cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Airbus A380

The Airbus A380 (also called "Super-jumbo-jet") is a four-engined, double-decked airliner manufactured by Airbus. It is the world's biggest passenger airplane, larger than the Boeing 747 Jumbo Jet.  However, it is not the biggest airplane in the world; the Antonov An-225 super-freighter is bigger.

The Airbus A380 can carry up to 850 passengers (but it usually carries about 525), and weighs over 550 tonnes. It has four Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engines or four Engine Alliance GP7000 engines.  The companies General Electric and Pratt & Whitney make alliance engines.

Orders 

Hundreds of A380-800 airplanes have been ordered by 20 airlines.  One has been ordered by a Saudi Arabian Prince, Al-Walid bin Talal and 10 by a company called ILFC (who gives other airlines airplanes for rent).

Emirates Airlines (an airline from the United Arab Emirates) has the most A380 aircraft, because they have ordered 123 aircraft.    Singapore Airlines took delivery of the first A380, which flew to Sydney in Australia on October 25, 2007.  Singapore Airlines has 19 A380s.

Other airlines which ordered the A380 are Qantas (from Australia, currently operating 12), Air France (formerly operated 10), China Southern Airlines, Lufthansa (the German airline, which has 8), Kingfisher Airlines (from India), Korean Air (from South Korea), Thai Airways, Malaysia Airlines, British Airways, Qatar Airways, Etihad Airways (from the United Arab Emirates), Virgin Atlantic (from the United Kingdom) and Air Austral (France).

More than 200 A380 have been delivered, including 15 in 2017 and 12 in 2018.

Freighter Version
Airbus was going to make a version of the A380 to carry cargo instead of people.  This would look almost the same as the normal passenger version, but with no windows and much bigger doors.  Some cargo companies ordered the plane, like FedEx and UPS.  Because Airbus took too long to make the A380, those orders were canceled.  Because Airbus has not got any orders for the plane anymore, they decided to not make the freighter version for a while and focus on making the passenger version of the A380.

Incidents
The Airbus A380 had 1 incident, with no deaths.
 On 4 November 2010, Qantas Flight 32 was flying from Singapore Changi Airport when the number 2 engine failed, causing some damage to the plane, and forcing it to return to Singapore.  Nobody was injured, but debris from the airplane fell onto the island of Batam, in Indonesia.  Investigations found that the Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engine leaked oil, causing an explosion.  Other Trent 900 engines had similar problems and many engines had to be replaced and the FAA issued that all Airbus A380s currently in service are required to go under mandatory inspections before takeoff to prevent future engine problems.

References

Other websites 

Airbus A380 website 
Proper A380 website 

Airbus aircraft
Paris (Trojan prince)

Paris is a personality in Greek mythology. He is an important person in the Trojan War, and Homer's Iliad. Paris was the son of King Priam of Troy and his wife Hecuba. Because it was prophesied that he would bring the end and destruction of Troy, he was left to die in the wilderness, but was found by another man, who took him as a son and named him Paris.

Three goddesses, Hera, Aphrodite, and Athena, had a beauty contest. They all bribed Paris with different offers. Hera offered him power, Athena offered him wisdom, and Aphrodite promised him the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen.

The problem was that Helen was already married to Menelaus, the brother of Agamemnon. Paris took Helen home with him to Troy. This caused the Trojan War. 

During the war, Paris killed Achilles by shooting his heel with a poisoned arrow. 

Late in the war, Paris was killed by Philoctetes.

References 

Paris
Nereid

In Greek mythology, the Nereids ( Nereides) are sea nymphs, the fifty daughters of Nereus, the Old Man of the Sea, and the Okeanid Doris. 

Among them are:
Thetis - Wife of Peleus and mother of Achilles, she was often considered the leader of the Nereids. 
Amphitrite - Wife of Poseidon and queen of the sea. 
Galatea
Thoosa - mother of the Cyclops Polyphemus. 
Dione (mythology)

Nymphs
Romanticism

Romanticism (the Romantic era or Romantic period) is a movement, or style of art, literature and music in the late 18th and early 19th century in Europe. 

The movement said that feelings, imagination, nature, human life, freedom of expression, individualism and old folk traditions, such as legends and fairy tales, were important. It was a reaction to the aristocratic social and political ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution. 

It was also a reaction against turning nature into a mere science. 

The movement showed most strongly in arts like music, and literature. However, it also had an important influence on historiography, education, and natural history.

Examples

United Kingdom 
Romanticism in Britain was notable as the country was an early adopter of industrialization and science, and included such figures as:
 William Wordsworth
 Samuel Taylor Coleridge
 Lord Byron
 Shelley
 William Blake
 Robert Burns
 Walter Scott
J. M. W. Turner

Germany 
During the same period as Britain, there was a notable romantistic movement in Germany. Important motifs in German Romanticism are traveling, nature, and Germanic myths. Involved were such figures as:
Goethe as a younger man.
Hegel
Schiller
Beethoven
The Brothers Grimm

Related pages
 Romance (love)
 Romantic music

References

Other websites 
 The Romantic Poets
 Dictionary of the History of Ideas , Romanticism
 Romantic Circles Electronic editions, histories, and scholarly articles related to the Romantic era
 Dictionary of the History of Ideas , Romanticism in Political Thought
 Romanticism in the "History of Art"
Romanticism in the Art History Archive

Art movements
Cultural history
Literature
Philosophical movements and positions
Seveso disaster

The Seveso disaster was a chemical accident on 10 July 1976, at the small Italian town of Meda, 20 km from Milan in Lombardy. There was an leak at a chemical factory which released a lot of the toxic poison dioxin, TCDD, into the air. The cloud of poison gas covered an area 6 km long and 1 km wide. It was named after the municipality of Seveso.  It resulted in the highest known exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in residential populations  There were many studies and new regulations after the accident. The European Union directive covering the protection against such accidents is known as Seveso-II-directive today. 

