musicians
Massive Attack
Trip hop musicians
Tau lepton

Tau (τ) leptons (aka tauons, tau particle) are one of the very small elementary particles. This means that they are believed to be so small that they can not be divided any more. Tau leptons can be thought of as very heavy electrons, as they are both leptons. This is because they have about 3,500 times as much mass as electrons, and about 17 times as much mass as muons. Since they only live for 2.9x10–13 seconds, they do not have a significant role in the regular world. However, they are very important in the decay of subatomic matter.

Like the other two basic leptons, tauons have a neutrino named after them (the tau neutrino).

Tau have a charge of -1, and can be written as τ–. Since antimatter has the opposite of charge of regular matter, anti-tauons have a charge of +1, and can be written as τ+. Tauons themselves are unstable, and can decay. Also, τ+ and τ– can annihilate each other in a form of decay. When a single tauon decays, it is the only lepton that can decay into hadrons (things made of quarks). τ+ and τ– can be formed by an electron-positron (antielectron) pair combining. The two tauons then decay into an electron and a positron or a muon and an antimuon, and four of the various neutrinos. However, a single tauon decays differently than a tauon and an antitauon.

A τ– will quickly decay into a tau neutrino and a W boson. The W boson will exist for 3x10–25 seconds, before it decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino, a muon and a muon antineutrino, or a down quark and an up antiquark.

References 

Elementary particles
Thallium(I) bromide

Thallium(I) bromide, also known as thallous bromide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TlBr. It has thallium and bromide ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

Properties
Thallium(I) bromide is a yellow-white solid. It is similar to silver bromide. It gets darker when light shines on it. It is very toxic, like all thallium compounds. It does not dissolve in water.

Preparation
Thallium(I) bromide is made by reacting thallium and bromine or by reacting sodium or potassium bromide with any thallium compound.

Uses
It is used in semiconductors and gamma ray and X-ray detectors.

Related pages
Thallium(I) chloride
Sodium bromide
Thallium(I) oxide

Thallium compounds
Bromine compounds
Thallium(III) hydroxide

Thallium(III) hydroxide, also known as thallic hydroxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Tl(OH)3. It has thallium and hydroxide ions in it. The thallium is in its +3 oxidation state.

Properties
Thallium(III) hydroxide is a weak base. It is a white solid. It is highly toxic. It is also an oxidizing agent. It breaks down to thallium(III) oxide when heated. If it is heated more, it breaks down to oxygen and thallium(I) oxide.

Related pages
Thallium(I) bromide
Thallium(I) sulfate

Thallium compounds
Julian Assange

Julian Paul Assange (born 3 July 1971) is an Australian computer programmer, publisher and journalist. He is a spokesman and editor-in-chief of WikiLeaks, which is a website that posts news leaks. He started the website in 2006. He was born in Townsville, Queensland. He also made a program called Rubberhose (file system) to hide secret information in a specific way that protects against torture.

Assange was the Readers' Choice for Time Person of the Year in 2010 after getting the most Internet votes. However, Mark Zuckerberg, who started Facebook, won the actual award.

In 2012, facing extradition to Sweden, he was granted political asylum by Ecuador and took refuge at the Embassy of Ecuador, London.

On 11 January 2018, it was announced that Assange had held Ecuadorian citizenship since 12 December 2017.

Ecuadorian President Lenín Moreno said on 27 July 2018 that he had begun talks with British authorities to withdraw the asylum for Assange. On 11 April 2019, Ecuador withdrew Assange's asylum and he was arrested by the Metropolitan Police shortly afterwards. His lawyers said they will fight extradition to the United States.

In November 2019, it was reported that Assange is in bad health, has depression and "could die in prison" if not hospitalized.

The extradition to the United States hearing (a pre-trial discussion in a court) for Assange began in London on February 24,  2020. The next set of hearings is scheduled for May.

References

1971 births
Living people
Australian journalists
Australian activists
Ecuadorian people
Extradition
University of Melbourne alumni
Writers from Queensland
Kaon

Kaons are a specific type of meson (mesons are particles made of one quark and one antiquark). What makes kaons unique is that they are made of one up quark or down quark, and one strange quark. (One of the two quarks that make of a kaon must be an antiquark, and the other must be normal matter. For example, a kaon can be made of one up quark and a strange antiquark). The discovery of kaons was significant because it proved the existence of yet another flavour (type) of quark, the strange quark.

