cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Photorespiration

Photorespiration, or "'photo-respiration'", is a process in plant metabolism. A sugar has oxygen added to it by the enzyme (RuBisCO), instead of carbon dioxide during normal photosynthesis. This process reduces efficiency of photosynthesis.

Photorespiration can occur when carbon dioxide levels are low, for example, when the stomata are closed to prevent water loss during drought. In most plants, photorespiration increases as temperature increases. Photorespiration produces no ATP and leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen (as ammonia), slowing plant growth.

Plant physiology
Theodor Boveri

Theodor Heinrich Boveri (12 October 1862 – 15 October 1915) was a German biologist who made discoveries in cytology, embryology and genetics. His career was devoted to the processes whereby a new individual arises from parental reproductive materials.

His work with sea urchins showed that it was necessary to have all chromosomes present in order for proper development of the embryo to take place. This discovery was an important part of the Boveri-Sutton chromosome theory. His other significant discovery was the centrosome (1888), which he described as the especial organ of cell division. Boveri also discovered the phenomenon of chromatin diminution during embryonic development of the nematode Parascaris.

Boveri–Sutton hypothesis 
1902–1904: Boveri, in a series of papers, drew attention to the correspondence between the behaviour of chromosomes and the results obtained by Mendel. He said that chromosomes were "independent entities which retain their independence even in the resting nucleus... What comes out of the nucleus is what goes into it".

In 1903 Walter Sutton suggested that chromosomes, which segregate in a Mendelian fashion, are hereditary units. E.B. Wilson, who was Sutton's teacher, called this the Sutton–Boveri hypothesis.

Cancer 
Boveri reasoned that a cancerous tumor begins with a single cell in which the make up of its chromosomes becomes scrambled, causing the cells to divide uncontrollably.

It was only later that researchers such as Thomas Hunt Morgan showed that Boveri was correct.

Other websites

 Fritz Baltzer. (1967). excerpt from Theodor Boveri: The life of a great biologist, 1862-1915 . University of California Press, Berkeley; pp. 85–97.

References 

1862 births
1915 deaths
German geneticists
Cell biology
Fred Hoyle

Sir Fred Hoyle  (24 June 1915 – 20 August 2001) was an English astronomer. He is noted mainly for being the first man to think of the idea that nuclear fusion might happen in stars, like our Sun. In addition to his work as an astronomer, Hoyle was a writer of science fiction, including a number of books co-written with his son Geoffrey Hoyle. Fred Hoyle gave the Big Bang theory its name in a radio broadcast.

Awards
 Fellow of the Royal Society (March, 1957) [27]
 Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1968)
 Bakerian Lecture (1968)
 Bruce Medal (1970)
 Henry Norris Russell Lectureship (1971)
 Jansky Lectureship before the National Radio Astronomy Observatory
 Knighthood (1972)
 President of the Royal Astronomical Society (1971–1973)
 Royal Medal (1974)
 Klumpke-Roberts Award of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1977)
 Balzan Prize for Astrophysics: evolution of stars (1994, with Martin Schwarzschild)
 Crafoord Prize from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, with Edwin Salpeter (1997)

Related pages
Geoffrey Burbidge

1915 births
2001 deaths
English astronomers
English science writers
English science fiction writers
Edmund Beecher Wilson

Edmund Beecher Wilson (Geneva, Illinois, 19 October 1856 – 3 March 1939) was a pioneering American zoologist and cell biologist. He wrote one of the most famous textbooks in the history of modern biology, The Cell.

Career 
Wilson graduated from Yale in 1878. He earned his doctorate at Johns Hopkins in 1881. He was a lecturer at Williams College in 1883–84 and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1884–85. He served as professor of biology at Bryn Mawr College from 1885 to 1891. 

He spent the balance of his career at Columbia University where he was successively adjunct professor of biology (1891–94), professor of invertebrate zoology (1894–1897), and professor of zoology (from 1897). 

Wilson is credited as America's first cell biologist. In 1898 he used the similarity in embryos to describe evolutionary relationships. By observing spiral cleavage in molluscs, flatworms and annelids he concluded that the same organs came from the same group of cells and concluded that all these organisms must have a common ancestor. 

He also discovered the chromosomal XY sex-determination system in 1905—that males have XY and females XX sex chromosomes. Nettie Stevens independently made the same discovery the same year.

In 1907, he described, for the first time, the additional or supernumerary chromosomes, now called B-chromosomes.

Professor Wilson published many papers on embryology, and served as President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1913. 

The American Society for Cell Biology annually awards the E.B. Wilson Medal in his honour.

Sutton and Boveri 
1902–1904: Theodor Boveri (1862–1915), a German biologist, in a series of papers, drew attention to the correspondence between the behaviour of chromosomes and the results obtained by Mendel. He said that chromosomes were "independent entities which retain their independence even in the resting nucleus... What comes out of the nucleus is what goes into it".

In 1903 Walter Sutton suggested that chromosomes, which segregate in a Mendelian fashion, are hereditary units. Wilson, who was Sutton's teacher, called this the Sutton–Boveri hypothesis.

References 

1856 births
1939 deaths
American academics
American geneticists
American zoologists
Cell biology
Scientists from Illinois
Yale University alumni
Educators from Illinois
Canons of Dort

The Canons of Dort, also called the Canons of Dordrecht (full name: The Decision of the Synod of Dort on the Five Main Points of Doctrine in Dispute in the Netherlands) is the ruling of the National Synod (or meeting) that took place in the Dutch city of Dordrecht from 1618-1619. Dordrecht is often called Dort in English.

