cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
1198

1198 (MCXCVIII) was .

Events 
 End of the reign of Emperor Go-Toba, emperor of Japan
 Emperor Tsuchimikado ascends to the throne of Japan
 January 8 – Pope Innocent III ascends Papal Throne
 Frederick II, infant son of German King Henry VI, crowned King of Sicily

Births 
 August 24 — King Alexander II of Scotland (d. 1249)
 Ertugrul, Turkish leader, father of Osman I (d. 1281)
 Ferdinand III of Castile (d. 1252)
 Sybilla of Lusignan, wife of Leo II of Armenia (d. c. 1230)

Deaths 
 January 8 — Pope Celestine III (b. c. 1106)
 March 11 — Marie de Champagne, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1145)
 April 16 — Duke Frederick I of Austria (b. c. 1175)
 September 1 — Dulce Berenguer, Queen of Portugal, spouse of King Sancho I of Portugal (b. 1160)
 November 27 — Queen Constance of Sicily, wife of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1154)
 December 10 — Averroes, Arab philosopher and physician (b. 1126)
 Ruaidri mac Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, High King of Ireland
 Alix of France, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1150)
 William III of Sicily (b. 1190)
 June 2 — Lord Ygo III of Galama, Frisian knight and nobleman (b. 1139)
 William of Newburgh, English historian (b. 1135)
1435



Events 
 September 21 – Peace of Arras between Charles VII of France and Philip III of Burgundy, ending the English-Burgundian alliance.
 Francis of Paola founds the Order of the Minims in Italy.
Heinrich-Heine-University

Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf (HHU) () is the university of Düsseldorf, Germany, named after the most famous son of Düsseldorf, the poet Heinrich Heine.

History
In the era of Napoleon Bonaparte there was the first university in Düsseldorf, which ended after Napoleon surrendered.
So in the further 19th century there was only a Medical Academy and the famous Arts School of Düsseldorf and a Teacher Academy (Special University only for studying to became a teacher) until the 1970s, but no regular university, in Düsseldorf. In the 1960s the state government of North Rhine-Westphalia decided to have a regular university in the state's capital. The university started about 1970.
It got its name only in the 1980s, because the medicine faculty wanted to have a physician's name, because of the tradition as Medical Academy.

Current situation
Currently the Heinrich-Heine-University is a university with about 20,000 students, which is middle-class in Germany.
It has a lot of subjects in sciences, arts, economics, and so on. The deep points are on biological-medicinal research in sciences and some deep points in arts, economics, political sciences, and philosophy.

Subjects
Like most German universities it has many subjects:

Other websites 
 http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de

Colleges and universities in Germany
Düsseldorf
Education in North Rhine-Westphalia
1694



Events 
 February 6 – The colony Quilombo dos Palmares is destroyed.
 July 27 – A Royal Charter is granted to the Bank of England.
 December 22 – The Triennial Bill became law.
 December 28 – Queen Mary II of England dies; King William III of England, Scotland and Ireland is now sole ruler after his co-ruler's death.
 Much of the town of Warwick, England destroyed by fire.
 The Lao empire of Lan Xang unofficially ends.
Trinidad and Tobago

The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is a nation in the south Caribbean Sea. It is 11 km (7 miles) away from Venezuela. The country has two bigger islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and many smaller islands.  The capital is Port-of-Spain.  The country has about 1,262,366 people in it.

Trinidad and Tobago received independence from the United Kingdom on August 31, 1962.  Before that, it was ruled by the U.K.  Right now, the head of state (person who is in charge of the country) is Ms Paula-Mae Weekes. The head of government (person who is in charge of the government) are Prime Minister Keith Rowley and President Paula-Mae Weekes.

Trinidad and Tobago is very diverse. It has people of many different races and religions. There are people who are children of Africans, Europeans, Arabs, Indians, and Chinese who moved to the islands a long time ago. The biggest religions in the country are Christianity and Hinduism. There are also Islam and African religions in the country. Trinidad and Tobago was home to the indigenous Caribs.

The country has some natural gas beneath the ground and underwater in the ocean. Natural gas is a liquid that makes machines work and heats houses.  Also, many people called tourists visit the islands. They take pictures and learn about the islands.

The people in the country are famous for their music and artists such as Nicki Minaj and Haddaway. They also play football and cricket.

Demographics 

The population of Trinidad and Tobago is 1.17 million as of (2002). The ethnic groups of the population are: 
 40.3%: East Indian
 39.5%: West African descent
 18.4%: Mixed Race
 1.2%: Chinese and Other
 0.6%: European descent

Related pages
List of rivers of Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago at the Olympics
Trinidad and Tobago national football team

References

Other websites 

 Official Government Website
 Official Tourism Website
  National emblems of Trinidad and Tobago
 Central Statistical Office, Government of Trinidad and Tobago

 
Caribbean Community
1962 establishments in North America
1795



Events 
 Frankfort becomes capital of Kentucky.
Oder-Neisse line

The Oder-Neisse line (named after the Oder and Neisse rivers) is the border between Germany and Poland since the end of the Second World War. As a result of the defeat Germany lost a part of its territory to Poland. Previously, the German Empire had to cede the former Prussian provinces of Posen and Westpreußen, as well as parts of upper Silesia, to the newly founded Polish state after the First World War in 1919.  In earlier centuries these territories were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.  They were annexed to the Kingdom of Prussia, as a result of the tripartite partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by the Kingdom Prussia, the Holy Roman Empire and the Russian Empire. 

