cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
DDT

DDT is a well-known pesticide. The abbreviation stands for Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane, one of its names. The Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1948, for his discovery. In the 1960s there was a study that questioned if it was good to spread large amounts of DDT indiscriminately. The study also found that DDT could cause cancer. DDT is also highly poisonous to birds and other animals further up the food chain. This is why DDT was replaced by other pesticides. The Stockholm Convention which took effect in 2004, restricts the use of DDT to vector control. The convention does not affect the use of DDT for public health issues. This is because there are very few affordable alternatives. DDT is still widely used in India, North Korea and possibly elsewhere.

References

Poisons
Organic compounds
Carcinogens
Pollution
Nucleobase

A nucleobase is a part of RNA and DNA which may be involved in pairing (see base pair). Nucleobases are important for genetics.

They include cytosine, guanine, adenine, thymine in (DNA), uracil in (RNA) and xanthine and hypoxanthine (mutated forms of guanine and adenine). These are abbreviated as C, G, A, T, U, X and HX . They are usually simply called bases in genetics. Because A, G, C and T appear in the DNA, these molecules are called DNA-bases; A, G, C and U are called RNA-bases.

Uracil replaces thymine in RNA.

Other websites
Base pairing in DNA Double Helix (shows specific hydrogen bonds)

Biochemistry
Kėdainiai

Kėdainiai is a town in the centre of Lithuania. The river Nevėžis passes by the town. More than 30.000 people live here. Kėdainiai has an old town with a lot of churches. Also, Kėdainiai is a centre of industry, especially chemistry. 

Cities in Lithuania
Base pair

In molecular biology, two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA strands that are connected by hydrogen bonds are called a base pair (often abbreviated bp). 

In DNA pairing, adenine (A) forms a base pair with thymine (T),
to form an A/T base pair.
Guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C) in DNA, to form a G/C base pair.

Related pages 
 DNA
 Nucleobase

Molecular biology
Complementarity (molecular biology)

In molecular biology, complementarity is a property (something that it can do) of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. Each nucleotide has a nitrogenous base, and each nitrogenous base can pair up with the nitrogenous base from another different nucleotide. One can say that the nitrogenous base is complementary to the other in that the base pairs between them are non-covalently bonded by hydrogen bonds.

Since there is only one complementary base for any of the bases found in DNA and in RNA, enzymes can make a complementary strand from any single strand. This is needed for DNA replication.

The bases which are complementary are
 A with T
 C with G

For example, the complementary strand of the DNA sequence
A G T C A T G
is
T C A G T A C

Related pages
 Base pair

Molecular biology
Glissando

In music a glissando is a slide up or down the notes of a scale.  The plural is “glissandi”.  In written music the instruction to the player is often shortened to “gliss”.  The word comes from the French “glisser” = “to slide”.

With the singing voice, or with an instrument such as the trombone or a string instrument a glissando is a smooth slide in which the pitch gradually changes, becoming higher and higher.  The trombonist can make a glissando by blowing whilst pushing out or pulling in the slide.  The violinist can make a glissando by sliding a finger up or down the fingerboard.

With instruments such as the piano, xylophone or harp a glissando is a quick slide in which we hear one note after another because the pitches between the notes cannot be played.  On the piano there are two ways to play a glissando: either on the white notes or on the black notes.  At the end of the piano piece called Ondine from Gaspard de la Nuit by Maurice Ravel both these types of glissando can be heard.  The pianist has to play a glissando with tips of the fingers or the finger nails.  It can be quite painful to practise them a lot.   Harpists are very fond of playing glissandi.  By changing the position of the harp pedals a harpist can change the scale which will sound when the glissando is played.

Many modern timpani have pedals which tighten or slacken the drum head.  These can be used to make a glissando.  The Hungarian composer  Béla Bartók often used this effect.

Some jazz clarinettists manage to play a glissando on the clarinet.  They do this by gradually changing the way they blow whilst at the same time gradually lifting all the fingers off the keys.  George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue starts with a glissando on the solo clarinet. 

When  composers write a glissando they write the first and the last note, and then put a long, straight line between the notes, and write the word “glissando” or “gliss”.

Related pages
Portamento

Musical performance techniques
Musical terminology
Almudena Cathedral

The Almudena Cathedral (Spanish: Catedral de la Almudena) is a Catholic cathedral in Madrid, Spain. It is one of the newest landmarks in Madrid.  It is on a hilltop, next to the Royal Palace.

It was designed as long ago as 1879, but then the plans were changed to make it look like a 13th-century cathedral like the one in Rheims.  Building started in 1882, but during the Spanish Civil War no more work was done do it, and the building was not finished until the 1980s.  The architects who finished it, Fernando Chueca Goitia and Carlos Sidro, made some of the building look neo classical style.  It was consecrated in 1993 by Pope John Paul II.

From the front of the cathedral, visitors can see parts of the old city wall which was built in the 9th century.

In May 2004 Prince Felipe, the heir to the throne, married Doña Letitia Ortiz Rocasolano in the cathedral.  She was a newsreader on Spanish television.