The company where the accident happened was called Icmesa. It was owned by Givaudan, who is  owned by Roche. Icmesa produced Trichlorophenol, which is used to produce the disinfectant Hexachlorophene. The company was located in four communes; one of them Seveso. 

None of the 20,000 people who lived in Seveso died, but the poison killed 3,000 farm animals and pets. Another 70,000 animals had to be killed to stop the dioxin from getting into the food chain.

Long term problems
Thirty years after the accident, scientists reported that babies born in the area affected by the dioxin were six times more likely to have thyroid problems. The affected people, now in their forties, are being studied to see if it stopped them growing properly, or reduced intellectual development (IQ).

References

1976 in Europe
1970s crimes in Europe
1970s disasters in Europe
1970s in Italy

Disasters in Italy
July events
Lombardy
Junichiro Koizumi

Junichiro Koizumi is the former Prime Minister of Japan. He was born on January 8, 1942 in Japan. He stepped down in 2006.

Early life 
Born in Yokosuka, Kanagawa on 8 January, 1942, Koizumi was taught at Yokosuka High School and Keio University, where he studied economics. He went to University College London before returning to Japan in August 1969 when his father died.

Yasukuni Shrine and Junichiro 
While he was prime minister of Japan, he made China and South Korea very angry by continuing to visit the Yasukuni Shrine. He was succeeded by Shinzo Abe.

Prime Ministers of Japan
Alumni of University College London
1942 births
Living people
Politicians from Kanagawa Prefecture
Keio University alumni
Majulah Singapura

"Majulah Singapura" is the national anthem of Singapore. It was written and composed by Singaporean musician Zubir Said in 1958. Seven years later, the anthem was adopted. This song must be sung in Malay, although there are translations provided in the country's three other official languages—English, Mandarin Chinese, and Tamil.

Singaporeans are encouraged to sing the national anthem during times of national celebration or at important national events such as at the National Day Parade, at National Day observance ceremonies held by government departments and educational institutions such as schools and universities, and at sports events that Singapore teams take part in.

Lyrics

Official Malay

Mandarin Chinese translation

Tamil translation

English translation
Come, fellow Singaporeans
Let us progress towards happiness together
May our noble aspirations
bring Singapore success

Come, let us all unite
In a brand new spirit
Let our voices soar as one
Onward Singapore
Onward Singapore

Come, let us all unite
In a brand new spirit
Let our voices soar as one
Onward Singapore
Onward Singapore

References

Other websites
 Music score for Wind band (instrumental parts)

National anthems
Singaporean culture
Teramo

Teramo is an Italian city in Abruzzo. Teramo is the capital of the Province of Teramo. In 2020, Teramo had about 53,000 people.

Cities in Abruzzo
Capital cities in Italy
Aegean Sea

The Aegean Sea is part of the Mediterranean Sea. It is between Greece and Anatolia. It is connected (attached) in the north to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. The large islands of Rhodes and Crete mark the south end.

History 
In ancient times two groups of people lived near the sea  the Minoans of Crete, and the Myceneans of the Peloponnese. The city-states of Athens and Sparta came later and were part of Ancient Greece. Persians, Romans, the Byzantine Empire, the Venetians (people from Venice), the Seljuk Empire, and the Ottoman Empire later started around the Aegean Sea. The people near the Aegean were very advanced (powerful and clever) in Ancient history and they sailed across it to talk to each other.

There are seven groups of Aegean islands: the Thracian Sea group, the East Aegean group, the Northern Sporades, the Cyclades, the Saronic Islands (or Argo-Saronic Islands), the Dodecanese and Crete. The word archipelago used to mean these islands. Many of the Aegean islands, or chains of islands, are part of the mountain ranges on the mainland. One chain goes across the sea to Chios, another one goes across Euboea to Samos, and a third one goes across the Peloponnese and Crete to Rhodes. This one divides (splits, cuts) the Aegean from the Mediterranean. Many of the islands have safe harbours and bays, but sailing in the sea is difficult. Many of the islands are volcanos, and marble and iron are mined on other islands. The bigger islands have some green valleys and plains. Two big islands on the Aegean Sea are part of Turkey: Bozcaada () and Gökçeada ().

Notes 

Seas of the Atlantic Ocean
Colima, Colima

Colima is the capital city of the Mexican state Colima. About 240,000 people live in this town.

Capital cities in Mexico
Colima
Given name

A given name is a name given to a person at birth or baptism.  Given names are referred as first names.  It is different from a surname.  A surname is the last name or family name.

Example: A baby girl is born and someone decides to name her Hope.  Hope is her given name.  Someone can decide to give her a surname as it is commonly accepted for people to have a last name.  When she grows up, she can pick her own given name or surname if she does not like the one that was picked for her.  Family names are inherited and are not easily changed.  