Today, the Canons of Dort are part of the Three Forms of Unity, which is one of the confession standards of many of the Reformed churches around the world. The Reformed churches continued use of the Canons as a standard keeps the Reformed churches from being in full harmony with the followers of Jacob Arminius, the Remonstrants and the Dutch Reformed Churches, who disagree with the Canons.

The Canons are not supposed to be an absolute explanation of the Reformed doctrine, but only explain the five points of doctrine that were being argued over. These Canons introduced the Five Points of Calvinism.

Books on the Canons 

But for the Grace of God by Cornelis P. Venema
The Golden Chain of Salvation by John Bouwers
Unspeakable Comfort by Peter Feenstra
The Voice of our Fathers by Homer Hoeksema
The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination by Lorraine Boettner
The Synod of Dordt by Thomas Scott
The Canons of Dordt by Henry Peterson
The Five Points of Calvinism by David Steele and Curtis Thomas
The Works of John Owen, Vol. 10
''TULIP by William Jay Hornbeck II

Other websites 
English Translation of the Canons of Dort
Spanish Translation of the Canons of Dort
http://www.crcna.org/pages/dort_canons_main.cfm 
Canons of Dort 
Audio Recording of the Canons of Dort (mp3)

1619
Calvinism
Christian texts
Dordrecht
History of the Netherlands
Protestantism in the Netherlands
Protestant theology
Three Forms of Unity

The Three Forms of Unity is the name that is given to the Belgic Confession, the Canons of Dort, and the Heidelberg Catechism. These three works are about the doctrinal concerns of Continental Calvinism. They are considered official statements of Church doctrine by many of the Reformed churches.

History 
From 1618 to 1619, the Dutch government, acting for the Dutch Reformed Church, called a series of meetings that would come to be called the Synod of Dort. Members from the Netherlands and twenty-seven members from eight other countries met at this Synod to discuss and come to an agreement on their views. This agreement is known as the "Canons of Dort."

This meeting then added the Canons of Dort to two other documents, the Belgic Confession and the Heidelberg Catechism. Those were both commonly used by the Dutch Church at this time. 

The reasons that they chose to do this were:
 to put in writing their understanding of the biblical teachings on the Trinity, the incarnation of Jesus, predestination, justification, and the Church,
 to let members get together in unity around shared beliefs that are important to the faith,
 to decide on certain ideas that are not essential (such as politics, education, etc.) in the hopes of stopping the churches from splitting over things that are more minor.

The different forms each serve different things:
the Heidelberg Catechism is written in a question-and-answer format so that it can easily explain different teachings in the Bible to children and those who are new to Christianity;
the Belgic Confession of Faith talks about different teachings in the Bible;
the Canons of Dort are a series of very technical responses to very specific arguments raised about God by the Dutch Remonstrants.

References

Other websites 
 Text and description of the Three Forms from Philip Schaff's book Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library:
Belgic Confession (in the original French with a translation into English)
Heidelberg Catechism (in the original German with a translation into English)
Canons of Dort (in the original Latin with a translation into English)
 Audio Recordings of the Three Forms of Unity in MP3 form

Calvinism
Christian texts
Protestant theology
Total depravity

Total depravity (also called total inability or total corruption) is a theological teaching that comes from Augustine's teachings on original sin. It is the teaching that, since the Fall of Man, every person who has been born into the world is a slave of sin and, without the irresistible grace of God, it is not possible for man to choose to follow God or accept salvation as He freely offers it.

Total depravity is taught by many Protestant confessions of faith, including Lutheranism, and Methodism, Arminianism, and Calvinism.

References 

Christian theology
Dordrecht Confession of Faith

The Dordrecht Confession of Faith is a statement of faith that was created by Dutch Mennonite leaders at a meeting (also known as a Synod) in Dordrecht, Netherlands, on April 21, 1632. It has 18 articles of faith that talk about the importance of salvation through Jesus Christ, baptism, nonviolence, feet washing, and not taking oaths.
 
It was a very important part of the Radical Reformation and is still a very important document to many Anabaptist groups today, such as the Amish. In 1725, Jacob Gottshalk with sixteen other ministers from Pennsylvania and together they created the Dutch Mennonite Dordrecht Confession of Faith.

References 
 Dyck, Cornelius J. (1993), Mennonite History 3rd Ed., Herald Press

Other websites 
Mennolink article on confessions of faith
Dordrecht Confession of Faith translation and context in Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online

1632
Anabaptism
Christian creeds
Dordrecht
History of the Netherlands
Protestantism in the Netherlands
Protestant theology
1630s in Europe
Arthur Antunes Coimbra Junior

Arthur Antunes Coimbra Junior (born 15 October 1977) is a former Brazilian football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|2003||Sagan Tosu||J. League 2||2||0
2||0
2||0
|}

1977 births
Living people
Brazilian footballers
Martin Müller

Martin Müller (born 6 November 1970) is a former Czech football player.

