cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Church of England

The Church of England is the leading Christian church in England. It is the church established by law: its formal head is the English monarch (Elizabeth II). It is the mother church of the Anglican Communion. Its headquarters are at Church House, Westminster, in London.

The Church of England understands itself to be both Catholic and Reformed:
Catholic because it views itself as a part of the universal church of Jesus Christ in unbroken continuity with the early apostolic church. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as in the Apostles' Creed, Nicene Creed and Athanasian Creed.
Reformed because it has been shaped by the doctrinal ideas of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, in particular by the Thirty-Nine Articles and the Book of Common Prayer.

There are other Protestant churches in England which are not part of the Anglican Communion.

History 
The Church of England became independent under King Henry VIII in 1534. Henry VIII was married to Catherine of Aragon, but asked the Pope to annul the marriage (say that it was a mistake and that Henry and Catherine were never really married).  He wanted to annul the marriage because he wanted a male heir to his throne and Catherine could not produce one. When the annulment was refused, Henry VIII used his position as King to break the Church away from the Roman Catholic Church. This established the independence of the Church of England, sometimes called the Anglican (English) Church. Methodism broke away from the church in the 18th century. The Oxford Movement brought some Catholic beliefs and practices back into the church in the 19th century. 

Under his son, King Edward VI, more Protestant forms of worship were adopted. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer started more changes. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy but influenced by Protestant principles.

Related pages 
Archbishop of Canterbury
Thomas Cranmer
Reformation
House of Lords

Other websites 
CofE website

Anglicanism
England
Tense (grammar)

Tense is the form of a verb that shows the time something happened, or is going to happen. There are three main tenses:

Present tense: things that are true when the words are spoken or written.
Example: She goes to school. In this sentence, goes shows that it is a present tense. It suggests that she regularly goes to school.
Example: She is going to school. This says she is now going to school.
Past tense: things that were true before the words were spoken or written. 
Example: She went to school. In this sentence, went shows that it is a past tense.
Future tense: things that will be true after the words are spoken or written. 
Example: She will go to school. In this sentence, will shows that it is a future tense.

Tense can be shown by changing the spelling of a verb. For example, be can become am, is, and are in present tense, and was and were in past tense. In English, future tense is shown by adding will before the verb. For example, be becomes will be in future tense.

Note:These tenses can be subdivided further (see below).

Aspect 
There are also different kinds of tense within each main tense. They are formed by adding "helping words" or "auxiliary words", such as be and have, before the verb. For example, "I give", "I have given", "I am giving", and "I have been giving" are all in present tense, but have different meanings. This is called aspect. 

Other languages have different ways of showing tense. For example, Latin usually shows tense by changing the verb, like English. However, Chinese and Indonesian show tense by adding new words, instead of changing the verb.

References 

Grammar
Blackpool Tower

Blackpool Tower is a tall structure in Blackpool, a North England seaside town.

It was built in the style of the Eiffel Tower. Building started in 1891 and finished in 1894. It cost £45000 (around US$70000), is 518 ft tall and weighs 2586 tons. It is mainly made from steel and cast iron.

It is one of the main tourist attractions in Blackpool. These include the tower itself, the Golden Mile, which is a row of arcades, the Irish Sea and beach, and Pleasure Beach Blackpool (a theme park).

The oldest part of the building is the old aquarium which was part of Dr Cockers' Menagarie and Aquarium since the 1870s. It was kept open to earn money while the tower building was built around it.

The tower was bought by Blackpool Council in 2010 and is now run by Merlin Entertainments for Blackpool Council.

Since Merlin Entertainments started running the tower, the building has been repaired and new attractions have been added. The aquarium was removed to make way for a new attraction.

Attractions at the tower include the Blackpool Dungeon, the Blackpool Tower Eye, the Blackpool Tower Circus, the Blackpool Tower Ballroom and Jungle Jim's.

References

1894 establishments in the United Kingdom
Blackpool
Monuments and memorials in England
Towers in the United Kingdom
Buildings and structures completed in the 19th century
Poll tax

Poll tax is a system of taxing. It is also called head tax. It is based on the idea that everyone pays the same amount of tax. This is regardless of how much they earn. In the last few years of Margaret Thatcher's reign as British Prime minister, she received heavy opposition and mass riots were held when she tried to have poll tax used as the tax system.

Taxation
Longbow

A longbow is a type of bow. It may not have been as powerful as a crossbow but it could shoot more arrows per minute. Also, the basic equipment cost little, and could be easily mass produced. Metal-tipped arrows could pierce all but the best plate armour. Archers (longbowmen) would usually have a second weapon, often a battle-axe, for close-quarter fighting.

The longbow was mainly used in the Middle Ages until Henry VIII's reign.  

It was made from a single piece of hard wearing, flexible wood (often yew). Yew was cut during the winter when there was no sap. The flat side of the bow facing the target was flexible sapwood while the belly (facing the archer) was round and made of strong heartwood (from the center of a tree). The devastating hail of the longbowmen (at a rate of six per minute) was often very demoralizing. 
Longbows have been found in Europe as far back as the Mesolithic period.

