cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Mount Elbrus

Mount Elbrus (, ) is a peak in the western Caucasus mountains. It is in Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay-Cherkessia, Russia, near the border of Georgia. It consists of two peaks. The western peak has a height of , the eastern peak is  high.

Mount Elbrus is an inactive volcano, with a glacier on top. The western peak still has a crater with a diameter of about . No eruptions have been recorded, but there are other signs of volcanic activity, namely hot springs in the area. There last eruption happened in the first century.

Mount Elbrus is the highest mountain in the Caucasus range, and the highest one on Russian soil. Mount Elbrus is about  taller than Mont Blanc, which is commonly seen as the highest peak in Europe. The Caucasus range is generally seen as the border between Europe and Asia. People disagree on which mountains of the Caucasus are in Europe, and which ones are in Asia. A common view is to use the watershed as the boundary line. If this definition is used, Mount Elbrus is in Europe, and its highest mountain.

Other websites 
Mount Elbrus on TierraWiki.org
"Elbrus, Mount." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 Nov. 2006 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032240>.
Computer generated summit panoramas North South index. There are a few discontinuities due to incomplete data. Politically the Caucasus are in Europe but topographically they are in Asia.
 NASA Earth Observatory pages on Mount Elbrus:  ,  
 Mount Elbrus live webcam  (view from Mount Cheget) (the web cam is not working)
 Climbing Mount Elbrus information 
 Elbrus Photos (Hundreds of large photographs of Mt. Elbrus and the vicinity)
 A trip report

References 

Mountains of Russia
Provinces of the Dominican Republic

See also: Ranked list of Dominican Provinces
The Dominican Republic has thirty-one (31) provinces (in Spanish, provincias). The President of the Republic appoints a Civil Governor (Gobernador Civil) in every province. The only function of the Governor is to represent the President of the Republic in the province.

The people who live in the province elect one Senator (Senador) and at least two (2) Representatives (Diputados) for the National Congress.

The National District (Distrito Nacional) is similar to a province but without a Civil Governor and with only one municipality, Santo Domingo de Guzmán, the national capital.

There are two (2) or more municipalities (in Spanish and in singular, municipio) in every province. The municipalities are governed by municipal councils and mayors elected by popular vote. The municipal districts (in Spanish and in singular, distrito municipal) are subdivisions of some municipalities ruled by a municipal council and a mayor.

The Dominican Republic has 154 municipalities and 202 municipal districts.

The following is a table of the provinces and their capital cities. Population figures in the following table are from the 2010 census.

References

Other websites 
 Political Database of the Americas - Dominican 2002 Constitution 
 Oficina Nacional de Estadística, Statistics Portal of the Dominican Republic
Reductio ad absurdum

Reductio ad absurdum is a Latin phrase which means "reduction to the absurd". The phrase describes a kind of indirect proof. It is a proof by contradiction, and is a common form of argument. It shows that a statement is true because its denial leads to a contradiction, or a false or absurd result. It is a way of reasoning that has been used throughout the history of mathematics and philosophy from classical antiquity onwards.

The ridiculous or "absurdum" conclusion of a reductio ad absurdum argument can have many forms. For example,
 Rocks have weight, otherwise we would see them floating in the air.
 Society must have laws, otherwise there would be chaos.
There is no smallest positive rational number, because if there were, it could be divided by two to get a smaller one.

History 
The phrase can be traced back to the Greek η εις  άτοπον απαγωγή (hê eis átopon apagogê). This phrase means "reduction to the impossible". It was often used by Aristotle. The method is used a number of times in Euclid's Elements.

Method
Reduction ad absurdum can be a tool of discovery.

The method of proving something works by first assuming something about it. Then other things are deduced from that. If there is a contradiction, it shows that the first something cannot be correct.  For example, 
To prove A is true, correct, valid, credible ....
Assume the opposite --  that "not-A" is true....
Assume that if "not-A" is true, then it must mean or imply B.
Show that B is false, incorrect, invalid, incredible ...
Therefore, A must be true after all.

Related pages
 Mathematical proof
 Proof by induction
 Straw man

References

Other websites 
 Conditional Proof and Reductio ad Absurdum

Mathematics
Logical fallacies
Sandoz

Today Sandoz is a part of Novartis. It is a big pharmaceutical firm in Switzerland. Today, Sandoz produces many drugs whose patents have run out (so called generic drugs). The original company, which was founded in 1886, is known for several things:
It invented saccharin in 1899. Saccharin is an artificial sweetener, a substitute for sugar. Artificial sweeteners are used in many Light-products today.
It invented LSD in 1938

Companies of Switzerland
Pharmaceutical companies of Europe
Artificial sweetener

An artificial sweetener or sugar substitute is a chemical. It is added to some foods to make them taste sweet. It is made to taste like sugar or corn syrup. Usually it has a much lower energy value than sugar. It can be found in many products which say Light or Diet in their name. 

Consumers use artificial sweeteners for one of the following reasons:
Diabetes mellitus - People with diabetes have problems regulating their sugar levels in the blood. Artificial sweeteners are better for them than sugar.
Reactive hypoglycemia - This is a condition similar to diabetes. People who suffer from it therefore often use artificial sweeteners.
Some people think that artificial sweeteners can help them lose weight. A  study at the university showed, however, that those people using artificially sweetened drink are more likely to become obese than those who do not.
Dental hygiene – sugar substitutes are tooth-friendly, as they are not fermented by the microflora of the dental plaque.