Club career statistics 

|-
|1993/94||rowspan="3"|Union Cheb||rowspan="3"|Gambrinus liga||1||0
|-
|1994/95||16||0
|-
|1995/96||28||2
|-
|1996/97||rowspan="4"|Petra Drnovice||rowspan="4"|Gambrinus liga||24||0
|-
|1997/98||24||1
|-
|1998/99||28||0
|-
|1999/00||18||1
|-
|2000/01||Drnovice||Gambrinus liga||12||0
|-
|2000/01||rowspan="4"|Slavia Prague||rowspan="4"|Gambrinus liga||14||0
|-
|2001/02||19||1
|-
|2002/03||24||0
|-
|2003/04||24||1
|-
|2004/05||Chmel Blšany||Gambrinus liga||23||1

|-
|2005||Vissel Kobe||J. League 1||12||0

|-
|2005/06||Chmel Blšany||Gambrinus liga||13||0
268||7
12||0
280||7
|}

1970 births
Living people
Czech footballers
Pavel Horváth

Pavel Horváth (born 22 April 1975) is a Czech football player. He has played for Czech Republic national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1993/94||Sparta Prague||Gambrinus liga||1||0
|-
|1993/94||Sklobižu Jablonec||2. Liga||4||0
|-
|1994/95||rowspan="3"|Jablonec||rowspan="3"|Gambrinus liga||26||5
|-
|1995/96||20||3
|-
|1996/97||1||0
|-
|1996/97||rowspan="4"|Slavia Prague||rowspan="4"|Gambrinus liga||25||5
|-
|1997/98||25||5
|-
|1998/99||29||7
|-
|1999/00||26||10

|-
|2000/01||rowspan="2"|Sporting Portugal||rowspan="2"|Portuguese Liga||17||1
|-
|2001/02||3||0

|-
|2001/02||Galatasaray||Süper Lig||3||0

|-
|2001/02||rowspan="3"|Teplice||rowspan="3"|Gambrinus liga||13||1
|-
|2002/03||25||2
|-
|2003/04||22||3

|-
|2004||rowspan="3"|Vissel Kobe||rowspan="2"|J. League 1||14||6
|-
|2005||24||3
|-
|2006||J. League 2||22||3

|-
|2006/07||rowspan="2"|Sparta Prague||rowspan="2"|Gambrinus liga||20||2
|-
|2007/08||24||4
|-
|2008/09||rowspan="2"|Viktoria Plzeň||rowspan="2"|Gambrinus liga||27||8
|-
|2009/10||||
278||55
20||1
3||0
60||12
361||68
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1999||6||0
|-
|2000||8||0
|-
|2001||2||0
|-
|2002||3||0
|-
!Total||19||0
|}

References

1975 births
Living people
Czech footballers
Bernard Genghini

Bernard Genghini (born 18 January 1958) is a former French football player. He has played for France national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1976/77||rowspan="6"|Sochaux-Montbéliard||rowspan="6"|Division 1||3||0
|-
|1977/78||35||8
|-
|1978/79||32||11
|-
|1979/80||38||15
|-
|1980/81||36||13
|-
|1981/82||37||13
|-
|1982/83||Saint-Étienne||Division 1||36||8
|-
|1983/84||rowspan="3"|Monaco||rowspan="3"|Division 1||38||18
|-
|1984/85||34||15
|-
|1985/86||34||13

|-
|1986/87||Servette||Nationalliga A||||

|-
|1986/87||rowspan="2"|Olympique Marseille||rowspan="2"|Division 1||8||2
|-
|1987/88||28||1
|-
|1988/89||Girondins Bordeaux||Division 1||4||1
363||118
||
363||118
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1980||1||0
|-
|1981||4||1
|-
|1982||10||3
|-
|1983||4||0
|-
|1984||6||1
|-
|1985||0||0
|-
|1986||2||1
|-
!Total||27||6
|}

References

1958 births
Living people
French footballers
French football managers
Jun Yanagisawa

Jun Yanagisawa (born 27 June 1987) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Sagan Tosu.

Club career statistics

|-
|2005||rowspan="5"|Kashiwa Reysol||J. League 1||1||0||1||0||0||0||2||0
|-
|2006||J. League 2||1||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||2||0
|-
|2007||rowspan="3"|J. League 1||0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|2008||0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|2009||1||0||0||0||0||0||1||0
|-
|2010||Sagan Tosu||J. League 2||||||||||||||||
3||0||2||0||0||0||5||0
3||0||2||0||0||0||5||0
|}

References

1987 births
Living people
Footballers from Ibaraki Prefecture
Anders Svensson

Anders Svensson (born 17 July 1976) is a Swedish football player. He plays for Elfsborg and Sweden national team.

Club career statistics 

|-
|1992||Hestrafors||||2||0
|-
|1993||rowspan="9"|Elfsborg||rowspan="4"|Division 1||0||0
|-
|1994||1||0
|-
|1995||26||3
|-
|1996||24||9
|-
|1997||rowspan="5"|Allsvenskan||26||3
|-
|1998||26||5
|-
|1999||20||3
|-
|2000||24||10
|-
|2001||8||5

|-
|2001/02||rowspan="4"|Southampton||rowspan="4"|Premier League||34||3
|-
|2002/03||33||2
|-
|2003/04||30||0
|-
|2004/05||30||4

|-
|2005||rowspan="6"|Elfsborg||rowspan="6"|Allsvenskan||9||0
|-
|2006||26||7
|-
|2007||23||9
|-
|2008||19||1
|-
|2009||26||4
|-
|2010||||
260||59
127||9
387||68
|}

International career statistics 

|-
|1999||1||0
|-
|2000||6||1
|-
|2001||15||5
|-
|2002||11||1
|-
|2003||10||3
|-
|2004||12||1
|-
|2005||7||1
|-
|2006||9||1
|-
|2007||13||2
|-
|2008||10||0
|-
|2009||9||1
|-
|2010||5||1
|-
!Total||108||17
|}

References 

1976 births
Living people
Swedish footballers
People from Gothenburg
John Piper (broadcaster)

John Piper was the mid-morning talk show host on the BBC Radio Solent throughout the 1970s. The name of his program was called Piper's Tune. The show was a mix of music, talk guests and the regular feature called, "Give a Neighbour a Hand", in which listeners would call in and ask for advice and other listeners would call in and give advice. Piper left the BBC in 1879 to join the Two Counties Radio in Bournemouth, as the station's first Programme Controller. He stayed on the air in Bournemouth until he left radio to move to Spain with his wife, Dilys.