In most Western countries the given name comes first (before the last name or family name).  However, in many Eastern countries such as Japan and China it comes after the last name or family name, and occasionally also in Europe, e.g. in Hungarian.

Christians often call their first name their "Christian name".

Related pages 
 Personal name
 Posthumous name
 Regnal name
 Indian Name
Family name

A 'family name' is a name shared by people in the same family.  Different cultures have different arrangements for a person's family name and given name.In English, the family name is always at the end, and it is called a 'last name' or 'surname'.Children usually have the same family name as their father.A married woman usually changes her family name to be the same as her husband.

For example, Mary Brown married John Smith and she changed her name to Mary Smith. They had two children, David Smith and Kate Smith. Smith is the family name shared by the parents Mary and John, and their children David and Kate. 

Some languages put the family name first. Some (for example Spanish)  give both parents' family names in the childrens' surnames. In Russian most surnames change depending on the gender of the person (example: ...ski or ...sky for a male, and ...skaya for a female). Some, such as Javanese, do not often give anyone a family name.Sometimes a name is passed to generations,some people may have the same name like Mary Ann or Jane so don't worry about you having the same name as other people  have.

References

Related pages 
 Personal name
 Posthumous name
 Regnal name
List of Scottish monarchs

This is a list of the Kings and Queens of Scotland. This list goes from 843 until when England and Scotland joined together in 1707.

House of Alpin

The House of Alpin traditionally ends in 1034, although this list continues to 1058.
 Kenneth I (c. 843–858) 
 Donald I (858–862)
 Constantine I (862–877)
 Aed (877–878)
 Eochaid (878–889) (disputed)
 Giric (878–889)
 Donald II (889–890)
 Constantine II (900–943)
 Malcolm I (943–954)
 Indulf (954–962)
 Dub (962–967)
 Culen (967–971)
 Amlaíb (971-977) (disputed)
 Kenneth II (971–995)
 Constantine III (995–997)
 Kenneth III (997–1005)
 Malcolm II (1005–1034)
 Duncan I (1034–1040)
 Macbeth (1040–1057)
 Lulach (1057–1058)

House of Dunkeld 

The House of Dunkeld may have begun in 1034.
 Malcolm III (1058–1093)
 Donald III (1093–1094)
 Duncan II (1094)
 Donald III (1094–1097)
 Edmund (1094–1097)
 Edgar (1097–1107)
 Alexander I (1107–1124)
 Saint David I (1124–1153)
 Malcolm IV (1153–1165)
 William I (1165–1214)
 Alexander II (1214–1249)
 Alexander III (1249–1286)
 Margaret (1286–1290)

First Interregnum 1290–1292 
Guardians of Scotland
 William Fraser, Bishop of St Andrews
 Duncan Macduff, 8th Earl of Fife
 Alexander Comyn, 2nd Earl of Buchan
 Robert Wishart, Bishop of Glasgow
 James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland
 John Comyn

House of Balliol 
 John (1292-1296)

Second Interregnum 1296–1306
Guardians of Scotland
 Andrew de Moray (1297)
 William Wallace (1297–1298)
 Robert the Bruce, Earl of Carrick (1298–1300)
 John Comyn (1298–1301)
 William Lamberton, Bishop of St Andrews (1299–1301)
 Sir Ingram de Umfraville (1300–1301)
 John de Soules (1301–1304)
 John Comyn (1302–1304)

House of Bruce
 Robert I the Bruce (1306–1329)
 David II (1329–1371)

House of Balliol
 Edward Balliol (1329 – 1363)

House of Stewart (Stuart)
 Robert II (1371–1390)
 Robert III (1390–1406)
 James I (1406–1437)
 James II (1437–1460)
 James III (1460–1488)
 James IV (1488–1513)
 James V (1513–1542)
 Mary I (1542–1567) (executed 1587)
 James VI (1567–1625), Union of the Crowns with Kingdom of England from (1603)
 Charles I (1625–1649)
 Charles II (1649–1685) (See also English Interregnum)
 James VII (1685–1689)
 Mary II (1689–1694), co-monarch
 William II (1689–1702), co-monarch until 1694
 Anne (1702–1714), though the Scottish throne was replaced with that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707

Disputed or unrecognized claims 
Note: there have been other claims to the Scottish throne besides these
 Margaret, the Maid of Norway was unrecognized by some Scots (ruled 1286-1290)
 Henry Lord Darnley proclaimed himself king in 1565 as Henry I of Scotland (ruled 1565-1567)
 Charles II claimed to rule even during Oliver & Richard Cromwell's reigns (ruled 1649-1685)
 James VII was recognized by France to rule after his deposal (ruled 1685-1702)

Related pages
In 1707, England and Scotland joined together. For Kings and Queens after 1707, see British monarchs. The same monarchs had ruled Scotland, England, and Ireland since James VI and the Union of the Crowns in 1603.

 
Lists of British monarchs
Dandelion

A dandelion is a flower. Its scientific name is Taraxacum, a large genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Taraxacum are native to Eurasia, and have been widely introduced to North and South America and other continents. They are an invasive species in some areas. Two species, T. officinale and T. erythrospermum, are found as weeds worldwide. All parts of both species are edible.