History 
In the British Isles the weapon was first recorded as being used by the Welsh. In AD 633 Offrid, son of Edwin, king of Northumbria, was killed by an arrow shot from a Welsh longbow. This was during a battle between the Welsh and the Mercians — more than five centuries before any record of its use in England. Despite this, the weapon is more commonly known as the "English longbow" than the "Welsh longbow".

In the Middle Ages the English and Welsh were famous for their very powerful Welsh longbows. They were used to great effect in the civil wars of the period and against the French in the Hundred Years' War (with notable success at the battles of Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415).

The average length of arrowshafts recovered from the 1545 sinking of the Mary Rose is .

A longbow has practical advantages compared to a modern recurve or compound bow; it is usually lighter, quicker to prepare for shooting, and shoots more quietly. However, other things being equal, the modern bow will shoot a faster arrow more accurately than the longbow.

References 

Archery
Weapons
African Union

The African Union (AU) is an supranational organization consisting of fifty-five African member countries. Founded in Durban on 9 July 2002, the AU was formed as a replacement to the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the African Economic Community (AEC). 

The current Chairperson of the African Union is President of Senegal Macky Sall since February 5, 2022.

The AU, in the future, aims to have a single currency and a single integrated defense force, as well as other institutions of state, including a cabinet for the AU Head of State. The purpose of the organization is to help secure the continent's democracy, human rights, and a sustainable economy, especially by bringing an end to conflict between African nations and creating an effective common market.

Related pages
 African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights
 European Union

Other websites 
 Official site

International organizations
2002 establishments
Politics of Africa
2000s establishments in Africa
The Freecycle Network

The Freecycle Network (TFN) is a global network of people who share and regive items. They organise their network through the Internet. Freecycle is a place for people to meet. There are just two things people can do there.

The first thing is this:  A person can ask the other people for an item.  If someone has it, they can tell the person who wants it.

The second thing is this: A person can give away an item.  Sometimes many people want the item, and the donator has to choose just one person.

Other websites 
Official website
Freecycle Group Finder

Internet
Slashdot

Slashdot is a website where people can read news.  Most people who go to Slashdot like computers.  Other people go, too.

On the Slashdot website, people can comment on the news. Often this leads to interesting discussions with many points of view.

Slashdot has been a website for ten years.  It has lots of things to talk about.  Some of the things are: computers, the Internet, video games, and politics.

Many people like Slashdot because you can share ideas.  People who like computers and the Internet can read the ideas to learn.

Anyone can go to Slashdot and read it and do not need to give money.  People from every country go.  It has many ideas which are never the same.

Other websites 
http://slashdot.org/

Websites
Hooke's law

It is a law of mechanics and physics discovered by Robert Hooke. 

This theory of elasticity says the extension of a spring is proportional to the load applied to it. Many materials obey this law as long as the load does not exceed the material's elastic limit. Materials for which Hooke's law is useful are known as linear-elastic or "Hookean" materials.

The spring equation 
The length of a spring always changes by the same amount when it is pushed or pulled. The equation for this is:

where
F is how much (push or pull) is on the spring 
k is a constant, the stiffness of the spring. 
 x is how far the spring was pushed or pulled 

When x = 0, the spring is at the equilibrium position. 
This equation only works on a linear spring. A linear spring is a spring that is only being pushed or pulled in one direction, such as left or right or up or down.

Elastic potential energy 
Examples of everyday objects that have elastic potential energy are stretched or compressed elastic bands, springs, bungee cords, car shock absorbers, etc. 

Elastic potential energy is the energy saved in an object that is stretched, compressed (compression is pressing objects together), twisted or bent. For example, an arrow gets the elastic potential energy from the bow. When it leaves the bow, the potential energy turns into kinetic energy. 
The equation of the elastic potential energy is:

Which means:
U is the elastic potential energy.
k is the spring constant. 
 x is the distance pushed or pulled.

Mechanics
Time (magazine)

Time is an American news magazine. It was founded in 1923. It is printed every week in the United States. It is published by Time Inc. It has articles on politics and current events. It is read by more people than any other news magazine.

There is also a magazine called Time For Kids, aimed at children. That magazine is eight pages long and contains more images and shorter articles than the regular Time magazine.

1923 establishments in the United States
American magazines
Weekly magazines
Time Warner
Magazines published in New York City
Antenna

An antenna or aerial is a metal device made to send or receive radio waves. Many electronic devices like radio, television, radar, wireless LAN, cell phone, and GPS need antennas to do their job. Antennas work both in air and outer space. 

The word 'antenna' is from Guglielmo Marconi's test with wireless equipment in 1895. For the test, he used a 2.5 meter long pole antenna with a tent pole called ' l'antenna centrale ' in Italian. So his antenna was simply called ' l'antenna '.  After that, the word 'antenna' became popular among people and had the meaning it has today. The plural of antenna is either antennas or antennae (U.S. and Canada tends to use antennas more than other places).

Types of antennas 
Each one is made to work for a specific frequency range. The antenna's length or size usually depends on the wavelength (1/frequency) it uses.

Different kinds of antenna have different purposes. For example, the isotropic radiator is an imaginary antenna that sends signals equally in all directions. The dipole antenna is simply two wires with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the other end standing free in space. It sends or receives signals in all directions except where the wires are pointing. Some antennas are more directional. Horn is used where high gain is needed, the wavelength is short. Satellite television and radio telescopes mostly use dish antennas.

