cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Vicovu de Sus

Vicovu de Sus () is a town in northern Suceava County, Romania. It is on the border with Ukraine.

Towns in Suceava County
George Minot

George Richards Minot (December 2, 1885 - February 25, 1950) was an American doctor. He won the 1934 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, along with George Whipple and William P. Murphy, for their discoveries how eating liver could cure anaemia.

References 

1885 births
1950 deaths
American physicians
American Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from Boston, Massachusetts
Tertiary

The Tertiary was an official geological period, but it is no longer used. It included the first part of the Cainozoic. This is now divided into the Palaeogene and the Neogene.

The previous use of the term "Tertiary" explains why the last period of the Cainozoic is called the Quarternary. There was a big debate about that. These decisions are made by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). This organisation runs an International Commission on Stratigraphy, which decides how we should name geological strata and stages. 

In 19th and 20th century scientific literature, Tertiary is used where geologists now use Palaeogene and Neogene.

References 

Cainozoic
Quaternary

The Quaternary is the current geological period. It is the most recent of the three periods of the Cainozoic era and the most recent of the twelve periods of the current eon, the Phanerozoic. The Quaternary follows the Neogene, which is the second period of the Cainozoic.

The Quaternary began about 2.6 million years ago, and continues today. A great deal of information is considered when geologists discuss the timing of periods. The status of the Quaternary as a period is confirmed by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). 

In the Quarternary were the glaciations known as the Ice Age. Also, anatomically modern humans evolved. During the Quaternary,  many large mammalian species became extinct. This was due to climate change and hunting by humans.

The Quaternary includes two geologic epochs: 
Pleistocene 
Holocene

References 

Cainozoic
Palaeogene

The Palaeogene (meaning “old generation” in Greek) is the first geological period of the Cainozoic and the tenth period in the Phanerozoic eon. It began 65 million years ago, and ended 23 million years ago. Before it was the Cretaceous. The Palaeogene was followed by the Neogene.

The Palaeogene had three stages: Palaeocene, Eocene and Oligocene.

The Palaeogene and the succeeding Neogene were originally considered to be one period, the Tertiary, until it was split recently .

References

Cainozoic
Neogene

The Neogene (meaning “new generation” in Greek) is the second geological period of the Cainozoic and the eleventh period in the Phanerozoic eon. It began 23 million years ago, and ended about 2.6 million years ago when glaciation became less rare.

Before the Neogene was the Palaeogene. The Neogene has two stages: Miocene, and Pliocene. It is followed by the Quaternary.

 
The Neogene, along with the preceding Palaeogene were originally together considered one period, the Tertiary until recently, when it was split.

Cainozoic
Miocene
Palaeocene

The Palaeocene is the first geological epoch in the Palaeogene. It started after the end of the Cretaceous, and lasted for about 10 million years. It was followed by the Eocene epoch.

The Palaeocene began and ended with an extinction event, each of quite a different character. The epoch began with the K/T extinction event, caused by a combination of a meteorite strike (Chicxulub crater) and a huge volcanic flood basalt eruption which produced the Deccan Traps in what is now India. This caused the extinction of many groups, including the dinosaurs and many other reptiles. The epoch ended with the Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, a deep ocean anoxic event (DOAE). This means that the ocean depths were lacking oxygen, so no higher forms of life could survive. This produced a mass extinction of between 35–50% of deep water forms such as benthic foraminifera, and coincided with a major change of mammalian types on land.

Climate 
After a cooler start, the climate grew warmer during the epoch, far warmer than today, and the world was heavily forested. There were no ice caps at the poles. Warm seas circulated throughout the world, including the poles. The earliest Paleocene featured a low diversity and abundance of marine life, but this trend reversed later in the epoch. Tropical conditions gave rise to abundant marine life, including coral reefs. With the demise of marine reptiles at the end of the Cretaceous, sharks became the top predators. At the end of the Cretaceous, the ammonites and many species of foraminifera became extinct.

Marine faunas also came to resemble modern faunas. Only the marine mammals and an important family of sharks, the Carcharhinidae, are missing.

Non-avian dinosaurs may have survived to some extent into the early Danian stage of the Paleocene Epoch about 66 mya. The controversial evidence for such is a hadrosaur leg bone found from Paleocene strata in New Mexico; but such stray late forms may be derived fossils. This means they were fossilised, then erosion uncovered them, then they were buried again in a younger layer of rocks.

Polar forests 
The warm Paleocene climate, much like that of the Cretaceous, supported  polar forests. Precipitation is a major factor in plant diversity nearer the equator, but polar plants have to adapt to light (polar nights and midnight suns) and temperature. Because of this, plants from both poles evolved some similar characteristics, such as broad leaves. Plant diversity at both poles increased throughout the Paleocene, especially at the end, in tandem with the increasing global temperature.

Stages of the Palaeocene 
The Palaeocene is divided into three stages:

References 

Cainozoic
Byron Moreno

Byron Moreno (born 23 November 1969) is a former Ecuadorian football referee. He has been suspended for his job, because he showed illegal red cards. He was also arrested in New York for the possession of the illegal drug heroin and was fined for drunk driving.

1969 births
Living people
People from Quito
Ecuadorian footballers
Eocene

The Eocene was the second geological epoch in the Palaeogene. It began 56 million years ago, and ended 33.9 million years ago. Before it was the Palaeocene and, after it was the Oligocene.

The Eocene, like the Palaeocene before it, had a climate much warmer than today. At the start of the Eocene the Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum was reached. This lasted for 100,000 years, and caused a large extinction event. The land was heavily forested, with temperate forests into arctic and antarctic regions, and the many herbivorous mammals were browsers, not grazers.

