cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Slingshot

A slingshot is a kind of projectile weapon which is used to launch small things. It is small and made to be handheld. It is made of a Y-shaped body with an elastic band such as rubber tied to the two top ends of the Y. The projectile is placed in the band, which is pulled back and let go of.

How strong and dangerous the slingshot is depends on how it is made and especially the elastic band. Although a slingshot is a type of weapon and a strong one can hurt people, they are not often used in modern war because there are many better weapons. Strong slingshots may be used to hunt small animals, or weaker ones may be used as toys.

In some places, a slingshot may be illegal because it can be a weapon.

Related pages 
 Sling (weapon)

Other websites
 The Best Slingshots- Ranking the best slingshots on the market according to price, accuracy, and durability. 

Weapons
Toys
Mortal Kombat (1995 movie)

Mortal Kombat is an 1995 live-action/adventure movie that was produced by Lauri Apelian and Lawrence Kasanoff and was directed by Paul W.S. Anderson. It is based on the video game franchise, Mortal Kombat. Mortal Kombat was released on July 13, 1995 in Argentina & Israel, August 18, 1995 in North America, October 20, 1995 in the United Kingdom and on December 26, 1995 in Australia. The movie received mixed reviews with a 35% rating on Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic gave it a 58 out of 100. The movie gained a sequel called Mortal Kombat: Annihilation and it was released in 1997.

Cast 
Robin Shou as Liu Kang
Linden Ashby as Johnny Cage (doubled by Brad Martin and J.J. Perry)
Bridgette Wilson as Sonya Blade
Christopher Lambert as Raiden
Talisa Soto as Princess Kitana (doubled by Dana Hee)
Trevor Goddard as Kano
Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa as Shang Tsung
François Petit as Sub-Zero (doubled by Mark Caso)
Chris Casamassa as Scorpion (doubled by Mitchell Gaylord and Jeff Imada)
Keith H. Cooke as Reptile
Kevin Michael Richardson as the voice of Goro
Gregory McKinney as Jax
Frank Welker as the voice of Shao Kahn
Steven Ho as Chan Kang
Hakim Alston as Fighting Monk
Sandy Helberg as the director of Johnny Cage's latest movie

Other websites 

1995 action movies
1990s fantasy movies
1990s American action movies
English-language movies
Mortal Kombat movies
New Line Cinema movies
Movies set in Thailand
Movies directed by Paul W.S. Anderson
X-wing fighter

The X-wing is a starfighter from the Star Wars fictional universe. It is seen in the original trilogy movies and many books, games, toys, and other things. It is shown as a main starfighter for the Rebellion and later the New Republic.

Creation
The X-wing was first made for the movie Star Wars: A New Hope by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM). Joe Johnston drew and Colin Cantwell made models that became the final X-wing fighter in A New Hope. ILM made miniatures in different sizes, with wing markings showing which prop was for each pilot. Each X-wing model was built around a hollow core to hold parts for effects such as lighting.

Besides the models, the crew made one full-size X-wing for scenes in the Rebels' Yavin IV base hangar; they used editing and cardboard cutouts to make it seem as if there are dozens of fighters. The crew also made a full-size X-wing cockpit that was used for all actors; the astromech droid behind each actor was changed for each starfighter.

Story
According to Star Wars backstory, the X-wing was designed by Incom Corporation, who left the Empire and gave the X-wing design to the rebels. It is a one-man starfighter which also has a socket for a droid.

The starfighter has four laser cannons and two proton torpedo launchers. Its four wings (called s-foils) can fold open or closed. It has four engines and can use hyperspace travel. It also has energy shields for defense.

Related pages
TIE fighter

References

Other websites
 Intricate Illustrations of Star Wars Spacecraft Cutouts Reveal Their Inner Mechanics by Leah Pellegrini April 23, 2016

Star Wars

sv:Lista över farkoster i Star Wars#X-wing
One Step Closer

"One Step Closer" is a song by American rock band Linkin Park. It was released as the first single and second track off the band's first album, Hybrid Theory.

Tracks
All songs are written by Linkin Park except for "High Voltage", which is written by Mike Shinoda, Brad Delson and Joe Hahn; and "My December", which is also written by Shinoda.

 One Step Closer
 My December
 High Voltage
 One Step Closer (Video)

US promo:
 One Step Closer (Album Version)
 One Step Closer (Rock Mix)

10" vinyl:
 "One Step Closer"
 "My December"

Music video
The video starts out with a group of teenage friends hanging out around a dark alley. Two of them follow a strange man wearing a black hooded robe into a door which leads them to an underground room where the band is playing. Strange figures are around doing martial-arts moves. Midway through the song, they knock over a box, and run away when the martial arts people notice them. Towards the end of the song, lead singer Chester Bennington is upside-down.

Joe Hahn, the band's DJ, made the story of the video. Since bassist Dave Farrell has not returned to the band yet, Scott Koziol plays the bass. Gregory Dark directed the video.

Live shows
"One Step Closer" is the ending song the band's concerts until 2007, where the song was always performed first. In 2008, the band's concerts ended with either the song or "Bleed It Out". From 2003 to 2007, the performances of the song has the verse of Jonathan Davis from his remix of the song in Reanimation. In their recent concert tour, A Thousand Suns World Tour, the song is either the final song of the concert or the final song of the main set.

