cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Helle Thorning-Schmidt

Helle Thorning-Schmidt  (born 14 December 1966) is a Danish politician. She is the leader of the Danish Social Democrats and is the first female Prime Minister of Denmark. She left the government in 2015.

Early life and education
Helle Thorning-Schmidt was born in Rødovre to Holger Thorning-Schmidt and his wife Grete. Thorning-Schmidt's father was a lecturer in mathematics and national economics at the University of Copenhagen. Her parents were both politically conservative and she grew up in the Copenhagen suburb of Ishøj.

As Prime Minister
She was elected to Prime Minister of Denmark on September 15, 2011, and her government took over at October 3, 2011, from the liberal Lars Løkke Rasmussen.

She formed the government with the Social Liberal Party (Det Radikale Venstre) and the Socialist People's Party (Socialistisk Folkeparti). Together they had 77 seats, and with the support of their parliamentary basis, Unity (Enhedslisten), obtain the 89 seats. Furthermore, she has the support of the North Atlantic - two seats from Greenland and one from the Faroe Islands.

Personal life
She is married to Stephen Kinnock, only son of British politician Neil Kinnock.

References

Other websites

Prime Ministers of Denmark
1966 births
Living people
Samantha Stosur

Samantha Jane "Sam" Stosur  (born 30 March 1984) is an Australian professional tennis player.  She won the 2011 US Open singles title and was a finalist at the 2010 French Open.  Stosur is ranked World No. 5 and her career high in singles is World No. 4, achieved on 21 February 2011. She is a former world No. 1 on the WTA Tour in doubles with Lisa Raymond from the United States.She is currently Australian Number  1.

1984 births
Living people
Australian female tennis players
Sportspeople from Brisbane
Pallas

Pallas () was a Titan from Greek mythology. He was associated with war, killed by Athena in the contest to fight for Zeus. Most sources say he was the son of Crius and Eurybia, the brother of Astraeus and Perses, and the husband of Styx. He was the father of Zelus, Nike, Kratos, and Bia. In addition, he has been named as the father of Scylla, Fontes, and Lacus. Some say he was the son of Megamedes and father of Selene, and is also recorded as the father of Eos.

The city Pellene, in Achaea, was named after Pallas, as was the asteroid 2 Pallas.

Related pages
Athena, sometimes called "Pallas Athena"

Titans
Childhood obesity

Childhood obesity consists of excess body fat that adversely affects children's health and well being. Obesity for children is especially dangerous because many overweight children will become overweight adults. Health problems related to overweight kids include but are not limited to Type 2 diabetes in adolescence and young adulthood, heart disease, stroke and high blood pressure, diseases which until recently were not common in children and teenagers.

Obesity
Fricative consonant

A fricative consonant is a consonant that is made when you squeeze air through a small hole or gap in your mouth. For example, the gaps between your teeth can make fricative consonants; when these gaps are used, the fricatives are called sibilants. Some examples of sibilants in English are , , , and . 

English has a fairly large number of fricatives, and it has both voiced and voiceless fricatives. Its voiceless fricatives are [s], , [f], and [θ], and its voiced fricatives are [z], [ʒ], [v], and [ð]

Sibilant fricatives
This is a list of sibilant fricatives. 

  voiceless coronal sibilant, as in English sip
  voiced coronal sibilant, as in English zip
  voiceless palat-alveolar sibilant (domed, partially palatalized), as in English ship
  voiced palat-alveolar sibilant (domed, partially palatalized), as the s in English vision
  voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant (laminal, palatalized)
  voiced alveo-palatal sibilant (laminal, palatalized)
  voiceless retroflex sibilant (apical or subapical)
  voiced retroflex sibilant (apical or subapical)

Non-sibilant fricatives
  voiceless bilabial fricative
  voiced bilabial fricative
  voiceless labiodental fricative, as in English fine
  voiced labiodental fricative, as in English vine
  voiceless dental fricative, as in English thing
  voiced dental fricative, as in English that
  voiceless trilled fricative
  voiceless palatal fricative
  voiced palatal fricative
  voiceless velar fricative
  voiced velar fricative
  voiceless palatal-velar fricative
  voiceless uvular fricative
  voiceless pharyngeal fricative
  voiceless epiglottal fricative

Lateral fricatives
  voiceless coronal lateral fricative
  voiced coronal lateral fricative

Pseudo-fricatives

  voiceless glottal transition, as in English hat
  breathy-voiced glottal transition

In many languages, such as English, the glottal "fricatives," like the  in English "hat", are not really fricatives because they are just vowels that are not voiced. However, in languages such as Arabic, they are true fricatives.

References

Other websites 
 Fricatives in English

Consonants
Central limit theorem

In probability theory and statistics, the central limit theorems, abbreviated as CLT, are theorems about the limiting behaviors of aggregated probability distributions. They say that given a large number of independent random variables, their sum will follow a stable distribution. If the variance of the random variables is finite, then a Gaussian distribution will result. This is one of the reasons why this distribution is also known as normal distribution. 

The best known and most important of these is known as the central limit theorem. It is about large numbers of random variables with the same distribution, each with an identical finite variance and expected value.  