Problems

Studies done with animals have shown that artificial sweeteners cause weight gain. A sweet taste causes insulin to be produced. This will store some of the sugar in the blood in tissues, including fat. With artificial sweeteners, the amount of sugar in the blood does not increase. This means that there will be too little sugar in the blood. This is known as hypoglycemia. On the next meal, more food will be eaten to get the blood sugar level back to normal values. 
After a while, rats given sweeteners have steadily increased the amount of calories. This increased body weight, and adiposity (fatness). The natural response to eating sugary foods is to eat less at the next meal and to use some of the extra energy to warm the body after the meal. When using artificial sweeteners, this effect is lost gradually.

References

Sweeteners
Larry Sanger

Lawrence Mark Sanger (born July 16, 1968) is an American internet project developer. He worked with Jimmy Wales to create the online encyclopedias, Nupedia and Wikipedia before he created his own online encyclopedias Digital Universe and Citizendium.

Career 
Wales, through his company Bomis, paid Sanger to help them to maintain Nupedia.

On January 2, 2001, Ben Kovitz, Sanger's friend, had the idea to use a wiki to help to make Nupedia better. Sanger in turn told Wales, and on January 15, 2001, Wikipedia was launched. There are different opinions on which of the three people are most responsible for Wikipedia.

In 2005, Sanger created Digital Universe, an online encyclopedia like Wikipedia.

In 2006, Sanger created Citizendium, another online encyclopedia. Citizendium uses the MediaWiki engine (like Wikipedia) but the rules are different. People must use their given names on Citizendium and experts are given special status in approving articles.

In December 2017, Sanger joined Everipedia. He left the project in 2019.

References

Other websites

 

1968 births
Living people
Wikipedia people
American bloggers
Cats (musical)

Cats is a musical. It is based on Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats, a book of poems by T.S. Eliot. Trevor Nunn wrote the lyrics for the song, "Memory", which  is based on some of T.S Eliot's poems. Andrew Lloyd Webber wrote the music.

Cats premiered at the New London Theatre in the West End on 11 May 1981. It closed on 11 May 2002 after 8,949 performances. It opened on Broadway on 7 October 1982 at the Winter Garden Theatre. It closed on 10 September 2000, after 7,485 performances.

The musical won the 1982 Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Musical and the 1983 Tony Award for Best Musical.

Plot
Every year, a tribe of cats known as the Jellicle Cats meet for the Jellicle Ball. At the Jellicle Ball, Old Deuteronomy, the leader of the tribe, chooses one cat to ascend to the Heaviside Lair to be reborn and return to a new life. 
Grizabella, an elderly (younger in some productions) glamour cat who left the Jellicle tribe's junkyard home, comes back to her tribe, but they shun her.  While the other cats dance at the Jellicle Ball, Grizabella watches in the background. She performs a simple dance when the other cats leave called Memory, and sings about how she wants to be accepted. Old Deutoronomy sees this and sympathizes with her.
In act two, Old Deuteronomy gets kidnapped by Macavity, a "mystery cat" who is the only true antagonist in the musical. As soon as he is successfully returned, it is time to choose who goes to the Heaviside Layer. 
Grizabella is chosen, and she is taken on a tire to fly into the Heaviside layer. 

West End musicals
Broadway musicals
Musicals based on books
Musicals by Andrew Lloyd Webber
Tony Award winning musicals
Laurence Olivier Award winning musicals
1980s musicals
Independent movie

An independent movie, or independent film (often called indie film), is the name usually given to a movie that is made by a small movie studio for not much money. Sometimes the name is used for art films; which are less expensive and often have less plot. Independent movies are being made (produced) more as the technology needed, such as cameras and editing-software, is becoming less expensive. Movies like Reservoir Dogs, American History X, The Basketball Diaries and the documentary Bowling for Columbine are independent because they were made for little money and by small studios.

Movies
Flower power

"Flower power" was a 1960s slogan, used by hippies and other people who were against war and violence. It was a symbol of passive resistance and non-violence ideology.

These people used flowers as a symbol of life, of love, and of peace. They wore flowers, made art with flowers and images of them, and gave them away often. Hippies sometimes placed flowers in the rifle barrels of marching soldiers.

Songs such as San Francisco, Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair by folk musicians The Mamas & the Papas were associated with flower power.

References 

1960s
Cargo cult

Cargo cult is a name given to several religions. There are many cargo cults in Melanesia and New Guinea. These religions are started when tribal societies come into contact with Western civilisation. When the first contact happened, the tribespeople saw Western manufactured goods, like radios. These things are called cargo. The tribespeople did not know how the manufactured goods worked nor how they were made.  

They imitate the behaviour they saw the Westerners do, in the hope that some spirits will send them more cargo.  In other cases, such as on the island of Tanna in Vanuatu, cult members worship Americans who brought the cargo.

During the age of colonialism, the colonial powers came in contact with many technologically less advanced societies. The first cargo cults were documented in New Guinea, and other countries of Micronesia, Melanesia and the West Pacific Ocean. 

The people who are part of the cargo cults think that the cargo was created by their deities and ancestors. They think that the cargo was made for the members of the cargo cult, but the foreigners have it. For this reason, the efforts and rituals of cargo cults are done so that the foreigners should get less of these goods and the cult members more of them.