Charts

References

Other websites
 One Step Closer, My December and High Voltage lyrics 

2000 songs
Linkin Park songs
Hangar

A hangar is a closed structure made to hold aircraft while it is on the ground. It is like a garage but for aircraft instead of cars. A hangar is most often made of metal, but may be made of other things like wood and concrete. It protects the aircraft from weather and sun damage.

Transport buildings and structures
Aviation infrastructure
Phoenix Park Murders

The Phoenix Park Murders were the fatal stabbings on 6 May 1882 in Phoenix Park in Dublin, Ireland. Lord Frederick Cavendish and Thomas Henry Burke were killed. Cavendish was the newly appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland, and Burke was the Permanent Undersecretary, the most senior Irish civil servant. The assassination was carried out by members of the "Irish National Invincibles".

Murders
Cavendish and Burke were attacked as they walked through Phoenix Park to the Viceregal Lodge. This was the "out of season" residence of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (the King's representative and head of the Irish affairs). Thomas Myles, surgeon at the nearby Dr Steevens' Hospital, was called to help the victims.
The Lord Lieutenant, Lord Spencer, described suddenly hearing screams, before seeing a man running to the Lodge grounds shouting "Lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke are killed." Responsibility for the political murders was claimed by a small, until then unknown Republican organisation called the Irish National Invincibles.

Investigation
The hunt for the murderers was led by Superintendent John Mallon, a Catholic who came from Armagh.  Mallon had a pretty good idea of who was involved. He suspected a number of former Fenian activists.  A large number of suspects were arrested and kept in prison by claiming they were connected with other crimes. Mallon got several of them to reveal what they knew about the murders.

The Invincibles' leader James Carey, Michael Kavanagh and Joe Hanlon agreed to testify against the others. Joe Brady, Michael Fagan, Thomas Caffrey, Dan Curley and Tim Kelly were convicted of the murder. They were hanged in Kilmainham Gaol in Dublin between 14 May and 4 June 1883. Others were sentenced to serve long prison terms.

Political results

Irish politician Charles Stewart Parnell made a speech condemning the murders in 1882. This increased his popularity in both Britain and Ireland.

In March 1887, The Times printed letters that said they were written by Parnell. The letters said that he agreed with the murderers of the English politicians, and that his speech saying otherwise was not true. It later came to light that the letters were not written by Parnell. They were forgeries written by journalist Richard Pigott. Parnell was personally shown to be innocent by the Parnell Commission in 1888-89.

Notes

References

1882
1880s in Europe
19th century in the United Kingdom
Assassinations in Europe
History of Dublin
Irish republicanism
May events
Murder in the 19th century
Terrorist incidents in the United Kingdom
Garage

A garage is a place for storing cars. There are many kinds of garages used for different things.

Residential garage

A residential garage is a garage that is part of a house or similar building. Some garages are directly connected (called "attached") to the house, while others are separate and called a "detached" garage". The garage will have a large garage door that opens to let cars in and out, which is often opened by a motor.

Parking garage

A parking garage is a large covered structure, often made of concrete, which is used for holding many cars. Parking garages may have more than one level.

Automobile repair shop
An automobile repair shop may also be called a garage, although it is for repairing cars rather than just storing them.

Transport buildings and structures
Rooms
Home
Melatonin

Melatonin is a hormone found in animals, plants, and microbes. In animals, levels of melatonin have a daily cycle. It drives the circadian rhythms of several biological functions.

Melatonin is produced in the pineal gland which is outside of the blood–brain barrier. It acts as a hormone, and is released into the blood.

Melatonin acts on melatonin receptors. It also acts directly because it is a powerful antioxidant, which protects DNA.

Melatonin supplements for humans can be given. Melatonin is categorized by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a dietary supplement, not a drug.  A prescription-only, timed release melatonin product for people aged 55 and over was approved for use by the European Medicines Agency in 2007, despite having shown only small effects, and in Australia in 2009.

References 

Hormones
Luria–Delbrück experiment

The Luria–Delbrück experiment, 1943, also called the 'Fluctuation Test', asks the question: are mutations independent of natural selection? Or are they directed by the selection?

Max Delbrück and Salvador Luria showed that in bacteria, DNA mutations happen randomly. This means they happen at any time, rather than being a response to selection. 

So, Darwin's theory of natural selection acting on random mutations applies to bacteria as well as to more complex organisms. 

Delbrück and Luria won the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine partly for this work.

The experiment 
In their experiment, Luria and Delbrück grew bacteria in tubes. After a period of growth, they split up the bacteria into separate cultures and put them onto agar containing phage (virus). If virus resistance were not due to random gene mutations, then each plate should contain roughly the same number of resistant colonies. This, however was not what Delbrück and Luria found. Instead, the number of resistant colonies on each plate varied to a great extent.

Luria and Delbrück proposed that these results could be explained by the occurrence of a constant rate of random mutations in each generation of bacteria growing in the initial culture tubes.

References

Other websites
 On Mutation lab 

Microbiology
Genetics experiments
Polydactyly

Polydactyly is a birth defect which may affects the hands, feet, or both. It causes one or more extra fingers or toes. It can affect people, and other mammals such as dogs, and cats.

