cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Razor

A razor is a tool, with one or more blades, most commonly used by men for shaving the hair from their face, and by women for shaving hair from their legs and underarms. The earliest razors known are from the Bronze Age. They were made of bronze and had an oval shape. There are different kinds of razors today, including straight razors, which are rarely used, and safety razors and electric razors.

A slightly different type of electric razor is used to trim and cut hair from the head, because hair can be cut much more quickly with electric haircutting razors than with scissors.

Straight razors

Before the 20th century, straight razors were widely used. A straight razor consists of a knife blade, which can be reused.  Since this blade is usually very sharp, there is a high risk of cutting oneself with the razor while scraping off the hair. Today, such razors are rarely used any more, except by barbers.

Safety razors

In the late 18th century, French engineer Jean-Jacques Perret invented the safety razor. With this system, the skin is protected, from all but the edge of the blade. This makes cutting much harder. The first such razor was released in 1875 by the Campfe Brothers. In 1901, King Camp Gillette invented the first razor with disposable razor blades. The blades were thrown away after several uses. The number of times a disposable blade can be used depends on beard coarseness and shaving technique, but the average is about one week. The company, Gilette still makes such razors today. They sell the razor relatively cheaply, and make big profits on the razor blades.

Electric razors

For face and body hair

The electric razor was the next big step. With electric razors, shaving cream, soap or water is no longer needed. Electric razors use electricity to either make blades rotate or oscillate. That is the blades are either moved in circles, or they are moved up and down (or left and right). The razor is usually powered by a rechargeable battery. Prof. Alexandre Horowitz invented the concept of rotating blades which is still marketed  as Philishave by Philips.

For head hair
A slightly different type of electric razor is used to trim and cut hair from the head. Haircutting electric razors have comb-like attachments which determine the length of the hair. Electric haircutting razors are widely used by military and prison barbers, because hair can be cut much more quickly with electric haircutting razors than with scissors.

Side-effects
Shaving using any of the shaving methods (straight razor, safety razor, or electric razor) can have side-effects, including cuts, abrasions, and irritated skin.  Razor bumps can also occur from removing ingrown hairs. To reduce the likelihood of cuts, abrasions, and irritated skin, people can use a fresh razor blade and prepare their faces by washing in hot, soapy water and then applying a shaving cream lather. There is a razor called Bump Fighter that is designed to reduce razor bumps and other side effects, but it uses special cartridges that are more expensive than standard double-edge razor blades.

Hair
Cutting tools
Hygiene
Mood stabilizer

A mood stabilizer is a psychiatric medication used to treat mood disorders characterized by fast and unstable mood changes. Among the disorders commonly treated are  bipolar disorder and Borderline personality disorder. With these conditions, the mood can change rapidly, between mania and depression. Many mood stabilizers can also prevent convulsions.

Drugs used in psychiatry
International Baccalaureate

The International Baccalaureate, or IB, is a well-known advanced school program. It is taught in English, French and Spanish in more than 140 countries.

Students earn an IB Diploma after passing exams and completing the program requirements. They have to take classes in 6 subject areas. This is more than most countries.

The six subject areas are: Language 1 (first language), Language 2 (second language), Math, Science, World Studies, and Electives. History, Literature, Geography, and Economics are all World Studies subjects. Students also have the option of taking a second science class instead of an elective.

Students have to write a 4000-word paper called an Extended Essay, take a philosophy class called Theory of Knowledge, and complete 150 hours of CAS (Creativity, Action, Service).

Students have to do to 3 subjects at Higher Level (HL) and 3 subjects at Standard Level (SL). HL classes are longer and more complex, although SL classes are still somewhat more challenging than regular program classes.

IB is studied in most countries, but some schools study the IB differently.

Similar articles
Advanced Placement Program, a competitor to the IB Program

Other websites
International Baccalaureate official website
List of IB World Schools by country 

Education
Examinations
Wolfgang Schüssel

Wolfgang Schüssel (born June 7, 1945) was the Chancellor of Austria from February 4, 2000 until January 11, 2007. From January 2006 until June 2006 he was the president of the European Union.

Other websites 
Official page about Dr. Schüssel, at the site of the Austrian parliament (in German)

References 

1945 births
Living people
Austrian Roman Catholics
Chancellors of Austria
Government ministers of Austria
Vaduz

Vaduz (German: [faˈdʊt͡s] or [faˈduːt͡s]; Regional dialect: [faˈdot͡s]) is the capital city of the country of Liechtenstein. It has a population of about 7,500 people. 

National capitals in Europe
Cities in Liechtenstein
Municipalities of Liechtenstein
Luxembourgish language

Luxembourgish is a West Germanic language. A lot of people in Luxembourg speak the language. It is quite similar to German and French. Outside Luxembourg, not many people speak it, and inside Luxembourg many people speak other languages, too.

Other websites

West Germanic languages
Languages of Europe
Jean-Pierre Cassel

Jean-Pierre Cassel (real name Jean-Pierre Crochon, October 27,1932 - April 19, 2007) was a French actor. He was the father of Vincent Cassel. He became known because of the roles he had in movies in the 1950s and 1960s. He died of cancer.

