cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Endemism

Endemism is an ecological word meaning that a plant or animal lives only in a particular location, such as a specific island, habitat type, nation or other defined zone. For example, many species of lemur are endemic to the island of Madagascar. 

There are two types of endemism - paleoendemism and neoendemism. Paleoendemism means that a species used to live in a large area but now lives only in a smaller area. Neoendemism means that a species has recently appeared which is closely related to the main species or one that has formed following hybridization and is now classified as a separate species. This is a common process in plants especially those which exhibit polyploidy.

The opposite of endemism is cosmopolitan distribution.

Endemic types are most likely to develop on islands because they are isolated. This includes remote island groups, like the Hawaiian Islands, the Galápagos Islands, and Socotra. Endemism can also occur in areas which are separated from other similar areas like the highlands of Ethiopia, or large bodies of water like Lake Baikal.

Endemics can easily become endangered or extinct because of only living in a small area. They are also vulnerable to the actions of man, including the introduction of new organisms. There were millions of both Bermuda petrels and "Bermuda cedars" (actually junipers) in Bermuda when it was settled at the start of the 17th century. By the end of the century, the petrels were thought to be extinct. Cedars, whose numbers were low as a result of centuries of shipbuilding, were nearly made extinct in the 20th Century by the introduction of a parasite. Both petrels and cedars are very rare today, as are other species endemic or native to Bermuda.

Endemic organisms are not the same as indigenous organisms — a species that is indigenous to somewhere may be native to other locations as well. An introduced species, also known as a naturalized or exotic species, is an organism that is not indigenous to a given place or area.

Ecoregions with high endemism 
According to the World Wildlife Fund, the following ecoregions have the highest percentage of endemic plants:

 Fynbos in the Cape flower region (South Africa)

 Hawaiian tropical dry forests (United States)
 Hawaiian tropical rainforests (United States)

 Kwongan heathlands (Australia)
 Madagascar dry deciduous forests (Madagascar)
 Madagascar lowland forests (Madagascar)
 New Caledonia dry forests (New Caledonia)
 New Caledonia rain forests (New Caledonia)

 Sierra Madre de Oaxaca pine-oak forests (Mexico)
 Sierra Madre del Sur pine-oak forests (Guatemala)

 Luzon montane rainforests (Philippines)
 Luzon rain forests (Philippines)
 Luzon tropical pine forests (Philippines)
 Mindanao montane rain forests (Philippines)
 Mindanao-Eastern Visayas rain forests (Philippines)
 Palawan rain forests (Philippines)

Threats to highly endemistic regions 

Some of the principal threats to these special ecosystems are:

 Large scale logging operations
 Slash-and-burn techniques (which are sometimes a part of shifting cultivation)
 Destruction of habital or vegetation leads to endangering of the endemic species

References 

Ecosystems
Namtap

The namtap or spectacled dormouse (Graphiurus ocularis) is a species of rodent in the Gliridae family, and one of the four Dormouse species which are endemic to South Africa.

The namtap has a bushy tale like a squirrel, a fairly short muzzle (the part of the Dormouse's head which includes the nose, mouth and jaws), small ears and soft fur.  Its face has white and grey marks, with dark rings (like spectacles) around its eyes. Its cheeks, underparts and the upper surfaces of its paws are white. Its tail is usually has a white tip.

It is only found in western South Africa. It can usually be found in rocky habitats, as well as in trees and outbuildings. It is nocturnal and it is good at climbing. It mainly eats seeds, other plant material and invertebrates.

References
 
 Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Grubb, P. 2004.  Graphiurus ocularis.   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 29 July 2007.
 Holden, M. E.. 2005. Family Gliridae. Pp. 819-841 in Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Graphiurus
I Married Marge

"I Married Marge" is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons third season. It first started on the Fox network in the United States on December 26, 1991. In this episode, Marge worries that she may yet again be pregnant and drives to "Dr. Hibbert's" office. While anxiously waiting, Homer begins to tell Bart, Lisa, and Maggie the story of how he and Marge got married and how Bart was born.

Other websites 

1991 television episodes
The Simpsons (season 3) episodes
Television episodes about marriage
Arduino

Arduino is a small popular electronic machine that makes it very easy for people to make electronic things. It has two parts: a circuit board and a program that lets people tell the circuit board what to do. As of 2011, more than 300,000 Arduinos had been sold.

The machine
The machine part is open source, which means that anybody can make their own version of an Arduino machine for free. An official Arduino costs around US$30. The original Arduino is made by a company in Italy called "Smart Projects" but other types of Arduino boards have been designed by SparkFun Electronics, an American company.

"Shields"
Sometimes, people will make other machines that go on top of an Arduino board and let the board do more things. These are called "Arduino shields". They can do different things, like let an Arduino machine connect to the internet, or add a touchscreen, or let an Arduino use GPS to figure out where it is. Shields can also combine and stack on top of each other.

Telling the Arduino what to do
Arduinos are programmed in C or C++, using a program also called Arduino. An example program to blink a light (LED) could look like this:
<syntaxhighlight lang="c">
define LED_PIN 13

void setup () {
  pinMode (LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // Enable pin 13 for digital output
}

void loop () {
  digitalWrite (LED_PIN, HIGH); // Turn on the LED
  delay (1000); // Wait one second (1000 milliseconds)
  digitalWrite (LED_PIN, LOW); // Turn off the LED
  delay (1000); // Wait one second
}
</source>

First, the code after "void setup() {" runs. This tells the Arduino that pin 13 is going to be sending data out. Most Arduino boards have an LED attached to pin 13. Then, the code after the "void loop () {" runs. When it reaches the bottom, the code after the "void loop" runs again, until the Arduino is turned off. This code makes the Arduino tell the LED to turn on, wait a second, then turn off and wait another second. Since it repeats, this code will turn the LED on and off again and again.