Most of the ethnically-German part of the population of these provinces, alongside most of the German minority population in what was Poland before the Second World War (741,000 people), either fled before the Red Army to central and western Germany or were forcibly resettled later. It should be noted here that German citizens of Polish descent and ethically-Polish residents of these regions and other parts of Germany faced systematic discrimination, internment in concentration camps, property-confiscations, forced-resettlement and expulsion under the Nazi administration.

Geography of Germany
History of Germany
Geography of Poland
History of Poland
World War II
Jimmy Wales

Jimmy Donal "Jimbo" Wales (; born August 7, 1966) is an American-born British Internet entrepreneur. He is one of the people who started Wikipedia and Wikia. Wales was born in Huntsville, Alabama, United States. There, he went to Randolph School. He then earned bachelor’s and master’s degrees in finance. In 1996, he and two partners started Bomis. Bomis was an Internet portal with entertainment and adult content. The company gave money for Nupedia (2000–2003) and, after that, Wikipedia.

Personal life 

Wales has been married three times. He also has two children. When he was 20, Wales married Pam. Pam was a worker at a store in Alabama. He met his second wife, Christine Rohan, through a friend in Chicago. They had a daughter before their marriage ended. Wales moved to San Diego in 1998. In 2002, he moved again to Florida. In 2007, he still lived there. As of 2012 he lives in London, England. In 2012, Wales married Kate Garvey, a government worker for Tony Blair. Wales has three daughters: one with Rohan and two with Garvey.

Wales says that he follows the ideas of Objectivism. He also says that he is a libertarian to some extent, meaning that he thinks people should be allowed to do whatever they want so long as they do not hurt others.

Career 
On January 15, 2001, with Larry Sanger and others, Wales started  Wikipedia. Wikipedia is a free, open content encyclopedia. It grew and became popular very quickly. As Wikipedia became known to the public, he became the project’s promoter and spokesperson. He is often called a co-founder of Wikipedia, though he has argued against the "co-" part. He said he was the only founder. Wales is on the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation. In 2004, he co-founded Wikia, a wiki-hosting service which tries to make money. In 2015, Wales started the Jimmy Wales Foundation for freedom of expression, to try to help bloggers or internet activists who are in prison.

References 

1966 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Alabama
Writers from Huntsville, Alabama
Wikimedia Foundation
Wikipedia people
Libertarians
British bloggers
Exeter

Exeter is a city in South West England on the River Exe, from which it takes its name. It is the county town of Devon. Just over 100,000 live there. In the city are a ruined castle, much of the old Roman city wall, and Exeter Cathedral.

History
Exeter was built by the Romans, who called it Isca Dumnoniorum (Isca of the Dumnonii, the local British tribe). After the Romans left and the Anglo-Saxons moved into the area in the seventh century, the name changed to Exeter. In the 1060s, Exeter was a centre of resistance to the Norman conquest.

In 1050, the Bishop of Crediton moved to Exeter; from then until 1876 the bishops were the heads of the church in the whole of Devon and Cornwall. Now, only Devon is within the Exeter diocese.

Today
Today it is home to the Meteorological Office, which forecasts the country's weather.

County towns in England
Settlements in Devon
Cities in England
United States Congress

The United States Congress is the legislative, or law making, branch of the United States government. It meets in the United States Capitol.

It has two houses (parts): The United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate. This two house system is known as a bicameral (bi is the Latin word for "two", and camera is Latin for "chamber" or "room") legislature. There are 435 Representatives in Congress, split between the states based on how many people live in the state. There are 100 Senators in Congress, with two coming from each state.

The primary duty of Congress is to write, debate, and pass bills (laws they want).   For Congress to pass a bill, both houses must pass exactly the same bill.  For each house to pass a bill, more than half of its members must vote in favor of passing the bill.  After both houses pass the same bill, this bill is then sent to the President.  If the President agrees the bill should be a law he or she signs the bill within 10 days.  If the president does not agree, then he or she can veto the bill and send it back to Congress.  If the bill is neither signed nor vetoed by the president within 10 days, the bill becomes law anyway if Congress does not adjourn (end its session) within that time.  If Congress adjourns within that time, the bill does not become a law.  Congress may override a president's veto of a bill by having more than two thirds of its members passing the bill.  In that case, the bill becomes law even though the president vetoed it.  

Article 1 of the United States Constitution lists what subjects Congress can pass laws on.  

Members of Congress cannot be arrested, except for certain crimes, during a session of Congress or going to or returning from a session.  

Each house of Congress can decide to expel (throw out) one of its members if more than two thirds of them vote to expel him or her.  

The political party with the most members in a house of Congress usually decides which bills are voted on in their house.

Related page 

 Parliamentary procedure

References
Charles Cornwallis

Lord Charles Cornwallis (31 December 1738  5 October 1805) was a British general and colonial governor. He is best known for leading the British forces in the American Revolution.

His parents were Elizabeth, and Charles Cornwallis, 1st Earl Cornwallis.