Related pages
Vailala Madness - a cargo cult active between 1919 and 1922, possibly the first documented cargo cult.
Ghost Dance - a similar movement that happened when Native Americans came in contact with the European settlers.

References

Other websites
 Vanuatu cargo cult marks 50 years (BBC News)
 Information on the Jon Frum Cargo Cult (still active) 
 Contemporary Cargo Cults by John FitzGerald
 Western Oceanian Religions 
 
 Cargo cults  includes a bibliography
 Account of a Visit to a Jon Frum Village in 2005 
 Air Force Magazine , January 1991, Vol. 74, No. 1. Summary from the guys who fly those Cargoes.

New religious movements
Walloon language

Walloon is a Romance language. It belongs to the family of the oïl languages along with French, Picard and Norman.

Walloon is spoken in Wallonia in Belgium and in some villages in Wisconsin in the United States.

It has about 3,400,000 speakers.

Languages of Europe
Romance languages
Gallo language

Gallo is one of the two regional languages of Brittany. It is an Oïl language of the  Romance language family, with Latin at the base. Gallo is spoken in the eastern part of Brittany.

The other regional language of Brittany is Breton. Breton is a Celtic language.

References

Romance languages
Diethyl ether

Diethyl ether is a clear liquid chemical. It is often just called ether. Ether burns very easily and boils at about 35°C. It has a sweet smell and does not mix with water.

Ether was discovered in 1275. It was used in the past as a general anesthetic to make people unconscious during surgery. Now other chemicals are used because ether has side effects and can catch fire. Ether is used as a solvent by scientists for chemical reactions.

People used to take ether as a recreational drug (drugs used for fun, such as alcohol) in the 1800s. People would either drink a drink with small amounts of ether in it, just like people drink alcoholic drinks, or inhale the fumes given off by pure or nearly pure ether. This could have addicted these people to the ether if they did that often enough. It was a big problem in some places, like Ireland and Poland. It first became popular because Europeans thought it was unladylike to drink alcohol. Women would drink ether instead, as would teetotalers, people who had decided not to drink alcohol. 

It became illegal to sell ether in Poland in 1923.

Ether is made as a byproduct when ethanol is made, so it is not very expensive.

Organic compounds
Carriage

A carriage is a type of vehicle that was used before cars were invented. It is a fancy type of cart or wagon, usually with four wheels and suspension.  The carriages may be pulled by horses. Carriages are often used for weddings.

Related pages
 British state carriages
 Japan state carriages

References

Animal-powered vehicles
Lozi language

Lozi, also called Silozi and Rozi, is a Bantu language of the Niger-Congo language family.

It is spoken by the Lozi people in southwestern Zambia. It is also spoken in Zimbabwe, Botswana, and the Zambezi Region of Namibia.

History 

The Lozi language comes from a mix of two languages: Luyana and Kololo.

Example 

This is Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Lozi:

References

Bantu languages
M249 light machine gun

The M249 light machine gun is a machine gun which is the U.S. vesion of the Belgian FN Minimi light machine gun, used by the United States and Lebanon. The main use of this weapon is to provide cover fire for other people in the group (the squad) The gun uses 5.56 NATO caliber ammunition.

Overview
The M249 was made because a lot of the squadrons of the U.S. Army did not have fully automatic weapons. It has seen action in every war that the United States has been in since 1989.

Replacement
The M249 is due to be replaced by the German M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle in the U.S. Marines, but the U.S. Army does not plan to buy any M27's, so it will stay in service with them.

References

Light machine guns
Machine guns of the United States
Toronto Symphony Orchestra

The Toronto Symphony Orchestra is a Canadian orchestra. 400,000 people go to its concerts each year and it is often broadcast over CBC Radio 2. It was formed in 1922.  The concerts used to be given in the Massey Hall but since 1982 they have been in the Roy Thomson Hall. The Orchestra often goes on tour and has had some famous conductors.

List of conductors of the TSO:
 Luigi von Kunits (1922-1931)
 Sir Ernest MacMillan (1931-1956)
 Walter Susskind (1956-1965)
 Seiji Ozawa (1965-1969)
 Karel Ančerl (1969-1973)
 Sir Andrew Davis (1975-1988)
 Günther Herbig (1988-1994)
 Jukka-Pekka Saraste (1994-2001)
 Peter Oundjian (2003-)

The TSO's concertmaster now is Jacques Israelievitch.

Other websites 
Toronto Symphony Orchestra

Orchestras
Canadian musical groups
1922 establishments in North America
1920s establishments in Canada
Vattenfall Cyclassics

The Vattenfall Cyclassics is a cycling race held every year in Hamburg, Germany.

It started as an unimportant race in 1996, but because cycling became very popular in Germany it was made a part of the UCI Road World Cup in 1998. Since 2005, it is a part of the UCI ProTour.

The route of the race changes, but is about 250 km long. During a number of laps through Hamburg, the Waseberg hill is climbed a several times.  The cyclists also race over Hamburg's highest bridge Köhlbrandbrücke.  Unlike many races the Cyclassic race almost never ends in a mass sprint, that is, with a lot of riders close together racing to the finish line.

There is an amateur part of the Cyclassics.  Earlier on the day of the race there are three Jedermann-Rennen.   Anybody (jedermann) with a ticket can take part in these races (rennen) over 55 km, 100 km and 155 km.  Tickets must be reserved months in advance. In 2005 there were 20000 amateurs on the course.