References

Limbs and extremities
Developmental disorders
Screen Actors Guild

The Screen Actors Guild (SAG) is an American labor union representing over 200,000 film and television principal performers and background performers worldwide. According to SAG's Mission Statement, the Guild was created to negotiate and enforce reasonable salaries, benefits, and working conditions for its performers; collect compensation for exploitation of recorded performances by its members, and provide protection against unauthorized use of those performances; and preserve and expand work opportunities for its members.

The Guild was founded in 1933 in an effort to end exploitation of actors in Hollywood who were being forced into oppressive multi-year contracts with the major movie studios that did not include restrictions on work hours or minimum rest periods, and often had clauses that automatically renewed at the studios' discretion.  These contracts were notorious for allowing the studios to dictate the public and private lives of the performers who signed them, and most did not have provisions to allow the performer to end the deal.

In addition to its main offices in Hollywood, SAG also maintains local branches in several major US cities, including:  Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Honolulu, Houston, Las Vegas, Miami, Nashville, New York City, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Portland, Salt Lake City, San Diego, San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington DC.

Since 1995, the guild has annually awarded the Screen Actors Guild Awards, which are considered an indicator of success at the Academy Awards.

The membership of the Screen Actors Guild voted to merge with the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists on March 30, 2012. It was later renamed as SAG-AFTRA.

SAG Presidents 

 1933-1933 Ralph Morgan
 1933-1935 Eddie Cantor
 1935-1938 Robert Montgomery
 1938-1940 Ralph Morgan
 1940-1942 Edward Arnold
 1942-1944 James Cagney
 1944-1946 George Murphy
 1946-1947 Robert Montgomery
 1947-1952 Ronald Reagan

 1952-1957 Walter Pidgeon
 1957-1958 Leon Ames
 1958-1959 Howard Keel
 1959-1960 Ronald Reagan
 1960-1963 George Chandler
 1963-1965 Dana Andrews
 1965-1971 Charlton Heston
 1971-1973 John Gavin
 1973-1975 Dennis Weaver

 1975-1979 Kathleen Nolan
 1979-1981 William Schallert
 1981-1985 Edward Asner
 1985-1988 Patty Duke
 1988-1995 Barry Gordon
 1995-1999 Richard Masur
 1999-2001 William Daniels
 2001-2005 Melissa Gilbert
 2005-2009 Alan Rosenberg
 2009–2012 Ken Howard
Later merged as SAG-AFTRA

References

Other websites 
 Screen Actors Guild official site
 Screen Actors Guild Foundation official site
 Actor Rates 2005-2007
 SAGIndie, the Independent Producers Outreach Program of the Screen Actors Guild
 Screen Actors Guild Awards website
 Hollywood Is a Union Town, published in The Nation, April 2, 1938
 SCREEN ACTORS GUILD ANNOUNCES REFERENDUM BALLOT DATES
 SAG background actors pay calculator 

1933 establishments in the United States
2012 disestablishments in the United States
Trade unions in the United States
Los Angeles
1930s establishments in California
Screen Actors Guild Award

A Screen Actors Guild Award is an award given by the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) to recognize outstanding performances by its members. The statuette given, a nude male figure holding both a mask of comedy and a mask of tragedy, is called "The Actor". It is 16 inches tall, weighs over 12 pounds, cast in solid bronze, and produced by the American Fine Arts Foundry in Burbank, California.

SAG Awards have been one of the major awards events in Hollywood since 1995. Nominations for the awards come from 4200 randomly selected members of the union, with the full membership (120,000 as of 2007) available to vote for the winners.  The awards have been televised for the past several years on TNT, but now also airs on TBS.

The first SAG Awards aired live on February 25, 1995 from Stage 12, Universal Studios. The second SAG awards aired live from the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium, while later awards have been held at the Shrine Exposition Center. Bob Hope was given the first award.

Awards

Film awards 
 Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture
 Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Motion Picture
 Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role
 Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role
 Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role
 Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role

Television awards 
 Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries
 Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries
 Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series
 Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series
 Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series
 Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series
 Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series
 Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series
 Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series

Life Achievement Awards 
 Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award

References

Other websites 
SAG Awards official site

1995 establishments
Entertainment awards
Movie awards
Machair

Machair or machar is a Gàidhlig (Scottish Gaelic) word used to describe a fertile low-lying grassy plain found on some of the north-west coastlines of Ireland and Scotland, in particular the Outer Hebrides. There are machairs in the Isle of Skye, The Isle of Barra, the Isle of Harris and all throughout the west coast and islands.

References 
 Angus, S. (1997). ''The Outer Hebrides: the Shaping of the Islands". The White Horse Press. 

Environments
Max Delbrück

Max Ludwig Henning Delbrück (September 4, 1906 – March 9, 1981) was a German-American biophysicist and Nobel laureate.

Delbrück was one of the most influential people in the movement of physical scientists into biology during the 20th century.

Delbrück's big idea was to explore genetics by means of the bacteriophage viruses which infect bacteria. This was important in the early development of molecular biology.

Biography
Delbrück was born in Berlin, German Empire. Trained as a physicist, he got his Ph.D. in 1930. he traveled through England, Denmark, and Switzerland. He met Wolfgang Pauli and Niels Bohr, who got him interested in biology.

