cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Voice over Internet Protocol

Voice over Internet protocol (or VoIP) is a term used for a number of protocols that are used to carry voice data over packet switched networks. Beforehand, telephony used a dedicated line, that was only for calls. This was known as PSTN (or "public switched telephony network"). Using VOIP will reduce costs, as the "dedicated line" for telephony (and fax) is no longer needed.

There are a number of technical problems that must be solved first, though:
 Carrying voice data needs a service guarantees (mostly in the form of "throughput", and "response time"). Not having this will result in a loss of signal (or in "hiccups")
 Most telephony network provide the possibility to operate a phone, even when the power is lost in the area. This is done so that emergency calls can still be made. VOIP usually does not provide this possibility.  
 The LAN is now used both for voice and data, and becomes a single point of failure. If there are problems with the LAN, this can also affect VOIP calls. 
 The encoding schemes used for voice calls are not good choices for fax or other uses of the telephony network.

The vast majority of VoIP systems rely on the two main protocols.

SIP :- SIP, or also known as session initiation protocol, has become the standard for multimedia sessions on the internet. The Engineering Task Force thinks of this protocol as the standard for audio, video and even instant messaging solutions. This task force is simply a large, international community, composed of anyone involved in the networking evolution online. SIP is modular, meaning that it can be changed around in whatever way needed. Depending on the type of data your business is wishing to transmit, your SIP deployment will need to be designed specifically for this. With that being said, VoIP and IM communications will need to work around these aspects, and be designed for one total approach. 

H.323 :- This protocol has become the international standard for all communication over packet-switched networks. This includes LAN, WAN and even the general internet networks we all connect to. H.323 is considered an umbrella that includes all types of standards, which is what the internet is based on. H.323 focuses on voice, video, and data communications, designed specifically to operate over IP networks. At this point, this protocol has become the world market leader for voice and voice communications over IP networks. H.323 was developed by the international telecommunications union, which is the organization responsible for building the public telephone network.

References

Telephone
Internet protocols
British royal family

The British royal family is the group of close relatives (family) of the monarch, currently Elizabeth II, of the United Kingdom.

Members
The Queen Elizabeth II  

The Prince of Wales
The Duchess of Cornwall
The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge
Prince George of Cambridge
Princess Charlotte of Cambridge
Prince Louis of Cambridge
The Duke and Duchess of Sussex
The Duke of York 
Princess Beatrice
Princess Eugenie
The Earl and Countess of Wessex
The Princess Royal 

The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester
The Duke and Duchess of Kent
Prince Michael of Kent
Princess Michael of Kent
Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy

References
Royal Gov website Retrieved 3 July 2012\
https://www.ancestry.com/family-tree/person/tree/155209306/person/302050214240/story For HRH Blake Royall Shaner

 
British monarchy
House of Windsor
MQV

MQV (Menezes-Qu-Vanstone) is an authenticated protocol for key agreement based on the Diffie-Hellman scheme. MQV provides protection against an active attacker.

References
 Burton S. Kaliski Jr., An unknown key-share attack on the MQV key agreement protocol. ACM Trans. Inf. Syst. Secur. 4(3): pp275–288 (2001)
 Laurie Law, Alfred Menezes, Minghua Qu, Jerry Solinas, Scott A. Vanstone, An Efficient Protocol for Authenticated Key Agreement. Des. Codes Cryptography 28(2): pp119–134 (2003)
 Peter J. Leadbitter, Nigel P. Smart: Analysis of the Insecurity of ECMQV with Partially Known Nonces. ISC 2003: pp240–251
  A. Menezes, M. Qu, and S. Vanstone, Some new key agreement protocols providing implicit authentication, Preproceedings of Workshops on Selected Areas in Cryptography (1995).

Other websites
 Articles on MQV and ECMQV in Certicom's newsletter Code and Cipher.
 HMQV: A High-Performance Secure Diffie-Hellman Protocol by Hugo Krawczyk
 Another look at HMQV
 An Efficient Protocol for Authenticated Key Agreement

Cryptography
Runtime

In computer science, runtime or run time describes the operation of a computer program, the duration of its execution, from beginning to termination.

The term runtime can also refer to a virtual machine to manage a program written in a computer language while it is running.

Run time is sometimes used to mean  runtime library, a library of basic code that is used by a particular compiler but when used in this fashion, runtime library is more accurate.

A runtime environment is a virtual machine state which provides software services for processes or programs while a computer is running.

Runtime activities include loading and linking of the classes needed to execute a program, optional machine code generation and dynamic optimization of the program, and actual program execution.

For example, a program written in Java calls for services from the Java Runtime Environment by issuing commands from which the expected result is returned by the Java Runtime. By providing these services, the Java Runtime Environment is considered the runtime environment of the program. Both the program and the Java Runtime Environment request services from the operating system. The operating system kernel provides services for itself and all processes and software running under its control. The Operating System may be considered as providing a runtime environment for itself.