More specifically, if  are n identical and independently distributed random variables with mean  and standard deviation , then the distribution of their sample mean, , as n gets large, is approximately normal with mean  and standard deviation . Furthermore, the distribution of their sum, , as n gets large, is also approximately normal, with mean  and standard deviation . 

There are different generalisations of this theorem. Some of these generalisations no longer require an identical distribution of all random variables. In these generalisations, another precondition makes sure that no single random variable has a bigger influence on the outcome than the others. Examples are the Lindeberg and Lyapunov conditions. 

The name of the theorem is based on a paper George Pólya written in 1920, About the Central Limit Theorem in Probability Theory and the Moment problem.

Related pages 

 Standard error

References

Statistics
Probability theory
Mathematical theorems
Chocolate gravy

Chocolate gravy is a type of gravy made with fat, flour, cocoa powder and sometimes sugar. In the United States, there is a dish called biscuits and gravy, for which chocolate gravy is often used.

Sauces
Waziristan

Waziristan (Pashto and , "land of the Wazir") is a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan and covering about . It is part of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, which is not part of any of the country's four provinces.

Legal status
Though declared by the rebels as a "state" or "emirate", there are questions whether the region being should be called such. Those who support that the region is a state point to the facts that the federal government has little to no power in the region and that the area is ruled mostly by tribal elders. The Taliban are reported to control most of the region with its own style of Sharia rule, which the Pakistan government has been unable to stop. Such bold show of autonomy has led one writer in the Wall Street Journal to remark that Waziristan was a "state within a state."

References

Regions of Pakistan
Chemical biology

Chemical biology is a science that combines the fields of chemistry and biology. It involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems.

It is different from biochemistry. Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of biological molecules. For example, a biochemist studies the three-dimensional structure of a protein and how that structure relates to the chemistry of the protein. Also, biochemistry studies the way enzymes work. Chemical biologists use chemical principles to modulate systems. They do this to either investigate biology relationships or create new functions. In this way, the research done by chemical biologists is often closer to that of cell biology than biochemistry. Biochemists work in the chemistry of biology, but chemical biologists work in chemistry applied to biology.

Other websites
 Chemical Biology - BioChemWeb.org 
 Chemical Biology Doctoral Training Centre, Imperial College London 

Chemistry
Cells
Abdominal obesity

Abdominal obesity, also called central body obesity, is a condition involving excess fat surrounding the abdomen and an increase in waist size in humans. Obesity in this area is linked to Type 2 Diabetes, insulin resistance and heart disease in humans of both genders.

References 

Obesity
Alveolar consonant

An alveolar consonant is a consonant with the tongue close to the alveolar ridge, which is the part just behind our teeth. Alveolar consonants that are pronounced with the tip of the tongue, like in English, are called apical consonants while those pronounced using the blade of the tongue which is the flat part of the tongue behind the tip, are called laminal consonants. Alveolar consonants in English are , , , , and . The alveolar consonants , the alveolar nasal, and , the voiceless alveolar plosive, are the most common sounds in human languages.

Alveolar consonants in IPA 
The alveolar/coronal consonants identified by the IPA are:

Consonants
List of programming languages

This is a list of programming languages.

A 
 ActionScript
 Ada
 AppleScript

B 
 B
 BASIC

C 
 C
 C++
 C#
 Clojure
 COBOL
 CSS

D 
 D
 Data Base
DarkBASIC

F 
 F#
 Forth
 Fortran
Flutter

G 
 GNU Octave
 Go

H 
 Haskell
 Hope
 HTML

J 
 Java
 JavaScript
 Julia

K 
 Karel
 Kotlin

L 
 LaTeX
 LISP
 Logo
 Lua

M 
 MATLAB
 Mercury
 Miranda
MoonScript

O 
 Objective-C
 OCaml

P 
 Pascal
 Perl
 PHP
Pony
 Prolog
 Processing
 Python
Pega

Q 
 QBasic

R 
 Ruby
 Rust
 R

S 
 SATySFi
 Scala
 Scheme
 Scilab
 SNOBOL
 SQL
 Standard ML
 Symsyn
 Swift

T 
 Tcl

V 
 Visual Basic
 Visual Basic .NET

Y 
 Yabasic

Computer-related lists
John George Kemeny

John George Kemeny (31 May 1926 - 26 December 1992) developed BASIC with Thomas Eugene Kurtz at Dartmouth College, in 1964.

Computer scientists
1926 births
1992 deaths
List of bus models

The following is a list of buses. It is not complete. The different types of bus, used in this chart, are:
 Single-deck
 Double-decker
 Coach
 School bus
 Minibus
There are over 300 buses in this list.
The year that is displayed refers to the first year of the model.

Table 

Year refers to the first year introduced. A range of years is the period the bus was manufactured.

#

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

Y

Z

Š

Related pages

 Bus spotting
 Coach (used for long distance travel)
 Dollar van
 Trackless train
 Tram

References

Transport lists
Odontochelys

Odontochelys is the oldest known turtle to have been discovered. It was first described from three 220 million year-old specimens excavated in Upper Triassic rocks in Guizhou, China.