In the 1980s, Piper also served as the mayor of his home town, Sitio de Calahonda which is located near Málaga in Spain. Piper also served in the Special Operations during World War II as a journalist and naturalist.

Year of birth missing
British television presenters
Xerophyte

Xerophytes are plants which are adapted to dry/desert areas. They are a type of succulent plant. To survive these harsh conditions they have special features. For example, a cactus has white hairs which help to prevent water loss. Another example is manzanita plants, which have a thick waxy coating and keep their leaves vertical to the sun.

Adaptions 
Some Xerophytic plants sit out a drought. They can still extract water from soil. They may have very salty cell sap and therefore a very low water potential in the roots; they may have very extensive or deep roots or may pick up the slightest dew and survive on that.

Others have special features about their shape or structure (xeromorphs). Thick waxy cuticle (Aloe); hairy surfaces (Edelweiss); dense packing of leaves, reduced leaf size (species of cypress); reduced density of stomata (many cacti); pitted and grooved position of stomata (Ammophila) Water storage in stem and tubers, etc. (baobab). They may also protect this water store from animals by spines and chemicals.

Mechanism table

References 

Botany
Liga MX

Liga MX, known as the Primera División de México before the 2012–13 season, is the top football league in México.

Like most football leagues in Latin America, Liga MX divides its season into two phases—Apertura and Clausura (Spanish for "opening" and "closing"), with different champions in each phase. The Apertura is held in the Northern Hemisphere fall (autumn), and the Clausura in spring.

2014–15 Clubs

References 

Football leagues
Football in Mexico
1943 establishments in North America
1940s establishments in Mexico
Fortuna Düsseldorf

Fortuna Düsseldorf is a football club which plays in Germany from Düsseldorf that plays in the highest league in German football, the Fußball-Bundesliga.

References

Düsseldorf
German football clubs
Sport in North Rhine-Westphalia
1895 establishments in Europe
1890s establishments in Germany
SC Freiburg

S.C. Freiburg is a football club which plays in Germany.

German football clubs
Sport in Baden-Württemberg
Freiburg im Breisgau
1904 establishments in Europe
1900s establishments in Germany
MSV Duisburg

The Meidericher Spielverein 02 e. V. Duisburg is a football club which plays in Germany. The club was founding member of the German Bundesliga 1962/63 and is now playing in the Second Bundesliga.  Due to their striped jerseys they are also called the "Zebras".

Name 
The club was founded in 1902 as Meidericher SV. On 9 January 1967 the club was renamed into his still today valid name MSV Duisburg.

Current squad 
As of 1 November 2011

Duisburg
German football clubs
Sport in North Rhine-Westphalia
1902 establishments in Europe
1900s establishments in Germany
Hansa Rostock

Hansa Rostock is a football club from Rostock, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The club plays in German 2. Bundesliga.

History
The club was founded on 1 November 1954 multi-sport Sportclub Empor Rostock. Because it was not possible to find enough players for the football team the team of Empor Lauter was transferred to  Rostock. This was common in the German Democratic Republic. Rostock took the place of Lauter in the first league. The re-organization of East German sports in 1965 led to the association's football department becoming independent as Fußball Club Hansa Rostock. The new club was named "Hansa" to remember northern Europe's Hanseatic League. Rostock was an important member there.

After the reunification of Germany Hansa played together with Dynamo Dresden in the German Bundesliga. They were relegated but came back. Their best result in the Bundesliga was 2 times a 6th place.

Squad 
As of 31 August 2011

Honours
 East German champions: 1991
 East German vice-champions: 1955, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1968
 East German Cup: 1991
 East German Cup finalists: 1955, 1957, 1960, 1967, 1987
 2. Bundesliga champions: 1995
 German Indoor champions: 1998
 German Under 17 championship runners-up: 2005

Rostocks seasons

Other websites
 official website of F.C. Hansa Rostock
 HANSANEWS.DE | THE ONLINE MAGAZINE
 The Abseits Guide to German Soccer

German football clubs
Hansa Rostock
L.A.S.K. Linz

L.A.S.K. Linz is a football club which plays in Linz, the capital of Upper Austria. They are playing in the First League, the second division in Austrias league system.

History
The club was founded on 7 August 1899 as Athletiksportclub Siegfried, the football section was founded in February 1919. The first match was on  4 May 1919 against Fußballverein Wels . LASK lost 1:4. Being the most successful section of the Athletiksportclub it was decided that the name of the club should be Linzer Athletik-Sport-Klub (Linzer ASK). Till the occupation by Germany in 1938 they reached many titels in the Upper Austrian league. In the 1938/39 season they were promoted to the  Gauliga XVII, which was then the highest class in Austrian football. But they were relegated the same season.

After the Second World War LASK reached the title in Austrian highest class in the 1964/65 season. The LASK was the first team which came not from Vienna to do so. The same season they also won the Autrian Cup. The next decades were partly successful but also by relegetions to the second division. In 1997, due to public pressure, LASK Linz merged with city rivals FC Linz (formerly known as SK VOEST Linz) which, however, resulted in the cancellation of the latter. Club name, colors, chairmen and members remained the same.