Related pages
 Compile time and compiling
 Interpreter (computing)
 Run-time system

References 

 Jon Byous, Java technology: The early years. Sun Developer Network, no date [ca. 1998]. Retrieved April 22, 2005.
 James Gosling, A brief history of the Green project . Java.net, no date [ca. Q1/1998]. Retrieved April 29, 2007.
 James Gosling, Bill Joy, Guy Steele, and Gilad Bracha, The Java language specification, third edition. Addison-Wesley, 2005.  (see also online edition of the specification)
 Tim Lindholm and Frank Yellin. The Java Virtual Machine specification, second edition. Addison-Wesley, 1999.  (see also online edition of the specification).
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Computer science
Java virtual machine

A Java virtual machine (JVM) is a set of computer software programs and data structures which use a virtual machine model for the execution of other computer programs and scripts.  The model used by a JVM accepts a form of computer intermediate language commonly referred to as Java bytecode. 

Java virtual machines operate on Java bytecode, which is normally (but not necessarily) generated from Java source code; a JVM can also be used to implement programming languages other than Java. 

The JVM is an important component of the Java Platform. Because JVMs are available for many hardware and software platforms, Java can be both middleware and a platform in its own right – hence the expression "write once, run anywhere." The use of the same bytecode for all platforms allows Java to be described as "compile once, run anywhere", as opposed to "write once, compile anywhere", which describes cross-platform compiled languages.

References 

 Clarifications and Amendments to the Java Virtual Machine Specification, Second Edition includes list of changes to be made to support J2SE 5.0 and JSR 45
 JSR 45 – Specifies changes to the class file format to support source-level debugging of languages such as JSP and SQLJ that are translated to Java

Other websites
 The Java Virtual Machine Specification
 
 A decade after Java arrived, there have been improvements in the runtime performance of platform-independent virtual-machine based software. 
 Sun to build virtual machine for iPhone - ComputerWorld 

Computer science
Station-to-Station protocol

The Station-to-Station (STS) protocol is a cryptographic (information-hiding) key agreement scheme based on the classic Diffie-Hellman key exchange that provides mutual key and entity (party) authentication.

In addition to protecting the established key from an attacker, the STS protocol uses no timestamps and provides perfect forward secrecy.  It also requires two-way explicit key confirmation, making it an Authenticated key agreement with Key Confirmation (Acronym: AKC) protocol.

STS was originally presented in 1987 in the context of ISDN security , finalized in 1989 and generally presented by Whitfield Diffie, Paul C. van Oorschot and Michael J. Wiener in 1992.

Cryptography
Internet Key Exchange

Internet Key Exchange (IKE or IKEv2) is the protocol used to set up a security association (SA) in the IPsec protocol suite. IKE uses a Diffie-Hellman key exchange to set up a shared session secret, from which cryptographic keys are derived. Public key techniques or, alternatively, a pre-shared key, are used to mutually authenticate the communicating parties.

IKE builds upon the Oakley protocol.

History 
IKE was originally defined in November 1998 by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in a series of publications (Request for Comments) known as RFC 2407, RFC 2408, and RFC 2409. 
 RFC 2407 defined The Internet IP Security Domain of Interpretation for ISAKMP.  
 RFC 2408 Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP)  
 RFC 2409 defined The Internet Key Exchange (IKE)  

IKE was updated to version two (IKEv2) in December 2005 by RFC 4306.  IKEv2 has been further expanded by RFC 4301 (Security Architecture for the Internet Protocol) through RFC 4310 (DNS Security Extensions Mapping for the EPP). More RFCs are being added all the time as the need arises to further develop the features of the protocol.

The parent organization of the IETF, The Internet Society (ISOC), has maintained the copyrights of these standards as being freely available to the Internet community.

Related pages
 Key-agreement protocol

References

Other websites
 RFC 2407 The Internet IP Security Domain of Interpretation for ISAKMP, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 RFC 2408 Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP), Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 RFC 2409 The Internet Key Exchange (IKE), Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 RFC 4306: Internet Key Exchange (IKEv2) Protocol, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) (obsoletes RFC 2407, 2408, 2409)
 An architecture for the Internet Key Exchange Protocol
 Overview of IKE (from Cisco)
The following Open Source implementations of IKEv2 are currently available: 
 OpenIKEv2, 
 IKEv2, 
 Racoon2  from the KAME project.

Cryptography
Shared secret

In cryptography, a shared secret is a piece of data only known to the parties involved in a secure communication. The shared secret can be a password, a passphrase, a big number or an array of randomly chosen bytes.

The shared secret is either shared before parties start to communicate; in this case it can also be called a pre-shared key. Or it is created at the start of the communication session by using a key-agreement protocol, for-instance using public-key cryptography such as Diffie-Hellman or using symmetric-key cryptography such as Kerberos.

The shared secret can be used for authentication (for instance when logging in to a remote system) using methods such as challenge-response or it can be fed to a key derivation function to produce one or more keys to use for encryption and/or MACing of messages.

To make unique session and message keys the shared secret is usually combined with an initialization vector (IV).  An example of this is the derived unique key per transaction method.

References 

 Handbook of Applied Cryptography by Menezes, van Oorschot and Vanstone (2001), chapter 10 and 12.

Cryptography
Styphnolobium japonicum

Pagoda Tree or Chinese Scholar Tree (Styphnolobium) is a genus of flowering plants in the Fabaceae family. After the segregation of Sophora, this genus comprises 9 species.