Selected filmography
 La Famille Anodin (1956)
 Candide ou l'optimisme au XXe siècle (1960)
 Goodbye Again (1961)
 Napoléon II l'Aiglon (1961)
 The Elusive Corporal (1962)
 High Infidelity (1964)
 Is Paris Burning? (1966)
 The Killing Game (1967)
 Army of Shadows (1969)
 The Breach (1970)
 Baxter! (1973)
 Murder on the Orient Express (1974)
 Scrambled Eggs (1976)
 The Twist (1976)
 Who Is Killing the Great Chefs of Europe? (1978)
 Mister Frost (1990)
 The Favour, the Watch and the Very Big Fish (1991)
 La Cérémonie (1995)
 Sade (2000)
 The Diving Bell and the Butterfly (2007)

References

1932 births
2007 deaths
French actors
Sea cucumber

Sea cucumbers are a class of echinoderms, the Holothuroidea. They have a longish body, and leathery skin. Sea cucumbers live on the floor of the ocean. Most sea cucumbers are scavengers. There are about 1500 species of sea cucumbers. Sea cucumbers have a unique respiratory system, and effective defences against predators. The Chinese people eat them.

Like all echinoderms, sea cucumbers have an endoskeleton just below the skin, calcareous structures that are usually reduced to isolated ossicles  joined by connective tissue. These can sometimes be enlarged to flattened plates, forming an armour. In pelagic species the skeleton is absent.

Overview 

Sea cucumbers communicate with each other by sending hormone signals through the water.

A remarkable feature of these animals is the collagen which forms their body wall. This can be loosened and tightened at will. If the animal wants to squeeze through a small gap, it can undo the collagen connections, and pour into the space. To keep itself safe in these cracks, the sea cucumber hooks up all its collagen fibres to make its body firm again.

The animals have an internal respiratory tree which floats in the internal watery cavity. At the rear, water is pumped in and out of the cloaca, so gaseous exchange takes place with the resiratory tree in the gut.p80

Defense 
Some species of coral reef sea cucumbers defend themselves by expelling sticky cuvierian tubules to entangle potential predators. These tubules are attached to the respiratory tree in the gut. When startled, these cucumbers may expel the tubules through a tear in the wall of the cloaca. In effect, this squirts sticky threads all over a predator. Replacement tubules grow back in one-and-a-half to five weeks, depending on the species. The release of these tubules can also be accompanied by the discharge of a toxic chemical known as holothurin, which has similar properties to soap. This chemical can kill any animal in the vicinity and is one more way in which these sedentary animals can defend themselves. Other cucumbers, lacking this device, can split their intestinal wall, and spew out their gut and respiratory tree. They regenerate them later. Zoologists who experience this believe it to be an impressive deterrent. "The mess one individual can make must be seen to be believed".p81

The existence of these defences explains why the holothurians were able to do without the strong skeleton of their ancestors.

Feeding 
Highly modified tube feet around the mouth are always present. These are  branched and retractile tentacles, much larger than the regular tube feet. Sea cucumbers have between ten and thirty such tentacles, depending on the species. There is a ring of larger ossicles round the mouth and oesophagus to which the muscles of the tube feet are attached. With their sticky tentacles the animal collects detritus and small organisms.

References 

Echinoderms
Yochanan Vollach

Yochanan Vollach (), also transliterated Jochanan Wallach or Yohanan Wallach, born 14 May 1945) is a former Israeli football player who played at: Hapoel Haifa, Maccabi Haifa, HKFC.
He was a member of the Israeli national team that competed at the 1970 FIFA World Cup.

At 1979 he retired and volunteered as general manager of Maccabi Haifa. Vollach was the Major reason for Maccabi's success.

Vollach has a master's degree in business administration from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and is a retired Major in the IDF.

In recognition of his extensive volunteering to the sporting community as well as business success, he was awarded honorary citizenship by the city of Haifa, in 1993.

Today, Vollach is president of the Maccabi Haifa association and president and CEO of Newlog, a subsidiary of Israeli shipping magnate Zim.

Trophies won
Maccabi Haifa & Hapoel Haifa:
 4 x Israeli cup (1966, 1974, 1991, 1993), (1985 runners up)
 3 x Israeli title (1984, 1985, 1991)
 1 x Israeli Championship of the Champions Cup (1985)
 1 x Head of the house in the Intertoto home stage with Maccabi Haifa (1985)
 1 x IDF title (1965)

Maccabi Haifa youth team:

 4 x Israeli youth title (1979, 1983, 1984, 1991)
 3 x Israeli youth cup (1980, 1991, 1993)
 1 x Israeli Championship of the Champions Cup (1984)

Major honours
 Best XI in Israel (4 times, determined by Hadashot haSport and Yedioth Ahronoth)
 Fair play award in Israel (3 times)
 Hapoel Haifa Best XI All time
 Israel Golden Jubilee Awards: Haifa Best XI
 Israel Golden Jubilee Awards: Haifa Best Defender (All Time)
 Honorary citizen of the City of Haifa

1945 births
Living people
Hebrew University of Jerusalem alumni
Israeli footballers
Israeli military people
Jewish Israeli sportspeople
Jewish military people
Majors
Maccabi Haifa

Maccabi Haifa is the biggest sports club in Israel, founded in 1913, and part of the Maccabi association. It runs several sports clubs and teams in Haifa such as football, basketball, weightlifting, swimming, tennis, table tennis, volleyball, team handball, water polo, ice hockey, artistic gymnastics, chess, boxing, fencing and others. Maccabi Haifa is well known for its green uniforms.

1913 establishments in Asia
Sports clubs
Sport in Israel
Football in Israel
Haifa
1910s establishments in Israel
Hapoel Haifa

Hapoel Haifa F. C. is a professional football (soccer) club in Israel, founded in 1924.

Famous players of the club 
 Dudu Aouate
 Yochanan Vollach 
 Giovanni Rosso

Israeli football clubs
Haifa
1924 establishments
1920s establishments in Israel
Swalwell, Alberta

Swalwell is a small village in Kneehill County, Alberta, Canada. It is about  from Calgary, the largest city in the Province of Alberta.