There are four types of kaons, but two of them are relatively easy to understand. There is the K+ and the K0. The + and 0 above the letter K refer to whether the charge is positive, or 0 (neutral). The K+ is made of one up quark, and one strange antiquark. Since antiparticles have the opposite charge of their counterpart (and since normal strange quarks have a charge of -1/3), 2/3 + 1/3 = a +1 charge, or simply a + charge. (Also because antiparticles have the opposite charge of their counterpart, if you change the up quark in a K+ to an up antiquark and the strange antiquark to a normal strange quark, you get the opposite charge, forming a K–). Since down quarks and strange quarks have the same charge, if either one of them is an antiparticle, the overall charge is zero. Therefore, a K0 can either be made of one down quark and  strange antiquark, or one down antiquark and one normal strange quark.

Subatomic particles
Thallium(III) oxide

Thallium(III) oxide, also known as thallic oxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Tl2O3. It has thallium and oxide ions in it. The thallium is in its +3 oxidation state.

Properties
Thallium(III) oxide is a white powder. It is very heavy and very toxic. It is a semiconductor. It reacts with acids to make other toxic thallium compounds. It does not dissolve in water.

Preparation
It is made by oxidation of thallium(I) oxide.

Uses
It may be used in solar cells.

Related pages
Thallium(I) chloride
Silver(I) oxide

Thallium compounds
Oxides
Thallium(I) chloride

Thallium(I) chloride, also known as thallous chloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TlCl. It has thallium and chloride ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

Properties
Thallium(I) chloride is a colorless odorless solid. It is very toxic. It is insoluble (does not dissolve) in cold water but dissolves a little in hot water. Otherwise, it is somewhat similar to potassium chloride in being colorless and silver chloride in being insoluble in water.

Preparation
Thallium(I) chloride is made by reacting any soluble chloride such as hydrochloric acid with thallium(I) sulfate. This makes a thallium(I) chloride solid. It can also be made by reacting thallium metal with hydrochloric acid.

Uses
It is the result of a certain way to make hexafluorophosphates from chlorides.

Related pages
Thallium(I) bromide
Thallium(III) oxide
Thallium(I) carbonate

Thallium compounds
Chlorine compounds
Shuzo Matsuoka

is a Japanese professional athlete and sports commentator. He is best known as a tennis player. 

He was a tennis player on the Japanese national team at the Summer Olympic Games in 1988 at Seoul, in 1992 at Barcelona and in 1996 at Atlanta.

Tennis career
ATP tour, best singles rank:
46th place

ATP tour, singles rank:
1985. 691
1986. 370
1987. 260
1988. 82
1989. 181
1990. 144
1991. 67
1992. 64
1993. 134
1994. 124
1995. 57
1996. 149

KAL Cup:
Victory

Stella-Artois Queen's Club grass court tournament:
Lost the final in 1992 to Wayne Ferreira

Wimbledon:
Best 8 in 1995 (quarterfinals), lost to Pete Sampras who won the tournament

Related pages
 Sports in Japan
 Japan at the Olympics

References

Male tennis players
Japanese tennis players
Sports commentators
1967 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Tokyo
Bully (video game)

Bully (PAL region PlayStation 2 version is called Canis Canem Edit) was released on 17 October 2006 by Rockstar Games. Because the game became very popular, Rockstar released the remake called Bully: Scholarship Edition. This version was for the Xbox 360, Wii and Microsoft Windows. There are not many differences between the classic Bully and the Scholarship Edition, however there are 4 new classes available: Biology, Music, Math and Geography.

2006 video games
Action video games
PlayStation 2 games
Xbox 360 games
Wii games
Windows games
Poxviridae

Poxviridae are family of large complex DNA viruses, including the vaccinia and variola viruses, that are pathogenic to humans and animals and have an affinity for skin tissue. Smallpox is in the family Poxviridae.

Four genera of poxviruses may infect humans: orthopox, parapox, yatapox, molluscipox. Orthopox: variola virus, vaccinia virus, cowpox virus, monkeypox virus, smallpox (eradicated); Parapox: orf virus, pseudocowpox, bovine papular stomatitis virus; Yatapox: tanapox virus, yaba monkey tumor virus; Molluscipox: molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV).