As a primitive turtle, Odontochelys differed from modern turtles in several ways. Modern turtles possess a horny beak without any teeth in their mouth. In contrast, Odontochelys fossils had teeth in their upper and lower jaws. 

One of the most striking features of turtles, both modern and prehistoric alike, are their dorsal shells, forming an armored carapace over the body of the animal. Odontochelys only had the bottom portion of a turtle's armor, the plastron. It did not yet have a solid carapace as most other turtles do. Instead of a solid carapace, Odontochelys had broadened ribs like those of modern turtle embryos that still have not started developing the ossified plates of a carapace.

In a comparison of skull proportions, the skull of Odontochelys is far more elongated in front of the eyes compared to other turtles. The tail of the prehistoric turtle was longer in proportion to its body than other turtles. In addition, the transverse processes found in the tail are not fused such as in later turtles. 

Taken together, these anatomical differences mean that Odontochelys has some of the most primitive features ever seen in a turtle and is somewhat of a transitional fossil. Some scientists, however, are skeptical of this idea. Reisz and Head suggest that Odontochelys does not represent a turtle with a partly evolved shell, but that it is a descendant of an older, land–living turtle, and that the shell became reversed. Such shells can be seen on modern turtles, like the leatherback turtles (the genus Dermochelys).

It is likely that Odontochelys was aquatic, as the fossil specimens were found in marine deposits full of  conodonts and ammonites. The primitive turtle swam in shallow marine waters close to shore.

The species' name, Odontochelys semitestacea literally means "toothed turtle with a half-shell" - an apt description of its most striking physical characteristics.

References

Turtles
Marine reptiles
Deal or No Deal (UK game show)

Deal or No Deal is the British version of the game show franchise of the same name. It is presented by Noel Edmonds, and produced by Endemol. It began showing in 2005. Players can win £250,000 (US$388,800). The odds of winning it is only 4 in 1715 (1 in 429, or 2 in 858). This is because a player might take a offer from the banker.

The show is on Channel 4 at 4p.m. on weekdays. It runs for 60 minutes, including adverts.

Gameplay

Before the game starts, different amounts of money are packed randomly into 22 suitcases. A player is selected, and the case that they have is randomly selected.

In front of the player is a game board with all the possible amounts that could be in his/her box. The player then opens 5 boxes. Five possible amounts that could be in the player's box are gone. Based on the amounts left (that could be in the players box), the "banker" may make an offer to buy the box from the player. The offer depends on the possible amounts that could be in the player's box according to what is left on the board. So if there are high amounts that are on the board (that could be in the person's box), the banker will pay more to buy the box. He might offer £10,000 instead of £3,500 or £1500. The player may take the offer by saying "deal" of refuse it by saying "no deal".

The player then opens 3 more boxes, and the banker will make another offer. If after 6 offers, the player says "no deal", they win whatever is in their box. If they says "deal" at an offer, the player takes home the offer. The game ends, but they play on to see what would have happened otherwise.

2005 British television series debuts
2000s British television series
2010s British television series
British television game shows
English-language television programs
Moves Like Jagger

"Moves Like Jagger" is a dance pop single released by American pop rock band Maroon 5 on June 22, 2011 internationally and digitally. The single features pop singer-songwriter Christina Aguilera and was produced by Shellback, Benny Blanco, and Ari Levine. The song was later put on the Maroon 5 album Hands All Over in July 2011 for the re-release. The song peaked at number-one on the Billboard Hot 100 singles' chart for four weeks and number-one on the Billboard Digital Songs chart for three weeks. The song will not feature on the upcoming fourth studio album Overexposed, which is scheduled for release on June 26, 2012.

The song's lyrics refer to a male protagonist's ability to impress a female with his dance moves, which he compares to those of The Rolling Stones frontman Mick Jagger. The song received a positive critical appreciation, many of them complimented the vocal chemistry between Levine and Aguilera and labeled it "an irresistible summer hit".

Music video
The music video for "Moves Like Jagger" was directed by Jonas Åkerlund and filmed in Los Angeles, California on July 8, 2011. On July 9, Aguilera posted an image of herself from the video shoot via Twitter, saying, "Always great to see Jonas Akerlund. He created the perfect feel for the song. Expect a fun video." The image showed Aguilera performing with a band in front of a background of the American flag. Four shirtless images of Levine from the shoot were also released online the same day. More images from the video shoot were released online on July 11, showing Levine and Aguilera performing in front of an American and British-themed backdrop with confetti falling from the ceiling. Another image showed Aguilera performing in front of a black backdrop with her name "Christina" shown in pink. Rolling Stones frontman Mick Jagger made an appearance in the video "via archive footage." The music video premiered on August 8 on E!

Track list
 Digital download
 "Moves Like Jagger (featuring Christina Aguilera) – 3:21

 CD single
 "Moves Like Jagger (featuring Christina Aguilera) – 3:21
 "Moves Like Jagger (featuring Christina Aguilera) (Soul Seekerz Radio Edit) – 3:25

References

Maroon 5 songs
Christina Aguilera songs
2011 songs
Luton

Luton is a large town in Bedfordshire, England. It is about  north of London. It is on the M1 motorway and has mainline trains from King's Cross and St Pancras stations. It is an industrial town which has diversified from its original base as a manufacturer of hats and cars. It is also famous for its airport which serves flights across Europe. Its fine communications means it has many people who commute to work in London.  It has a population of 213,052 (mid-2019 estimate).