References

Roman Catholic Cathedrals
Cathedrals in Spain
Buildings and structures in Madrid
1993 establishments in Europe
1990s establishments in Spain
KIO Towers

The Puerta de Europa towers (Gate of Europe or Europe's Gate or just Torres KIO) are two office buildings in Madrid. They were built in 1996 by the Kuwait Investments Office (KIO) now owned by Caja Madrid and Realia Business. Each building is 115m tall and leans 15º. They are located near Plaza de Castilla.

Buildings and structures in Madrid
1996 establishments in Europe
1990s establishments in Spain
Portamento

In music, portamento is a gradual slide from one note to another. It is very similar to a glissando, but a glissando is deliberately written in the music by the composer and may be a long slide between two or three octaves or more. A portamento is a much shorter slide, usually between two notes which are quite close. Opera singers often used to slide from one note of a tune to another instead of singing each note separately and clearly. The habit of putting in portamento between notes spread to other instruments as well. When listening to recordings of violin playing from the early 20th century we can hear that the players used a lot of portamento.

Over the last half century portamento has gone out of fashion and singers and instrumentalists are taught not to slide from one note to another. However, there are some places, especially in opera, where it can be effective so long as it is not done all the time. It is a matter of taste.

Related pages
 Glissando

Musical performance techniques
Musical terminology
Hydrogen bond

A hydrogen bond is a type of chemical bond that weakly attaches a molecule to another molecule. It is based on the attraction between opposite electric charges.  The negative charge on an electronegative atom of one molecule is attracted to a positive charge on a hydrogen atom of another molecule. The hydrogen atom carries a positive charge because it is bonded to an second electronegative atom, which shifts electrons away from the hydrogen. This type of bond always involves a hydrogen atom, and two electronegative atoms. The electronegative atoms are often oxygen or nitrogen. Hydrogen bonds are important in polar solvents such as water and alcohol, in biomolecules, and in many other materials.

Hydrogen bonds can occur between molecules (intermolecular bonds), or between different parts of a single molecule (intramolecular bonds). The typical hydrogen bond is stronger than van der Waals forces, but weaker than covalent, ionic and metallic bonds.

Water 
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point of water (100 °C). Most molecules with hydrogen bonding have high boiling points and melting points. Because hydrogen bonds are what make water stick together so well, they also help other molecules that can make hydrogen bonds dissolve in water. This is because the molecules form bonds with the hydrogen in the water, too, helping them dissolve.

Biomolecules 
Hydrogen bonds are important in many living organisms. They allow bonds between biomolecules that can be created and broken with control to allow life to proceed. For example, DNA that codes our genes contains two strands that are connected by many hydrogen bonds, like a zipper closing. Because the hydrogen bonds are not very strong, the two strands can later be unzipped and separated in order to read or copy the DNA. In protein molecules, intramolecular hydrogen bonds hold the protein molecule together in the shape that is needed. Intermolecular hydrogen bonds help connect protein molecules to each other to make many structures important for life, such as ribosomes that create new proteins.

References 

 George A. Jeffrey. An Introduction to Hydrogen Bonding (Topics in Physical Chemistry). Oxford University Press, USA (March 13, 1997). 
 A New Intermolecular Interaction: Unconventional Hydrogen Bonds with Element-Hydride Bonds as Proton Acceptor Robert H. Crabtree, Per E. M. Siegbahn, Odile Eisenstein, Arnold L. Rheingold, and Thomas F. Koetzle Acc. Chem. Res. 1996, 29(7), 348 - 354.
 Polymerization of Formic Acid under High Pressure Alexander F. Goncharov, M. Riad Manaa, Joseph M. Zaug, Richard H. Gee, Laurence E. Fried, and Wren B. Montgomery Phys. Rev. Lett. 2005, 94, 065505.
 F. Cordier, M. Rogowski, S. Grzesiek and A. Bax. Observation of through-hydrogen-bond (2h)J(HC') in a perdeuterated protein. J Magn Reson. (1999) 140: 510-2.
 R. Parthasarathi, V. Subramanian, N. Sathyamurthy.Hydrogen Bonding Without Borders: An Atoms-In-Molecules Perspective. J. Phys. Chem. (A) (2006) 110: 3349-3351.

Chemical bonding
Thalidomide

Thalidomide is a drug. It was used as a sedative. It also had uses for other illnesses. 

It was mainly prescribed to pregnant women in the 1950s and 1960s, to help with sleep, until it was found to be a teratogen (that is: birth deformity causing substance). The drug can cause birth defects in rats, primates and humans. Before the drug was released, not enough tests were done. 

About 10,000 children were born with deformities, between 1956, and 1962. These could be directly linked to the fact that their mothers had taken the drug during their pregnancy. After this discovery, more rigorous tests were required in the United States, before a drug can be said to be safe to take during pregnancy. Other countries made similar laws. Thalidomide was not used as a drug for decades. 

Researchers continued to look for ways to use the drug. They discovered that it had good effects on certain types of skin diseases, associated with leprosy. Currently, studies are being done to see how this drug could help with cancer treatment, as well as some other, less-known diseases. It has been used in Multiple myeloma treatment with success.

