cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Juno

Juno could mean:

 Juno (mythology), a major Roman goddess
 June, the month named after Juno
 3 Juno, one of the largest main belt asteroids

Music 
 Juno (band), an American indie rock band
 Juno (musical), a Broadway musical with score by Marc Blitzstein based on Sean O'Casey's play Juno and the Paycock
 Juno Reactor, a trance music project of Ben Watkins
 Juno Mak, a Cantopop artist
 Juno Award, a Canadian music award
 Roland Juno-60, Roland Juno-106 or Roland Juno-D (1983?-Present), synthesizers by Roland
 "Juno", a song by Funeral for a Friend, from their debut EP Between Order & Model. Later re-recorded for debut LP Casually Dressed and Deep in Conversation and released as a single under the name Juneau
 Juno Records, an online music store

Vehicles 
 Juno (spacecraft), a planned NASA mission to Jupiter
 HMS Juno, the name of seven vessels of Royal Navy
 Jupiter-C (rocket), also known as Juno or Juno I
 Jupiter (missile) also known as Juno II
 Juno (1864 – 1884), one of the eight South Devon Railway Dido class steam locomotives
 Juno, a Great Western Railway Banking Class 0-6-0ST steam locomotive.
 Juno, a Spanish ship sank in 1802. After its 1997 discovery in Assateague coast (Virginia) the Spanish government claimed ownership of the wreck.

Other uses 
 Juno (movie) a 2007 comedy-drama movie directed by Jason Reitman
 Juno (Dune), a Titan in the fictional Dune universe
 Juno Beach, one of five beaches used as landing zones in the Battle of Normandy in World War II
 3 Juno, the third asteroid to be discovered
 Juno clump, a probable asteroid family near 3 Juno
 Juno Online Services, an internet service provider in the United States
 Project Juno, a British commercial venture that sent Helen Sharman to space
 Juno, protagonist of the video game Jet Force Gemini
 MegaMan Juno, a villain in the video game Mega Man Legends
 Juno Skinner, a villain in the 1994 film True Lies
 Juno Lighting, a company that specializes in commercial and residential lighting
 Juno creator of Star Cross'd Destiny
 Juno the game by Mountain King Studios
 Juno, a powerful Denial of Service attack program, written in the C Programming Language
 Juno, a German cigarette brand produced by Reemtsma
 Juno Temple, an English actress
Neptune (mythology)

Neptune (Latin: Neptūnus) is the god of water and the sea in ancient Roman religion and mythology. His Greek equivalent is the god Poseidon. The Roman conception of Neptune was mainly influenced by the Etruscan god Nethuns. Neptune was associated with fresh water as well as the sea, while Oceanus was the god of the world-ocean. Like his Greek equivalent, Neptune was also worshipped by the Romans as the god of horses, and, under the name Neptune Equester, he was a patron god of horse-racing.

The planet Neptune is named after this Roman god.

References 

 Poseidon -- Greek version of Neptune

 

Roman gods and goddesses
Sol Invictus

For the folk music band, see Sol Invictus (band).

Sol Invictus ("the Unconquered Sun") or, more fully, Deus Sol Invictus ("the Unconquered Sun God") was a religious title applied to at least three distinct deities during the later Roman Empire: El Gabal, Mithras, and Sol.

The earlier cult of Sol Indiges ("the native sun" or "the invoked sun") was agrarian. The title Deus Sol Invictus was formed similar to the imperial titulature pius felix invictus ("dutiful, fortunate, unconquered").

The Romans held a festival on December 25 called Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, "the birthday of the unconquered sun." The use of the title Sol Invictus allowed several solar deities to be worshipped together, including Elah-Gabal, a Syrian sun god; Sol, the patron god of Emperor Aurelian (AD 270-274); and Mithras, a soldiers' god of Persian origin. Emperor Elagabalus (218-222) introduced the festival, and it reached the height of its popularity under Aurelian, who promoted it as an empire-wide holiday that was a possible inspiration of Christmas.

Notes

Further reading
Halsberghe, L. 1972. The Cult of Sol Invictus (Leiden)

Other websites 
Encyclopedia Britannica Online: Sol
Probus and Sol, includes images of coins 
Roman-Emperors: Aurelian
Gibbon's Decline and Fall: Triumph of Aurelian
Gibbon's references for Aurelian's Temple of Sol Invictus 
 Clement A. Miles, Christmas in Ritual and Tradition, Christian and Pagan (1912): December 25 and the Natalis Invicti
Catholic Encyclopedia (1908): Christmas
Ancient sources

Roman gods and goddesses
Optical printer

An optical printer is a device. It can be used to copy rolls of movies. It is made of one or more movie projectors, which are linked to a movie camera. It allows filmmakers to re-photograph one or more strips of movie. The optical printer is used for making special effects for motion pictures or for copying and restoring old movie material.

Common optical effects include fade outs and fade ins, dissolves, slow motion, fast motion, and matte work. More complicated work needs dozens of elements, all combined into a single scene. Ideally, the audience in a theater should not be able to notice any optical printers work, but this is not always the case. For economical reasons, especially in the 1950s, and later in TV series produced on movie, printer work was limited to only the actual parts of a scene needing the effect, so there is a clear change in the image quality when the transition occurs.

The first, simple optical printers were constructed in the early 1920s. Linwood G. Dunn expanded the concept in the 1930s. The development continued well into the 1980s, when the printers were controlled with minicomputers.

