cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Maria Sharapova

Maria Sharapova (born 19 April 1987) is a retired Russian tennis player. She was born in Nyagan, Western Siberia, RSFSR.

Early life 
Her parents had moved from Belarus to protect themselves from the Chernobyl nuclear accident. The Sharapov1 family moved again in 1989, when Maria became interested in tennis, when watching her father play, and played tennis with a second-hand racquet. She would practice tennis by hitting the tennis ball against the wall every day, and her dad soon noticed that she was very good at the sport.
Maria's tennis coaches told the Sharapovs that they should move to Moscow, Russia, to get better training. The Sharapova moved again, from Moscow, to follow Maria's coach, Martina Navratilova's advice, to move to the United States.

There was a problem, though. Sharapova's mother, Yelena, could not get a visa to go to the United States. Meanwhile, Maria and her father tried to get Maria to go to a famous sports school, and they also had to learn English. Maria had already learned a lesson in her life  that tennis excellence would only come at a price.

“I used to be so lonely,” Maria Sharapova recalls. “I missed my mother terribly. My father was working as mush as he could to keep my tennis-training going. So, he couldn't see me either “Because I was so young, I used to go to bed at 8 p.m. The other tennis pupils would come in 11 p.m. and wake me up and order me to tidy up the room and clean it.

“Instead of letting that depress me, I became more quietly determined and mentally tough. I learnt how to take care of myself. I never thought of quitting because I knew what I wanted. When you come from nothing and you have nothing, then it makes you very hungry and determine.... I would have put up with much more humiliation and insults that to steadfastly purse my dream." That toughness runs through Maria even today.

Career 
She began to win tournaments and many people started to notice her. Her games improved, and Maria gained more fans.

She has won 35 singles titles in her career, including five Grand Slam championships: Wimbledon in 2004, the US Open in 2006, the Australian Open in 2008 and the French Open in 2012 and 2014. She won an Olympic silver medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics. She is the world number 3 women's tennis player as of September 2015. In 2005, she was ranked world number 1 for the first time, and in 2012 for the last time. 

In March 2016, Sharapova revealed she had failed a drug test at the 2016 Australian Open, admitting to testing positive for meldonium, a substance banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) at the start of 2016. On June 8, 2016, she was suspended from playing tennis for two years by the International Tennis Federation (ITF).

Foot 
1In Russia, female surnames are changed so that their gender can be identified, so Sharapov becomes Sharapova.

References 

1987 births
Living people
Australian Open champions
Doping cases in sport
Russian female tennis players
French Open champions
Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Olympic silver medalists
Russian models
US Open (tennis) champions
Wimbledon champions
World No. 1 tennis players
Dayton, Ohio

Dayton is a large city in the American state of Ohio. It is where Orville and Wilbur Wright grew up. The Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, also near Dayton, gets part of its name from the Wright brothers. The National Museum of the United States Air Force is inside the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.

Dayton has a humid continental climate (Dfa in the Koeppen climate classification).

Ten people were killed in a mass shooting in Dayton on 4 August 2019.

References

Other websites

1796 establishments in the United States
1790s establishments in the Northwest Territory
County seats in Ohio
Soldering iron

A soldering iron is a device used to attach pieces of metal together with solder, which is called soldering. Soldering irons are used mainly for attaching electronic components onto a circuit board with tin, but can also be used for other tasks such as fixing jewelry. There are several different kinds of soldering irons, such as ones that are hotter than others, and ones that use electricity or natural gas.

A soldering iron stand can be used to hold the iron. That is a flat metal stand with a coil that holds the iron.

Electronics
tools
Hungarian Vizsla

Hungarian Vizsla is a dog breed. Vizslas are known for being affectionate and not aggressive. They originated in Hungary and are an excellent hunting dogs.

History 
The breed was developed from dogs used by Hungarian tribes. Vizslas were owned by sporting nobility of Hungary who use to hunt with them. They were used to hunt deer, wild boar and wolf. The breed  almost disappeared during the First World War and Second. Dogs were smuggled out of Hungary during the Second World War. These dogs were used later to breed in other countries.

Appearance and personality 
Hungarian Vizsla's have a dark gold coat. Some dogs may also have small white marks on their feet and/or chest.
They are active, enthusiastic, friendly. Vizslas need human company to stay happy. They do not make good kennel dogs.

Exercise needs 
Daily exercise and mental tasks are necessary. Outside they are very active. Indoors, Vizslas can be quite inactive. The dogs prefer to rest beside their owners. Some are quite demanding of attention. If Vizslas do not receive enough  exercise, they will become bored. If bored, they may choose to do to amuse themselves with digging or chewing on things.

Dog breeds
Manufacturing

Manufacturing is producing goods out of raw materials. It is a branch of industry. It includes making very big, complicated things that take a lot of steps to finish. Often machines are involved in manufacturing.

In the past products were made by handicraft workers using tools and manual labor. In modern times, most manufacturing jobs got replaced by automated manufacturing machines, which made the products much faster and in turn - cheaper than humans could.

Other websites 
 How Everyday Things Are Made 
 Engineers Edge
 Manufacturers Alliance
 Logistics Quarterly 
 National Association of Manufacturers

References 
Economics
Finished goods

Finished goods are goods that have completed required manufacturing process and are ready to be fitted/mixed/processed with final product.  The final product itself could also be called finished goods.
Examples: cars, clothing, food, furniture etc.