Further reading 
 Johnson M; Stokes R.G. & Arndt T. 2018. The Thalidomide Catastrophe. Cranbrook, Exeter: Onwards & Upwards. ISBN 978-1-78815-629-5 
 Knightley P. & Evans H 1979. Suffer The Children: The Story of Thalidomide. New York: The Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-68114-8

References 

Drugs
Health problems
United Arab Republic

The United Arab Republic was a country formed in 1957 when Egypt and Syria joined together. Gamal Abdel Nasser was the president. When they separated in 1961, Egypt kept the name of  United Arab Republic until 1971 when the official name of the country was changed to Arab Republic of Egypt.

1957 establishments
1961 disestablishments
Former countries in Africa
Former countries in Asia
20th century in Egypt
20th century in Syria
Drop goal

A drop goal, also referred to as a dropped goal or field goal, is a method of scoring points in rugby union and rugby league. A drop goal is scored by drop kicking the ball above the crossbar and between the uprights. A drop goal is worth three points in rugby union and one point in rugby league.

Rugby
Southern Rhodesia

Southern Rhodesia was the a self-governing British colony in southern Africa. It existed at various times during the 20th century. It covered territory north of the Limpopo River and south of the Zambezi River.

Other websites

History of Zimbabwe
Former British colonies
2020 Summer Olympics

The 2020 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXXII Olympiad, was a sporting event in Tokyo, Japan from 23 July to 8 August 2021. Tokyo was announced as the host city at the 125th IOC Session in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 7 September 2013. The winning bid, Tokyo, was announced on 7 September 2013.

The event was originally scheduled to take place from 24 July to 9 August 2020, but was postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Olympic bids
The following was the bid results

Sports
The Sports played in the competition will be similar to those played in previous Olympic years. Popular sports  that will be played include Athletics, Swimming, Tennis, gymnastics, and diving.  The international Olympic committee said that there will be at least 25 sports played in addition to these. All sports competitions will feature athletes from many countries playing to try and win a medal, which is given to the winning player or team.

Stadiums
The Olympics will take place at many stadiums and locations throughout the Tokyo area. National Olympic Stadium in Tokyo will be the main stadium and host the opening and closing ceremonies, along with athletics. Other sports will take place in new and already built stadiums in and around Tokyo. The athletes will sleep in an Olympic village.

References

2021 in Asia
2021 in sports
21st century in Japan
History of Tokyo
July 2021 events
August 2021 events
2016 Summer Olympics

The 2016 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXXI Olympiad was a major international sport and cultural event from 5 August 2016, to 21 August. The host city was Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.  The 2016 Summer Paralympic Games was also held in the same city and organized by the same organizing committee.

Possible host cities

The bidding process for the 2016 Summer Olympic Games began on May 16, 2007. Each city had to submit an initial application to the IOC before September 13, 2007, saying they plan to make a bid. Completed official bids were submitted by each applicant city by January 14, 2008. The final candidate cities were shortlisted in June 2008, and the final selection was made by the full IOC membership, on October 2, 2009, in Copenhagen, Denmark.

Americas
  Chicago, United States (Eliminated in the first round)
  Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Chosen)

Asia
  Tokyo, Japan (Eliminated in the second round)

Europe
  Madrid, Spain

Applicant cities
In June 2008, these cities were not chosen to continue:

Asia
  Baku, Azerbaijan
  Doha, Qatar

Europe
  Prague, Czech Republic

Sports 

 Aquatics
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Slalom (4)
 Sprint (12)
 
 BMX (2)
 Mountain biking (2)
 Road (4)
 Track (10)
 
 Dressage (2)
 Eventing (2)
 Jumping (2)
 
 
 
 
 
 Artistic (14)
 Rhythmic (2)
 Trampoline (2)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Volleyball (2)
 Beach volleyball (2)
 
 
 Freestyle (12)
 Greco-Roman (6)

References

2016 Summer Olympics
Molecular biology

Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly cell biology, genetics, biophysics and biochemistry.

Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interrelationship of DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated.

Relationship to other specialities 

Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques that are typical for molecular biology, but they combine these with techniques and ideas from genetics and biochemistry. The following figure is a schematic that shows one possible view of the relationship between the fields:

Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms.
Genetics is the study of inheritance: the effect of genetic differences on organisms.
Molecular biology includes the study of the structure and function of all carbon-based macromolecules. This includes the chain of events from gene to protein: replication, transcription and translation. Much of the work in molecular biology is quantitative, and recently much work has been done at the interface of molecular biology and computer science in bioinformatics and computational biology. As of the early 2000s, the study of the genome has been amongst the most prominent sub-field of molecular biology.
Cytology, which includes the appearance of cells and cell structures, microscopy, and the use of stains and tags to help distinguish organelles and processes.