Swalwell is at . It has a population of 338 people. The postal code in Swalwell is T0M 1Y0.

Settlements in Alberta
Villages in North America
Polysaccharide

A polysaccharide is a complex carbohydrate. Polysaccharides are polymers made up of many monosaccharides. They are very large, often branched, molecules. They tend to be amorphous, insoluble in water, and have no sweet taste.

When all the constituent monosaccharides are of the same type they are termed homopolysaccharides; when more than one type of monosaccharide is present they are termed heteropolysaccharides.

Examples of polysaccharides include storage polysaccharides such as starch and glycogen and structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and chitin.

Starches 
Starches are insoluble in water. They can be digested by hydrolysis, catalyzed by enzymes called amylases. Humans and other animals have amylases, so they can digest starches. Potato, rice, wheat, and maize are major sources of starch in the human diet.

Cellulose 
The structural components of plants are formed primarily from cellulose. Wood is largely cellulose and lignin, while paper and cotton are nearly pure cellulose. Cellulose is a polymer made with repeated glucose units.  Humans and many other animals do not digest cellulose.  Certain animals can digest cellulose, because bacteria possessing the enzyme are present in their gut. The classic example is the termite.

Other websites 
Polysaccharide structure

Carbohydrates
Polymers
Alfred Gusenbauer

Alfred Gusenbauer (born February 8, 1960, in St. Pölten, Austria) was the chancellor of Austria from January 2007 to December 2008.  His party won the elections of 2008, and he was succeeded as Chancellor the new party leader, Werner Faymann, on 2 December 2008. He was the leader of the political party SPÖ.

Other websites 
 Official page (in German)
 SPÖ Official Homepage
 Homepage of the Austrian Chancellor

1960 births
Living people
Chancellors of Austria
People from Lower Austria
Solubility

Solubility is the ability of a substance (the solute), to mix into a liquid (the solvent).

It measures the highest amount of substance mixed into a liquid solvent while they are both at equal amounts.  
When the two mix together it is called a saturated solution. Certain substances can mix into any amount of a liquid solvent. An example of this is ethanol in water. This process is better described as "miscible" (the ability to mix with one another). Solubility does not depend on the size, in fact even the large particles will eventually all dissolve.

A solute is a substance that is dissolving in a solvent and is the smaller part of the solution. A solvent is the bigger part of a solution and is the substance that the solute dissolves in.

Other websites 
 ALOGPS interactive calculation of aqueous solubility of compounds at Virtual Computational Chemistry Laboratory using several algorithms
 QUANTUM  web based calculation of aqueous and DMSO solubility of compounds QUANTUM web based prediction of aqueous and DMSO solubility of compounds
 ACD/Solubility DB  aqueous solubility prediction

References 

Chemistry
SpVgg Greuther Fürth

The Spielvereinigung Greuther Fürth is a German football club which plays in the country's top league, the Bundesliga. The club is playing in the Bundesliga for the first time after being promoted from the Second Bundesliga as winners of that league in 2011–12.

German football clubs
Sport in Bavaria
Taj Mahal (musician)

Henry Saint Claire Fredericks, better known by the stage name Taj Mahal (born May 17, 1942), is an American blues musician. He has been performing and recording since 1964 and is still popular.

Selected discography
 1968 – Taj Mahal
 1968 – The Natch'l Blues
 1969 – Giant Step/De Ole Folks At Home
 1971 – The Real Thing
 1971 – Happy Just To Be Like I Am
 1972 – Recycling The Blues & Other Related Stuff
 1973 – Oooh So Good 'n Blues
 1974 – Mo' Roots
 1975 – Music Keeps Me Together
 1976 – Satisfied 'N Tickled Too
 1976 – Music Fa' Ya (Musica Para Ti)
 1977 – Brothers (Soundtrack) 1977 – Evolution (The Latest)
 1983 – Take A Giant Step
 1986 – Taj
 1991 – Mule Bone
 1991 – Like Never Before
 1993 – Dancing The Blues
 1993 – An Evening of Acoustic Music
 1993 – The Source by Ali Farka Touré (World Circuit WCD030 / Hannibal 1375)
 1995 – Mumtaz Mahal (with V.M. Bhatt and N. Ravikiran)
 1996 – Phantom Blues
 1997 – Señor Blues
 1998 – Sacred Island (with The Hula Blues Band)
 1999 – Kulanjan (with Toumani Diabaté)
 1999 - Hippity Hop (Children's music)
 2000 – Shoutin' In Key
 2001 – Hanapepe Dream
 2003 – Martin Scorsese Presents The Blues – Taj Mahal
 2003 – Blues with Feeling
 2004 – Musicmakers with Taj Mahal (Music Maker 49)
 2004 – Etta Baker with Taj Mahal (Music Maker 50)
 2005 – Mkutano Meets The Culture Musical Club Of Zanzibar 2005 – The Essential Taj MahalAwards
Taj Mahal has received two Grammy Awards (nine nominations) over his career.

1997 (Grammy Award) Best Contemporary Blues Album for Señor Blues2000 (Grammy Award) Best Contemporary Blues Album for Shoutin' in Key2006 (Blues Music Awards) Historical Album of the Year for The Essential Taj Mahal2008 (Grammy Nomination) Best Contemporary Blues Album for Maestro''

On February 8, 2006 Taj Mahal was designated the official Blues Artist of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.

References

American blues musicians
American guitarists
American pianists
Singers from New York
Musicians from New York
1942 births
Living people
Floyd Patterson

Floyd Patterson (January 4, 1935 – May 11, 2006) was an American heavyweight boxing champion and Olympic gold medalist. Patterson won the gold medal for boxing in the 1952 Olympic Games in Helsinki, Finland. He was the heavyweight champion of the world from 1956-1959 and from 1960-1962. Patterson is remembered as the first heavyweight champion to lose the title and get it back within a year.

