cahya/wikipedia-simple-en huggingface dataset:
Iridium

Iridium is the 77th element on the periodic table. Its symbol is Ir and its atomic number is 77.

Chemistry 
Iridium is a metal.  Like other metals in the platinum group, Iridium is a rare and expensive "noble metal" and is a transition metal.  It looks like platinum and is found in asteroids and comets.  Iridium deposits are used to identify relative dates of collisions of foreign bodies.  Iridium can fold and bend just like aluminum, and remains very shiny.  Most iridium is found in the Americas, though some is mined in Myanmar, South Africa, and Russia.  Iridium melts at 2410 °C, and boils at 4130 °C.  It is the most corrosion resistant metal.

Iridium is not needed in the body.

History 
A man named Smithson Tennant first found it in the year 1803. Smithson Tennant found it in the remains when he left crude platinum in a mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid.

Chemical elements
Transition metal

The transition metals are a group of metals that are found in the middle of the periodic table. The alkaline earth metals, beginning with beryllium are to the left and the boron group elements are to the right. The term "transition element" was invented for them in 1921.

The atomic numbers of these metals are from 21-30, 39-48, 57, 72-80, 89 and 104-112. Many elements like Zn, Cd, Hg, La and Ac have a highly debatable position in the transition series of elements. La and Ac are also classed in the lanthanide series  and actinide series respectively. 

Transition metals have several general properties.  They are harder and less reactive than the alkaline earth metals.  They are also harder than the post transition metals.  They make colorful chemical compounds with other elements.  Most of them have more than one oxidation state.  Like other metals, they are electrical conductors.

Some of the transition metals are necessary to keep humans healthy, such as iron, zinc, and chromium. Other elements in the transition metals can be harmful to our body, like cadmium and mercury.  Other elements like gold or silver do not harm or help us.  There are more transition metals than any other groups in the periodic table.

Only a few of the transition metals are colored; most of them are silver-gray or silver-bluish. 

Periodic table
Transition metals
Osmium

Osmium is a chemical element. It is element number 76 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Os.

There is not much osmium on earth. There is actually such a small amount that osmium is very expensive. 

Osmium is a metal and it does not react very much, and such a metal is known as a "noble metal".

Osmium is the densest (heaviest for the same amount) element on the periodic table.

It was discovered in 1804 by Smithson Tennant in London, England. He found it together with Iridium in a bit of Platinum, which he had dissolved in Aqua regia.

Characteristics 
Osmium has a blue-grey hue and is the densest stable element; it is about twice as dense as lead and slightly denser than iridium. Osmium is a hard but brittle metal that stays shiny even at high temperatures. It has a very low squeezability. Accordingly, its size module is extremely high, reported between 395 and 462 GPa, which is comparable to that of diamond (443 GPa). The hardness of osmium is moderately high at 4 GPa.  Because of its hardness, brittleness, low vapour pressure , and very high melting point, solid osmium is difficult to machine, form, or work. 

Chemical elements
Radon

Radon is a chemical element in the periodic table. It is element 86 on the periodic table and its symbol is Rn. It is an odorless, tasteless noble gas. It is quite radioactive and can decay very quickly. 27 isotopes of Radon are known today. The most stable of them has a half life of about 3.8 days.

Chemistry 
Radon is a gas and is part of the group known as the noble gases.  It does not react with other elements, so it is found pure. Radon is radioactive, meaning that it can give off harmful rays.  Some people have high levels of radon in their houses, and this can be very dangerous.  A lot of radon can get stuck in the basement of old houses, and so people end up breathing it in.  It gets stuck in the lungs and has been known to cause cancer.  There are groups that try to make sure there is no dangerous radon in houses.

It can occur naturally in the Earth, but its a very small amount. As elements like Thorium and Uranium decay, some of that gets turned into Radon.

Radon can cause lung cancer, and is second most popular cause of lung cancer straight after smoking.

History 
Radon was the fifth radioactive element to be discovered, in 1899 by Ernest Rutherford and Robert B. Owens at McGill University in Montreal, after uranium, thorium, radium, and polonium. In 1899, Pierre and Marie Curie saw that the gas given off by radium remained radioactive for a month. Later that year, Rutherford and Owens noticed different types of them when trying to measure radiation from thorium oxide.

Uses 
It is sometimes uses in radiation therapy. However it is very dangerous to use.

Related pages
List of common elements
Periodic table

References 

Noble gases
Carcinogens
Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (often abbreviated to HTTP) is a communications protocol. It is used to send and receive webpages and files on the internet. It was developed by Tim Berners-Lee and is now coordinated by the W3C. HTTP version 1.1 is the most common used version today. It is defined in RFC 2616.

HTTP works by using a user agent to connect to a server. The user agent could be a web browser or spider. The server must be located using a URL or URI. This always contains http:// at the start. It normally connects to port 80 on a computer.

A more secure version of HTTP is called HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure). This contains https:// at the beginning of the URL. It encrypts all the information that is sent and received. This can stop malicious users such as hackers from stealing the information and is often used on payment websites. HTTPS uses port 443 for communication instead of port 80.