In 1937, he moved to the United States to pursue his interests in biology, taking up research in the Biology Division at Caltech on genetics of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster.  While at Caltech Delbrück became acquainted with bacteria and their viruses (bacteriophage or 'phage').

Delbrück remained in the US during World War II, teaching physics at Vanderbilt University in Nashville while pursuing his genetic research.  In 1942, he and Salvador Luria of Indiana University demonstrated that bacterial resistance to virus infection is caused by random mutation and not adaptive change. This research, known as the Luria-Delbrück experiment, was also significant for its use of mathematics to make quantitative predictions for the results to be expected from alternative models. For that work, they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969, sharing it with Alfred Hershey.

During the 1940s Delbrück developed a course in bacteriophage genetics at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory to encourage interest in the field. In 1947, Delbrück returned to Caltech as a professor of biology where he remained until 1977.

References 

1906 births
1981 deaths
American molecular biologists
American Nobel Prize winners
American biophysicists
California Institute of Technology faculty
German biologists
German Nobel Prize winners
German physicists
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Scientists from Berlin
Educators from California
Scientists from California
Salvador Luria

Salvador Edward Luria (Turin, Italy, August 13, 1912 – Lexington, Massachusetts, February 6, 1991) was an Italian microbiologist.

He won the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his pioneering work with Max Delbrück and Alfred Hershey on phages in molecular biology.

Biography
Luria was born Salvatore Edoardo Luria in Turin, Italy to an influential Italian Sephardic Jewish family. He attended the medical school at the  University of Turin. There, he met two other future Nobel laureates: Rita Levi-Montalcini and Renato Dulbecco.

In Rome, he was introduced to Max Delbrück's theories on the gene as a molecule and began to formulate methods for testing genetic theory with bacteriophages, which are viruses that infect bacteria.

In 1938, he received a fellowship to study in the United States, where he intended to work with Delbrück. Soon after Luria received the award Benito Mussolini's fascist regime banned Jews from academic research fellowships.

Without funding sources for work in the U.S. or Italy, Luria left his home country for Paris, France in 1938. As the Nazi German armies invaded France in 1940, Luria fled on bicycle to Marseilles where he received an immigration visa to the United States.

Phage research
Luria arrived in New York City on September 12, 1940 and soon changed his first and middle names. With the help of physicist Enrico Fermi, whom he knew from his time at the University of Rome, Luria received a fellowship at Columbia University. He soon met Delbrück and Hershey, and they collaborated on experiments at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and in Delbrück's lab at Vanderbilt University.

His famous experiment with Delbrück in 1943, known as the Luria-Delbrück experiment, demonstrated that inheritance in bacteria follows Darwinian rather than Lamarckian principles and that mutant genes occurring randomly can still give viral resistance without the virus being present. The idea that natural selection affects bacteria has profound consequences, for example, it explains how bacteria develop antibiotic resistance.

From 1943 to 1950, he worked at Indiana University, Bloomington. His first graduate student was James D. Watson, who went on to discover the structure of DNA with Francis Crick. In January 1947, Luria became a naturalized citizen of the United States.

In 1950, Luria moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. While investigating how a culture of E. coli was able to stop the production of phages, Luria discovered that specific bacterial strains produce enzymes that cut DNA at certain sequences. These enzymes became known as restriction enzymes and developed into one of the main molecular tools in molecular biology.

References 

1912 births
1991 deaths
American activists
American biologists
American Nobel Prize winners
Italian Jews
Italian biologists
Jewish American academics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Microbiologists
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners
People from Turin
Italian Nobel Prize winners
Mexican coat of arms

The flag of Mexico contains a coat of arms which is derived from an Aztec symbol depicting an eagle with a snake in its mouth.
 
In the early 14th century, the Mexica people were a wandering tribe  looking for a permanent settlement in modern day central Mexico. They survived by hunting and gathering and were often hired to fight as mercenaries for the city-states scattered throughout the region. According to legend, their god, Huitzilopochtli, told them to establish a city of their own at a site where they would find an eagle eating a snake on top of a cactus. The legend relates that the people saw the eagle on a small, swampy island in the middle of the shallow Texcoco lake. The Mexica invented a resourceful system of gardening, called chinampas, which allowed them to grow small gardens, eventually drying out the lake. In 1325, they completed construction of a city there. That city, which they called Tenochtitlan, became the capital of the Aztec Empire, which dominated central Mexico until its destruction by Spanish Conquistadores led by Hernando Cortes.

After winning its independence from Spain in 1810, the newly created nation of Mexico–whose capital was built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan–adopted the symbol of the eagle and the snake to commemorate its Aztec heritage. The symbol can be found at the center of the Mexican flag.

References

 http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/45177.html
 http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/articles/article/Mexico/Mexican-Flag-Symbol/1074 

Mexico
San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan

San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan started out as an agricultural and population center for the Olmec civilization, which inhabited a region of what is today southeastern Mexico. The Olmecs emerged as early as 1500 BC as the earliest complex society in the Americas. San Lorenzo is best known as the first city established in the Americas.