Related pages 
DNA and chromosome structure 
Genome
Cell
Cell biology
Cytology
Sequence analysis
Transcription (genetics)
Transformation (genetics)
Translation (genetics)

References

Cohen S.N. Chang A.C.Y. Boyer H. & Heling R.B. 1973. Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro. PNAS 70, 3240–3244.
Rodgers M. 1975. The Pandora's box congress. Rolling Stone 189, 37–77.

Other websites

Other reliable accounts 
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
 A brief history of molecular biology

Personal acounts of Nobel Prize winners 
 Max Perutz Freeview Video interview with Max Perutz by the Vega Science Trust.
 Frederick Sanger Freeview Video Interview/Documentary by the Vega Science Trust.
 Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard  Freeview interview by the Vega Science Trust.

Other
 DNA from the beginning
Scientific American Magazine (April 2004) Evolution encoded
 DNA Interactive
Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology ( journal home)

Biochemistry
Cell biology
Uracil

Uracil is a base found in RNA. It pairs with adenine and replaces thymine in DNA. Uracil, a pyrimidine, was originally discovered in 1900.

Biochemistry
Double stopping

Double stopping means playing two notes at once on a bowed string instrument by drawing the bow across two strings at once while "stopping" two notes by pressing the fingers down on the fingerboard: one finger on each of the two strings being played.

On instruments such as the violin the player is mostly playing one note at a time.  It is not difficult to play two open strings at once, but fingering two strings at once can be very difficult, so double stopping is an advanced technique.  Sometimes triple or quadruple stopping is needed.  This is sometimes called multiple stopping.  It is not really possible to play three or four notes at the same time on a violin.  The bridge is curved so that the player can bow on one string without hitting the others by accident.  Multiple stopping is done by playing first two strings and then, while still letting the sound from these two ring, quickly playing the other two strings.

Multiple stopping was used a lot in Renaissance music when playing the viol.  Baroque composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach in Germany or Arcangelo Corelli in Italy often require double stopping when writing for solo string instruments. It is also used a lot in virtuoso music of composers in the Romantic period such as Niccolò Paganini.

Musical performance techniques
Saar (protectorate)

Saar was the name of the Saarland after World War Two, when it was under French control. It became part of West Germany in 1957.

Related pages
 Saarland The modern German state
 Saargebiet The League of Nations's protectorate

Former countries in Europe
20th century in Germany
20th century in France
Saarland
1947 establishments in Europe
1956 disestablishments in Europe
Law of large numbers

The law of large numbers, or LLN for short, is a theorem from statistics. It states that if a random process is repeatedly observed, then the average of the observed values will be stable in the long run. This means that as the number of observations increases, the average of the observed values will get closer and closer to the expected value.

For example, when rolling dice, the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are possible outcomes. They are all equally likely.  The population mean (or "expected value") of the outcomes is:

 (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6) / 6 = 3.5.

The following graph shows the results of an experiment of rolls of a die. In this experiment, it can be seen that the average of die rolls varies wildly at first, but as predicted by the LLN, the average stabilizes around the expected value of 3.5 as the number of observations become large.

History
Jacob Bernoulli first described the LLN. He says it was so simple that even the stupidest man instinctively knows it is true. Despite this, it took him over 20 years to develop a good mathematical proof. Once he had found it, he published the proof in Ars Conjectandi (The Art of Conjecturing) in 1713.  He named this his "golden theorem". It became generally known as "Bernoulli's theorem" (not to be confused with the law in physics with the same name). In 1835, S.D. Poisson further described it under the name "la loi des grands nombres" (the law of large numbers).  Thereafter, it was known under both names, but the "law of large numbers" is most frequently used.

Other mathematicians also contributed to make the law better. Some of them were Chebyshev (who proved a more general version of the law for averages), Markov, Borel, Cantelli and Kolmogorov.  After these studies, there are now two different forms of the law: One is called the "weak" law, and the other the "strong" law.  These forms do not describe different laws. They have different ways to describe the convergence of the observed or measured probability to the actual probability. The strong form of the law implies the weak one.

Related pages 

 Central limit theorem

References 

Statistics
Hennes & Mauritz

H & M Hennes & Mauritz AB (H&M), is a Swedish clothing company. It sells fast fashion at cheaper prices. The company was created in Västerås, Sweden, in 1947 by Erling Persson. At first, the company only sold women's clothing. At that time, it was called Hennes, Swedish for "hers." In 1968, Persson got the building and inventory of a Stockholm hunting equipment store named Mauritz Widforss. A supply of men's clothing was part of the inventory. This caused Persson to decide to also sell men's clothing. He renamed the store Hennes & Mauritz, later shortened to H&M. 

H&M has more than 1500 stores in 28 different countries. It has more than 60,000 employees.

References

Other websites
 www.hm.com

Companies of Sweden
Clothing companies
1947 establishments in Sweden
Luchegorsk

Luchegorsk (Russian:Лучегорск, lit. Ray of mountains) is a urban-type settlement and administrative center of Pozharsky District (Primorsky Krai, Russia). It was founded in 1966. There are 22,365 people living there according to 2002 Census.

Geography 
Geographical coordinates are 46-27N,134-17E. Luchegorsk is the largest non-city settlement on Russian Far East.