Their sharp leaves look a bit like lion's teeth. Its seeds are like little parachutes that fly away with the wind, spreading and growing more dandelions. They are used in China as medicine. Dandelion pollen can often make people have allergies.

Like other members of the Asteraceae family, they have small flowers collected together into a composite flower head. Each single flower in a head is called a floret. Many Taraxacum species produce seeds asexually by apomixis, where the seeds are produced without pollination. This results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent plant.

Al Razi around 900 (A.D.) wrote "the tarashaquq is like chicory". A Muslim scientist and philosopher Ibn Sīnā around 1000 (A.D.) wrote a book chapter on Taraxacum. Gerard of Cremona, in translating Arabic to Japanese around 1170, spelled it tarasacon.

References 

Flowers
Asteraceae
Herbs
Siren

This article is about mythological creatures. For the noise-making siren see siren (noisemaker)

A siren is a creature in Greek mythology. The sirens were living on an island surrounded by rocks. sirens also have a mermaid form where they still sing but they hit the boat to sink it that way and sirens have a human form  Sailors would try to go to them because of their singing, and their ships would get destroyed on the rocks, and they would drown.

Originally they looked like bird-women, but in modern time they are often shown to look like fish-women or mermaids. Many people said they were Naiads (spirits of the sea).

They also appear in Homer's Odyssey. There Odysseus and his ship have to pass the siren's island. Odysseus tells his men to put wax in their ears, so they will not hear the song of the sirens. He also tells his men to bind him to the ship's mast, so he cannot go to the sirens when he hears their song. When Odysseus and his men pass the Sirens, Odysseus wants to go towards them, but his men pull the rope tighter to hold him down. His men can then look at Odysseus and see when he cannot hear the sirens anymore, because he is calm again. Then they can take the wax out of their ears, and free Odysseus.

Greek legendary creatures

et:Sireenid
Lavender

This article is about the plant.  For the colour see Lavender (color).
Lavender is a type of plant found on almost all continents. It has a purplish colour.  It has a colour named after it, called lavender. Its Latin and scientific name is Lavandula.

Use in gardens 
Lavenders are very popular among gardeners. Sometimes their petals are dried and sealed in pouches for good scent, and sometimes put inside clothes to prevent moths, who can damage the clothes.

Use in food 
Lavenders are also used in cake decorating, because the flowers can become candied. Sometimes they are used in flavoring baked goods and chocolate desserts, and sometimes they use it to make a very delicious "lavender sugar". Lavender flowers are also used to make tea. The French make lavender syrup, which is used to make lavender scones and lavender marshmallows.

Medicine 
Lavender is sometimes put in medicine, and sometimes to prevent infection. Lavender oil was used in World War I to disinfect walls and floors of a hospital. As the folk wisdom says, lavender oil is also helpful to headaches when rubbed on your temple, and lavender tea helps you relax before bed time. Lavender is also helpful when applied to insect bites. There is a general lack of real knowledge about its effects.

Other uses 
Sometimes, dried petals of lavender are used to throw confetti at a wedding. It is also used for lavender theme wedding decoration where the flowers are put in the vases and kept on the venue table.

References 

Lamiaceae
Herbs
Hollyoaks

Hollyoaks is a British television teen soap opera. It was first broadcast on 23 October 1995, on Channel 4. There is a new episode every weekday. It is set in Chester and is mostly filmed in Liverpool on Abbey Road.

Since 1995, the cast has expanded from just seven major characters to approximately 50 cast members. It was originally devised by Phil Redmond, who has also devised shows including Brookside and Grange Hill. It is the only British soap that uses incidental music.

Hollyoaks was the first British television programme to tackle the issue of gay domestic violence. Its first character with gender identity disorder, a trans man called Jason Costello, was in the show August 2010 to December 2011. In 2014 Hollyoaks introduced a new transgender character called Blessing Chambers.

Other websites 

1995 establishments in the United Kingdom
1995 television series debuts
1990s British drama television series
1990s British television series debuts
1990s soap operas
1990s teen television series
2000s British drama television series
2000s soap operas
2000s teen television series
2010s British drama television series
2010s soap operas
2010s teen television series
British soap operas
British teen television series
Chester
British teen drama television series
English-language television programs
Astrology

Astrology is the belief the positions of the stars and movements of the planets of the Solar System, and also asteroids and other stars, but not as much, have an influence on the events, lives, and behavior of people.

An astrologer looks at the planets' positions and tries to understand a person's character or tries to predict the future. Modern astrologers see astrology as a symbolic language. It is also seen as an art, or a kind of divination.

Astrology and astronomy started out as the same thing, but today they are very different.

Newspapers and websites often print or post horoscopes. These horoscopes claim to predict a persons future based on their birth sign.

Astrological signs (in Western Astrology)
A person's astrological sign (usually referring to Sun sign) is based on their birthday. A list of astrological signs is below.

Arabian astrology

References

Other websites 

 Talk with astrologer: know Is astrology science or not?

 Astrology & Science: The Scientific Exploration of Astrology.
  – which also discusses ascension and declination errors in different systems of astrology
Half-life (element)

This article is about the property of radioactive elements. For the video game, see Half-Life (video game).