Viruses
National Science Foundation

The National Science Foundation (NSF) is a United States government agency where discoveries begin and supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health. With an annual budget of about US$6.87 billion (fiscal year 2010), the NSF funds approximately 20 percent of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States' colleges and universities. In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics and the social sciences, the NSF is the major source of federal backing.

The NSF's director, deputy director, and the 24 members of the National Science Board (NSB) are appointed by the President of the United States, and confirmed by the United States Senate. The director and deputy director are responsible for administration, planning, budgeting and day-to-day operations of the foundation, while the NSB meets six times a year to establish its overall policies.

References

Other websites 

NASA
NSF website
Royal Society

Research organizations in the United States
United States government agencies
1950 establishments in the United States
1950s establishments in Virginia
Alexandria, Virginia
Y tu mamá también

Y tu mamá también (And your mother too) is a 2001 award-winning Mexican road movie. It was directed by Alfonso Cuarón and written by him and his brother Carlos Cuarón.

It was released without a rating in the United States because the movie's distributors believed a market-limiting NC-17 was unavoidable. This movie was released during 2002 in the US.

Other websites 

2001 drama movies
2000s LGBT movies
2000s road movies
2000s romantic drama movies
Mexican movies
Spanish-language movies
Movies directed by Alfonso Cuarón
Adriaan Blaauw

Adriaan Blaauw (April 12 1914—December 1 2010) was a Dutch astronomer. He was an expert on the development of groups of young stars and how they expand away from each other. He discovered that some massive stars, known as runaways, can be moving at speeds of hundreds of kilometers per second. He was the scientific director of the European Southern Observatory and later became its Director General. From 1976 to 1979 he was the President of the International Astronomical Union.

References

1914 births
2010 deaths
Dutch academics
Dutch astronomers
People from Amsterdam
Drosophila pseudoobscura

Drosophila pseudoobscura is a species of fruit fly, used extensively in lab studies of the genetics of natural populations.

It was first used by Theodosius Dobzhansky and his colleagues. They collected samples from populations in western North America and Mexico, and grew them in 'population cages' in the laboratory. They were interested in natural selection, genetic drift, and other aspects of population genetics.

In 1989 Diane Dodd gave laboratory populations of D. pseudoobscura two different food types, starch and maltose. They rapidly evolved into two distinct groups after only eight generations with the different foods. As the two groups both showed a strong preference for mating with their own type, this was claimed as an example of speciation by reproductive isolation. Dodd's experiment has been repeated by others, and works with other kinds of fruit flies and foods.

In 2005, D. pseudoobscura was the second Drosophila species to have its genome sequenced, after Drosophila melanogaster.

References 

Drosophila
Evolutionary biology
Experiments
Model organisms
Dana Delany

Dana Welles Delany (born March 13, 1956) is an Emmy Award-winning American movie and television actress. She is well known for her role as Colleen McMurphy on the ABC television show China Beach (1988–1991), Katherine Mayfair on Desperate Housewives (2007–2010) and Megan Hunt on Body of Proof (2011–present).

1956 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
Emmy Award winners
Actors from New York City
Fastball

Fastball is an American rock band from Austin, Texas. It started in the 1990s with the name Magneto U.S.A., but later changed its name to Fastball.

Band history
Fastball became popular around Austin, Texas. It released its first album, Make Your Mama Proud, in 1996. However, the band did not became famous until it released its second album, All The Pain Money Can Buy in 1998. The first song on this album, The Way, became a hit. This song was about an elderly couple who got lost while traveling to a family reunion and died. However, band member Tony Scalzo, who wrote the song, gave the story a happier ending in the lyrics. The album had another big hit, Out Of My Head, and the song Fire Escape also was played on the radio. The band's next albums, The Harsh Light Of Day, Keep Your Wig On, and Little White Lies, did not sell as many copies as All The Pain Money Can Buy.