Request Message 

The request message contains the following:

 Request line, such as GET /images/logo.gif HTTP/1.1, which requests the file logo.gif from the /images directory
 Headers, such as Accept-Language: en
 An empty line
 An optional message body

The request line and headers must all end with two characters: a carriage return followed by a line feed, often written <CR><LF>. The empty line must consist of only <CR><LF> and no other whitespace. In the HTTP/1.1 protocol, all headers except Host are optional.

A request line containing only the path name is accepted by servers to maintain compatibility with HTTP clients before the HTTP/1.0 standard.

Internet
Computer protocols
Mazurek Dąbrowskiego

Mazurek Dąbrowskiego is the Polish national anthem, made in 1797 by Józef Wybicki.

Lyrics

Other websites 
  "Mazurek Dąbrowskiego" in Mp3 format  (Full version)
  "Mazurek Dąbrowskiego" in Mp3 format  (Instrumental version)

National anthems
Poland
1797 establishments
Establishments in Poland
1790s establishments in Europe
Fornication

Fornication is a word that means having sex with someone who is not your spouse. Many Christians and Muslims believe it is sinful.

Sexual acts

nl:Seksueel misbruik#Ontucht
Chloroplast

A chloroplast is a small organelle inside the cells of plants and algae. They absorb light to make sugar in a process called photosynthesis. The sugar can be stored in the form of starch. Chloroplasts contain the molecule chlorophyll, which absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis. In addition to chlorophyll, a chloroplast uses carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) to form sugar and gives off oxygen (O2). Chlorophyll is what gives green plants their green colour. Chloroplasts also contain various yellow and orange pigments to assist in photon capture for photosynthesis.

Structure 
Each chloroplast is surrounded by a double walled semi-permeable membrane. These are collectively known as peristromia. In the layered stacks are flat disk-shaped thylakoids. They contain light-absorbing pigments, including chlorophyll and carotenoids, as well as proteins which bind the pigments. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts also contain their own DNA and ribosomes.

Evolution 
Chloroplasts are one of the many different types of organelles in the cell. They are thought to have originated as endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. This was first suggested by Konstantin Mereschkowski in 1905 after an observation by Schimper in 1883 that chloroplasts closely resembled cyanobacteria. Almost all chloroplasts are thought to derive directly or indirectly from a single endosymbiotic event. 

Mitochondria also had a similar origin, but chloroplasts are found only in plants and protista. In green plants, chloroplasts are surrounded by two lipid-bilayer membranes. They are thought to correspond to the outer and inner membranes of the ancestral cyanobacterium. Chloroplasts have their own genome, which is much smaller than that of free-living cyanobacteria. The DNA which remains shows clear similarities with the cyanobacterial genome. Plastids may contain 60–100 genes whereas cyanobacteria often contain more than 1500 genes. Many of the missing genes are encoded in the nuclear genome of the host. 

In some algae (such as the heterokonts), chloroplasts seem to have evolved through a secondary event of endosymbiosis, in which a eukaryotic cell engulfed a second eukaryotic cell containing chloroplasts, forming chloroplasts with three or four membrane layers. In some cases, such secondary endosymbionts may have themselves been engulfed by still other eukaryotes, thus forming tertiary endosymbionts. In the alga Chlorella, there is only one chloroplast, which is bell-shaped.

In some groups of mixotrophic protists such as the dinoflagellates and some sea slugs, chloroplasts are separated from a captured alga or diatom and used temporarily. These klepto (stolen) chloroplasts may only have a lifetime of a few days and are then replaced.

References 

Botany
Biochemistry
Organelles
Oak

The oak tree is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus. There are about 600 living species. The common name "oak (Oaks)" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, such as Lithocarpus.

The genus Quercus is native to the Northern Hemisphere. It includes deciduous and evergreen species from cool temperate to tropical latitudes in Asia and the Americas. North America has the largest number of oak species: about 90 occur in the United States. Mexico has 160 species, of which 109 are endemic. The second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which has about 100 species.

Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with rounded edges in many species; some have leaves with jagged edges or entire leaves with smooth margins. Many deciduous species do not drop dead leaves until spring. In spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers (as catkins) and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, carried in a cup-like structure. Each acorn has one seed (rarely two or three) and takes 6–18 months to mature, depending on species. The so-called "live oaks" are evergreen. They are not a taxonomic group, just a life style which occurs across the genus.

The oak is a kind of hardwood forest tree. They are well known as a climax vegetation in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere. That means, left untouched by humans, it would be the dominant tree. Much of England was covered by oak forests before modern farming took over the land. The last extensive oak woodlands were cut down to build ships for the Royal Navy in the 18th century.

Some kinds of oak wood are very hard. That is why people in past centuries cut them down to make ships, furniture and other things. The wood is now scarce and expensive and only used to make a few things anymore. Much cheaper are softwoods like pine.

Oak trees grow slowly and can live up to 1000 years.

Associated animals 
A mature oak tree stands about 100 feet tall (~30 metres). It is a home for more animals than any other European tree. 30 species of birds, 45 different bugs and over 200 species of moth have been found on oaks. Beetles burrow under the bark, and some drill holes into the wood. The leaves are eaten by many caterpillars. Many leaves carry strange little bumps on the underside. These are insect galls, caused by many little animals. Midges, moths, worms and tiny wasps lay their eggs in leaves or leaf buds. The leaf reacts by forming a growth around the eggs. Inside the gall, larvae develop. The leaf falls, but the larvae may come out only the next spring. Small galls only have one larva, but larger galls may contain as many as 30 larvae.