References

Other websites
, 
 http://www.about-garden.com/a/en/3806-sophora-japonica-pendula-japanese-pagoda-tree/

Faboideae
Horsforth

Horsforth is a town and civil parish within the City of Leeds, in West Yorkshire, England, lying about five miles north-west of Leeds city centre. Historically within the West Riding of Yorkshire, it has a population of 18,895 according to the 2011 Census.[1] Horsforth was considered to have the largest population of any village in the United Kingdom during the latter part of the 19th century. It became part of the City of Leeds metropolitan borough in 1974. In 1999 the community created a civil parish to cover the area, which voted to rename itself a town council. The area sits within the Horsforth ward of Leeds City Council, which also includes the southern part of Rawdon.

Towns in West Yorkshire
Pre-shared key

In cryptography, a pre-shared key or PSK is a shared secret which was previously shared between the two parties using some secure channel before it is used. Such systems almost always use symmetric key cryptographic algorithms. 

The characteristics of this secret or key are determined by the system which uses it; some system require that such keys be in a specific format. It can be a password like 'bret13i', a passphrase like 'Idaho hung gear id gene', or a hexadecimal string like '65E4 E556 8622 EEE1'. The secret is used by all systems involved in the cryptographic processes used to secure the traffic between the systems.  

The term is used in Wi-Fi encryption such as WEP or WPA, where both the wireless access points (AP) and all clients share the same key.   

Since one weakpoint of the crypto system is the encryption algorithm's key, the key strength is important, and since the strength of a key is in part dependent on the key length, it is important to choose a key whose length is cryptographically secure (see password strength). There are several tools available to help one choose a strong key.  The Diceware method is one example.

Cryptography
Corse-du-Sud

Corse-du-Sud is a department in the south of France. Its prefecture is Ajaccio. As of 2006, about 125,000 people live there.

Related pages 

 Communes of the Corse-du-Sud department

Departments in Corsica
Haute-Corse

Haute-Corse is a department in the south of France. Its prefecture is Bastia. Haute-Corse has a population of about 148,000 (2006 estimation).

Departments in Corsica
Côtes-d'Armor

Côtes-d'Armor is a department found in the west of France. Its prefecture is Saint-Brieuc and its population is about 561,000 (). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Côtes-d'Armor has also 3 subprefectures: Dinan, Guingamp and Lannion.

Departments in Brittany
Creuse

Creuse () is a department in central France in the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It is named after the Creuse river that flows through the department.

History
Creuse is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790. It was created mainly with lands of the old province of County of La Marche.

The new department had seven districts: La Souterraine, Guéret, Boussac, Évaux, Felletin, Bourganeuf and Aubusson. The capital (now prefecture) was Guéret alternating with Aubusson, but soon only Guéret remained as capital.

In 1800, with the creation of the arrondissements in France, the seven districts were changed into four arrondissements: Guéret, Aubusson, Bourganeuf and Boussac.

On 10 September 1926, the arrondissements of Bourganeuf et Boussac were eliminated.

Geography

Creuse is part of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. It has an area of .

The department is surrounded by 6 departments in 3 regions:
 Nouvelle-Aquitaine region
 Corrèze department
 Haute-Vienne department
 Centre-Val de Loire region
 Cher department
 Indre department
 Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region
 Allier department
 Puy-de-Dôme department

The department is in the northwestern part of the Massif Central; the Millevaches plateau is in the southeastern part of the department. The highest point is in Forêt de Châteauvert (), "commune" of Saint-Oradoux-de-Chirouze, southeastern of the department and in northeastern Massif Central; it is   high; the lowest point is in the valley of the Creuse river,  high.

The main river in the department is the Creuse, a tributary of the Vienne river and that gives its name to this the deparment; it flows through the department from the southeast to the northwest.

Administration
The department is managed by the Departamental Council of the Creuse in Guéret. Creuse is part of the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine.

Administrative divisions
There are 2 arrondissements (districts), 15 cantons and 258 communes (municipalities) in Haute-Vienne.

The following is a list of the 15 cantons of the Creuse department (with their INSEE codes), in France, following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

 Ahun (2301)
 Aubusson (2302)
 Auzances (2303)
 Bonnat (2304)
 Bourganeuf (2305)
 Boussac (2306)
 Dun-le-Palestel (2307)
 Évaux-les-Bains (2308)
 Felletin (2309)
 Gouzon (2310)
 Le Grand-Bourg (2311)
 Guéret-1 (2312)
 Guéret-2 (2313)
 Saint-Vaury (2314)
 La Souterraine (2315)

Demographics
The inhabitants of Creuse are known, in French, as Creusois (women: Creusoises).

Creuse has a population, in 2014, of 120,581, for a population density of  inhabitants/km2. The arrondissement of Guéret, with 83,458 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other arrondissement, Aubusson, has 37,123 inhabitants.