References

Software
Computer hardware
Rock dormouse

The rock dormouse (Graphiurus platyops) is a species of rodent in the Gliridae family. It is found in Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Eswatini, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

References
 Grubb, P. 2004.  Graphiurus platyops .   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 29 July 2007.
Holden, M. E.. 2005. Family Gliridae. Pp. 819-841 in Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Graphiurus
Oldfield Thomas

Michael Rogers Oldfield Thomas (usually known as Oldfield Thomas) FRS (February 21, 1858 – June 16, 1929) was a British zoologist.

Thomas worked at the Natural History Museum in their mammals department. He described about 2,000 new species and sub-species for the first time. He was given a job in the Museum Secretary's office in 1876. In 1878 he moved to the Zoological Department. In 1891 Thomas married a woman who was an heiress to a large amount of money. Having this money allowed him to hire mammal collectors and to give their specimens to the museum. In 1896 when William Henry Flower took control of the Department he hired Richard Lydekker to rearrange the exhibitions. This gave Thomas the time to concentrate on these new specimens.  He committed suicide in 1929 when he was 71 years old. This was not long after the death of his wife.

References

1858 births
1929 deaths
British biologists
British zoologists
Fellows of the Royal Society
People who committed suicide
Stone dormouse

The stone dormouse (Graphiurus rupicola) is a species of rodent in the Gliridae family. It is found in Namibia, South Africa, and sometimes in Angola. Its natural habitat is rocky areas.

References
Holden, M. E.. 2005. Family Gliridae. Pp. 819–841 in Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
 Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N. 2004.  Graphiurus rupicola .   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 29 July 2007.

Graphiurus
Silent dormouse

The silent dormouse (Graphiurus surdus) is a species of rodent in the Gliridae family. It is found in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

References
Holden, M. E.. 2005. Family Gliridae. Pp. 819-841 in Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
 Schlitter, D. 2004.  Graphiurus surdus .   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 29 July 2007.

Graphiurus
Leithiinae

Leithiinae is a subfamily of dormice.

References
Holden, M. E.. 2005. Family Gliridae. Pp. 819-841 in Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Dormice
Twin paradox

The twin paradox in physics is a thought experiment in special relativity. It involves identical twins, one of whom makes a journey into space in a high-speed rocket and returns home to find that the twin who remained on Earth has aged more. 

The paradox depends upon the unspoken idea that the passage of time is the same in all circumstances. But this is not correct. Time is relative and the speed of light through a vacuum is the only constant. And the universe is relativistic, not Newtonian. Every single test which has been made has shown this.

Related pages 
 Special relativity

References 

Relativity
Centriole

The centriole is a cytoplasmic structure in most eukaryote cells. It is involved in cell division and in the formation of cilia and flagella. Centrioles are not found in vascular plants and in most fungi.

Most centrioles are nine sets of microtubule triplets, arranged in a cylinder. A pair of centrioles, arranged perpendicularly and surrounded by a mass of dense material makes up the centrosome.

References 

Organelles
Centrosome

In cell biology, the centrosome is an organelle that is the main place where cell microtubules are organized. Also, it regulates the cell division cycle, the stages which lead up to one cell dividing in two. 

The centrosome was discovered by Edouard Van Beneden in 1883, and was described and named in 1888 by Theodor Boveri. 

The centrosome has apparently only evolved in animal cells. Fungi and plants use other structures to organize their microtubules. Although the centrosome has a key role in efficient mitosis in animal cells, it is not necessary.

A centrosome is composed of two centrioles at right angles to each another. They are surrounded by a shapeless mass of protein.

Roles of the centrosome 
The centrosome is copied only once per cell cycle. Each daughter cell inherits one centrosome, containing two centrioles. The centrosome replicates during the interphase of the cell cycle. During the prophase of mitosis, the centrosomes migrate to opposite poles of the cell. The mitotic spindle then forms between the two centrosomes. Upon division, each daughter cell receives one centrosome. 

Centrosomes are not needed for the mitosis to happen. When the centrosomes are irradiated by a laser, mitosis proceeds with a normal spindle. In the absence of the centrosome, the microtubules of the spindle are focused to form a bipolar spindle. Many cells can completely undergo interphase without centrosomes. It also helps in cell division.

Although centrosomes are not needed for mitosis or the survival of the cell, they are needed for survival of the organism. Cells without centrosomes lack certain microtubules. With centrosomes the cell division is much more accurate and efficient. Some cell types arrest in the following cell cycle when centrosomes are absent, though this doesn't always happen.

References 

Organelles
Vesicle

A vesicle is a bubble of liquid in a cell. More technically, a vesicle is a small membrane-enclosed sac that stores or transports substances in a cell. Vesicles form naturally because of the properties of lipid membranes. Vesicles can fuse with the plasma membrane, and release their contents outside the cell. Vesicles can also fuse with other organelles within the cell. 

A vesicle is sometimes formed when the cell is doing endocytosis. Endocytosis is how a cell's membrane takes in a particle from the outside and brings it inside the cell with a vesicle around it. Vesicles are also more commonly known as nuclear membranes, because they're very similar to the cell membrane. 