History
Luton was started in about the 6th century by the Saxons, based by the River Lea. It has a history of industry: making hats and Vauxhall cars for example.

Politics
Luton is a unitary authority, which means it is governed locally by its own council, Luton Borough Council. It is represented by two members of parliament.

Sport
Its football club is in the English football league and play at Kenilworth Road. Their nickname is 'The Hatters'. They are called this because of Luton's history of making straw hats.

People
Luton town has a large immigrant population, which consists mainly of people of Pakistani and Bengali origin.

References

Related pages

 Luton Airport
 Luton Town F.C.
 Vauxhall Motors

Luton
Superbase

In chemistry, a superbase is an extremely strong base. It is a compound that has a high affinity for protons.

Hydroxide ion is the strongest base possible in water (aqueous) solutions, but superbases are much stronger than aqueous bases.  Such bases are useful in organic synthesis and are fundamental to physical organic chemistry. 

Superbases have been described and used since the 1850s.  Reactions involving superbases often require special techniques since they are destroyed by water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen in the air. Inert atmosphere techniques and low temperatures minimize these side reactions.

Definitions
IUPAC defines superbases simply as a "compound having a very high basicity, such as lithium diisopropylamide".

Related pages
 Superacid

References

Chemistry
Argyria

Argyria is a medical condition caused by the exposure to silver. People with this condition may have a change in skin color to pale or "greyish".

Health problems
Windows Task Manager

Windows Task Manager is a task manager application. It is part of the Microsoft Windows NT family of operating systems. Windows Task Manager gives detailed information about computer performance and applications that are currently running. It also gives information about processes and CPU usage, commit charge and memory information, network activity and statistics, logged-in users, and system services. The application can be used to set process priorities, processor affinity, forcibly terminating (ending) processes. In Windows XP only, the application can be used to shut down, restart, hibernate or log off from Windows.

Other websites 
Task Manager information at Computer Hope

Software
Chemical species

A chemical species is one of a group of atoms, molecules, molecular fragments, ions, etc., made to go through to a chemical process or to a measurement. Generally, a chemical species can be defined as an ensemble of chemically identical molecular entities that can explore the same set of molecular energy levels on a defined time scale. Chemists also use chemical species to mean a set of chemically identical atomic or molecular structural units in a solid array.

For example, when molecules of NaCl dissolve in water we don't really have any NaCl as such in the solution. We have Na+ and Cl- ions because NaCl dissociates. We say the species present in solution are Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq). In this case, the species present in solution are the ions. In other cases, where the molecules don't dissolve in water, we would have molecular species in solution rather than ionic species.

In supramolecular chemistry, chemical species are those supramolecular structures whose interactions and associations are brought about by forming or breaking intermolecular bonds. Studying these actions is the main topic of supramolecular chemistry.

References 

Chemistry
Task manager

A task manager is a computer program that is used to show information about the processes and programs running on a computer. Task managers also show the general status of the computer. They can be used to terminate (end) processes and programs, as well as change the processes priority. An example of a task manager is Windows Task Manager.

Software
Blind spot (vision)

A blind spot is a part of the visual field our brains get no information from. It is the place in the visual field that corresponds to the lack of light-detecting photoreceptor cells where the optic nerve passes through the optic disc of the retina. Since there are no cells to detect light on the optic disc, a part of the field of vision is not perceived. The brain fills in with surrounding detail  with information from the other eye, so the blind spot is not normally perceived.

Although all vertebrates have this blind spot, cephalopod eyes, which are superficially similar, do not. In them, the optic nerve approaches the receptors from behind, so it does not create a break in the retina.

The first documented observation of the phenomenon was in the 1660s by Edme Mariotte in France. At the time it was generally thought that the point at which the optic nerve entered the eye should actually be the most sensitive portion of the retina; however, Mariotte's discovery disproved this theory.

Blind spot test

Not seeing the blind spot 
As to why the blind spot is normally not seen, there are two theories. One, less favoured, is that it is simply ignored by the brain. The other is that they are 'filled in' by the brain with information from surrounding areas. Perception theorists have generally favoured this second hypothesis. The filling-in works with quite complex and unusual visual patterns, suggesting an active brain process works to mimic patterns surrounding the blind spot.

Vertebrate eye and cephalopod eye 
These natural blind spots are present only in the eyes of vertebrates. Cephalopods have their optic nerves attached to the back of the retina, so they are not a problem. The vertebrate eye is illogical because light must go through and past the nerve fibres before getting to the retina.

This comes about because vertebrate eyes are outgrowths from the brain; they grow outward from the embryological tissue which forms the brain.

References 

Experiments
Vision
Lo Barnechea

Lo Barnechea is a commune and city of Santiago Province. According to the Chilean census in 2002, Lo Barnechea has an area of  and 74,749 people live there..