Evolution of the population in Dordogne

The main cities in the department are:

Gallery

Related pages
 Arrondissements of the Creuse department

References

Other websites

 Departamental Council website 
 Prefecture website 
 Tourism office of Creuse 

Departments in Nouvelle-Aquitaine
Eure

Eure is a department found in the northwest of France in the Normandy region. Its prefecture is Évreux. Eure has a population of about 557,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Departments in Normandy
Key-agreement protocol

In cryptography, a key-agreement protocol is a cryptographic protocol by which two or more parties can agree on a key in such a way that both have an effect on the results.

Cryptography
Finistère

Finistère is a department found in the west of France in the Brittany region. Its prefecture is Quimper. Finistère has a population of about 874,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Departments in Brittany
Jigglypuff

Jigglypuff, known in Japan as Purin (プリン), is one of the fictional species of Pokémon from the Pokémon media franchise owned by Nintendo and Game Freak. Since it was introduced early in the Pokémon anime, it has become one of the most famous Pokémon.

Jigglypuff is perhaps most famous for the song it sings which puts everyone who hears it into a deep sleep. Jigglypuff then becomes upset because it assumes everyone is very bored by the song, and it draws all over their faces with a marker.

Jigglypuff is a small Pokémon, slightly shorter than Pikachu. It is shaped like a balloon and has a pink body with blue eyes, catlike ears, and a strange tuft of fur on its forehead.

In video games
In the Pokémon video games, Jigglypuff is famous among players because it learns the move Sing, which puts enemy Pokémon to sleep. This often causes them to lose the battle, and many players find it very annoying.

Jigglypuff was introduced in Pokémon Red and Blue, the first Pokémon games. It has appeared in most of the games since then. It evolves into Wigglytuff, an "upgraded" form of Jigglypuff. Starting with Pokémon Gold and Silver, Jigglypuff has a pre-evolved evolutionary form, Igglybuff. Igglybuff was one of the 100 new Pokémon introduced in Gold and Silver. Previously there were only 151.

Jigglypuff has also appeared in Super Smash Bros., Super Smash Bros. Melee, Super Smash Bros. Brawl, and Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U. It is a light and fast character who is great in the air. Its attacks include Rollout, Pound, Sing, Rest, and its Final Smash, Puff Up.

In anime
Jigglypuff is one of the most famous Pokémon, alongside Pikachu, Bulbasaur, Charmander, and Mewtwo, mostly because it has appeared many times in the still-running Pokémon anime. It usually appears unexpectedly and puts Pokémon and humans near it to sleep for a few minutes by singing its trademark song. It has a black permanent marker, similar to a Sharpie, with which it often draws on people and Pokémon's faces while they are asleep. This is an act of revenge because everyone falls asleep when they hear Jigglypuff's song and Jigglypuff assumes it's because they are very bored by it. Since people are upset when Jigglypuff puts them to sleep, and Jigglypuff is upset when they fall asleep, it is a vicious circle.

In episode "Beach Blank-Out Blastoise", Jigglypuff somehow got stuck in Blastoise's hydro cannon. When it was finally freed, it put everyone to sleep and then drew on their faces.

References

Pokémon monsters
Muhammad al-Qaim Bi-Amrillah

Muhammad al-Qaim Bi-Amrillah (893 - 17 May, 946) () was the second Caliph of the Fatimids in Ifriqiya and ruled from 934 to 946. He is the 12th Imam according to Isma'ili Faatemi faith.

Al-Qaim (sometimes also spelled Ka'im) was born in Salamya in Syria in 895 with the name Abd ar-Rahman. After his father Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah (910-934) seized power in Ifriqiya he was named heir to the throne in 912, and helped put down several revolts. But campaigns into Egypt failed because of the resistance of the Abbasids (914-915 and 919-921).

In 934 Al-Qaim succeeded his father as Caliph. The Fatimid realm became an important power in the Mediterranean. After the re-conquest of Sicily the Byzantine province of Calabria and the coast of Italy and France were . 

But from 944 to 947 there was a crisis by the revolt of Abu Yazid, who had united the Kharijite Berber tribes of eastern Algeria and overrun Ifriqiya. Imam Al-Qaim was able to hold out in Mahdia with the help of the navy for over a year, but died (17 May 946) before the revolt could be put down. 

He was succeeded by his son Ismail al-Mansur (946-953).
He died on 13 th Shawwal 334 AH (Mahdiyya)/ 17th May 946 AD

Other websites 
 Imam al-Qaaim, the 12th Fatimi Imam. 
 

893 births
946 deaths
Muslims
Victoria Falls

Victoria Falls is a waterfall in south central Africa in the Zambezi River between southeast Zambia and northwest Zimbabwe. It is 108.3 m high and 1,703 m wide.

The falls were discovered by David Livingstone in November 1855, where he saw it on what is now known as Livingstone Island. He named it after Queen Victoria. The Chitonga name for the Falls is Mosi-oa-Tunya. That word means "the smoke that thunders". They call it that because the Falls are very misty.

The Falls more or less dry up in the dry season.

It is listed as one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Related pages
 Iguaçu Falls

References 

 Waterfalls
 Bodies of water of Africa
 World Heritage Sites in Africa
 Geography of Zambia
 Geography of Zimbabwe
Vicente López y Portaña

Vicente López y Portaña (September 19, 1772, Valencia, Spain – July 22, 1850, Madrid, Spain) was a Spanish painter. He was one of the most well known portrait painters of his time. He became the court painter to Queen Isabella II. His most famous painting is a portrait of the artist Goya.