The main reason San Lorenzo flourished at such an early period is its location within the Coatzacoalcos flood plain, which provided fertile land for farming. Thus, the settlement of San Lorenzo follows the pattern of settlement of the world’s very first urban centers, which emerged in the fertile river valleys of Mesopotamia. Because of the high farming value of the surrounding land, San Lorenzo ranked as the Olmecs’ most populous settlement from 1200-900 BC. During that period, San Lorenzo had the biggest trade market in all of the Olmec Heartland.

For unknown reasons, many people migrated out of San Lorenzo in 800 BC to the nearby city of La Venta. However, San Lorenzo was repopulated in 600 BC, when it became a center for Olmec ritual sacrifices until the population faded away in 400 BC along with the Olmec civilization. Today, San Lorenzo remains a significant archaeological site because the artifacts found there–including the famous Colossal Heads and jade masks–shed some light on Olmec culture and its profound influence on later Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Aztec and Maya.

Settlements in Mexico
Terrace farming

Terrace farming (also called step farming) is a method of farming that consists of different "steps" or terraces that were developed in various places around the world. The Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras (hills and mountains) is a World Heritage Site. It dates back two thousand years.

This method of farming uses "steps" that are built into the side of a mountain or hill. On each level, various crops are planted. When it rains, instead of washing away all of the nutrients in the soil, the nutrients are carried down to the next level. These steps prevent water from washing away the soil and plants. This system also allowed them to build aqueducts, which carried water to each level.

The idea was also independently developed by the Inca people. The Incas built their aqueduct system so well that it is still used today.

References 

Terrace Farming: A unique agricultural solution. Social Studies for Kids. Web. 11 Apr. 2011.

Other websites

Terrace Fields around the World

Agriculture
Sapa Inca

Sapa Inca was the  Inca emperor.  means "The Great Inca" or "The Only Inca" in Quechua, the Inca language. According to legend, the first Sapa Inca, Manco Cápac (c. 1200 CE- 1230) was the son of the sun god, Inti. Manco Cápac became Sapa Inca by founding the city of Cuzco after he was sent on a quest by a god to find a good location for a city and build one. He also united the tribes around Cuzco.

The position of Sapa Inca was hereditary, which means that it passed from father to son. The Sapa Inca was the sole and absolute ruler over the Incas. His word was law, and he was the supreme commander of the military. The Sapa Inca lived in great luxury with many wives, slaves, and riches. Another privilege that he had was that he was allowed to (and usually would) marry his sister even though it was prohibited for common people. When the Sapa Inca died he would be mummified.

The Inca Empire reached its height under Huayna Capac (1493–1527) when it stretched from modern day Argentina to Ecuador, although Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1471-1493) was responsible for expanding much of the empire to those borders. Tupac Yupanqui conquered the Kingdom of Chimor, the biggest rival to the Inca. He expanded the empire into modern day Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Atahualpa was the last pre-conquest Sapa Inca. He was killed by the invading Spaniards in 1533 and after that there were several Sapa Inca who were installed by the Spanish. The last person to hold the title was Tupac Amaru who was killed by the Spanish in 1572.

References

South America
STS-1

STS-1 was the first flight of the space shuttle. It launched on April 12, 1981 and landed on April 14. It was launched 20 years after the first manned space flight. The space shuttle used was Columbia. Space Shuttle Columbia orbited the Earth 37 times in this mission.

External tank

STS-1 was the first of two missions with a painted external tank. The paint was put to protect the external tank from ultraviolet light when it was standing on the launch pad. After STS-2, the paint was removed

Space Shuttle flights
1981 in the United States
April events
Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir

Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir (; born  1944) is the former President of Sudan. He came into power in 1989 and resigned in 2019 following massive anti-protests and a coup. In October 2004, Omar's government negotiated an end to the second Sudanese civil war, one of the longest-running and deadliest wars of the 20th century. However, there has been a violent conflict in Darfur that has resulted in a death toll between 200,000 and 400,000. During his presidency, there have been several violent struggles between the rebel groups such as the Sudanese Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) in the form of warfare in the Darfur region. The civil war has resulted in over 2.5 million people being displaced, and the relations between Sudan and Chad are at a crisis.

References

Other websites

1944 births
Living people
Presidents of Sudan
Former dictators
Regression (psychology)

Regression is a word used in psychology on defense mechanism. It means the act of reversing the ego into an earlier state which allows one to avoid dealing with impulses in a mature manner.

A common example of regression is “curling up into a ball” (also known as the fetal position) when stressed, ill, or wounded.

Psychology
Displacement (psychology)

Displacement is a word used in Freudian psychology for is an unconscious defence mechanism. Example: the mind redirects thoughts, emotions, desires from an object or person felt to be dangerous or unacceptable to an object or person felt to be safe or acceptable.

More generally, the substitute of one response by another, when the original response is blocked: displaced aggression.

References 

Psychology
Ego depletion

Ego depletion is the idea that people get tired of making decisions because it is a neuro-chemical process that requires energy.

References 

Psychology
Central dogma of molecular biology

The central dogma of molecular biology is a phrase by Francis Crick, who proposed the double helix structure of DNA.
It means that information passes from DNA to proteins via RNA, but proteins cannot pass the information back to DNA.