Career
Patterson's amateur record was 44-4 with 37 knockouts. He began fighting as a middleweight and moved to the light heavyweight division. Patterson's first loss was to Joey Maxim in 1954. In January 1956, Patterson married Sandra Hicks. She was his wife until 1969. Their marriage ended because Patterson did not want to quit boxing. 

After Rocky Marciano retired, Floyd began aiming at a shot for the vacant heavyweight title. On November 30, 1956, Patterson had two very good things happen in his life. His wife gave birth to his first child, and he beat Archie Moore to become the heavyweight champion of the world. He became the youngest boxing champion ever. He lost the title in 1959 to Ingemar Johanson but he regained it in 1960. In 1962, he lost it again to Sonny Liston. Patterson tried to regain the title two more times from Muhammad Ali in 1965 and 1972. In 1965, he fought for 12 rounds, but on both tries, he failed to win title.

Patterson is remembered as the first man to win back boxing heavyweight championship. All other champions before him failed.

Other websites 
Boxing Record 

1935 births
2006 deaths
African-American boxers
American Olympic gold medalists
Sportspeople from New York
Sportspeople from North Carolina
Clockwise

A clockwise movement is one that moves in a circle like the clock's hands: from the top to the right, then down, then to the left, and back to the top.

The opposite of clockwise is counterclockwise or anticlockwise. The movement is from the top to the left, then down, then to the right, and finally back up to the top.

Basic physics ideas
Clocks
Manuel Friedrich

Manuel Friedrich (born September 13, 1979 in Bad Kreuznach) is a German footballer with the position of the Defender. He has played for the team 1.FSV Mainz 05 and at the moment he playes for Bayer Leverkusen. Friedrich has played nine matches for the German national football team since 2006. During that time he has scored one goal.

Other websites 
 Leverkusen who's who

1979 births
Living people
German footballers
Sportspeople from Rhineland-Palatinate
Bruno Kreisky

Bruno Kreisky (January 22, 1911 – July 29, 1990) served as Chancellor of Austria from 1970 to 1983. He is remembered in Austria as one of the people who helped shape the Austrian State Treaty. This treaty is the foundation of modern-day Austria. It was signed in 1955.

Kreisky was of Jewish descent. He was born and died in Vienna.

References 

1911 births
1990 deaths
Austrian Jews
Chancellors of Austria
Government ministers of Austria
Jewish politicians
Politicians from Vienna
Viscacha

Viscachas or vizcachas are rodents. Together with the chinchilla they make up the family Chinchillidae.

There are two genera and four species of viscacha.
 Plains viscacha (Lagostomus maximus): Lives in the Pampas of Argentina and Chile . It can be easily differentiated from other viscachas because it has black and gray moustache-like facial markings. This species makes colonies. It lives in warrens of ten to over one hundred. It is very vocal and emits alarm calls. The plains viscacha can strip grassland used to graze livestock; this caused ranchers to consider the rodent a pest species.

 Northern viscacha (Lagidum peruanum): Native to the Peruvian Andes at those elevations between the timber line and the snow line. It is dorsally gray or brown in color. It has a bushy tail and long, furry ears. This species lives in large colonies. The colonies are separated into individual family units, like an apartment complex. It eats a wide range of plants. It lives in a harsh, rocky environment. Therefore, it is not too picky about the food.

 Mountain viscacha (Lagidum viscacia): Also called southern viscacha, this species is similar to the northern viscacha, but its fur is more red in color. It lives in similar habitat in the Andes.

 Wolffsohn's viscacha (Lagidum wolffsohni): Little is known about this species, as it is rarer than the other three viscachas.

Rodents
Incisor

Incisors are special kinds of teeth that can be found in some mammals, such as humans. They are the eight large flat  teeth with straight edges that are at the front of a person's mouth, in between the canine teeth, which are pointed. The straight edges of the incisors are useful for biting because they cut sharply. They come together like a pair of pincers. In a human, the two teeth at the middle of each jaw are called the "central incisors", and the side ones are the "lateral incisors". (lateral means "to the side"). Some humans never grow "lateral incisors" or have very small ones, particularly at the top.

In many mammalian herbivores (plant-eaters) these front teeth are used to cut off stems of grass and other growing things, that are then ground up by the molars at the back of the mouth. Some omnivores (animals that eat both plants and meat), like humans, have incisors like herbivores. In carnivores (meat-eating mammals) like cats, the incisors are often quite small. The canine teeth are  long and suitable for grasping and stabbing. Carnivores use their incisors for many jobs that need fine control, such as catching fleas, carrying a kitten or peeling the skin off a fish. If a dog or a member of the cat family needs to cut something with their teeth, they use their back teeth like scissors.

Gallery

Related pages
Dentition

Teeth
Mammals
Gerbil

The gerbils are a family of rodents. There are about 110 species of gerbils. All gerbils are adapted to arid habitats. At one time, gerbils were known as wild rats. Most gerbils are diurnal, some are crepuscular. The gerbil is native to Central Asia, India, the Middle East, and Africa. The average length of a gerbil is usually between six and twelve inches, this includes the tail which makes up one half of the total length. The gerbil is also a common household pet.

Species of gerbil include:
 Fat-tailed gerbil, whose tail gets bigger when it eats.
 Great gerbil, the biggest type of gerbil

The Mongolian gerbil is one of around 110 species, but it is the most popular to have for a pet. The Mongolian gerbil was discovered in 1800 but was not studied until 1866. All domestic gerbils come from just a few gerbils from 1930.