The sponsor of the Cyclassics, was the Hamburg Electrizität Werke, Hamburg electricity plant or "HEW", after it became part of the big "Vattenfall" company the Cyclassic changed its name too, and from 2006 this cycling race has been known as the Vattenfall Cyclassics.

Winners

Other websites
 Official Cyclassics site

Cycle racing in Germany
Sport in Hamburg
Gothic language

The Gothic language is an extinct Germanic language that was spoken by the Goths. It is the East Germanic language with the most texts surviving today. It had died out by the 8th century or perhaps the early 9th century.

Probably, one of the best known works of the language is Wulfila's translation of the Bible, known as the Wulfila Bible or Gothic Bible or Codex Argenteus. The translation was done in the 3rd century.

Other websites 
 Project Wulfila, studies the Gothic language.

References

Germanic languages
Languages of Europe
9th-century disestablishments in Europe
Ernest MacMillan

Sir Ernest MacMillan (born Mimico, Ontario, 18 August 1893; died 6 May 1973)  was a famous Canadian conductor and composer.

MacMillan's father was a Scottish Presbyterian minister and musician.  He was a child prodigy.   He gave his first organ recital in Massey Hall at the age of ten. After studying in Britain and gaining the ARCO and FRCO diplomas at the Royal College of Organists, he studied modern history at the University of Toronto from 1911 to 1914.

Prisoner in Germany
In 1914 he went to Europe.  He wanted to study at the Paris Conservatoire but this was closed because of the political situation.  He went on to Germany to attend the Bayreuth Festival, but World War I started and he was taken prisoner and kept at the Ruhleben civilian detention camp near Berlin.  He helped the other people who were prisoners in the camp to put on concerts.  He gave talks about classical music and conducted a performance of the Gilbert and Sullivan opera Mikado as well as a pantomime version of Cinderella.  This helped him to get experience in conducting.  He also took part in the drama productions. He studied hard and was given a BA degree from the University of Toronto (1915) and a D Mus from the University of Oxford (1918), although he was locked up in the camp all this time.

After the war
After the war he returned to Canada where he gave organ recitals and lectured about his experiences in Ruhleben.  From 1926 to 1942 he was principal of the Toronto Conservatory of Music, later to become the Royal Conservatory of Music. He was the conductor of the Toronto Symphony Orchestra between 1931 and 1956.  He did a lot for music in Canada,and he was knighted in 1935 by King George V. In 1969 he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. He died in Toronto in 1973.

When he conducted he often took the music very slowly.  This gave him the nickname "Lord Largo" ("Largo" means "slow and broad" in music).  He had an amazing musical memory and he could improvise very well.  MacMillan helped to record and preserve the traditional songs and music of Canada's aboriginal or First Nations people.  He had an important influence on almost every part of Canadian musical life.

1893 births
1973 deaths
Canadian musical entertainers
POW at Ruhleben
Knights Bachelor
Canadian composers
Colin McRae

Colin McRae (5 August 1968 – 15 September 2007) was a Scottish rally car driver. He was one of the best rally drivers in the world. He died with his son and two other friends when he crashed his helicopter near his home in Lanark, Scotland.

References

Accidental deaths in the United Kingdom
Aviation deaths
Scottish racecar drivers
1968 births
2007 deaths
Benjamin Dale

Benjamin Dale (born London 17 July 1885; died London 30 July 1943) was a British composer.

Dale won many prizes at the Royal Academy of Music for composition when he was still very young.  He wrote a  Piano sonata in D minor which shows the influence of Romantic composers such as Liszt and Schumann.  It was played by pianists such as York Bowen and  Dame Myra Hess who were becoming famous.  He wrote music for viola for Lionel Tertis to play.

He was in Germany when World War I broke out and was a prisoner in the camp at Ruhleben.  There were other musicians there, including the  Canadian Ernest MacMillan who later became a famous conductor. They organized a lot of musical events at the camp.   Ernest MacMillan gave lectures about each of the nine symphonies by Beethoven, after which he and Dale would play the whole symphony in a piano duet arrangement.

After the war he worked as an Associated Board examiner.  He became professor of harmony at the Royal Academy of Music.  He continued to compose music.  His ballade for violin was especially popular.  Dale’s music is not played much today, but there have been some attempts to make his music known again through CD recordings.

1885 births
1943 deaths
English composers
POW at Ruhleben
The Chaser's War On Everything

The Chaser’s War on Everything is a comedy television series. It was shown on the ABC in Australia from 2006-2009. The series is replayed on Friday nights and again (on a different channel) on Sunday nights. The series is hosted by a group of men called The Chaser.

Overview
The series has the men doing stunts and tricks. Sometimes these tricks have been known to be dangerous (such as in one episode, cutting across lanes of traffic to stay behind a mobile advertisement), causing the television program Today Tonight to show a story on how dangerous this stunt was. At the end of each episode, there is a parody song performed, usually about the national government.

Stunts
One of the most famous tricks that has been on the series was when the group tricked security at the APEC Meeting in Sydney in 2007.  They drove past two checkpoints in a fake motorcade, using fake access passes. One member of The Chaser was dressed up as Osama bin Laden, causing a massive security scare just metres from where George Bush was staying. 13 crew members were arrested, charged and later released on bail.