Crick first wrote it in 1958, and repeated it in 1970.

The dogma is a framework for understanding the transfer of sequence information. 

There are 3 major classes of such biopolymers: DNA and RNA (both nucleic acids), and protein. There are 3×3 = 9 conceivable direct transfers of information that can occur between these. The dogma classes these into 3 groups of 3: 
3 general transfers (believed to occur normally in most cells), 
3 special transfers (known to occur, but only under specific conditions in case of some viruses or in a laboratory), and 
3 unknown transfers (believed never to occur). 

The general transfers describe the normal flow of biological information: DNA can be copied to DNA (DNA replication),  DNA information can be copied into mRNA, (transcription), and proteins can be synthesized using the information in mRNA as a template (translation).
 
The dogma is a modern version of the Weismann barrier (after August Weismann). This is the principle that hereditary information moves only from genes to body cells, and never in reverse. Hereditary information moves only from germline cells to somatic cells.

References 

Molecular biology
Ubar

Ubar is a ruined city in Oman. English adventurer Ranulph Fiennes discovered the city in 1992. According to Nicolas Clapp, this probably is the lost city Iram of the Pillars the Qu'ran talks about. 

Today, ruins are left, which can be reached in a four-wheel drive. Part of the area forms the ceiling to underground vaults, which have collapsed. These vaults hold water supplies for a nearby settlement, which houses a small museum.
Oman
de:Ubar
Wavves

Wavves (pronounced "waves") is an American noise pop band based out of San Diego, California. They formed in 2008, and are currently signed to Fat Possum Records.

Discography

Albums
Wavves (Woodsist, 2008)
Wavvves (Fat Possum, Bella Union, 2009)
King of the Beach (Fat Possum, August 2010)  US #168

Musical groups from San Diego, California
Daniel Catán

Daniel Catán Porteny (3 April 1949 in Mexico City - 9 April 2011 in Austin, Texas) was a Mexican opera composer of Jewish descent. He is best known for turning the Italian movie, Il Postino, into an opera. He was working at the University of Texas at Austin on a new opera based on the Frank Capra movie, Meet John Doe.

References

Other websites
Official Website of Daniel Catán
Official Facebook Page of Daniel Catán
G. Schirmer Inc. Daniel Catán's Music Publisher

1949 births
2011 deaths
20th-century composers
21st-century composers
Jewish musicians
Mexican entertainers
Mexican Jews
Musicians from Mexico City
Jerry Jones

Jerral "Jerry" Wayne Jones (born October 13, 1942 in Los Angeles, California) is the owner and general manager of the Dallas Cowboys in the NFL.  He has owned the team since 1989.

1942 births
Living people
American billionaires
Sportspeople from Arkansas
Sportspeople from Los Angeles
Texas Motor Speedway

Texas Motor Speedway is a racetrack in Fort Worth, Texas. It hosts two races a year in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. It first opened in 1996. Its layout is similar to the track layout of Atlanta Motor Speedway and Charlotte Motor Speedway (which used to be known as Lowe's Motor Speedway).

NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Statistics

NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Records
(As of 11/7/10)

* from minimum 10 starts.

NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Race Winners
An asterisk (*) indicates that the race was extended beyond the scheduled distance due to the green-white-checker finish rule

Other websites
Texas Motor Speedway Official Site
Texas Motor Speedway Page  on NASCAR.com

NASCAR tracks
Fort Worth, Texas
1996 establishments in the United States
1990s establishments in Texas
IndyCar Series tracks
Little Caesars

Little Caesars is a pizza company in the United States. It is the 4th biggest pizza company in the United States. It was founded on May 8, 1959 in Garden City, Michigan by Mike Ilitch. It is a subsidiary of Ilitch Holdings, Inc.

References

Other websites
Official website

American restaurants
Companies based in Detroit, Michigan
1959 establishments in the United States
1950s establishments in Michigan
Whataburger

Whataburger is a fast food restaurant that specifically makes hamburgers. It was founded in 1950 in the city of Corpus Christi, Texas. The restaurant chain was completely on portable stands until the first permanent store was built in 1961. Most Whataburger locations are open for all 24 hours in the day.

References

Other websites 

Official website

1950 establishments in the United States
American fast food restaurants
Companies based in Texas
Corpus Christi, Texas
1950s establishments in Texas
Monday Night Football

ESPN Monday Night Football is a television show about the NFL which is broadcast on the channel ESPN and is on every Monday during the NFL season. Monday Night Football's first run was on September 21, 1970. It is currently airing.

References 

1970s American television series
1980s American television series
1990s American television series
2000s American television series
2010s American television series
English-language television programs
The Human League

The Human League is a British pop music band from Sheffield. The Human League has 3 members: Philip Oakey, Joanne Catherall, and Susan Ann Sulley. The band originally had 6 members. The other 3 members were Ian Burden, Jo Callis, and Philip Adrian Wright. They all left The Human League in the late 1980s.

The Human League started in 1977 and they had their greatest success during the 1980s. They continue to make new music today. Philip Oakey, the band's singer, is the only Human League member that has been with the band since it started. The other 2 members, Joanne Catherall and Susan Ann Sulley, joined The Human League in 1980.