A gerbil is smaller than a rat but bigger than a mouse. It depends on the species. From just mice and rats the gerbil has a tail with hair and it ends with a tassel. A gerbil is around 5-6 inches long but with the tail it is around 11-12 inches. There are bigger gerbils too like the Great gerbil who has a 7-8 inches long body and 7-8 inches long tail.

Other websites 

 Gerbil Care Guide
 The National Gerbil Society (U.K.)
 The American Gerbil Society
 TheGerbils.com - Everything about the gerbil!
 Gerbils at Popular Pets
 Information on Gerbils 

Rodents
Muridae

Muridae is the largest family of mammals.  It contains over 700 species. These species can be found naturally throughout Eurasia, Africa, and Australia.  They have been introduced worldwide.  The group includes true mice and rats, gerbils, and relatives.

The family name Muridae is sometimes used in a broader sense to include all members of the superfamily Muroidea.

The Murids are classified in four subfamilies, and about 140 genera.

Subfamilies

Deomyinae (spiny mice, brush furred mice, link rat)
Gerbillinae (gerbils, jirds and sand rats)
Leimacomyinae (Togo mouse)
Lophiomyinae (Crested rat)
Murinae (Old World rats and mice including the vlei rats)

Sources 
Jansa S.A. and M. Weksler. 2004. Phylogeny of muroid rodents: relationships within and among major lineages as determined by IRBP gene sequences.  Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 31:256-276.
Michaux J. A. Reyes, and F. Catzeflis. 2001. Evolutionary history of the most speciose mammals: molecular phylogeny of muroid rodents. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 17:280-293.
Steppan S.J; R.A. Adkins and J. Anderson. 2004. Phylogeny and divergence date estimates of rapid radiations in muroid rodents based on multiple nuclear genes. Systematic Biology, 53:533-553.
 Muridae on ITIS

Rodents
Muroidea

Muroidea is a large superfamily of rodents.  It includes hamsters, gerbils, true mice and rats, and many other relatives.  They live on almost every continent except Antarctica.  Some scientists have placed all members of this group into a single family, Muridae.  Sometimes there are difficulties in knowing how the subfamilies are related to one another. 

The muroids are classified in 6 families, 19 subfamilies, around 280 genera and at least 1300 species.

Taxonomy 
 Family Platacanthomyidae - incertae sedis - (spiny dormouse and pygmy dormice)
 Family Spalacidae fossorial muroids
 Subfamily Myospalacinae (zokors)
 Subfamily Rhizomyinae (bamboo rats and root rats)
 Subfamily Spalacinae (blind mole rats)
 Clade Eumuroida - typical muroids
 Family Calomyscidae
 Subfamily Calomyscinae (mouse-like hamsters)
 Family Nesomyidae
 Subfamily Cricetomyinae (pouched rats and mice)
 Subfamily Dendromurinae (African climbing mice, gerbil mice, fat mice and forest mice)
 Subfamily Mystromyinae (white-tailed rat)
 Subfamily Nesomyinae (Malagasy rats and mice)
 Subfamily Petromyscinae (rock mice and the climbing swamp mouse)
 Family Cricetidae
 Subfamily Arvicolinae (voles, lemmings and muskrat)
 Subfamily Cricetinae (true hamsters)
 Subfamily Neotominae (North American rats and mice)
 Subfamily Sigmodontinae (New World rats and mice)
 Subfamily Tylomyinae
 Family Muridae
 Subfamily Deomyinae (spiny mice, brush furred mice, link rat)
 Subfamily Gerbillinae (gerbils, jirds and sand rats)
 Subfamily Leimacomyinae (Togo Mouse)
 Subfamily Lophiomyinae (crested rat)
 Subfamily Murinae (Old World rats and mice including vlei rats)

References 
 Primary Taxonomic Reference
 Steppan, S. J., R. A. Adkins, and J. Anderson. 2004. Phylogeny and divergence date estimates of rapid radiations in muroid rodents based on multiple nuclear genes. Systematic Biology, 53:533-553.
 Other Taxonomic References
 Jansa, S. A. and M. Weksler. Phylogeny of muroid rodents: relationships within and among major lineages as determined by IRBP gene sequences.  Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 31:256-276.
 Michaux, J., A. Reyes, and F. Catzeflis. 2001. Evolutionary history of the most speciose mammals: molecular phylogeny of muroid rodents. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 17:280-293.
 Musser, G. G. and M. D. Carleton. 1993. Family Muridae.  Pp. 501-755 in Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C.
 Norris, R. W., K. Y. Zhou, C. Q. Zhou, G. Yang, C. W. Kilpatrick, and R. L. Honeycutt. 2004. The phylogenetic position of the zokors (Myospalacinae) and comments on the families of muroids (Rodentia). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 31:972-978.

Rodents
Murinae

The Old World rats and mice (called Murinae) is a subfamily in the family Muridae. It has about 560 species.  This subfamily is larger than all mammal families except the Cricetidae. It is also larger than most mammal orders.

Description
The Murinae are native to Africa, Europe, Asia, and Australia.  They are the only terrestrial placental mammals native to Australia.  They have also been introduced to all continents except Antarctica. They are serious pest animals.  This is particularly true in islands where they have  endangered and caused the extinction extinction of many native animals.

The brown rat and the house mouse are both used for medical tests. They are among the animals whose genome has been sequenced.

The murines have a distinctive molar pattern that involves three rows of cusps instead of two, the primitive pattern seen most frequently in muroid rodents.