References

Radio antennas
Jack London

John Griffith "Jack" London (born John Griffith Chaney, January 12, 1876 – November 22, 1916) was an American writer. He wrote many books. He lived in the U.S. state of California but also spent a lot of time in Hawaii and Alaska.

His most famous book was The Call of the Wild.  The Call of the Wild is about a dog named Buck who is taken to Alaska to work with a pack of dogs pulling a sled.  This book took place during the Klondike Gold Rush. Many people bought The Call of the Wild and Jack London became a famous writer. He also wrote other books about dogs and wolves. Another one of his famous books is White Fang.

Jack London was also a hobo at one time.  He wrote a book about this called The Road. Jack London had political beliefs.  He was a socialist.  One of his famous books is The Iron Heel, which is the story of the government using force against the socialist movement.

He also spent some time at sea and making a living as an "oyster pirate".  He wrote many books about sailing and boats.  One of his best-known books about life at sea was The Sea Wolf.

He married Charmian London born Kittredge (second wife). She was an athletic woman and an intellectual companion that broke the mold of Victorian womanhood—though they grew apart when she turned to socialite circles. His feminism was matched by models of sensitive "virility" and he sorted out the master-slave model of government in order to find alternatives.[3] He was on the vanguard of animal welfare and attempted a model pig farm, and experimented with early ecological agriculture, but Wolf House (his dream home) burnt to the ground in what could have been arson.[4] He died in a state of depression.

References

 Reesman 2009, p. 23.
3. Cf. Saiz, Peter Ralph, "Political Tyranny and the Master-Slave Paradigm in Selected Sea-Tales of Herman Melville and Jack London", PhD thesis Purdue University 2003. https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/dissertations/AAI3113867/ Cf. also, Huebert, David, "Species Panic: Interspecies Erotics in Post-1900 American literature", PhD thesis University of Western Ontario 2018. 4. Cf. http://santarosahistory.com/wordpress/2016/11/the-case-for-arson-at-wolf-house/. Cf.Fresneau-Woodward, Servanne, "Nature animale et paysages naturels dans l'oeuvre de Jack London" Doctorat, Université de Paris X https://www.theses.fr/1987PA100174

American novelists
Writers from San Francisco
Writers from Alaska
Writers from Hawaii
1876 births
1916 deaths
Electric current

An electric current is a flow of electric charge. The equation of current is:

where
 is the current flowing
 is the change in electric charge
 is the change in time

The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A). This is equal to one coulomb of charge in one second.
Current can be found in wires, batteries, and lightning.

The source of current 
In conducting materials, some electrons are very loosely bound to the atoms of the material.  When large amounts of these atoms come together, there is a sort of electron cloud that "hovers" near the atoms of the material.  If you examine a cross-section of the piece of conducting material, the electrons will move very quickly through it.  This motion is caused by temperature, and electrons flowing in one direction tend to equal the electrons flowing from the other direction, so this is not what causes current to flow.  Electrons flow from one atom to another, a process has been compared to the passing of water buckets from one person to another in a bucket brigade.

When an electric field is put on the wire, the electrons respond almost instantly by drifting slightly in the opposite direction of the field.  They gain energy from the field, which is lost very quickly when they bump into other electrons in the material.  As long as the field is in place, however, the electrons will gain back that energy that they lost, and the process will continue.  This "jolt" that electrons receive from the electric field is the source of current, not the overall flow of electrons themselves.  From this discussion, we can see two things that current is not:

It is not an actual "flow" of electrons in the everyday sense of the word:  If we examine the speed given to the electrons by the field, it is usually very small, on the order of millimeters per second.  It would take half an hour for electrons to cross a 10-foot (3 m) room at this rate.  Since a light bulb flips on almost immediately after hitting the switch, something else must be at work.
It is also not a "domino effect", although this analogy is closer than the flow.  Since electrons are so tiny, even when they are moving very quickly they are not being propelled by great force.

Current in circuits 
When current is flowing in a wire circuit, it accelerates when there is no resistance in the circuit. Resistors are used to increase resistance in the circuit so it slows down the current. The relationship between resistance, current, and voltage (another part of the circuit) is shown by Ohm's law.

References 

Electricity
Inbreeding

Inbreeding is a term in genetics, meaning the crossing (mating) of closely related animals or plants.  Self-fertilisation in plants is the most extreme kind of inbreeding.  It is quite widespread in plants which carry both male and female flowers on the same plant. Inbreeding is the opposite of outcrossing, which is the mating of unrelated members of the same species. The combination of inbreeding and outcrossing is a standard method of artificial selection.

Other terms are inbred strain, a group of organisms so inbred that they have little or no genetic variation, and inbreeding depression, which is the decreased fitness (usually lack of fertility and early illness and death) brought about by inbreeding.

For human beings, inbreeding is destructive, and almost all cultures have an incest taboo. For example, many prohibit marriage between first cousins, and most prohibit it for closer family members.

Loss of genetic variation 
Loss of genetic variation means that many gene loci that were heterozygous are now homozygous. The result of both genes at a locus being mutant can be serious. 