Sice the late 1980s, digital compositing began to replace optical effects. Since the mid nineties the conversion to digital effects has been almost total. Optical printing today is used most widely by artists working exclusively with movie. As a technique, it proves particularly useful for making copies of hand painted or physically manipulated movie.

Printers
Lares

Lares (pl.) were ancient Roman deities who protected the house and the family - household gods.  See also Genius, Larvae, Di Penates, Manes.

Lares are presumed sons of Mercury and Lara, and deeply venerated by ancient Romans through small statues, usually put in higher places of the house, far from the floor, or even on the roof.  
In the early Roman times, in every house there was at least one little statue. Later, a sort of confusion connected their figure with those of Manes, deities of Hades (and the most virtuous dead persons of the family). Finally the confusion included the Penates (other minor deities) as well.

Related pages
 Turan, the Etruscan love goddess

References 

Roman gods and goddesses
Charter Trustees

Charter Trustees are the English district councillors for an area that used to be a city.

They are allowed by the Charter Trustees Act 1985, so that some of the privileges and dignities of former city can be carried on.

References
Charter Trustees Acts 1985 c45
Quirinus

In Roman mythology, Quirinus was an early god of the Roman state. In Augustan Rome, Quirinus was also a name of Janus, as Janus Quirinus.

History

Quirinus was originally most likely a Sabine god. The Sabines had a settlement near the site of what was to become Rome, and erected an altar to Quirinus on the Collis Quirinalis, the Quirinal Hill, one of the Seven Hills of Rome.  When the Romans settled there, they absorbed the cult of Quirinus into their early belief system — previous to direct Greek influence — and he was said to be the deified Romulus.  

In later times, however, Quirinus became far less important, losing his place to (Juno and Minerva and Mars' place).

Notes

Roman gods and goddesses
Kreisfreie stadt

The name kreisfreie Stadt (plural: kreisfreie Städte) is used for German towns that have their own government. This town government is independent of the government of the next-higher level of authority, the Landkreis. Today, most of the cities that have this statute, are big cities, with 100.000 people living there, or more. The concept grew historically. That means that there are big cities, with more than 100.000 people that do not have the statute. There are also some cities who have only taken a part of the responsibilities of a Landkreis (or Kreis). The smallest city with the statute is Zweibrücken. About 35.000 people live there. The biggest of these cities is Munich, with about 1.3 million people. Hamburg and Berlin are bigger. They are city states, though. The city state of Bremen (state) is made of two kreisfreie Städte, the city of Bremen, and the city of Bremerhaven, about 60 km to the north. About half a million people live in Bremen (1.5 million in the agglomeration), about 117.000 people live in Bremerhaven.

But not every big city with more than 100.000 inhabitants is a kreisfreie Stadt. Some of them, for example Recklinghausen or Göttingen (both more 120.000 inhabitants) are part of a Landkreis.

There are very few cities, who only took part of the paperwork from the Landkreis. Some of these are called Große selbständige Stadt (Translates to Big sovereign city). They only seem to exist in Lower Saxony. They are:
Celle, Cuxhaven, Goslar, Hameln, Hildesheim, Lingen, and Lüneburg. Things like hunting permits cannot be delegated to the cities. Other things, like what to do with the trash have sometimes been delegated.

Similar concepts to that of the kreisfreie Stadt are Unitary authorities in the United Kingdom, or that of independent city in the United States.

Political systems
Politics of Germany
Jet aircraft

Jet aircraft are aircraft with jet engines. Unlike propeller-powered aircraft, jet aircraft normally fly at altitudes as high as 100 to 1,5 meters, about 33 to .  At these altitudes, jet engines can achieve maximum efficiency over long distances.   The engines in propeller powered aircraft achieve their maximum efficiency at much lower altitudes.

Gallery

References

Aircraft
Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty

The Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty was a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel. It was signed by both countries in 1979, at the end of the Camp David Accords. It was the first treaty with Israel from a Middle-Eastern Arabic nation. After signing it, Egypt was removed from the Arab League.

The Egypt–Israel treaty was signed by Egyptian president Anwar Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin, and witnessed by United States president Jimmy Carter.

References

1979
20th century in Egypt
1970s in Israel
1970s treaties
Downtown

Downtown (called a city centre in British English) is a word used in North America which refers to the main part of a city. It is usually the central business district where most commercial and office areas are; many of them being in skyscrapers. Tourism also concentrates there.

Cities
IEEE 802.11

IEEE 802.11 is a series of protocols for wireless networking. Often these are called Wireless LAN, WLAN, or Wi-Fi. Such a protocol allows computers that have the needed radio parts to communicate with each other, without a cable. There are many types of Wi-Fi standards, known as 802.11 a, b, g, n, and recently ac & ad. These specifications are different in terms of speed and how far away you can use them.

Later standards 
The first Wi-Fi standard was made in 1997.  It is called IEEE 802.11.  It allows communication with 1-2 MBit per second.  Today it is outdated, and rare.  Later standards add a letter to the name.  They are labelled IEEE  802.11a to IEEE 802.11g.  There are plans for ones labeled h, i, j, n, p and s.  They are all compatible with each other.

Newer standards have a Bit rate of 54 MBit/s.  About 40-50% of this is usable in real-life situations.  As of 2007, the standards most widely used are IEEE 802.11g, and IEEE 802.11b.