Cornwallis moved to the 13 colonies in North America in 1776 to try to control the rebelling colonies. He fought at the Battle of Princeton. George Washington led the Americans in that battle. Later, Cornwallis led British forces through North Carolina and South Carolina, where he fought against American forces under Nathanael Greene. In October 1781, Cornwallis's forces surrendered to George Washington at the Battle of Yorktown, ending the American Revolution.

In 1786 Cornwallis was appointed Governor-General of the British colony of India.

From 1798 to 1801 Cornwallis was Lord Lieutenant and Commander in Chief of Ireland.

He died in 1805 because of a fever.

1738 births
1805 deaths
People from London
British in the American Revolutionary War
British Earls
British Marquesses
Fork

A fork is a tool for eating.  It has points called tines.  Most forks have three or four tines.  Some cooking-forks have two tines.  The tines help you pick up your food.  Forks are useful only for eating solid food.  For example, a fork would be useless for eating soup because all the soup would fall through the tines and into your lap.  Most forks are made of metal.  Some are made of plastic or wood.

The word "fork" is also used to describe a two choices of course. A fork in the road would be a split in the road leading in two (or more) directions. A forked tongue would have two parts or tips.

Forks are very common in Western culture. Many countries do not use forks, but instead have their own ways to eat food, such as chopsticks.

Related pages
 Garden fork

Basic English 850 words
Food utensils

de:Essbesteck#Gabel
Friction

Friction is a force that acts to stop the movement of two touching things. The energy lost to friction is turned into sound and heat. Two kinds of friction are static and kinetic. Static friction is when the friction is strong enough to stop movement between two objects. Kinetic friction is used when the frictional force is not strong enough to stop all motion. An effect of kinetic friction is heat production. 

Many everyday mechanisms that utilize friction include car brakes, suitcases, and shoes. Even a person sliding across the floor uses a form of friction.

Some facts about friction are:

Friction can be thought to be caused by bumps on two touching surfaces. These bumps are called asperities. As these two rough surfaces move against each other they get stuck and prevent motion until the asperities are broken or slid over. Even the smoothest materials have these asperities.

As the force that is pushing on an object increases, the static friction increases too. However, if the force gets bigger than the maximum static friction, it makes the object accelerate. The object will begin to accelerate as soon as the static friction is less than the force pushing on it. After that point kinetic friction will act on the object.

The coefficient of friction is the ratio between the force slowing something down and the force pushing them together. The larger it is the stronger friction is (and the more the object is slowed down). For example, a person's skates on ice have a small coefficient of friction, but rubber on concrete has a big one.

Internal friction in a fluid is called viscosity. Viscosity is how hard it is for the fluid to move or flow. For example, honey is more "viscous" than water.

Friction is caused by electromagnetism. When the atoms that make the objects come close they are drawn to each other and may connect. Effort is needed to break this connection in objects that are not moving and effort is needed to keep an object moving against this attraction. Things with high friction have many points of contact or have atoms that strongly attract others. There are 4 types of friction. Static, sliding, rolling,Fluid friction.

Related pages
Laminar flow
Force
Movement

Force
Cleaner

A cleaner (or janitor) is someone who takes away garbage and cleans surfaces. Cleaners sometimes  repair things, and maintain their equipment in good working order, as well as dusting, washing, waxing and polishing.

Heavy duty cleaners often move furniture, large containers of recycled materials and waste, and other objects, and operate large buffers and other weighty equipment. "Light" duty cleaners clean chalk boards, windows, shelves, desks, light fixtures, and ledges. Some duties, like using a vacuum cleaner, can be done by either "light" or "heavy" duty cleaners. Cleaners can clean offices, staircases, kitchens, bathrooms, hallways, sidewalks, elevators, escalators, and other areas. Cleaners can specialize in washing windows, or in cleaning carpets, hospitals, food processing plants, or construction sites. Cleaners who discover seriously damaged surfaces and equipment on their sites can notify specialists, like plumbers and carpenters, about the need for professional repairs.

Cleaners are also alert for security problems, like vandalism, signs of theft (forced windows or doors, missing computers or stock), blocked fire escape routes, lights or fire alarms not working, or trespassers. When these occur, the cleaners promptly notify their sites' Security Officers and Site Supervisors. Janitors know how to keep themselves and their sites safe, by immediately removing hazards like broken class, spilled fluids, and waste from kitchens and bathrooms, and by checking hand rails, floor mats, stairs, automated doors, escalators, elevators, intercoms, and plumbing.

References

Occupations
Fourier transform

The Fourier transform is a mathematical function that can be used to find the base frequencies that a wave is made of. Imagine playing a chord on a piano. When played, the sounds of the notes of the chord mix together and form a sound wave. This works because each of the different note's waves interfere with each other by adding together or canceling out at different points in the wave. A Fourier transform takes this complex wave and is able to find the frequencies that made it, meaning it can find the notes that a chord is made from.

The output of a Fourier transform is sometimes called a frequency spectrum or distribution because it displays a distribution of possible frequencies of the input. This function has many uses in cryptography, oceanography, machine learning, radiology, quantum physics as well as sound design and visualization.

The Fourier transform of a function , sometimes written as , is given by

where:

  is a frequency.
  is the Fourier transform function and returns a value representing how prevalent frequency  is in the original signal.
  represents wrapping the input wave function  around the origin of the complex plane at some frequency .