They can be found in animal cells.

Organelles
Forest dormouse

The forest dormouse (Dryomys nitedula) is a species of rodent in the Gliridae family found throughout much of Eurasia.

References 

Dormice
Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton is a kind of scaffolding present in all cells. It is made of protein.

It keeps cell shape, protects the cell and enables cells to move (using structures such as flagella and cilia). It helps transport inside the cytoplasm (the movement of vesicles and organelles, for example), and in cell division. The concept and the term (cytosquelette, in French) was introduced by French embryologist Paul Wintrebert in 1931.

Eukaryote cells contain three main kinds of cytoskeletal filaments, which are microfilaments (actin filaments), intermediate filaments, and microtubules. They give the cell structure and shape. Cytoskeletal elements interact closely and often with the cell membrane and the endoplasmic reticulum.

References 

Cell biology
Woolly dormouse

The woolly dormouse (Dryomys laniger) is a species of rodent in the Gliridae family.
It is endemic to Turkey.

References 
 Baillie, J. 1996.  Dryomys laniger .   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 29 July 2007.
Holden, M. E.. 2005. Family Gliridae. Pp. 819-841 in Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Dormice
Animals of Turkey
Chaetocauda

The Chinese dormouse or Sichuan dormouse (Chaetocauda sichuanensis) is a species of dormouse that lives in subalpine mixed forests in northern Sichuan, China. 

Only two female specimens have even been caught. These were both caught in the Wanglang Natural Reserve and was first described by Wang Youzhi in 1985. Corbet and Hill (1991, 1992) relisted it under a new genus as Chaetocauda sichuanensis. It is  the only member of the genus Chaetocauda.

The two specimens had the following measurements:
 Specimen 1:
 head and body length: 
 tail length: 
 weight: 
 Specimen 2:
 head and body length: 
 tail length: 
 weight: 

Cjaetocauda is nocturnal (it is awake at night) and arboreal (lives in trees). It nests in trees about  above the ground and the two specimens were found at an altitude of more than  above sea level. It is classified as endangered by the IUCN as of the 2004 Red List due to its small isolated habitat.

References

 *Corbet, G.B. & Hill, J.E. 1991. A world list of mammalian species, 3rd ed. Natural History Museum Publications & Oxford University Press, London and Oxford.: v-viii, 1-243.
Wang, Youzhi. 1985. A new genus and species of Gliridae.  Acta Theriologica Sinica,  5 (1985), pp. 67-75.

Other websites
 The Dormouse Hollow
 An illustration of The Chinese Dormouse at the Animal Diversity Web 

Dormice
Mammals of Asia
Forest dormice

The forest dormice, genus Dryomys, are a genus of dormouse found throughout much of Eurasia.  They are usually found in forests or thickets.  

The length of the head and body is , and the length of the tail is .  The animals weigh .

Natural history 
These dormice hibernate in tree hollows or in burrows. At night they nest in low branches or shrubs.  They spend most of their lives in trees. They are nocturnal animals.  

They are omnivorous feeding on seeds, acorns, buds, invertebrates, eggs, and baby birds.  

Forest dormice in southern areas breed from March to December. Forest dormice in northern areas breed from May to August. Gestation takes 21-30 days and 2-5 young are born at a time.

Species 
Woolly dormouse - Dryomys laniger
Niethammer's dormouse - Dryomys niethammeri
Forest dormouse - Dryomys nitedula

References 
Duff, A. and A. Lawson. 2004. Mammals of the World A Checklist. New Haven, Yale University Press.
Nowak, R. M. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World, Vol. 2. Johns Hopkins University Press, London. 

Dormice
Mammals of Europe
Mammals of Asia
Mammals of Pakistan
Eliomys

Eliomys is a genus of rodent in the Gliridae family.
It contains the following species:
 Asian Garden Dormouse (Eliomys melanurus)
 Maghreb Garden Dormouse (Eliomys munbyanus)
 Garden dormouse (Eliomys quercinus)

References
Holden, M. E.. 2005. Family Gliridae. Pp. 819-841 in Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Dormice
Asian garden dormouse

The Asian garden dormouse (Eliomys melanurus) is a species of rodent in the Gliridae family. It is found in Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, and Turkey.
Its natural habitats are temperate forests, subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, and rocky areas.

References
 Aulagnier S. 2004.  Eliomys melanurus.   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 29 July 2007.
Holden M.E. 2005. Family Gliridae, 819-841 in Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. D.E. Wilson and D.M. Reeder eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Dormice
Johann Andreas Wagner

Johann Andreas Wagner (21 March 1797 – 17 December 1861) was a German palaeontologist, zoologist and archaeologist.

Wagner was a professor at the University of Munich. He was also the  of the Zoologische Staatssammlung (the German State Zoology Collection). He was the author of Die Geographische Verbreitung der Säugethiere Dargestellt (1844-46).

Bibliography 
  1844-1846. Die Geographische Verbreitung der Säugethiere Dargestellt.
  Johann Andreas Wagner 1897. Monographie der gattung Pomatias Studer.

References
Some Biogeographers, Evolutionists and Ecologists:Chrono-Biographical Sketches

1797 births
1861 deaths
German archaeologists
German academics
German biologists
German writers
Paleontologists
German zoologists
Garden dormouse

The garden dormouse (Eliomys quercinus) is a rodent in the dormouse family.