Fossils 
The first known appearance of the Murinae in the fossil record is about 14 million years ago with the fossil genus Antemus.  Progonomys is thought to be the ancestor of Mus and relatives, while Karnimata is thought to lead to Rattus and relatives.  All of these fossils are found in the well-preserved and easily dated Siwalik fossil beds of Pakistan.

The genera Uranomys, Lophuromys, and Acomys were once thought to be murines. Later, it was discovered (by molecular phylogenetics that they were more closely related to gerbils. They have been assigned a new subfamily status, the Deomyinae.

Sources and further reading
Chevret P. et al 1993. Molecular evidence that the spiny mouse (Acomys) is more closely related to gerbils (Gerbillinae) than to the true mice (Murinae). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 90:3433-3436.
Jacobs L.L. 1978. Fossil rodents (Rhizomyidae and Muridae) from Neogene Siwalik deposits, Pakistan.  Bulletin of the Museum of Northern Arizona, 52: 1-103.
Jansa S.A. and M. Weksler. Phylogeny of muroid rodents: relationships within and among major lineages as determined by IRBP gene sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 31:256-276.
Michaux J. A. Reyes and F. Catzeflis 2001. Evolutionary history of the most speciose mammals: molecular phylogeny of muroid rodents. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 17:280-293.
Nowak, R.M. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World, vol. 2. Johns Hopkins University Press, London.
Steppan S.J; R.A. Adkins and J. Anderson 2004. Phylogeny and divergence date estimates of rapid radiations in muroid rodents based on multiple nuclear genes. Systematic Biology, 53:533-553.
Castorimorpha

Castorimorpha is the suborder of rodents containing the beavers, the pocket gophers, and the kangaroo rats.

Rodents
Arpeggio

In music, an arpeggio is a group of notes in a chord which are played one after the other, instead of all at the same time. The arpeggio may either go up or go down, but it is more common going up. 

The word arpeggio comes from the Italian word arpeggiare, which means "to play on a harp". This is because harps are very good at playing arpeggiated chords. 

An arpeggio is a type of broken chord, but there are many different kinds.

Learning many musical instruments include playing scales and arpeggios. They are often played as part of music examinations, especially for piano and the string instruments. This is because these skills are useful for playing a lot of music. For example, Bach's Prelude in C () is made of many different arpeggios. Guitarists sometimes play arpeggios instead of strumming, and banjo players do it a lot. 

An "arpeggiated chord" means a chord which is "spread". This means the notes do not start exactly at the same time. This is sometimes called arpeggiato, and in modern music is called a rolled chord. An arpeggiated chord is written with a wiggly line going from top to bottom in front of the chord. An arpeggiated chord is spread from the lowest to the highest note. Occasionally composers such as Béla Bartók ask for them to be played from top to bottom. This is shown by adding an arrow pointing down.

References

Musical terminology

it:Abbellimento#Arpeggio
Spyglass Entertainment

Spyglass Entertainment is a movie and television production company.  Jonathan Glickman is the current President of Production. Internationally, Buena Vista has released most movies made by Spyglass (with exceptions). The first movie released by the company was Instinct.

Filmography

With Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures

With Touchstone Pictures
Instinct (1999)
The Insider (1999)
Keeping the Faith (2000)
Shanghai Noon (2000, followed by 2003 sequel Shanghai Knights)
Unbreakable (2000)
Out Cold (2001)
The Count of Monte Cristo (2002)
Reign of Fire (2002)
The Recurit (2003)
Mr. 3000 (2004) (also with Dimension Films and The Kennedy/Marshall Company)
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (2005)
Stick It (2006)

With Hollywood Pictures
The Sixth Sense (1999)
Stay Alive (2006) (also with Endgame)
The Invisible  (2007)

With Walt Disney Pictures
The Pacifier (2005)
Eight Below (2006) (also with Mandeville Films)
Underdog (2007)

With Miramax Films
The Lookout (2007)

With NBC Universal

With Universal Studios
Dragonfly (2002)
Bruce Almighty (2003)
Seabiscuit (2003) (also with DreamWorks)
Connie and Carla (2004)
Evan Almighty (2007)
Welcome Home, Roscoe Jenkins (2008)
Wanted (2008)
Dinner for Schmucks (2010)

With Rogue Pictures
Balls of Fury (2007) (also with Interpid Pictures)

With Viacom

With Paramount Pictures
Abandon (2002)
The Perfect Score (2004)
The Love Guru (2008)
Star Trek (2009) (also with Bad Robot Productions)
G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra (2009) (also with Hasbro) (logo not shown)

With DreamWorks
Seabiscuit (2003) (also with Universal Pictures)
Memoirs of a Geisha (2005) (also with Columbia Pictures, Amblin Entertainment and Red Wagon Entertainment)
The Ruins (2008)
Ghost Town (2008)

With Sony Pictures

With Columbia Pictures

Also With Amblin Entertainment
The Legend of Zorro (2005)
Memoirs of a Geisha (2005) (also with DreamWorks and Red Wagon Entertainment)

With News Corporation

With 20th Century Fox
27 Dresses (2008)
The Happening (2008) (also with UTV Motion Pictures and Blinding Edge Pictures)

With TimeWarner

With New Line Cinema
Four Christmases (2008) (distributed by Warner Bros.)

Movie studios
Hovercraft

A hovercraft is a vehicle supported and moved by a cushion of air blowing downwards. They are used on water, land, ice and other areas where the surface is smooth. A difference in air pressure between the ship and the atmosphere creates lift, causing the hovercraft to float above the surface it is set on, allowing it to ride on different surfaces. They are often used as ferries and by militaries for amphibious, or on water and on land (like an amphibian can live in water and land) missions. A hovercraft can move cargo, people, and cars.
Like Hovercraft the same thing Hoverboard Which is also a true Self Balancing Board To Enjoy the Ride with a High Speed. Take a Look On 

The English engineer Sir Christopher Cockerell invented the modern hovercraft.