In the 2010/11 season they were relegated. Today they are playing in Austrias First League, the second division in Austrian football.

Name
1908-1996 Linzer ASK
1996-present LASK Linz

European cup history 
As of December 2008.

Honours 
Austrian League: 1964–65
Austrian Cup: 1965, runner-up 1963, 1967, 1970, 1999
Austrian Amateur Championship: 1931
Upper-Austrian Championship: 1924, 1925, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1932, 1936, 1939, 1947, 1948, 1950
Upper-Austrian Cup: 1929, 1931, 1932, 1935, 1937, 1946
Upper-Austrian Championship (reserves): 2001, 2003
Second Division: 1958, 1979, 1994, 2007

References

Austrian football clubs
Football clubs of Upper Austria
Linz
F.C. Wacker Innsbruck (2002)

F.C. Wacker Innsbruck is a football club which plays in Austria. The club was founded in June 2002 after the insolvency of FC Tirol Innsbuck. The fans think this club is  the successor but leagaly they are a new club.

The club started in the Regionalliga West (3 stage of Austrian football, this was possible because the club played together with WSG Wattens, a 3rd league club) and promoted within 2 seasons to the Bundesliga. In the 2006/07 season they avoided relegetion only because of the insolvency of the GAK. But the following season they were relegated to the 1st league(2nd stage of Austrian football).  2009 they won the championship again and promoted again to the Bundesliga. Till 2014 they played in the Bundesliga. 2014 to 2018 they played in the 2nd league. After one year in the Bundesliga (2018-19) they were relegated. Since that year they play in the 2nd league.

The second team (FC Wacker Innsbruck Amateure) is playing in the Regionalliga Tirol (3rd level).

Name
2002-2007 FC Wacker Tirol
2007-present FC Wacker Innsbruck

Current squad

Staff
 Manager: Masaki Morass
 Assistant coach: Mario Anfang
 Assistant coach: Ervand Sukiasyan
 Goalkeeper coach: Szabolcs Safar

Honours
Champion Regionalliga West:2003
Champion Erste Liga (2nd level): 2004,2010, 2018

FC Wacker Innsbruck Women
The womenteam is playing in the Planet Pure Bundesliga.

Staff Women
 Manager: Fuad Djulic
 Assistant coach: Yasar Demir
 Assistant coach: Lion Wetzel
 Goalkeeper coach: Andreas Tezzele

References

Austrian football clubs
Innsbruck
Football clubs of Tyrol
Judge Joe Brown

Judge Joe Brown is an American television show. It is a courtroom series, shown in first run syndication. The judge, Joe Brown, decides who is telling the truth and who is lying. Joe Brown is famous for being in charge of the trial of James Earl Ray, the man who assassinated, or killed, Martin Luther King.

1998 American television series debuts
First run syndicated television programs
Curt Stern

Curt Stern  (August 30, 1902 – October 23, 1981) was a German-born American geneticist. was a German-American geneticist  of Jewish descent. Born in Hamburg, Germany, he studied zoology at the University of Berlin, receiving his PhD in 1923 at the age of 21. He was selected for a fellowship to study at Columbia University, then the site of Thomas Hunt Morgan's famous drosophila fly room.

Early career 
Stern accepted an appointment at the University of Berlin after his fellowship ended. In 1931, he was the first to demonstrate crossover of homologous chromosomes in Drosophila melanogaster, only weeks after Barbara McClintock and Harriet Creighton had done so with maize.
 
Stern eventually returned to the United States in 1932. He became an American citizen in 1939. From 1933 to 1947, he taught at the University of Rochester. From 1947 until his retirement in 1970, he was a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, where he had numerous doctoral students.

In 1936, he demonstrated that recombination can also take place in mitosis resulting in somatic mosaics, organisms that contain two or more genetically distinct types of tissues. He later demonstrated that there were multiple genes on the Drosophila Y chromosome, and described the mechanism of dosage compensation.

During World War II, he led research for the American government on low dose radiation safety. His laboratory group concluded that there is no "safe" threshold below which radiation is not harmful.

Human genetics 
After the war his research focused on human genetics, pioneering in what is now known as gene regulation. Although not a physician, he engaged in clinical work in human genetics. In 1943 he began teaching a course in human genetics to medical students at the University of Rochester. The first edition of Stern's pioneering textbook The Principles of human genetics was published in 1949. Both his teaching and his textbook were instrumental in re-founding human genetics on a non-racist basis, in contrast with pre-war German and American traditions in the subject. Stern was a signatory of the 1950 UNESCO statement The Race Question, a statement by leading scientists in many fields that questioned the validity and scientific foundations of racism.

The Curt Stern Award, established by the American Society of Human Genetics in 2001, recognizes a scientist who has made major scientific achievements in human genetics during the previous 10 years.

References
 
 Stern, Curt and Sherwood, Eva R. (eds) 1966. The origin of genetics: a Mendel source book. Freeman, S.F.

1902 births
1981 deaths
American geneticists
American zoologists
German biologists
Jewish American academics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish German scientists
Naturalized citizens of the United States
People from Hamburg
Refugees from Nazism
Thomas Hunt Morgan

Thomas Hunt Morgan (25 September 1866 – 4 December 1945) was an American geneticist and embryologist. Morgan took his PhD at Johns Hopkins University in 1890, and researched embryology while at Bryn Mawr College.