The end of the Eocene was the beginning of the Oligocene (33.9 million years ago).  Many plant and animal species went extinct.  This was the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event.  The extinction event was probably caused by meteorite strikes in Siberia and Chesapeake Bay.

References 

Eocene
Cainozoic
Islam in Pakistan

Islam is the official religion of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. In 2007, 97% of the population were Muslims, with 75% being Sunni and 20% Shi'a. There are about 175,376,000 Muslims in Pakistan which is the second largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia. The Shi'a Muslim population is the second largest in the world after Iran, more than 50 million.

History
In 644 A.D. an Arab Army under the command of Hakam defeated the combined forces of Makran and Sindh, which was prominently Buddhist at the time. The period of Arab rule brought the religion of Islam to the Indus Valley. The Baloch tribes gradually embraced Islam, replacing their centuries-old Zoroastrian religion. Islam arrived in the area of modern Pakistan in 711 AD, 79 yrs after the of death of the prophet Muhammad. The Umayyad dynasty sent a Muslim Arab army led by Muhammad bin Qasim al-Thaqafi against the ruler of Sindh, Raja Dahir. Raja Dahir had given refuge to many Zoroastrian Princes who had fled the Islamic conquest of the Persian Empire. Muhammad Bin Qasim's army was defeated in his first three attempts.  The Muslim army conquered the northwestern part of Indus Valley from Kashmir to the Arabian Sea.

The arrival of the Arab Muslims to the provinces of Sindh and Punjab, along with subsequent Muslim dynasties, set the religious boundaries of South Asia. This would lead to the development of the modern state of Pakistan as well as forming the foundation for Islamic rule across much of South Asia. Following the rule of various Islamic empires, including the Ghaznavid Empire, the Ghorid Kingdom, and the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughals controlled the region from 1526 until 1739. Muslim technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, traders, scientists, architects, teachers, theologians and Sufis flocked from the rest of the Muslim world to  Sultanate and Mughal Empire in South Asia.

References

Pakistan
Kashmir Smast

The Kashmir Smast caves are a series of natural limestone caves, artificially expanded from the Kushan Empire to the Shahi periods, in the Babozai mountains in the Mardan Valley in Northern Pakistan. 

Kashmir
Lower Cretaceous

The Lower Cretaceous is the first geological epoch in the Cretaceous. It began 145 million years ago, and ended 100.5 million years ago.

Lasting for about 46 million years, this is the longest stage in the Phanerozoic eon. It is longer than some of the geological periods in the Phanerozoic. 

The Lower Cretaceous is best displayed in England, where it is composed of two series of rocks. Between the two is a major rise in sea level. 
Lower, the Wealden Beds, laid down in freshwater or brackish conditions. Sands came from the flood plain of a huge tropical braided river. Clays came from a coastal lagoonal plain.
Upper, the Greensands, an olive-green sandstone deposited in the sea; and the Gault Clay, a formation of stiff blue clay deposited in a calm, fairly deep water marine environment. It overlays the Lower Greensand formation.

The two parts of the Cretaceous represent the sea level where the divisions were first defined. In the Lower Cretaceous, the sea level was much lower than in the Upper Cretaceous. In the Wealden, Southern England was a huge tropical river delta; in the Greensand the same areas were just offshore. However, in the Upper Cretaceous the deposits were made in deeper water, on what was then the continental shelf. Sea level then stood at its highest level in the Mesozoic.

References 

Cretaceous
Trio sonata

A trio sonata is a type of music for four instruments which was very popular during the 17th century and early 18th century: the period known as the Baroque period.

A trio sonata is written for three voices (three parts), in other words, it can be played by three different instruments.  The two upper voices share the same musical themes.  They often imitate one another.  They are of equal importance.  The third part, the lowest part, is played by basso continuo, which means the accompaniment.  This continuo is usually played by two instruments:  typically a cello or bass viol and a keyboard instrument such as the harpsichord.  That makes four players, of course.  However, the harpsichord player’s left hand notes are the same as the cello’s notes.  This is the “third” part of the trio.

Some of the best trio sonatas are those by Arcangelo Corelli.  His collection of trio sonatas numbered opus 1 and 3 are sonata da chiesa: four movements (slow-fast-slow-fast) finishing with a fugue.  His op 2 and 4 sonatas are sonata da camera type: each movement is a kind of dance.  Corelli’s trio sonatas are for two violins and continuo. 

Johann Sebastian Bach wrote a trio sonata in The Musical Offering for violin, flute and continuo. 

Bach also wrote six trio sonatas for organ.  These are played by one player.  The organist’s two hands each play on different manuals (keyboards) so that they sound like two different instruments.  The organist’s feet play the third part on the pedals.  Each part is strictly a single line (no chords, never more than three notes at a time) so that these works can also be played by other instruments (e.g. two violins and cello with harpsichord).

Bach also wrote sonatas for one melodic instrument and harpsichord.  These pieces are really trio sonatas, although he does not call them trio sonatas.  The melodic instrument (normally violin or flute) plays the top part, the harpsichordist plays the second part with his right hand, and the third part is the lowest part of his left hand notes.

Some other composers who wrote trio sonatas are Tomaso Albinoni,  Henry Purcell, Dieterich Buxtehude, George Frideric Handel,  Georg Philipp Telemann,  Johann Pachelbel and Antonio Vivaldi.