Acorns 

Oak trees produce acorns once a year which ripen in autumn. Oak trees may start producing acorns when they are about 20 years old. A mature oak may produce 90,000 acorns a year; this is several millions in its lifetime.

Related pages 
 Cork oak

References 

Trees
Fagales
Glucose

Glucose (C6H12O6 ) is a simple carbohydrate, or sugar. It is one of several kinds of sugars. It is important because cells in an organism use it as a source of energy. Turning glucose into energy is called cellular respiration, which is done inside the cells of a living organism. Excess glucose is converted to fats and are stored in adipose tissues.

Glucose is made by plants in a process called photosynthesis.  It can also be made by animals in their liver or kidneys.

Having the right amount of glucose available in a person's body is important. Glucose is essential in the proper functioning of the brain. It can be measured with a simple blood test. People that do not have enough glucose have low blood sugar levels. This is a health condition called hypoglycemia. People with too much glucose have hyperglycemia. They might have a health condition called diabetes.

Its chemical formula is C6H12O6. This means it has six carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms bonded together.

How sugars work, and how glucose can be formed, was studied by a German chemist named Emil Fischer in the 1890s. His work earned him the 1902 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Isomers

There are two forms of glucose, the α- and β- forms. The only difference between them is the position of the hydroxyl group, above and below the plane of the ring of the molecule.

For α-glucose, the hydroxyl (-OH) group is below the ring, while for β-glucose, the (-OH) group is above.

References

Carbohydrates
Cellulose

Cellulose is the main chemical that forms the main structure of plants. It is the most abundant macromolecule on Earth. It is also a kind of fiber. Cellulose is a very complex carbohydrate and consisting of 3,000 or more glucose units. Cellulose was discovered by Anselme Payen in 1838. He isolated it from plant matter and determined its chemical formula. Cellulose is the most common organic compound on Earth.

Properties 
Cellulose has no taste. It is odorless and hydrophilic. It is insoluble in water and most organic solvents. It is chiral and is biodegradable.

Cellulose is made from a form of glucose and makes up most of the cell wall of plant cells. This is what keeps a plant in shape. Humans and other animals cannot digest cellulose but some animals such as termites and ruminants use bacteria to digest it.

It is a polysaccharide, which is repeating units of a monosaccharide joined together by a glycosidic bond by a condensation reaction, there is a by-product of water, found in plants. It is very tough because when you join beta glucose together, they are opposite ways up, the bonds are straight, forming straight chains. There is hydrogen bonds between the polymers.

These fibers are in bundles of about 40, called microfibrils. Microfibrils are embedded in a hydrated network of other polysaccharides. The cell wall is assembled in place. The parts are made inside the cell and then assembled by enzymes associated with the cell membrane.

Uses 

It is mainly used to make paper. It is also used to make as cotton, linen, and rayon for clothes, nitrocellulose for explosives, and cellulose acetate for films. Cellulose is used as insulation in transformers, cables, and other electrical equipment. Microcrystalline cellulose and powdered cellulose are used as inactive fillers in drug tablets. Cellulose derivatives are used as emulsifiers, thickeners and stabilizers in processed foods. Cellulose can be converted into cellophane. Cellulose is used to make water-soluble adhesives and binders such as methyl cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose.

Celluose can also be used as a anti-caking agent in some foods like pre-shredded cheese.

References 

Carbohydrates
Molecular biology
Biochemistry
Brasília

Brasília () is the capital city of Brazil. The name is commonly spelled Brasilia in English. The city and its Federal District are in the Central-West region of the country. It is on a plateau known as Planalto Central. Brasília has a population of about 2,557,000 (3,599,000 in the metropolitan area) as of the 2008 IBGE estimate. It is the fourth largest city in Brazil. But the Brasília metropolitan area is the sixth largest in the nation. It is listed as a World Heritage Site. Brasília hosts 124 foreign embassies.

Viewed from above, the main portion of the city resembles an airplane or a butterfly. The Monumental Axis goes east-west and holds government buildings and monuments.  The other axis is curved in a north south direction. The city is commonly referred to as Capital Federal, or simply BSB. As the national capital, Brasília is the seat of all three branches of the Brazilian government. The city also hosts the headquarters of many Brazilian companies. Planning policies place residential buildings around expansive urban areas. The plan includes large avenues. It divides the city into sectors with different purposes, including accommodation and tourism.  The city is built around an artificial lake, Lake Paranoá.

Residents of Brasília are known as brasilienses or candangos. (The candangos are people who moved to Brasília when the city was established). In local usage, the word "Brasília" usually refers only to the First Administrative Region within the Distrito Federal (Federal District), where the most important government buildings are.  Brasília has a unique status in Brazil, as it is an administrative division rather than a legal municipality like nearly all cities in Brazil. In the rest of Brazil, Brasília is almost always means the Brazilian Federal District.  There are several "satellite cities," which are also part of the Federal District.