The most intense form of inbreeding is the self-fertilisation in an hermaphrodite, in which the proportion of heterozygotes is halved in each generation.p139 Aa x Aa (100%) gives 1 AA: 2 Aa; 1 aa (50%), and so on. A similar effect takes twice as long with brother-sister mating, and longer still with mating in very small isolated groups. The latter situation is famous because Sewall Wright did his calculations for just such groups, and he called the process genetic drift. Genetic drift and inbreeding are closely related concepts.

The degree of inbreeding can be measured in various ways. A simple test for mammals is the exchange of skin grafts. If the grafts are not rejected, the animals must be nearly identical genetically. Skin grafts can be successfully exchanged between rats in standard laboratory strains, and between cheetahs caught in the wild.

Discussion 
Why is it that inbreeding brings about a loss of viability? There are two answers, and both seem to be true. The first is that a group with little genetic variation is vulnerable to environmental challenges: infections, sudden climate events, predators. Small groups are vulnerable to chance events in any case, but with no heritable variability they are even more vulnerable.

The second explanation is genetic. Some of the homozygous genes will be deleterious recessives which would normally be shielded by a dominant allele. Also, there are some loci where the heterozygote is inherently fitter than either homozygote. If so, inbreeding will automatically cause a loss of vigour.p103

Many plant species do self-pollination in the wild, but the great majority have occasional outcrossing. This provides them with sufficient variety for their survival.

Related pages
 Breed

References 

Classical genetics
Snooker

Snooker is a cue sport played by two players. It is popular in the United Kingdom, the Commonwealth and parts of Asia. 

It is played on a large (12 by 6 feet) table that is covered with a smooth green cloth called baize and has holes (called pockets) in each of the four corners and in the middle of each of the long side cushions.
 
The players use long thin sticks called cues to strike a white ball (the cue ball). The cue ball must always be hit first when attempting a shot at the target ball. 

There are 21 target balls in total - 15 red balls (worth 1 point each) and 6 colours: a yellow (2 points), green (3 points), brown (4 points), blue (5 points), pink (6 points) and black ball (7 points). 

Each target ball must be aimed or 'potted' into one of the pockets in order. A red ball followed by a colour then a red ball again. This happens until only the coloured balls are left. The colours then have to be potted in the following order: yellow, green, brown, blue, pink and black.

The player who scores more points wins the game or 'frame'. A match consists of an agreed number of frames.

Big events in snooker are the World Snooker Championship, UK Championship and the Masters. Professional players play on the World Snooker Tour.

The best-known snooker players are the six-time world champion Ronnie O'Sullivan, seven-time world champion Stephen Hendry and the current world champion Judd Trump. Other former world champions are for example Joe Davis (fifteen wins), his brother Fred Davis, John Pulman (each eight wins) and six-time world champions Ray Reardon and Steve Davis.

References
Simple Plan

Simple Plan is a rock band from Montréal, Canada that was founded in 1999.

Members 
 Pierre Charles Bouvier, Vocals & Acoustic Guitar (born May 9 1979 in Montréal)
 David Phillippe Desrosiers, Bass & Background Vocals (born August 29 1980 in Sept-Îles, Canada)
 Charles André "Chuck" Comeau, Drums (born September 17 1979 in Montréal)
 Sébestien Lefebvre, Rhythm Guitar and Background Vocals (born June 5 1981 in Montréal)
 Jean-François "Jeff" Stinco, Lead guitar (born August 22 1978 in Montréal)

When they were 13, schoolmates Pierre Bouvier and Chuck Comeau founded the band Reset. They published their first album in 1997. Soon after that, Comeau left the band because school was more important to him. He came back in 1999 and founded Simple Plan with Sebastien Lefebvre and Jeff Stinco. Bouvier met up with Comeau at a Sugar Ray concert, and Comeau offered Bouvier to join his band. David Desrosiers, who had replaced Bouvier in Reset, joined the band in 2000. in 2002, they published the album No Pads, No Helmets,... Just Balls. They worked together with Joel Madden (Good Charlotte) and Mark Hoppus (Blink-182). One year later, the album Still Not Getting Any... was published.

Singles
  No Pads, No Helmets... Just Balls.
 "I'm Just a Kid" (2001)
 "I'd Do Anything" (2002) #51 US
 "Addicted" (2003) #45 US, #63 UK, #10 AUS (2004 release)
 "Perfect" (2004) #24 US, #6 AUS (2004 release)

  Still Not Getting Any....
 "Welcome To My Life" (2004) #40 US, #7 AUS, #1 CAN, #1 SPAIN, #12 FR
 "Shut Up!" (2004) #99 US, #14 AUS, #12 CAN, #14 SP
 "Untitled (How Could This Happen to Me)" (2005) #49 US, #9 AUS,#3 CAN, #1 SPAIN
 "Crazy" (2005) #32 AUS, #4 CAN
 "Perfect World" (2006) (Single only in iTunes, but not launched in CD single)

 Simple Plan
 "When I'm Gone" (2007) 
 "Your Love is a Lie" (2008)
 "Save You (2008)

Albums 
 No Pads, No Helmets...Just Balls (2002)
 Live in Japan 2002 (2003)
 Live in Anaheim (2004) (Limited Edition)
 Still Not Getting Any... (2004)
 MTV Hard Rock Live (2005)
 Simple Plan (2008)
 Get Your Heart On! (2011)

DVDs 
 A Big Package for You (2003)
 MTV Hard Rock Live (2005)

Other websites

 Official website

Pop punk bands
Canadian rock bands
2000s music groups
2010s music groups
Atlantic Records artists
Serj Tankian

Serj Tankian (born on August 21, 1967 in Beirut, Lebanon) is an Armenian-American musician who lives in Auckland, New Zealand. He was the lead vocalist of System of a Down. He is now a solo artist and has released five solo albums.