The half-life of a substance is the time it takes for half of the substance to decay. The word "half-life" was first used when talking about radioactive elements where the number of atoms get smaller over time by changing into different atoms. It is now used in many other situations where something declines exponentially, like the time it takes for a drug in the body to be half gone. A Geiger-Muller detector can be used to measure the radioactive half-life; it is the time when the activity is half of the original.

Half-life depends on probability because the atoms decay at a random time. Half-life is the expected time when half the number of atoms have decayed, on average. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 years. Taking one atom of carbon-14, this will either have decayed after 5,730 years, or it will not. But if this experiment is repeated again and again, it will be seen that the atom decays within the half life 50% of the time.

Radioactive isotopes are atoms that have unstable nuclei, meaning that the nucleus of each atom will decay after enough time has passed. Their nuclei are unstable because the arrangement of protons and neutrons in them are unsteady. This decay, which means they change into completely different types of atoms. This is known as radioactive decay. When they decay, they release particles such as alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays. Sometimes they decay by fission, which means to break into pieces, to make smaller nuclei. For example, a radioactive carbon-14 atom releases a beta particle to become nitrogen-14. As an example of fission decay, a fermium-256 atom can split into xenon-140 and palladium-112 atoms, releasing four neutrons in the process.

For example, uranium-232 has a half-life of about 69 years. Plutonium-238 has a half-life of 88 years. Carbon-14, which is used to find the age of fossils, has a half-life of 5,730 years.

After ten half-lives, about 99.9% of the atoms have decayed into different atoms, so only 0.1% of the original atoms are left, and 99.9% of the radioactivity from the original kind of atom is gone. Some atoms decay into other atoms that are also radioactive, so the remaining radioactivity depends on the type of atom.

Related pages 
Biological half-life

Nuclear physics
James Prescott Joule

James Prescott Joule (24 December 1818 – 11 October 1889) was an English physicist, born in Salford, near Manchester. In his time he had great contribution to the world of electricity and thermodynamics. He was best known for discovering Joule's law, which described electric heating by saying the amount of heat produced each second in a conductor by a current of Electricity is proportional to the resistance of a conductor and to the square of the current. The unit for this is joule, equal to one watt-second. Later Joule worked with William Thomson to find out that the temperature of gas falls as gas expands. This principle was then known as the Joule-Thomson effect.

Early life 

The son of Benjamin Joule (1784–1858), a wealthy brewer, James Prescott Joule was born in the house next to the Joule Brewery in New Bailey Street, Salford on 24 December 1818. James was tutored at the family home  'Broomhill', Pendlebury, near Salford, until 1834 when he was sent, with his elder brother Benjamin, to study with John Dalton at the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. They only received two years of education in arithmetic and geometry before Dalton was forced to retire because of a stroke.

Kinetic theory 

Kinetics is the science of motion. Joule was a pupil of Dalton and it is no surprise that he had learned a firm belief in the atomic theory, even though there were many scientists of his time who were still skeptical. He had also been one of the few people receptive to the work of John Herapath on the kinetic theory of gases. He was further greatly influenced by Peter Ewart's 1813 paper On the measure of moving force.

References 

1889 births
1818 deaths
English physicists
People from Salford, Greater Manchester
Earth's orbit

All planets in our solar system follow an elliptical path. This path is known as an orbit. Earth's orbit is not a perfect circle. If we were to draw the Earth's orbit on a sheet of paper as a perfect circle, the width of the line would be larger than the elliptical path of the Earth.

The Earth's orbit takes about 365 days, this is also called a year. This means that in 365 days (a year) the Earth has gone around the Sun. From this we can find that the orbital speed of the Earth is about  through space.

The closest distance Earth is to the Sun, or perihelion, is  and the farthest or aphelion is . It takes light (or any other electromagnetic radiation) just over eight minutes to travel from Sun to Earth.

The seasonal changes on Earth are because of the 23.44° axial tilt of its rotation and slightly elliptical path around the Sun.

The orbit varies over long periods of time according to the Milankovitch cycles. These cycles are one of the main causes of climate change.

Related links 
 Earth phase
 Spaceship Earth

Notes

Other websites 
 Earth – Speed through space – about 1 million miles an hour – NASA & (WP discussion)

Orbits
Earth
Penelope

Penelope is a person in Greek mythology. She is the wife of Odysseus of Ithaca and mother of Telemachus. She became a symbol for the faithful wife.

When her husband Odysseus was on his long journey home, many people thought he was dead. Because of this, many suitors came who wanted to marry Penelope, because then they would own her land and wealth, and become king of Ithaca.
Penelope thinks of several tricks so that she does not have to marry one of the suitors. One trick is that she tells the suitors that she will first weave a cloth for the funeral of Odysseus' father, and when she was finished she would marry one of the suitors. But every night she undoes her weaving again, so that she never finishes it.

When Odysseus finally comes back after twenty years, he and his son Telemachos kill the suitors.

Sources
Richard Heitman 2005. Taking her seriously: Penelope and the plot of Homer's Odyssey. Michigan University Press, Ann Arbor. .

People in Greek mythology
Anemia

Anemia (U.S. spelling) or anaemia is not having enough red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood.