References
Groves Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; London 1980, ISBN 1-56159-174-2

Musical forms
K/T extinction event

The Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, now called the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event, was about 65.5 million years ago. It may be called the K/T extinction event or K/Pg event for short. This is the famous event which killed most of the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous period.

It was a large-scale mass extinction of  animal and plant species. The event marks the end of the Mesozoic era and the beginning of the Cainozoic era.

Effects 
Dinosaur fossils are only found below the K/T boundary. This shows they became extinct before, or during the event. Mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, pterosaurs and many species of plants and invertebrates also became extinct.

Mammalian and bird groups got through the event with some extinctions. Those that survived became widespread and varied during their later evolutionary radiation.

Causes 
The K/T extinctions were so sudden and far-reaching that they must have been caused by something sudden and powerful. One or more massive asteroid or meteor impacts, and increased volcanic activity have been suggested.

How quickly animals died out around the world is an important clue. Patterns in rocks also suggest causes. There are several impact craters and massive volcanic activity in the Deccan Traps in India dated to about the same time as the extinctions. Those impacts and volcanoes would have reduced sunlight and hindered photosynthesis, disrupting Earth's ecology.

The best supported theory is that the meteorite strike in the Yucatan was the main cause of the extinction at the end of the Mesozoic era.

Craters 
There were several impact events across the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary, such as the Chicxulub crater in Mexico, Boltysh crater in Ukraine, Silverpit crater in North Sea, and the Shiva crater offshore western India. 
The Shiva crater is a sea floor structure under the continental shelf in the Indian Ocean, west of Mumbai, India. It was named by paleontologist Sankar Chatterjee after Shiva, the Hindu god of destruction and renewal.

Related pages 
List of extinction events
Chicxulub

References 

Geology
Dinosaurs
Meteorites
Extinction events
Mesozoic
John Rutter

John Rutter (born London 24 September 1945) is an English composer and choral conductor.  He has composed a lot of church music.  Many of his anthems and songs are very popular indeed with church choirs as well as choral societies.  He writes in a style that can be enjoyed easily, and at the same time it is excellent music.

Life

Rutter was born in London.  He went to school at Highgate School.  Another pupil in the school was John Tavener who was also to become a famous composer, although his style of music is very different.

Rutter studied music at Clare College, Cambridge.  He became director of music at Clare College in 1975 and made the choir internationally famous.

In 1974, Rutter visited the United States where he conducted his new cantata "Gloria" which became a great favourite.  He also conducted his "Eight Childhood Lyrics".

In 1981 Rutter started a choir of his own, the Cambridge Singers.  He still conducts them.  They have made many recordings.  Rutter still lives near Cambridge and spends his time composing and conducting all over the world.

Rutter has been given many honours, including  honorary Fellow of Westminster Choir College, Princeton (1980), Fellow of the Guild of Church Musicians (1988). In 1996 the Archbishop of Canterbury gave him the Lambeth Doctorate of Music to celebrate all he has done for church music.  He was made a CBE in 2007.

Rutter also works as an arranger and editor.  His collection of Carols for Choirs which he prepared together with Sir David Willcocks is extremely widely used in Britain.

Compositions

Rutter's compositions include Christmas carols, anthems and longer choral works such as a Gloria, a Magnificat, and a Requiem.

In 2002 his setting of Psalm 150, written for the Queen's Golden Jubilee, was performed at the thanksgiving service in St Paul's Cathedral, London. He has also written an opera for young people called Bang!.  His Mass for Children was first performed in 2003 in the Carnegie Hall, New York.

Most of his songs and anthems were written at first with piano or organ accompaniment, but he has also arranged many of them for orchestral accompaniment as well.

Other websites 
 Rutter at the Oxford University Press website

1945 births
Living people
20th-century English composers
21st-century English composers
Danny Bonaduce

Dante Daniel "Danny" Bonaduce (born August 13, 1959) is an American radio and TV host, and he was a child actor.

He is famous for being on the 1970s sitcom/television series The Partridge Family.

References

1959 births
Living people
Actors from Pennsylvania
Comedians from Pennsylvania
American radio personalities
American television personalities
American movie actors
American television actors
American radio actors
American child actors
Permian–Triassic extinction event

The Permian/Triassic extinction event (P/Tr for short and also popularly referred to as the Great Dying) was the largest extinction event in the Phanerozoic eon. 57% of all biological families, 83% of all genera, 96% of all marine species (including many kinds of fish and the last surviving trilobites) and 70% of all terrestrial vertebrates (including many of the large amphibians, primitive reptiles and synapsids) became extinct. It is the only known extinction event of insects. It ended the Palaeozoic era, and began the Mesozoic era.

The event forms the boundary between the Permian and Triassic periods, at about 252 million years ago. Because so much biodiversity was lost, the recovery of life on earth took much longer than after other extinction events.  This event has been described as the "mother of all mass extinctions".
The pattern of extinction is still unclear, as different studies suggest one to three different pulses.

There are several proposed mechanisms for the extinctions. These include: large or multiple meteorite impacts, increased volcanism, sudden release of methane hydrates from the sea floor. Gradual changes include sea level change, oceanic anoxic events, increasing aridity, and a shift in ocean circulation driven by climate change.

One thing is probably significant. One of the largest ever flood basalt eruptions took place across the P/Tr junction. These eruptions, from 251 to 250 million years ago, produced the Siberian Traps, a huge volcanic province in Siberia. This would certainly have made the world's climate much worse, and is now thought to be the main cause of this great extinction.

Another factor is that global sea levels were at an historic low point at the time.