Features 

Garden Dormice are usually  in length, with the tail adding another .  It weighs .  The coat is gray or brown and it is white underneath. The garden dormouse has black eye marks, large ears (for a rodent), short hair, and a white tassel at the end of the tail.

Range and habitat 

The garden dormouse's main habitat is the forest (and not usually gardens), though it can also be found in fruit-growing regions. It is very common in southern Europe, but its range (the area in can be found) goes up to the north of Europe. Garden dormice are often found in the Alps, in the Bavaria Forest, and in the Ore Mountains.

The species can also be found in northern Germany, but the population there is low. In the Netherlands, it is nearly extinct. In 2007 only nine animals were found in two woods in Limburg. It used to be very common in this area. Scientists
think that his is because the landscape has changed. They also think that climate change might be a reason, because it interrupts the Dormice's hibernation.

How the dormice live 

Garden dormice are  mostly nocturnal. They sleep in spherical nests in trees during the  day.  At night they look for food like larger insects (grasshoppers and beetle), snails, eggs, baby birds, small mice, and spiders. They also eat berries, fruit, and nuts (like acorns and beechnuts).  While omnivorous, the diet of dormice contains a bit more animal protein than vegetation.

The mating period is from April to June.  To show that she is ready for mating, the female squeaks loudly.  The babies are usually born in litters of three to seven, after a gestation period of 23 days.  The babies are blind and have no fur when they are born. They open their eyes after about eighteen days. They are nursed until they are one month old.  When they are two months old, they live on their own. They become ready to mate when they are a year old. They will normally live for about five years.

Male Garden dormice may eat a rival dormouse during the mating season. Cannibalism sometimes happens when the animal is coming out of hibernation.

Classification 

On the islands of the Mediterranean Sea there are a few subspecies of garden dormouse. They are all very hard to find. These subspecies are:
 the Sardinian garden dormouse (E. q. sardus)
 the Sicilian garden dormouse (E. q. dichrurus)
 the Liparian garden dormouse (E. q. liparensis).

The Garden dormice in western Asia and north Africa have been separated into their own species Eliomys melanurus.

References 
  Listed as Vulnerable (VU A1c v2.3)
ITIS report 

This article includes information from the English Wikipedia which was originally translated from the German and French Wikipedias.

Dormice
Mammals of Europe
Masked mouse-tailed dormouse

The masked mouse-tailed dormouse (Myomimus personatus) is a species of dormouse in the Gliridae family. It is found in Iran and Turkmenistan.

Source 
 Tchabovsky, A. 1996.  Myomimus personatus.   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 30 July 2007.

Myomimus
Sergej Ognew

Sergej Ivanovich Ognew (1886–1951) was a Russian zoologist and naturalist, remembered for his work on mammalogy.  He graduated from Moscow University in 1910. In 1910 he also published his first book.  In 1928, he became a professor at the Pedagogical Institute.  He published many books for education about zoology and economy.  His most important work which was to be called Mammals of Russia and adjacent territories was never completed.

Other websites
Profile from the Moscow University Zoological Museum

1886 births
1951 deaths
Roach's mouse-tailed dormouse

Roach's mouse-tailed dormouse (Myomimus roachi), also known as the ground dormouse or mouse-tailed dormouse, is a species of dormouse in the Gliridae family. It is found in Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey.

Source 
 Amori G. 1996.  Myomimus roachi.   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 30 July 2007.

Myomimus
Charles Spence Bate

Charles Spence Bate, or Spence Bate, FRS (March 16, 1819 – July 29, 1889) was a British zoologist and dentist, who lived in Swansea and Plymouth. He was an expert on the crustacea. He often wrote to Charles Darwin, mainly about their shared interest in barnacles. He wrote "A history of the British sessile-eyed Crustacea" with J. O. Westwood.

A number of species are named after him:
Pseudoparatanais batei (G. O. Sars, 1882)
Amphilochus spencebatei (Stebbing, 1876)
Scyllarus batei Holthuis, 1946
Costa batei (Brady, 1866)
Periclimenes batei Holthuis, 1959

1819 births
1889 deaths

British biologists
British zoologists
Fellows of the Royal Society
Flag of Bangladesh

The national flag of Bangladesh (Bengali: বাংলাদেশের জাতীয় পতাকা) was adopted officially on 17 January 1972.  The red disc is for the sun rising over Bengal.  It also is for the blood of those who died for the independence of Bangladesh. The green field stands for the lushness of the land of Bangladesh. It also indicates the freshness of the youths and vitality of the nation.

Bangladesh
Bangladesh
Setzer's mouse-tailed dormouse

The Setzer's mouse-tailed dormouse (Myomimus setzeri) is a species of dormouse in the Gliridae family. It is endemic to Iran.

Source 
 Baillie J. 1996.  Myomimus setzeri.   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 30 July 2007.

Other websites 
 EDGE of Existence page on Setzer's Mouse-tailed Dormouse 

Myomimus
Desert dormouse

The desert dormouse (Selevinia betpakdalaensis) is a species of rodent in the dormouse family Gliridae.
When it was first found, the species was placed in its own family, the Seleviniidae, but now it is considered to be a dormouse. It is the only species in the genus Selevinia.

It is endemic to Kazakhstan.

References
Holden M.E. 2005. Family Gliridae, 819-841 in Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. D E. Wilson and D.M. Reeder eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
 Tchabovsky, A. 1996.  Selevinia betpakdalaensis.   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 30 July 2007.