Manufacturing
In manufacturing there are three different sorts of stuff:

Raw material
Work in process
Finished goods

Something bought as a "raw material" is used to manufacture a product.  A thing that is not completed during the manufacturing process is called "work in process".  When the manufacturing of the thing is completed but it is not yet sold or distributed to the end-user, it is called a "finished good".

"Finished good" is a relative term. Finished goods of a supplier can be the raw material of the buyer. For example, a paper mill sells paper to a book publisher who uses it as raw material.

Factors of production
Mustard gas

Mustard gas or sulfur mustard is a chemical compound which has been used as a chemical weapon. It was used in World War I by the German Army against British and Canadian soldiers near Ypres, Belgium, in 1917. Later it was also used against the French Second Army.

Most sulfur mustards are squishy liquids with no color and no smell when they are at room temperature. When used in warfare, they have a color yellowish to brown. Some of them smell like culinary mustard (the type used for food), horseradish or garlic. They got their name from the smell, but are completely unrelated to culinary mustard.

Sulfur mustard (in its form mustard gas) was synthesized by Frederick Guthrie in 1860. It may have been discovered as early as the 1820s, by M.Depretz.

Its use during warfare was prohibited by the Geneva Protocol of 1925. This protocol outlawed the use of poison gas (which was widely used in the First World War). An additional agreement, the Chemical Weapons Convention, was ratified in 1993. It also outlaws the production and stockpiling of such agents.  Despite these prohibitions it has been used in several wars. 

Sulfur mustard is the organic compound with formula (ClCH2CH2)2S. 
It is a viscous liquid at normal temperatures. The pure compound has a melting point of 14 °C (57 °F) and decomposes before boiling at 218 °C (424 °F).

Chemical warfare
Amelia Earhart

Amelia Mary Earhart (born July 24, 1897 – disappeared July 2, 1937, declared dead January 5, 1939) was an American aviator, one of the first women to fly a plane long distances. She was the first woman to fly a plane by herself across the Atlantic Ocean. She broke many records and showed how air travel had moved forward. She also wrote books, most of them were about her flights. Earhart vanished over the South Pacific Ocean in July 2, 1937 while trying to fly around the world. She was declared dead on July 3, 1937.

Many theories stand in place about Amelia's end. Some believe she was a spy for the U.S government and was captured by the Japanese on Gardner Island, others say she faked her death. The most plausible though is many researchers believe, which is that the Electra ran out of fuel and that Earhart and Noonan ditched at sea. The "crash and sink" theory is often the most widely accepted explanation of Earhart’s and Noonan’s fate. 

However, there is a range of documented, archaeological, and anecdotal evidence supporting the hypothesis that Earhart and Noonan found Gardner Island, uninhabited at the time, landed the Electra on a flat reef near the wreck of a freighter, and sent sporadic radio messages from there. It has been surmised that Earhart and Noonan might have survived on Nikumaroro for several weeks before succumbing.

References

Other websites 
 Official Amelia Earhart Website
 Amelia Earhart at Find a Grave
 

1897 births
1937 deaths
American aviators
Aviation deaths
Missing American people
Writers from Kansas
People declared dead in absentia
Frank Sinatra

Francis Albert "Frank" Sinatra   (December 12, 1915 – May 14, 1998) was an American singer, musician, actor and filmmaker. His singing career was 60 years long, and more than 250 million records of his have been sold worldwide. Extremely regarded as one of the best and most admired popular singers in history of America standards.

He is also well known by the nickname "Old Blue Eyes". The New York Times said he was "the first modern pop superstar". At first, he was mostly known as a crooner, a singer of love songs. By the 1950s and 1960s, he was singing swing and jazz songs as well.
Sinatra was also part of the Rat Pack, a group of entertainers (musicians and actors), in the 1950s and 1960s. The name was informal, and the group was not an official organization of any sort, but a group of friends. Members of the Rat Pack included Sinatra, Dean Martin, Sammy Davis, Jr., Peter Lawford, and Joey Bishop, as well as (more loosely) Humphrey Bogart, Judy Garland, Lauren Bacall, Sid Luft, and Shirley MacLaine.

Early life
He was born in Hoboken, New Jersey to Italian immigrants.

Acting career
Sinatra was also an actor. He was in movies such as The Manchurian Candidate, From Here to Eternity, and The Man With The Golden Arm. He won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in From Here To Eternity.

Personal life
Sinatra was married 4 times. He was married to Nancy Barbato from 1939 to 1951, to Ava Gardner from 1951 to 1957, to Mia Farrow from 1966 to 1968, and to Barbara Marx from 1976 until his death on May 14, 1998.

Death
Sinatra died on May 14, 1998 at 10:50 pm  at the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California, after suffering a heart attack. His wife Barbara was at his side. The words "The best is yet to come" are written on his gravestone.