The inverse Fourier transform is given by

A Fourier transform shows what frequencies are in a signal. For example, consider a sound wave which contains three different musical notes: A, B, and C. Making a graph of the Fourier transform of this sound wave (with the frequency on the x-axis and the intensity on the y-axis) will show a peak at each frequency which corresponds with one of the musical notes.

Many signals can be created by adding cosines and sines together with varying amplitudes and frequencies. The Fourier transform plots the amplitudes and phases of these cosines and sines against their respective frequencies.

Fourier transforms are important, because many signals make more sense when their frequencies are separated. In the audio example above, looking at the signal with respect to time does not make it obvious that the notes A, B, and C are in the signal. Many systems do different things to different frequencies, so these kinds of systems can be described by what they do to each frequency. An example of this is a filter which blocks high frequencies.

Calculating a Fourier transform requires understanding of integration and imaginary numbers. Computers are usually used to calculate Fourier transforms of anything but the simplest signals.  The Fast Fourier Transform is a method computers use to quickly calculate a Fourier transform.

Related pages 
 Fourier analysis
 Fourier inversion theorem
 Fourier series
 Laplace transform

References

Other websites

Digital signal processing
1679



Events 
 January 24 – King Charles II of England disbands Parliament
 June 22 – the Duke of Monmouth subdues an insurrection of Scottish Covenanters at Birthwell Bridge
 August 7 – The brigantine Le Griffon, which was commissioned by René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, is towed to the southern end of the Niagara River, to become the first ship to sail the upper Great Lakes.
 December 24 – Domenico Sarro, a composer from Italy, was born. 
 Battle of Bothwell Bridge
 Habeas Corpus Act 1679 passed in England.
 European explorers discover Niagara Falls.
Jacksonville, Florida

Jacksonville is the largest city in the state of Florida and one of the 15 largest cities in the United States. It is home to the University of North Florida. It is the county seat of Duval County.

It is the largest city in the Continental United States in terms of area. It covers nearly all of Duval County in North Florida. The Jacksonville Jaguars of the NFL play here.

References

Other websites

 
County seats in Florida
Cabbage

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea Capitata Group) is an edible plant. It is a lot like broccoli, cauliflower or Brussels sprouts. Cabbage is eaten in many ways around the world. Coleslaw and sauerkraut are popular foods that use cabbage. It is also used to make kimchi and borscht, and can also be used in salads. Red cabbage juice can be used as a pH indicator. Cabbages are usually green, but they can also be red.

Types of cabbage

Cabbages can come in many different types, such as the previously mentioned red and green cabbages, but they can also be in other types. These include white cabbage, also known as Dutch cabbage, and Savoy cabbage.

References

Brassicaceae
Leaf vegetables
500

500 (Roman numerals: D) is a common year of the Gregorian calendar. It started on a Friday.

It is one of only seven years to use just one Roman numeral. The seven are 1 AD (I), 5 AD (V), 10 AD (X), 50 AD (L), 100 AD (C), 500 AD (D), and 1000 AD (M).

Events 
Possible date for the Battle of Mons Badonicus: Romano-British and Celts defeat an Anglo-Saxon army that may have been led by the bretwalda Aelle of Sussex (approximate date; suggested dates range from 490 to 510) Note: This battle may have influenced the legend of King Arthur
Possible date at which Fergus I of Dalriada begins his reign
Approximate beginning of the Heptarchy period in the history of England
Approximate year of the founding of the Kingdom of Essex
Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei China becomes sovereign of the Northern Wei Dynasty
Uxmal founded (approximate date)
Traders from southern Arabia settle in northern Ethiopia
Sauna

A sauna is a small room or building that is made hot. The heat of a sauna is calming and makes the person using it sweat. This is believed to help people be more healthy though it causes stress on the body by overheating. Today many countries and groups of people have different ways of heating and using a sauna. The temperature is often 80°C in Finnish saunas. The heat can be more than 100°C. Finnish and Swedish saunas have lower humidity (the air is less wet) to make this high heat comfortable.

The Turkish hammam has a high humidity (the air is more wet) and a lower temperature.

Today saunas can often be found at hotels and places for sports and exercise. In Finland, they are more common and are also often in private apartments and office 
buildings.

In almost every house in Finland they have a sauna.

Common rules for public saunas
In some cultures, swimsuits must be worn in a sauna. In other cultures swimsuits are not be worn. Swimsuits are more often worn when men and women use a sauna together. Some saunas are only for men, or only for women. Some places have fixed times when each gender can use a sauna. Private saunas may have their own rules.

Areas where the sauna is used while nude
Germany
Austria
North-eastern Italy
Finland
Russia
Slovenia
Sweden
Croatia
Japan
Netherlands
Flanders
Estonia
Lithuania
Latvia

Areas where the sauna is used in a swimsuit or covered by a towel
France
United Kingdom
United States
Hungary
South America
Africa
Wallonia

Area where men and women do not sauna together
Russia
Japan

Areas where sitting on a towel is required
Germany
Austria
North-eastern Italy
Netherlands
Flanders

Related pages
Onsen
Sentō
 Jjimjilbang
Banya

Health
Finnish culture
Poet

A poet is someone who writes poetry. Poetry can be written in any language by a poet.  