Early life
Tankian was born in Beirut, Lebanon. Tankian moved with his parents to Los Angeles, California when he was five years old.

Studio Albums
Solo
 Elect the Dead (2007)
 Imperfect Harmonies (2010)
 Harakiri (2012)
 Orca (2013)
 Jazz-Iz-Christ (2013)

Soundtracks
Fuktronic (with Jimmy Urine) (TBA)
Prometheus Bound (TBA)

With System of a Down
System of a Down (1998)
Toxicity (2001)
Mezmerize (2005)
Hypnotize (2005)

With Arto Tunçboyacıyan
Serart (2003)

Other websites 
 Serj Tankian's official page
 
 Screamers Official Site
 'Screamers' and Genocide: A Talk With Serj Tankian From System of a Down 
 System of a Down Official Site
 Serjical Strike Records
 SOADFans Profile for Serj Tankian 
 SOADTalk.com Serj Tankian Biography 
 Recent interview with Serj
 SerjFans.com

1967 births
Living people
Armenian people
Naturalized citizens of the United States
People from Beirut
Singers from Los Angeles
Nicotine

Nicotine is a drug in tobacco cigarettes, cigars, pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, vaping liquids and some e-cigarettes. Nicotine is an addictive stimulant that causes the heart to beat faster and makes blood pressure rise. It can also make a person feel less hungry and speeds up the metabolism. These effects can be very unhealthy. Many people who use tobacco products want to quit but have a hard time quitting. It is one of the most addictive chemicals that is widely consumed by humans. It can be as addictive as heroin or cocaine.

Nicotine is a substance found in most members of the nightshade family of plants. Small quantities of it can be found in tomatoes, potatoes, aubergines (eggplants) and green pepper (Capsicum, the peppers used as vegetables). Nicotine is also in the Coca plant. In higher quantities it is a very efficient poison. It acts on the nerves. It is a stimulant in lower quantities. It is the main reason people are addicted to smoking.

Nicotine is named after Jean Nicot. Nicot was a French ambassador in Portugal. He had some tobacco seeds sent to Paris for analysis (As a drug).

Besides the treatment of nicotine dependency, it seems that the drug can also be used to treat special (severe) forms of epilepsy, as well as some other diseases.

Cigarette 
The amount of nicotine in one cigarette varies greatly. Factors which influence the amount include type of tobacco; brand of cigarette; country or region (some markets restrict maximum average nicotine levels); and how the cigarette is smoked.

Drugs
Secession

Secession usually means when part of one country breaks away, or leaves that country to start a new country.  During the American Civil War, eleven southern states declared their secession (independence) from the United States.

Politics
New England

New England is a region in the northeastern United States consisting of six states: Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. The name was coined in 1616 by the English explorer John Smith.
Dead Calm

Dead Calm is an American novel that was written in 1963. A 1989 Australian movie was made from it. The movie stars Sam Neill, Nicole Kidman, and Billy Zane.

What happened 

In it, a honeymoon couple rescue a young man from a sinking boat who claims to have lost his companions to food poisoning, but the real story is much less innocent.

In this movie, Kidman and Neill plays good guys and Zane plays a bad guy.  This movie was Kidman's first well-known movie, and it helped make her famous. In this movie, Zane's character rapes Kidman's character.

Other websites 
 

1963 books
Crime fiction books
English-language novels
Michael Hayden

Michael Hayden (born March 17, 1945) is an American politician, writer and military personnel. He was the head of the CIA from 2006 to 2009.  On 24 May 2006, he was voted as the new head of the CIA by the United States Senate.  He was the director of the NSA from 1999 to 2005.  The NSA and CIA are both spy agencies.  He has worked as a spy since 1970.

On November 23, 2018, Hayden was hospitalized after suffering a stroke.

References

Other websites 
Michael Hayden biography from the NSA 

Directors of the Central Intelligence Agency
Writers from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Politicians from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
American political writers
American generals
1945 births
Living people
Lutherstadt Wittenberg

Wittenberg ( , ; Low Saxon: Wittenbarg; meaning White Mountain; officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg (traditional English: Luther City Wittenberg, Low Saxon: Lutherstadt Wittenbarg)) is a town in Germany. It lies in the eastern part of Saxony-Anhalt. Wittenberg became one of the most important German towns of political, cultural, historical, and artistic advances in the 16th century. The famous reformation places in the old town, and the buildings developed in different epochs, make up the architecture of the town.
Many people travel to Wittenberg because of its past, and its connection to Martin Luther who worked there.