References

Bibliography
• Gildo De Stefano, The Voice - Vita e italianità di Frank Sinatra, Coniglio Press, Roma 2011

Other websites
Album "Songs for Young Lovers" at YouTube
Hear Frank Sinatra on the Pop Chronicles

Actors from New Jersey
American movie actors
American movie producers
American television actors
Cardiovascular disease deaths in the United States
Deaths from myocardial infarction
People from Hoboken, New Jersey
American musicians
American pop singers
Kennedy Center honorees
Singers from New Jersey
1915 births
1998 deaths
Bing Crosby

Harry Lillis "Bing" Crosby Jr. (May 3, 1903 – October 14, 1977) was an American singer and actor. His singing career was around fifty years long and more than 1 billion records of his have been sold worldwide. Crosby is known for creating the style of music that Perry Como, Frank Sinatra,  Dean Martin , Elvis Presley,  John Lennon  would later copy. Crosby said that he was inspired by Al Jolson.
 
He sang "White Christmas" and it became "the best-selling record of all time." Irving Berlin wrote this song. In 1962, Crosby became the first person ever to receive the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.

Crosby won the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for his role in Going My Way.

Crosby was a Roman Catholic. He died of a heart attack in Madrid, Spain.

References 

1903 births
1977 deaths
Actors from Washington
American movie actors
American Roman Catholics
American television actors
Cardiovascular disease deaths in Madrid
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Grammy Award winners
National Radio Hall of Fame inductees
Singers from Washington
Best Actor Academy Award winners
Torrance, California

Torrance is a city in southwest Los Angeles, California. Jared Torrance founded it in 1911. In 2003, there were 142,621 people living in Torrance. It is the sixth biggest city in Los Angeles county.

Things to See 
 Del Amo Fashion center is one of the biggest malls in the United States. 
 Madrona Marsh is a nature center that protects wild animals and plants.
 Torrance Beach is between Redondo Beach and Malaga Cove.
 The Armed Forces Day Parade shows people many military vehicles and soldiers. 
 Torrance High School is one of the oldest high schools in California. Many television shows used Torrance High, for example Buffy the Vampire Slayer and She's All That.
 Alpine Village is a restaurant, market, and mall. Oktoberfest is held here.

Trivia 
 It is where superstar teens Alyson Michalka and Amanda Michalka were born.

Notes

Other websites 
 City of Torrance official website 

 
1911 establishments in the United States
1910s establishments in California
Chuck Berry

Charles Edward Anderson "Chuck" Berry (October 18, 1926 – March 18, 2017) was an American singer, guitarist and songwriter. He is one of the original musicians who helped to create rock and roll.

Career
In 1955 Berry met Muddy Waters who told him of a record company that would release his first song. In 1957 he joined the Everly Brothers, Buddy Holly and other popular musicians on a tour around the United States. Over the next few years he became more and more popular and had many popular songs on the radio.  "Maybellene" (1955), "Roll Over Beethoven" (1956), "Rock and Roll Music" (1957) and "Johnny B. Goode" (1958) were massive hits.

He has influenced many rock and pop musicians who came after him. Berry has influenced many music artists, like The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Beach Boys, and Bob Dylan. Berry tried to help an Apache waitress cross the US-Canadian border, but was caught by police and charged for prostitution. This dented his career: he served 18 months. When released, his first recording was "Nadine", (1964) also a huge hit. 

Berry was a favorite with The Beatles, The Rolling Stones and The Beach Boys, who adapted and recorded a number of his songs.

In 1986 a documentary film, Hail! Hail! Rock 'n' Roll, was made. It featured a celebration concert for Berry's sixtieth birthday, organized by Keith Richards.

birth of death
Berry died at his home in Wentzville, Missouri on March 18, 2017 from a congestive heart failure, aged 90.

Discography
Chuck Berry discography

References

Other websites 

 Official website
 
 

1926 births
2017 deaths
African American musicians
African-American singers
American criminals
American prisoners
American robbers
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
American singer-songwriters
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Singers from St. Louis, Missouri
Musicians from St. Louis, Missouri
Ainu language

The Ainu language is the language of the Ainu people in northern Japan. It was not written until the 19th century. Since then, it has been written in katakana or the Latin alphabet.

In the 19th century, Ainu was spoken in Ezo (including Hokkaidō Island and the southern part of Chishima Islands), the southern part of Karapto (Sakhalin) and the northern part of Chishima Islands (Kuril Islands). Now it is only spoken in Hokkaidō.

Ainu had many dialects, including Chitose, Saru, and Karapto. Now only the Hokkaidō dialect survives. The dialects were so different from one another that a speaker of one dialect could not understand a speaker of another dialect.

Historically, speakers of Ainu lived near speakers of Japanese and Itelmen (from Kamchatka). The Nivkh, which was spoken in the northern part of Sakhalin, is another isolated language.

Grammar 
Ainu has subject-object-verb word order, like Japanese. Ainu phrases have left-branching structures: the word for a property is before the word for a person or thing.

Sample words 
The word ainu means "human being" and is the name used by the Ainu to refer to themselves. In contrast, kamuy means "god". The Ainu think that all existence that has mind and plays a role in this world are kamuy. Sparrows or standing trees are kamuy. In the Ainu perspective of the world, all goes well and human being can also be happy if ainu and kamuy help each other.

Most linguists think that the Ainu numeral system is based on twenty.

 Ape - fire.
 Iyomante - A festival to send a bear's soul to heaven.
 Kunnechupu - The moon.
 Kotan - village.
 Konru - ice.
 Sumari - (pronounced as in "Shumari") - fox.
 Seta - dog.
 Tonoto - sake.
 Nonno- flower.
 Huci - (pronounced as in "Hoochi") - grandmother, Old women.
 Pone - bone.
 Pirka - Beauty, cute.
 wakka - "drinkable" water.