Sappho was an Ancient Greek poet. She lived in Lesbos, Greece. She was famous for writing lyric love poems to women. She wrote in the Ancient Greek language.  

Famous English poets are William Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, William Wordsworth, William Blake, John Keats, and Percy Shelley. They wrote in the English language. Their poetry comes in different styles and forms. Often their poetry is lyrical and rhymes. 

The most famous American poets include Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman. They wrote in English. Often their poetry did not rhyme. They lived in the 19th century in the United States. Later 20th century American poets include Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, Sylvia Plath, and Anne Sexton. 

Modern French poets are Arthur Rimbaud and  Charles Baudelaire. Rimbaud was famous for his poetry collection called “Illuminations.” Baudelaire wrote of beauty, decay, and spirituality in his famous work “Flowers of Evil.” 

Great Spanish poets are Garcilaso de la Vega Frederico García Lorca, Antonio Machado, and Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer. Vicente Aleixandre won the Nobel Prize. 

Three Latin American poets won the Nobel prize in the 20th century. They include Gabriela Mistral, Pablo Neruda, and Octavio Paz. They wrote in Spanish. 

Caribbean poets Derek Walcott and Giannina Braschi wrote epic poetry.  Winner of the Nobel Prize, Walcott wrote Omeros and In a Green Night in English. Giannina Braschi writes epic poetry in English, Spanglish, and Spanish, including Empire of Dreams 

Ancient Chinese poets are Wang Wei, Du Fu, and Qu Yuan. They wrote in Chinese about the nature and man.

Related pages 
poetry 
sonnet

References 

 
Occupations
Writers
Literature
Ruhr-Universität Bochum

The  is one of the biggest universities in Germany. It is in the Ruhr-Area, in the city of Bochum.

History 
The Ruhr-Universität was the first public university that was founded in West Germany after World War II (in 1962). Later in the 1960s, education expanded in West Germany and more universities were founded, but Bochum has a bright selection of subjects because it was the beginning of education expanding.

The Ruhr-University was one of the fourth largest university in Germany in the late 1980s and early 1990s with more than 40,000 students. But after the state of North Rhine-Westfalia decided to earn study fees, many students left the university and school examiners do not start studying anymore. Actually the fees are 1,000 Euro in the year (about 1,100 US $), but the Ruhr-Area is traditionally a working class region. Sommer Semester 2011 was the last semester with tuition fees http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/studienbeitrag/ . The number or students now is more than 34 000 http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/universitaet/fakten/menschlich/index.html

The university of Bochum was one of the first to have Bachelor and master's degrees instead of the traditional German Diplom and Magister degree.

Present situation 
The Ruhr-University has about 34,000 students.http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/universitaet/fakten/menschlich/index.html Academically it is an upper middle-class university with a lot of international affairs, especially with Eastern Europe and Asia. The Ruhr-University Bochum lost some subjects by when the state reduced its budget.
The main focuses in research are neurosciences, engineering, European law, plasma physics, solidstate physics, biochemistry, economics, Middle Ages and modern history, philosophy and languages.

Subjects 
 Mathematics
 Applied Computational Science
 Physics and Astronomy
 Chemistry and Biochemistry
 Biology and Neuro Sciences
 Geosciences (Geology, Geophysics, Mineralogy, Palentology)
 Geography
 Civil Engineering
 Electro Engineering
 Nanotechnology
 Psychology
 Medicine
 Philosophy
 History (Old, Middle Ages and New History, History of Arts)
 Archeological Sciences
 Chinese(language and literature, there are regional studies for eastern Asia, too)
 Eastern Asian Studies (China, Korea and Japan)
 English Language and Literature American and Canadian Literature
 Romanic Languages and Literature (Italian, French, Spain, Portuguese)
 Slavic Languages and Literature (Russian, Polish)
 German Languages and Literature
 Comparative Literature
 Latin and Old Greek
 Near and Middle Eastern Studies (Arabian Stuies, Indian)
 Roman Catholic Theology
 Protestant (Lutheran) Religious Studies
 Economy
 Laws
 Social Sciences (Sociology, Social Psychology, Politics, Socail-Economical studies)
 Environmental Studies
 Development policy
 Working Sciences
 Sports
 Music Sciences
 Educational Sciences

Other websites 
 English website

Bochum
Colleges and universities in Germany
Education in North Rhine-Westphalia
Aachen

Aachen ( ; Aachen dialect: Oche [ˈɔːxə]; French and traditional English: Aix-la-Chapelle ; Latin: Aquae Granni or Aquisgranum; ) is a German city in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It has about 260,000 inhabitants and a well-known university, the Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule (RWTH).

History 
The Romans built a spa over hot water springs here in ancient times. 

In the Middle Ages, it was the capital city of the Frankish emperor, Charlemagne. The city was called Aix-la-Chapelle by the French. 

Charlemagne ordered the building of a cathedral in 786 AD. He was buried in a tomb in this cathedral. German emperors were crowned in the cathedral in Aachen until 1531.