Wittenberg has about 46,000 inhabitants. Its geographical coordinates are 51° 52’ N, 12° 39’ E.

Notes

References

States of the Holy Roman Empire
Wittenberg Rural District
Martin Luther
Cyberstalking

Cyberstalking is when someone is using the Internet to stalk or harass someone. Cyberstalking is illegal in some countries.

Stalking 
Stalking is following someone around in a way that makes them feel hunted or not safe in some other way. It is not just one event but an ongoing process that threatens or makes that person feel scared. Someone who does this is called a stalker. The stalker may do this because they want to be involved in that person's life or because they want to have power over that person's life. The stalker can hurt that person's feelings by making them scared. They may feel they do not have the power to stop the stalker. Psychologists say stalking is a way of hurting someone's mind with serious effects. Sometimes a stalker may go on to hurt that person's body by assaulting, raping or murdering that person.

Cyberstalking 
Cyberstalking is when the stalker uses the Internet to contact or follow that person. The stalker may make direct contact with that person, they may send nasty messages to that person or spread lies about them to others. Sometimes stalkers use the Internet to learn more about the other person. They might find their address, phone number, workplace or photograph. Then they might use this information to do more stalking or find other ways to hurt that person on the Internet or hurt their body.

The person who is stalked on the Internet may feel they have more power if they can simply delete emails or turn their computer connection off. Or they may feel they have less power if they do not know who the stalker is.

References

Internet
Types of crime
Flag of Poland

The flag of Poland is a rectangular, divided into two stripes: white above red. It was created in its modern form in 1921. The colors white and red were earlier declared the official national colors in 1831 by the Polish Parliament in 1831.

For many centuries the Polish flag was a white eagle on a red background.

Details 

The ratio of height to width is 5 to 8. The two horizontal stripes are of equal height.

There is a second version which has a coat of arms in the upper (white) half. The use of this flag is legally restricted.

If the flag is shown hanging vertically, the white should be on the left.

Polish flag day is May 2.

The Color White 

The exact color of the white was not clearly stated until 1980.

The Color Red 

The exact color of the red was not clearly stated originally, and has changed through the years. In 1919 the official act did not clearly define the red. In 1921 the Polish Ministry of Military Affairs used crimson as the shade of red in publications. In 1928 the president of Poland said the red should be vermilion. That was used until 1980, when people needed to specify the red more scientifically.

Similar flags in other places 

The same flag design is used in the German region Thuringia and the Spanish region Cantabria.

Both Indonesia and Monaco have flags that are the same colors, but upside-down.

Related pages
 Poland

References 

Poland, Flag of
Polish culture
Torque

In physics, torque is the tendency of a force to turn or twist. If a force is used to begin to spin an object, or to stop an object from spinning, a torque is made.

The force applied to a lever, multiplied by the distance from the lever's fulcrum, multiplied again by the sine of the angle created, is described as torque. This is also known as "r cross f," or "force times fulcrum distance times sine theta."

Fulcrum 
Fulcrum is the axis of rotation or point of support on which a lever turns in raising or moving something.

Equation 
The equation for torque is:

where F is the net force vector and r is the vector from the axis of rotation to the point where the force is acting. The Greek letter Tau is used to represent torque. 

The units of torque are force multiplied by distance. The SI unit of torque is the newton-metre.  The most common English unit is the foot-pound.

References

Other websites 
"Horsepower and Torque" An article showing how power, torque, and gearing affect a vehicle's performance.
a discussion of torque and angular momentum in an online textbook
Torque and Angular Momentum in Circular Motion  on Project PHYSNET.
An interactive simulation of torque

Basic physics ideas
Physical quantity
Mechanics
Engineering
University of Leeds

The University of Leeds (sometimes called Leeds University) is a university in Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK.  It first started in 1831 with the opening of a school to teach medicine which was one of the first outside of London, Oxford, and Cambridge.

Today one of the UK's leading universities. It is a member of the Russell Group. The university is one of two in the city, the other being Leeds Metropolitan University.  The main campus is in the Woodhouse area of Leeds, close to Leeds City Centre.

Campus
The main campus is in the Woodhouse area of Leeds, which is about half a mile from the city centre.  The campus has many older Victorial buildings such as the Great Hall, as well as some mid-twentieth century buildings such as the Parkinson Building.  There are also many brutalist building on campus such as the Roger Stevens Building and the Edward Boyle Library.  Recently, newer buildings have been added such as the Marjorie and Arnold Ziff Building.

References

Other websites
University of Leeds website
Leeds University Union
Leeds Student newspaper 
Leeds Student news on Flisolo 
Leeds University Union Dance Band

Leeds
Leeds
1831 establishments in Europe
1830s establishments in England
Neuwied

Neuwied is a German town in Rhineland-Palatinate. It is on the north/west side of the Rhine River, about  northwest from Koblenz. About 70,000 people live there.