The Human League has made 10 albums. Their newest album is called "Credo" and it was released in March 2011. Some of The Human League's hit songs are "Don't You Want Me", "Keep Feeling Fascination", "The Lebanon" and "Human".

Albums

Below is a list of all the albums by The Human League.
 Reproduction (1979)
 Travelogue (1980)
 Dare (1981)
 Fascination (1983)
 Hysteria (1984)
 Crash (1986)
 Romantic (1990)
 Octopus (1995)
 Secrets (2001)
 Credo (2011)

1977 establishments in the United Kingdom
1970s British music groups
1980s British music groups
1990s British music groups
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
Electronic music bands
English pop music groups
English rock bands
Musical groups established in 1977
Musical groups from Sheffield
New wave bands
20/20 (American TV program)

20/20 is a television newsmagazine on ABC. It has been on ABC since June 6, 1978 and is currently airing. 20/20 is recently hosted by Chris Cuomo and Elizabeth Vargas, currently hosted by David Muir and Amy Robach.

Anchors
 Harold Hayes (1978)
 Robert Hughes (1978)
 Hugh Downs (1978–1999)
 Barbara Walters (1979–2004)
 Diane Sawyer (1998–2000)
 Charles Gibson (1998–2000)
 Sam Donaldson (1998–2000)
 Connie Chung (1998–2002)
 Jack Ford (2000–2001)
 John Miller (2002–2003)
 John Stossel (2003–2009)
 Elizabeth Vargas (2004–2018)
 Chris Cuomo (2009–2013)
 David Muir (since 2013)
 Amy Robach (since 2018)

Other websites
 Official ABC News website
 
 
 

2000s American television series
2010s American television series
ABC network shows
English-language television programs
Hit the Road, Jack

"Hit the Road Jack" is a rhythm and blues song from the 1960s.

History
Percy Mayfield wrote and sang "Hit the Road, Jack" in 1960. 

Ray Charles made the song famous. Ray Charles's song was number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in fall of 1961. 

The song is ranked #377 on the Rolling Stone magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.

Lyrics
The chorus of the song is:
Hit the road, Jack, and don't you come back no more, no more, no more, no more.
Hit the road, Jack, and don't you come back no more.

The words of this song are not standard English. In standard English, the words could be "Hit the road, Jack, and don't come back again" or "Hit the road, Jack, and don't come back anymore"

In this context, "hit the road" is an idiom meaning "get lost," as the following words indicate.

Recording Details
For the most popular recording
 Title: "Hit the Road Jack"
 Artist: Single by Ray Charles
 B-side: "The Danger Zone"
 Released: September 1961
 Format: 7", 45rpm
 Genre: R&B
 Length: 2:00
 Label: ABC
 Writer(s): Percy Mayfield

1961 songs
R&B songs
Olaf Scholz

Olaf Scholz (; born ) is a German politician, and has been Chancellor of Germany since 8 December 2021. He was First Mayor of Hamburg from 7 March 2011 to 13 March 2018. From 2018 until 2021, Scholz was the Vice Chancellor of Germany and Federal Minister of Finance during the Angela Merkel cabinet.

Early life
Scholz was born on June 14, 1958, in Osnabrück, Lower Saxony, but grew up Hamburg's Rahlstedt district. He began studying law at the University of Hamburg in 1978 as part of a one-stage legal training course.

Hamburg and national politics
From May to October 2001, he was Minister of the Interior (Innensenator) of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg and from 2002 to 2004 he was general secretary of the SPD.

In 2005 Scholz was elected a member of the sixteenth Bundestag, and succeeded Franz Müntefering as Minister of Labour and Social Affairs, when the latter left office in 2007.

In 2010, Scholz took part in the annual Bilderberg Meeting in Sitges, Catalonia, Spain.

On 20 February 2011, the Social Democrats led by Scholz won the Hamburg state election, 2011 with 48.3% of the votes, resulting in 62 out of 121 seats in the Hamburg Parliament.  Scholz resigned as a member of the seventeenth Bundestag on 11 March 2011 shortly after his election as First Mayor.

Merkel cabinet
After the 2017 federal election, the CDU, CSU and SPD agreed to continue a coalition, Scholz was accepted by all parties as Federal Minister of Finance. Scholz was sworn in alongside the rest of the Government on 14 March 2018. He also took the role of Vice-Chancellor of Germany under Angela Merkel. Within his first months in office, Scholz became one of Germany's most popular politicians, reaching an approval rating of 50 percent.

Chancellor of Germany

2021 federal election

On August 10, 2020, the SPD party executive nominated him as its chancellor candidate for the 2021 federal election in Germany. Scholz led the SPD to a narrow victory in the election, winning 25.8% of the vote and 206 seats in the Bundestag.

On 8 December 2021, Scholz was elected and sworn-in as Chancellor by the Bundestag with 395 votes in favour and 303 against. At  of age, Scholz is the oldest person to become Chancellor of Germany since Ludwig Erhard who was  old when he assumed office on 17 October 1963.

Tenure
During his campaign in the 2021 election, Scholz was against forcing a COVID-19 vaccine mandate. However, since the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant began to rise in late November 2021, he supported a vaccine mandate, including closure of non-essential retail stores to unvaccinated adults and a vaccine mandate for adults.