Luchegorsk has more ecological problems for a large electric power station.

In December,1997, a large Amur tiger hunted down a poacher who had shot and wounded the tiger.The tiger killed the man in what appears to be the only (recorded) premeditated act of revenge by a tiger.

Settlements in Russia
Boxe pieds-poings

French, one calls boxe pieds-poings ("feet-fists boxing"), since the years 1980, the combat sports of striking with boxing gloves. These sports are practised in a ring (or on a mat) and belong to the category of sport boxing. The boxers use, according to the regulation, the techniques of leg (kicks and knee kicks), the techniques of arm (punches and elbow strikes) and the techniques of throwing.

Among the most known we have: 
 the American disciplines (American boxing) under three main forms: 
 full contact karate without kicks below the belt, 
 kickboxing with roundhouse kicks in the thighs or American kickboxing, 
 and semicontact or fights in the points (point fighting), a class of karate with gloves and slippers in foam, 
 French boxing (savate), today called "Savate-BF", 
 Japanese kickboxing: kickboxing with direct knee kicks, roundhouse kicks in the thighs (low kick), and with few wrestling catches,
 two kinds of boxing, where almost everything is permitted, Burmese boxing (lethwei) and Thai boxing (muay thai).

Other websites 
  French Page of boxe pieds-poings.

Martial arts
Vibrato

Vibrato is a series of very quick changes up and down to the pitch of a note. It is like a deliberate, controlled wobble. The word “vibrato” is related to the word “vibrate”.

Vibrato is used to make a melody sound more beautiful by making it more expressive. Singers use vibrato, especially when singing dramatic solo music such as opera. In Italy a singer’s vibrato is sometimes called “tremolo”.

Violinists and other players of string instruments produce vibrato by moving the finger backwards and forwards on the fingerboard. Vibrato has to be learned carefully, as the hand needs to be very relaxed. Many beginners who start to use vibrato will try to vibrate too fast and this makes an unpleasant sound. Vibrato can be produced on wind instruments by small changes of breath control.

Musicians sometimes disagree about how much vibrato was used in earlier times. People who play music from the Renaissance or Baroque on period instruments sometimes play without any vibrato. Other people think that players of those days did use some vibrato.

Musical performance techniques
Glockenspiel

The glockenspiel is a percussion instrument. It originated in Germany. It is in the same category as the xylophone and timpani. It usually has a range of 2 and a half octaves. It is set up in a keyboard instrument format. It is played by hitting it with mallets that have a plastic or felt tip. It has a soft sound, but very high pitch. If it is hit too hard, it makes a very bad sound. Its sound is often used to represent things such as fairies, birds, and butterflies.

Percussion instruments
Nigella Lawson

Nigella Lucy Lawson (born 6 January 1960) is an English television chef, journalist, television presenter and food writer. She was born in Wandsworth, London and is of Jewish descent.

She presented the cooking show Nigella Bites on Channel 4 from 2000 to 2001. After that series, she went on to present two cookery series called Nigella's Christmas Kitchen and Nigella Express on BBC Two.

She is a judge on the American reality show The Taste.

She has written many cooking books which have been translated into many different languages and are popular in the United Kingdom and the United States. 

She is a daughter of politician Nigel Lawson.

References

Other websites 
Official website
Nigella Lawson at IMDb.com
Nigella Lawson at nndb.com

1960 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Oxford
British chefs
English television presenters
Jewish British writers
Jewish entertainers
Journalists from London
People educated at Westminster School, London
People from Wandsworth
Television personalities from London
Writers from London
Pittsburg, Texas

Pittsburg is a city in the American state of Texas. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 4,347.

References

Other websites 
Official City Web Site

Cities in Texas
County seats in Texas
Level 42

Level 42 is a Pop band from the United Kingdom. They were formed in 1979 on the Isle of Wight. Their songs include Something About You (1985) and "Lessons in Love" (1986). The current Level 42 is formation have Mark King, Mike Lindup, Pete Ray Biggin and Nathan King.

1970s British music groups
1979 establishments in the United Kingdom
1980s British music groups
1990s British music groups
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
British pop rock bands
English pop music groups
English rock bands
Isle of Wight
Musical groups established in 1979
New wave bands
Johann Heinrich Schmelzer

Johann Heinrich Schmelzer (born Austria some time between 1620 and 1623; died in Prague some time between 29 February and 20 March) was a German composer.  He was one of the most important composers of instrumental music in the mid-17th century. 

Nothing is known about his early life.  He became a member of the imperial chapel in the mid 1630’s.  His job there was probably a violinist.  We know very little about his life, except that over the years he became a famous composer.  The emperor must have liked him because he gave him presents of money and gold chains.

In 1671 he became deputy Kapellmeister at the imperial court.  In 1673 the emperor gave him the honorary title “von Ehrenruef” which he put after his name.  A few years later the court moved to Prague to try to escape the plague that was killing so many people in Vienna.   At the end of 1679 the emperor’s Kapellmeister died and Schmelzer became Kapellmeister.  It was the first time that the Kapellmeister at the Habsburg court had not been a foreigner but an Austrian.  However, the following March Schmelzer died of the plague.