Frequency bands
Data communication is either done in the 2.4 GHz band or in the 5 GHz band. The 2.4 GHz band is a general use band. Microwave ovens and Bluetooth are among the things that emit radio waves in this band. The 2.4 GHz band has the problem that there are only very few channels that can be used at the same time, without the signals interfering. There are three usable channels there. When more than three networks operate in the same place, signals still get to the user correctly, but interference slows them. 

The 5 GHz band can solve some of these problems, but it introduces others. That band has 19 usable channels. Overall the band is less used. However there are more regulations. Most devices need to be able to choose their channel to minimize interference. Some channels require that those participating can do Transmitter Power Control. This means they adapt the strength of the signal to what is actually needed. This helps reduce the amount of interference between different networks.

Computer protocols
Computer networking
Wireless LAN

In computing, Wireless LAN (WLAN) or Wireless local area network is a term to refer to a Local Area Network that does not need cables to connect the different devices. Instead, radio waves and  IEEE 802.11 are used to communicate.

Benefits of Wireless LANs 
 People can access the network from where they want; they are no longer limited by the length of the cable
 Some places and vehicles have a Wireless LAN hotspot. This lets people access the internet even outside their normal work environment, for example in a restaurant or train.
 Setting up a wireless LAN can be done with one box called wireless access point or wireless router. This box can handle many connections at the same time. Wired networks require cables to be laid. This can be difficult for certain places.
 Access points can serve a varying number of computers.

Disadvantages of Wireless LANs 
 Wireless LANs use radio waves to communicate. Special care needs to be taken to encrypt information.  
 The signal is noisier than on wires, and more bandwidth needs to be spent on error correction. 
 A typical IEEE 802.11 access point has A range of meters from where devices can connect. To extend the range more access points are needed. 
 There are many reliability problems, especially those connected to interference from other devices.
 Wireless LANs are much slower than wired ones; this may not matter for most users though, because the bottleneck in a home network is usually the speed of the ADSL line or other Internet connection.

Technologies used 
Today, most  technologies used for WLANs use Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. This means that several frequencies are used at the same time. Signals that are close to each other, but that belong to different channels do not disturb each other, as they use different coding schemes. Depending on the material used, it is possible to cover between 30 metres and 100 metres indoors; outdoors, the range is about 100-300m, if there are no obstacles.

Computer networking
Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a protocol for wireless communication over short distances. It was developed in the 1990s, to reduce the number of cables.  Devices such as mobile phones, laptops, PCs, printers, digital cameras and video game consoles can connect to each other, and exchange information. This is done using radio waves. It can be done securely. Bluetooth is usually only used for relatively short distances, like a few metres. Some signals can be up to 100 metres.

There are different standards. Data rates vary. Currently, they are at 1-3 MBit per second. Typical Bluetooth applications are to connect a headset to a mobile phone, or to connect a computer mouse, keyboard or printer.

Bluetooth devices use the ISM Band around 2.4 GHz. This can be used worldwide, without the need to pay license fees, but many other devices, like DECT telephones (wireless phones), smart tags with RFID, baby phones use it too. Bluetooth uses the same bands as some WLANs, but the modulation technique is different. Bluetooth uses Frequency-hopping spread spectrum.

Comparing Bluetooth to Wireless LAN 

There are many situations today where either Bluetooth or Wireless LANs can be used. Examples include setting up networks, printing or transferring files and data from a PDA to a computer. Both are versions of unlicensed wireless technology. WLANs can span bigger distances and offer higher throughput. Bluetooth does not require expensive hardware. It also needs less power to operate.

Both use the same radio frequency range, but their modulation techniques are different. Both have been developed to replace cabling. Bluetooth wanted to get rid of the peripheral equipment cables, WLANs wanted to get rid of the cables needed to set up a LAN.

Bluetooth devices 

Bluetooth exists in many products, such as telephones, the Wii or PlayStation 3. It has recently been built into some electronic watches, modems and headsets. The technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data with telephones (i.e. with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-held computers (transferring files).

Bluetooth uses protocols that make it easy to discover devices that are nearby, and to set up a connection between these devices. Bluetooth devices can advertise all the services they offer. Using services becomes easier; a lot of the setup related to security, networking or permissions is automatic.

Wireless LAN 
WLANs are more like traditional LANs. More configuration is needed to set up the network, and to make resources accessible by other devices in the network. WLAN devices also consume more power than Bluetooth ones. 
Sometimes WLANs are called wireless Ethernet. WLAN needs more resources to be set up, but it also offers faster transfer speeds. The security is also better than that offered by Bluetooth.

References

Computer protocols
Computer networking
Noraduz

Noraduz (or Noratus) is a site in the region of Gegharkunik in Armenia near Lake Sevan. It was formed a church dedicated to Sainte-mère-de-Dieu (built in the ninth century), and an exceptional site of medieval tombs. The tombstones are called Khachkars. Noraduz is the most important place for Khachkars in Armenia.

Related pages
Noraduz cemetery
Khachkar

References

Other websites 

Noraduz - Khachkars Field 
Noraduz Village

History of Armenia
1921 New York Yankees season

The New York Yankees during 1921 (the 1921 season) was the 19th season for the Yankees in New York, and overall it was their 21st season. The season ended in the team having a record (the number of wins and losses) of 98-55 (98 wins, 55 losses). This was the first pennant won in Yankees history. They won the American League game pennant, replacing the previous winners, Cleveland Indians. The manager of their team was Miller Huggins. The Yankees home games were played on the Polo Grounds.