Relations with other language families 
The Ainu language is classificated as language isolate, although there exist several theories about a genetic relation. Some linguists suggest a relation to Altaic languages while others suggest a link to Indo-European languages. Some similarities also exist with northern native american languages.

References

Bibliography
 

Language isolates
Languages of Asia
Japan
Stethoscope

A stethoscope is a instrument used by doctors and other medical people.  It is used to measure peoples heartbeat and their breathing.  It is placed on the area where the heart is or on the back. 

The modern stethoscope is made up of a Y-shaped flexible plastic tube. An earpiece is attached to each end of the Y and a sound-detecting device at the other end. The sound-detecting device has a thin plastic sheet on one side and a bell shape with a hole in on the other. The diaphragm is used to listen to a patient's chest for high-pitched sounds. The bell end is used to detect lower-pitched sounds. The lung sounds have a higher frequency than heart sounds.Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laënnec (1781-1826) was a French physician who, in 1816, invented the stethoscope. Using this new instrument, he investigated the sounds made by the heart and lungs and determined that his diagnoses were supported by the observations made during autopsies.

Medical equipment
Gouda (cheese)

Gouda is a kind of soft cheese made from cows' milk. The cheese is named after the city of Gouda, which is famous for it. The name Gouda is not protected, so Gouda is made all over the world. There is also a protected designation of origin Noord-Hollandse Gouda (Gouda from North Holland). This may seem inaccurate, because the city of Gouda is in South Holland. Most of the cows however graze in North Holland.

There are two varieties of Gouda for export: Young gouda, which is between one and six months old. Young gouda is usually sold with a yellow or red coating of paraffin wax. 

Gouda that is older, is usually sold with a black coating. It is more brittle, and has a stronger scent. 

There are other variations, like Smoked Gouda, which is a processed cheese, and Leyden Gouda.

There is also spiced gouda which has spices in it to make it have more flavour.

References 

Dutch cheeses
Gouda
ChuChu

ChuChu is a comic magazine that is written for teenage girls. It is published by Syougakukan（Japan).

Famous works
Sakura zensen（Miyuki Ohbayashi）
ALMIGHTY×10(Aqua Mizuto)
NG boy×Paradise(Yukino Miyawaki)
Hitohira no koi ga furu(Yuu Yabuuchi)

Manga writers who write for ChuChu
Aqua Mizuto
Chitose Yagami
Hisa Kyoumachi
Iori Shigano
Kana Nanajima
Kei Ouri
Kirara Himekawa
Kiyoko Arai
Kyoko Mami
Mai Jinna
Mikiko Satsuki
Miwako Sugiyama
Miyuki Ohbayashi
Naomi Uramoto
Naoto Kohaku
Natsumi Kawahara
Nimi Fujita
Nozomi Shiratori
Rei Nanase
Ryouko Mizoguchi
Satoru Takamiya
Sayumi Nakamura
Tae Usami
Takemaru SaSaki
Yukako Iizaka
Yukino Miyawaki
Yuu Yabuuchi

Manga
Oxide

An oxide is a chemical compound containing at least one oxygen atom and at least one atom of one other element. Most of the Earth's crust consists of oxides (mainly silica). Oxides can be made when elements are oxidized by air (when oxygen in the air reacts with the element).

Some common oxides are:
Water (hydrogen oxide) (H2O)
Iron(III) oxide (Rust) (Fe2O3)
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
Lead(II) oxide (PbO)
Calcium oxide (CaO)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Magnesium oxide (Magnesia) (MgO)
Phosphorus pentoxide (P4O10)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) (N2O)
Zinc oxide (ZnO)
Copper(I) oxide (CuO) and Copper(II) oxide (Cu2O)
Proposal

A Proposal is when people suggest an idea. It is usually used when someone suggests an idea of marriage, when they ask the person they like to marry them.

Social sciences
Marriage
Versailles, Yvelines

Versailles is a French city. It is in the western suburbs of Paris, 17.1 km. (10.6 miles) from the center of Paris. It is the capital of the Yvelines département. This city is very important for the History of France because it was formerly the capital of the kingdom of France.

Its name comes from the Latin word vertere, meaning to turn the soil.  

Versailles is made world-famous by the Palace of Versailles (Château de Versailles), where Louis XIV, Louis XV and Louis XVI lived.

In 2004, about 85,900 people lived here.

This is where the Treaty of Versailles was signed at the end of The Great War.

Surroundings
Paris
Viroflay
Ville d'Avray
Meudon

Education 
 Institut supérieur international du parfum, de la cosmétique et de l'aromatique alimentaire
 Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines

References 

Communes in Yvelines
 
Departmental capitals in France
Silicate

In chemistry, a silicate is a chemical compound consisting of one or more central silicon atoms that are surrounded by electronegative anions.

The most common silicate species consist of silicon with oxygen as the anion. Silicate anions, with a negative net electrical charge, must have that charge balanced by other cations to make an electrically neutral compound.

Silicate rock
In geology and planetary science, the term silicate is used to denote types of rock that consist predominantly of silicate minerals.