References

Other websites 
Municipality of Lo Barnechea 

Cities in Chile
Incubus (1966 movie)

Incubus is an American horror movie. It is black and white. It was released in 1966 and a restored copy of the movie was released in 2001. Leslie Stevens directed the movie and William Shatner starred in it. The actors in the movie did not speak in English. They spoke in Esperanto. The movie was called Inkubo in Esperanto. Incubus was lost for many years, but an old copy was found in France. The movie was filmed in 18 days in California during 1965. Incubus did not become popular and was only distributed in France. Some people believe the movie is cursed because of all of the bad things that happened to the actors and crew. Several of them died by murder or suicide, or had other bad things happen to them, after making the movie.

Actors 
 William Shatner as Marc
 Allyson Ames as Kia
 Eloise Hardt as Amael
 Robert Fortier as Olin
 Ann Atmar as Arndis
 Milos Milos as Incubus
 Jay Ashworth as Monk†
 Forrest T. Butler as Monk†
 Paolo Cossa as Narrator (voice)†
 Ted Mossman as Monk†
† Uncredited

References

Further reading
 Tom Weaver, Video Watchdog #53 (1999) "Raising the Incubus"

Other websites 
 
 
 Incubus  at Rotten Tomatoes
 "Curse of the 'Incubus'", By Cara Jepsen 
 Review at The Daily Show website

1966 movies
American horror movies
Esperanto
Supramolecular chemistry

Supramolecular chemistry is area of chemistry that studies the relationship and linking molecules into bigger systems. It focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. The study of non-covalent interactions is crucial to understanding many biological processes from cell structure to vision that rely on these forces for structure and function. Biological systems are often the inspiration for supramolecular research.

Related pages
Organic chemistry
Nanotechnology

References

Other websites

2D and 3D Models of Dodecahedrane and Cuneane Assemlies  
 Supramolecular Chemistry - Thematic Series in the Open Access Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry

Chemistry
Red Bull X2010

Red Bull X2010 is not a real car. It is a fictional car in the PlayStation 3 video game Gran Turismo 5 that can go over 400 km/h, and over 6G's. It laps the Nürburgring in less than 4 minutes. Adrian Newey designed it

Gran Turismo series

fr:Gran Turismo 5#Red Bull X2010
Banbasa

Banbasa is the smallest town in Champawat district in Uttarakhand, India. The famous shri Purnagiri temple is only 35 km from here. It is near the Nepal border (Gaddachoki-Banbasa).

Settlements in Uttarakhand
Towns in India
Velar consonant

A velar consonant is a consonant that is pronounced with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, also known as the velum, which is the back part of the roof of the mouth. Velar consonants in English are ,  and . The consonant  is the most common in all human languages. 

These are the velar consonants in the IPA.

References

Pronunciation
George Church

George Church (born August 28, 1954) is an American molecular geneticist. He was one of the people who set out to analyse the human genetic code, the sequence of genes in human DNA.

Church is Professor of Genetics at Harvard Medical School, Professor of Health Sciences and Technology at Harvard and MIT, and a core faculty member at the Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University.

With Walter Gilbert he developed the first direct genomic sequencing method in 1984, and helped start the Human Genome Project in 1984 while he was a research scientist at newly formed Biogen Inc.

He invented ways of analysing huge amounts of chemical data, homologous recombination methods, and DNA array synthesizers. Automated sequencing & software in Genome Therapeutics Corp. gave the first commercial genome sequence, (the human pathogen, Helicobacter pylori) in 1994.

Church started the Personal Genome Project (PGP) in 2005, and in 2007 he founded the U.S. personal genomics company Knome (with Jorge Conde and Sundar Subramaniam).

Church does research on synthetic (artificial) biology and is director of the U.S. Department of Energy Center on Bioenergy at Harvard & MIT, and Director of the National Institutes of Health Center of Excellence in Genomic Science at Harvard.

He has been advisor to 22 companies. He co-founded Codon Devices, a biotech startup dedicated to synthetic biology. It produces DNA sequences to order. He co-founded LS9, which is focused on biofuels or renewable petroleum technologies.

In 2009 he founded Pathogenica, with Yemi Adesokan, in order to pioneer commercial applications for pathogen sequencing technology.

In September 2010, Dr. Church was honored for his work in genetics with the Mass High Tech All-Star Award. He is a senior editor for Molecular Systems Biology.

According to Forbes, Church suffers from narcolepsy.

References

Other websites
 New Polony DNA Sequencing Methods
 Biosketch on Edge.org 
 Knome homepage 
 LS9 Inc. homepage
 How the Personal Genome Project could unlock the mysteries of life

1954 births
American geneticists
Scientists from Boston, Massachusetts
Scientists from Florida
Living people
Revolutions per minute

Revolutions per minute, sometimes called RPM, is a measure of angular frequency. It means the number of times something spins in one minute.

For example, if a wheel spins one time in one second, it is doing 60 RPM, because there is 60 seconds in one minute.

Units of measurement
Walter Gilbert

Walter Gilbert (born March 21, 1932) is an American physicist, biochemist, molecular biology pioneer, and Nobel laureate. He helped develop DNA sequence analysis.

Biography
Gilbert was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on March 21, 1932. Gilbert attended Harvard University for undergraduate and graduate studies, earning a first degree in chemistry and physics in 1953 and a master's degree in physics in 1954. 