Types or causes of anemia

Microcytic anemia 
 Iron deficiency anemia is the most common type of anemia overall
 Hemoglobinopathies—much rarer
 Sickle-cell disease (once called sickle-cell anemia)
 Thalassemia

Normocytic anemia 
 Acute blood loss
 Anemia of chronic disease 
 Aplastic anemia (bone marrow failure)

Macrocytic anemia 
 Megaloblastic anemia due to not having enough of either vitamin B12 or folic acid (or both)
 Pernicious anemia is an autoimmune problem with the parietal cells of the stomach
 Alcoholism
 Methotrexate, zidovudine, and other drugs that stop DNA replication. This is the most common cause in nonalcoholic patients.

Dimorphic anemia 
Dimorphic anemia means two types of anemia at the same time. For example, macrocytic hypochromic, due to hookworm infestation leading to not enough of both iron and vitamin B12 or folic acid or following a blood transfusion.

Disorders
Memphis, Tennessee

Memphis is the second-largest city in the state of Tennessee. The city has a large port on the Mississippi River. It is also well known for blues music and barbecue. The city is also home to FedEx, a leading company that ships packages around the world. Memphis is also known for being the home of rock and roll legend Elvis Presley. 

Memphis is named for Memphis, Egypt, an ancient capital city of Egypt.

History
The future area of Memphis was first settled by the Mississippian Culture before it was discovered by French and Spanish explorers. 

The United States took the land from Spain in 1797, and Andrew Jackson  implemented the Indian Removal Act that facilitated the expulsion of the Cherokee from the area, making it available to white settlers. The city was established in 1819. Until the American Civil War, Memphis was a hub of cotton and slave trade. Brutal riots of angry whites against black people took place in 1866, in which 46 African Americans were killed. Yellow fever struck the city in the 1870s, killing a lot of people. The city recovered, and its population more than doubled. 

The Memphis sanitation strikes was one of the key movements in the Civil Rights Movement. Musicians such as Elvis Presley, Johnny Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis and B.B. King influenced the city's identity as the birthplace of rock and roll.

Geography 
Memphis is located east of the Mississippi River. The Wolf River, a tributary of the Mississippi River, crosses the city.

Its metropolitan area extends into Arkansas and Mississippi.

Government 
Jim Strickland is the Mayor of Memphis.

References 

 
County seats in Tennessee
Dari (Eastern Persian)

Dari (Fārsī-ye Darī) is a dialect of the Persian language. It is the Persian language as spoken in Afghanistan. It is the second official language of Afghanistan, and is widely used by the government and most media agencies. It is mainly spoken by the Tajiks and other minority groups. A small minority also exists in parts of Pakistan closest to these named regions. It is sometimes called Farsi. People in Afghanistan and Iran who speak Persian can understand each other. The name Dari was given to the Persian language at a very early date.

Historically, Dari was the court language of the Sassanids.

Related pages
 Pashto language
 Languages of Afghanistan

References 

Persian language
Languages of Afghanistan
Languages of Iran
Languages of Pakistan
Counterpoint

Counterpoint is the art of composing music by combining different parts (voices) in a way that sounds nice.  Music composed like this is called contrapuntal.

If the tune of Twinkle, twinkle little star is played on the piano and then some chords are added, this is harmony, not counterpoint. Instead, if the tune of Twinkle, twinkle little star was played while another melody was played, this would be considered counterpoint.

A different way of playing it would be to start the tune with the right hand.  Then, in the second bar (measure), as the fifth note is played, the left hand starts to play the tune an octave lower.  This works well for a time, but in the fifth bar (on the word “Up” in the right hand part) it starts to get dissonant (sounding unpleasant), so changes need to made to the left hand to make it sound nicer.  This way of writing with a particular number of parts (in this case: two) is called "contrapuntal music".

In that example the left hand imitated the right hand at first.  This is called imitation.

If the second part had continued to imitate all the way through the piece it would have been a canon.  But “Twinkle, twinkle” does not work well as a canon.  One famous canon is by Thomas Tallis.  A canon that can be repeated is called a  round.  This is all contrapuntal music.

Counterpoint does not have to have imitation, although it often does.  The important thing is that each part (i.e. each voice) is equally important.  It is not one part singing the tune and the rest just accompanying.

Counterpoint does not have to be one note against one note.  There can be two or more notes in one part against one in the other e.g. crotchets (quarter notes) in one part and quavers (eighth notes) in another.  There is a whole system for this called “species”.

Counterpoint can be varied by inverting it, i.e. putting the top part at the bottom.  When music is written so that the parts can be swapped round it is called "invertible counterpoint".

The word “counterpoint” comes from the Latin “punctus contra punctum” meaning “point against point”.  The word “point” meant “note”.  Several hundred years ago composers found how to write contrapuntal music.  They often took a main tune (called a “Cantus Firmus”) and then added one or two or more parts to it.  The more parts there were the harder it was to compose because it all had to fit so that it sounded good.  Music for several voices written in this way is called polyphonic music.  Polyphony was used in all church music in the Renaissance.  The greatest composer of polyphony was Giovanni da Palestrina (1525-1594).  Students learning the art of composition today still learn counterpoint by taking Palestrina’s music as their model.

References

Related pages 
Fugue
canon (music)

Music
Music theory
Cerberus

In Greek mythology, Cerberus (Greek: Κέρβερος, Kérberos; Latin: Cerberus) is the monstrous, multi-headed dog that guards the entrance to the Underworld, preventing the souls of the dead from leaving. 