Dormice
Glirinae

Glirinae is a subfamily of dormice (Gliridae).

It contains two genera, Glirulus and Glis. These genera have one species each: Glirulus japonicus (the Japanese dormouse) and Glis glis (the edible dormouse).

Dormice
Japanese dormouse

The Japanese dormouse (Glirulus japonicus) is a species of rodent in the Gliridae family. It is the only species in the genus Glirulus. It is endemic to Japan. 
Its natural habitat is temperate forests. In Japanese it is called Yamane (山鼠). It has the special ability of running at great speed upside down, underneath branches. Its main food is nectar or pollen, although nursing females will eat small insects.

References 
Holden M.E. 2005. Family Gliridae. pp. 819–841 in Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. D.E. Wilson and D.M. Reeder eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Dormice
Endangered species
Animals of Japan
Heinrich Rudolf Schinz

Heinrich Rudolf Schinz (March 30, 1777 - March 8, 1861) was a Swiss physician and naturalist.

Schinz was born at Zurich and studied medicine at Würzburg and Jena. In 1798 he returning to Zurich to work as a doctor. In 1804 he became a teacher at the medical school. In 1833 he became professor of natural history at the University of Zurich.

Schinz was also curator of the Natural History Society of Zurich. He also wrote a lot of important zoological books between 1824 and 1852. These included Das Thierreich (1821-4), Naturgeschichte und Abbildungen der Reptilien (1833-4), and
Europäsche Fauna (1840). Karl Joseph Brodtmann made the pictures for these books.

References
Mearns and Mearns - Biographies for Birdwatchers 
Biography 

1777 births
1861 deaths
Swiss scientists
List of colonial heads of The Gambia

This is a list of colonial administrators in The Gambia from when Fort James was created by the United Kingdom in 1815 until The Gambia's independence in 1965.

Commandants of Fort James (1815–1829)
 Alexander Grant, 1815–1821

Lieutenant Governors of The Gambia (1829–1843)
In 1821, The Gambia became a British colony.  A lieutenant governor was appointed in 1829. They reported to the Governor of Sierra Leone.
 Alexander Findlay, 1829–1830
 George Rendall, 1830–1837
 Thomas Lewis Ingram, 1837–1838, first time
 William Mackie, 1838–1839
 Thomas Lewis Ingram, 1839–1840, second time
 Sir Henry Vere Huntley, 1840–1841
 Thomas Lewis Ingram, 1841–1843, third time

Governors of The Gambia (1843–1866)
Between 1843 and 1866, a governor was appointed who was independent of the Governor of Sierra Leone.
 Henry Froude Seagram, 1843
 Edmund Norcott, 1843–1844
 Charles Fitzgerald, 1844–1847
 Sir Richard Graves MacDonnell, 1847–1851
 Sir Arthur Edward Kennedy, 1851–1852
 Luke Smythe O'Connor, 1852–1859
 George Abbas Kooli D'Arcy, 1859–1866

Administrators of The Gambia (1866–1901)
In 1866 the job of governor was replaced with that of an administrator who reported to the Governor of Sierra Leone.
 Charles George Edward Patey, 1866–1869
 Alexander Bravo, 1869–1871
 Jeremiah Thomas Fitzgerald Callaghan, 1871–1873
 Cornelius Hendricksen Kortright, 1873–1875
 Sir Samuel Rowe, 1875–1877
 Valerius Skipton Gouldsbury, 1877–1884
 Sir Cornelius Alfred Moloney, 1884–1886
 Sir James Shaw Hay, 1886–1888
 Sir Gilbert Thomas Carter, 1888–1891
 Sir Robert Baxter Llewelyn, 1891–1900
 Sir George Chardin Denton, 1900–11 January 1901

Governors of The Gambia (1901–1965)
In 1901, an independent governor was again created.
 Sir George Chardin Denton, 11 January 1901–21 December 1911, continued
 Henry Lionel Galway, 21 December 1911–11 April 1914
 Edward John Cameron, 11 April 1914–1918
 Herbert Henniker, 1918–1919, acting, first time
 Sir Edward John Cameron, 1919–1920, continued
 Herbert Henniker, 1920–3 January 1921, acting, second time
 Sir Cecil Hamilton Armitage, 3 January 1921–10 March 1927
 Sir John Middleton, 10 March 1927–29 November 1928
 Sir Edward Brandis Denham, 29 November 1928–11 September 1930
 Sir Herbert Richmond Palmer, 11 September 1930–12 April 1934
 Sir Arthur Frederick Richards, 12 April 1934–22 October 1936
 Sir Thomas Southorn, 22 October 1936–23 March 1942
 Hilary Rudolph Robert Blood, 23 March 1942–29 March 1947
 Andrew Barkworth Wright, 29 March 1947–December 1949
 Percy Wyn-Harris, December 1949–19 June 1958
 Sir Edward Henry Windley, 19 June 1958–29 March 1962
 Sir John Warburton Paul, 29 March 1962–18 February 1965

In 1965, The Gambia achieved independence from the United Kingdom.  After independence, the viceroy in The Gambia was the Governor-General of the Gambia.

References
 Rulers: The Gambia
 Guinness Book of Kings, Rulers & Statesmen, Clive Carpenter, Guinness Superlatives Ltd
 African States and Rulers, John Stewart, McFarland

British Empire
The Gambia
Lists of people
Centromere

The centromere is a special region of a chromosome, usually near the middle. It is where the two identical sister chromatids stay in contact as the chromosome attaches to the spindle in mitosis. The region contains specific types of DNA, which are tandem repetitive sequences (satellite DNA). These sequences bind specific proteins called "cen"-proteins.