Gilbert's doctoral work was done at the University of Cambridge, where he earned his PhD in mathematics under the mentorship of Nobel laureate Abdus Salam in 1957.

Gilbert returned to Harvard in 1957 and promoted in 1968 to professor of biochemistry. In 1969, Gilbert was given Harvard's Ledlie Prize. In 1972, Gilbert was named American Cancer Society Professor of Molecular Biology.

He is a co-founder of the biotech start-up companies Biogen and Myriad Genetics. Gilbert is currently the chairman of the Harvard Society of Fellows.

Research findings
Together with Allan Maxam, Gilbert developed a new DNA sequencing method in 1976. With George Church he developed the first direct genomic sequencing method in 1984. 

Gilbert first proposed the existence of introns and exons and explained the evolution of introns in a seminal 1978 "News and Views" paper published in Nature. In 1986, Gilbert used the phrase RNA world hypothesis for the origin of life. 'RNA World' was a concept first proposed by Carl Woese in 1967.

Awards
Gilbert was given the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, shared with Frederick Sanger and Paul Berg. Gilbert and Sanger were recognized for their pioneering work in devising methods for determining the sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid.

Among many other awards, Gilbert was made a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1987.

References

Other websites 

  Nobel Prize autobiography 
 The Official Site of Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize

1932 births
American physicists
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Harvard University alumni
Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners
American Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from Boston, Massachusetts
Living people
American molecular biologists
Optic chiasma

The optic chiasma, or 'optic chiasm', is the part of the brain where the optic nerves (CN II) partially cross. The optic chiasm is located at the bottom of the brain immediately below the hypothalamus.

Pathways
The images on the nasal (inner) sides of each retina cross over to the opposite side of the brain via the optic nerve at the optic chiasm. The temporal (outer) images, on the other hand, stay on the same side. This allows the images from either side of the visual field to go to the appropriate side of the brain, combining the sides together.

Beyond the optic chiasm, with crossed and uncrossed fibers, optic nerves become optic tracts.

The crossing over of optic nerve fibres at the optic chiasma allows the visual cortex to receive the same hemispheric visual field from both eyes.

The optic chiasma is found in all vertebrates.

References 

Anatomy of the brain
Vision
Chimaera (fish)

Chimaeras are cartilaginous fish in the order Chimaeriformes. They are sometimes known informally as 'ghost sharks'.

They may be the "oldest and most enigmatic groups of fishes alive today". Their closest living relatives are sharks, though in evolutionary terms they branched off from sharks nearly 400 million years ago and have remained isolated ever since.

At one time they were a diverse and abundant group, as shown by the fossil record. They are now found mainly to deep water. There are fifty living species in six genera and three families. Studying the evolution of these species has been problematic because there are few good fossils. DNA sequences have become the preferred approach to understanding speciation.

The order appeared about 420 million years ago during the Silurian. The three living families seem to have diverged during the late Jurassic to early Cretaceous (170–120 million years ago.

Features 
They do not have shark-like skin or teeth. They have smooth scales on their bodies, and three pairs of grinding tooth plates. They have a poisonous spine on their backs between the head and the dorsal fin.

Otherwise, they are rather like other Chondrichthyes. They have skeletons are made of cartilage. They use claspers for internal fertilization of females. They lay eggs with leathery cases.  They use electroreception to find their prey, which is also common in rays.

References 

Cartilaginous fish
Mainframe computer

Mainframes (also called "big iron") are powerful computers used for large information processing jobs.  They are mainly used by government institutions and large companies for tasks such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and financial transaction processing.  Mainframe computers are specially used as servers on the World Wide Web (WWW). They are distinct from supercomputers.

The term originally referred to the large cabinets that housed the central processing unit and main memory of early computers. Later the term was used to distinguish very big computers from less powerful ones ("minicomputers" or "personal computers").

References

Computers
Heavy Petting Zoo

Heavy Petting Zoo is the sixth studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. Heavy Petting Zoo was released on January 31, 1996. The producers of the album were Ryan Greene and NOFX. The title of the album is a combination of the words heavy petting and petting zoo.

Songs

References

1996 albums
NOFX albums
Punk albums
So Long and Thanks for All the Shoes

So Long and Thanks for All the Shoes is the seventh studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. So Long and Thanks for All the Shoes was released on November 11, 1997. The producers of the album were Ryan Greene and Fat Mike. The title of the album comes from the title of the fourth book of Douglas Adams's The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy series, So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish and the common practice of punk rock fans when they throw shoes lost by crowd surfers on stage.

Songs

References

1997 albums
NOFX albums
Punk albums
Pump Up the Valuum

Pump Up the Valuum is the eighth studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. Pump Up the Valuum was released on June 13, 2000. The producers of the album were Ryan Greene and Fat Mike. The title of the album is purposely spelled wrong to avoid a lawsuit with Valium and is a play on words.

Songs

References

2000 albums
NOFX albums
Punk albums
Youth

Youth is the opposite of elderly. When something is new, it can be called young. Sometimes "young" is only for living things, and things that are not alive are "new". The word youth is often used to describe young people from the beginning of the teen years to the beginning of adulthood.
Old can refer to someone or something's age.
Young can mean that something is current to date or well before its "best by" date. 