Season standings

Schedule

World Series

References
1921 New York Yankees team page at www.baseball-almanac.com

Other websites
Yankees game log courtesy baseball-almanac.com
1921 New York Yankees

New York Yankees
New York Yankees
Sports in New York City
1920s in New York (state)
20th century in New York City
Hominidae

The hominids are members of the biological family Hominidae (the great apes). This family includes humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. "Great ape" is a common name rather than a taxonomic label, and people use it in different ways. Sometimes people mean to include humans in the category of “great apes,” and sometimes they mean non-human apes. Homo sapiens is definitely a hominid, as judged by all modern reference works.

Hominids range in weight from 48 kg to 270 kg. Males are larger than females. Hominids are primates with no tails, strong bodies, and well-developed forearms. Their thumbs (and big toes, except in humans) oppose the fingers, and form a grip. All digits have flattened nails.

At present, the family Hominidae includes four genera and five species. However, if fossil hominids were included, all of the Australopithecines and the genus Homo would be members of the Hominidae family. Today, nonhuman great apes live only in the rainforests of equatorial Africa, Sumatra and Borneo.

The first hominid fossils are from the Miocene period. Archaeologists found these in Asia and Europe. Also in Asia, they found fossils of a huge version of the orangutan called Gigantopithecus, which is now extinct. Fossils also show that Neanderthals were in Europe and western Asia for at least half a million years before modern humans appeared.

Classification
Scholars do not agree on exactly how to classify the family Hominidae.

Past versions
In the past, the family Hominidae have been classified this way:
Family Hominidae: Great apes
 Subfamily Ponginae
 Genus Pongo  orangutans
 Subfamily Homininae
 Genus Gorilla – gorillas
 Genus Pan – chimpanzees
 Australopithecus† and other extinct relatives
 Genus Homo – humans

Modern version
A more recent classification shows humans and the Australopithecines as distinct from the rainforest apes. Two major reference works have supported this approach.

Superfamily Hominoidea
Family Hylobatidae
Genus Hylobates
Family Hominidae
Subfamily Ponginae
Genus Pongo
Subfamily Gorillinae
Genus Gorilla
Subfamily Homininae
Tribe Panini
Genus Pan
Tribe Hominini
Subtribe Australopithecina/Hominina
Genus Ardipithecus
Genus Australopithecus
Genus Kenyanthropus
Genus Sahelanthropus
Genus Orrorin
Genus Paranthropus
Genus Homo

Related pages
 Human timeline
 Human evolution

References

Hominids
Acropolis of Athens

The Acropolis of Athens is  the most famous acropolis. It is a large hill in the center of Athens, on which the Parthenon and other Greek buildings were built. It is often known as The Acropolis.

Buildings and structures in Athens
Ancient Athens
Toki Pona

Toki Pona (in Toki Pona it means good language or simple language) is a constructed (made-up) language. Sonja Lang (in past time Sonja Elen Kisa), a Canadian translator and linguist, made the language. It is based on simple ideas that are known to all cultures. It is not created to be an international auxiliary language (a language for communication between people speaking different languages). It is meant to test ideas about minimalism and pidgins. It is influenced by Taoist ideas. It has only 120 root words, although there is over 50,000 different possible combinations. Toki Pona relies very heavily on expressing ideas by using root words together. For example, jan pona means friend in Toki Pona (literally it means: good person). 

Normally Toki Pona uses the Latin alphabet, but many Toki Pona speakers create other systems of writing for this language. There are some attempts to create a writing system based on pictograms, but they have not been very successful.

Example of text 
Lord's Prayer (translated by Pije/Jopi):

mama pi mi mute o, sina lon sewi kon.
nimi sina li sewi.
ma sina o kama.
jan o pali e wile sina lon sewi kon en lon ma.
o pana e moku pi tenpo suno ni tawa mi mute.
o weka e pali ike mi. sama la mi weka e pali ike pi jan ante.
o lawa ala e mi tawa ike.
o lawa e mi tan ike.
tenpo ali la sina jo e ma e wawa e pona.
Amen.

References

Other websites
Toki Pona official website
Toki pona lessons

Constructed languages
Canadian Hurricane Centre

The Canadian Hurricane Centre (CHC) is a Canadian agency that is responsible for monitoring and tracking tropical cyclones that come near or affects Canadian territory. The agency warns people about on-coming tropical cyclones and makes hurricane advisories when needed. Its headquarters are in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia.

CHC usually works together with its United States counterpart, the National Hurricane Center in Miami, to coordinate the tracks and positions of all storms that show a possible threat to Canada.

While Atlantic hurricanes are normally uncommon in Canada, they do approach or strike from time to time. Among recent events are Hurricane Bob, which struck New Brunswick, in 1991, Hurricane Luis which struck Newfoundland in September 1995, Hurricane Hortense which struck Nova Scotia in September 1996, Hurricane Michael which struck Newfoundland in October 2000, and Hurricane Juan, which struck Nova Scotia in September 2003.

Other websites
CHC website
Official Canadian Weather Warnings 
Hurricane Bulletins for your wireless device 

Canada
V-type asteroid

V-type asteroids or Vestoids are asteroids that are similar to 4 Vesta. It is the largest asteroid in this class. This is where the name "V-type" comes from.