European countries made two important peace agreements in Aachen. In 1668, the first treaty (agreement) ended the War of Devolution between France and the alliance of England, Holland and Sweden. The treaty allowed France to keep most of the towns it had captured in Flanders the year before. In 1748, the second treaty ended the War of the Austrian Succession. In this war, France, Prussia, and other nations tried to take territory from the Austrian Empire. The treaty said that Maria Theresa of Austria was the ruler of these territories. It also gave Prussia the territory of Silesia.

Since 1972, Aachen has been part of the Cologne Government Region.

Notes

References

Other websites

Spa towns in Germany
Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia
 
1306 establishments
14th-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in Germany
1801 disestablishments
1800s disestablishments in Germany
Philipps University of Marburg

The Philipps-University of Marburg is the oldest Protestant university of the world, and was founded by Martin Luther's friend Philipp of Hesse in the time of the reformation.

Major areas of research are medicine, nano-science, materials science, and near eastern studies.

List of subjects 
 Mathematics
 Physics
 Chemistry
 Biology
 Medicine
 Dental Medicine
 Pharmacology
 Geography
 Philosophy
 History
 Protestant (Lutheran) Religious Studies
 Roman Catholic Religious Studies
 Latin and Ancient Greek
 English
 German
 Romance Languages and Literature (French, Italian, Spanish)
 Near Eastern Studies
 Social Science and Political Science
 Economics (strong point is microeconomics)
 Slavic Languages and Literature (Polish, Russian) (well-known, but may be closed soon)
 Far Eastern Studies (China, Japan) (will be closed soon)

Other websites 
 http://www.uni-marburg.de

Colleges and universities in Germany
Education in Hesse
Pharmacy

A pharmacy is a shop where therapeutic drugs are sold. Sometimes a pharmacy is also called a  drug store or chemist and druggist store. The people working in a pharmacy are called pharmacists, druggist or chemists (British English). These people can recognise simple diseases and formulate or dispense drugs for some of them.

Certain drugs are special, because they can be addictive, or they change the way other drugs act, or they need to be taken in a special way. These drugs cannot simply be bought at a pharmacy. A prescription is necessary to get them. Medical doctors give out prescriptions, which can then be used to get the drug.

Many pharmacies do not sell drugs only. They also sell beauty products and hygiene-related products, like tampons for women and contraceptives.

Pharmacy is also a branch of chemistry that studies the molecular structure of drugs to find better drugs.

Related pages

 Pharmacist
 Pharmaconomist
 Pharmacology
 Online pharmacy

Medicine
Drugs
Health care
Chemical substance

A chemical substance is any material with a known chemical composition. For example, water has the same properties and the same ratio of hydrogen to oxygen whether it came from a river or was made in a laboratory. Typical chemical substances found in the home include water, salt (sodium chloride) and bleach. Generally, substances exist as a solid, a liquid, or a gas, and may change between these phases of matter when there are changes in temperature or pressure.

Gallery

References 

Chemistry
Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope

Star Wars: Episode IV: A New Hope (initially named Star Wars) is a science fiction movie. It is the first film in the Star Wars saga. The movie was released in 1977 and also incorporates adventure, action and drama.

Plot 
Princess Leia Organa is a prisoner of the evil Empire. She was captured by Darth Vader, who is helping the Empire stop a rebellion, by using the Death Star. Luke Skywalker, Obi-Wan Kenobi and Han Solo work together to rescue her. They are helped by the droids (or robots) R2-D2 and C-3PO. With the princess, they try to stop the Empire and bring peace and happiness to the galaxy.

Cast 
 Mark Hamill as Luke Skywalker
 Harrison Ford as Han Solo
 Carrie Fisher as Princess Leia Organa
 Alec Guinness as Ben (Obi-Wan) Kenobi
 James Earl Jones as Darth Vader
 Anthony Daniels as See Threepio (C-3PO)
 Kenny Baker as Artoo-Detoo (R2-D2)
 Peter Mayhew as Chewbacca
 Peter Cushing as Grand Moff Tarkin
 Denis Lawson as Red Two (Wedge)

Related pages
 The Phantom Menace
 Attack of the Clones
 Revenge of the Sith
 Solo
 Rogue One
 The Empire Strikes Back
 Return of the Jedi
 The Force Awakens
 The Last Jedi
 The Rise of Skywalker

Further reading

Other websites

 Official website
 
 
 
 Star Wars at the Movie Wiki

1977 movies
1977 science fiction movies
Movies directed by George Lucas
Screenplays by George Lucas
New Hope
United States National Film Registry movies
Danish language

Danish is the Germanic language spoken in Denmark, the Faroe Islands, and parts of Greenland and Germany (Southern Schleswig). Around 5.5 million people speak Danish.  It is used as a second language in Greenland and the Faroe Islands.  The Danish people, or Danes, call their language dansk.

Here are some simple words in Danish:

References

                                                                            

Germanic languages
Denmark
Languages of Europe
Niger

Niger or the Niger ( or ; ), officially the Republic of the Niger, is a country in western Africa. The capital is Niamey, and the official language is French. It is surrounded by Algeria and Libya to the north, Chad to the east, Nigeria and Benin to the south, and Burkina Faso and Mali to the west. Niger is landlocked, meaning it has no coastline. Niger gets its name from the Niger River, whose name possibly comes from the Berber word "River of Rivers".