Members
Tony Scalzo (vocals, bass guitar, keyboards, guitar)
Miles Zuniga (vocals, guitar)
Joey Shufflefield (drums)

Albums 
 Make Your Mama Proud (1996)
 All the Pain Money Can Buy (1998)
 The Harsh Light of Day (2000)
 Keep Your Wig On (2004)
 Little White Lies (2009)
 Step into Light (2017)
 The Help Machine (2019)

References

American rock bands
American pop music groups
Musicians from Austin, Texas
Musical groups from Texas
Time Person of the Year

Person of the Year is an issue of the United States magazine Time that has come out each year since 1927.  Until 1999, it was called "Man of the Year."

The "Person of the Year" is not always a person.  It can be a person, group, idea, or thing that "for better or for worse...has done the most to influence the events of the year".  This means that being chosen is not an award, like being chosen as the "best person of the year."  The Person of the Year may be an enemy of the United States, like Adolf Hitler (1938) or Joseph Stalin (1939 and 1942).  Every year, Time chooses the person who they think has had the most effect on the things that have happened in that year (whether those things were good or bad).

The first Person of the Year was aviator Charles Lindbergh, in 1927.  Since then, Persons of the Year have included groups, whole generations, important objects, and even the Earth.  Since the list began, every serving President of the United States has been a Person of the Year at least once, except for Calvin Coolidge, Herbert Hoover, and Gerald Ford.  Franklin D. Roosevelt is the only person to have been named Person of the Year three times.

The December 31, 1999 issue of Time named Albert Einstein the "Person of the Century". Franklin D. Roosevelt and Mahatma Gandhi were chosen as runners-up.

Persons of the Year

Photo gallery

1927  1950

1951  1979

1980  2000

2001  2021

References
Metalworking

Metalworking is the shaping of metals to create single parts, assemblies, or large scale buildings/objects. There are many ways of shaping metal, including machining, metalspinning, forging, casting, goldsmith and fabricating. Humans have been working metal for close to 7000 years.

Manufacturing
Metals
DJ Shadow

Joshua Paul Davis, (born June 29, 1972) known by his stage name DJ Shadow, is an American music producer, DJ and songwriter. He is an important person in the history of instrumental hip hop. He became well known after his first album Endtroducing....., which was made entirely from samples. He has a collection of over 60,000 records.

References

1972 births
Living people
American DJs
American songwriters
People from San Jose, California
Musicians from California
Thallium(I) carbonate

Thallium(I) carbonate, also known as thallous carbonate, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Tl2CO3. It has thallium and carbonate ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

Properties
Thallium(I) carbonate is a white solid. It dissolves in water. It is the only heavy metal carbonate that can dissolve in water. It is similar to potassium carbonate. It is highly toxic, though. It reacts with acids like all carbonates do to make a thallium salt and carbon dioxide.

Preparation
It is made by reacting thallium(I) oxide with carbon dioxide.

Uses
It is used to make fake diamonds, to test for carbon disulfide, and to kill fungi.

Related pages
Thallium(III) oxide
Thallium(I) chloride

Thallium compounds
Carbonates
Thallium(I) fluoride

Thallium(I) fluoride, also known as thallous fluoride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TlF. It has thallium and fluoride ions. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

Properties
Thallium(I) fluoride is a white solid. It dissolves easily in water. It also dissolves in ethanol. It absorbs a little water in wet air.

Preparation
It is made by reacting thallium(I) oxide or thallium(I) carbonate with hydrofluoric acid.

Related pages
Thallium(III) oxide
Thallium(I) chloride

References

Thallium compounds
Fluorine compounds
Thallium(I) hydroxide

Thallium(I) hydroxide, also known as thallous hydroxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TlOH. It has thallium and hydroxide ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

Properties
Thallium(I) hydroxide is a yellow solid. It dissolves in water to make a yellow and very basic solution, similar to potassium hydroxide. It reacts with acids to make thallium salts. It breaks down to thallium(I) oxide when heated.

Preparation
It is made by dissolving thallium(I) oxide in water or by reacting thallium with water or moist air.

Related pages
Thallium(III) hydroxide
Thallium(I) chloride

Thallium compounds
Thallium(I) iodide

Thallium(I) iodide, also known as thallous iodide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TlI. It has thallium and iodide ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

Properties
Thallium(I) iodide is a yellow solid. It does not dissolve in water. It turns red when heated gently. It is a reducing agent. It is very toxic like all thallium compounds.

Preparation
It is made by reacting thallium with iodine or hydroiodic acid or by reacting any soluble thallium salt like thallium(I) sulfate with any iodide.