During mitosis the centromeres can be seen during the metaphase stage as a constriction at the chromosome. At this centromeric constriction the two halves of the chromosome, the sister chromatids, are held together until late metaphase.

References 
Cell biology
Grand Cross

The phrase Grand Cross is used to describe the highest grade in many types of knighthood. Sometimes the person with the highest grade are called "knights grand cross" or just "grand crosses". Sometimes the actual medallion or ribbon is called "the grand cross" and not the person.

In some orders, the highest grade may be called the "grand cordon", "grand collar" or something like this. In those cases the rank of grand cross may come after another rank, but before the highest grade.

As an example:
 for the Portuguese Order of Saint James of the Sword, the Grand Cross is the 5th highest award, with the Grand Collar being a higher award above the Grand Cross.

Knights
Rhizobia

Rhizobia are soil bacteria which become established inside root nodules of legumes (the pea family: Fabaceae). 

They fix nitrogen in a form the plant can use. Rhizobia require a plant host; they cannot independently fix nitrogen. The relationship is a classic example of symbiosis and mutualism.

The word rhizobia comes from the English root for root (rhizo) and the Ancient Greek for life (bios).

Plant physiology
Ecology
Gram-negative bacteria
London Bach Society

The London Bach Society is a society devoted to performing the music of Johann Sebastian Bach.

The London Bach Society was started in 1946 by Paul Steinitz because he wanted to perform Bach in a style which was like the way it sounded in Bach's time. Bach lived from 1685 to 1750. By the 20th century a lot of things had changed in music. Choirs and orchestras were much bigger and instruments were made differently. Steinitz wanted to get back to the sort of sound that Bach would have known. He started a choir called the London Bach Society so that they could give concerts of Bach's music, making it sound much clearer than it did with huge, romantic choirs.

The choir was formed in 1947. The singers were good amateur singers. Steinitz rehearsed them a lot until they were very good. The London Bach Society (LBS) gave many concerts of Bach's music, as well as singing music by other Baroque composers such as Handel, Telemann and Heinrich Schütz. They also sang works by modern composers such as Stravinsky, John Tavener and Nicholas Maw. Between 1958 and 1987 the LBS choir performed all the cantatas by Bach which survive. 208 of them are known. Many others have been lost. The choir performed one of Bach's passions every Lent, usually the St Matthew Passion. They also went on tour, travelling to the USA, Israel, Bulgaria and twice to the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) where they sang at St Thomas Church, Leipzig, where Bach had been Director of Music.
  
In 1968 Steinitz got a group of players together, calling them the Steinitz Bach Players. They were professional musicians who understood how to play Baroque music. Gradually he was able to add more and more historical instruments to his concerts, such as the natural/clarino trumpet, oboe da caccia, baroque flute and sackbuts. By 1985 there were enough professional players of Baroque instruments in England for the LBS choir to be able to perform the St Matthew Passion with a complete orchestra of period instruments in Wells Cathedral and later in 1987 at Westminster Abbey

After Steinitz's death in 1989 there was no more choir, but the society still continues. Today they organize a festival of Bach's music every year, called "Bachfest" (German for "Bach Festival").

Other websites 
http://www.bachlive.co.uk/
http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Bio/LBS.htm

Choirs
British orchestras
North Pacific giant octopus

The North Pacific giant octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini) is a big cephalopod in the coastal North Pacific. 

It usually lives at depths around lseters  hey have also besSeven-arm octopus (Haliphron atlanticus). Adults usually weigh around 15 kg (33 lb), with an arm span of  

They mostly eat crabs, shrimp, abalone, fish, and shellfish like scallops, clams, and mussels. In aquariums, they have been seen eating spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias), a type of shark 3-4 feet long. Food is grabbed with its sucy rs and then crushed using its tough beak of chitin. North Pacific giant octopus are eaten by harbor seals, sea otters, and sperm whales. They usually live about 3-5 years in the wild. 

Cephalopods
Chuck Palahniuk

Charles Michael "Chuck" Palahniuk (born February 21, 1962) is an American satire author. He is well known for writing the award-winning book Fight Club. It was later made into a movie directed by David Fincher. He lives in the state of Washington.

Biography 
Palahniuk was born in Pasco, Washington and raised in Burbank, Washington and Eastern Washington. started writing books when he was in his mid-thirties. His first book, Insomnia: If You Lived Here, You'd Be Home Already, was never made into a book because he didn't think the story was very good. When he tried to write his next novel, Invisible Monsters, publishers did not like it because they thought it was too scary. This made him work on his best known book, Fight Club. He wrote it to try to scare the publisher even more for not publishing his book. Palahniuk wrote this story in his spare time. After first writing it as a short story, Palahniuk made it longer into a full book, which, surprising to him, was published.

In 1999, a changed version of Invisible Monsters, and his fourth novel, Survivor, were published. This made Palahniuk a cult figure. A few years later Palahniuk wrote his first New York Times bestseller, Choke. After that, Palahniuk's later books would mostly have the same success. This success allowed him to travel and promote his books, where he reads from new and upcoming books.

Palahniuk is openly gay and a lapsed Catholic.