Other stunts have included:
Following a Mobile Advertisement until they left town
Making fun of call-in-quiz-shows Quizmania, Midnight Zoo and The Up-Late Game Show
Using Public Transport as a furniture moving truck.
Making fun of Kids with Cancer and the Make A Wish Foundation

References

Other websites

2006 television series debuts
2009 television series endings
2000s Australian television series
Comedy television series
Reality television series
2006 establishments in Australia
2000s disestablishments in Australia
Illyria

Illyria (Ancient Greek: Ἰλλυρία, Illyría or Ἰλλυρίς, Illyrís) was an ancient region in the western part of today's Balkan Peninsula in modern-day Epirus, Greece. The people who lived there were called Illyrians and spoke the Illyrian languages.

The Illyrians settled in the Balkans approximately around 2500 BC along with other Indo Europeans.

The Illyrians became heavily romanised and a portion of them evolved into modern Albanians.

Gallery

Other websites 
 Illyria region in google map

History of Greece
Battle of Kosovo

The Battle of Kosovo was a battle between Serbian forces and the Ottoman Empire. The result was huge losses on both sides, delaying Ottoman advance into Europe for many years. 

The battle was fought on St Vitus' Day, 1389. At the time this was June 15, but is now celebrated on the June 28.

Other websites 
 Battle of Kosovo as National Narrative by Dr. Seth Ward
 The Battle of Kosovo: Early Reports of Victory and Defeat  by Thomas Emmert
 The Kosovo Legacy by Thomas Emmert alternate URL
 The events Surrounding the Battle of Kosovo 1389 and its cultural, traditional effect on the Serbian people by Mark Gottfried
 The Battle of Kosovo Serbian Epic Poems edited by Charles Simic Alternate URL

References 

Kosovo
1389
June events
Worcester

Worcester (pronounced Wuster) is a cathedral city and district in the West Midlands of England. It is the county town of Worcestershire, a county of England. In 2015, it had 101,328 residents.

It is about 30 miles (48 km) southwest of Birmingham and 29 miles (47 km) north of Gloucester. 

The River Severn runs through the middle of the city. Worcester Cathedral overlooks the river. 

The University of Worcester is a high ranking university located in the city.

Famous composer Edward Elgar was from Worcester. It is also where Worcestershire sauce originated.

King John of England's tomb is in Worcester, in Worcester Cathedral.

Transport

Road 
The A38, A44, A422, A449, A4103, A4440 and A4538 roads pass through Worcester.

The M5 bypasses Worcester.

Rail 
Worcester currently has three stations: Worcester Shrub Hill, Worcester Foregate Street and Worcestershire Parkway which is just outside the city and opened in 2020.

Gallery

References

Unitary authorities
Worcester
Stoke-on-Trent

Stoke-on-Trent is a city in Staffordshire in the West Midlands region of England. It is also a unitary authority.

Stoke-on-Trent is sometimes known to be the home of the pottery industry in the United Kingdom and is commonly known as The Potteries. The Armitage Shanks company has its headquarters here. The company makes porcelain products, especially toilets.

The city is unusual as it is made-up of 6 towns - Longton, Fenton, Stoke, Hanley, Burslem, Tunstall.

Stoke on Trent is known for the Supermarine Spitfire, pottery, oatcakes, the spark plug, Sir Stanley Mathews, Robbie Williams, Slash, Arnold Bennett, Captain Smith and Stoke City F.C. (the second oldest professional football club founded in 1863).

Other websites
 Stoke-on-Trent City Council
 BBC Stoke website
 The Potteries
 Local Information from The Sentinel newspaper
 Staffordshire and Stoke-on-Trent Archive Service 
 Exploring the Potteries

Stoke-on-Trent
Triton (moon)

Triton, or Neptune I, is the largest moon of the planet Neptune. It is the seventh-largest moon in the Solar System. Triton is slightly smaller than Earth's Moon. Triton has a complicated geological history, and it is thought to have a comparatively young surface compared to the age of the Solar System itself.

It was discovered by the British astronomer William Lassell on 10 October 1846, just 17 days after Neptune itself was discovered by the German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle and Heinrich Louis d'Arrest.

Triton is believed to be a captured Kuiper Belt object, and is the coldest-known body in the Solar System. The surface temperature of Triton was recorded by Voyager 2 as -235 °C (-391 °F). Triton has its own magnetic field and has a faint trace of an atmosphere.

Orbit 
Drag and tidal interaction cause Triton to fall slowly into lowered orbits. This process is immensely slow. 3.6 billion years from now, Triton will pass within Neptune's Roche limit. It will either collide with Neptune's atmosphere or break up, forming a ring system similar to that found around the planet Saturn.

The reason why Triton is thought to be a captured object is its orbit, which is unique in the Solar System. It is both retrograde (see diagram) and highly tilted. Although there are other satellites with retrograde orbits, they are much smaller than Triton, and much more distant from their host planets (their "primaries"). Triton, like our Moon, shows only one face to the planet: it rotates in synchrony to Neptune.

Surface 
All we know about the surface of Triton comes from one fly-by of Voyager 2 in 1989. There are few impact craters. This suggests the surface is quite young in astronomical terms: estimates are six to 50 million years.

Despite its very cold temperature, the surface of Triton is geologically active. There are events which look like geysers, volcanos and earthquakes. All the materials involved are quite different from those on Earth. Most of the gases are frozen most of the time. Gases like nitrogen are frozen until something occurs to melt them, then it turns back into a gas. A temperature increase of just 4 K () is enough to make this happen.