History 
The city was planned and developed as a new town in 1956. Lúcio Costa was the principal urban planner and Oscar Niemeyer was the principal architect. Roberto Burle Marx was the landscape designer. They created the Plano Piloto de Brasília. Brasília was built in 41 months, from 1956 to April 21, 1960.

Transportation 
The Brasília subway system (Metrô de Brasília) has 24 stations on two lines  long. The subway currently covers the south half of the metropolitan area. In 2010, a light rail line was added.  By 2014, the light rail line will go from the end of the north wing of the city to the airport in the south.

Brasília International Airport is the main airport in Brasília, connecting the capital to all major Brazilian cities and many airports in other countries. It is the third most important airport of Brazil, in terms of passengers and aircraft movements.

References

Capital of Brazil
World Heritage Sites in South America
Brazilian Federal District
Musical genre

A musical genre is how people describe different styles of music. Some of the most common music genres are:

 Hip hop
 jazz
 pop
 rock
 rhythm and blues
 soul music
 alternative

Plus there are several more common music genres. Religious music is also common, such as hymns, choir music and many more.

To provide an example of cross genre descriptions; Joe Walsh is to the SteelDrivers as Metallica is to Trampled by Turtles. Furthermore, The Rolling Stones are to Flatt and Scruggs as Nickelback is to Doyle Lawson and Quicksliver.

Related pages
 Musicology
Dim sum

Dim sum is a way of serving Chinese and/or Vietnamese food. A range of different foods are served to the people who are eating, including pork wontons, fried shrimp, and egg rolls.
They are served on small wooden platters, and are usually steamed.

Other websites 
 Hong Kong Tourism Board Guide to Dim Sum 
 The mysterious art of dumpling cuisine , Asia Times, April 6, 2002

Chinese food
Super Smash Bros. Melee

Super Smash Bros. Melee, known in Japan as  is a video game where players can choose from many people from famous Nintendo games and have them fight each other. Players can fight alone or team up with someone else against a friend. This game is a sequel to Super Smash Bros. for the Nintendo 64. Super Smash Bros. Melee is for the Nintendo GameCube. The subsequent game is Super Smash Bros. Brawl for the Wii.

Characters
Super Smash Bros. Melee takes 26 characters from many of Nintendo's series. It includes all 12 veteran characters from Super Smash Bros. 64, and adds 14 new characters, including Princess Peach and Bowser from the Super Mario Bros. series, Princess Zelda/Sheik and Ganondorf from The Legend of Zelda, and new characters like Ice Climbers from Ice Climber and Marth from Fire Emblem. Some characters seem to play more like other characters who were in the first game, like Ganondorf compared to Captain Falcon.

Sakurai planned to include more characters, including Diddy Kong, Meta Knight, King Dedede, Balloon Fighter, Solid Snake, and Lucas, but did not have time to fit them in. All of them except for Balloon Fighter made it into Super Smash Bros. Brawl.

Default characters
Bowser
Captain Falcon
Donkey Kong
Fox McCloud
Ice Climbers
Kirby
Link
Mario
Ness
Pikachu
Princess Peach
Samus Aran
Yoshi
Princess Zelda/Sheik

Secret characters
Dr. Mario
Falco Lombardi
Ganondorf
Jigglypuff
Luigi
Marth
Mewtwo
Mr. Game & Watch
Pichu
Roy
Young Link

Items
Items from different games can fall from the sky, like Poké Balls from Pokémon or Mushrooms from Mario. These items can be used in different ways. For example, Poké Balls can summon Pokémon, and Mushrooms can either grow the person whom touches it, unless it is a Poison Mushroom which makes them shrink.

Stages
Super Smash Bros. Melee has many stages that players can battle on. Most of the stages are based on Nintendo series like Mario, Pokémon, and The Legend of Zelda.

Home Stages

Tournament Play
Super Smash Bros. Melee has become very popular in tournaments. These tournaments do not use items or most stages, believing that these make the game unfair. In tournaments, however, a lot of characters are not strong enough to win. Some of the best characters for tournaments are Fox McCloud, Falco Lombardi, and Jigglypuff.

2001 video games
Nintendo GameCube-only games
Super Smash Bros.

de:Super Smash Bros.#Super Smash Bros. Melee
Catalysis

Catalysis is the change in speed (rate) of a chemical reaction due to the help of a catalyst. Unlike other chemicals which take part in the reaction, a catalyst is not consumed by the reaction itself. A catalyst may participate in many chemical reactions. Catalysts that speed the reaction are called positive catalysts. Catalysts that slow the reaction are called negative catalysts, or inhibitors. Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons.

in Chemistry 
A catalyst is something which changes the rate of a chemical reaction. An example is when manganese oxide (MnO2) is added to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and the hydrogen peroxide starts to break up into water and oxygen. Catalysts are either of natural or synthetic origin. Catalysts are useful because they leave no residue in the solution they have sped up. A catalyst can also be used in a reaction again and again as it is not used up. There are many catalysts in our body which play an important part in many biochemical reactions. These are called enzymes. Most catalysts work by lowering the 'activation energy' of a reaction. This allows less energy to be used, thus speeding up the reaction. The opposite of a catalyst is an inhibitor. Inhibitors slow down reactions. Some of them are found in snake venom and are dangerous for our nervous system or heart.