On Earth, a wide variety of silicate minerals occur in an even wider range of combinations as a result of the processes that form and re-work the crust. These processes include partial melting, crystallization, fractionation, metamorphism, weathering and diagenesis. Living things also contribute to the silicate cycle near the Earth's surface. A type of plankton known as diatoms construct their exoskeletons, known as tests, from silica. The tests of dead diatoms are a major constituent of deep ocean sediment

Chemical compounds
Geology
Newton metre

The Newton metre is the unit of moment in the SI system Standard International.  It is abbreviated N·m, and sometimes written with hyphen newton-metre. It is a compound unit of torque  corresponding to the torque from a force of one newton applied over a distance arm of one metre.

A newton metre is dimensionally equivalent to a joule.

Conversion factors
1 metre kilogram-force = 9.8065 R/N·m
1 centimetre kilogram-force = 98.0665 mR/mN·m
1 foot-pound force (often "foot-pounds") = 1 pound-force foot (often "pound-feet") = 1.3558179 R/N·m
1 inch ounce-force = 7.0615518 mR/mN·m

SI units
Gamma ray

Gamma rays (γ-rays) are electromagnetic waves with the smallest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. They were discovered in 1900 by Paul Villard, and named in 1903 by Ernest Rutherford.

Gamma rays are like x-rays, but the waves are smaller in wavelength. Both gamma rays and x-rays are photons with very high energies, and gamma have even more energy. They are also a type of ionizing radiation. Gamma rays can travel through thicker materials than x-rays can.

Gamma rays are produced by some types of radioactive atoms.  Cobalt-60 and potassium-40 are two isotopes that emit gamma rays. Cobalt-60 is created in accelerators and is used in hospitals. Potassium-40 occurs naturally. Small amounts of potassium-40 are in all plants and animals. Gamma rays from potassium-40 each have an energy of 1460 thousand electron volts (keV).

Gamma rays and X-rays can also be distinguished by their origin: X-rays are emitted by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus.

Gamma rays in medicine 
Gamma rays can also go through the skin to kill cells, such as cancerous cells. 
Doctors can use radiation therapy machines which produce gamma rays in hospitals to treat people with some types of cancer.

Doctors also use gamma rays to find disease. In hospitals, doctors can give patients radioactive medicine which emits gamma rays. Doctors can find some types of disease by measuring gamma rays which come from a patient afterward. Hospitals can also use gamma rays to sterilise (clean)  things as disinfectants do.

References 

Nuclear physics
Sonic the Hedgehog (TV series)

Sonic the Hedgehog is the name of a cartoon series, starring Sonic the Hedgehog. It is more popularly known as "SatAM Sonic", especially to distinguish itself from other similarly-named animated shows that also star Sonic.

This series was made by DiC Entertainment, and originally ran on ABC from September 18, 1993 to June 3, 1995, and had a total of 26 episodes, at 13 episodes per season.

The show starred Sonic the Hedgehog, and the Knothole Freedom Fighters, a group of woodland animals united to fight the evil Doctor Robotnik, who has taken over the entire planet.

References

Animated television series
English-language television programs
Roman Servile Wars

The Servile Wars were a series of three slave revolts in the late Roman Republic. See:

 First Servile War: 135 BC-132 BC on Sicily, led by Eunus, a former slave claiming be a prophet, and Cleon (Cilician).
 Second Servile War: 104 BC-103 BC on Sicily, led by Athenion and Tryphon.
 Third Servile War: 73 BC-71 BC in Italy, led by Spartacus.
Plutarch

Mestrius Plutarchus (; c. AD 46 – after AD 119), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, and writer of biographies and essays.

Plutarch was born into a well-known family in Chaeronea, Boeotia Greece, a town about twenty miles east of Delphi. His works are Parallel Lives and Moralia.

Other websites 

 
 A biography of Plutarch is included in: , 18th century English translation under the editorship of Dryden (further edited by Arthur Hugh Clough).
 Works of Plutarch in etext at the University of Adelaide Library .
 Plutarch page at LacusCurtius (20th century English translation of most of the Lives, On the Fortune or Virtue of Alexander, On the Fortune of the Romans, Roman Questions, and other excerpts of the Moralia)
 Plutarch's Isis and Osiris

40s births
120s deaths
Ancient Greek historians
Ancient Greek writers
Crassus

Marcus Licinius Crassus (c. 115 BC – 53 BC) was a Roman general and politician.

He commanded the left wing of Sulla's army at the Battle of the Colline Gate. It was he who finally  suppressed the slave revolt led by Spartacus. The Third Servile War began with three defeats of Roman armies against Spartacus and his followers. The revolt was finally destroyed by the concentrated military effort of a single commander, Marcus Licinius Crassus.

The last stage of his career was as a triumvir, one of the First Triumvirate, with Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Gaius Julius Caesar. One of the richest men of the era, he was killed after a defeat at the Battle of Carrhae. His death led to the civil wars between Julius Caesar and Pompey, the other two triumvirs.

Brutal discipline 
When Crassus formed his army, in addition to six new legions, he was given other legions which had been beaten by Spartacus. He decimated them. This was the brutal method of executing one man in ten to encourage the others to fight harder. Each group of ten men drew lots to decide who would die. This punishment had not been used since the early days of Rome.