1772 births
1850 deaths
Spanish painters
People from Valencia
Théophile Gautier

Pierre Jules Théophile Gautier (August 30, 1811 – October 23, 1872) was a French poet, dramatist, novelist, journalist, and literary critic. He was a member of the Club des Hashischins, or Hashish Club. This group of French writers experimented with hashish to get ideas.
Gautier wrote the 1841 ballet story for Giselle with Jules-Henri Vernoy de Saint-Georges.

References

1811 births
1872 deaths
French poets
French journalists
French playwrights
French novelists
French literary critics
Librettists
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery, Paris
Anton Raphael Mengs

Anton Raphael Mengs (March 12, 1728 – June 29, 1779) was a German painter. He worked in Rome, Madrid, and Saxony. Mengs painted many portraits, including members of the Spanish Royal family.

German painters
1728 births
1779 deaths
El Escorial

El Escorial is a famous royal site in Spain. It was built in the late 1500s. El Escorial is a monastery, a royal palace, a museum and a school. It is located about  northwest of the Spanish capital, Madrid, in the town of San Lorenzo de El Escorial. Five miles from the main building is a hunting lodge called Granjilla de La Fresneda, which is also part of the Escorial.

Architecture 
The building was designed by the architect Juan Bautista de Toledo to the plans of King Philip II. El Escorial is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is a very popular tourist attraction.

El Escorial was one of 100 finalists for the 12 Treasures of Spain in 2007.

References

Other websites 

 El Escorial site
 El Escorial Monastery - History and Photos
 Maps showing areas of outstanding natural beauty, educational, scientific or cultural importance in Spain 
 El Escorial tourist and travel connexions guide (Eng)
 

World Heritage Sites in Spain
Palaces in Spain
Museums in Spain
Schools
Community of Madrid
List of governors of Alaska

The Governor of Alaska is the leader of Alaska's government and the state's military. The governor has the right to make state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Alaska Legislature, to meet the legislature, and grant pardons, not for impeachment.

The current Governor of Alaska is Mike Dunleavy.

Governors of Alaska

References
City council

A city council is a form of local government, usually covering a city or other urban area, such as a town.

Local government
Chuck Baldwin

Charles O. "Chuck" Baldwin  (born May 3, 1952) is a founder-pastor of Crossroad Baptist Church in Pensacola, Florida, and 2008 presidential nominee of the Constitution Party. He was also the Constitution Party nominee for Vice President in 2004.

References

2008 United States presidential candidates
Politicians from Florida
1952 births
Living people
Darrell Castle

Darrell Castle (born October 11, 1948) is an American politician, activist and lawyer from Memphis, Tennessee, and the 2008 vice-presidential candidate of the Constitution Party. He was the party's presidential nominee for the 2016 presidential election.

References

2016 United States presidential candidates
United States vice-presidential candidates, 2008
Lawyers from Memphis, Tennessee
Politicians from Memphis, Tennessee
American activists
1948 births
Living people
United States Electoral College

The United States Electoral College is a name used to describe the official 538 Presidential electors who come together every four years during the presidential election to give their official votes for President and Vice President of the United States.  

The number of electors each state has is determined by the number of representatives a state has, plus its two senators. No state can have fewer than three electors.  There are 435 representatives in total and 100 senators.  The 23rd Amendment to the Constitution awarded Washington, D.C. three electors.  Combined, there is a total of 538 electors. 

Electors usually vote for the winner of the popular vote in their state.  In some states, they vote depending on the popular vote in each congressional district.  The Constitution leaves states to decide how electors will vote.  Faithless electors are electors that vote against the popular vote, although there is a fine for this in some states.

The Electoral College was created as the Founding Fathers were afraid the popular vote would be easily swayed.  Because congressional representatives is determined by population, electors are assigned based on representatives.  More populous states have more electors.  Because most states have a winner-take-all system, where the winner of the popular vote in a state gains all of the electors, several presidents have lost the popular vote and won the electoral vote.  A candidate needs to win a majority of electors, or 270, to become the president-elect.

The Electoral College plays a very important role in today's elections. It is the subject of controversy as some people approve of the system, but for various reasons, some don't. The people who approve of the system often argue and say that it give smaller states more power, and that this a good thing, because if it were done by population, someone could win a majority of the votes in certain states but not win the majority of states. The Electoral College favors those who win more states, big and small. Even though it can be won with 11 states, often certain states stay Democratic or Republican ensuring it likely won't happen this way. Those are who against it bring up the latter argument that it can be won with 11 states and often the candidate who wins does not win the popular vote. Third parties can change the outcome of an election, and it is often debated whether they play a role.

References

Other websites 
 U.S. Electoral College FAQ (www.archives.gov)
 Historical Documents on the Electoral College
 U. S. Electoral College -Citizendium

Politics of the United States
Government of the United States
Elections in the United States
Ille-et-Vilaine

Ille-et-Vilaine is a department found in the west of France in the Brittany region. Its prefecture is Rennes and its population is about 908,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Departments in Brittany
Isère

Isère is a département in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in eastern France named after the Isère river.