Related pages 
 Enzymes are biological catalysts
Hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide is a chemical compound. Its molecular formula is H2O2. It is used as a cleaner, and as hair bleach. In a concentration of 3% (meaning that there are 3 grams of hydrogen peroxide for 100 grams of a water solution), it can be used to treat wounds. Over time it will slowly become oxygen gas and water through decomposition. 

Chemists often use hydrogen peroxide in chemical reactions. It is a very strong oxidising agent when used with acid and water. Oxidising agents take electrons from other compounds.

2 Fe2+(aq) + H2O2 + 2 H+(aq) → 2 Fe3+(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

Here hydrogen peroxide takes an electron from the Fe2+ ions and becomes water.

It can also be a reducing agent when used with other compounds. When it acts as a reducing agent, oxygen gas is also produced. Reducing agents give electrons to other compounds. This method is often used to make oxygen in laboratories.

NaOCl + H2O2 → O2 + NaCl + H2O

Hydrogen peroxide can be bought in shops when mixed with lots of water but is very dangerous when the concentration is higher. It is flammable and causes burns.

Chemical compounds
Oxygen compounds
Hydrogen compounds
Mayotte

Mayotte is an island in the Indian Ocean next to Madagascar. 
It is geographically part of the Comoros Islands, but politically, it is part of France.

Related pages 
 Communes of Mayotte

Other websites 
 
 
 Open Directory Project - Mayotte  directory category
 Mayotte travel information at Wikivoyage
 Analysis of the linguistic situation on Mayotte  (in French)

Comoros
Halldór Ásgrímsson

Halldór Ásgrímsson (8 September 1947 – 18 May 2015) was the Prime Minister of Iceland. The leader of the Progressive Party since 1994, he took over as Prime Minister on September 15, 2004, from the Independence Party leader, Davíð Oddsson. He resigned in 2009.

He died from a heart attack at a Reykjavik hospital, aged 67.

References

1947 births
2015 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Prime Ministers of Iceland
Somaliland

Somaliland (;  ,  ), officially the Republic of Somaliland (,  is a territory that covers the former protectorate British Somaliland. De facto, .Somaliland  It borders Djibouti to the west, the Federal Republic of Ethiopia to the south and Somalia to the east.

The area used to be the Somaliland area which was part of the British empire along with Jubaland, which was called Trans-juba. It was called the British Somaliland Coast Protectorate before 26 June 1960.  called the "Somaliland Republic". In May of 1991, after a war, Somaliland regained independence.  

Currently, Somaliland  international organization views Somaliland as an independent country. Instead, they see Somaliland as a part of Somalia. 

Somaliland has a republican government with free elections. The capital is Hargeisa. Berbera is a beautiful city on the coast. About 55% of the people of Somalilands are nomads. Most Somalis are Sunni Muslims. Some people are part of Sufi orders. 

A territory in the west, called  Khatumo State has been disputed between Somaliland and Puntland.

Demographics

Language
Most people in Somaliland speak Somali and Arabic. Article 6 of the Constitution of 2001 says the official language of Somaliland is Somali, but Arabic is a mandatory subject in school. English is also spoken and taught in schools.

The main Somali dialect is Standard Somali. Standard Somali is spoken in most of Somalia and in countries that border it. Standard Somali is used by almost all of the media in the Somaliland region.

Religion
Almost all Somalilanders are Muslims. This is because Islam is the state religion, and practicing a religion other than Islam is against the law. Small amounts of non-Islamic traditions exist in Somaliland, but Islam is very important to the Somali sense of national identity.

References

Other websites 

 Somaliland's official website

 
States of Somalia
Penny

A penny (plural pence in the United Kingdom, plural pennies in Canada and the United States) is a coin used by several countries where people speak English. This includes United Kingdom, the United States, where a penny is worth one cent, and Canada, where "penny" is an informal term for one cent coins. Canada stopped minting the penny in 2012.

Popular Culture
In British and American culture, finding a penny is often thought to be lucky. A popular expression is "Find a penny, pick it up, and all the day you'll have good luck." If someone asks you "A penny for your thoughts" They're wanting to know what you think. The phrase was first written in John Heywood's 1547 Dialogue Conteinying the Nomber in Effect of All the Proverbes in the Englishe Tongue, written when the penny was still a sterling silver coin. The possibly related American expression "my two cents" (meaning "my humble opinion") uses the low value of the penny to make fun of one's own thoughts in a funny way. In British English, to "spend a penny" means to urinate. The phrase does actually imply spending an actual penny: coin-operated public toilets commonly charged a predecimal penny, starting with the Great Exhibition of 1851. Around Decimal Day, British Rail introduced the "Superloo", better public toilets that charged 2p (roughly the equivalent of 6d.).

References

Citations

Related pages
Penny sterling
  

Currency
Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky

Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (Никола́й Ива́нович Лобаче́вский, 1792–1856) was a Russian mathematician. He became known for his achievements in non-Euclidean geometry.