Related pages
 List of extinction events

References 

Geology
Meteorites
Extinction events
Camille Pissarro

Camille Pissarro (10 July 1830 – 12 November 1903) was a French Impressionist painter. He was born on Saint Tomas in the Virgin Islands. Pissarro died in Paris.

He was the only artist to exhibit in both Impressionism and Post-impressionism forms. Pissarro learnt from great forerunners, including Gustave Courbet and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot. He later studied and worked alongside Georges Seurat and Paul Signac when he took on the Neo-Impressionist style at the age of 54.

In 1873 he helped establish a society of fifteen aspiring artists, holding the group together and encouraging the other members. Art historian John Rewald called Pissarro the “dean of the Impressionist painters", not only because he was the oldest of the group, but also "by virtue of his wisdom and his balanced, kind, and warmhearted personality”. Cézanne said "he was a father for me. A man to consult and a little like the good Lord". He was also one of Gauguin's mentors. Renoir referred to his work as “revolutionary”, through his artistic portrayals of the common man. Pissarro insisted on painting individuals in natural settings without "artifice or grandeur".

Pissarro is the only artist to have shown his work at all eight Paris Impressionist exhibitions, from 1874 to 1886. He acted as a father figure to the Impressionists and, in varying degress, to all four of the major Post-impressionists including Georges Seurat, Paul Cézanne, Vincent van Gogh and Paul Gauguin.

The London years 
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 compelled Pissarro to flee his home in September 1870; he returned in June 1871 to find that the house, and along with it many of his early paintings, had been destroyed by Prussian soldiers. By December 1870 he and his family had taken refuge in London and settled in Crystal Palace, southwest London. 

Through the paintings Pissarro completed at this time, he records Sydenham and Norwood at a time when they were just recently connected by railways. One of the largest of these paintings is a view of St. Bartholomew's Church at Lawrie Park Avenue, commonly known as The Avenue, Sydenham, in the collection of the  National Gallery, London.

Whilst in Upper Norwood Pissarro was introduced to the art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel, who bought two of his 'London' paintings.  Durand-Ruel subsequently became the most important art dealer of the new school of French Impressionism.

Returning to France, in 1890 Pissarro again visited England and painted some ten scenes of central London. He came back again in 1892, painting in Kew Gardens and Kew Green, and also in 1897, when he produced several oils of Bedford Park, Chiswick.

Related pages
 List of French painters
List of Danish painters

References 

French painters
1830 births
1903 deaths
Snowball Earth

Snowball Earth or Icehouse Earth refers to times when the Earth's surface was nearly or entirely frozen. The occurrence of Snowball (or Slushball) Earths is still controversial, but it is now probable that widespread glaciation occurred in periods of the Proterozoic. What is still debatable is how widespread those glaciations were. Proponents claim the theory explains sedimentary deposits of glacial origin at tropical latitudes and other enigmatic features of the geological record. Opponents do not draw the same inferences from the geological evidence, and doubt the geophysical feasibility of an ice or slush-covered ocean.

Palaeoproterozoic 
Huronian glaciation 2,400  2,100 million years ago (mya)
The Snowball Earth hypothesis explains glacial deposits in the Huronian supergroup of Canada. The palaeomagnetic evidence, which suggests ice sheets at low latitudes, is contested. The glacial sediments of the Makganyene formation of South Africa are slightly younger than the Huronian glacial deposits (~2.25 billion years old) and were deposited at tropical latitudes. Perhaps the rise of free oxygen that occurred during this part of the Paleoproterozoic removed methane in the atmosphere through oxidation. As the Sun was notably weaker at the time, the Earth's climate may have relied on methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, to maintain surface temperatures above freezing. In the absence of this methane greenhouse, temperatures plunged and a snowball event could have occurred.

Neoproterozoic 
Kaigas ice age 825 – 730 mya
Sturtian ice age 720 – 635 mya
Marinoan ice age 650 – 635 mya

There were three or four significant ice ages during the late Neoproterozoic. Of these, the Marinoan was the most significant, and the Sturtian glaciations were also truly widespread. These were both in the Cryogenian period, before the Ediacaran. The million year long Gaskiers glaciation did not lead to global glaciation, although it was probably as intense as the late Ordovician glaciation. The status of the Kaigas glaciation or "cooling event" is unclear. Some do not recognise it as glacial, and others believe it may indeed be a third ice age. It was certainly less significant than the Sturtian or Marinoan glaciations, and probably not global in extent. Evidence does  suggest that the Earth underwent a number of glaciations during the Neoproterozoic.

References 

Earth sciences
Climate
Proterozoic
Climate change
Rivallo

Rivallo () was a legendary king of the Britons as told by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He was the son of King Cunedagius. 

During the time he ruled he was troubled by disasters: a rain of blood which lasted three days, a terrible plague, and a great swarm of flies. After he died his son Gurgustius became king.

History of the United Kingdom
Pat Fenlon

Pat Fenlon (born 15 March 1969) is an Irish football manager who is currently managing Bohemians F.C..

His first job as a manager was at Shelbourne where he won the league in 2003, 2004 and 2006. In that time they also made history by managing the first Irish club to reach the third qualifying round of the Champions League, where they were knocked out by Deportivo de La Coruña from Spain. He left Shelbourne at the end of 2006.

He was made the Derry City manager at the end of 2006 but left halfway through the 2007 season after making a poor start with his new club.

He was made manager of Bohemians in early 2008 and so far has won back-to-back titles, an FAI Cup and a League Cup. He has stated that his desire is to get Bohemians into the Champions League group stages in 2010.