Schmelzer wrote a lot of music for small groups of instruments as well as a lot of ballet music.  His dance suites are made up of several dances such as galliard, bourree,  sarabande, gigue, gavotte and allemande as well as more unusual dances.  He wrote several sonatas for two violins and continuo.  They are full of fast scales and arpeggios.  He also seems to have written church music, but it has all been lost.

1623 births
1688 deaths

Baroque composers
Austrian composers
Oireachtas

The Oireachtas is the national parliament of Ireland.

There are three parts of the Oireachtas:

The President of Ireland
Dáil Éireann - The lower house. It is similar to the House of Commons in the United Kingdom or the House of Representatives in the United States. 
Seanad Éireann - The upper house. It is similar to the House of Lords and the Senate

Only the Irish names are used, never the English

Politics of Ireland
Government of the Republic of Ireland
Ireland
Quasar

Quasars or quasi-stellar radio sources are the most energetic and distant active galactic nuclei (AGN). 

They are quite small in comparison with the energy they put out. Quasars are not much larger than the Solar System. The mechanism of brightness changes probably involves relativistic beaming of jets pointed nearly directly toward us. The highest redshift quasar known () has a redshift of 7.085, which means it is about 29 billion light-years from Earth. This estimate is made using the concept of comoving distance.

Scientists now agree that a quasar is a compact region in the center of a massive galaxy surrounding a central supermassive black hole. Its size is 10–10,000 times the Schwarzschild radius of the black hole. The energy emitted by a quasar is gravitational energy, created from mass falling onto the accretion disc around the black hole.

Quasars are extremely luminous. They were first identified as being high redshift sources of electromagnetic radiation, including radio waves and visible light. The light (and other energy) appeared to be similar to stars, rather than large sources like galaxies. On the other hand, their spectra had very broad emission lines, unlike any known from stars, hence "quasi-stellar". Their luminosity can be 100 times greater than that of the Milky Way.

The accretion discs of central supermassive black holes can convert about 10% of the mass of an object into energy.
This mechanism explains why quasars were more common in the early universe, as this energy production ends when the supermassive black hole consumes all of the gas and dust near it. 

This means that most galaxies, including our own Milky Way, may have gone through an active stage as a quasar or some other class of active galaxy. They are now dormant because they lack a supply of matter to feed into their central black holes to generate radiation.

References

Related pages 
Astrophysics

Galaxies
Black holes
Taoiseach

The Taoiseach (), also referred to as An Taoiseach (), is the head of the government in Ireland.  The term prime minister is not used by the Irish media.

Appointment 

When a new Dáil Éireann meets after an election it nominates one of its members to be Taoiseach.  He then visits the President, and is appointed.  He then presents a list of ministers to the Dáil and when this is approved they are also appointed by the President.

If the Taoiseach resigns all members of the government are said to have resigned as well.  If a minister does not resign when asked by the Taoiseach, the Taoiseach can ask the President to sack the minister.  The President cannot refuse to do this.

Department of the Taoiseach 
The Department of the Taoiseach helps the Taoiseach to do his job.  The main duty of the Taoiseach is to start policy and coordinate policy of the rest of government.  Especially policies on Economic and Social Development, Northern Ireland, the European Union and Public Sector Change and Oireachtas Reform.

The Government Chief Whip, who has to make sure the government's policies and ideas are turned into law, is a part of the Taoiseach's department.

The current Taoiseach is Leo Varadkar since 14 June 2017.

List

Notes

References 

 
Government of the Republic of Ireland
Government occupations
Seanad Éireann

Seanad Éireann (; Senate of Ireland) is the second house of the Irish parliament, the Oireachtas.

Function 
Seanad Éireann's main business is the revising of legislation sent to it by Dáil Éireann.

It can initiate (start) and revise legislation, except bills for raising tax and spending money (Money Bills).  Financial legislation must start in Dáil Éireann, and the Seannad can only suggest changes, it cannot force the changes to be accepted.

Seanad Éireann slows Dáil Éireann.  All bills must be looked at by the Seannad, so it is a safeguard against laws being passed too quickly.

Seanad Éireann also debates important issues. Also, Seanad Éireann can debate these issues with more freedom because the fate of the Government will not be at stake.  If the government loses a vote in Seanad Éireann it could be embarrassing, but under the constitution if the Government loses a vote in Dáil Éireann they might have to call new elections.

Election day
Members of Dáil Éireann are members from the first meeting of Dáil Éireann after a general election until the Dáil is dissolved.  Members of Seanad Éireann are members from the first meeting until the day before the next general election of the Seanad.

Elections for Dáil Éireann must be within 30 days of being dissolved. Elections for the Seanad must be within 90 days of Dáil Éireann's dissolution.  The Seanad must be elected after the Dáil, because new TDs are allowed to vote in a Seanad election.

Members 
There are sixty Senators.