History
Isère is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790 with Moirans as its capital. It was formed from part of the former province of Dauphiné.

It was divided in four districts: Grenoble, Saint-Marcellin, La Tour-du-Pin and Vienne. The capital was transfered in 1790 from Moirans to Grenoble.

In 1800, with the creation of the arrondissements in France, the four districts were changed into four arrondissements: Grenoble, Saint-Marcellin, La Tour-du-Pin and Vienne.

On 10 September 1926, the arrondissement of Saint-Marcellin was eliminated.

Geography
Isère is part of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region. It has an area of .

The department borders with 7 departments in 2 regions:

 Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region
 Ain (north)
 Savoie (east)
 Drôme (south)
 Ardèche (west)
 Loire (west)
 Rhône (northwest)
 Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region
 Hautes-Alpes (southeast)

The highest mountain in the department is  Pic Lory (); it is  high.

The main rivers that flow through the department are the Rhône and its tributaries Isère and Bourbre.

Climate
The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Grenoble is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Maritime Temperate climate) and of the subtype Cfb.

Administration
Isère is managed by the Departmental Council of Isère in Grenoble. The department is part of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region.

Administrative divisions
There are 4 arrondissements (districts), 17 cantons and 281 communes (municipalities) in Isère.

The following is a list of the 29 cantons of the Isère department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

 Bièvre (3801)
 Bourgoin-Jallieu (3802)
 Chartreuse-Guiers (3803)
 Charvieu-Chavagneux (3804)
 Échirolles (3805)
 Fontaine-Seyssinet (3806)
 Fontaine-Vercors (3807)
 Le Grand-Lemps (3808)
 Grenoble-1 (3809)
 Grenoble-2 (3810)
 Grenoble-3 (3811)
 Grenoble-4 (3812)
 Le Haut-Grésivaudan (3813)
 L’Isle-d'Abeau (3814)
 Matheysine-Trièves (3815)
 Meylan (3816)
 Morestel (3817)
 Le Moyen Grésivaudan (3818)
 Oisans-Romanche (3819)
 Le Pont-de-Claix (3820)
 Roussillon (3821)
 Saint-Martin-d'Hères (3822)
 Le Sud Grésivaudan (3823)
 La Tour-du-Pin (3824)
 Tullins (3825)
 La Verpillière (3826)
 Vienne-1 (3827)
 Vienne-2 (3828)
 Voiron (3829)

Demographics
The inhabitants of Isère are known, in French, as Isérois (women: Iséroises).

Isère had a population, in 2014, of 1,243,597, for a population density of  inhabitants/km2. The arrondissement of Grenoble, with 758,956 inhabitants, is the arrondissement with more inhabitants.

Evolution of the population in Isère

The communes in the department with more inhabitants are:

Gallery

Related pages
 Arrondissements of the Isère department
 Communes of the Isère department

References

Other websites

 Departmental Council website 
 Prefecture website 

Departments in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes
Lozère

Lozère () is a department in the region of Occitanie in southern France near the Massif Central. It is named after Mont Lozère.

History
Lozère was created in 1790 during the French Revolution, when the whole of France was divided into departments, replacing the old provinces. Lozère was formed with part of the old province of Languedoc.

Les Sources and Hautes-Cèvennes were two other names proposed for this department but they were not accepted.

Geography
Lozère has an area of . It is surrounded by 5 departments belonging to 2 regions:
 Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region
 Ardèche
 Cantal
 Haute-Loire
 Occitanie region
 Aveyron
 Gard.

The Lozère is divided into four natural regions, covering four mountain ranges:

 The Aubrac. It is a plateau in the northwest of the department that rises between  and , with a cold humid climate. The highest point is Signal de Mailhebiau with .

 The Margeride. Located in the northeast of the department, these mountains are of granite and well forested. The climate here is cold, but dryer than the climate in Aubrac. The highest point is Signal de Randon with .

 The Causses. These are a series of very dry limestone plateaus in the south-west of the department.

 The Cévennes, a southern part of the Massif Central and that is found in the south-east of the department. Here is the highest point in the department, Mont Lozère at .

Three important rivers start in the department:
 The Tarn, with its source on the Mont Lozère.
 The Lot, with its source also on the Mont Lozère.
 The Allier, with its source is in the mountainous region of Margeride.

Administration
The département is managed by the Departamental Council of Lozère in Mende. Lozère is part of the region of Occitanie.

Administrative divisions
There are 2 arrondissements (districts), 13 cantons and 176 communes (municipalities) in Lozère.

The following is a list of the 13 cantons of the Lozère department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

 Aumont-Aubrac (4801)
 La Canourgue (4802)
 Chirac (4803)
 Le Collet-de-Dèze (4804)
 Florac (4805)
 Grandrieu (4806)
 Langogne (4807)
 Marvejols (4808)
 Mende-1 (4809)
 Mende-2 (4810)
 Saint-Alban-sur-Limagnole (4811)
 Saint-Chély-d'Apcher (4812)
 Saint-Étienne-du-Valdonnez (4813)

Demographics
The inhabitants of Lozère are known, in French, as Lozériens (women: Lozériennes).