Personal life
Scholz is married to SPD politician Britta Ernst since 1998. The couple live in Potsdam since 2018.

References

1958 births
Living people
members of the German Bundestag
Government ministers of Germany
Mayors of Hamburg
People from Osnabrück
Politicians from Lower Saxony
Politicians of the Social Democratic Party of Germany
Vice Chancellors of Germany
Chancellors of Germany
Current national leaders
Sunny Day Real Estate

Sunny Day Real Estate is an American rock band from Seattle, Washington. Sunny Day Real Estate formed in 1992 when they were originally called Empty Set. The started in 1992 and broke up in 1995 because Goldsmith and Mendel were leaving to join Dave Grohl's band The Foo Fighters. They reunited in 1997 and disbanded again in 2001. They reunited once again in 2009.

Discography

Albums 
 Diary (1994)
 Sunny Day Real Estate (1995)
 How It Feels to Be Something On (1998)
 The Rising Tide (2000)

Other websites 
Sunny Day Real Estate's Official website

American rock bands
Indie rock bands
Musical groups from Seattle, Washington
Musical groups established in 1992
1992 establishments in the United States
1990s establishments in Washington (state)
Musical groups disestablished in 1995
1995 disestablishments in the United States
Musical groups established in 1997
1997 establishments in the United States
Musical groups disestablished in 2001
2001 disestablishments in the United States
Musical groups established in 2009
2009 establishments in the United States
2000s establishments in Washington (state)
1990s disestablishments in Washington (state)
2000s disestablishments in Washington (state)
Volbeat

Volbeat is an Danish heavy metal band from Copenhagen. Volbeat formed in 2001 when singer Michael Poulsen formed a death metal band called Dominus. He became tired of the death metal genre and left the band. He then formed a new band called Volbeat with other members of Dominus.

Discography

Albums 
 The Strength / The Sound / The Songs (2005)
 Rock the Rebel / Metal the Devil (2007)
 Guitar Gangsters & Cadillac Blood (2008)
 Beyond Hell/Above Heaven (2010)
 Outlaw Gentlemen & Shady Ladies (2013)
 Seal the Deal & Let's Boogie (2016)
 Rewind, Replay, Rebound (2019)

Other websites 
Volbeat's Official website

Danish heavy metal bands
Alfred Hershey

Alfred Day Hershey (December 4, 1908 – May 22, 1997) was an American Nobel Prize-winning bacteriologist and geneticist.

He was born in Owosso, Michigan and received his B.S. in chemistry at Michigan State University in 1930 and his Ph.D. in bacteriology in 1934, taking a position shortly thereafter at the Department of Bacteriology at Washington University in St. Louis.

He began doing experiments with bacteriophages with Italian-American Salvador Luria and German Max Delbrück in 1940. He found that when two different strains of bacteriophage have infected the same bacteria, the two viruses may exchange genetic information.

He moved with his wife Harriet to Cold Spring Harbor, New York, in 1950 to join the Carnegie Institution for Science's Department of Genetics. There he performed the famous Hershey-Chase blender experiment with Martha Chase in 1952. This experiment provided additional evidence that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material.

He became director of the Carnegie Institution in 1962 and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969, shared with Luria and Delbrück for their discovery on the replication of viruses and their genetic structure.

Other websites
Nobel biography
Biographical Memoir: Alfred Day Hershey by Franklin W. Stahl for the National Academy of Sciences
Key Participants: Alfred D. Hershey - Linus Pauling and the Race for DNA: A Documentary History

1908 births
1997 deaths
American chemists
American geneticists
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners
Scientists from Michigan
American Nobel Prize winners
American microbiologists
Night terror

A night terror, also known as a sleep terror, is a sleep disorder that causes extreme terror and a temporary inability to regain full consciousness. The person having the night terror wakes up suddenly, usually gasping, moaning, or screaming while waking. It is often impossible to wake up the person fully because they are so concentrated on waking, and after the terror the subject normally settles back to sleep without waking. A night terror can rarely be recalled by the subject. They typically occur during non-rapid eye movement sleep.

Other websites
Night Terror Resource Center 
eMedicine Health: Night Terrors 
National Institutes of Health, Medline Plus: Night Terrors
National Library of Medicine - Medical Subject Headings: Night Terrors

Sleep disorders
Health problems
Red Bull Arena (Harrison)

The Red Bull Arena is a soccer stadium in Harrison, New Jersey in the United States. It is home to two teams that each play in the top level of American soccer—the New York Red Bulls, a men's team playing in Major League Soccer, and NJ/NY Gotham FC, which plays in the National Women's Soccer League.

The construction started in 2006, but through differences of the clubowner and the state of New Jersey there was a delay. After the buying of the former Metro Stars by the Red Bull Company the stadium was opened on March 20th, 2010 with a friendly match of the NY Red Bulls versus FC Santos from Brazil. One week later the first leaguematch was held in the new stadium versus Chicago Fire. The stadium has 30 luxury suites and 1,000 premium seats. The design is customized to the design of the owner company, Red Bull.

Footnotes

Other websites
Red Bull Arena Homepage 

See also:Red Bull Arena (Salzburg)

Soccer stadiums in the United States
2010 establishments in New Jersey