Geography
The 86,5 square kilometres of area are divided in the districts of:
 Altwied
 Block
 Engers
 Feldkirchen
 Gladbach
 Heimbach-Weis
 Irlich
 Niederbieber
 Oberbieber
 Rodenbach
 Segendorf
 Torney

Infrastructure
Neuwied is connected to the German network of Bundesstraßen (national routes) (here: B9, B42 and B256). The Autobahnen (motorways) A3, A48 and A61 are quickly reachable from Neuwied. Using the Koblenz main station, all rhine railways and the Intercity network of Germany are available.

Industry
There is a lot of industry in Neuwied, for example the production of building materials, metals and big-sized machines.

References
Moldovan language

Moldovan () is the official language of Moldova. It is almost the same as Romanian. The main difference is that Moldovan was written in the Cyrillic alphabet because Moldova was part of the Soviet Union until 1989. In 1989, Moldova became its own country and started to use the Latin alphabet, which is used in Romania. On 5 December 2013,  the Moldovan government chose Romanian as the official language.

In the unrecognized state of Transnistria, one of the official languages is still Moldovan and is still written with the Cyrillic alphabet. The other official languages are Russian and Ukrainian.

Romance languages
Moldova
Romania
Languages of Europe
Electrical resistance

The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is a measure of the difficulty of passing an electric current through a substance. It explains the relationship between voltage (amount of electrical pressure) and the current (flow of electricity).  With more resistance in a circuit, less electricity will flow through the circuit. The inverse of resistance is conductance, a measure not much used. All objects have some resistance, except superconductors. 

Resistance, discovered by Georg Simon Ohm in 1827, is the ratio between voltage and current. Ohm's law said that the voltage between any two points in a conductor changes directly as the current between the two points, given the temperature remains the same.  He described it with the equation:

which models the ratio, where: 
 is the resistance of the object, measured in ohms (Ω)
 is the voltage across the object, measured in volts (V)
 is the current going through the object, measured in amperes (A)

Calculating resistance 
A long and thin wire has more resistance than a short and thick one. A simple analogy is a road - the more lanes there are, the more cars can go through. The resistance  of a wire with a constant width, therefore, can be calculated as:

where  is the length of the conductor, measured in meters [m],  is the cross-sectional area of the conductor measured in square meters [m²], and  (Greek: rho) is the electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance) of the material, measured in ohm-meters (Ω m).

Example:
Calculate the resistance of copper wire with a radius of 2mm and a length of 5 meters.

Solution:
The resistivity () of copper is  Ω m.
The cross sectional area () is  square meters
The length () is  meters

Because:

Applications 

Resistors are used in electrical circuits to provide electrical resistance. 

Electronics
Electricity
Electromagnetic induction

Electromagnetic induction is where a voltage or current is produced in a conductor by a changing magnetic flux.  It may happen when a magnet is moved in a solenoid, thus changing the magnetic flux.

If the magnet is stationary, there will be no produced voltage (electrostatic potential difference) across an electrical conductor. However, if the magnetic field is changing and (maintaining) movement, while continuously directing in the opposite direction (varying its direction periodically), it will cause a the production of a voltage (hence the flow of alternating current), as stated by Michael Faraday in 1831.

Magnetic flux 

When a coiled wire is introduced near a magnet, the magnetic lines of force pass through the coil. This causes the magnetic flux to change.
Magnetic flux is represented by the symbol , therefore we can say that  = BAcos(a) and the resulting unit will be , where T is the unit for magnetic field and  is the unit for area.

The changing magnetic flux generates an electromotive force (EMF). This force moves free electrons in a certain way, which constitute a current.

Faraday's law 

Michael Faraday found that an electromotive force is generated when there is a change in magnetic flux in a conductor.

His laws state that:

where,

 is the electromotive force, measured in volts;

 is the change in magnetic flux, measured in webers;

 is the change in time, measured in seconds.

In the case of a solenoid:

where,

N is the number of loops in the solenoid.

Lenz's law 
The negative sign in both equation above is a result of Lenz's law, named after Heinrich Lenz. His law states that the electromotive force (EMF) produces a current that opposes the motion of the changing magnetic flux.

Related pages 
Electromagnetism
Inductor
Transformer

Electromagnetism
Electrical conductor

A conductor is a material which allows electricity, heat or sound to flow through it.  

An electrical conductor conducts electricity.  The ability to conduct electricity is called electrical conductivity.  A good electrical conductor has high conductivity and low resistivity.  Electrical resistivity is the reciprocal/opposite of conductivity. 

Prominent electrical conductors include: 

 Copper 
 Aluminum 
 Gold 
 Silver 
 Water 
 Human skin 

Metals, like iron and copper, are used to make wires to carry electric current. Plasma is an excellent conductor of electricity and is used for many purposes but metals are more used. 

Impure water can also conduct electricity. Living tissues, as in the human body, are wet and therefore conductors of electricity.

Some materials are semiconductors. This means that electricity can flow through them to a certain temperature and below that semiconductors do not pass electricity.

Some materials are resistors. This means electricity does not easily flow through them.

A material that stops electric current is called an insulator (electricity).  Wires are covered with insulators like plastic to stop the electricity from leaving the wire.

Some materials when very cold, are superconductors. They offer no resistance at all to the flow of electricity.

Most conductor's resistance becomes higher at higher temperatures.