Uses
Thallium(I) iodide is used in mercury-vapor lamps. It is also used in a detector of radiation.

Related pages
Thallium(III) oxide
Thallium(I) bromide
Thallium(I) chloride

Thallium compounds
Iodine compounds
Thallium(I) oxide

Thallium(I) oxide, also known as thallous oxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Tl2O. It has thallium and oxide ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

Properties
Thallium(I) oxide is a black solid. It reacts with water to make a yellow solution of thallium(I) hydroxide. It reacts with carbon dioxide to make thallium(I) carbonate. It is a strong base. It reacts with acids to make other thallium salts. It is very toxic.

Preparation
It is made by heating thallium(I) hydroxide or thallium(I) carbonate in air.

Uses
It is used in some superconductors. It is also used to make certain special types of glass.

Related pages
Thallium(III) oxide
Thallium(I) chloride
Thallium(I) sulfate

Thallium compounds
Oxides
Thallium(I) sulfide

Thallium(I) sulfide, also known as thallous sulfide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Tl2S. It has thallium and sulfide ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

Properties
Thallium(I) sulfide is a black solid. It reacts with acids to make hydrogen sulfide and a thallium salt.

Occurrence and preparation
It is found as a mineral called carlinite, but it is rare. It is the only thallium sulfide mineral that does not have another metal in it. It is made in the laboratory by reacting thallium(I) sulfate with hydrogen sulfide or by heating thallium and sulfur together.

Uses
It was used in some of the first infrared detectors. One of the first reliable infrared detectors used thallium sulfide and it was made in World War II.

Related pages
Thallium(I) chloride
Thallium(III) oxide
Thallium(I) oxide

Thallium compounds
Sulfur compounds
Thallium(I) sulfate

Thallium(I) sulfate, also known as thallous sulfate, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Tl2SO4. It has thallium and sulfate ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

Properties
Thallium(I) sulfate is colorless, odorless, and tasteless. It is very toxic, though. It dissolves easily in water and is similar to potassium sulfate.

Preparation
It is made by dissolving thallium ore or thallium metal in sulfuric acid.

Uses
It was used in rat poison, but since it is so similar to other chemicals, it poisoned some people and was outlawed. It was also used for some medicines before it was found that it was too toxic. It stops plants from germinating. It is the main source of thallium in the laboratory and is used to make thallium(I) sulfide.

Toxicity
Thallium sulfate, like all thallium compounds, is very toxic. This is because the size of the thallium ion is very similar to the size of the potassium ion. After it goes into the cells, it cannot be used like potassium is used and so kills the cell. It also gets absorbed through the skin. Eating more than 1/2 gram can kill. It gets deposited in the kidney, liver, brain, and similar places. It has been blamed for the extinction of the Brown Fish Owl.

Related pages
Thallium(I) chloride
Thallium(III) halide
Thallium(III) oxide

Thallium compounds
Sulfur compounds
Thallium halide

The thallium halides come in two oxidation states: monohalides, where thallium has the oxidation state +1, and trihalides, where thallium generally has oxidation state +3.

Monohalides 

The monohalides all contain thallium with oxidation state +1.
Thallium(I) fluoride, a white crystalline solid. It is soluble in water, unlike the other thallium monohalides.
Thallium(I) chloride, sensitive to light. It is a white crystalline solid.
Thallium(I) bromide, sensitive to light. A pale yellow crystalline solid.
Thallium(I) iodide, at room temperature it is a yellow crystalline solid. At higher temperatures the colour changes to red.

Trihalides 
Thallium(III) halides are very rare. Some of them are unstable. The thallium(III) iodide does not form. They are quite different to aluminium, gallium and indium trihalides.

Thallium(III) fluoride, also known as thallic fluoride, is made of thallium in its +3 oxidation state and fluoride ions. It is made by reacting thallium(III) oxide with bromine trifluoride, fluorine, or sulfur tetrafluoride at a warm temperature.
Thallium(III) chloride, also known as thallic chloride, is made of thallium in its +3 oxidation state and chloride ions. It disproportionates above 40°C, making thallium(I) chloride and chlorine. It is made by reacting thallium(I) chloride with chlorine in an organic solution.
Thallium(III) bromide, also known as thallic bromide, is made of thallium in its +3 oxidation state and bromide ions. It disproportionates at a low temperature to thallium(I) bromide and bromine. It can be made by reacting thallium(I) bromide with bromine in water or an organic solution.
Thallium(I) triiodide, a black crystalline solid. It does not contain thallium(III), but has the same structure as CsI3 containing the linear I3- ion.