The Mali Empire and the Songhai Empire both had land in what is now Niger. Later France controlled the land that is now Niger. Niger has a population, or the number of people living in an area, of 15,306,252 and an area of 1,267,000 square kilometres. Much of Niger is desert.

After a military coup in 2010, Niger is now a democratic, multi-party state. Most of the people live in rural areas, and have little access to advanced education.

Niger is one of the poorest countries in the world with a lack of contraception. 41.4% live in poverty. Hunger plagues the country.

Niger’s main exports are uranium ore, livestock, cowpeas and onions. Millet and sorghum are grown in the south, as well as cassava and sugarcane. Rice is grown in the Niger River valley. Peanuts are the most important cash crop. Other important crops are cotton and pulses.

Niger is home to the critically endangered addax antelope. West African giraffes are the only giraffes in West Africa that exist in Niger.

Geography
Niger is on the border between the Sahara and Sub-Saharan regions. Niger's area is  of which  is water. It is the world's twenty-second largest country. Niger borders seven countries. The longest border is with Nigeria to the south.

The lowest point is the Niger River, with an elevation of . The highest point is Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès in the Aïr Mountains at .

Cities
This table shows cities with a population over 10,000, according to 2001 census.

Climate
Niger's subtropical climate is mainly very hot and dry. Much of it is covered by desert. In the extreme south there is a tropical climate on the edges of the Niger River basin. The land is mostly desert plains and sand dunes. There is flat to rolling savanna in the south and hills in the north.

Wildlife

Demographics
There are several ethnic groups in Niger:
 Hausa 53.1%
 Zarma/Songhai 21.2%
 Tuareg 11%
 Fulani (Peuhl) 6.5%
 Kanuri 5.9%
 Gurma 0.8%
 Arab 0.4%
 Tubu 0.4%
 other/unavailable 0.9%

Education
The literacy rate (the amount of the adult population who can read or write) of Niger is among the lowest in the world. In 2005 it was estimated to be only 28.7% (42.9% male and 15.1% female). Primary education in Niger is required for six years. The primary school enrollment and attendance rates are low, particularly for girls. Children are often made to work rather than attend school. This is particularly true during planting or harvest periods.

Related pages
 List of rivers of Niger
 Niger at the Olympics
 Niger national football team

References

Other websites 

 Niger - CIA world factbook 

 
French-speaking countries
Least developed countries
Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
Zealand

Zealand (Danish: Sjælland) is an island in the eastern part of Denmark. It is just west of Sweden and a strait called the Øresund lies between the two. It has an area of 7,031 km² and is the largest island in the country.

About 2,268,000 people were living in Zealand as of 2016. Most of these people live in and around Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, which is on the eastern shore of Zealand.

A number of bridges and tunnels link Zealand to other parts of Denmark. They include:
 the Great Belt Bridge, which links Zealand to Funen, an island to the west.
 the Storstrøm Bridge, which links Zealand to Lolland, an island to the south.
 the Øresund Bridge, which links Zealand (actually the island of Amager) to Sweden to the east, near Malmö.

Islands of Denmark
Taka

The Taka is the currency of Bangladesh. The most commonly used symbol for the Taka is Tk and ৳.  This is used on receipts while purchasing goods and services. One taka is divided into 100 poisha.

In Bengali, the word taka is also used to mean any money, currency, or notes. 

Bangladesh Bank, the central bank of the country, prints the currency, except for one taka and two taka notes, which are made by the Ministry of Finance.

Other websites 
 Banknotes of Bangladesh

References 

Economy of Bangladesh
Currency of Asia
Bogotá

Bogota is the capital (city) of Colombia. As of 2009, more than 7 million people live in Bogota, which makes it the largest city in Colombia. It is about 2,640 meters above sea level, on top a plateau (a mountain with a flat top). This makes it the third highest capital in the world. With many universities and libraries, Bogotá has become known as "The Athens of South America".The weather is usually nice during the day and cool at night. It has a series of bike paths (trails that are made for bikes) that wind through the city. It has many recreational and amusement parks open to the public. The current mayor is Claudia López.

History
Originally, Native Americans called Muisca lived in the area. Then, in 1538, Gonzalo Jimenes de Quezada, a Spanish conqueror, founded Bogota. Bogota became a center of trade, art, and education. Some of the oldest universities in the Americas are in Bogota.  After Independence from Spain, Bogota became the capital of Gran Colombia in 1819. 

Bogota has had extremely awful moments. In 1948, a presidential candidate, Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, was murdered while doing a speech in front of hundreds of persons. This tragic moment brought with it terrible consequences: one of the most remembered one is the "Bogotazo". The "Bogotazo" started as a political party war, the blue party, self named the "conservatives", began to hunt and kill every single member of the red party, the "liberals".  The remaining blue party members decided to create the "Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia" (FARC); however, this group was ironically created to protect the oppressed people from their oppressors. Nowadays, this group is known as terrorists and murderers;nevertheless, Colombia's capital city, Bogota, has not being attacked in the last few years.

References

 
1538 establishments
1530s establishments in the Spanish Empire
Aymara people

The Aymara are members of a tribe of Native Americans that live in Bolivia and Peru.  They are native to the area around Lake Titicaca.  They speak the Aymara language. They call themselves Aymaras.  

The president of Bolivia, Evo Morales, is Aymara.

The many-colored flag of the tribe is called the Wiphala.