Crassus's punishment of Spartacus's surviving men was just as brutal. They were crucified.

Battle of Carrhae 
Crassus arranged to govern the Roman province of Syria, with the transparent intention of going to war with Parthia. In fact, he set out on a war against Parthia, using his own money, and without the Senate's official approval.

After being informed of the presence of the Parthian army, Crassus panicked. His general Cassius recommended that the army be deployed in the traditional Roman fashion, with infantry forming the center and cavalry on the wings. At first Crassus agreed, but he soon changed his mind and redeployed his men into a hollow square, each side formed by twelve cohorts. This formation would protect his forces from being outflanked, but at the cost of mobility.

The day went badly for the Romans, who were repeatedly outflanked by the Parthian cavalry. The next day they received a message, offering to negotiate with Crassus. A truce was proposed, allowing the Roman army to return to Syria safely, in exchange for Rome giving up all territory east of the Euphrates. Crassus was reluctant to meet with the Parthians, but his troops threatened to mutiny if he did not. At the meeting, a Parthian pulled at Crassus' reins, sparking violence. Crassus and his generals were murdered. After his death, the Parthians allegedly poured molten gold down his throat, in a symbolic gesture mocking Crassus' renowned greed. The remaining Romans at Carrhae attempted to flee, but most were captured or killed. Roman casualties amounted to about 20,000 killed and 10,000 captured, making the battle one of the costliest defeats in Roman history. Parthian casualties were minimal.

References 

2nd-century BC births
53 BC deaths
Roman generals
Italia (Roman province)

Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula.

Italia was the home of the capital of the Roman Empire - Rome itself.

Other websites 
A poem by Rutilius Claudius Namatianus, at The Latin Library, describing the decadence of Italia and Rome around 410.

Places of Ancient Rome
Shift key

The shift key is a key on a computer keyboard. It is used to type capital letters (like this: "ABC") instead of lowercase ("abc").

The shift key is also used to type with keys that have more than one symbol on them, such as the number keys and those for punctuation marks. In this case it is used to type the "upper" characters, that is, the symbol that appear above the other. The symbol below does not need the shift key to be pressed. On an English keyboard, these are some of the characters that need the shift key to be pressed down in order to type them:
the parentheses "(" and ")" are on the same keys as the numbers 9 and 0
the question mark "?" is on the same key as the slash "/"
the exclamation point "!" is on the same key as the number 1
the colon ":" is on the same key as the semicolon ";"

The way the shift key works is that it needs to be held down while the other key is pressed. Because of this, there are usually two shift keys, on the left and right sides of the keyboard, and they are held down using one of the little fingers while the other finger presses the other key.

Instead of using the shift key, one can also use the caps lock or shift lock keys. This lets one type many uppercase letters at once without having to hold down the shift key all the time.

Computer hardware
2000 United States Census

The Twenty-Second United States Census, known as Census 2000 was a count of the population of the United States. It was done by the Census Bureau. It found that the population of the United States on April 1, 2000 was 281,421,906. This was an increase of 13.2% over the 248,709,873 people counted during the 1990 Census. This was the twenty-second federal census. It was the largest single administrative effort in the history of the United States that was not done during wartime.

About 16 percent of households received a "long form" of the 2000 census. It had over 100 questions.

Other websites 

 Census 2000 gateway
 Population Profile of the United States: 2000
 Population Profile Introductory slide show, in MS Powerpoint format
 State and County QuickFacts , the most requested information
 American FactFinder , for population, housing, economic, and geographic data
 How the Census Works via Howstuffworks.com

Census
United States Census
Police procedural

A police procedural is a type of crime story. In a police procedural, the main characters are police officers. The story usually shows how they solve crimes with teamwork, using their specialised knowledge of criminals and the city or other area where they are.

Police procedurals have always been popular on television. Some of the best-known TV shows of this type are Dragnet, Law & Order, Hill Street Blues, NYPD Blue and The Shield.

Genres
Movie terminology
Television programs
Girth (tack)

A girth is a piece of equipment for riding a horse, used to keep the saddle in place. 

Horse riding

ru:Конская упряжь
Lusatian Neisse

The Lusatian Neisse is a river in the Czech Republic (Lužická Nisa), Germany (Lausitzer Neiße) and Poland (Nysa Łużycka). It is part of the Oder-Neisse line.

Other websites

Geography of Brandenburg
Geography of Saxony
Rivers of the Czech Republic
Rivers of Germany
Rivers of Poland
Anton Rubinstein

Anton Rubinstein (born Vikhvatinets 28 November 1829; died Petershof 20 November 1894) was a Russian pianist and composer.  Rubinstein and Franz Liszt were thought to be the greatest pianists of the 19th century.  He was very important as a teacher and influenced many Russian musicians.  He composed lots of music, although hardly any of it is heard nowadays.  As a composer he is best remembered today by a little piece of piano music called “Melody in F”.

History

First concert 
Rubinstein gave his first piano concert when he was ten.  Between 1840 and 1843 his piano teacher took him on long concert tours of Europe.  He met Chopin and Liszt and was received in London by Queen Victoria.   Between 1844 and 1846 the family lived in Berlin.  His friends there included Mendelssohn and Meyerbeer.