1969 births
Living people
Irish footballers
Irish football managers
Sportspeople from Dublin
Victoria Wood

Victoria Wood CBE (19 May 1953, Prestwich, Lancashire – 20 April 2016, Highgate, North London) was an English comedienne, actress, singer, writer and television presenter.

Career
Victoria Wood went to Bury Grammar Girls' School.  She wrote and starred in sketches, plays, films and sitcoms.  She was a stand-up comedian.  She sang and accompanied herself on the piano.

Her humour was usually about everyday life, known as observational comedy. It was often satirical. It referred to popular British media and brand names of British products.

She started her career in 1974 by winning the ATV talent show New Faces. It was not until the 1980s that she began to be known as a comedy star, with the award-winning television series Victoria Wood As Seen On TV and became one of Britain's most popular stand-up comedians.

In 1998, she wrote and starred in the sitcom dinnerladies (deliberately spelt with a small-case "d") which ran for 16 episodes over two seasons.

Wood often worked with Anne Reid, Maxine Peake, Julie Walters, Duncan Preston and Celia Imrie.

She won many awards, including the BAFTA award. She was made a CBE in 2008.

Personal life
Wood married magician Geoffrey Durham in March 1980. They separated in October 2002 and divorced in 2003. They had a daughter, Grace (born 1988) who is a singer and son Henry (born 1992).

Wood's brother is the politician Chris Foote Wood.

Death
Wood was diagnosed with terminal cancer in late 2015, but kept her illness private. She died on 20 April 2016 at her Highgate home, aged 62.

BAFTA nominations
 Wood had four wins from fourteen nominations ( she also had a special Bafta that she received at a Bafta tribute evening in 2005, taking her total to five )

 Victoria Wood As Seen On TV won the BAFTA for "Best Entertainment Programme" in 1986, 1987 and 1988, these awards went to the producer, Geoff Posner.
 An Audience With Victoria Wood won the BAFTA for "Best Entertainment Programme" in 1989, this award went to David G. Hillier.

References

Other websites

1953 births
2016 deaths
Actors from Lancashire
British stand-up comedians
Cancer deaths in London
Comedians from Lancashire
English television actors
English television presenters
English television producers
English television writers
Television personalities from Lancashire
Writers from Lancashire
William P. Murphy

William Parry Murphy (February 6, 1892 – October 9, 1987) was an American doctor. He won the 1934 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, along with George Whipple and George Minot, for discovering how eating liver could cure anaemia.

References

1892 births
1987 deaths
American physicians
American Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from Wisconsin
Silent Night

"Silent Night" () is a very popular Christmas carol and song. It was first performed in 1818, by Franz Xaver Gruber and Joseph Mohr. Gruber was an organist and headmaster of a primary school. Mohr was a priest. Mohr had written the poem in 1816; Gruber wrote the melody for it before Christmas 1818. Little else is known on how the song came to be.

One of the theses is that at the time it was not possible to play the organ in the church. For this reason Gruber and Mohr created a song that could be accompanied by a guitar. There are many other stories about how the song came to be.

The audience liked the performance very much. Gruber sang, and Mohr played the guitar. It is because of an organ-maker called Mauracher that the song became known to a wider audience. Mauracher could capture the attention of the crowd at a performance in Leipzig in 1832. From there it spread, first to the German-speaking countries, then to the world. Today there are translations into more than 300 languages and dialects.

The song was first published on a leaflet in 1833, with other "authentic Tyrolean songs". Frederick William IV of Prussia wanted to know the authors of the song, and asked St. Peter's Archabbey, Salzburg, in 1854. The abbey found Gruber, who was still alive. In the meantime, the song had been attributed to Michael Haydn.

The author Hertha Pauli, who was born in Austria had to flee from the persecutions during the Second World War. In 1943, she found that many Americans thought that "Silent Night" was an American popular tune. She then wrote the children's book, "Silent Night. The Story of a Song", where she explained where the song was from.

References

19th-century songs
Christmas music
Indonesian Rupiah

The Indonesian Rupiah (IDR) is the money used in Indonesia. Rupiah started to be used in 1946. 
The coins that are used now are 25 rupiah, 50 rupiah, 100 rupiah, 200 rupiah, 500 rupiah and 1000 rupiah.
The banknotes that are used are 1000 rupiah, 2000 rupiah, 5000 rupiah, 10 000 rupiah, 20 000 rupiah, 50 000 rupiah and 100 000 rupiah.

Currency of Asia
20th-century establishments in Indonesia
1946 establishments in Asia
Horseshoes

Horseshoes is a game played outside. This game is played using four horseshoes and two stakes.

References
 

Games
Hans Spemann

Hans Spemann (27 June 1869 – 9 September 1941) was a German doctor. He won the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for his discovery of the 'organizer effect' in embryonic development

References 

1869 births
1941 deaths
German doctors
German Nobel Prize winners
Henry Hallett Dale

Sir Henry Hallett Dale, OM, GBE, PRS, (9 June 1875 - 23 July 1968) was an English pharmacologist. He won the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, along with Otto Loewi, for their discoveries about the chemical transmission of nerve impulses.

References

1875 births
1968 deaths
English chemists
Pharmacologists
Order of Merit
Knights and Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
Fellows of the Royal Society
Presidents of the Royal Society
British Nobel Prize winners
Paul Dukas

Paul Abraham Dukas (October 1, 1865 – May 17, 1935) was a French composer and teacher of classical music.