Bibliography

Fiction 
 Fight Club (1996)
 Survivor (1999)
 Invisible Monsters (1999)
 Choke (2001)
 Lullaby (2002)
 Diary (2003)
 Haunted (2005)
 Rant (2007)
 Snuff (2008)
 Pygmy (2009)
 Tell All (2010)

Non-fiction 
 Fugitives and Refugees: A Walk in Portland, Oregon (2003)
 Stranger Than Fiction: True Stories (2004)
 You Do Not Talk About Fight Club: I Am Jack's Completely Unauthorized Essay Collection (2008) (introduction)

Movies 
 Fight Club (1999)
 Choke (2008)
 Invisible Monsters (2010)
 Haunted (TBA) - optioned property
 Survivor (TBA) - script stage
 Rant (TBA) - optioned property
 Diary (TBA) - optioned property
 Lullaby (TBA) - optioned property

References

20th-century American novelists
American LGBT people
Gay men
LGBT writers
Writers from Washington
1962 births
Living people
Uvula

The uvula is the punchbag-shaped object on the back of a throat, in the middle of the soft palate. Massaging the uvula causes the gag reflex which makes someone vomit.

Use
The uvula functions with the back of the throat, the palate, and air coming up from the lungs to create a number variety of different sounds.  Consonants involving sound from the uvula are not found in most dialects of English, though they are found in many Semitic, Caucasian, and Turkic languages, as well as several languages of Western Europe such as German, French and a few Celtic languages, where it is used to make a sound called the uvular trill.

Head (body part)
Canada Day

Canada Day is a national and an official holiday in Canada celebrating its anniversary of Confederation. It takes place annually on July 1st.

Other page 
O Canada - legally adopted on Canada Day in 1980.

Canada
Canada
Blood diamond

Blood diamonds, also known as conflict diamonds, are diamonds mined in a war zone and sold illegally to pay for anti-government fighting. There have been 3.7 million deaths over diamonds. 

Blood diamonds come from areas controlled by armed groups which are fighting against the government. These armed groups force civilians (mostly children) to mine diamonds. People who refuse to do this work may be raped, abused, or even murdered. The armed groups then sell the diamonds and use the money to buy weapons. Then they use these weapons to fight against the government.  

Diamonds mined during the 20th–21st century civil wars in Angola, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, and Guinea-Bissau have been called blood diamonds.  

The Kimberly Process Certification Scheme (KPCS) helps keep blood diamonds out of markets. Every KPCS-certified diamond has to be labeled with a specific government number. Eighty-one countries participate in the KPCS.

References 

Conflicts
Minerals
2nd millennium

The 2nd millennium started on January 1, 1001 and ended on December 31, 2000.  

2nd millennium
Millennia
Radio Bart

"Radio Bart" is the thirteenth episode of The Simpsons third season. It was first shown on the Fox network in the United States on January 9, 1992. In this episode, Bart gets a microphone that transmits sound to nearby AM radios. To play a prank on the people of "Springfield", Bart places a radio deep inside a well and uses the microphone to trick the town into thinking a little boy is stuck in it. At first his trick worked, but soon realizes that he left a "property of Bart Simpson" label on the radio and goes to get it. Bart becomes trapped in the well and while the town decides to leave him there after finding out about the prank, his father Homer  tries to rescue him.

Other websites 

The Simpsons (season 3) episodes
1992 television episodes
Chromatin

Chromatin is the complex combination of DNA and proteins that makes up chromosomes. It is found inside the nuclei of eukaryotic cells.

Chromatin is divided into heterochromatin (condensed) and euchromatin (extended) forms.
Heterochromatin is composed mostly of satellite DNA tandem repeats. The active components of chromatin are DNA and histone proteins, although other proteins also occur. The functions of chromatin are:
to package DNA into a smaller volume to fit in the cell
to strengthen the DNA to allow mitosis and meiosis
to control DNA replication and gene expression. How this works is not yet clear.

Chromatin definitions 
 Simple and concise definition: Chromatin is a macromolecular complex of a DNA macromolecule and protein macromolecules (and RNA). The proteins package and arrange the DNA and control its functions in the cell nucleus.
 The DNA + histone = chromatin definition: The DNA double helix in the cell nucleus is packaged by special proteins termed histones. The formed protein/DNA complex is called chromatin. The basic structural unit of chromatin is the nucleosome.

References 

Chromosomes
Molecular biology
The Santa Clause 3: The Escape Clause

The Santa Claus 3: The Escape Clause is the third movie in The Santa Clause series of movies.

It is an 2006 American Christmas comedy adventure movie directed by Michael Lembeck.

Cast
Main characters
 Tim Allen as Santa Claus / Scott Calvin
 Martin Short as Jack Frost
 Elizabeth Mitchell as Mrs. Claus / Carol Newman-Calvin
 Judge Reinhold as Neil Miller
 Wendy Crewson as Laura Miller
 Liliana Mumy as Lucy Miller
 Spencer Breslin as Curtis the Elf
 Alan Arkin as Mr. Bud Newman
 Ann-Margret as Mrs. Sylvia Newman
Supporting characters
 Aisha Tyler as Mother Nature
 Peter Boyle as Father Time
 Michael Dorn as Sandman
 Jay Thomas as Easter Bunny
 Kevin Pollack as Cupid
 Art LaFleur as Tooth Fairy
Small roles
 Eric Lloyd as Charlie Calvin
 Charlie Stewart as Dr. Hismus
 Abigail Breslin as Trish

2006 comedy movies
American comedy movies
Christmas movies
Disney movies
Sequel movies
English-language movies
Movies directed by Michael Lembeck
Lisa the Greek

"Lisa the Greek" is the fourteenth episode of The Simpsons third season. It was first shown on the Fox network in the United States on January 23, 1992. In this episode, Homer begins to bond with his daughter, Lisa, after learning her unique ability to pick winning American football teams. When Lisa finds out Homer has only been using her for gambling, she doesn't to speak to her father until he fully understands her. "Lisa the Greek" was written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky, and directed by Rich Moore.