After the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance in 1900, Morgan switched his research to the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. In 1904, E.B. Wilson invited Morgan to join him at Columbia University. This move freed Morgan to focus fully on experimental work.
In his famous Fly Room at Columbia,  Morgan was able to show that genes are carried on chromosomes and are the mechanical basis of heredity. These discoveries formed the basis of the modern science of genetics.

Morgan moved to California in 1928 to head the Division of Biology at the California Institute of Technology (CalTech). Research was focused on genetics and evolution; experimental embryology; physiology; biophysics and biochemistry.

He was given the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1933. It was the first one given for genetics, for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity. The prize was not shared with the lab's main researcher, Alfred Sturtevant, a decision of the Nobel Committee which was certainly controversial.

Morgan's early work with Drosophila was on the associations known as 'coupling' and 'repulsion', discovered by English workers in 1909 and 1910 using the Sweet Pea. These were, in reality, the same phenomenon, which was later called linkage. Morgan's first papers dealt with the demonstration of sex linkage of the gene for white eyes in the fly, the male fly being heterogametic (XY).

During his distinguished career, Morgan wrote 22 books and 370 scientific papers, and, as a result of his work, Drosophila became the main 'model organism' in genetics. The Division of Biology he started at the California Institute of Technology produced seven Nobel Prize winners.

References 

1866 births
1945 deaths
American geneticists
American Nobel Prize winners
Cell biology
Scientists from Kentucky
People from Lexington, Kentucky
American developmental biologists
Columbia University faculty
Educators from Kentucky
Alfred Sturtevant

Alfred Henry Sturtevant (November 21, 1891 – April 5, 1970) was an American geneticist. Sturtevant made the first genetic map of a chromosome in 1913. In his career he worked on the fruit-fly Drosophila melanogaster with Thomas Hunt Morgan.

Morgan was both a help and a hindrance to Sturtevant. Morgan supported him through the early part of his career, but took much of the credit for the research. Morgan's Nobel Prize in 1933 was not shared with Sturtevant, who was the lab's main researcher.

Later in his career, Sturtevant had another important relationship, this time with Theodosius Dobzhansky. The research was into the genetics of natural populations of Drosophila. This relationship, too, became uneasy, and they split up after a few years. Sturtevant was one of the most outstanding genetics researchers not to get a Nobel Prize. In 1967, Sturtevant received the National Medal of Science.

Works
 Lewis E.B. ed. 1961. Genetics and evolution: selected papers of A.H. Sturtevant. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.
 Sturtevant A.H. 1965. A history of genetics. Harper & Row N.Y.

References 

1891 births
1970 deaths
American geneticists
Cell biology
Scientists from Illinois
H. J. Muller

Hermann Joseph Muller, generally known as H. J. Muller, (21 December 1890 – 5 April 1967) was an American geneticist, educator, and Nobel Prize winner. He was best known for his work on the physiological and genetic effects of radiation, as well as his outspoken political beliefs. Muller frequently warned of the long-term dangers of radioactive fallout from nuclear explosions.

Muller's life was as extraordinary as could be imagined. Born in New York City, he got his PhD at CalTech in Morgan's Drosophila fly lab. He next worked at Rice University, and then spent twelve years at the University of Texas. Then he moved to Berlin in 1932, then to Leningrad (St Petersburg), and then to Moscow. In all these places he organised a genetics lab, and sometimes taught as well. Then arose the scientific charlatan Lysenko, who saw to it that genuine genetics scientists came under the disapproval of Stalin. Once again Muller moved, this time to Edinburgh, with 250 strains of Drosophila, then finally back to the United States in 1940, where he became an advisor to the Manhattan Project. He became Professor of Zoology at Indiana University.

Muller's Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1946 was "for the discovery that mutations can be induced by X-rays". By then the real interest lay in the same effects caused by gamma rays from nuclear testing. Muller was a wholehearted enthusiast for eugenics, socialism, atheism and other relatively unpopular ideas, but his real contribution was to genetics. One reputable source writes of him:
"Muller's contributions dominate the 1920s and 1930s. The variety of genetic tools he developed elevated Drosophila to an almost exclusive role in the study of the gene concept. It is almost impossible to read Muller's articles during those two decades without feeling overwhelmed by the quality of genius which characterises the analytical and projective treatment of his discoveries and experiments".

References 

1890 births
1967 deaths
American geneticists
American Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from New York City
Little Boy

Little Boy is the name that was given to the first atomic bomb that was dropped in a war. The bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 by the American army who were trying to end World War II. Enola Gay was the name of the plane that dropped Little Boy.

References 

Nuclear weapons
World War II
Hiroshima
Fat Man

Fat Man is the name of the second atomic bomb ever made from plutonium and the second atomic bomb to be used in nuclear warfare. It was dropped over the Japanese island of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945.

References

Nuclear weapons
World War II
Mundari language

The Mundari language is a Munda language of the Austro-Asiatic language family.  It is spoken by the Munda people.

References

Languages of India
Languages of Bangladesh
Nepal
Listed building

A listed building, in the United Kingdom, is a building that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. This is a list of buildings that are important in terms of architecture, history, or culture. There are many buildings on this list. In the UK, there are about 500,000 listed buildings.

In England and Wales, there are three kinds of listed buildings:
 Grade I: buildings that are very important
 Grade II*: buildings that are important in general (not special interest)
 Grade II: buildings that are special interesting (this means that they are important to some groups or for a specific reason)
There used to be a fourth kind of listed building: Grade III. This type has not been used since 1970.