Early life
Paul Dukas was born in Paris to a Jewish father and Catholic mother. He was taught music by Théodore Dubois and Ernest Guiraud at the Conservatoire de Paris, where he became friends with the composer Claude Debussy. He then worked as a music critic and orchestrator.

Early works
Although Dukas wrote a lot of music, he destroyed many of his pieces because he was unhappy with them. Only a few are left. His first important surviving work is the Symphony in C (1896). This is in the style of Beethoven and César Franck. Like Franck's only symphony, Dukas' is in three movements not the usual four: Allegro non troppo, ma con fuoco; Andante espressive e fuoco; Allegro spiritoso. 

In 1897 Dukas wrote another work for orchestra, L'apprenti sorcier (English: The Sorcerer's Apprentice) based on Goethe's poem "Der Zauberlehrling". A short version of The Sorcerer's Apprentice was used in the Walt Disney film Fantasia. Dukas's use of rhythm and his skill in writing for orchestras can be seen in both the Symphony in C and The Sorcerer's Apprentice.

Piano works
For the piano, Dukas wrote two complex and difficult works, a Sonata in E-flat minor (1901) and Variations, interlude and finale on a theme of Rameau (1902), again in the style of Beethoven and Franck. The Sonata has not been performed very often, but lately pianists, such as Marc-André Hamelin, have started to add it to their concerts. There are also two smaller works for piano solo.

Opera
The opera Ariane et Barbe-Bleue ("Ariadne and Bluebeard"), which he wrote between 1899 and 1907, has often been compared to Debussy's Pelléas et Mélisande. This is because it is similar in its musical style, and both operas are based on words by Maurice Maeterlinck. Dukas's last big work was the grand oriental ballet La Péri (1912). This is about a man who goes to the Ends of the Earth to find immortality, and finds a mythical Peri, holding The Flower of Immortality.

Because the opening of the ballet is very quiet, Dukas later added a short 'Fanfare pour preceder La Peri' which gave the usually noisy audiences time to settle in their seats before the main opera began.

Teacher
In later life, Dukas became well known as a music teacher, with many famous students including Joaquín Rodrigo, Manuel Ponce, Maurice Duruflé, Xian Xinghai, Olivier Messiaen, Jehan Alain, Carlos Chávez, and David Van Vactor. After Dukas died he was buried in the Père Lachaise cemetery in Paris.

Music

Piano
 Piano Sonata (1900)
 Variations, interlude et finale sur un thème de Rameau (1902)
 Prélude élégiaque sur le nom de Haydn (1906)
 La Plainte, au loin, du Faune (1920)

Orchestra
 Symphony in C Major (1896)
 The Sorcorer's Apprentice, a symphonic scherzo (1897)
 Villanelle for Horn & Orchestra (1906)
 Ariane et Barbe-bleue (1907)
 La Peri (1912)
 Sonnet de Ronsard, for Voice & Piano (1924)

References

1865 births
1935 deaths
French composers
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
List of extinction events

An extinction event is a relatively fast drop in the number of species living on Earth. It occurs when the rate of extinction increases more than the rate of speciation. This is a list of the largest. Major extinction events are important to both geology and evolution.

The Phanerozoic 

There are five major extinction events in the Phanerozoic eon, and many smaller events. In order of time, latest first:

1. K/T extinction event. The Cretaceous/Tertiary extinction event ended the Mesozoic era and started the Cainozoic era.

2. End–Triassic extinction event.

3. P/Tr extinction event. The Permian/Triassic extinction event ended the Palaeozoic era and started the Mesozoic era.

4. Late Devonian extinctions, at the Frasnian/Famennian junction.

5. End–Ordovician extinction event. After a series of lesser events, the end-Ordovician extinction resulted in an estimated 84% species loss.

Lesser Phanerozoic extinctions 
Other extinction events in the Phanerozoic also had significant impact on the evolution of the biota.

EoceneOligocene transition. From the middle of the Eocene to early in the Oligocene there were a number of events. The climate became much cooler, ice formed on Antarctica, and there was a turnover in aquatic and terrestrial groups.
Vendian/Cambrian extinction event. Extinctions have been claimed for three groups: the acritarchs, trace fossils, and the famous Ediacaran fossils. Not much is known about this event.

References 

Science-related lists
Blaise Compaoré

Blaise Compaoré (born February 3, 1951) is a former President of Burkina Faso. He served from 1987 until his resignation in 2014. He started a political party called the Congress for Democracy and Progress (CDP). This is the ruling party of Burkina Faso. Compaoré became president in 1987 after a military coup and the assassination of Thomas Sankara, who was president then.

His attempt to change the constitution to extend his 27-year term caused the 2014 Burkinabé uprising. The uprising began due to attempts at changing the constitution to allow him to run again and extend his rule. He resigned on 31 October 2014 after ruling for 27 years.

In August 2021, the prosecutor of the High Court of Justice announced that the trial of members of the government suspected of having played a role in the suppression of the insurgency of 2014 will begin. Blaise Compaoré could again be summoned to answer the judges' questions.

References

People from Ouagadougou
Presidents of Burkina Faso
1951 births
Living people
Mossi

The Mossi are an ethnic group of people who live mostly in Burkina Faso in Africa, and also in Ivory Coast and Ghana. They make up 40% of all the people in Burkina Faso. They speak a language called Mòoré or More.

History
The Mossi believe that they came from the marriage of a Dagomba princess called Yennenga (or Nyennega) and a Mandé hunter called Rialé. Yennenga was a warrior princess, daughter of a Dagomba king in Ghana. One day she lost her way and was rescued by Rialé. They got married and had a son called Ouedraogo. Ouedraogo is known as the father of the Mossi people.