References 

Alternative propulsion
Vehicles
Castoridae

Castoridae is a family of rodents. Today, the only genus that has alive species in it is Castor. It contains modern-day beavers. In addition, about 20 extinct genera of beavers have been put into the family.

Rodents
IUCN Red List

The IUCN Red List (also IUCN Red List of Threatened Species) is a list of species. The list tells for each species how likely it is to become extinct (or if it is already). This is called its conservation status. This list is put together each year by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

There are exact criteria to see if a certain species is threatened to become extinct. These criteria are the same for all parts of the world. The purpose of the list is to tell people how threatened a certain species is. Politicians can then decide on what needs to be done and the efforts needed to save certain species from becoming extinct.

Criteria
 Not evaluated:
Not yet compared to the standard scale.

 Data deficient:
Not enough data.

Related pages
 Endangered species

Other websites
IUCN Red List Website - The species list can be found here.

International Union for the Conservation of Nature
Redruth

Redruth (Cornish: Resrudh) is a small town in Cornwall. The name of the town means "red ford"; the parish church of Redruth is dedicated to St Uny. The district of Camborne and Redruth was once very important for the mining of tin and copper. Until 1974, Camborne and Redruth were included in the Camborne-Redruth urban district. In 2001 there were 12,352 people living in Redruth. The two towns with the village of Pool have more people than St Austell (Cornwall's largest settlement). In 2004, about 38,500 people were living in Camborne-Redruth.

References 

Towns in Cornwall
Civil parishes in Cornwall
Integrated Taxonomic Information System

The Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) is an American organization. It works with several federal agencies to unify the information gathered about different taxonomy of biological species. It provides a common database for these agencies to use. ITIS was originally formed in 1996.

References

Other websites 
 Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS)
 Canada Interface: Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS*CA)
 Mexico Interface: Sistema Integrado de Información Taxonómica (SIIT*MX) 
 Brasil Interface: Sistema Integrado de Informação Taxonômica - (SIIT*Brasil)

Taxonomy
Science websites
Scientific organizations based in the United States
1996 establishments in the United States
Biological databases
Yersinia pestis

Yersinia pestis is a bacillus. It is a bacterium. It has been identified as the infectious agent of bubonic plague. This bacterium also causes other forms of plague- Septicemic plague and pneumonic plague. These three forms of the plague have been responsible for a high death toll in many epidemics throughout human history. These diseases are believed to be the cause of the Black Death. Because of the Black Death, about one third (one of three) people in Europe died. This was between 1347 and 1353.

The bacillus was discovered by the physician Alexandre Yersin during an epidemic of the plague in Hong Kong, in 1894. Yersin worked for the Pasteur Institute at the time. Originally, the microoganism was named Pasteurella pestis. It was renamed in 1967.

Currently, three varieties of Y. pestis are known.

Historians are currently divided about the role of Y. pestis in the Black Death. Some historians said that the Black Death spread far too fast. Therefore, Y. pestis could not have caused it. DNA from Y. pestis has been found in the teeth of some of the victims of the Black Death. For this reason, Y. pestis must have been at least a factor in some (but not necessarily all) European plague epidemics.

References 
These references are probably not in Simple English.

Other websites 

 Yersinia pestis . Virtual Museum of Bacteria.
 Genome information is available from the NIAID PathoSystems Resource Integration Center (PATRIC) 

Gram-negative bacteria
Plague
Leptospirosis

Leptospirosis (also known as Weil's disease, canicola fever, canefield fever, nanukayami fever or seven day fever) is a bacterial disease. It is caused by spirochaetes of the genus Leptospira. This bacterium affects humans and many animals, including mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles. It was first described by Adolf Weil in 1886. At the time he reported an "acute infectious disease with enlargement of spleen, jaundice and nephritis". The pathogen, Leptospira-genus bacteria was isolated in 1907 from a post mortem kidney slice.

Leptospirosis is a relatively rare bacterial infection in humans. The infection is commonly transmitted to humans by allowing fresh water that has been contaminated by animal urine (often from rats) to come in contact with the skin, eyes or with the mucous membranes. 

It usually causes heart failure, kidney failure or liver failure, and most sufferers die if they are not treated urgently. The disease causes little concern, as it is quite rare
 
Except for tropical areas, Leptospirosis seems to occur most often in the months August to September, in the Northern Hemisphere.

Diseases caused by bacteria
Animal diseases
François-Joseph Gossec

François-Joseph Gossec (born Vergnies, 17 January 1734 — 16 February, 1829) was a South Netherlands composer.  He was born in what is now Belgium, but worked in France during his long life.  People hardly ever hear his music now except for one very popular piece of dance music called Tambourin.  He was famous in France in his time and had a lot of influence on French music.

Life and Work
Gossec’s family were small farmers.  When Gossec was young he worked as a cowherd (someone who looks after cows).  He showed a lot of talent and became a choir-boy in the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Antwerp.

In 1751 he went to Paris.  The composer Jean-Philippe Rameau was very impressed by him and got him jobs playing the violin and double bass in his private orchestra.  He heard a lot of music by German composers and started to write music of his own.  His symphony in D was one of the first works in France to use clarinets which had only just been invented.  He composed many  operas as well as instrumental works.

In 1762 Gossec became the conductor of a private theatre of the Prince of Condé at Chantilly.  A lot of German and Bohemian wind players at that time went to Paris, and Gossec gave them jobs in his orchestra.