Other websites 
 Photographs of listed buildings from English Heritage 
 Listed Property Owners Club, providing information & advice for listed property owners
 Information about heritage protection generally
 PASTMAP Map-based database of listed buildings, scheduled monuments etc in Scotland 
 Birmingham City Council - What is a Locally Listed Building?

Sources
Holborn

Holborn ( ) is an area of Central London, England.  Holborn is also the name of the area's principal east-west street. The street runs from St Giles's High Street as High Holborn to Gray's Inn Road to Holborn Viaduct. It crosses the borders of the City of Westminster, London Borough of Camden and the City of London.

References

Other websites
Holborn and Bloomsbury, by Sir Walter Besant and Geraldine Edith Mitton, 1903, from Project Gutenberg

Areas of London
London Borough of Camden
City of Westminster
Strand underpass

The Strand Underpass (sometimes incorrectly called the Kingsway Underpass) is a vehicle tunnel in central London. It connects Waterloo Bridge to Kingsway near Holborn. It was built by John Mowlem & Co. It opened on 21 January 1964.

Transport architecture in London
Southampton Row

Southampton Row is major road running northwest-southeast in Bloomsbury, Camden, central London, England. The road is part of the A4200.

References 

London Borough of Camden
Victoria Embankment

The Victoria Embankment is part of the Thames Embankment, a road and walkway along the north bank of the River Thames in London. The Victoria Embankment extends from the City of Westminster into the City of London.

City of Westminster
City of London
River Thames

Roads in London
Charlton, London

Charlton is an area and an electoral ward in south-east London. It is in the London Borough of Greenwich. It is located between Greenwich and Woolwich.

London Borough of Greenwich
Areas of London
Waterloo Bridge

Waterloo Bridge is a road and foot traffic bridge crossing the River Thames in London, England between Blackfriars Bridge and Hungerford Bridge.

History 
The first bridge on the site was designed in 1809-10 by John Rennie for the Strand Bridge Company and opened in 1817 as a toll bridge. The granite bridge had nine arches, each of  span, separated by double Grecian-Doric stone columns and was  long, including approaches. Before its opening it was known as 'Strand Bridge'. During the 1840s the bridge gained a reputation as a popular place for suicide attempts. In 1844 Thomas Hood wrote the poem The Bridge of Sighs about the suicide of a prostitute there. Paintings of the bridge were created by the French Impressionist Claude Monet and English Impressionist, John Constable. The bridge was nationalised in 1878 and given to the Metropolitan Board of Works, who removed the toll from it.

In June 2012, the bridge was highlighted on the route of Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee Pageant on the Thames.

Gallery

Related pages 
 List of crossings of the River Thames

References

Other websites

Survey of London entry
Peter Lind & Company 
 
 

Buildings and structures in the City of Westminster
Transport in the City of Westminster
Stone bridges
Concrete bridges
Grade II* listed buildings in London
Westminster Bridge

Westminster Bridge is a road traffic and foot bridge over the River Thames between Westminster and Lambeth, in London. It is right next to the Houses of Parliament.

History
Until Westminster Bridge was built in 1750, there was only one bridge crossing the River Thames.

In June 2012, the bridge was highlighted on the route of Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee Pageant on the Thames.

Related pages 
 List of crossings of the River Thames

References

Other websites

 
 
 Interactive Panorama: Westminster Bridge 

Buildings and structures in the City of Westminster
Transport in the City of Westminster
Transport in the London Borough of Lambeth
Steel bridges
Grade II* listed buildings in London
Bloomsbury

Bloomsbury is an area of central London in the south of the London Borough of Camden.

Areas of London
London Borough of Camden
Hop Exchange

The Hop Exchange is a Grade II listed building at No. 24 Southwark Street, London SE1. It is in the Bankside area of the London Borough of Southwark.  It opened in 1867 and was designed by R.H. Moore. It served as the centre for hop trading for the brewing industry.

Other websites 
 Official site of the venue
 The hop cellars

1867 establishments in England
Buildings and structures in London
Grade II listed buildings in London
London Borough of Southwark
River Fleet

The River Fleet is the biggest of London's subterranean rivers.

Other websites
 McRae, Andrew. ""On the Famous Voyage": Ben Jonson and Civic Space." Early Modern Literary Studies Special Issue 3 (September, 1998): 8.1-31 
 Sub-Urban.com — River Fleet 
 Reviewing the Fleet
 Photos From The River Fleet  
 Chesca Potter, "The River of Wells" 
 Map of River Fleet superimposed over map of modern London
 A psychogeographical film of the River Fleet
 Map showing Ray Street Bridge 

Geography of London
Rivers of England
The Angel, Islington

The Angel was originally an inn near a toll gate on the Great North Road (at what is now the corner of Islington High Street and Pentonville Road). The term now informally refers to this part of Islington in London. The corner itself is actually in Finsbury which was a separate borough until 1965 when the Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury merged with the Metropolitan Borough of Islington to form the London Borough of Islington.

Related pages
 Angel tube station

Other websites 
 Angel Islington info and directory 
 Islington Council
 Weather forecast for Islington 

London Borough of Islington
Areas of London
Blackfriars, London

Blackfriars is an area of central London, which lies in the south-west corner of the City of London. It is also were Henry VIII sixth wife died and was buried

City of London
Areas of London
Kennington

Kennington is an area of South London, England, in the London Borough of Lambeth. It is a mixed class residential area, and is the location of The Oval, the well-known cricket stadium. 

London Borough of Lambeth
Areas of London
Elephant and Castle

The Elephant and Castle is a major road intersection in inner south London, England, and is also used as a name for the surrounding district.