Lozère is the least populated French department. It has a population, in 2014, of 76,360, for a population density of  inhabitants/km2. The arrondissement of Mende, with 63,047 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other arrondissement, Florac, have 13,313 inhabitants.

The only important city is Mende with 11,542 people living there in 2014. The subprefecture, Florac Trois Rivières, has 2,107 inhabitants.

Evolution of the population in Lozère

The cities with more than 2,000 inhabitants in the department are:

Gallery

Related pages
 Arrondissements of the Lozère department
 Communes of the Lozère department

References

Other websites

 General Council of Lozère 
 Prefecture website 
  Comité Départemental du Tourisme en Lozère 

Departments in Occitanie
Maine-et-Loire

Maine-et-Loire is a department found in the west of France in the Pays de la Loire region. Its prefecture is Angers and its population is about 810,000 (2015 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

References

Departments in Pays de la Loire
Manche

Manche is a department found in the west of France in the Normandy region. Its prefecture is Saint-Lô. Its population is about 486,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Departments in Normandy
Meuse (department)

Meuse is a department found in the east of France in the Grand Est region. Its prefecture is Bar-le-Duc. Its population is about 193,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Departments in Grand Est
Morbihan

Morbihan (; , ) is a department found in the west of France in the Brittany region. Its prefecture is Vannes and its population is about 677,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Morbihan has also two subprefectures: Lorient and Pontivy.

Related pages 
Cantons of the Morbihan department
Communes of the Morbihan department
Arrondissements of the Morbihan department
La Baule - Guérande Peninsula

Departments in Brittany
Oise

Oise is a department found in the north of France in the Hauts-de-France region. Its prefecture is Beauvais. Its population is about 780,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Departments in Hauts-de-France
Pas-de-Calais

Pas-de-Calais (Picard: Pas-Calés; Dutch: Nauw van Kales) is a department found in the north of France in the Hauts-de-France region. Its prefecture is Arras. Its population is about 1,456,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Departments in Hauts-de-France
Rhône (department)

Rhône is a department in the center of France in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region. Its prefecture is Lyon and about 1,646,000 people live there (2006 estimation). 

Departments in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes
Sarthe

Sarthe is a department found in the west of France in the Pays de la Loire region. Its prefecture is Le Mans and its population is about 543,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Departments in Pays de la Loire
Seine-Maritime

Seine-Maritime is a department found in the northwest of France in the Normandy region. Its prefecture is Rouen. Its population is about 1,245,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Departments in Normandy
Seine-et-Marne

Seine-et-Marne is a department found in the center of France in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Melun and its population is about 1,260,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Departments in Île-de-France
Yvelines

Yvelines is a department in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Versailles. About 1,395,000 people live there (2006 estimation). 

Departments in Île-de-France
Vendée

Vendée is a department found in the west of France in the Pays de la Loire region. Its prefecture is La Roche-sur-Yon and its population is about 577,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Departments in Pays de la Loire
Vosges

Vosges is a department found in the east of France in the Grand Est region. Its prefecture is Épinal. Its population is about 382,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

Departments in Grand Est
Zwentendorf power plant

The Zwentendorf power plant is a nuclear power plant in Zwentendorf an der Donau in Austria. It has never been used.  This is because the people of Austria voted against using it in 1978. 

Today, the plant is used to get replacement parts to other plants of the same type (mainly in Germany), and for staff training. It is not possible to visit the power plant. Because the nuclear power plant was never in use, a coal power plant was built in 1987 to replace it.

The plant is now owned by Austrian energy company and used as a Solar Power Plant.

Related pages
Anti-nuclear movement

Notes

Nuclear power plants in Europe
Buildings and structures in Austria
Lower Austria
Territoire de Belfort

Territoire de Belfort is a department in eastern France, in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region. The largest city in the department, and its prefecture (capital), is Belfort.

History
The Territoire de Belfort was made a French department on 11 March 1922.

Geography 
Territoire de Belfort is part of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region; it is in the northeast of the region. It has an area of , the fifth smallest department of France (after Paris and its suburbs Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis, and Val-de-Marne).

Rhw Territoire de Belfort borders with 4 departments in 2 regions:
 Grand Est region
 Vosges (north), a short distance
 Haut-Rhin (east)
 Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region
 Doubs (south)
 Haute-Saône (west)

It also borders, to the southeast, with Switzerland for a distance of about .

The highest point of the department is Ballon d'Alsace (),  high, in the Vosges Mountains, commune of Lepuix.

The lowest point in the department,  high, is where the Savoureuse river leaves the department in the commune of Châtenois-les-Forges.

Administration
Territoire de Belfort is managed by the Departmental Council of Territoire de Belfort in Belfort. The department is part of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.

Administrative divisions
There is 1 arrondissement (districts), 9 cantons and 102 communes (municipalities) in Territoire de Belfort.