Often called the "hound of Hades", Cerberus was one of the numerous offspring of the monsters Typhon and Echidna; he is usually depicted as having three heads, along with a serpent for a tail. Cerberus is primarily known for being captured by Herakles, as the last of the hero's Twelve Labors. 

Greek legendary creatures
Afterlife
Smallpox

Smallpox was a dangerous disease with a high mortality rate. It no longer exists as an epidemic disease. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977. The World Health Organization (WHO) certified the global eradication of the disease in 1980 (said there was no more).

It was caused by a virus. There are two different species of viruses that can cause the disease. They are Variola major and Variola minor. Some people also call smallpox Variola, from the Latin work for "spotted" which is also the viruses' scientific name.

Only humans can get this disease, but it probably came from a virus which infected animals. Variola major killed between 20% and 40% of those who got it. Variola minor killed only about 1%. Many people who survived become blind because of the damage the virus did to the eyes.

During the first half of the 20th century, between 300 million and 500 million people died of this disease. Even in 1967, about 15 million people caught the disease, and about two million people died of it, according to the World Health Organization (WHO).

The first vaccine for smallpox used the results of cowpox infections. It was invented by Edward Jenner. It was used to stop people from getting smallpox.  The word "vaccine" came from "vaccina", the Latin word for cow, because cowpox was used. The WHO (World Health Organisation) vaccinated people all over the world. In 1980, the WHO said the disease no longer existed, and no one would ever get sick from it again. Live copies of smallpox are kept in maximum-security laboratories around the world.

Some people believe that smallpox could be used as an agent for purposely infecting enemies in a war. Today, most people no longer receive a smallpox shot.

Related pages 
 Cowpox
 Poxviridae
 List of diseases

References
Halo

A halo is a ring of light that surrounds an object. Also, in much religious art, it may be seen surrounding the heads of saintly people such as Jesus.

It is believed by some Hindus that the halo shown around the heads of holy people is a depiction of their  "activated" crown chakra.

Halos are visual phenomena that appear near or around the Sun or Moon, and sometimes near other strong light sources such as street lights. There are many types of optical halos, but they are mostly caused by ice crystals in certain types of clouds. The shape of the crystals changes the type of halo seen. Light is reflected by the ice and may split into colors, similar to the rainbow.

Other websites 

 Halo explanations and image galleries at Atmospheric Optics

Optics
Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire, (, ) was an Sunni Islam empire in Asia that existed from 1526 to 1858. The Mughal rule over India was an empire because it stretched over a large area. It once ruled most of the Indian subcontinent, then known as Hindustan,, and parts of what is now India, Afghanistan and modern Pakistan and Bangladesh between 1526 and 1707. It was the world's largest economy, at 25% of the world's GDP. It famously signalled the proto-industrialization and had a lavish architecture.

The Mughal emperors were originally Turk-Mongols. Babur of the Timurid dynasty founded the Mughal Empire and the Mughal dynasty in 1526 and ruled until 1530. He was followed by Humayun (1530-1540) and (1555-1556), Akbar (1556-1605), Jahangir (1605-1627), Shah Jahan (1628-1658), and the Islamic Aurangzeb (1658-1707) and several other minor rulers until Bahadur Shah Zafar II(1837-1857). After the death of Aurangzeb, the rule through sharia ended and the Mughal Empire became weak. It continued until 1857-1858. By then, India came under the British Raj.

The Mughal Empire was established by able Muslim rulers who came from what is now Uzbekistan. The Mughal rule in India saw the country being united as one single unit and being administered under a single powerful ruler. During the Mughal period, art and architecture flourished and many beautiful monuments were constructed. The rulers were skillful warriors and also admirers of art.

The Mughals left a permanent mark on Indian society, culture, art and architecture. Their monuments, artifacts and literature show a period of great wealth and culture. Paintings in miniature style teach us about the clothing and lifestyle of the Mughal people.

The Mughal people is an ethnic group living in the Indian subcontinent that is a descendant of the Mongol and Turkic conquerors who came to North India from the 14th century. Mongol, Turkic, and local Indo-Iranian peoples took part in the formation of the Mughal people.

After 1858, when the Mughal Empire was taken over by the British Empire, some of the upper-class Indian Muslims went to exile to the Ottoman Empire. Their descendants today are named Muğallar (Mughals) in Turkish. They have become part of Turkish society and speak Turkish as their mother tongue.

References

 
History of Pakistan
History of India
History of Afghanistan
History of Bangladesh
1526 establishments
1858 disestablishments
1520s establishments in Asia
19th-century disestablishments in Asia
Mustafa Ali Turi
The Mughal emperor were Turk Mughal
British Raj

The British Raj was the rule until 1947 by the British Empire in Southeast India. "Raj" is a word in Hindi that means "rule". so "British Raj" means rule by the British Empire in Southern Asia. The area is now in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and [[Myanmar. The British Raj is also called the British Indian Empire or the Indian Empire.

The term "British Raj" is used for the direct British rule over areas which had been conquered by the British, known as British India. That included the British influence over many independent princely states. Those areas were governed by their own traditional rulers under the overall authority of the British crown.