Past formation and capture 
Like most TNOs, Triton is mostly icy. While Triton's orbit does give us insight on its past, it is mostly unknown. It is speculated that Triton formed in a binary system, like Pluto, and was moving at extremely high speeds. However, when it passed through Neptune's Roche sphere the other body will have been flung out, reducing Triton's speed and allowing it to be captured. Currently, Triton is the most massive TNO to ever have existed, and its effects on Neptune's moon system were cataclysmic. All large moons were destroyed, flung out of orbit or crashed into Neptune itself.

References

Other websites 
 Triton Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration
Triton 

Neptune's moons
Kulykol

Kulykol is a lake in northeastern Kazakhstan. Lake Aike is about  south. The Russian border is   to the west.

Lakes of Kazakhstan
Pierre Curie

Pierre Curie (15 May 1859 in Paris – 19 April 1906 in Paris) was a French physicist. He shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with his wife, Marie Curie and Henri Becquerel, for the work on 'spontaneous radioactivity' which Becquerel discovered.

Work 
Pierre Curie is not as well known as Marie Curie, although Pierre and his brother had done a lot of work before Pierre's marriage and work with Marie. They were the first to use the term 'radioactivity', and were pioneers in its study. Pierre and his brother, Jacques Curie, built a special meter for measuring small amounts of electricity, piezoelectricity and ferromagnetism which Pierre and Marie used in their other discoveries.

Pierre died after a carriage accident in Paris on 19 April 1906. His head was crushed under the wheels. If he had lived he would probably have died by radiation poisoning, as Marie did. As they were the first to study radioactivity, they did not know how dangerous it was.

After Pierre's death, a group of scientists at the Radiology Congress decided to honour him by naming the unit of radioactivity a curie.

Children 
Pierre and Marie Curie's daughter Irène Joliot-Curie and their son-in-law Frédéric Joliot-Curie were also physicists involved in the study of radioactivity, and were also given the Nobel prize for their work. Their other daughter Ève wrote her mother's biography. His granddaughter Hélène Langevin-Joliot is a professor of nuclear physics at the University of Paris and his grandson, Pierre Joliot, who was named after him, is a noted biochemist.

Prizes 
 Nobel Prize in Physics (1903)
 Davy Medal (1903)
 Matteucci Medal (1904)

References

Other websites 

 Pierre Curie's Nobel prize 
 Official Nobel biography 
 Nobel article about Marie Curie 
 Biography American Institute of Physics
 Annotated bibliography for Pierre Curie from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues 

1859 births
1906 deaths
French academics
French chemists
French Nobel Prize winners
French nuclear physicists
Scientists from Paris
Hindustani language

Hindustani is a language. It is made up of the common parts of Hindi and Urdu. Hindi and Urdu have similar grammar, but somewhat different vocabulary and different scripts. 
It was born in Punjab during the Ghaznavid Empire with Lahore as it's capital in the early decades of the eleventh century AD.

References

Urdu dialects
Indo-Aryan languages
Languages of India
Languages of Pakistan
Masala

Masala or Massala or Masalo (,  , , ) is a word used in South Asia mainly in India. When Indian people talk about cooking and they say masala, they mean a mixture of ground spices used in Indian cooking.  

There are many different, popular spice mixtures that have been given their own name because they taste really good with one special ingredient. The dish will often use masala in its name. Some popular dishes are:

 Masala Chai: tea flavoured with a special blend of spices
 Chicken tikka masala: pieces of chicken cooked using a special blend of spices; very popular in the United Kingdom & Ireland
 Chana Masala: a chickpea dish flavoured with a special mix of spices
 Maggi masala noodles: a brand of noodles with a packet of dried spices for flavouring; very popular in India

The blend of spices or masala for these dishes is often sold in markets or packed by companies to be sold in shops. Some spice blends, like Garam Masala, are so popular it is often used in many different recipes, not just one.

Also India is one of the only countries to have the highest variety in masalas. Around 70% of the world's spice business and exports are handled by India.

Other websites 

Food ingredients
Mayan languages

The Mayan languages ares a group of languages spoken in Central America and Mesoamerica. 

Mayan languages are spoken by at least 6 million native Maya. Most of them are in Guatemala, Mexico or Belize. In 1996, Guatemala formally recognized 21 Mayan languages by name, and Mexico recognises eight others.

The Mayan languages are some of the best documented and most studied in the Americas. Modern Mayan languages come from Proto-Mayan, a language that was probably spoken at least 5000 years ago. It has been partly reconstructed.

References 

Languages of North America
Maya civilization
Soconusco

Soconusco is a region of the Mexican state of Chiapas. It is in the most southern part of the state. It borders the Republic of Guatemala on the southeast, the regions Costa, Sierra and Fraylesca of Chiapas on the east and north, and the shore of the Pacific Ocean on the southwest. It is a region of rich lowlands and foothills. The economic center of Soconusco is Tapachula.

The name comes from the Nahuatl word xoconostle, meaning the fruit of the prickly pear cactus. It was, under the Mexican culture, the farthest region of trade. The area provided jaguar pelts, cacao, and quetzal feathers for the ruling classes in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.     

The Soconusco region is the main coffee-producing region in Chiapas. It has many plantations farther inland in the foothills of the Sierra Madre del Sur.