Lessons 
In 1846 his father died and Anton went to Vienna where he gave piano lessons to try to earn some money.  When he returned to Russia in 1848 the tsar’s sister-in-law let him live in her palace.  He played for lots of parties.  Often the tsar came.

Tours 
In 1854 he toured Europe again.  Then he returned to Russia.  He wanted to improve music education in Russia so he started the Russian Musical Society and then he started the St Petersburg Conservatory.  During his long career he spent many years as director of the Conservatory as well as conducting concerts.

Compositions 
He wrote a lot of music, but although his compositions often started off with good ideas they often become rather boring.  His opera Tom the fool was not a success.  He was annoyed and wrote an article in a music magazine saying that it was not possible to write operas using Russian stories.  He criticized several composers who were writing music which used Russian folktunes.  This included the composer Mily Balakirev and his friends who were called The Mighty Handful.  He said that they had not learned how to compose properly.

Rubinstein very much wanted to be famous as a composer as well as a teacher, but this made him very narrow-minded.  However, it was as a pianist and conductor that he was important.  He helped to improve the standard of music making in Russia by teaching and performing, and by starting the conservatory in St Petersburg.

1829 births
1894 deaths
Romantic composers
Russian composers
Russian pianists
Lumber

Lumber (or timber) is wood that has been cut for use in building.

Dimensional lumber
Dimensional lumber is a term used in North America for lumber that is finished/planed and cut to standardized width and depth specified in inches.

Softwoods

Examples of common sizes are 2×4 (also two-by-four and other variants), 2×6, and 4×4.  The length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth. It is thus possible to find 2×4s that are four, eight, or twelve feet in length. In the United States the standard lengths of lumber are 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, and 24 feet.

Non-North American sizes

Outside North America sizes of timber vary slightly. Sizes are, in some cases, based on the imperial measurement and referred to as such; in other cases the sizes are too far removed from the imperial size to be referred to by imperial measurement. Lengths can be sold at every 300 mm (a metric approximation of 1'). Common sizes are similar to the North American equivalent; 2.4, 2.7, 3.0, 3.6, 4.2, 4.8, 5.4, 6.0.  But also in running lengths, where each plank in a given packet is different, from  2500mm to 5500mm, though shorter and longer may be present.

Hardwoods

In North America sizes for dimensional lumber made from hardwoods varies from the sizes for softwoods. Boards are usually supplied in random widths and lengths of a specified thickness, and sold by the board-foot (144 cubic inches).

Engineered Lumber
Engineered lumber is lumber created by a manufacturer and designed for a certain structural purpose.

Related pages
 Forestry
 Wood
 Woodworking

Other websites 
 Timber Development Association of NSW - Australia
 CPSC Test coatings to reduce arsenic emissions from pressure treated wood
 TRADA: Timber Research And Development Association
 The Forest Products Laboratory. US main wood products research lab. Madison, WI (E)
 International Wood Collectors Society
 Xiloteca Manuel Soler (One of the largest private collection of wood samples)

Wood
Forestry
El Puerto de Santa María

El Puerto de Santa María (commonly called El Puerto) is a city on the banks of the Guadalete River in the province of Cádiz, Spain. As of the 2005 census, the city has 82,306 people. 50,000 of these people live in the urban center. The others live in the area around the urban center.

The city of El Puerto de Santa Maria is  northeast of Cadiz across the Bay of Cadiz. It is  best known for its ferry, El Vaporcito, which has been used for 76 years. It takes passengers to and from Cadiz to El Puerto.

History 
In the Odyssey of Homer, legend says that, after the Trojan War, a Greek official named Menestheus escaped with his troops through the Straits of Gibraltar. They got to the Guadalete River and created a port. They called the port Menestheus's port.

In 711, Arab (Moors) from the North of Africa invaded southern Spain. They changed the name to Alcante or Alcanatif. The name means Port of Salt. They chose that name because of the old salt industry of Phoenicians and Romans.

In 1260, Alfonso X of Castile took the city from the Moors. He renamed it Santa María del Puerto. 

Columbus began his second voyage to the New World from El Puerto. His pilot, Juan de la Cosa, created the first map of the world to include the coast of the New World in El Puerto in 1500. In the nineteenth century, the city became the General Headquarters for the French Army during the Spanish War of Independence under the reign of Joseph Bonaparte (1808–1813). The city is has much history, museums and monuments. It is also near the very historical cities of Seville and Cádiz.

Tourism 

El Puerto has a famous bull ring. It dates back to 1880. The bull ring has space for 15,000 to watch. Bull fighting is still enjoyed during the Feria season, which is during the month of August, and during the Feria de la Primavera, which is in early May. This Feria is dedicated to sherry. 180,0000 half bottles of sherry get drunk in 4 days. There are several bodegas in the town centre. All of these can be visited by the public. The most famous bodega is the Osborne and Terry Bodegas. They export sherry and brandy worldwide . In the cellars in El Puerto, sherry is made using the traditional method called “solera”. This method makes the pale dry sherries to the sweet Muscatel sherry, Amontillados and the older Olorosos.

Local food 
El Puerto is a very good place to taste local tapas and seafood, for which it is famous. Food is an important reason why many tourists go to El Puerto de Santa Maria. The Bay of Cadiz is famous for its fresh fish. The fish and plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables lead to very good restaurant menus. There are many different types of places to eat all in walking distance in the town centre.