Biography 
Lobachevsky was born in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. His parents were Ivan Maksimovich Lobachevsky, a clerk in a landsurveying office, and Praskovia Alexandrovna Lobachevskaya. In 1800, his father died and his mother moved to Kazan. In Kazan, Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky attended Kazan Gymnasium. He graduated in 1807 and then went to Kazan University which was founded just three years earlier, in 1804. 

At Kazan University, Lobachevsky was influenced by professor Johann Christian Martin Bartels (1769–1833). Bartels was a former teacher and friend of German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. Lobachevsky received a Master's degree in physics and mathematics in 1811. In 1814, he became a lecturer at Kazan University, and in 1822 he became a full professor. He served in many administrative positions and was the rector of Kazan University from 1827 to 1846. He retired (or was dismissed) in 1846. After this event his health rapidly deteriorated. In addition to teaching mathematics and physics at Kazan University Lobachevsky also was an astronomy teacher there. 

In 1832, he married Varvara Alexivna Moisieva. They had seven children.

1792 births
1856 deaths
Russian geometers
Wildebeest

A wildebeest (or gnu) is an animal. It is a large hoofed mammal in the Bovidae family. There are two species of wildebeest. Both live in Africa.

Taxonomy
 Genus Connochaetes
Blue wildebeest or brindled gnu (Connochaetes taurinus)
Black wildebeest or white-tailed gnu (Connochaetes gnou)

Size
Wildebeest grow to 1.15 to 1.40 metres (at the shoulder) and they weigh between 150 and 250 kilograms when they are fully grown. They live in the plains and open woodlands in southern Africa. The biggest herds can be found in the Serengeti. Wildebeest can live for more than 20 years.

What they eat
Like other members of the same family (antelopes, deer and goats, amongst others), they mainly eat grass. But since in the African grasslands, there is not always grass, wildebeest are forced to migrate to find food all year round. In May, about 1.5 million animals move from the grasslands to the woods. In November they move back; there is grass in the plains in summer.

Breeding and mating season

The cows (female Gnus) will calve (give birth to the young) in summer in the plains. After the females have given birth, the breeding season begins. The dominant males mark off (and defend) some territory. They do this with feces, and with scent.

Wildebeest are an important part of the ecosystem. With their feces, they fertilize the ground, and their trampling is good for new growth. They also provide food for predators, like lions and hyenas.

References
The Columbia Encyclopedia

Other websites 

The Great Migration , on migration patterns of the wildebeest
Wildebeest images

Bovids
1760s



Events and trends

Events 
 King George III takes the British throne in 1760. The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) comes to an end. France gives Canada to Britain, but criticism of the government still grows, led by the controversial figure of John Wilkes. Meanwhile, there is increasing unrest in Britain's American colonies. King George III died later in 1820.

 Science and technology – development of the steam engine continues.

World leaders 
 Emperor Qianlong (Ch'ien Lung) (China)
 King Frederick V (Denmark and Norway)
 King Christian VII (Denmark and Norway)
 King Louis XV (France)
 King Augustus III (Poland)
 King José I (Portugal)
 Czar Peter III (Russia)
 Czarina Catherine II (the Great) (Russia)
 King Carlos III (Spain)
 King Adolf Fredrik (Sweden)
 Sultan Mustafa III (Ottoman Empire)
 King George III (United Kingdom)

Births 
 Josephine de Beauharnais, Empress of France
 Michail Leontievich Bulatov, Russian military

Deaths 
 Pierre de Marivaux, French writer
Grass

Grass is a plant with narrow leaves growing from the base.  A common kind of grass is used to cover the ground in a lawn and other places. Grass gets water from the roots in the ground. Grasses are monocotyledon, herbaceous plants.

The grasses include the "grass", of the family Poaceae (also called Gramineae). Also sometimes it is used to include the   sedges (Cyperaceae) and the rushes (Juncaceae). These three families are not closely related but belong to different clades in the order Poales. They are similar adaptations to a common life-style.

The true grasses include cereals, bamboo and the grasses of lawns (turf) and grassland. Uses for graminoids include food (as grain, sprouted grain, shoots or rhizomes), drink (beer, whisky), pasture for livestock, thatching thatch, paper, fuel, clothing, insulation, construction, sports turf, basket weaving and many others.

Many grasses are short, but some grasses, like bamboo can grow very tall. Plants from the grass family can grow in many places, even if they are very cold or very dry. Several other plants that look similar but are not members of the grass family are also sometimes called grass; these include rushes, reeds, papyrus, and water chestnut. 

Grasses are an important food for many animals, like deer, buffalo, cattle, mice, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and many other grazers. Unlike other plants, grasses grow from the bottom, so when animals eat grass they usually do not destroy the part that grows. Without grass, dirt can wash away into rivers (erosion).

Evolution of grass 
Graminoids include some of the most versatile plant life-forms. They became widespread toward the end of the Cretaceous. Fossilized dinosaur dung (coprolites) have been found containing  grass phytoliths (silica stones inside grass leaves). Grasses have adapted to conditions in lush rain forests, dry deserts, cold mountains and even intertidal habitats, and are now the most widespread plant type. Grass is a valuable source of food and energy for many animals.

Grass and people 
Lawn grass is often planted on sports fields and in the area around a building. Sometimes chemicals and water is used to help lawns to grow.