Chiapas
Chiapas

Chiapas is the southernmost state of Mexico. It is towards the southeast of the country. Chiapas is bordered by the states of Tabasco to the north, Veracruz to the northwest, and Oaxaca to the west. To the east Chiapas borders Guatemala, and to the south the Pacific Ocean. 

Chiapas has an area of . The 2005 census population was 4,293,459 people.

In general Chiapas has a humid, tropical weather. In the north, in the area bordering Tabasco, near Teapa, rainfall can be more than 3,000 mm (118 in) per year . In the past, natural vegetation at this region was lowland, tall perennial rainforest, but this vegetation has been destroyed almost completely to give way to agriculture and ranching. Rainfall decreases moving towards the Pacific Ocean, but it is still abundant enough to allow the farming of bananas and many other tropical crops near Tapachula. On the several parallel "sierras" or mountain ranges running along the center of Chiapas, climate can be quite temperate and foggy. This allows the development of cloud forests like those of the Reserva de la Biosfera el Triunfo, home to a handful of quetzals and horned guans.

The state capital is Tuxtla Gutiérrez. Other cities and towns in Chiapas include San Cristóbal de las Casas, Comitán, and Tapachula. Chiapas is also home to the ancient Maya ruins of Palenque, Yaxchilan, Bonampak, Chinkultic, and Tonina.

Most people in Chiapas are poor, rural small farmers. About one quarter of the population are of full or predominant Maya descent, and in rural areas many do not speak Spanish. The state suffers from the highest rate of malnutrition in Mexico. This rate is estimated to affect over 40% of the population.

Other social issues involve the increasing presence of the Central American gangs known as Maras, and illegal immigration from Central America in general. This migration is mostly directed towards the United States, but it makes local poverty even worse. Many times, there are abuse and Human Rights violations that touch these migrants.

In 1994, there was an outbreak of violence between the Mexican Government and the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (the EZLN or Zapatistas). Today, the EZLN (Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, named in honour of Emiliano Zapata) has rejected the use of force and seek to be recognized as a voice of the poor. There are currently 32 "rebel autonomous zapatista municipalities" (independent Zapatista communities, MAREZ in Spanish), controlled by the EZLN in Chiapas: examples of these communities are Ocosingo and Las Margaritas.

 
States of Mexico
Urbanism

Urbanism is the study of cities. Urbanists look at the different factors present in a city. A city is different from rural areas. There are certain things than make people come to a city, to live and work there. There are also certain factors, like where the city is located, that have an influence on the economic, social and cultural development of that city.

Related pages
Urban history
Urban planning
World Urbanism Day

Urban and regional sciences
Deadwood (TV series)

Deadwood is an American dramatic television series. It was first shown in March 2004 on HBO. The series is a Western set in the 1870s in Deadwood, South Dakota. At the time, Deadwood was little more than a camp, but it was a popular place to go for those searching for gold in the Black Hills. The series shows Deadwood's growth from camp to town. It deals with ideas ranging from the creation of communities to western capitalism.

Deadwood features many historical people. For example, Wild Bill Hickok, Seth Bullock, Sol Star, Calamity Jane, Al Swearengen, Wyatt Earp, E. B. Farnum, Charlie Utter and George Hearst have all been used in the series. The stories that deal these characters include historical truths as well as fictional parts. Some of the characters are fully fictional, but they may have been based on actual persons.

The series was created by David Milch (NYPD Blue). He was also executive producer and head writer of the show. The theme music was written by David Schwartz.

The third and final season ended on August 27, 2006.

Other websites 
HBO's Deadwood

2004 American television series debuts
2006 American television series endings
2000s American television series
1870s
American drama television series
HBO television series
South Dakota in fiction
Western television series
English-language television programs
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) is a charity in England and Wales that promotes animal welfare. Money for the group comes from donations. It is one of the largest charities in the UK, with an income of £100 million in 2005.

History
The group began as the SPCA in 1824. Since then, it has inspired the creation of similar, but independent organisations in other regions:
Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in Northern Ireland
Scottish Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in Scotland
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Australia) in Australia
Royal New Zealand Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in New Zealand
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in the United States
Not only that, there are also many other countries who have participated in this effort to prevent cruelty not only against domestic pets but also to other almost extinct or endangered wildlife.

Related pages 
 List of Royal Societies

Notes

References

Other websites
 Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals website

1824 establishments
Charities
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
1820s establishments in the United Kingdom
Tim Minear

Tim Minear (born October 29, 1963) is an American screenwriter and director. He was born in New York, grew up in Whittier, California. He studied film at California State University, Long Beach.

Minear was an assistant director on the movie Platoon. He wrote episodes for several television series including The X-Files and Lois and Clark. He later wrote, executive-produced, and directed episodes of Strange World, Angel, Firefly, Wonderfalls, and The Inside (which he also created, with Howard Gordon).

Minear had another series, Drive, airing on FOX in April 2007, however it was cancelled by the network after only four episodes. Drive was set to return with two additional episodes on July 4th, 2007, but these were rescheduled to July 13th and then cancelled.

Minear often works with Joss Whedon. His work is usually includes a sharp, black humor. He is known for his ability to create characters who are sympathetic, understandable and completely wrong. The best example of this is his writing in Angel Season Two.