South American people
Native American
Perihelion

The perihelion is the point in the orbit of a planet, asteroid or comet that is nearest to the sun. It is the opposite of aphelion, which is the point farthest from the sun.

The word perihelion stems from the Greek words "peri," meaning near, and "Helios," meaning the Greek god of the sun. So it referred to as perihelion. (The similar word,  perigee, refers to the nearest point in some object's orbit of Earth.)

All planets, comets and asteroids in our solar system have approximately elliptical (a kind of non-circular) orbits. Thus, they all have a closest and a farthest point from the sun: a perihelion and an aphelion. Orbital eccentricity measures the flatness of the orbit. Any single revolution of a body around the sun is only approximately elliptical, because the precession of the perihelion prevents the orbit from being a simple closed curve such as an ellipse. This causes Milankovich cycles.  

Earth comes closest to the sun every year around January 3. It is farthest from the sun every year around July 4. The difference in distance between Earth's nearest point to the sun in January and farthest point from the sun in July is 3.1 million miles (5 million kilometers). Earth is about 91.4 million miles (147.1 million kilometers) from the sun in early January, in contrast to about 94.5 million miles (152 million kilometers) in early July.

When Earth is closest to the sun, it is winter in the northern hemisphere and summer in the southern hemisphere. Thus it is possible to see that Earth's distance from the sun does not noticeably  cause the seasons to change; the relatively minor effects of differences in distance is somewhat masked by the mainly oceanic southern hemisphere vs the half- continental northern hemisphere. Therefore, the Earth's seasons come and go mainly because Earth does not rotate with its axis exactly upright with respect to the plane of our world’s orbit around the sun. Earth's axial tilt is 23.5 degrees.  This puts the Sun farther south in December and January, so the north has winter and the south has summer. Thus winter falls on that part of the globe where sunlight strikes least directly. Summer falls on that part of the globe where sunlight strikes most directly.

Orbits
Johnston Atoll

Johnston Atoll is an island in the Pacific Ocean. It is a property of the United States. The military used the Island for many things including a re-fueling location for planes going overseas, a chemical weapons ammunition storage facility, and a test launch location for nuclear testing. It was inhabited by all forces of the US military and government contract workers.

The island is named after Captain James Johnston, who discovered it in 1807. The island was mined for guano until 1890. After that, it was used as an army base.

Other websites 

Johnston Island Memories Site, the personal website of an AFRTS serviceman stationed there in 1975-6
Coast Guard Medevac from Johnston Island, photo from December 2007 medevac operation
JACADS - Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System, history of nuclear testing, and JACADS Sarin and VX nerve agent disposal
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Johnston Island National Wildlife Refuge Contains additional information on wildlife and clean-up efforts

Atolls
United States Minor Outlying Islands
Pacific islands
Islands of Oceania
1840s



Events 
 Treaty of Nanking between China and the United Kingdom(1842)
 Irish Potato Famine(1845–1848)
 Mexican-American War (1846–1848)
 The Communist Manifesto (1848)is published
 European Revolutions of 1848 (1848)
 California Gold Rush (1849)

World leaders 
 Emperor Ferdinand I (Austria)
 Chancellor Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (Austria)
 Emperor Franz Josef (Austria-Hungary)
 King Louis-Philippe (July Monarchy France)
 Frederick William IV of Prussia (Prussia)
 Pope Gregory XVI
 Pope Pius IX
 Emperor Nicholas I (Russia)
 Queen Isabella II (Spain)
 Queen Victoria (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland)
 Prime Minister Lord Melbourne (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Lord John Russell (United Kingdom)
 President Martin Van Buren (United States)
 President William Henry Harrison (United States)
 President John Tyler (United States)
 President James Knox Polk (United States)
 President Zachary Taylor (United States)
 Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid I (Ottoman Empire)
 Shahs of Persia (Qajar dynasty)
 Mohammad Shah Qajar, (b. 1810 – d. 1848) Shah from 1834 to 1848
 Nasser-al-Din Shah, 1848–1896

Births 
 Edvard Grieg (1843)
 Wyatt Earp (1848)

Deaths 
 Edgar Allan Poe (1849)
Palmyra Atoll

Palmyra Atoll is an island in the North Pacific Ocean. No one lives there, but 4 to 20 people use this island, mainly scientists. It is managed as a nature reserve by the United States. It is known as the Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge.

In 2005, a team of scientists from around the world started to build a research station on the island. They wanted to gain a deeper understanding of the environment of the island.

History 
Palmyra Atoll was claimed by the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1862, and was taken by the United States in 1898 along with Hawaii. The atoll was not included in the Hawaii Admission Act of 1959, which made Hawaii a state, so it remained a US territory.

References

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/um.html

Other websites

Palmyra atoll 
Palmyra Island 
Palmyra Atoll NWR
The Curse of Palmyra Island – article
The Curse of Palmyra Island – free book 
The Nature Conservancy in Palmyra Atoll 
Palmyra Atoll Research Consortium
United States v. Fullard-Leo (Supreme Court opinion; includes a history of the island's ownership)
WorldStatesmen- U.S.
History of Palmyra Atoll 
The Palmyra Gazette 

Atolls
United States Minor Outlying Islands
Pacific islands
Uninhabited regions