 11 are nominated to be members by the new Taoiseach after a general election
 49 are elected from panels of candidates

Elected Senators 
 Three senators are elected by the National University of Ireland;
 Three are elected by the University of Dublin;
 43 are elected from 5 panels of candidates:-
 National Language and Culture, Literature, Art, Education and other professions;
 Agriculture and allied interests, and Fisheries;
 Labour, (organised or unorganised);
 Industry and Commerce, including banking, finance, accountancy, engineering and architecture;
 Public Administration and social services, including voluntary social activities.

At least 5 senators must be elected from each panel, but no more than 11 from any one panel.

About 1.000 people can vote for the Seanad:

 Members of the newly elected Dáil Éireann
 Members of the old Seanad Éireann
 Members of city and county councils

The senators from the Universities are elected by any Irish citizen with a degree from that university.

The university seats shows how much Éamon de Valera, who wrote the Constitution of Ireland was influenced by the British Parliament.  At the time it was written the universities of Oxford and Cambridge had their own MPs in the House of Commons.  Graduates of those universities voted for these MPs as well as for the MP were they lived.

Related pages
 Dáil Éireann
 Oireachtas

References 

Politics of Ireland
Government of the Republic of Ireland
Ireland
Protein biosynthesis

Protein biosynthesis (synthesis) is when cells build proteins. The term is sometimes used to refer only to protein translation but more often it refers to a multi-step process.

Amino acids are either synthesised or eaten in food. Then, after the transcription of polypeptide genes, the amino acids are put together. This is done by translation and RNA splicing which produces messenger RNAs. The splicing process produces the final proteins, which then fold up into their protein structure. Then they can function. The plural is used here because, with most genes, the splicing process produces more than one final working protein. One particular Drosophila gene (DSCAM) can be alternatively spliced into 38,000 different mRNA.

Protein biosynthesis differs between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, though parts of the process are the same in both.

References

Other websites 
 Science aid: protein synthesis For high school
 Protein synthesis
 Transcription 
 Translation 
 Protein synthesis animation  Wesleyan University Learning Objects animation of protein synthesis.
 Interactive Java simulation of transcription initiation.  From Center for Models of Life at the Niels Bohr Institute.

Proteins
National Weather Service

The National Weather Service (also known as NWS) is one of the six scientific agencies that make up the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the United States government. Its job is to provide "weather, hydrologic, and climate forecasts and warnings for the United States, its territories, adjacent waters and ocean areas, for the protection of life and property and the enhancement of the national economy." This is done through a collection of national and regional centers, and more than 122 local weather forecast offices (WFOs). Since the NWS is a government agency, most of its products are in the public domain.

References

Other websites
 National Weather Service
 NOAA Weather Radio All Hazards
 Hydrometeorological Prediction Center 
 Aviation Weather Center
 National Hurricane Center
 Storm Prediction Center
 Climate Prediction Center 
 Free National Weather Service Yahoo! Widget 
 NOAA weather streaming radio - using windows media player, etc.

See also
 NOAA Weather Radio

United States government agencies
Weather services
Yuma, Arizona

Yuma is a city in and the county seat of Yuma County, Arizona, United States.  According to the 2005 Census Bureau estimates, the population of the city is 84,688.

References

Other websites

City of Yuma Website 
Yuma Convention and Visitors Bureau Website
MCAS Yuma Official Website 
Yuma Stats

Cities in Arizona
County seats in Arizona
1914 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Arizona
Storm surge

A storm surge is a sudden rise of water hitting areas close to the coast. Storm surges are usually created by a hurricane or other tropical cyclone. The surge happens because a storm has fast winds and low atmospheric pressure. Water is pushed on shore, and the water level rises. Strong storm surges can flood coastal towns and destroy homes. A storm surge is considered the deadliest part of a hurricane. They kill many people each year.

Related pages 
 Tropical cyclone
 Tsunami

Other websites 
Data on Bangladesh disasters  from NIRAPAD disaster response organisation.
NOAA National Hurricane Center storm surge page 
"The 1953 English East Coast Floods" 
DeltaWorks.Org North Sea Flood of 1953, includes images, video and animations.

Severe weather
California Current

The California Current is a Pacific Ocean current that starts along the northwestern United States coast and ends on the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula.

Other websites
Seattle Times: 2005 Warming Event

Pacific Ocean
Ocean currents
Baja California Peninsula

The Baja California Peninsula (or Lower California) is a peninsula of North America. It is west of Mexico. It extends some 1,250 km (775 miles) from Mexicali in the north to Cabo San Lucas in the south, separating the Pacific Ocean from the Gulf of California (or "Sea of Cortés").

Other websites
Google maps
Baja.net 
Baja California

Geography of Mexico
Peninsulas
Sukkot

Sukkot (also known as Feast of Tabernacles) is a Jewish festival. In this event, people celebrate the gathering of the crops, and remember the time in the past when small shelters were made by the Jews when they were in the wilderness and had no homes.