Different things lose their youth or grow old at different rates.  For example, some machines are only be considered young for roughly one year.  There are laws about the age of majority when young teenagers are legally treated as adults.  Even after that age, these youth may still be seen as immature.  This is because complete mental and emotional development is not done until around age 21, and because many young people have not yet had adult life experiences.  

For some people, youth is an obsession. They want to look young.  Because of this, they use various products like face cream and plastic surgery, to stop or slow their looking older.  The "Fountain of Youth" was a popular myth, and people thought that if you took water from the fountain, you would never be old.  Now however, we know that this was a myth, and it was not magical at all.

Life
Insulin resistance

Insulin resistance is a serious condition in which insulin becomes less able to lower the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood.  Usually, insulin helps sugar move out of the blood and into the body's cells.  In the cells, the body can use sugar to make energy.  If this does not happen correctly, too much sugar stays in the blood.  This is called hyperglycemia.  If the blood glucose level is above normal for a long time, this can lead to major health problems. 

Insulin resistance often causes certain types of diabetes mellitus, especially type 2 diabetes or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults. A condition called 'metabolic syndrome' is strongly tied to insulin resistance.

Signs and symptoms 
 High blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia)
 Fatigue, and sleepiness, especially after meals.
 Brain fogginess and inability to focus (can't think clearly).
 Weight gain, fat storage, difficulty losing weight.
 High blood pressure (hypertension)
 Increased thirst (called polydipsia) and hunger (called polyphagia)

Treatment

Self-care
 Eat less carbohydrates, and very much less direct sugar.
 Take more exercise, long walks, activity.

Standard medical test 
Blood sugar level test after 12 hours starvation.

Endocrine system
Health problems
The War on Errorism

The War on Errorism is the ninth studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. The War on Errorism was released on May 6, 2003. The producers of the album were Ryan Greene and Fat Mike. The album pokes fun at former U.S. president George W. Bush and criticizes him and his policies.

Songs

References

2003 albums
NOFX albums
Punk albums
Wolves in Wolves' Clothing

Wolves in Wolves' Clothing is the tenth studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. Wolves in Wolves' Clothing was released on April 18, 2006. The producers of the album were Bill Stevenson, Jason Livermore and Fat Mike. The first 1062 vinyl copies of Wolves in Wolves' Clothing were pressed yellow/green vinyl.

Songs

References

2006 albums
NOFX albums
Punk albums
Coaster (album)

Coaster is the tenth studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. Coaster was released on April 28, 2009. The producer of the album was Bill Stevenson. The album was released as Frisbee on vinyl.

Songs

References

2009 albums
NOFX albums
Punk albums
2Pacalypse Now

2Pacalypse Now is the first studio album by American rapper, Tupac Shakur. 2Pacalypse Now was released on November 12, 1991. Many other rap artist have seen the album as a source of inspiration. The song "I Don't Give a Fuck" was featured in the 2004 video game, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas.

Songs

References

1991 albums
Debut albums
Tupac Shakur albums
Hip hop albums
Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z.

Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z. is the second studio album by American rapper, Tupac Shakur. Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z. was released on February 16, 1993. The album is 2Pac's tenth biggest selling album with 1,366,000 units moved to date.

Songs

References

1993 albums
Tupac Shakur albums
Alexander Oparin

Alexander Ivanovich Oparin  (Uglich, Russia,  – Moscow, 21 April 1980) was a Soviet biochemist.

He was notable for his ideas on the origin of life, and for writing an early book The Origin of Life. One of his ideas was that oxygen would tend to destroy organic molecules essential for the evolution of early life. It was later found that the earth's atmosphere at first had almost no oxygen in it.

He also studied the biochemistry of plants, and enzyme reactions in plant cells. He developed the foundations for industrial biochemistry in the USSR.

His theory 
These were some of the main ideas in his first book:

1. There is no fundamental difference between a living organism and lifeless matter. Life must have arisen as a natural evolution of matter.

2. Methane is in the atmospheres of Jupiter and the other giant planets. Oparin thought the infant Earth had a strongly reducing atmosphere, containing methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water vapor. In his opinion, these were the raw materials for the evolution of life.

3. At first there were the simple solutions of organic substances. Their behaviour was governed by their atoms and by the arrangement of those atoms in molecules. Gradually, as the result of the growth and increased complexity of the molecules, structures with new properties developed. These newer properties were determined by the spatial and mutual arrangement of the molecules.

4. In this process biological orderliness already exists. Competition, speed of cell growth, survival of the fittest, struggle for existence and, finally natural selection produced the characteristics of living things. 
 
Oparin outlined a way in which basic organic chemicals might form into microscopic localized systems. These would be precursors of the cell from which primitive living things could develop. He cited work done with organic chemicals which, in solution, form droplets and layers. Oparin suggested that different types might have formed in the Earth's primordial ocean. They were subject to a selection process leading eventually to life.