References 

Thallium compounds
Up quark

Up quarks are subatomic particles that help make up many larger particles, like protons. Up quarks have a charge of +2/3, and are the lightest of the six types (flavours) of quarks. Like all fermions (non force-carrying particles), up quarks have a spin of 1/2. They are affected by all four of the fundamental forces, which are gravity, the strong force, the weak force, and electromagnetism. Like all quarks, Up quarks are elementary particles, which means that they are so small that scientists believe that they can not be divided any more.

Protons (which have a total charge of +1) are made of two up quarks (which have a charge of +2/3) and one down quark (which have a charge of -1/3). Neutrons (which have a total charge of 0) are made of one up quark, and two down quarks. Up quarks can also be used to create more complex particles, such as pions.

Quarks
The Rape of the Lock

The Rape of the Lock is a poem written by Alexander Pope, mocking heros and heroines. It was first published anonymously in Lintot's Miscellany in May 1712.

Poem 

The poem is sarcastically laughing at the epic world of the gods. It was based on an incident that was remembered by Pope's friend, John Caryll. Arabella Fermor and Robert Petre were both from Catholic families at a time in England when Anglicanism was very important. Petre, lusting after Arabella, had cut a lock of her hair to keep without permission, which made the two families have a big argument. This was because in those days, cutting off a lock of the lover's hair was scandalous and symbolized improper love. Pope, also a Catholic, wrote the poem to make the two families reconcile and be happy again. He made the character Belinda to represent Arabella in the poem.

Pope's poem mocks all the traditions of classics. Although the poem is funny at times, Pope keeps a sense that beauty is fragile, and that just because Belinda loses a lock of her hair she is very deeply hurt.

Three of Uranus's moons are named after characters from The Rape of the Lock: Belinda, Umbriel, and Ariel.

Other websites 

 "The Rape of the Lock:" Study Guide With Complete Text and Detailed Explanatory Notes

References 

18th-century British poems
Gorgonopsid

The Gorgonopsids  were Therapsids, a group of tetrapods which eventually gave rise to the mammals.

Gorgonopsids were a successful group which lived during the Permian period, about 260 million years ago. They became extinct in the Permian–Triassic extinction event. 

They were the major predators of their day. They had large, powerful, square-shaped jaws with huge, sabre-like canine and interlaced, socket-like teeth. Many fossils have been found in South Africa.

The largest known, Inostrancevia, was the size of a large bear with a 45 cm long skull, and 12-cm long sabre-like teeth.  

The Gorgonopsidae are divided into three sub-families: 
Rubidginae, which had large, broad skulls,
Gorgonopsinae, which included most of the gorgonopsid genera.
Inostranceviinae

Notes 

Therapsids
Fossils
Gorgonops

Gorgonops (literally "Gorgon' face") is the name given to an extinct genus of therapsid which lived about 255-250 million years ago, during the latest part of the Permian period. It was a typical representative of the Gorgonopsia, the dominant predators of their day, which in the largest forms grew to over four meters long. 

Theriodonts
Down quark

Down quarks (sometimes written as a "d") are very small particles that help make up many larger particles, like protons and neutrons. Down quarks have a charge of -1/3. Since Down quarks are fermions (which means that no two of them can exist in the same space at the same time), they have a spin of 1/2. Down quarks are the second lightest quark, the first being up quarks.

The antiparticle of a Down quark is a Down antiquark, or simply an antidown.

Quarks
Strange quark

Strange quarks are the third lightest quarks, which are subatomic particles that are so small, they are believed to be the fundamental particles, and not further divisible. Like down quarks, strange quarks have a charge of -1/3. Like all fermions (which are particles that can not exist in the same place at the same time), strange quarks have a spin of 1/2. What makes strange quarks different from down quarks–apart from having 25 times the mass of down quarks–is that they have something that scientists call "strangeness." Strangeness is basically a resistance to decay against strong force and electromagnetism. This means that any particle that contains a strange quark can not decay due to strong force (or electromagnetism), but instead with the much slower weak force. It was believed that this was a 'strange' method of decay, which is why the scientists gave the particles that name.