Gossec wrote a lot of music for the French Revolution.  When the Paris Conservatoire was opened in 1795 he became a teacher of composition there.

Gossec composed lots of different kinds of music.  His music for instruments was very successful.  He wrote operas which suited the taste of French people at the time, but he did not have a good sense of drama and the words of his operas were uninteresting.  He was an important man in the history of music because he organized a lot of musical events in Paris.  He was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour.  A lot of composers  went to his funeral.

1734 births
1829 deaths
Belgian composers
Classical era composers
Legion of Honour
People from Hainaut (province)
Josiah Wedgwood

Josiah Wedgwood (12 July 1730  3 January 1795, born in Burslem, Stoke-on-Trent) was an English potter, who became famous for the industrialisation  of pottery. He was the grandfather of both Charles Darwin and Emma Darwin, Charles' wife.

Wedgwood was the first to use modern marketing: direct mail, money-back guarantees, travelling salesmen, self-service, free delivery, buy one get one free, and illustrated catalogues.

Biography

Early life 
When he was a child, Josiah had smallpox, but he survived (did not die). The smallpox injured his knee, so he could not easily work as a potter. Instead, he worked hard to design pottery. Working as an apprentice, Wedgwood learned many techniques for making pottery. He used his skills to make one of the first pottery factories, Ivy Works, in Burslem, now part of Stoke-on-Trent.

Work 
Wedgwood was very interested in science and technology, and used new ideas to make good quality pottery. He became famous for making pottery for royalty, and became very rich. He spent money on civic works, things that would help businessmen and people in the city, for example canals. He became friends with Erasmus Darwin, an important scientist and inventor. In 1780, Wedgwood and Darwin became business partners. Wedgwood's son married Darwin's daughter, who gave birth to Charles Darwin. Wedgwood and Darwin were also members of the 'Lunar Society', a group of important scientists, philosophers and businessmen.

By 1763, he was receiving orders from the highest levels of the British nobility, including Queen Charlotte. Wedgwood convinced her to let him name the line of pottery she had purchased "Queen's Ware", and trumpeted the royal association in his paperwork and stationery. In 1773, Empress Catherine of Russia ordered the Green Frog Service from Wedgwood; it can still be seen in the Hermitage Museum. An even earlier commission from Catherine was the Husk Service (1770), now on exhibit in Peterhof.

In the latter part of his life, Wedgwood's obsession was to duplicate the Portland Vase, a dark blue and white glass vase from the first century BC. For three years he worked on the project, eventually producing what he considered a satisfactory copy in 1789.

Abolition of slavery 
Together with his friends in the Lunar Society, Wedgwood worked for the abolition (ending) of slavery. Wedgwood produced medallions asking for the end of slavery. These medallions became very popular. Wedgwood died in Etruria, Stoke-on-Trent, in 1795. Selling slaves became illegal (against the law) in 1807 in Britain, and having slaves became illegal in 1833.

References 

 Wedgwood: the first tycoon, Brian Dolan, Viking Adult, 416 pp. 2004.

Other websites 

 Wedgwood collection at the Lady Lever Art Gallery
 Revolutionary Players website 
 Wedgwood Museum

1730 births
1795 deaths
Potters
Smallpox survivors
Wedgwood family
Members of the Lunar Society
Tambourin

A tambourin (pronounced the French way) is a piece of music which was popular in France in the 18th century.  It is based on a folkdance from the Provence.  The music is made to sound like the kind of drum which is called "tambourin" in French.  Jean-Philippe Rameau wrote several Tambourins in his operas.  Other composers who wrote Tambourins include François-Joseph Gossec and Maurice Duruflé.

Tambourin also means a special kind of drum from the Provence.  It has a long, cylindrical shape and is played with one drumstick.  It is found in orchestral music such as Georges Bizet's L'Arlésienne Suite no. 2

Musical forms

Percussion instruments
Thomas Wedgwood III

Thomas Wedgwood (1685-1739) was an English potter. He was a member of the Wedgwood family, who were very successful potters.  He was the son of Thomas Wedgwood II and Mary Leigh.

Thomas Wedgwood was married to Mary Stringer.  Their children were:

Thomas Wedgwood IV
Josiah Wedgwood

1685 births
1739 deaths
Wedgwood family
Potters
Thomas Wedgwood IV

Thomas Wedgwood (1716-1773) was an English potter. He was a member of the Wedgwood family, who were very successful potters. He was the son of Thomas Wedgwood III and Mary Stringer and brother of Josiah Wedgwood.

Thomas Wedgwood was married firstly to Isabell Beech. Their children were:
Thomas Wedgwood V

1716 births
1773 deaths
Wedgwood, Thomas IV
Potters
Maria Barbara Bach

Maria Barbara Bach (20 October 1684–7 July 1720) was the wife of the German composer Johann Sebastian Bach.  She was also the mother of the composers Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach and Wilhelm Friedemann Bach.

1684 births
1720 deaths
German people
People from Thuringia
Maria Barbara
Ligue 1

Ligue 1 is the top league of French football. A.S. Monaco F.C. from the Principality of Monaco, on the south coast of France, is in the league.

2019–20 clubs 
 Amiens
 Angers
 Bordeaux
Brest
 Dijon
 Lille
 Lyon
 Marseille
 Metz
 Monaco
 Montpellier
 Nantes
 Nice
Nîmes
 Paris Saint-Germain
 Rennes
Reims
 Saint-Étienne
 Strasbourg
 Toulouse

Champions

Former champions

Related pages
Ligue 2
Championnat National

Notes

Football leagues
Football in France
1932 establishments in Europe
1930s establishments in France