People have used grasses for a long time. People eat parts of grasses. Corn, wheat, barley, oats, rice and millet are cereals, common grains whose seeds are used for food and to make alcohol such as beer.

Sugar comes from sugar cane, which is also a plant in the grass family. People have grown grasses as food for farm animals for about 4,000 years. People use bamboo to build houses, fences, furniture and other things. Grass plants can also be used as fuel, to cover roofs, and to weave baskets.

Language 
In English, the word "grass" appears in several phrases. For example:

 "The grass is always greener on the other side" means "people are never happy with what they have and want something else." 
 "Don't let the grass grow under your feet" means "Do something".
 "A snake in the grass" is about a person that will not be honest and will trick others.
 Grass is sometimes used as a slang term for cannabis (also called pot, weed, or marijuana)

References  

Basic English 850 words
Poales
Cacao tree

The cacao tree is a small tree originally grown in tropical South America. It only grows to 4 to 8 meters in height. Its seeds are called cocoa and are used to produce cocoa butter, chocolate drinks, and chocolate. Now the trees are grown in plantations in many tropical countries.

Cultivation
Cacao is planted on over 70000 square kilometres worldwide with 40% of production coming from Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Indonesia. Each country produces about 15%, with smaller amounts coming from Brazil, Nigeria, and Cameroon.

A tree begins to bear fruit when it is 4 or 5 years old. In one year, when mature, it may have 6,000 flowers, but only about 20 pods. About 300-600 seeds (10 pods) are required to produce around 1 kg of cocoa paste.

There are three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo Group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from the Criollo, which is less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero Group. Forastero trees are significantly hardier than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Trinitario, a hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, is used in about 10% of chocolate. For details of processing, see cocoa.

Cacao beans were commonly used as currency in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. In some areas, such as Yucatán, they were still used in place of small coins as late as the 1840s.

Other websites 
The food of the Gods - the nature, growth, cultivation, manufacture and history of Cocoa, by Brandon Head, from Project Gutenberg

Sterculiaceae
Mahabad and Piranshahr

Mahabad and Piranshahr (, ); (Old name: سابلاخ: Sablakh, which may be of Mongolian origin) is a city in Iran. It is in the north-west of the country, in the region of Iranian Kurdistan and the province of West Azarbaijan. The city is south of Lake Urmia in a narrow valley 1,300 metres above sea level. There are about 162.434 people who live in the city. Mahabad is connected by road with Tabriz 300 km north, Urmia 150 km north and Arbil, in Iraqi Kurdistan.

The city is one center and symbol of the Kurdish nationalism. The reason is  because in 1945 it was the capital of the newly founded people's Republic of Mahabad. The republic was conquered by Iranian forces in  16 December 1946.  The president was Qazi Muhammad. The majority of the population is Kurdish. During the revolution in Iran, on 3 September 1979 the city was bombed and occupied by Iranian forces. After the death of Shivan Qaderi, a student and opposition activist in July 9 2005, the Kurdish population protested against the Iranian government.

Mahabad has also a branch of Islamic Azad University.

The region of Mukrian consists of Piranshahr and Mahabad.

Cities in Iran
Kurdistan
Spaghetti

Spaghetti, also known as pasta, is a long, string-shaped bolognese.

The word spaghetti was first used in 1849 as sparghetti in Eliza Acton's Modern Cookery. It comes from Italian spaghetto, which means "string".

Spaghetti is made from wheat noodles, which are boiled in water for a short time. Spaghetti can either be served as a side dish, or as a main dish. As a main dish, a sauce is added. There are many different kinds of sauces. Simpler ones are made of butter, more complicated ones include tomatos, garlic, olive oil and various other herbs. Different varieties with mussels, fish or meat also exist. Ground Parmesan cheese is often added. 

In Italy the sauce is usually mixed with the spaghetti while they are being prepared. Usually, spaghetti are eaten only with a fork, or with a fork and a spoon. Sometimes, they are cut with a knife for small children. Many Italians see using a knife to eat spaghetti as bad manners, except to prepare them for small children.

In the United States, there is a kind of spaghetti called "Alvaro's spaghetti" which is served with alfredo sauce. In some countries,like United States or Canada, meatballs are often in the spaghetti sauce.

In China, spaghetti is often made by hand. In Italy, spaghetti is made with a machine so that large amounts can be made quickly. Italy is the biggest producer and consumer of spaghetti in the world. 

It is also a popular dish in Libya.

Spaghetti is called by other words when it has a different thickness: "spaghettini (n. 3)", "spaghetti (n. 5)", and "spaghettoni (n. 8)".

Usually, spaghetti leftovers last in a fridge for around 3 to 5 days, while spaghetti in a freezer will last more than one month.

References

Other websites 

Pasta
Italian food
Chuar-chira Square

Chuar-chira Square (, ) (meaning Square of the four candles), is a known square in center of city of Mahabad where after Iranian invasion in 1947, Qazi Muhammad the president of Republic of Mahabad was hanged in public as well as other leaders of the republic in Mahabad and Bukan. In 2005 the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran reported that about 50.000 persons had demonstrated against the Iranian gouverment. The reason was the death of Shivan Qaderi. 