Strange quarks can be found in particles such as kaons and some hyperons. Scientists began noticing strangeness when these particles did not decay as quickly as their masses would have suggested they would have. However, it took them a long time to even guess strangeness was the answer because it took over 16 years to predict it after the discovery of kaons.

Quarks
Charm quark

Charm quarks or c quarks are the third most massive of the six quarks. Like all quarks, they are thought to be so small that they can not be divided. (They are called elementary particles for this reason). Similar to up quarks, charm quarks have a charge of +2/3. Although charm quarks are not extremely common, they can be found in particles created by particle accelerators (which smash atoms together at extremely high speeds), such as J/ψ mesons, D mesons, and other charmed particles. Since they are fermions (particles that can not have more than one of that particle at the same place at the same time), charm quarks have a spin of 1/2. 

The discovery of charm quarks – and J/ψ mesons – led to a rapid series of scientific breakthroughs. These events are known as the November revolution.

Quarks
Ōsaka Station

Ōsaka Station (大阪駅,おおさかえき) is a railway station of JR West in Kita-ku, Osaka, Japan. This station is also connected to Umeda Station.

Adjacent stations 
JR West
Tōkaidō Line (JR Kyoto Line, JR Kobe Line)
 Special Rapid Service, Rapid Service
 Shin-Ōsaka - Ōsaka - Amagasaki
 Local
 Shin-Ōsaka - Ōsaka - Tsukamoto
 JR Takarazuka Line
 Rapid Service, Tambaji Rapid Service, Local
 Ōsaka - Amagasaki
 Osaka Loop Line
 Yamatoji Liner
 Ōsaka → Shin-Imamiya
 Yamatoji Rapid Service, Kansai Airport Rapid Service, Kishuji Rapid Service, Rapid Service
 Temma - Ōsaka - Nishikujo
 Direct Rapid Service, Regional Rapid Service, Local
 Temma - Ōsaka - Fukushima

Related pages

 Umeda Station

Railway stations in Osaka Prefecture
Othniel Charles Marsh

Othniel Charles Marsh M.A PhD LL.D (October 29, 1831 – March 18, 1899) was one of the leading paleontologists of the 19th century. He discovered and named many fossils found in western North America.

Early life 
Marsh was born in Lockport, New York, into a family of modest means. However, he was the nephew of the very rich banker and philanthropist, George Peabody. 

He graduated from Yale College in 1860. He later studied geology and mineralogy in New Haven, and afterwards paleontology and anatomy in Berlin, Heidelberg and Breslau. He returned to the United States in 1866 and was appointed professor of vertebrate paleontology at Yale University. He persuaded his uncle George Peabody to establish the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale.

Career 

Marsh and his many fossil hunters were able to uncover about 500 new species of fossil animals, which were named by Marsh himself. 

In May 1871, Marsh uncovered the first pterosaur fossils found in America. He also found early horses, the Cretaceous and Jurassic dinosaurs Apatosaurus and Allosaurus, and described the toothed birds of the Cretaceous; Ichthyornis and Hesperornis. 

Marsh is also known for the so-called "Bone Wars" waged against Edward Drinker Cope. The two men were fiercely competitive, discovering and documenting more than 120 new species of dinosaur between them. Marsh eventually won the Bone Wars by finding 80 new species of dinosaur, while Cope only found 56.

References 

1831 births
1899 deaths
Scientists from New York
American paleontologists
People from Lockport, New York
Web application

A web application is a software application that can be run without being installed on the client and that has several parts: A part of it will run on the remote web server, another part will run on the client, usually inside a web browser. Both parts communicate over a computer network, for example the internet. The protocol they often use is  called HTTP. This kind of application design is called client-server model. The parts are usually called "tiers". The most common kind is a three-tier application: One tier is called Presentation tier, another is called Application tier, and the third is called Storage tier. Common examples of web applications are those used for web mail, or for online banking. Social media sites, such as Wikipedia are also web applications.