Asteroids
Vulcan (Star Trek)

Vulcans are a humanoid species in the fictional Star Trek universe who hail from the planet Vulcan, and are noted for their attempt to live by reason and logic with no interference from emotion. They were the first 
extraterrestrial species encountered by Humans, and later became one of the founding members of the United Federation of Planets. Vulcans are featured in all six Star Trek series, four of which featured a Vulcan as a main character.

Related pages
 Vulcan, Alberta - a town in Canada that has incorporated Star Trek themes due to its name.
 Stoicism

Bibliography
 Star Trek: The Magazine v3#10 (February 2003 - "Romulan Propulsion Historical Overview" by Rick Sternbach & Tim Earls)
 Spock's World Diane Duane Pg. 359 Pocket Books, a division of Simon & Schuster Inc.  1230 Avenue of the Americas, NY, 10020 Paperback Edition 1989.

Fictional races
Star Trek
Keck Observatory

The W. M. Keck Observatory is a pair of two large, ground-based telescopes located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii. Sitting four km (more than two miles) above sea level, the paired telescopes are used to examine light from distant stars in great detail. The primary mirrors of each of the two telescopes are 10 meters (33 feet) across, making them slightly smaller than the Gran Telescopio Canarias primary mirrors.

However, all of the light collected by the Keck Observatory primary mirrors (75.76m2) is sent to the secondary mirror and the instruments, compared to GTC's primary mirror, which has an effective light-collection area of 73.4m2, or 25.4 square feet less than each of the Keck Observatory primary mirrors. Because of this fundamental difference in design, Keck Observatory's telescopes arguably remain the largest steerable, optical/infrared telescopes on Earth.

Related pages
 La Silla Observatory
 Very Large Telescope

Other websites 
 W.M. Keck Observatory (official site)
 The Mauna Kea Observatory (official site)

Observatories in the United States
Buildings and structures in Hawaii
HED meteorite

The HED meteorites are a group of achondrite meteorite types:
 Howardites
 Eucrites
 Diogenites
 
These are all thought to have come from the crust of the asteroid 4 Vesta. Their differences are due to different geologic histories of the parent rock. Their crystallization ages are between 4.43 and 4.55 billion years ago, by their radioisotope ratios.

References

Meteorites
Metamorphic rock

A metamorphic rock is a type of rock which has been changed by extreme heat and pressure. Its name is from 'morph' (meaning form), and 'meta' (meaning change).

The original rock gets heated (temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C) and pressured (1500 bars). This causes profound physical and/or chemical change. The original rock may be sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock.

There is always more pressure and higher temperature under the Earth's surface. In the root of a mountain chain or a volcano these forces will be enough to change shape of the strata and the minerals it is made of. Sedimentary rock which has been near such forces often looks as if a giant had twisted it and heated it over a fire. Examples of metamorphic rock:
 Marble is a metamorphic rock formed from limestone.
 Slate is a metamorphic mudstone or shale.
 Quartzite is a metamorphic sandstone.

The recrystallisation of minerals after heating generally causes the destruction of any fossils the rocks might have contained. These rocks are formed when igneous or sedimentary rocks are subjected to extreme heat and pressure as result they undergo a complete change in their form and characteristics. Such form rocks are called metamorphic rocks.

Types of metamorphism

Regional metamorphism

Regional metamorphism, or dynamic metamorphism, occurs in great masses of rock. Rocks can be metamorphosed just by being at great depths below the Earth's surface. There they get high temperatures and the great weight of the rock layers above.

Much of the lower continental crust is metamorphic, except for recent igneous intrusions. Horizontal tectonic movements such as the collision of continents create orogenic belts. High temperature, pressures and deformation occurs along these belts. If the metamorphosed rocks are later uplifted and exposed by erosion, they are seen as long belts or other large areas at the surface.

Contact metamorphism

Contact metamorphism occurs when magma is injected into the surrounding solid rock (country rock). The changes that occur are greatest where the magma comes into contact with the rock. The temperatures were highest there and decreased with distance from it.

Metamorphic minerals 
Metamorphic minerals are those that form only at the high temperatures and pressures of metamorphism. These minerals, known as index minerals, include sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, and some garnet.

Other minerals, such as olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, feldspars, and quartz may be found in metamorphic rocks. They are not necessarily the result of the process of metamorphism. These minerals formed during the crystallization of igneous rocks. They are stable at high temperatures and pressures and may remain chemically unchanged during the metamorphic process.

Related pages 
 List of rocks
 Igneous rock
 Sedimentary rock
 List of minerals

References

Other websites 

 Metamorphic textures - Middle East Technical University 
 Metamorphism - U. of Alabama 
 Types of metamorphism - Tulane U.
 Contact metamorphism example 

Rocks
Extrusion

Extrusive means to the mode of igneous volcanic rock formation in which hot magma from inside the Earth flows out (extrudes) onto the surface as lava or explodes violently into the atmosphere to fall back as pyroclastics or tuff. This is opposed to intrusive rock formation, in which magma does not reach the surface.