Credits
 Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman
 4x05 "Brutal Youth" (writer)
 4x11 "'Twas the Night Before Mxymas" (writer)
 4x14 "Meet John Doe" (writer)
 4x20 "I've Got You Under My Skin" (writer)
 The X-Files
 5x08 "Kitsunegari" (co-writer)
 5x16 "Mind's Eye" (writer)
 Strange World
 1x02 "Lullaby" (writer)
 1x04 "Spirit Falls" (co-writer)
 Angel
 1x05 "Sense & Sensitivity" (writer)
 1x09 "Hero" (co-writer)
 1x11 "Somnambulist" (writer)
 1x15 "The Prodigal" (writer)
 1x19 "Sanctuary" (co-writer)
 2x02 "Are You Now or Have You Ever Been" (writer)
 2x07 "Darla" (writer/director)
 2x09 "The Trial" (co-writer)
 2x10 "Reunion" (co-writer)
 2x15 "Reprise" (writer)
 2x16 "Epiphany" (writer)
 2x21 "Through The Looking Glass" (writer/director)
 3x03 "That Old Gang of Mine" (writer)
 3x06 "Billy" (co-writer)
 3x09 "Lullaby" (writer/director)
 3x14 "Couplet" (co-writer/director)
 3x20 "A New World" (director)
 3x21 "Benediction" (writer/director)
 4x22 "Home" (writer/director)
 Firefly
 1x02 "The Train Job" (co-writer)
 1x03 "Bushwhacked" (writer/director)
 1x07 "Out of Gas" (writer)
 1x12 "The Message" (co-writer/director)
 Wonderfalls
 1x02 "Karma Chameleon" (writer)
 1x06 "Barrel Bear" (unaired) (co-writer)
 The Inside
 1x01 "New Girl In Town" (final story & writer/director)
 1x06 "Thief of Hearts" (co-writer)
 1x10 "Little Girl Lost" (unaired in US, UK Airdate 03/17/2006) (co-writer)
 1x13 "Skin and Bone" (unaired) (story)

References

Other websites 
 TimMinear.net
 
 PopGurls Quickie with Tim Minear 
 The Drive News Blog 

1963 births
Living people
American movie directors
American screenwriters
Whedonverse
Writers from New York
Writers from California
People from Whittier, California
Lamella (zoology)

A Lamella (plural: lamellae) is a soft, thin plate that is attached to the bony gill arches in a fish's gills.

Lamellae also appear in other animals, for example water birds and ducks, as a filter when feeding for organisms or plant matter.

Animal anatomy
Lamella

Lamella is a Latin word meaning "layer", or something which is like a "plate".

It can mean:
 Lamella of a fish.
 Lamella of a cell.
Sütterlin

Sütterlinschrift, Sütterlin or Suetterlin script is a form of German handwriting. It was taught in German schools from 1915 to 1941. 

In the 19th century the common form of German handwriting was German Kurrent. It uses very thin lines and sharp edges. Many students in primary school found it difficult to learn. So in 1911 the German designer and teacher Ludwig Sütterlin was asked to design a simpler script. Sütterlin script has thicker lines and rounder edges than German Kurrent. It can be easily written with any pen. 

In everyday language some people call any handwritten blackletter script "Sütterlin".

Related pages
 Blackletter

Other websites

 The Sütterlin script at Omniglot
 Freeware Sütterlin font 
 Learn Sütterlin, a lesson, with sample texts

Typography
Writing systems
Runic calendar

The Runic calendar also Rune staff or Runic Almanac is a perpetual calendar based on the 19 year long Metonic cycle of the Moon. 

A typical Runic calendar consisted of several horizontal lines of symbols, one above the other.

Special days like solstices, equinoxes, and celebrations (including Christian holidays and feasts) were marked with additional lines of symbols.

Other websites 
 An article on rune calendars  

Calendars
Agha Petros

Agha Petros (; born 1 April 1880, died 2 February 1932) was an Assyrian military leader during World War I. Petros was born in the Lower Baz village, Ottoman Empire. 

Agha Petros defeated the Turks in Sauj Bulak and drove them back to Rowanduz.

Other websites
Bet Nahrain

1880 births
1932 deaths
Assyrian people
Classical Latin

Classical Latin is the form of Latin that was used by the ancient Romans in official Roman record-keeping, the Roman military, and Latin literature. Its use helped the Golden Age of Latin literature during the 1st century BC and the early 1st century AD.

Classical Latin is a dead language, as is Vulgar Latin, the common speech of citizens in the Roman Empire. Latin is no longer spoken as a first language, bit it is still spoken by church officials in the Vatican, where it is the official language.

Ancient Rome
Latin language
Syriac language

Syriac ( leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language. It was spoken long ago in the Fertile Crescent. Most of the Aramaic writing that survives from the second to the eighth century AD is Syriac.

References

Other websites 

 :en:Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium at English Wikipedia
 Beth Mardutho — The Syriac Institute
 Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies
 Bar Hebraeus Verlag (catalogue of Syriac books)
 Gorgias Press (catalogue of Syriac books) 
 Ethnologue report on Syriac
 The Syriac Maronites — Beith Souryoye Morounoye
Chaldean OCR - An optical character recognition software to extract text from images and PDFs

Semitic languages
Assyria
Louis Charles Antoine Desaix

Louis Charles Antoine Desaix (August 17, 1768 – June 14, 1800) was a general of France.

Napoleon Bonaparte created two monuments in the memory of Desaix; they are Desaix on the Place Dauphine and Place des Victoires in Paris.

French generals
1768 births
1800 deaths