Benefits and drawbacks

Benefits 

 Web applications run "inside" a browser; no complex installation is needed.
 Web applications require very little disk space (or computing power) on the client. All the client does is display the data.
 Web applications solve some of the "compatibility issues" (Windows, Mac, Linux); all that is needed is a browser.
 In many cases, the data is stored remotely too. As with other cloud computing, this can allow easy communication and cooperation. 
 Help for communication and mail

Drawbacks 

 Because they run inside a web browser, most web applications "look" very different to regular programs. The user experience or ease of use is different and some may dislike it.
 Web applications need to be coded so they follow standards. Any browser that also follows the standard can be used. Small changes in a given browser's implementation of a standard may prevent that browser from using the web application. 
 Web applications need a connection to the server where the application runs, all the time. The connection may need a certain bandwidth. Without an adequate connection, the application may not be usable; in the worst case, data may be lost.
 Many applications are dependent on the server that hosts them. When the server is switched off, or the company goes bust, the application is no longer usable. Traditional applications continue to work.
 The company offering the web application has complete control over it. This also means that they may launch a new version when they want to; the option to "skip" a less popular version does not exist.
 In many cases, the data is stored remotely too. It may not be possible to export the data so that it can be used with another application.
 The company can theoretically track anything the users do. This can cause privacy problems.

Other websites
HTML 5 Draft recommendation,  changes to HTML and related APIs to ease authoring of web-based applications.
The Other Road Ahead – An article arguing that the future lies on the server, not rich interfaces on the client

Web Applications Working Group at the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
Requirements to Become a Web Developer

 
Computer science
Boron group

The boron group, also known as Group III and Group 13, is a group of elements on the periodic table. Most of its members are poor metals, except for boron. Boron is a semimetal. The rest of the elements are soft metals.

List
Boron, brittle hard black semimetal
Aluminium, common soft silvery metal
Gallium, easily melted silvery metal
Indium, soft silvery metal
Thallium, highly toxic very soft metal
Nihonium, unstable manmade element

Gallery

Periodic table
Bottom quark

Bottom quarks or beauty quarks are the second most massive of the elementary particles (particles that are so small that they can not be divided any more). All quarks are elementary particles. Bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3, similar to down quarks. Although bottom quarks are not very common, they are found in particles such as B mesons, among others. All bottom quarks will decay into charm quarks or up quarks in about 10–12, due to weak force.

Quarks
Top quark

Top quarks or truth quarks are the heaviest known elementary particles (particles that are so small that they can not be divided). All quarks are elementary particles, and since they are fermions (which means that no two of them can exist in the same place at the same time), they have a spin of 1/2. Top quarks interact with all four of the fundamental forces, which are gravity, electromagnetism, strong force, and weak force. Almost all of the time, top quarks will decay into a bottom quark and a W boson, although it can sometimes decay into a strange quark.

One top quark weighs about as much as one atom of tungsten. Since top quarks are so massive, scientists have been able to make predictions about the mass of the theoretical particle known as a Higgs Boson. Unfortunately, top quarks are only believed to be able to exist for 5x10–25 seconds.

References

Quarks
Gauge boson

Gauge bosons are carrier particles for three of the four fundamental forces. In the Standard Model of particle physics, there are four kinds of gauge bosons. The three gauge bosons are as follows:

 W and Z bosons, which carry the weak force
 Gluons, which carry the strong force
 Photons, which carry the electromagnetic force

The only remaining fundamental force that has no known gauge boson is gravity. The theoretical gauge boson for gravity is called a graviton.

All gauge bosons are bosons, which simply means that two or more of them can exist in the same place at the same time, unlike fermions. It also means that gauge bosons have a spin of 0, 1, or 2. 

Gauge bosons are thought to interact with the Higgs field. This theoretical field is believed by many scientists to be responsible for why some gauge bosons – like W and Z bosons – have mass, while others – such as photons – do not have mass.

Elementary particles
Henryk Sienkiewicz

Henryk Adam Aleksander Pius Sienkiewicz (May 5, 1846 – November 15, 1916) was a Polish journalist and Nobel Prize-winning novelist.

Works
 Quo Vadis (made into an Oscar-winning film starring Peter Ustinov)
 In Desert and Wilderness ()
 The Teutonic Knights ()
 The trilogy: The Fire and the Sword (), The Deluge () and Colonel Wołodyjowski ().

1846 births
1916 deaths
Polish journalists
Polish novelists
Polish Nobel Prize winners