Dates 
 2017: October 4-11 (October 12, outside Israel)
 2018: September 23-30 (October 1, outside Israel)
 2019: October 13-20 (October 21, outside Israel)
2020: October 2-9 (October 3, outside Israel)
2021: September 20-27 (September 21, outside Israel)

Other websites 

Guide for Sukkot
JewFaq discussion on Sukkot
Sukkos and Simchas Torah - Torah.org 
an overview of the laws of Sukkot  from Torah.org, based on the Mishneh Torah 
Sukkot in Jerusalem
Free succah construction plans and instructions
sukkahsoftheworld.org devoted to pictures of Sukkahs from Sharon, Mass USA and throughout the world
Sukkot Concepts - Basic through Advanced - OU.org

Jewish festivals and holidays
Translation (genetics)

Translation is the second part of protein biosynthesis (the making of proteins). It is part of the process of gene expression.

Before translation comes: 
transcription, which produces a chain of introns and exons.
RNA splicing by spliceosomes which remove introns, and
formulation of the messenger RNA from exons.

In eukaryotes, translation happens on the ribosomes in the cytoplasm and in the endoplasmic reticulum. In bacteria, translation happens in the cell cytoplasm: they have no nucleus.

Ribosomes are made of a small part and a large part which surround the mRNA (messenger RNA). In translation, mRNA has the base sequence to make a specific polypeptide. This sequence is originally specified by the DNA, and copied by the mRNA. The polypeptide can be a whole protein. Or, it can be just a part, waiting to be combined with other polypeptides so it can make a whole protein. The polypeptide also has to be folded before it works as a protein.

Amino acids are carried by specific tRNAs with anticodons to connect with mRNA's matching codons. Each tRNA has its own anticodon and carries an amino acid. An anticodon is always together with the same amino acid.

When the tRNA matches with the mRNA, the amino acid that is connected to the tRNA is unconnected from the tRNA and gets connected to the amino acid brought by the previous tRNA.

So, a ribosome works a lot like a stock ticker and ticker tape. Many ribosomes, together with mRNA, will attach themselves to the outer membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Any proteins that those ribosomes make go into the inside of the endoplasmic reticulum, where it will probably go into a vesicle later. The vesicles will then bring the proteins to other organelles or even the outside of the cell.

Four stages 

Translation happens in four stages: activation (make ready), initiation (start), elongation (make longer) and termination (stop). These terms describe the growth of the amino acid chain (polypeptide). 
Amino acids are brought to ribosomes and assembled into proteins. In the activation stage, the correct amino acid is covalently bonded to the correct transfer RNA (tRNA). When the tRNA is connected to an amino acid, it is "charged". 
Initiation is when the small part of the ribosome connects to 5' end of the mRNA with the help of initiation factors (IF). 
Elongation is when the amino acids brought by the "charged" tRNAs are connected to each other to form a polypeptide.

Some antibiotics work by keeping translation from happening. Prokaryotic ribosomes are different from eukaryotic ribosomes. So antibiotics can kill bacteria without hurting the eukaryotic host. For example, antibiotics taken by a human might kill the bacteria that is making the human sick but wouldn't hurt the human.

References 
 Champe, Pamela C. Harvey, Richard A. and Ferrier, Denise R. 2005. Lippincott's illustrated reviews: Biochemistry 3rd ed, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. .
  Nelson, David L. Cox, Michael M. and Lehninger, Albert L. 2005. Lehninger principles of biochemistry 4th ed, Freeman. .

Molecular biology
Cell biology
Curtis (50 Cent album)

Curtis is the third album by rapper 50 Cent. The album was released on September 11, 2007. The album features production from Dr. Dre, Eminem, and Timbaland, among others. Guest appearances include Akon, Justin Timberlake, Nicole Scherzinger, and other notable musicians. 50 Cent divides between "hard" songs and "soft" songs on the album.

Curtis was released and sold 691,000 copies in its first week on the Billboard 200. It sold the most copies in one week for an East Coast album since Jay-Z's Kingdom Come sold 680,000 copies sold. The album's sales competition with Kanye West's Graduation was considered to be a "great day for hip hop".

References

2007 albums

50 Cent
Hip hop albums
Šarplaninac

The Šarplaninac (pronounced shar-pla-NEE-natz) (also known as Sharplaninec) is a large-sized shepherd dog breed of the Balkan region, from the Šar mountains (Šar Planina in Serbian and Macedonian or Bjeshket e Sharrit in Albanian).

Dog breeds
El Limón, Samaná

El Limón (in English, The Lemon) is a Municipal district of Santa Bárbara de Samaná, Samaná province, Dominican Republic. It is on the north coast of the Samaná Peninsula, on the Atlantic coast.

It was made a municipal district on July 20, 2001.

There are other two Municipal districts with the same name (El Limón) in the country: one in the Independencia province and the other in the Santiago province.

Théodore Chassériau, a French painter, was born in El Limón on 1819.

Population
In the last national census (2010), the district had a total population of 7,024: 3,622 men and 3,402 women. The urban population was 66.23% of the total population.

Economy

The most important economic activities of the province are agriculture, fishing and tourism. Tourism, above all nature tourism, is important here because many tourists visit El Limón Waterfall.

References

Settlements in the Dominican Republic
2001 establishments in the Dominican Republic