Extruded when talking about an artificial material like soft metals like aluminium, plastic or glass means that it is pushed out of a nozzle when the material is in a soft state. The shape of the nozzle will vary depending on the shape required in the finished product

Geology
Intrusion

An intrusion is magma (melted rock) which cools and becomes solid under the Earth's surface.  It occurs when there are lines of weakness such as faults, joints, or bedding planes in the crust. Then magma enters these lines of weakness.  By contrast, an extrusion is magma which cools into rock above the surface of the crust. Both intrusive and extrusive rocks are classed as igneous rocks.

The process of forming intrusive rocks may take millions of years. As the rock slowly cools into a solid, the different parts of the magma crystallize into minerals. The crystals are usually larger than in extrusive rocks. Many mountain ranges, such as the Sierra Nevada in California, are formed mostly by intrusive rock. Often they are huge granite (or related rock) formations.

Intrusions vary widely, from mountain range sized batholiths to thin vein-like fracture fillings. When exposed by erosion, these cores called batholiths may occupy huge areas of Earth's surface. Large bodies of magma that solidify underground before they reach the surface of the crust are called plutons.

Intrusive structures may go between bedding planes of earlier 'country' rock. A sill is an intrusion which makes a table along bedding planes. A dyke is an intrusion which moves up, crossing older strata.

Related pages 
Volcanic plug

Geology
Igneous rocks
Radiation pressure

Radiation pressure is the pressure exerted upon any surface exposed to electromagnetic radiation. If absorbed, the pressure is the energy flux density divided by the speed of light. If the radiation is totally reflected, the radiation pressure is doubled.  This happens because the waves that make up electromagnetic radiation carry momentum with them and pass that momentum on when they reach a surface.

A Crookes radiometer appears to demonstrate the pressure of light, but instead it demonstrate the energy that light brings to a surface.  The black side of each paddle absorbs most of the light's energy an causes the air near that surface to have a higher pressure.  So, while a Crookes radiometer turns because of pressure, it is air pressure caused by the heat energy that light brings to the device.

Solar radiation at Earth
The solar radiation at Earth's distance from the Sun has an energy flux density of 1370 W/m2, and more than half of this energy reaches surface.  A calculation shows that this value of the flux would cause on an absorbing surface to experience 4.6 µPa of radiation pressure.  A convenient way to compare the Sun's energy flux and radiation pressure is to imagine the pressure and energy deposited on one square meter:

Power =  (or about 1.4 kilowatts.) 
Force = 

To understand how small a micro-newton is, convert calculate how much mass you need on Earth to get that force using :
Mass =  (or about ½ milligram.)

The difference between the energy flux and the pressure is like the difference between the heat coming through a large window and the weight of a very small mosquito.

References

Further reading
 Demir, Dilek,"A table-top demonstration of radiation pressure",2011, Diplomathesis, E-Theses univie (http://othes.univie.ac.at/16381/)

electromagnetism
Kirkwood gap

Kirkwood gaps are areas of the asteroid belt where asteroids are unusually scarce, as seen in the graph on the right. They are caused by orbital resonances with Jupiter.

The gaps were first noticed in 1857 by Daniel Kirkwood, who also correctly explained their origin in the orbital resonances with Jupiter while a professor at Jefferson College in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania.

References

Other websites 
 Article on Kirkwood gaps at Wolfram's scienceworld
 A method to create a short-term simulation .

Asteroids
Jupiter
Ca-Al-rich inclusions

Ca-Al-rich inclusions (CAIs) are centimeter-sized light-coloured calcium and aluminium rich inclusions found in carbonaceous chondrites. CAIs contains high-temperature minerals and are among the first solids which solidified from the cooling protoplanetary disk. CAIs were formed at much higher temperatures than the associated chondrules, and may have survived many high-temperature events, whereas most chondrules are the product of a single transient melting event.

The isotopic anomalies of CAIs give valuable clues about the solar system's formation, suggesting that the solar nebula collapsed shortly after a nearby supernova. Radiometric dating shows that the CAIs formed about 2 million years before the chondrules formed.

References
 Gilmour J. 2002. The Solar System's first clocks Science 297, 1658-1659. 
 Amelin Y. et al. 2002. Lead isotopic ages of chondrules and calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions Science, 297, 1678-1683.
 Krot A.N. 2002.  Dating the earliest solids in our Solar System. Planetary science research discoveries. http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Sept02/isotopicAges.html
 Shukolyukov A. & Lugmair G.W. 2002. Chronology of asteroid accretion and differentiation 687-695, in Bottke W.F. et al. (eds) Asteroids III. University of Arizona Press. 

Meteorites
Eucrite

Eucrites are achondritic stony meteorites that originate from the surface of the asteroid 4 Vesta, and as such are part of the HED meteorite group. They are the most common achondrite group with well over 100 distinct finds at present.

Eucrites consist of basaltic rock from the crust of 4 Vesta. They are mostly made up of Ca-poor pyroxene, pigeonite, and Ca-rich plagioclase (anorthite).

Eucrites are named from a Greek word meaning "easily distinguished".

Other websites 
 HED Group - Meteorites from Vesta

Meteorites

it:Meteorite HED#Eucriti
81P/Wild

Comet 81P/Wild, also known as Wild 2, is a comet named after Swiss astronomer Paul Wild (pronounced Vilt), who discovered it in 1978.

It is believed that for most of its 4.5 billion-year lifetime, Wild 2 had a more distant and circular orbit. In 1974, it passed within only about one million kilometers of the planet Jupiter, whose strong gravitational pull altered the comet's orbit and brought it into the inner solar system. Its orbital period changed from 40 years to about 6 years, and its perihelion is now about 1.59 AU (astronomical unit).