References

Burkina Faso
Ethnic groups in Africa
Cassiopeia (constellation)

Cassiopeia is a constellation in the northern sky. It was named after a queen in Greek mythology called Cassiopeia. It looks like a letter W or M, with five bright stars that make the W or the M shape. It has two very bright stars called ρ Cas and V509 Cas.

In 1572, a supernova called Tycho's Star, or SN 1572, was seen in Cassiopeia by many people.

Constellations
Constellations listed by Ptolemy
Vikash Dhorasoo

Vikash Dhorasoo (born 10 October 1973) is a former French football player. He has played for France national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1993/94||rowspan="5"|Le Havre||rowspan="5"|Division 1||8||0
|-
|1994/95||30||2
|-
|1995/96||30||0
|-
|1996/97||36||0
|-
|1997/98||34||2
|-
|1998/99||rowspan="3"|Olympique Lyonnais||rowspan="3"|Division 1||34||2
|-
|1999/00||32||0
|-
|2000/01||27||3
|-
|2001/02||Girondins Bordeaux||Division 1||28||1
|-
|2002/03||rowspan="2"|Olympique Lyonnais||rowspan="2"|Ligue 1||37||2
|-
|2003/04||31||4

|-
|2004/05||Milan||Serie A||12||0

|-
|2005/06||rowspan="2"|Paris Saint-Germain||rowspan="2"|Ligue 1||34||0
|-
|2006/07||3||0

|-
|2007/08||Livorno||Serie A||0||0
364||16
12||0
376||16
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1999||2||0
|-
|2000||0||0
|-
|2001||0||0
|-
|2002||0||0
|-
|2003||0||0
|-
|2004||1||0
|-
|2005||11||1
|-
|2006||4||0
|-
!Total||18||1
|}

References

1973 births
Living people
French footballers
Park Kun-Ha

Park Kun-Ha (born 25 July 1971) is a former South Korean professional athlete.  He is best known as an football player. He was a member of Korean national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1996||rowspan="5"|Suwon Samsung Bluewings||rowspan="5"|K-League||34||14
|-
|1997||19||2
|-
|1998||22||2
|-
|1999||39||12
|-
|2000||19||6

|-
|2000||Kashiwa Reysol||J. League 1||5||1

|-
|2001||rowspan="6"|Suwon Samsung Bluewings||rowspan="6"|K-League||30||4
|-
|2002||26||2
|-
|2003||31||0
|-
|2004||31||1
|-
|2005||26||1
|-
|2006||15||0
292||44
5||1
297||45
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1996||2||0
|-
|1997||15||5
|-
|1998||3||0
|-
!Total||20||5
|}

References

1971 births
Living people
South Korean footballers
South Korean football managers
Willy Sagnol

Willy Sagnol (born 18 March 1977) is a former French football player. He has played for France national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1995/96||rowspan="2"|Saint-Étienne||Division 1||10||0||||||||||colspan="2"|-||10||0
|-
|1996/97||Division 2||36||1||||||||||colspan="2"|-||36||1
|-
|1997/98||rowspan="3"|Monaco||rowspan="3"|Division 1||25||0||||||||||8||0||33||0
|-
|1998/99||20||0||||||||||4||0||24||0
|-
|1999/00||26||0||||||||||6||0||32||0

|-
|2000/01||rowspan="9"|Bayern Munich||rowspan="9"|Bundesliga||27||0||1||0||1||0||14||0||43||0
|-
|2001/02||28||1||1||0||0||0||12||0||41||1
|-
|2002/03||23||2||5||1||1||0||4||0||33||3
|-
|2003/04||21||1||3||0||0||0||6||0||30||1
|-
|2004/05||22||1||4||0||0||0||7||0||33||1
|-
|2005/06||31||1||5||0||1||0||7||0||44||1
|-
|2006/07||23||1||3||0||2||0||9||0||37||1
|-
|2007/08||9||0||3||0||0||0||5||0||17||0
|-
|2008/09||0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
117||1||||||||||18||0||135||1
184||7||25||1||5||0||64||0||278||8
301||8||25||1||5||0||82||0||413||9
|}

International career statistics

|-
|2000||1||0
|-
|2001||7||0
|-
|2002||4||0
|-
|2003||8||0
|-
|2004||7||0
|-
|2005||7||0
|-
|2006||17||0
|-
|2007||2||0
|-
|2008||5||0
|-
!Total||58||0
|}

References

1977 births
Living people
French footballers
Jathera

A Jathera is a shrine constructed to commemorate common clan ancestors. Each village in the Punjab has a Jathera which can be visited by members of different surnames. Many villages have a Jathera for each clan/surname.

When members of a clan form a new village, they continue to visit the Jathera in the ancestral village. If this is not possible, a link is brought from the old Jathera to construct a new Jathera in the new village.

People visit the Jathera when getting married, on the 15th day of the Indian month, and sometimes on the first Sunday of an Indian month.

Religious buildings
Punjab, India
Ediacaran

The Ediacaran period (about 635–541 million years ago), was named after the Ediacara Hills of South Australia. It is the last geological period of the Proterozoic eon. The Edicaran is followed by the Cambrian, the first period of the Palaeozoic. 

The period is famous for the first larger-bodied fossils, which are probably the first recorded metazoans. These were impressions or trace fossils, first found in England's Charnwood Forest, Leicestershire. Geologists did not know what they had found. It was over 60 years later before fossils from the same period were found in South Australia.

The status of the Ediacaran as an official geological period was confirmed in 2004 by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). This made it the first new geological period declared in 120 years.