Other websites 

Cultural Information of the Monuments and Museums of El Puerto de Santa María
360º Panoramic walk of El Puerto de Santa Maria

Cities in Andalusia
Municipalities in Andalusia
Bearing (mechanical)

A bearing is a device to permit fixed direction motion between two parts, typically rotation or linear movement. Bearings may be broadly grouped by the way they work. The most common of the many types are plain bearings and rolling-element bearings. 

The two main types of rolling-element bearings are ball bearings and roller bearings. In ball bearings, the rolling elements are spherical balls. In roller bearings, the rolling elements are cylindrical, taper or spherical rollers. Ball bearings are shown in the pictures.

Other websites 

 Comprehensive article on bearings   
How Bearings Work - Animations and functioning
 How Bearings Work -  - Animations on www.mechanismen.be
 Early Bearing Failure Detection  - Case study
 Catalogs, CAD files and more Bearings information from Bosch Rexroth

Engineering
Bush (mechanical)

A bush is a mechanical fixing between two, possibly moving, parts, or a strengthened fixing point where one mechanical assembly is attached to another.

In a car or other vehicle's suspension, bushes are used to connect the various moving arms and shaft points to the chassis and other parts of the suspension. In machines, bushes provide mechanical strength to the rotor.

Other websites 
 Catalogs, CAD files and more Linear Bushings information from Bosch Rexroth

Objects
Suspension (vehicle)

Suspension is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages.  The suspension acts as an intermediate between the car and the road and solves several problems:  

 Transfer to the frame or body of forces and moments arising from the interaction of wheels with the road surface;  
 Link wheels with body or frame;
 Provides the necessary for the normal movement of the position of the wheels relative to the frame or body and the road;
 Ensures acceptable running smoothness, compensates for uneven pavement.

So a car suspension is not just a set of components for connecting wheels and body or frame, but a complex system that makes normal and comfortable movement on car driving.

Springs 
Springs are elastic elements of a car suspension that work in conjunction with shock absorbers. The main functions of the springs are:
maintaining vehicle clearance under increased loads;
ensuring reliable tire contact with the road surface;
supporting and even distribution of vehicle weight;
exclude transmission of vibrations and other effects on the car body.

Shock absorbers  
Shock absorbers, as a damping element of a modern suspension, convert vibrational energy into heat. The amount of energy absorbed depends on the mass of the car, the stiffness of the spring and the vibration frequency.
The principle of operation of dampers is based on the displacement of fluid by a piston through special holes. In various modes, fluid is displaced through openings of different diameters. Due to this, the oscillations are absorbed both during compression and during rebound. As a result, these car suspension parts provide:
vehicle traffic safety;
control of the movement of the spring and suspension;
efficient car control;
axial braking force balance;
prevention of early tire wear;
monitoring of tire contact with the road surface;
control of swinging and oscillations about the vertical axis;
decrease in wearing of knots and units of the car.

Linkages 
Using these elements, the suspension parts are fastened together, and also the suspension is attached to the body or frame of the car. The fasteners can be either a regular bolted connection (like other types of rigid joints), or a connection using special elastic elements - rubber-metal hinges (or silent-blocks).

References

Other websites 
 Shock Absorbers
 The Suspension Bible

Engineering
Suzuki method

The Suzuki method, (or Talent Education, or the Mother Tongue method, or the Suzuki movement) is a way of teaching.  It teaches people to be morally better through a caring environment. It normally uses a musical instrument such as the violin or piano to do this. It can also use other musical instruments like the flute, recorder, piano, guitar, cello, viola, bass, organ, harp and voice. The Suzuki method uses the same environment that people have when they learn their mother-tongue. This means that each student sees and hears music and good moral character all of the time.  Other people tell them that they will do well. The students learn one thing at a time. They learn new things when they are ready. The term "Suzuki method" is also used to mean only the Suzuki sheet music books and songs.

It was created in Japan in the mid-20th century by Dr. Shin'ichi Suzuki. He was a violinist who wanted to bring some beauty to the lives of children in his country after World War II. Dr. Suzuki saw that all children learn their own language very quickly. Even dialects which adults thought were hard to learn are spoken with ease by 5 or 6 year old children. He thought that if a person can speak their mother tongue, then they can learn to play a musical instrument. He came up with the idea that any pre-school age child could begin to play the violin.

Just as a child learns to speak before reading, Suzuki students learn by ear and generally only learn to read sheet music at a much later age. 

Suzuki students will always play with a "beautiful tone and a beautiful heart".

Other websites 
International Suzuki Association
Suzuki Association of the Americas

Music education
Pará

Pará is one of the states of Brazil. It is in the northern part of the country.

The capital city is Belém. Other cities include:
 Santarém
 Óbidos
 Anapu

References

 
States of Brazil
Constituent (linguistics)

In syntactic analysis, a constituent is a word or a group of words that functions as one unit within a hierarchical structure.

Phrases (noun phrases, verbal phrases, etc.) are usually constituents of a clause, but clauses may also be combined into a bigger structure.  For example, in the phrase "I didn't hear what you said," the subordinate clause "what you said" is combined into the main clause and is syntactically its object; this can be demonstrated by substituting the pronoun "it" for the subordinate clause "I didn't hear it."

Linguistics

de:Konstituentengrammatik