Gallery

Other websites 
 NASA Team Analyzes Stardust Particle Capture January 18, 2006
 NASA/JPL homepage for Stardust project
 Stardust@Home Volunteer Particle Analysis Project
 IAU Ephemerides page for 81P
 Catalogue of all 72 raw images of Wild 2 

Comets
Barrel (weapons)

A barrel is a part of a gun. It is a long metal tube that the bullet or projectile goes through after it is fired. Guns can have many different sizes of barrels. Usually, longer barrels make it easier for the bullet to hit the target more often. Barrels usually have spiral grooves on the inside called rifling. Barrels with grooves spin the projectile around faster as it exits the gun. This makes the projectile more stable in flight and more accurate.

References 

Firearm components
Shell (projectile)

A shell is a type of projectile used in weapons. It is filled with explosive or other things such as an incendiary device. It is similar to a bomb but is made to be shot out of a gun. Shells are usually large caliber projectiles fired by artillery, armored vehicles (including tanks), and warships. A fuze detonates the explosive or releases whatever else the shell may be carrying.

Anti-tank guns fire thick shells without much explosive inside. Shells usually have the shape of a cylinder but taper towards the front end to form a point. However, special shells may use other shapes.

Artillery
Ion thruster

An ion thruster is a kind of spacecraft engine. It works by using static electricity or magnetism to push ions (electrically charged atoms) out the back of the spacecraft. It takes a very long time to speed up, but its fuel lasts much longer than a rocket engine. It has to be carried into outer space by a regular rocket, because the ions don't push hard enough for it to escape the Earth's gravity, but after it gets to outer space it can travel a very long way. An ion thruster needs electricity to run, so the spacecraft has to also carry solar panels or a nuclear reactor.

In 2011 the NASA space probe called Dawn used an ion thruster to get to the asteroid Vesta. In 2015 the thruster brought it to the dwarf planet Ceres.

Rockets
Submachine gun

A submachine gun is a type of gun that shoots many bullets, usually pistol bullets, when one holds down the trigger. A submachine gun is smaller than a machine gun and can easily be carried by one person. They are often used where people need to defend themselves in small areas, or people need to fire many bullets quickly. The first submachine guns were invented in the early 1900s. They are often used by the police and counter-terrorism units .

History
In the early 20th century, experiments were made by converting  pistols from semi to fully automatic firearms. Stocked (with handle) automatic weapons firing pistol rounds were developed around the same time during World War I, by Italy, Germany, and the United States. The first dedicated designs were developed in the latter stages of World War I both as improvements on earlier stocked pistols, and to offer an advantage in trench warfare.

They were popularized in the 1920s and '30s as weapon of choice of American gangsters and police, in the form of the famous Thompson submachine gun, commonly referred to as the "Tommy Gun". Submachine guns rose to prominence as a frontline close-quarters combat weapon and commando firearm during World War II. They are now widely used by police SWAT, military commando, paramilitary, and counter-terror team members for a variety of situations. 

Submachine guns are highly effective in close quarters; their lower-powered pistol cartridges make them generally more controllable in fully-automatic fire compared to assault rifles, while their small size and light weight grant maneuverability.  However, pistol bullets often are stopped by body armor or cover, and are short-ranged compared to intermediate and rifle cartridges.

World War II developments 
World War II developments were many and interesting. In Germany the development of machine carbines (Maschinenkarabiner) was notable.  From 1939 onwards the German Army analyzed combat conditions and developed new tactics and equipment requirements. The existing 7.92x57mm rifle cartridge was more powerful and long ranged than needed. Most combat took place at ranges less than 400 m (440 yards). A less powerful round (bullet) could be used. This meant a soldier could carry more ammunition, the weapon could be shorter, lighter and with less recoil. The gun could be an automatic.

Achieving this took time. Work in 1941 and 1942 led at last to a reliable weapon, the StG 44 (Sturmgewehr 44) "assault rifle 44". This was then produced in large numbers (over 600,000). It came too late to effect the Second World War, but was later adapted as the Soviet AK 47.

References

Other websites 
 WW2-era Small Arms
Elena V. Pitjeva

Elena Vladimirovna Pitjeva is a Russian theoretical physicist at the Institute of Applied Astronomy, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg. She is noted for her work on ephemerides and is currently head of the Laboratory of Ephemeris Astronomy at the Institute of Applied Astronomy. Pitjeva is a member of the International Astronomical Union Commission 4: Ephemerides.

Education
Pitjeva earned her undergraduate degree from the Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics at A. A. Zhdanov Leningrad State University in 1972 in the specialty of astronomy. She earned an M.A. in theoretical physics in 1994 and a Ph.D. in theoretical physics in 2005. She was a student of Professor G.A. Krasinski.

Publications (selection)

References

Other websites
Laboratory of Ephemeris Astronomy, Institute of Applied Astronomy 

Russian astronomers
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Socialist Reich Party

The Socialist Reich Party of Germany (German: Sozialistische Reichspartei Deutschlands) was a political party in West Germany. It was formed in 1949.

It was openly Neo-Nazi and admired Hitler. It split from the German Empire Party. Leaders included Otto Ernst Remer, a former Major General, and Fritz Dorls.