Other websites 

The Simpsons (season 3) episodes
1992 television episodes
Homer Alone

"Homer Alone" is the 15th episode of The Simpsons ' third season and the 50th episode of the series. The title is based on the movie Home Alone. The episode is written by David M. Stern, the brother of actor Daniel Stern, who co-starred in Home Alone and its first sequel. Marge suffers a nervous breakdown and spends time at a local health spa to recover while the rest of the family struggle without her and Homer loses Maggie but is soon found.

Other websites 

The Simpsons (season 3) episodes
1992 television episodes
Bart the Lover

"Bart the Lover" is the sixteenth episode of The Simpsons' third season. In this episode, it takes an early look at the personal life of Mrs. Krabappel. Marcia Wallace, the voice actress of Mrs. Krabappel, won an Emmy for her performance in this episode.

References

Other websites 

The Simpsons (season 3) episodes
1992 television episodes
Nucleosome

Nucleosomes are the building blocks which make up chromosomes. They consist of a segment of DNA wound around a histone protein core.

First, DNA and a protein make up chromatin. Then the chromatin is packed up into nucleosomes. Nucleosomes are then packaged up to make a chromosome. The packages do three things: the chromosomes function in cell division; the very long DNA is wrapped up in a shorter package; and the proteins regulate the gene action in cells.

Details 
Nucleosomes form the basic repeating units of eukaryotic chromatin. This packs the large eukaryotic genomes into the nucleus and allows it to be controlled.

In mammalian cells about two metres of linear DNA have to be packed into a nucleus of roughly 10 µm diameter. Nucleosomes are folded, in a series of higher order structures, to form a chromosome. This folding compacts the DNA and adds a layer of regulatory control. The control ensures correct gene expression. 

Nucleosomes are thought to carry epigenetically inherited information, as modifications of their core histones. This information can be passed on to daughter cells, but it usually wiped out by meiosis in germ cells.

The nucleosome hypothesis proposed by Don and Ada Olins and Roger Kornberg 
in 1974, was a big step for understanding eukaryotic gene expression. Kornberg won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry  (2006) for this and other discoveries.

Nucleosome dynamics 
Although the nucleosome is a very stable protein-DNA complex, it is not static. It undergoes some structural re-arrangements, such as nucleosome sliding and DNA site exposure. Nucleosomes can inhibit or facilitate transcription. 

Since they were discovered in the mid 1960’s, histone changes were thought to affect transcription.

Some modifications have been shown to be correlated with gene silencing, others seem to be correlated with gene activation. The information stored in this way is considered epigenetic: it is not coded in the DNA but is nevertheless inherited by daughter cells. The maintenance of a particular state of a gene is often necessary for cellular differentiation.

References 

Chromosomes
Molecular biology
Arturo Rodas

Arturo Rodas (born 1954) is a leading Ecuadorian composer. He has lived in London since 1989.

Biography 

Rodas has composed 24.5 Preludes for piano; Climax for orchestra, Atonal fugue I for oboe d'amore & piano and electronic music works.

"Since emigrating to England in 1990, he has composed works such as The Book of the Orchestra,(2002-2003)  which is intended to be performed in a house with many rooms so as to allow an “audience” to hear different instrumental groups as they wander from room to room".

References 
 Béhague, Gerard. 2001. "Ecuador. Art Music". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers; New York: Grove's Dictionaries of Music.
 Enciclopedia de la música ecuatoriana. Corporación Musicológica Ecuatoriana (CONMUSICA). Edited by Pablo Guerrero Gutierrez. Quito, 2003. 
 Walker, John L. 2001. "The Younger Generation of Ecuadorian Composers". Latin American Music Review 22, no. 2 (Fall/Winter): 199–213.

Compositions 
 Arcaica for full orchestra
 24.5 Preludes for piano
 Life Class 2005 for piano, electroacoustics & film 
 El árbol de los pájaros (the birds' tree) an opera for the voice ... of the instruments.

Notes

Other websites 
Audio: Tutti frutti for piano & tape (fragment)
 Recordings of Rodas' works Reverbnation
 El Árbol de los Pájaros

Scores 
 Periferia publisher, Barcelona.
 Virtualscore internet publishers, Paris

1954 births
Living people
21st-century composers
Composers
Ecuadorian entertainers
Seal of Alabama

The Great Seal of the State of Alabama is the state seal of the U.S. state of Alabama. It was designed in 1817 by William Wyatt Bibb, the governor of the "Alabama Territory" and the subsequent first governor of the state. When Alabama became a state in 1819, the state  got the design as the official state seal. The seal  has a map showing one of the state's most valuable resources—its major rivers. Bibb's design served as the official seal until 1868, when it was replaced by a  design having on it an eagle holding in its beak a banner that read "Here We Rest." The legislature and Governor Frank M. Dixon restored Bibb's original design in 1939, and it has remained unchanged since.

Alabama
Alabama