It is now officially called Shardari Square. This square is one of the oldest places of Mahabad city.

Other websites 
 Photo of the Chuwar Chira Square 

Buildings and structures in Iran
History of Iran
Kyiv

Kyiv or Kiev () is the capital and largest city of Ukraine. It is in north-central Ukraine on the Dnieper River. Almost three million people live there.

The city hosted the UEFA Euro 2012 final. Kyiv also hosted the Eurovision Song Contest in 2017.

Kyiv has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Köppen climate classification).

Climate

Notable people 
 Mikhail Bulgakov, Russian writer and playwright
 Victor Skumin, Russian professor, philosopher, writer, psychologist, psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and medical doctor

References

Notes

 
5th-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in Ukraine
482 establishments
Harare

Harare is the capital of Zimbabwe. It is home to over 1.6 million people. It was known as Salisbury from its foundation on September 12, 1890 until April 18, 1982.

Harare is Zimbabwe's biggest and most important financial, commercial, and communications centre, and a trade centre for tobacco, maize, cotton, and citrus fruits. Manufactured goods include textiles, steel and chemicals, and gold is mined in the area. The city's suburbs include Borrowdale, Mount Pleasant and Avondale. The richest neighbourhoods are to the north. The University of Zimbabwe, the country's oldest university (founded in 1952), is in Mount Pleasant, about 6 km (3.7 mi) north of the city centre. The country's main Test cricket ground, Harare Sports Club is in the city. The Dynamos F.C. in Harare is Zimbabwe's most successful association football team.

References

Capital cities in Africa
Cities in Zimbabwe
Antony and Cleopatra

Antony and Cleopatra is a play by Shakespeare. It is a tragedy. Shakespeare's source was Plutarch's Lives. The play was first performed between 1606 and 1607. It was probably first printed in the First Folio of 1623. The play describes the romantic love and suicides of Antony and Cleopatra.

References
 Antony and Cleopatra

Plays by William Shakespeare
Het Wilhelmus

"Het Wilhelmus", fully known as "Wilhelmus van Nassouwe", is the national anthem of the Netherlands and the former national anthem of the Netherlands Antilles until 1964. Known since at least the 16th century – around the time of the Dutch Revolt – this song contains the oldest melody among all national anthems of the world. Its lyrics also date back to the 1500s, though the lyrics of "Kimigayo"—Japan's national anthem—are much older. Because "Het Wilhelmus" is so old, the origins of the composer(s) and author(s) are uncertain, but the melody has been arranged by Dutch composer Adrianus Valerius in the 1600s. It wasn't officially adopted as national anthem of the Netherlands until the 20th century.

Lyrics

References

Netherlands
National anthems
1579



Events 
January 6 – The Union of Atrecht united the southern Netherlands under the Duke of Parma, governor in the name of king Philip II of Spain.
January 23 –  The Union of Utrecht united the northern Netherlands in a confederation called the United Provinces.  William I of Orange becomes Stadtholder, and the Duc d'Anjou, younger brother of Henry III of France is invited to become hereditary sovereign.
 March – Capture of Maastricht by the Spanish under Parma.
 June 17 – Sir Francis Drake, during his circumnavigation of the world, lands in what is now California, which he claims for Queen Elizabeth I.  With an English claim here and in Newfoundland, it becomes the basis for English colonial charters which will claim all land from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from "sea to sea."  Drake's claim is called "Nova Albion" (meaning, New England), and subsequent maps will show all lands north of New Spain and New Mexico under this name.
752



Events 
Pope Stephen II, pope for 3 days in March.
Pope Stephen III, succeeded Stephen II.
Retired Emperor Shōmu takes part in the dedication ceremony of the great statue of Vairocana Buddha at the Todaiji temple and declares himself a Buddhist.
1128



Events 
 Pope Honorius II recognizes and confirms the Order of the Knights Templar.
 King Afonso I of Portugal, then Count of Portugal defeats his mother, Teresa of Leon, in battle and gains control of the county.
 Geoffrey of Anjou marries Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England.
 Holyrood Abbey founded in Edinburgh by David I, King of Scotland.
984



Events 
 End of the reign of Emperor En'yū, emperor of Japan
 Emperor Kazan ascends to the throne of Japan
 Henry II, Duke of Bavaria abducts the child king Otto III
 Antipope Boniface VII murders Pope John XIV

Births 
 Bethoc, eldest daughter of Malcolm II of Scotland
 Ch'oe Ch'ung, Korean scholar

Deaths 
 Pope John XIV
1639



Events 
 January 14 – Connecticut's first constitution, the "Fundamental Orders," is adopted.
 January 23 – Francisco Maldonado de Silva, Peruvian Jewish poet, executed by burning at the stake
 March 13 – Harvard University is named for a clergyman named John Harvard.
 November 24 – Jeremiah Horrocks observes the transit of Venus.
 Charles I starts the first of the Bishops Wars against Scotland.
 The Casiquiare canal, a river forming a natural canal between the Amazon River and Orinoco River basins, is first encountered by Europeans.
 The Barbados House of Assembly meets for the first time.
 The first printing press in North America is started in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
 Russian Cossacks advance over Urals to Pacific, to Okhotsk.
 Montreal first settled.