The following is a list of the 9 cantons of the Territoire de Belfort department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

 Bavilliers (9001)
 Belfort-1 (9002)
 Belfort-2 (9003)
 Belfort-3 (9004)
 Châtenois-les-Forges (9005)
 Delle (9006)
 Giromagny (9007)
 Grandvillars (9008)
 Valdoie (9009)

Demographics 
The inhabitants of Territoire de Belfort are known, in French, as Terrifortains (women: Terrifortaines).

Territoire de Belfort had a population, in 2014, of 144,334, for a population density of  inhabitants/km2.

Evolution of the population in Territoire de Belfort

Gallery

References

Related pages
 Arrondissement of Belfort
 Communes of the Territoire de Belfort department

Other websites

 Departamental Council website 
 Prefecture website  
 Tourist Office website 

Departments in Bourgogne-Franche-Comté
Essonne

Essonne is a department to the south of Paris in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Évry. About 1,172,000 people live there (2006 estimation). 

Departments in Île-de-France
Seine-Saint-Denis

Seine-Saint-Denis is a department. It is in the center of France in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Bobigny. About 1,459,000 people live there (2006 estimation). 

Departments in Île-de-France
Val-de-Marne

Val-de-Marne is a department in the center of France in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Créteil. About 1,279,000 people live there (2006 estimation). 

Departments in Île-de-France
Val-d'Oise

Val-d'Oise is a department to the north of Paris in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Cergy. About 1,139,000 people live there (2006 estimation).

Departments in Île-de-France
Quimper

Quimper () is a town in France. It is the prefecture of the Finistère department in the Brittany region. Its population is around 65,000 (2006).

Sister cities
Quimper is twinned with:
  Limerick, Ireland
  Remscheid, Germany
  Falkirk, Scotland
  Ourense, Spain
  Yantai, China

Communes in Finistère
Departmental capitals in France
Georges Cuvier

Baron Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier (23 August 1769–13 May 1832), usually called Cuvier, was a French naturalist and zoologist.

Cuvier was a very important figure in scientific circles in Paris during the early 19th century. He helped establish the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology by comparing living animals with fossils. He proved extinction was a fact. He was the most influential person believing in  catastrophism in geology in the early 19th century. His most famous work is the Règne animal distribué d'après son organisation 1817; translated into English as The Animal Kingdom.

Cuvier was a member of the elite Académie française and the French Academy of Sciences. He is remembered for strongly opposing the evolutionary theories of Lamarck and Geoffroy. Cuvier believed there was no evidence for the evolution of organic forms, but there was evidence for successive creations after catastrophic extinction events.

Some of Cuvier's most influential followers were Louis Agassiz, and Richard Owen. His is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.

He was the elder brother of Frédéric Cuvier (1773–1838), also a naturalist. Cuvier died in Paris, of cholera.

References 

1769 births
1832 deaths
Paleontologists
French scientists
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Members of the Académie française
George W. Campbell

George Washington Campbell (February 9, 1769–February 17, 1848) was an American statesman. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives as the Representative from Tennessee's at-large congressional district in 1803. He served in the House from 1805-1809, in the 8th, 9th, and 10th Congresses. During the 10th Congress, he was the chairman of the Ways and Means Committee. He was also one of the managers appointed in 1804 to conduct the impeachment hearings for John Pickering, judge of the United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire, and later in the same year, the impeachment hearings against Samuel Chase, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.

Life
Born in Scotland, he immigrated to North Carolina in 1772 with his parents. He graduated from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in 1794 and began studying law. He was admitted to the bar in North Carolina and began practicing in Knoxville, Tennessee.

Political life
He left Congress in 1809 to become judge of the Tennessee Supreme Court, serving until 1811.

He served as a United States Senator from Tennessee twice, once from 1811 to 1814, having been elected to fill the seat of Jenkin Whiteside, and again from 1815 to 1818. His first service was from October 8, 1811 to February 11, 1814, when he resigned to accept appointment as the United States Secretary of the Treasury. He returned to the Senate on October 10, 1815. He served as the first chairman of the Senate Finance Committee and its predecessor from December 4, 1815, until his resignation from the Senate on April 20, 1818; on this occasion to accept appointment as United States Ambassador to Russia, a position he held from 1818-1821. Campbell served as a member of the French Spoliation Claims Commission in 1831.

Appointed Secretary of the Treasury by James Madison, he faced national financial disorder brought on by the War of 1812. Congress had failed to recharter the First Bank of the United States after its charter expired in 1811, and appropriations for the war were unavailable, so Campbell had to convince Americans to buy government bonds. He was forced to meet to lenders terms, selling government bonds at exorbitant interest rates. In September, 1814 the British occupied Washington, D.C. and the credit of the government was lowered even further. Campbell was unsuccessful in his efforts to raise money through additional bond sales and he resigned that October after only eight months in office, disillusioned and in bad health.

He died in 1848 and is buried at Nashville City Cemetery in Nashville, Tennessee.

Campbell County, Tennessee, is named in his honor.

1769 births
1848 deaths
United States Secretaries of the Treasury
Samuel Chase

Samuel Chase (April 17, 1741 – June 19, 1811), was an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court and earlier was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of Maryland.

References

1741 births
1811 deaths
Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence
United States Supreme Court justices