The Vendian 
The Ediacaran period was previously called the Vendian period. The Vendian period was proposed in 1952 by Russian geologist/paleontologist Boris Sokolov. The term Vendian is still widely used.

The two terms are not the same. The Vendian was a longer period: it included the whole of the Marinoan glaciation, of Snowball Earth fame. In other words, the Vendian included the last part of the Cryogenian period.

Borders of the Ediacaran 

The Ediacaran lasted for about 90 million years. It began at the end of the Cryogenian Snowball Earth. It ended with the first appearance worldwide of some kinds of trace fossils (Trichophycus pedum) at the base of the Cambrian. The Ediacaran period's start is defined at the base of a carbonate layer, referred to as a "cap carbonate". This caps glacial deposits and shows a sudden climatic change at the end of the Marinoan ice age. The period ended with the mass extinction of almost all the Ediacaran fauna.

No exact dating has been possible at the type section of the Ediacaran period in South Australia.

Ediacaran biota 

The Ediacaran biota include the oldest definite multicellular organisms. The fossils are traces or impressions of soft-bodies forms with segments, fronds, disks, or bags. Skeletons or shells are not found.

References
Antonio de Trueba

Antonio de Trueba (24 December 1821-10 March 1889) was a Spanish poet, novelist, and folklorist born at Montellana, Biscay, in 1821 (some sources say 1819), where he was privately educated.

Other websites 

1821 births
1889 deaths
Spanish writers
Fernando Botero

Fernando Botero Angulo (born 19th April 1932) is a Colombian painter and sculptor. Botero is one of the best-known artists of Latin America. Since 1976, he has done figure-sculpting. His figures are special because they are all thick, which makes them look different from others.

1932 births
Living people
Colombian people
Painters
Sculptors
Abelian group

In group theory, an abelian group is a group with operation that is commutative. Because of that, an abelian group is sometimes called a ‘commutative group’.

A group in which the group operation is not commutative is called a ‘non-abelian group’ or ‘non-commutative group’.

Definition 

An abelian group is a set, A, together with an operation "•". It combines any two elements a and b to form another element denoted . For the group to be abelian, the operation and the elements  must follow some requirements. These are known as the abelian group axioms:

Closure For all a, b in A, the result of the operation a • b is also in A.
Associativity For all a, b and c in A, the equation (a • b) • c = a • (b • c) is true.
Identity element There exists an element e in A, such that for all elements a in A, the equation  holds.
Inverse element For each a in A, there exists an element b in A such that a • b = b • a = e, where e is the identity element.
Commutativity For all a, b in A, a • b = b • a.

Algebra
Homing pigeon

A Homing pigeon is a special breed of pigeons. These pigeons have been domesticated. They have been selectively bred to find their way home. They can do this over very long distances. The wild rock pigeon from which these birds are bred also has this homing ability. This means  that it will generally return to its own nest and its own mate. This made it relatively easy to breed from the birds that repeatedly found their way home over long distances. Flights as long as 1800 kilometers have been recorded by birds in competition pigeon racing. Speeds of up to 95 km/h (59 mph) have been observed.

Homing pigeons are called carrier pigeons when they are used to carry messages. This is possible where a message is written on thin light paper (such as cigarette paper) and rolled into a small tube attached to the bird's leg; this is called pigeon post. Pigeons can only go back to one "mentally marked" point that they have identified as their home. So "pigeon mail" can only work when the sender is actually holding the receiver's pigeons. White homing pigeons are used in Release Dove ceremonies at weddings, funerals, and some sporting events.

References

Domesticated animals
Roberto de Assis Moreira

Roberto de Assis Moreira (born 10 January 1971) is a former Brazilian football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|1999||Consadole Sapporo||J. League 2||29||8||2||1||2||0||33||9
29||8||2||1||2||0||33||9
29||8||2||1||2||0||33||9
|}

1971 births
Living people
Brazilian footballers
People from Porto Alegre
Rafael Scheidt

Rafael Scheidt (born 10 February 1976) is a former Brazilian football player. He has played for the Brazil national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1995||rowspan="2"|Grêmio||rowspan="2"|Série A||7||0
|-
|1996||0||0

|-
|1997||Kawasaki Frontale||Football League||26||5

|-
|1998||rowspan="2"|Grêmio||rowspan="2"|Série A||23||2
|-
|1999||16||1

|-
|1999/00||Celtic||Premier League||3||0

|-
|2000||rowspan="3"|Corinthians Paulista||rowspan="3"|Série A||11||0
|-
|2001||14||0
|-
|2002||10||1
|-
|2003||Atlético Mineiro||Série A||35||2
|-
|2004||rowspan="3"|Botafogo||rowspan="3"|Série A||22||1
|-
|2005||36||0
|-
|2006||15||0

|-
|2007||rowspan="2"|Shaanxi Chanba||rowspan="2"|Super League||15||0
|-
|2008||23||2
189||7
26||5
3||0
38||2
156||14
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1999||3||0
|-
!Total||3||0
|}

References

1976 births
Living people
Brazilian footballers
People from Porto Alegre
Alex Sandro Santana de Oliveira

Alex Sandro Santana de Oliveira (born 30 October 1973) is a Brazilian football player. He plays for Bahia.

Club career statistics

|-
|2000||Kawasaki Frontale||J. League 1||9||2||0||0||4||1||13||3
9||2||0||0||4||1||13||3
9||2||0||0||4||1||13||3

1973 births
Living people
Brazilian footballers
People from Salvador, Bahia