London Borough of Southwark
Areas of London
Transport in London
Battersea

Battersea is a place in the London Borough of Wandsworth. It is an inner-city district. It is  southwest of Charing Cross. In April 2001, it had 75,651 people. In Battersea there is a home for dogs and cats called Battersea Dogs & Cats Home.

References

Battersea
Wandsworth

Wandsworth is an inner suburb of London on the south bank of the River Thames in south-west London.  Wandsworth takes its name from the River Wandle, which enters the Thames at Wandsworth. The area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London.

References

Areas of London
London Borough of Wandsworth
Anti-abortion movement

The pro-life movement, also called the anti-abortion movement, is a group of people who believe that human life begins at conception and that the life of unborn children should be protected. People who believe this are sometimes called "pro-lifers". Pro-lifers believe that life begins at the moment of conception. They oppose abortion. As abortion is an important political topic, they are sometimes called anti-choice by the pro-choice movement. 

People who are pro-life believe that all humans, including the unborn, have a right to live. They believe that having a human genome is enough for a developing organism to be called a living human being. Others believe that an organism should be identified as a living human being once a heartbeat has been detected. Pro-lifers think that abortion should be illegal. Many pro-lifers think women who are pregnant and do not want to raise a child should look for alternatives to abortion such as adoption.

There are many advocacy groups that try to convince people that abortion is wrong. 

The pro-life movement is most associated with conservative politics. In one poll in the United States, 66% of conservatives called themselves pro-life. It is also associated with the Catholic Church. Pope Francis has said that "Every child that isn't born, but is unjustly condemned to be aborted, has the face of Jesus Christ, has the face of the Lord."

Related pages
 Pro-choice

References

Abortion
Dunning–Kruger effect

The Dunning–Kruger effect is a bias in thinking, usually where a person is unaware of how badly they grasp a subject, not understanding that they are failing at it. They mistakenly think that they are doing as well as "average" or even "above average".

It is a psychological effect in which people don't realize their level of knowledge or ability in a subject. People who know little about a subject will think that they know more than they actually know. People of low ability may not have enough intelligence to fully grasp how complicated something can be, causing them to overestimate their knowledge or ability. This can cause them to underestimate the intelligence of a high ability person who claims something is complicated when they falsely believe they understand it fully. 

This effect was shown in an experiment that was done by Justin Kruger and David Dunning at Cornell University.

The investigators said:
"The miscalibration of the incompetent stems from an error about the self, whereas the miscalibration of the highly competent stems from an error about others".

In 2000, Dunning and Kruger were awarded the Ig Nobel Prize in the field of psychology for their study.

Related pages
 Arrogance
 Confidence
 Megalomania
 Narcissism

References 

Cognition
Experiments
Interferometer

Interferometers are for measuring the interference properties of light waves. One of their purposes is to measure things precisely, for example in the Michelson interferometer.

Related pages 
 Atacama Large Millimeter Array

Optical devices
Chris Terreri

Christopher Arnold Terreri (born November 15, 1964 in Warwick, Rhode Island) is an American former professional ice hockey goaltender who played for four professional teams of the NHL. He won the Stanley Cup two times with the New Jersey Devils. He is currently the goaltending coach of the New Jersey Devils of the NHL.

Other websites 

1964 births
Chicago Blackhawks players
Living people
New Jersey Devils players
New York Islanders players
Sportspeople from Rhode Island
San Jose Sharks players
Stanley Cup champions
American Hockey League players
International Hockey League (1945–2001) players
People from Warwick, Rhode Island
American ice hockey goaltenders
Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy

Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy is a 2004 American comedy movie set in San Diego in 1975. It was produced by Judd Apatow and directed by Adam McKay. The movie is number 100 on Bravo's 100 funniest movies, and 113 on Empire's 500 Greatest Movies of All Time. It was narrated by Bill Kurtis. It was released on July 9, 2004. A sequel, Anchorman 2: The Legend Continues was released on December 18, 2013.

Cast 
 Will Ferrell as Ron Burgundy
 Christina Applegate as Veronica Corningstone
 Paul Rudd as Brian Fantana
 David Koechner as Champion 'Champ' Kind
 Steve Carell as Brick Tamland
 Fred Willard as Ed Harken
 Chris Parnell as Garth Holladay
 Vince Vaughn as Wes Mantooth

Other websites 

 AnchormanMovie.com – Official Website
 
 
 
 

2004 comedy movies
American comedy movies
DreamWorks Pictures movies
English-language movies
Movies directed by Adam McKay
Movies set in San Diego, California
Movies set in the 1970s
Tic

A tic is a sudden body movement that a person can't control.  It might be a jerking movement of the hand, or blinking a lot, or a throat sound.  Even if the person is told that they are doing it, they usually can't stop. Sometimes if they try really hard, they can make the tic go away for a little bit, but they can't make it go away all the time. It's kind of like when you have something in your throat, eventually you just have to cough.

Tics can be either "motor tics" or "phonic tics." If they are "motor tics" it means they're movements, like blinking or shrugging shoulders. If they are "phonic tics" it means they're sounds, like clearing your throat, sniffing, or yelling.

Tics are common in childhood, four to twelve percent of all children have from tics. Very often they are transitory, they rarely last longer than six months. Boys have tics more often than girls. About three times more boys than girls have tics. Sometimes, people can have a "tic" in the family.

Some tics can be treated, usually with behaviour therapy. In cases where the tic is difficult to treat, antipsychotics are sometimes used.

References 

Medical signs
Human behavior