The SRP claimed West Germany's first Chancellor, Konrad Adenauer only did what the United States told, and that Karl Dönitz was the last legal of Germany.

The SRP also said that the Holocaust never happened, and that the ovens of the Dachau concentration camp were built by the United States after 1945. The SRP also wanted Europe to be led by a reunited German Reich, and that it would not be capitalist or communist.

The SRP never criticised the Soviet Union because the Russians funded the SRP because it was anti-American. The only other party modern in postwar Germany was the Communist Party of Germany. It did not get Soviet funds because the Russians thought it was useless. SRP leader Remer once said that if the USSR ever did invade Germany, he would "show the Russians the way to the Rhine".

The SRP had its own paramilitary organisation, the Reichsfront.

The SRP had about ten thousand members and it won 16 seats in the Lower Saxony Landtag election, and 8 seats Bremen.

It was banned in 1952 by the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, the only court with the power to do so.

Notes

Other websites 
 Germany's New Nazis 1951 pamphlet about the SRP and other neo--nazi groups

Former political parties in Germany
Neo-Nazism
West Germany
1949 establishments in Germany
1950s disestablishments in Germany
International Fight League

The International Fight League was an American mixed martial arts (MMA) league and is the world's first MMA league. It was founded on January 7, 2006 and closed on July 31, 2008.

Instead of the established norm for MMA events, where matchups are strictly one-on-one affairs, each IFL card was a showdown between two teams of five fighters, each fighter fighting one match against another on the opposing team. The IFL was shown in the United States on Fox Sports Net and MyNetworkTV.

Other websites 
IFL - Official Website

Mixed martial arts
2006 establishments in the United States
2008 disestablishments in the United States
Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative

Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative ( or WASG) was a German political party founded in 2005 by people who did not like the Social Democratic–Green government.

On 16 June 2007, it merged with The Left Party.PDS to form the a party The Left (Die Linke) party. At the time of its merger with The Left Party.PDS about 11,600 people were members.

2005 establishments in Europe
2007 disestablishments in Europe
Former political parties in Germany
The Left (Germany)
2000s establishments in Germany
2000s disestablishments in Germany
Deutsche Reichspartei

The Deutsche Reichspartei (DRP) (German Reich Party, German Imperial Party or German Empire Party) was a nationalist political party in West Germany. It was a merger of the German Conservative Party - Deutsche Right Party (DKP-DRP) and the old Hessian Nationaldemokratischen Partei (NDP).

Some of the DRP's founders were: Alexander Andrae, Oskar Lutz, Hans Bernd von Grünberg, Wilhelm Meinberg, Otto Heß, Hans Schikora, Heinrich Kunstmann, Adolf von Thadden.

In 1949 the Sozialistische Reichspartei (SRP) split from the DRP. This was because the Empire Party was not neo-Nazi, and did not want to be associated with Adolf Hitler.  Instead the party preferred to say how good the Second German Empire (1870-1919) was. 

The Deutsche Reichspartei did become more national socialist after 1952. This is when the Sozialistische Reichspartei was banned by the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany and a lot of its members re-joined the Empire Party.

The party was not very successful in the 1950s, but seemed to be getting more popular after the state elections of 1959. But the success did not last, and the party held its final conference in 1964 when it was dissolved. It was quickly replaced by the new Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands.

Other websites 
 Germany's New Nazis 1951 pamphlet about the DRP and other neo--nazi groups

Former political parties in Germany
Neo-Nazism
West Germany
1964 disestablishments
Fukuoka Prefecture

is a prefecture in the Kyūshū region of Japan on the island of Kyūshū. The capital city is Fukuoka.

History 
The area of Fukuoka Prefecture includes the old provinces of Chikugo, Chikuzen, and Buzen.

Timeline
 November 19, 1274 (Bun'ei 11, 20th day of the 10th month): Battle of Bun'ei
 August 15, 1281 (Kōan 4, 30th day of the 7th month): Battle of Kōan

Geography 
Fukuoka Prefecture faces the sea on three sides.  The prefecture borders Saga, Ōita, and Kumamoto prefectures.  Fukuoka is near Yamaguchi Prefecture across the Kanmon Straits.

Fukuoka includes the two largest cities on Kyūshū, Fukuoka and Kitakyūshū. Small islands are near the north coast of the prefecture.

Cities
There are 28 cities in the prefecture:

Towns and villages
These are the towns and villages in each district of the prefecture

National Parks
National Parks are established in about 18% of the total land area of the prefecture.

Shrines and Temples
Kōra taisha, Sumiyoshi-jinja, Hakosagi-gū and Usa-jinjū are the chief Shinto shrines (ichinomiya) in the prefecture.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan
 Kyushu National Museum
 Giravanz Kitakyushu
 Fukuoka Art Museum
 Kyushu National Museum
 Dazaifu

References

Other websites 

 Fukuoka Prefecture website ;  
 http://www.kyushu.com/fukuoka/ 
 http://diddlefinger.com/m/fukuokaken/
Regierender Bürgermeister

The Regierender Bürgermeister () of Berlin is the head of government of the city.  The Governing Mayor is the equivalent of the Minister President of the bigger States of Germany.

The Regierender Bürgermeister is elected by the Abgeordentenhaus (). He then appoints up to eight Senators. The Senators are ministers in charge of the departments of the city government. Two of the senators are also Mayors. The Mayors are the deputies of the Governing Mayor.

Government of Germany