References 

Electricity
Basic physics ideas
The Gods Must Be Crazy

The Gods Must Be Crazy is a movie directed by Jamie Uys. It was released in the United States by 20th Century Fox in 1980.

Upon its release, The Gods Must Be Crazy made the more money than any other foreign movie. Four sequels followed from 1989 to 1994. The last three in the series were made in Hong Kong.

Plot 
It stars Namibian farmer N!xau as a Bushman, whose happy village (in Africa's Kalahari desert) suddenly turns to a violent society, after a Coke bottle falls down there from a passing airplane. The Bushman, Xixo, decides to return the bottle to the "end of the earth", to finish all the evil his family has gone through. Along the way, he meets a group of terrorists on the run, as well as a clumsy scientist who falls in love with a former newspaper journalist. During his journey, Xixo encounters modern civilisation for the first time.

Other websites 
 

1980 action movies
1980 comedy movies
20th Century Fox movies
South African movies
Botswanan movies
Multilingual movies
Movies set in Africa
Movies set in deserts
The Care Bears Adventure in Wonderland

The Care Bears Adventure in Wonderland  is an animated movie from 1987, released by Cineplex Odeon Films. It is the last big-screen movie to star the Care Bears characters, and is loosely based on Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland stories.

This movie has a sequel called Care Bears Movie II: A New Generation (1986).

Other websites 

NYTimes.com review (registration required)
Lyrics to the movie's soundtrack at Distant Melody 

1987 movies
1980s family movies
Canadian animated movies
Canadian family movies
English-language movies
Rhea

Rhea could mean:

Mythology
 Rhea (mythology), in Greek mythology the sister and wife of Cronos and the mother of many of the other major gods
 Rhea Silvia, in Roman mythology the mother of the twins Romulus and Remus

People
These people have "Rhea" as their family name:
 Caroline Rhea (b.1964), stand-up comedian, television actress and host
 Darrel Rhea, CEO, Cheskin
 James Rhea (1791-1812), US soldier
 La Julia Rhea (1908-1992), US opera singer

These people have it as their given name:
 Rhea Hughes, Philadelphia radio personality
 Rhea Perlman (b. 1948), US television actress
 M. Rhea Seddon (b. 1947), NASA astronaut
 Rhea Tregebov, Canadian poet and children's author

Other
 Rhea (moon), a moon of Saturn
 577 Rhea, asteroid
 Rhea (bird), large flightless birds native to South America
 Rhea County, Tennessee
 Rhea of the Cöos, character in Stephen King's Dark Tower novels
Norwegian language

The Norwegian language is the official language of Norway. It is spoken by over four and a half million people, and it belongs to the group of North Germanic languages which are spoken in Scandinavia. These include Swedish, Danish, Icelandic and Faeroese.

Two forms of the language exist:  (which means "book language") and  (which means "new Norwegian").

History of the Norwegian language

Old Norse 

Old Norse is the language that was spoken hundreds of years ago in Scandinavia at the time of the Vikings.  It is very similar to today’s Icelandic language.  This is because many Vikings sailed from Norway to Iceland in order to escape from the rule of the Norwegian kings who were making people pay lots of tax.

Bokmål 
During the 13th century the Black Death killed two thirds of the population of Norway.  The Danish kings and queens noticed that Norway was weak and defenceless, so they annexed Norway (made it part of Denmark).  For hundreds of years Norway was ruled by the Danes.  All the rulers, priests, estate owners and noblemen were Danish.  Many of them settled in Norway.  This is why today’s standard Norwegian (Bokmål) is similar to Danish.  Norwegians were not allowed to print books in Norwegian.  Anyone wanting to study had to go to Denmark or Germany.

In 1814 Denmark lost a war and had to give Norway to Sweden.  Then the Norwegians were allowed to have their own university.  Gradually the Danish language was mixed up with the Norwegian dialects and became today’s Norwegian language.  Norwegian and Danish look very similar when they are written, but when they are spoken they sound different.  In Danish a lot of the sounds are swallowed.

Nynorsk 

During the 19th century a slightly different form of Norwegian was made up by several people.  This eventually became known as “Nynorsk.”  It was based on old forms of Norwegian and dialects.  During the 20th century some attempts were made to join Bokmål and Nynorsk into one language, but they did not succeed. Today about one person in nine or ten in Norway writes Nynorsk.  Children in school have to learn both forms.

The Norwegian alphabet 

The Norwegian alphabet has 29 letters.  These are the same letters as the English alphabet plus three extra vowels: 

The letters c, q, w, x and z are only used for words that have been borrowed from other languages.

References

Other websites 
Språkrådet – Norwegian Language Council
Learn Norwegian Online – Online language course
Bokmål and Nynorsk online dictionary 

Germanic languages
Languages of Norway
Osnabrück

Osnabrück is a city in Germany in the state of Lower Saxony. It is around 1,200 years old. The castle dates back to the 19th century. The city was founded by Charlemagne. It has about 165,000 inhabitants, and is twinned with Derby, UK, as well as five other cities around Europe.

Osnabrück is in the south of the state, on the border with North Rhine-Westphalia. It shares an airport with the neighbouring city of Münster which is in North Rhine-Westphalia. It is the only German city in a national park.

It is known as the City of Peace.

References