Bibliography 
 Oparin A.I. 1924. The origin of life. Moscow: Moscow Worker, (in Russian).
 English translation: Oparin A.I. The origin and development of life. (NASA TTF-488) Washington: D.C.L GPO, 1968.
Oparin A.I. 1924. The origin of life, 2nd edition. Moscow.
English translation of 2nd ed: The origin of life. 1938, reprinted Dover 1952.
 Oparin A. & Fesenkov V. Life in the Universe. Moscow: USSR Academy of Sciences publisher, 3rd edition, 1956 (in Russian)
 English translation: Oparin A. and V. Fesenkov. Life in the Universe. New York: Twayne Publishers 1961.

Related pages 
Miller–Urey experiment
Origin of life
Abiogenesis

References 

Russian chemists
1894 births
1980 deaths
Biochemists
Sy Oliver

Melvin James "Sy" Oliver (born December 17, 1910 in Battle Creek, Michigan; died May 28, 1988 in New York City) was a jazz arranger, trumpeter, composer, singer, and band leader. His mother was a piano teacher and his father was a multi-instrumentalist who made a name for himself demonstrating saxophones at a time that instrument was little used outside of marching bands.

Oliver left home at 17 to play with Zack Whyte and his Chocolate Beau Brummels and later with Alphonse Trent. He sang and played trumpet with these bands, becoming known for his "growling" horn playing.

Sy arranged and conducted many songs for Ella Fitzgerald from her years with Decca Records. As a composer, one of his most famous songs was "T'ain't What You Do (It's the Way That You Do It)" which he co-wrote with Trummy Young.

He joined Jimmie Lunceford's band in 1933 and contributed many hit arrangements to the band, including "My Blue Heaven" and "Ain't She Sweet". In 1939, he became one of the first African Americans with a prominent role in a white band when he joined Tommy Dorsey as an arranger, though he stopped playing trumpet at that time. (Fletcher Henderson joined the Benny Goodman orchestra as the arranger in the same year.) He led the transition of the Dorsey band from Dixieland to modern big band. His joining was instrumental in Buddy Rich's decision to join Dorsey. His arrangement of "On the Sunny Side of the Street" was a big hit for Dorsey, as were his own compositions "Yes Indeed" (a gospel-jazz tune that was later recorded by Ray Charles), "Opus One," "The Minor is Muggin'," "T.D.'s Boogie Woogie," and "Well, Git It."

After leaving Dorsey, Oliver continued working as a free-lance arranger. One of his more successful such efforts was the Frank Sinatra album I Remember Tommy, a combined tribute to each man's former boss---and as music director for Decca Records.

In later years, up until 1980, he led his own jazz band, for which he took up the trumpet again.

References 

1910 births
1988 deaths

American jazz musicians
American composers
Jazz composers
Trumpeters
Musicians from Michigan
People from Battle Creek, Michigan
Aristolochiaceae

The Aristolochiaceae, or Birthwort family, are a family of flowering plants with seven genera and about 400 species belonging to the order Piperales. The type genus is Aristolochia L.

Description 
They are mostly perennial, herbaceous plants, shrubs, woody vines or even lianas.

The membranous, cordate simple leaves are spread out, growing alternately along the stem on leaf stalks. The margins are commonly entire. There are no stipules.

The bizarre flowers are large to medium-sized, growing in the leaf axils. They are bilaterally or radially symmetrical.

Classification 
The Aristolochiaceae are magnoliids, a basal group of angiosperms which are not part of the large categories of monocots or eudicots.

Some newer classification schemes place the family Aristolochiaceae in the order Piperales.

Phytochemistry 
Many members of Aristolochia and some of Asarum contain the toxin aristolochic acid, which defence against predators, in this case herbivores. It is known to be carcinogenic in rats. Aristolochia itself is carcinogenic to humans.

Ecology 
Pipevine swallowtail butterflies lay their eggs on pipevine (Aristolochia species), and the larvae dine on the plant but are not affected by the toxin, which then offers the adult butterfly protection against predators.

References

Piperales
Not Myself Tonight

"Not Myself Tonight" is a song by American singer Christina Aguilera, from her 2010 album Bionic. The song was written by Jamal "Polow da Don" Jones, Ester Dean, Jason Perry and Greg Curtis. It is a uptempo electropop song that using synthesizers and tribal drums. Its lyrics refer to adopting a different persona on the dancefloor. It was released on April 13, 2010 as the first single from Aguilera's Bionic album. "Not Myself Tonight" was a hit single in Asian area.

2010 songs
Christina Aguilera songs
Context (language)

Context in language is what surrounds a word or piece of text. In order to understand what words mean, we have to know something about the situation where they are used. In print, a word, phrase or sentence has other text around it. This helps the reader to understand the piece in question. In speech, the social setting as well as the language help the listener to understand what is said.

Something like: "You can take it whenever you need to" might refer to almost anything. However, if it is said by a doctor to a patient, then the context is clear, and the listener can guess it refers to some kind of medication. So the context is what goes with a text (written or spoken) which helps the reader (or listener) understand the communication.

However, to understand what is really going on, we may need to go beyond what is said or written. A simple phrase, such as "I hate you" can mean exactly the opposite. All kinds of clues are needed to understand what has been said. Along with verbal communication comes non-verbal communication.

Human communication
Linguistics