Undivided India is another term to mean the whole area of British rule, but it does not take in Burma, which became in 1937 its own British colony. The colony of Aden came under the same government in India from 1858 to 1937, and the same was true for British Somaliland (now part of Somalia) from 1884 to 1898 and Singapore from 1858 to 1867.

British rule ended on 15 August 1947. The borders between India and Pakistan came into effect on the 18 August. Many people died during the partition of India.

Jammu and Kashmir, like the other princely states, had not been under direct British rule. India and Pakistan went to war over this area, which is now divided between them.

The 1861 census showed that the British population in the subcontinent was 125,945. Only 41,862 of them were civilians as compared with 84,083 European officers and men of the Army. In 1880, the standing Indian Army consisted of 66,000 British soldiers, 130,000 natives, and 350,000 soldiers in the princely armies.

References

 
History of Pakistan
Myanmar
Viceroys
1858 establishments
1850s establishments in the United Kingdom
19th-century establishments in India
19th-century establishments in Pakistan
Establishments in Bangladesh
1947 disestablishments in India
1947 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1850s establishments in Asia
Lever

A lever is a simple machine. It is something that can be used in a lot of ways. One way is by measuring things, or by seeing which weighs more. A lever is supported by a fulcrum which it uses to lifts weights. It is one of six simple machines. There are three types of levers: first-class, second-class and third-class.

Early
The earliest remaining writings about levers are from the 3rd century BC. They were written by Archimedes. "Give me a place to stand, and I shall move the earth." is a famous quote from Archimedes who stated the correct mathematical principle of levers (quoted by Pappus of Alexandria).

Types of levers
There are three kinds of levers. The difference between them is where the fulcrum is and where the forces are.

First class

A first-class lever is a lever where the fulcrum is in between the effort and resistance (the load). Seesaws and crowbars are examples of first class levers.

Second class
A second-class lever is where the resistance is between the effort and the fulcrum. Wheel barrows and wrenches are examples of second class levers.

Third class
A third class lever is where the effort is between the resistance and the fulcrum. Staplers and your forearm are examples of third class levers.

References 

Engineering
Tools
Pulley

A pulley is a simple machine that is used to lift heavy objects. Block and tackle system is a modified form of a pulley. Pulleys are usually used in sets designed to make the amount of force needed to lift something smaller.

Types of pulleys
 Static A static or class 1 pulley has an axle that is "staticed" or is stationary, meaning that it cannot be moved.  A fixed pulley is used to redirect the force in a rope (called a belt when it goes in a full circle).  A fixed pulley has a mechanical advantage of 1. The static pulley has a wheel and an axle.
 Movable A movable or class 2 pulley has an axle that is "free" to move in space.  A movable pulley is used to transform forces.  A movable pulley has a mechanical advantage of 2.  That is, if one end of the rope is anchored, pulling on the other end of the rope will apply a doubled force to the objecT attached to the pulley.
 Compound A compound pulley is a combination fixed and movable pulley system.
 Block and tackle - A block and tackle is a compound pulley where several pulleys are mounted on each axle, further increasing the mechanical advantage.  Plutarch reported that Archimedes moved an entire warship, laden with men, using compound pulleys and his own strength.
Pulleys are useful in construction sites.

Mechanics
Tools
Guru Granth Sahib

The Guru Granth Sahib , also called Adi Granth, is the holy book of the religion Sikhism. It contains prayers, and hymns of Sikh religion. Sikhs believe the Guru Granth Sahib to be a living Guru, hence the Guru Granth Sahib has its own place also commonly known as 'Sach Khand' (the Heaven).

The name of the book is made up of three words. The first word is Guru, and a Guru in Sanskrit language means a teacher. Granth is a word of Hindi, and this means a book. The third word Sahib is a word of Urdu language and it means master. Thus, the Guru Granth Sahib means a Master Book by the Teacher. The Guru Granth Sahib, is a collection of hymns of the first five "Sikh Gurus", the "Ninth Guru", and various saints, or bhagats Sikhs and others such as Baba Farid.

But what makes it so significant is that it has the solution to every problem in the World. The Granth teaches us how we should live, and promotes a modern ideology. This is why it makes it so important to Sikhs.

The book is usually placed in the centre of the temple, high up under a roof.

It is written in the language called Gurmukhi. The first composition in the Guru Granth Sahib is Mool mantar by Guru Nanak Dev Ji. 

Sikhism
Religious texts

               E
Zeno of Elea

Zeno of Elea was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher of southern Italy. He was born about 490 BC and died about 430 BC: the exact dates are not known.

Zeno a member of the Eleatic School founded by Parmenides. Aristotle called him the inventor of dialectic. He is best known for his paradoxes, which Bertrand Russell has described as "immeasurably subtle and profound".

Works 
Although many ancient writers refer to the writings of Zeno, none of his writings survive intact.

Plato says that Zeno's writings were "brought to Athens for the first time on the occasion of" the visit of Zeno and Parmenides

According to Proclus in his Commentary on Plato's Parmenides, Zeno produced "not less than forty arguments revealing contradictions", but only nine are now known.

Zeno's arguments are perhaps the first examples of a method of proof called reductio ad absurdum, literally meaning to reduce to the absurd. This destructive method of argument was used by him to such an extent that he became famous for it.

Related pages 
Zeno's paradoxes

References 

490s BC births
5th-century BC deaths
Presocratic philosophers